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stefanbschneider

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[ "Some task lights also come with built in magnifying glasses for detailed tasks. It is hard to overstate the benefits of having focused light alongside magnification for small, precise operations such as model building, sewing, or other high-detail activities. Dentists often use a task light with magnification to perform dental cleanings.\n", "Together with proper access to the oral cavity, light is an important part of performing precision dentistry. Because a dentist's head often eclipses the overhead dental lamp, loupes may be fitted with a light source. Loupe-mounted lights used to be fed by fiber optic cables that connected to either a wall-mounted or table-top light source. Newer models feature a more convenient LED lamp within the loupe-mounted light and an electric cord coming from either the conventional wall-mounted or table-top light source or a belt clip rechargeable battery pack. Options for loupe-mounted cameras and video recorders are also available.\n", "The development of this new technology gave way to new light activated resin materials. These new materials are very different from the previous ones. These materials do not need to be mixed and can be dispensed directly into the site. This new malleable resin material can only be fully cured/hardened with a dental curing light. This presents new advantages for dentists: the time constraint is now lifted and the dentist can now assure that the material is properly placed.\n", "A dental laser can target and ablate the melanocytes, thus reducing the production of melanin in the gingival tissue. Following laser depigmentation, the gingiva heals by secondary intention. This results in a lighter and more uniform color of the gums. A study found that (Er,Cr:YSGG) laser was effective and there were no signs of re-pigmentation after a 6 month follow up period.\n", "A combination of glass-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin polymer that harden when light cured (the light activates a catalyst in the cement that causes it to cure in seconds). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than glass ionomer, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth, or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.\n", "UV curing is the process by which ultraviolet light is used to initiate a photochemical reaction that generates a crosslinked network of polymers. UV curing is adaptable to printing, coating, decorating, stereolithography, and in the assembly of a variety of products and materials. In comparison to other technologies, curing with UV energy may be considered a low temperature process, a high speed process, and is a solventless process, as cure occurs via direct polymerization rather than by evaporation. Originally introduced in the 1960s, this technology has streamlined and increased automation in many industries in the manufacturing sector.\n", "The 1990s presented great improvements in light curing devices. As dental restorative materials advanced, so too did the technology used to cure these materials; the focus was to improve the intensity in order to be able to cure faster and deeper. In 1998 the plasma arc curing light was introduced. It uses a high intensity light source, a fluorescent bulb containing plasma, in order to cure the resin-based composite, and claimed to cure resin composite material within 3 seconds. In practice, however, while the plasma arc curing light proved to be popular, negative aspects (including, but not limited to, an expensive initial price, curing times longer than the claimed 3 seconds, and expensive maintenance) of these lights resulted in the development of other curing light technologies.\n" ]

[ "Consisting of a variety of different flavors such as fruit punch, green apple, and lemonade, the company also offers other flavors made for sponsorships with YouTubers, Twitch.tv streamers, and Esports gamers.\n", "The sponsorship of sporting events and sportspeople is banned in many countries. For example, the primary club competition in European rugby union, the Heineken Cup, is called the \"H Cup\" in France because of that country's restrictions on alcohol advertising. However, such sponsorship is still common in other areas, such as the United States, although such sponsorship is controversial as children are often a target audience for major professional sports leagues.\n", "Like many alcohol companies, C&C invests heavily in sports sponsorship. Their brands have used this method extensively. Current and previous sponsorship includes the league now known as Pro14 (Magners League), Tennents Scottish Cup, London Wasps, Edinburgh Rugby, Bath Rugby, Celtic F.C., Dundee F.C. and Rangers F.C..\n", "It has largely growing mainstream appeal as a result of its unique composition among rival brands (it is sold nationally in UK Asda stores), choosing to highlight USP's such as the use of 100% mineral water and natural ingredients only, subsequently positioning itself as an 'Ultra Premium Soft Drinks Brand'.\n", "Other ethical concerns with sponsorship being used as a marketing tactic by food companies include; the specific targeting of youths, sponsorship from alcohol brands and the misconceptions created through sponsorships by energy drink brands such as Red Bull.\n", "Tervis also sells branded drinkware through licensing agreements with all five of the major American sports leagues (MLB, MLS, NBA, NFL, and NHL), nearly all major NCAA colleges and universities, all branches of the United States Armed Forces, and many companies.\n", "They also have what they call their official sponsors such as Teisseire a French syrup company, Kronenbourg the best selling beer in France, Fnac a French international retail chain selling cultural and electronic products, the Haute-Savoie county council and the guitar game Rocksmith.\n" ]

[ "After reading a 2007 speech by US Senator James Inhofe, who maintains that global warming is a hoax, John Cook created Skeptical Science as an internet resource to counter common arguments by climate change deniers. The site hosts various articles addressing the merit of common criticisms of the scientific consensus on global warming, such as the claim that solar activity (rather than greenhouse gases) is responsible for most 20th and 21st century global warming, or that global warming is natural and/or not harmful to humans. Each article, referred to as an \"argument\", presents a quotation from a prominent figure who made a direct claim regarding global warming, and follows with a summary of \"what the science says\".\n", "On August 17, 2011 at a breakfast with business leaders in New Hampshire Perry said that he does not believe the science behind global warming. He said \"there are a substantial number of scientists who have manipulated data so that they will have dollars rolling into their projects.\"\n", "On February 14, 2009, Neal Campbell, posting as Cali Lewis, raised the issue of a global warming controversy with a post on Twitter. \"It's so sad that smart people don't pay attention to the science that proves global warming is a hoax.\" The comment was criticized by fellow radio host and podcaster Leo Laporte who said the statement was inconsistent with overwhelming scientific opinion on climate change.\n", "In 2016, Roberts requested a briefing from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) on scientific evidence of human-caused global warming. The briefing was delivered in September 2016, after which Roberts said he would consider the CSIRO's evidence, but also accused the CSIRO of pushing the “de-industrialisation” of Australia, and added that policies to mitigate climate change were \"anti-human\".\n", "The Australia Institute is active in promoting global warming mitigation measures, and has been critical of the Australian federal government's perceived lack of action on climate change. The Australia Institute was critical of the Howard Government's decision to refuse to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. It claims that the former Prime Minister and some senior ministers deny the scientific evidence for global warming and that the resources sector drives government energy policy. Leaked minutes of a meeting between the Energy Minister, the Prime Minister and fossil fuel lobbyists provide evidence for these claims.\n", "\"An Inconsistent Truth\" is Valentine's investigation into man-made global warming. The title alludes to Al Gore's documentary \"An Inconvenient Truth\". Valentine talks with scientists and politicians who are skeptical of human caused global warming, and explores the culture of the global warming movement; often in a satirical way. \n", "The Real Global Warming Disaster (\"Is the Obsession with 'Climate Change' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History?\") is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans, and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated.\n" ]

[ "Many different researchers have tried to understand the purpose behind dreaming and state their most apprehensive work behind understanding early childhood dreams. Sigmund Freud (1900/1965) claimed that dreams from childhood were illustrations of wish-fulfillment dreams that begin in naivety during childhood and escalate into later adulthood. Carl Jung (1974) believed that childhood dreams were a sign of transpersonal wisdom from the unconscious. G. William Domhoff (1996) and S. H. Foulkes (1999) were both known for arguing childhood dreams as a reflection of the immature development involved in the consciousness of a young child, involving characteristics such as being passive and bland. Antti Revonsuo (2000) was in support of childhood dreams, in particular nightmares, to better support his idea of \"threat simulation theory\" found in dreaming.\n", "The \"Senoi\" culture, he discovered, regarded dreams as an important part of life. Mornings were used by families to indulge in the custom of dream-telling, where, for instance, a \"\"child's fearful dream of falling was praised as a gift to learn to fly the next night\"\". Songs and dances learned in dreams were often taught to neighbouring tribes to foster good relations.\n", "Modern popular culture often conceives of dreams, like Freud, as expressions of the dreamer's deepest fears and desires. The film version of \"The Wizard of Oz\" (1939) depicts a full-color dream that causes Dorothy to perceive her black-and-white reality and those with whom she shares it in a new way. In films such as \"Spellbound\" (1945), \"The Manchurian Candidate\" (1962), \"Field of Dreams\" (1989), and \"Inception\" (2010), the protagonists must extract vital clues from surreal dreams.\n", "\"Dreamtime\" became a widely cited concept in popular culture in the 1980s, and by the late 1980s was adopted as a cliché in New Age and feminist spirituality alongside related appeals to other \"Rouseauian natural people\", such as the Native Americans idealized in 1960s hippie counterculture.\n", "By the 1990s, \"Dreamtime\" and \"the Dreaming\" had acquired their own currency in popular culture, based on idealised or fictionalised conceptions of Australian mythology. Since the 1970s, \"Dreaming\" and \"Dream time\" have also returned from academic usage via popular culture and tourism and are now ubiquitous in the English vocabulary of indigenous Australians in a kind of \"self-fulfilling academic prophecy\".\n", "In Korea conception dreams are known as 태몽(\"taemong\"). Many women in Korean culture report having such dreams themselves. Popular topics of the dreams include fruit (such apples, persimmons, cherries, chestnuts), animals (tigers, snakes, goldfish), nature (rivers, rainbows), children and jewels. The dreamer might eat or take fruits, embrace animals, or interact with nature. The topic is believed to influence the gender or the future of the baby; for example, fruits are seen as a sign for a baby girl.\n", "Those whose dreams were especially vivid or significant were thought to be blessed and were given special status in these ancient societies. Likewise, people who were able to interpret dreams were thought to receive these gifts directly from the gods, and they enjoyed a special status in society as well.\n" ]

[ "Roman numerals are essentially a decimal or \"base 10\" number system. Powers of ten – thousands, hundreds, tens and units – are written separately, from left to right, in that order. Different symbols are used for each power of ten, but a common pattern is used for each of them.\n", "Though the Romans used a decimal system for whole numbers, reflecting how they counted in Latin, they used a duodecimal system for fractions, because the divisibility of twelve makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1/3 and 1/4 than does a system based on ten On coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit , they used a tally-like notational system based on twelfths and halves. A dot (·) indicated an \"twelfth\", the source of the English words \"inch\" and \"ounce\"; dots were repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half) was abbreviated as the letter \"S\" for \"half\". \"Uncia\" dots were added to \"S\" for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to for whole numbers from six to nine.\n", "The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: \"𐌠\", \"𐌡\", \"𐌢\", \"𐌣\", and \"𐌟\" for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)\n", "An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g. helium-3, helium-4, carbon-12, carbon-14, uranium-235 and uranium-239). When a chemical symbol is used, e.g. \"C\" for carbon, standard notation (now known as \"AZE notation\" because \"A\" is the mass number, \"Z\" the atomic number, and E for element) is to indicate the mass number (number of nucleons) with a superscript at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a subscript at the lower left (e.g. , , , , , and ). Because the atomic number is given by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g. , , , , , and ). The letter \"m\" is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a nuclear isomer, a metastable or energetically-excited nuclear state (as opposed to the lowest-energy ground state), for example (tantalum-180m).\n", "Atomic isotopes are written using superscripts. In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the chemical symbol (for example , , , , and ). The letters \"m\" or \"f\" may follow the number to indicate metastable or fission isomers, as in or .\n", "When expressing a numerical quantity, Roman numerals are commonly used in place of Arabic digits so as to avoid confusion. The numbers 1 - 3 (I, II, III), usually written as upper-case Roman numerals, often have the appearance of a capital \"T\" or a series of capital \"T's\" with a dot above each \"T.\" They are also sometimes written as lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii).\n", "Chemical formulas most often use integers for each element. However, there is a class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in FeO, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in FeO, where x is normally much less than 1.\n" ]

[ "Atropine is a medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisonings as well as some types of slow heart rate and to decrease saliva production during surgery. It is typically given intravenously or by injection into a muscle. Eye drops are also available which are used to treat uveitis and early amblyopia. The intravenous solution usually begins working within a minute and lasts half an hour to an hour. Large doses may be required to treat some poisonings.\n", "Baclofen can be administered transdermally as part of a pain-relieving and muscle-relaxing topical cream mix at a compounding pharmacy, orally or \"intrathecally\" (directly into the cerebral spinal fluid) using a pump implanted under the skin.\n", "BULLET::::- In the pharmaceutical industry, it acts as a wetting, stabilizing agent and a choline enrichment carrier, helps in emulsifications and encapsulation, and is a good dispersing agent. It can be used in manufacture of intravenous fat infusions and for therapeutic use. Examples of intravenous applications are propofol for anesthesia, NSAID drugs, etc.\n", "Furosemide, sold under the brand name Lasix among others, is a medication used to treat fluid build-up due to heart failure, liver scarring, or kidney disease. It may also be used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It can be taken by injection into a vein or by mouth. When taken by mouth, it typically begins working within an hour, while intravenously, it typically begins working within five minutes.\n", "Diazepam, first marketed as Valium, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that typically produces a calming effect. It is commonly used to treat a range of conditions including anxiety, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, muscle spasms, seizures, trouble sleeping, and restless legs syndrome. It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures. It can be taken by mouth, inserted into the rectum, injected into muscle, or injected into a vein. When given into a vein, effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour. By mouth, effects may take 40 minutes to begin.\n", "Bisacodyl (INN) is an organic compound that is used as a stimulant laxative drug. It works directly on the colon to produce a bowel movement. It is typically prescribed for relief of episodic and chronic constipation and for the management of neurogenic bowel dysfunction, as well as part of bowel preparation before medical examinations, such as for a colonoscopy.\n", "Progestins are available in the form of oral tablets, solutions and suspensions for intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, and a number of other forms (e.g., transdermal patches, vaginal rings, intrauterine devices, subcutaneous implants).\n" ]

[ "One way of dealing with food waste is to reduce its creation. Consumers can reduce spoilage by planning their food shopping, avoiding potentially wasteful spontaneous purchases, and storing foods properly (and also preventing a too large buildup of perishable stock). Widespread educational campaigns have been shown to be an effective way to reduce food waste. A British campaign called “Love Food, Hate Waste” has raised awareness about preventative measures to address food waste for consumers. Through advertisements, information on food storage and preparation and in-store education, the UK observed a 21% decrease in avoidable household food waste over the course of 5 years. Another potential solution is for \"smart packaging\" which would indicate when food is spoiled more precisely than expiration dates currently do, for example with temperature-sensitive ink, plastic that changes color when exposed to oxygen, or gels that change color with time.\n", "BULLET::::- Food waste (which is a component of food loss) is any removal of food from the food supply chain which is or was at some point fit for human consumption, or which has spoiled or expired, mainly caused by economic behaviour, poor stock management or neglect.\n", "Food waste may be diverted for alternative human consumption when economic variables allow for it. The waste of consumable food is even gaining attention from large food conglomerates. For instance, due to low food prices, simply discarding irregular carrots has typically been more cost-effective than spending money on the extra labor or machinery necessary to handle them. A juice factory in the Netherlands, however, has developed a process to efficiently divert and use previously rejected carrots, and its parent company is expanding this innovation to plants in Great Britain.\n", "In the US, food waste can occur at most stages of the food industry and in significant amounts. In subsistence agriculture, the amounts of food waste are unknown, but are likely to be insignificant by comparison, due to the limited stages at which waste can occur, and given that food is grown for projected need as opposed to a global marketplace demand. Nevertheless, on-farm losses in storage in developing countries, particularly in African countries, can be high although the exact nature of such losses is much debated.\n", "In the world, as in Australia, one-third of the groceries are wasted every year. Food waste impacts the community on various sectors and its implications have started to be considered more often in the last ten years. It is considered a waste of resources and opportunities, but it also is a source of atmospheric emissions by producing methane when it is disposed of in landfills.\n", "Food waste is generally considered to have a damaging effect on the environment; a reduction in food waste is considered critical if the UK is to meet obligations under the European Landfill Directive to reduce biodegradable waste going to landfill and favourable considering international targets on climate change, limiting greenhouse gas emissions. When disposed of in landfill, food waste releases methane, a relatively damaging greenhouse gas, and leachate, a toxin capable of considerable groundwater pollution. The food supply chain accounts for a fifth of UK carbon emissions; the production, storage and transportation of food to homes requires large amounts of energy. The effects of stopping food waste that can potentially be prevented has been likened to removing one in five cars from UK roads.\n", "Food waste recycling is a process to convert food waste into useful materials and products for achieving sustainability of the environment. Food waste is defined as all inedible and edible parts of food that creates preceding and succeeding food processing, production and consumption. Greenhouse gases, especially methane can be reduced by food waste recycling. Food waste recycling can also alleviate the saturation of landfill sites in Hong Kong.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- It has been suggested that a small black hole passing through the Earth would produce a detectable acoustic signal. Because of its tiny diameter, large mass compared to a nucleon, and relatively high speed, such primordial black holes would simply transit Earth virtually unimpeded with only a few impacts on nucleons, exiting the planet with no ill effects.\n", "However, if the object passes too close to the central supermassive black hole, it will make a direct plunge across the event horizon. This will produce a brief violent burst of gravitational radiation which would be hard to detect with currently planned observatories. Consequently, the creation of EMRI requires a fine balance between objects passing too close and too far from the central supermassive black hole. Currently, the best estimates are that a typical supermassive black hole of , will capture an EMRI once every 10 to 10 years. This makes witnessing such an event in our Milky Way unlikely. However, a space based gravitational wave observatory like LISA will be able to detect EMRI events up to cosmological distances, leading to an expected detection rate somewhere between a few and a few thousand per year.\n", "According to quantum field theory in curved spacetime, a single emission of Hawking radiation involves two mutually entangled particles. The outgoing particle escapes and is emitted as a quantum of Hawking radiation; the infalling particle is swallowed by the black hole. Assume a black hole formed a finite time in the past and will fully evaporate away in some finite time in the future. Then, it will only emit a finite amount of information encoded within its Hawking radiation. Assume that at time formula_1, more than half of the information had already been emitted.\n", "In the early 21st century, astronomers detect what appears to be a distant gamma-ray burster, a black hole engulfing another star many light years away. The data is bizarre and troubling, because only 13 hours later, a second burster appears, which, given the great distance between stars, would be impossible. Eventually, the astronomers realize that the black hole, rather than being incredibly far from us, is actually heading towards the Solar System, and moving our way at considerable speed. Stranger still, it seems to be moving under its own will; it is an intelligent being itself. This age-old cosmic being reveals that it had been born seven billion years ago and had become a wandering entity, feeding on asteroids, planets and various space debris, projecting itself forward in space through the process. Through the billions of years of its existence across the expanse of time and space, this intelligent entity has learned of many ancient civilizations in the universe. The black hole eventually sends a message to the people of Earth; it \"desires converse\". The black hole is willing to share the knowledge it had gained throughout the ages in return for the chance to \"chat\" with the humans. But eventually, something about the nature of the life-form is revealed. It prefers to learn about people by having their minds uploaded to it and demands that the best and brightest of Earth be sent to it in this way.\n", "According to quantum field theory in curved spacetime, a single emission of Hawking radiation involves two mutually entangled particles. The outgoing particle escapes and is emitted as a quantum of Hawking radiation; the infalling particle is swallowed by the black hole. Assume a black hole formed a finite time in the past and will fully evaporate away in some finite time in the future. Then, it will only emit a finite amount of information encoded within its Hawking radiation. Assume that at time formula_7, more than half of the information had already been emitted. According to widely accepted research by physicists like Don Page and Leonard Susskind, an outgoing particle emitted at time formula_7 must be entangled with all the Hawking radiation the black hole has previously emitted. This creates a paradox: a principle called \"monogamy of entanglement\" requires that, like any quantum system, the outgoing particle cannot be fully entangled with two independent systems at the same time; yet here the outgoing particle appears to be entangled with both the infalling particle and, independently, with past Hawking radiation.\n", "Even if quantum information was not extinguished in the singularity of a classic black hole and it somehow still existed, quantum data would be unable to climb up against infinite gravitational intensity to reach the surface of its event horizon and escape. Hawking radiation (so-far undetected particles and photons thought to be emitted from the proximity of black holes) would not circumvent the information paradox; it could reveal only the mass, angular momentum, and electric charge of classic black holes. Hawking radiation is thought to be created when virtual particles— antiparticle pairs of all sorts plus photons, which are their own antiparticle—form very close to the event horizon and one member of a pair spirals in while the other escapes, carrying away the energy of the black hole.\n", "Detecting a signal from Delta, which has taken the equivalent of 15 Earth years to reach them, the travellers are able to plot their position and lay in a course home. However, disaster strikes when \"Altares\" is caught in the gravity of a black hole that has formed from a collapsed star. The photon drive is unable to provide the faster-than-light speeds necessary to break free; nevertheless, Anna urges the crew not to give up hope, for she suspects that the object may be a gateway to another universe. Her theory is proven correct when, sustaining the various space-time distortions at the event horizon, \"Altares\" safely emerges from the black hole – intact, albeit with no way of returning to Earth. As the vessel and its intrepid crew approach a planet, the narrator concludes, \"One thing is sure – this is not the final word. Not the end, but the beginning. A new universe, a new hope? Only time will tell.\"\n" ]

[ "The CFS has also been an advocate for GE food labeling at both the state and federal level, pushing for new legislation and generating public support across the country for the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to take action.\n", "Opponents claimed Prop 37 backers real intent was to ban GMOs via labeling schemes removing consumer choices, citing claims by proponents like Jeffrey M. Smith that labeling requirements in California would cause food companies to source only non-GMO foods to avoid having labels that consumers would perceive as warnings.\n", "While the FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food safety, the agency holds the position that \"the use of genetic engineering in the production of food does not present any safety concerns for such foods as a class\", and , as there is \"an absence of reliable data indicating safety concerns\" with GMO foods as a class, voiced no opposition for USDA having the responsibility of regulating GMO food labeling. The agency commented that the bill has language that may allow GMO material to escape labeling: the bill requires labeling if the food contains \"genetic material\", but that may exempt secondary products like oil, starches, sweeteners, or proteins derived from GMO substrates. The agency questioned the specificity of the definition of bioengineered food when it would not apply to GMOs that could also be achieved by 'conventional breeding\". The FDA has also voiced some concerns about food information being presented in electronic codes.\n", "Since 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has declared HFCS to be safe as a food ingredient. In 2015, production of HFCS in the United States was 8.5 million tons from some 500 million bushels of corn.\n", "Proponents argue that approved GMO food has undergone extensive testing, is \"safe\" and that basically labeling is unnecessary. Labeling may discourage consumers to use GMO products when such a choice may be irrational. A lot of consumers express fears that have not been substantiated by science.\n", "In the United States, there are laws/regulations and agencies to protect the consumer when purchasing food products, specifically dedicated to the packaging and labeling. Some laws and organizations include the Nutrition and Labeling Education Act, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, and the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS).\n", "In December 2007, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) filed a complaint with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to “halt the marketing of NSA's Juice Plus Orchard Blend and Garden Blend capsules because the products appear to be adulterated and misbranded”. CSPI said it was “concerned that the products' claim, ‘the next best thing to fruits and vegetables,’ may lead consumers to believe the pills are closer to real fruits and vegetables than is likely to be the case.\" According to CSPI, the labels say the capsules contain high levels of vitamins A and C and folate naturally, but “do not disclose that these vitamins and minerals are added to the capsules during processing and are nutrients only characteristic of the original fruit and vegetable sources.”\n" ]

[ "In socialist Yugoslavia, Gavrilo Princip was venerated as a national hero and a freedom fighter who fought to liberate all the peoples of Yugoslavia from Austrian rule; however in the modern day, many Croats and Bosniaks have now expressed viewpoints characterizing Princip as a murderer. Asim Sarajlic, a senior MP of the Bosniak nationalist Party of Democratic Action, stated that Princip brought an end to \"a golden era of history under Austrian rule\" and that \"we are strongly against the mythology of Princip as a fighter of freedom.\"\n", "Aleksandar Ranković (nom de guerre Leka; ; 28 November 1909 – 19 August 1983) was a Yugoslav communist of Serb origin, considered to be the third most powerful man in Yugoslavia after Josip Broz Tito and Edvard Kardelj. Ranković was a proponent of a centralized Yugoslavia and opposed efforts that promoted decentralization that he deemed to be against the interests of the Serbian people; he ensured Serbs had a strong presence in Serbia's Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo's nomenklatura. Ranković cautioned against separatist forces in Kosovo who were commonly suspected of pursuing seditious activities.\n", "Several Serbian sources have repeatedly alleged that the Croatian politician Ivan \"Stevo\" Krajačić, a member of the League of Communists of Croatia inside Communist Yugoslavia and a confidant of President Josip Broz Tito, was an active campaigner for Croatian independence. Among other allegations, Krajačić was accused of having adopted the nickname \"\"Conducător\" of Separatism\", as a compliment to Ceaușescu's dictatorial stance.\n", "Vasić left the Republican Party and, with Jovanović's encouragement, founded the nationalist Serbian Cultural Club in 1936. He later became its vice-president. Before World War II, he edited a periodical titled \"Srpski glas\" (Serbian Voice). He sided with Serbian nationalists during the concordat crisis in 1938 and opposed the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939, which granted greater autonomy to Croatia within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Vasić is reported to have had some contacts with Soviet intelligence services.\n", "Josip Broz (; born 1947), commonly known as Joška Broz (), is a politician in Serbia. He is the grandson of Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito and is one of the most prominent supporters of the Titoist legacy within the former Yugoslavia. Broz has led Serbia's Communist Party since its formation in 2009 and has served in the National Assembly of Serbia since 2016, sitting with the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS) parliamentary group.\n", "Svetozar Vukmanović - Tempo (; 3 August 1912 in Podgora, Kingdom of Montenegro – 6 December 2000 in Reževići, near Budva, Montenegro) was a leading Montenegrin communist and member of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. During World War II he served on the Supreme Staff, went on missions to Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania, and became Josip Broz Tito's personal representative in Macedonia. He held high positions in the postwar government, and was proclaimed a People's Hero of Yugoslavia.\n", "In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.\n" ]

[ "Within the United States, credit card transactions are controlled by four main financial institutions: Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and Discover, making it an oligopoly. Credit cards work as a two-sided market, with the institutions providing benefits to consumers (by allowing them to access lines of credit to make instant purchases) and merchants (by providing them the funds for that purchase instantly). The institutions support this by taking a transaction fee off the merchant's funds, with the fee varying between each institution.\n", "In July 2007 a new system of credits, compatible with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, was introduced in which one credit (\"högskolepoäng\") in the new system corresponds to one ECTS credit and two-thirds of a credit in the old system (\"poäng\").\n", "Federal systems, such as those in Canada, Switzerland, and the US, may have different rules for allowing a credit for extra-jurisdictional credits at the federal and state levels. Such rules may differ among sub-federal (provincial, cantonal, state) jurisdictions. Thus, for example, Canadian and US federal governments allow credits from all foreign levels, while Canadian provinces and US states tend to allow a credit for income taxes paid to other provinces and states but not for taxes paid to sovereign jurisdictions (countries). Sub-federal taxes may or may not be covered by income tax treaties.\n", "There are two types of credit systems; Local Credits and European Credit Transfer System credits (ECTS). One theoretical hour or two practical hours per week account for one local credit. At each committee, every 14 theoretical hours or 28 practical hours are assigned as one credit. ECTS credits are calculated based on students’ workload (featuring theoretical, practical hours and study time).\n", "In Europe, a common credit system has been introduced. The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is in some European countries used as the principal credit and grading system in universities, while other countries use the ECTS as a secondary credit system for exchange students. In ECTS, a full study year normally consists of 60 credits. ECTS grades are given in the A-E range, where F is failing. Schools are also allowed to use a pass/fail evaluation in the ECTS system.\n", "The fractured nature of the U.S. banking system under the Glass–Steagall Act meant that credit cards became an effective way for those who were traveling around the country to move their credit to places where they could not directly use their banking facilities. There are now countless variations on the basic concept of revolving credit for individuals (as issued by banks and honored by a network of financial institutions), including organization-branded credit cards, corporate-user credit cards, store cards and so on.\n", "Although credit cards reached very high adoption levels in the US, Canada and the UK during the latter 20th century, many cultures were more cash-oriented or developed alternative forms of cashless payments, such as Carte bleue or the Eurocard (Germany, France, Switzerland, and others). In these places, adoption of credit cards was initially much slower. Due to strict regulations regarding bank overdrafts, some countries, France in particular, were much quicker to develop and adopt chip-based credit cards which are seen as major anti-fraud credit devices. Debit cards and online banking (using either ATMs or PCs) are used more widely than credit cards in some countries. It took until the 1990s to reach anything like the percentage market penetration levels achieved in the US, Canada, and UK. In some countries, acceptance still remains low as the use of a credit card system depends on the banking system of each country; while in others, a country sometimes had to develop its own credit card network, e.g. UK's Barclaycard and Australia's Bankcard. Japan remains a very cash-oriented society, with credit card adoption being limited mainly to the largest of merchants; although stored value cards (such as telephone cards) are used as alternative currencies, the trend is toward RFID-based systems inside cards, cellphones, and other objects.\n" ]

[ "There are other negative consequences resulting from a defaulted loan. A student who wishes to return to school cannot qualify for federal aid in the United States until satisfactory payment arrangements are made on the defaulted loan or the loan is rehabilitated, a process that can take as long as a full year of on-time payments.\n", "In a 2017 report by the National Center for Education Statistics, the researchers found that 27% of all student loans resulted in default within 12 years. Children in poor families were particularly vulnerable, still maintaining an average balance that was 91% of the original loan.\n", "The lent amount, often referred to as a \"student loan,\" may be owed to the school (or bank) if the student has dropped classes and withdrawn from the school. Students who withdraw from an institution, especially with poor grades, often end up disqualifying for further financial aid. For low and no-income students, student loans are the sole factor that enable them to go to school, as loans typically cover tuition, room and board, meal plans, text books, and miscellaneous necessities. During repayment of student loans, renegotiation and bankruptcy are strictly regulated.\n", "No principal payments are expected on the loan while the student is in school enrolled at least half-time, referred to as in-school deferment. Deferment of repayment continues for six months after the student leaves school by graduating, dropping below half-time enrollment, or withdrawing, referred to as the grace period.\n", "Defaulting on a loan can adversely affect credit for many years. Default typically occurs when a loan receives no payment for 270 days. The loan leaves repayment status and is due in full when the lender requests. New collection costs are added to the loan's balance and the loan becomes drastically more expensive or eliminated through negotiation or legal action. \n", "Fixed interest rate loans have repayment periods of 3, 5, or 10 years from the time that the loan becomes interest-bearing. The longest repayment term is 20 years, but can be deferred up to 30 years. After graduation, students are given a default grace period of 5 months before they have to begin making payments in the sixth month. Borrowers can request additional deferment periods for a maximum deferment of 3 years. The accrued interest from the deferment period will be capitalized into the loan, meaning that the standard monthly payment will increase for every additional deferment period. \n", "Some loaning institutions offer a variety of repayment plans for your term loan. Commonly, you may choose to pay off your debt in even amounts, or the amount you pay will gradually increase over the loan period. If you expect that you will be more financially able to repay in the future, causing an incremental increase may help you and save you interest. If you are unsure of your future monetary position, even payments may help prevent defaulting on the loan if things go badly.\n" ]

[ "As the Roman Empire declined, its hold on Britain loosened. By AD 410, Roman forces had been withdrawn, and small, isolated bands of migrating Germans began to invade Britain. There seems to have been no large \"invasion\" with a combined army or fleet, but the tribes, notably the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, quickly established control over modern-day England.\n", "Towards the end of the post-classical history period and the onset of the Middle Ages, there were various invasions, which led to the settlement of a large and collective body of Germans in Roman Gaul. One of the earliest invasions of the Roman Empire was conducted by the Visigoths, that were a major group of Germanic peoples. However, this invasion was very far from affecting the Romans who held on strong until the year 9 A.D. when the Romans were defeated and Germanisation seemed imminent as the Romans were pushed into defence against various Germanic peoples who were impatient to push the boundary and enter Roman territory. Many scholars agree that if there had not been a sudden and alarming influx of populations from the Germanic peoples into Gaul and other regions, the Roman Empire might have collapsed completely much earlier than it actually did.\n", "Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine. Roman emperor Augustus in 12 BC ordered the conquest of the Germans, but the catastrophic Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest resulted in the Roman Empire abandoning its plans to completely conquer Germania. Germanic peoples in Roman territory were culturally Romanized, and although much of Germania remained free of direct Roman rule, Rome deeply influenced the development of German society, especially the adoption of Christianity by the Germans who obtained it from the Romans. In Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become a major influence in the development of a common German identity.\n", "In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire almost collapsed and its army was becoming increasingly Germanic in make-up, so that in the 4th century when Huns pushed German tribes westward, they spilled across the Empire's borders and began to settle there. The Visigoths settled in Italy and then Spain, in the north the Franks settled into Gaul and western Germany, and in the 5th century the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain. By the close of the 6th century the Western Roman Empire was almost completely replaced with smaller less politically organized, but vigorous, Germanic kingdoms.\n", "One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, who later became the English, were unable to make inroads into Wales except possibly along the Severn Valley as far as Llanidloes. However, they gradually conquered eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead. It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd (\"Old North\"), the Brythonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken. From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brythonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.\n", "One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, who later became the English, were unable to make inroads into Wales except possibly along the Severn Valley as far as Llanidloes. However they gradually conquered eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead. It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd (\"Old North\"), the Brittonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken. From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.\n", "The Romans tried to stop the Germanic invaders in 112 at the Battle of Noreia, in 107 at the Battle of Burdigala, and in 105 at the Battle of Arausio but met with defeat each and every time. The Battle of Arausio was considered the Romans greatest defeat since Hannibal crushed their army at Cannae. Fortunately for the Romans, the Germans did not invade Italy after their victories but trekked through Gaul and Hispania instead. For a decade the Romans lived in fear of a Germanic invasion they thought would arrive at any moment.\n" ]

[ "A problem of privacy arises with moves to improve efficiency of voting by the introduction of postal voting and electronic voting. Some countries permit proxy voting, which some argue is inconsistent with voting privacy.\n", "Unlike large scale data centers and company brand image, people may be less likely to trust peers vs. a large company like Google or Amazon. Running some sort of computation with sensitive information would then need to be encrypted properly and the overhead of that encryption may reduce the usefulness of the P2P offloading. When resources are distributed in small pieces to many peers for computations, inherent trust must be placed in the client, regardless of the encryption that may be promised to the client.\n", "The government must be in a position to guarantee that online communications are secure and that they do not violate people's privacy. This is especially important when considering electronic voting. An electoral voting system is more complex than other electronic transaction systems and the authentication mechanisms employed must be able to prevent ballot rigging or the threat of rigging. This may include the use of smart cards that allow a voter's identity to be verified whilst at the same time ensuring the privacy of the vote cast. Electronic voting in Estonia is one example of a method to conquer the privacy-identity problem inherent in internet voting systems. However, the objective should be to provide equivalence with the security and privacy of current manual systems.\n", "The security of the voting system is crucial for any form of democracy but the use of information technology adds new opportunities for fraud. All of the systems that are employed in Internet banking systems are proposed to ensure security in Interactive Democracy. However, there are also concerns that personal information and voting patterns open up the system to \"Big Brother\" style manipulation. Proponents of ID suggest that strong regulations supported by an independent judiciary and police force will be sufficient to prevent such threats.\n", "The Institute of Social Research in Norway conducted a study in which we can see signs that voters are afraid that their votes will become public, which they will see as a compromise of their democratic rights. In addition, voters’ fears are embedded in the encryption system that guards the privacy of their votes. How can voters be sure that their votes are safe from hackers? This led them to believe that in order to make this a viable voting system, governments have to ensure that the encryption system used to protect votes is as safe as possible. Until governments can ensure a certain level of safety for people's votes, the outcomes in Norway are unlikely to change - the voter turnout will still be low even if the convenience of voting is made easier.\n", "Cryptography is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative secure voting method. This mechanism eliminates the “countable ballot” and instead relies strictly on the digital code to transfer each vote. Each vote is privately stored \"cryptographically\" in the blockchain and can be traced backed to the individual voter by their ballot decision and has the potential to reinvent the electoral process by increasing voter accessibility. On the contrary, critics, like Barbara Simmons who is a computer scientist and chairwoman of the Verified Voting Foundation, claim this method is not reliable because of potential hacking or tampering to votes before they enter the blockchain. After the 2016 presidential election, voters and officials became more aware of this possibility as of accusations towards Russia for election hacking started to arise. Part of the Verified Voting Foundation's work is motivated to remove this voting option in order to prevent this potential vulnerability for electronic voting and require a paper receipt for each voter as a physical source of accountability to prevent skewed election results. \n", "One cited benefit of the creation of a \"Trusted Community\" for branches of industry is that, although companies protect their own infrastructures, problems occur in cases where encryption or authentication solutions are used across different companies and yet should be acknowledged as confidential. An impasse is often reached when both sides seek to implement their own mechanisms, if not before. This is demonstrated by the example of email encryption, with the clash of safety regulations in view of shared application use and thousands of unencrypted data connections. A shared, confidential infrastructure provides a remedy here. Ford cites the use of ENX to communicate with suppliers as an example of how considerable savings can be made through consolidation and standardisation.\n" ]

[ "A religion is a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, God or gods, or ultimate truth.\n", "Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. However, there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion.\n", "A \"religion\" is a set of beliefs and practices, often centered upon specific supernatural and/or moral claims about reality, the cosmos, and human nature, and often codified as prayer, ritual, and law. Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, and mythology, as well as personal faith and mystic experience. The term \"religion\" refers to both the personal practices related to communal faith and to group rituals and communication stemming from shared conviction.\n", "BULLET::::- Religion   (outline) – a religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.\n", "The scholar of religion S. Brent Plate was of the view that \"religion must be understood as deriving from rudimentary human experiences, from lived, embodied practices\". He stated that \"to learn about religion we have to come to our senses. Literally. We have to begin to discover... that we cannot know the worlds of any other culture, let alone our own, unless we get inside the sensational operations of human bodies.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Religion: Sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system—is commonly defined as belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine; and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In its broadest sense some have defined it as the sum total of answers given to explain humankind's relationship with the universe. In the course of the development of religion, it has taken many forms in various cultures and individuals. Occasionally, the word \"religion\" is used to designate what should be more properly described as \"organized religion\" – that is, an organization of people supporting the exercise of some religion, often taking the form of a legal entity (see religion-supporting organization). There are many different religions in the world today.\n", "\"Religion\" is a belief concerning the supernatural, sacred, or divine, and the moral codes, practices, values, and institutions associated with such belief, although some scholars, such as Durkheim, would argue that the supernatural and the divine are not aspects of all religions. Religious beliefs and practices may include the following: a deity or higher being, eschatology, practices of worship, practices of ethics and politics. Some religions do not include all these features. For instance, belief in a deity is not essential to Buddhism.\n" ]

[ "Robux is the virtual currency in \"Roblox\" that allows players to buy various items. Players can obtain Robux through real life purchases, another player buying their items, or from earning daily Robux with a membership.\n", "Unlike other \"Custom Robo\" titles, once shot out of the Robocannon, players have a random amount of time for their Custom Robo to be ready to battle, instead of depending on which six sides of the cube they land on. Custom Robos are arranged in groups that are similar to their abilities. In camera views, unlike other Custom Robo titles, this one has only one, which zooms out whenever two Custom Robos are far from each other, while it zooms in whenever they are close to each other. The endurance bar is located above the players' hit points. Once it runs out, the players' robo gets \"downed\" which means that it stays fallen for a couple seconds. After it gets up, it goes into \"rebirth\", where it stays invincible for about 3 seconds. If the player repeatedly loses the same battle, the game offers the option of reducing the opponent's initial health, to make it easier. If the players continue to lose several times, the degree of handicap offered increases up to 75%, giving the opponent a starting 250 HP.\n", "Rob persuades a reluctant, and debt-ridden, Lady Dolwyn to sell the land, and also offers the leaseholders large sums for their leases. They are also offered new houses in a Liverpool suburb and jobs in a cotton mill for those who want them. Rob has his own reasons for wanting the village flooded; he is a native of Dolwyn, but was stoned out of it twenty years before for thievery. He therefore hates and despises the villagers, who are actually oblivious to his shameful past and bear him no ill will.\n", "Roblox is a massively multiplayer online and game creation system platform that allows users to design their own games and play a wide variety of different types of games created by other users. The platform hosts user-created games and virtual worlds covering a wide variety of genres, from traditional racing and role-playing games to simulations and obstacle courses. As of April 2019, Roblox has over 90 million monthly active users.\n", "Roblox is a game creation platform which allows players to create their own games using its proprietary engine, Roblox Studio. Games are coded under an Object Oriented Programming system utilizing the programming language Lua to manipulate the environment of the game. Users are able to create game passes, which are purchasable content through one-time purchases, as well as microtransactions through developer products. Developers on the site exchange Robux earned from various products on their games into real world currency through the Developer Exchange system. A percentage of the revenue from purchases is split between the developer and \"Roblox\".\n", "RoboCop quickly proves to be an effective weapon against crime, but unbeknownst to Morton is that RoboCop begins to remember his past life as Murphy, starting with his death at the hands of Boddicker and his gang. Enraged at having had his life stolen from him, RoboCop embarks on a personal quest for vengeance as he hunts down and apprehends Boddicker's gang, resulting in the gang's arrest. RoboCop also tracks down OCP's senior executive, Dick Jones, in an attempt to make him pay for aiding Boddicker. However, RoboCop's classified 'Directive 4' comes into effect, preventing him from arresting Jones, and he is subsequently damaged by the ED-209 as well as Lt. Hedgecock and his SWAT team, though a few SWATs refuse to follow the order. After enduring a massed attack by SWAT, RoboCop is rescued by Lewis who was alerted by the few SWATs to LT. Hedgecock's treachery. The two hide in an abandoned steel mill after they escape, during which RoboCop confides to Lewis about his memories of his past life. He also uses a drill brought by Lewis to remove his headpiece, showing how he has his \"Alex Murphy\" face stretched over it. The two are attacked by Boddicker's gang, commissioned by Jones to destroy the cyborg after he realizes that his entire confession of ordering Morton's murder has been recorded. The final confrontation with Boddicker himself ends with RoboCop violently stabbing him in the throat with the computer data spike installed in his fist. RoboCop confronts Jones in the middle of an OCP board meeting, during which Jones takes the \"Old Man\" hostage. After admitting that he can take no action due to Directive 4, the \"Old Man\" fires Jones, allowing RoboCop to shoot him, since he is no longer an OCP employee and his orders on the Detroit police force to destroy him is put to an end. Complimenting RoboCop on his shooting skills, The Old Man asks him his name. Robocop smiles before answering, \"Murphy\".\n", "Parks, sewers and even private houses provide clues needed to solve the mystery and bring the kidnapper to justice. Innocent citizens can also be kicked around just like the criminals. Knives and guns can also be integrated into Holmes' offensive techniques; allowing him to collect money from fallen thugs. If Holmes is killed by any means, the mystery becomes a perfect crime, thus terminating the game.\n" ]

[ "Hot water can cause painful, dangerous scalding injuries, especially in children and the elderly. Water at the outlet should not exceed 49 degrees Celsius. Some jurisdictions set a limit of 49 degrees on tank setpoint temperature. On the other hand, water stored below 60 degrees Celsius can permit the growth of bacteria, such as those that cause Legionnaire's disease, which is a particular danger to those with compromised immune systems. One technical solution would be use of mixing valves at outlets used for sinks, baths or showers, that would automatically mix cold water to maintain a maximum below 49 C. A proposal to add this to the building code of Canada was unsuccessful. \n", "The underground travel of the waters, from the opposite shore of the lake (more than thirty years at deep), explains its temperature of 46°. Many sources provide calcium, sulphated, silica-rich waters which are very slightly radioactive at 45° or cold, and finally with bicarbonatees. They, according to their origin and their temperature, are used either for showers or baths, in a swimming-pool, or to drink. These warm waters are especially indicated for degenerative rheumatism such as lumbar or cervical arthritis, osteoarthritis, sciatica, acute lumbago, recurrent arthritis of the hands, knee osteoarthritis, and for inflammatory rheumatism and spontylarthrite rheumatism. The use of sources is also beneficial for the algodystrophy, tendonitis, and phlebological problems (chronic venous insufficiency, suites and sequelae of thrombosis, lymphatic insufficiency, Raynaud's disease), on the other hand, these waters are contraindicated for the varicose ulcer, stroke or recent cardiac events. The cure techniques are the use of showers, individual enclosure (Berthollet), physiotherapy, mud application, underwater showers, and rehabilitation in a swimming pool. By their calming of the nervous system, the waters can cause euphoric relaxation.\n", "The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning: using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration. Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants. When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air, condensation results. The condensate is pure water, suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation. Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion, the temperature difference can be turned into electricity.\n", "Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than , and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly \"Legionella\", in water that is not hot enough to kill them. Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to . The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at and distributed so that a temperature of at least and preferably is achieved within one minute at points of use.\n", "As its name suggests, there are thirty natural hot water sources with temperatures ranging from 45° to more than 80°. The most famous is the source of the Par river with a water temperature of 82° - the hottest in Europe - with a flow in the region of 450,000 litres a day. One local story suggests that the source is so-named because a pig was dressed (\"paré\") or jointed thanks to the hot water. The waters are used all year round. In winter, they have provided heat for houses and the church as district heating since the 14th Century; from spring the waters are channeled to the spa for the treatment of rheumatics.\n", "Counter-intuituvely, hot water (typically to 160 °F) is used to make new ice. Hot water has a lower oxygen content, and makes clearer, harder ice. The hot water also flows better across the frozen surface, smoothing gouges and filling holes. The ice-making water is untreated City of Marlborough tap water.\n", "The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.\n" ]

[ "In infants, some babies may be hypotonia, a loose and floppy baby, or hypertonia, a stiff and rigid baby. Toddlers may have trouble feeding themselves or may stand, sit or walk later than what is developmentally normal. Other signs of motor skills disorders may be children that are clumsy or have excessive accidents, such as knocking things over. Children who have trouble with complex physical activities such as dancing, swimming, catching or throwing a ball, or drawing may avoid these activities completely.\n", "Infants sometimes \"crawl\" with their stomachs on the ground as early as 3 months, but this crawling is infrequent with the baby remaining stationary most of the time. True crawling with the stomach off the ground and the baby frequently on the move usually develops between 7 and 11 months of age and lasts anywhere from a week to 4 months before the child switches to walking. Even after taking their first unaided steps, most babies still crawl part of the time until they have mastered walking. While crawling, infants gradually practice standing, at first by using people or objects for support and, later, without support. Crawling babies are notorious for getting into trouble, so parents are often advised to childproof their house before a baby reaches crawling age.\n", "Newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture. Within a few weeks, though, they can hold their heads erect, and soon they can lift their heads while prone. By 2 months of age, babies can sit while supported on a lap or an infant seat, but sitting independently is not accomplished until 6 or 7 months of age. Standing also develops gradually across the first year of life. By about 8 months of age, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age. There is a new device called a “Standing Dani” developed to help special needs children with their posture.\n", "Walking upright requires being able to stand up and balance position from one foot to the other. Although infants usually learn to walk around the time of their first birthday, the neural pathways that control the leg alternation component of walking are in place from a very early age, possibly even at birth or before.[1] This is shown because 1- to 2-month-olds are given support with their feet in contact with a motorized treadmill, they show well-coordinated, alternating steps. If it were not for the problem of switching balance from one foot to the other, babies could walk earlier. Tests were performed on crawling and walking babies where slopes were placed in front of the path and the babies had to decide whether or not it was safe. The tests proved that babies who just learned how to walk did not know what they were capable of and often went down slopes that were not safe, whereas experienced walkers knew what they could do. Practice has a big part to do with teaching a child how to walk.\n", "From the moment children could walk, they were expected to fend for themselves. Aside from feeding, children were taught to act individually early on. Once a child was around one or two years old, they were carried around on the mother's back. Early in the child's life, mothers will, despite the well known risk of strangulation, carry their babies by the armpit. As children grew older and could hold on for themselves, mothers would sit their children astride the mother's neck and expect them to hold onto their mother's hair for support. Once astride the neck, mothers returned to working in the fields to provide for their families. Babies were rarely held, and if they were held it was not by the mothers but instead by small daughters of other mothers.\n", "Symptoms most often first appear in early childhood (the toddler stage) when children begin to sit or walk. Though they usually start walking at a normal age, they wobble or sway when walking, standing still or sitting. In late pre-school and early school age, they develop difficulty moving their eyes in a natural manner from one place to the next (oculomotor apraxia). They develop slurred or distorted speech, and swallowing problems. Some have an increased number of respiratory tract infections (ear infections, sinusitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia). Because not all children develop in the same manner or at the same rate, it may be some years before A–T is properly diagnosed. Most children with A–T have stable neurologic symptoms for the first 4–5 years of life, but begin to show increasing problems in early school years.\n", "Children until the age of 3 to 4 have a degree of genu varum. The child sits with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibia and femur are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life, a gradual change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femur slopes downward and inward towards the knee joints; the tibia become straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards.\n" ]

[ "During the 1970s there was growing concern that the combined conventional forces of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact could overwhelm the forces of NATO. It seemed unthinkable to respond to a Soviet/Warsaw Pact incursion into Western Europe with strategic nuclear weapons, inviting a catastrophic exchange. Thus, technologies were developed to greatly reduce collateral damage while being effective against advancing conventional military forces. Some of these were low-yield neutron bombs, which were lethal to tank crews, especially with tanks massed in tight formation, while producing relatively little blast, thermal radiation, or radioactive fallout. Other technologies were so-called \"suppressed radiation devices,\" which produced mostly blast with little radioactivity, making them much like conventional explosives, but with much more energy.\n", "For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam War, Bay of Pigs invasion, Dirty War, Cambodian–Vietnamese War, and others.\n", "Rather than making extensive preparations for battlefield nuclear combat in Central Europe, \"The Soviet military leadership believed that conventional superiority provided the Warsaw Pact with the means to approximate the effects of nuclear weapons and achieve victory in Europe without resort to those weapons.\"\n", "While the cold war never went hot directly between NATO and Warsaw Pact alliances the US was engaged in two major limited air wars aiding allies who faced Soviet supported enemies and both sides using weaponry designed to fight WW-III; the Korean and Vietnam wars.\n", "During the Cold War (1945–1990), the two opposing forces in Europe were the Warsaw Pact countries on the one side, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries on the other side. Soviet domination of the Warsaw Pact led to effective standardization on a few tank designs. In comparison, the main NATO countries, Britain, France, Germany, and the USA, developed their own tank designs with little in common, and the smaller counties generally adopted one or more of these designs.\n", "One scenario that was the focus of American and NATO naval planning during the Cold War was a conflict between two modern and well equipped fleets on the high seas, the clash of the United States/NATO and the Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact. Because the Cold War ended without direct total war between the two sides, the outcome of such an action remains hypothetical, but was broadly understood to include, towards the late Cold War, multiple salvoes of anti-ship missiles against the Americans and U.S. attempts to air strike Soviet land bases and/or fleets. Given the eventual strategic surprise effectiveness of anti-ship missiles, the outcome of such a clash is far from being clear.\n", "It was this weakness that led first to the New Look of 1953, and then to the \"New\" New Look of 1955. The later, especially, aimed to counter any Warsaw Pact action in Europe with the use of nuclear weapons on the battlefield, allowing NATO's superior airpower to destroy the Warsaw Pact's massed armor. As part of this shift in policy, the majority of US military development and funding was sent to the US Air Force and US Navy, the Army was, to a degree, ignored.\n" ]

[ "Philip II was also able to field archers, including mercenary Cretan archers and perhaps some native Macedonians. In most Greek states, archery was not greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and foreign archers were often employed, such as the Scythians prominent in Athenian employ. However, Crete was notable for its very effective archers, whose services as mercenaries were in great demand throughout the Greek World. Cretan archers were famed for their powerful bows, firing arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They carried their arrows in a quiver with a protective flap over its opening. Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small and faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also had some ability in hand-to-hand fighting, an additional factor in their popularity as mercenaries. Archers were also raised from Macedonia and various Balkan peoples. Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his father's reign, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into \"chiliarchies\".\n", "Cretan archers were a well known class of warrior whose specialist skills were extensively utilized in both ancient and medieval warfare. They were especially valued in armies, such as those of the Greek city states, Macedonia and ancient Rome, which could not draw upon substantial numbers of skilled archers from their native populations. \n", "Though Cretan archers could be theoretically outranged by Rhodian slingers, they were widely recognized as being amongst the best light missile troops in the ancient world, and as such found employment as mercenaries in many armies, including Alexander the Great's and those of many of the Diadochi. During the Retreat of the Ten thousand following the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC Xenophon's hoplites were able to hold off pursuing Persian troops, with the aid of the Cretan archers who formed part of the Greek mercenary army. On this occasion the Cretans, cut off from supplies, were able to gather and reuse the spent Persian arrows while seizing bowstrings from local peasantry. Xenophon records that Cretan archers were outranged by their Persian counterparts and suffered losses because they wore no armour.\n", "From about 218 BC onwards, the archers of the Roman army of the mid-Republic were virtually all mercenaries from the island of Crete, which boasted a long specialist tradition. During the late Republic (88–30 BC) and the Augustan period, Crete was gradually eclipsed by men from other, much more populous, regions subjugated by the Romans with strong archery traditions. These included Thrace, Anatolia and, above all, Syria. Of the 32 \"sagittarii\" units attested in the mid-2nd century, 13 have Syrian names, 7 Thracian, 5 from Anatolia, 1 from Crete and the remaining 6 of other or uncertain origin.\n", "From about 218 BC onwards, the archers of the Roman army of the mid-Republic were virtually all mercenaries from the island of Crete, which boasted a long specialist tradition. During the late Republic (88-30 BC) and the Augustan period, Crete was gradually eclipsed by men from other, much more populous, regions with strong archery traditions, newly subjugated by the Romans. These included Thrace, Anatolia and above all, Syria. Of the thirty-two \"sagittarii\" units attested in the mid 2nd century, thirteen have Syrian names, seven Thracian, five from Anatolia, one from Crete and the remaining six of other or uncertain origin.\n", "Many of the archers in service to Egypt were of Nubian extraction commonly referred to as Medjay, who go from a mercenary force during their initial service to Egypt in the Middle Kingdom to an elite paramilitary unit by the New Kingdom. So prolific were the Nubians as archers that Nubia as whole would be referred to Ta-Seti or land of the bow by the Ancient Egyptians.\n", "Heraklion's fortifications have made it one of the best fortified cities in the Mediterranean. The walls remain largely intact to this day, and they are considered to be among the best preserved Venetian fortifications in Europe.\n" ]

[ "Konstantin Raudive, a Latvian psychologist who had taught at the Uppsala University, Sweden and who had worked in conjunction with Jürgenson, made over 100,000 recordings which he described as being communications with people. Some of these recordings were conducted in an RF-screened laboratory and contained words Raudive said were identifiable. In an attempt to confirm the content of his collection of recordings, Raudive invited listeners to hear and interpret them. He believed that the clarity of the voices heard in his recordings implied that they could not be readily explained by normal means. Raudive published his first book, \"Breakthrough: An Amazing Experiment in Electronic Communication with the Dead\" in 1968 and it was translated into English in 1971.\n", "As a result, Clark went on to operate on a second patient who had been deaf for 17 years. He was able to show that the speech coding strategy was not unique to one person's brain response patterns, and that the memory for speech sounds could persist for many years after the person became deaf.\n", "Raudive started researching such alleged voices on his own and spent much of the last ten years of his life exploring EVP. With the help of various electronics experts he recorded over 100,000 audiotapes, most of which were made under what he described as \"strict laboratory conditions.\" He collaborated at times with Bender. Over 400 people were involved in his research, and all apparently heard the voices. This culminated in the 1968 publication of \"Unhörbares wird hörbar\" \"(“What is inaudible becomes audible”)\" (published in English in 1971 as \"Breakthrough\").\n", "Burleigh disdained recording and it was long (mistakenly) believed that no recording existed of his voice. He recorded once in 1919, for a small label run by his friend George Broome, and again in 1944 for St. George's church. The 1919 recording exists, but the latter recordings have never been found.\n", "Flint accused of using prerecorded tapes to produce voices, as well as live accomplices providing a two-way voice channels. Parapsychologists from the Society for Psychical Research who attended séances with Flint also claimed he was using ventriloquism to produce the voices that they had heard.\n", "When Moroder arrived in the studio to record his monologue, he was initially perplexed that the booth contained multiple microphones; he wondered if the extra equipment was a precaution in case one of the microphones broke. The recording engineer explained that the microphones varied with origin dates that ranged from the 1960s to the 21st century, and that each microphone would be used to represent the different decades in Moroder's life. The engineer added that although most listeners would not be able to distinguish between each microphone, Bangalter would know the difference. Nile Rodgers was also present during the voice recording sessions, which took place over the course of two days.\n", "Nevertheless, experts and politicians analyzing the recordings agree that at least some of them are real, judging by known voices, speaking manners and confidential details mentioned. A few politicians, including Kuchma himself, have officially claimed they recognize their own voices on the tapes. However, the President and his supporters have always denied the authenticity of the body of conversations recorded, calling them a \"montage\". On the other hand, in 2002 Bruce Koenig, of the US forensic firm Bek Tek, a former worker in the FBI's forensic laboratory, examined the recordings and concluded that there were no signs of them having been doctored.\n" ]

[ "Decomposition begins at the moment of death, caused by two factors: 1.) autolysis, the breaking down of tissues by the body's own internal chemicals and enzymes, and 2.) putrefaction, the breakdown of tissues by bacteria. These processes release compounds such as cadaverine and putrescine, that are the chief source of the unmistakably putrid odor of decaying animal tissue.\n", "Active decay is characterized by the period of greatest mass loss. This loss occurs as a result of both the voracious feeding of maggots and the purging of decomposition fluids into the surrounding environment. The purged fluids accumulate around the body and create a cadaver decomposition island (CDI). Liquefaction of tissues and disintegration become apparent during this time and strong odors persist. The end of active decay is signaled by the migration of maggots away from the body to pupate.\n", "Carrion begins to decay at the moment of the animal's death, and it will increasingly attract insects and breed bacteria. Not long after the animal has died, its body will begin to exude a foul odor caused by the presence of bacteria and the emission of cadaverine and putrescine.\n", "The beginning of active decay stage is marked by the deflation of the carcass as feeding Dipteran larvae pierce the skin and internal gases are released. During this stage the carcass has a characteristic wet appearance due to the liquefaction of tissues. Flesh from the head and around the anus and umbilical cord is removed by larval feeding activity. A strong odor of putrefaction is associated with the carcass.\n", "The final stage of decomposition is dry remains. Payne described a total of six stages of decay, the last two being separate dry and remains. As these stages are nearly impossible to distinguish between, many entomological studies combine the two into a single final stage. Very little remains of the carcass in this stage, mainly bones, cartilage and small bits of dried skin. There is little to no odor associated with remains. Any odor present may range from that of dried skin to wet fur.\n", "The fresh stage of decomposition is generally described as the period between the moment of death and when the first signs of bloat are apparent. There are no outward signs of physical change, though internal bacteria have begun to digest organ tissues. No odor is associated with the carcass. Early post-mortem changes, used by pathologists as medical markers for early post-mortem interval estimations, have been described by Goff and include livor mortis, rigor mortis and algor mortis.\n", "In many animals, body odor plays an important survival function. Strong body odor can be a warning signal for predators to stay away (such as porcupine stink), or it can also be a signal that the prey animal is unpalatable. For example, some animals species, who feign death to survive (like opossums), in this state produce a strong body odor to deceive a predator that the prey animal has been dead for a long time and is already in the advanced stage of decomposing. Some animals with strong body odor are rarely attacked by most predators, although they can still be killed and eaten by birds of prey, which are tolerant of carrion odors.\n" ]

[ "The orbiter will send a signal which will be picked up by the lander. As the orbiter moves along its orbit, the path between it and the lander will vary and so pass through differing parts of the comet. In addition, the rotation of the comet nucleus will also change the relative position of the lander and the orbiter. Hence, over several orbits, many different paths will have been obtained.\n", "The comet has an observation arc of 58 days allowing a reasonable estimate of the orbit. But the near-parabolic trajectory with an osculating perihelion eccentricity of 0.9999996 generates an extreme unperturbed aphelion distance of 2,034,048 AU (32 light-years). The orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the solar system. Using JPL Horizons, the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 2020-Jan-01 generate a semi-major axis of 832 AU, an aphelion distance of 1660 AU, and a period of approximately 24,000 years.\n", "After orbits are determined, mathematical propagation techniques can be used to predict the future positions of orbiting objects. As time goes by, the actual path of an orbiting object tends to diverge from the predicted path (especially if the object is subject to difficult-to-predict perturbations such as atmospheric drag), and a new orbit determination using new observations serves to re-calibrate knowledge of the orbit.\n", "The basic technique is to track a projectile for sufficient time to record a segment of the trajectory. This is usually done automatically, but some early and not so early radars required the operator to manually track the projectile. Once a trajectory segment is captured it can then be processed to determine its point of origin on the ground. Before digital terrain databases this involved manual iteration with a paper map to check the altitude at the coordinates, change the location altitude and recompute the coordinates until a satisfactory location was found.\n", "The comet has an observation arc of 285 days allowing a good estimate of the orbit. The orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the solar system. Using JPL Horizons, the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 2020-Jan-01 generate a semi-major axis of 1,582 AU, an apoapsis distance of 3,163 AU, and a period of approximately 63,000 years.\n", "The path of a small planet, comet, or long-range spacecraft can often be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the sun, and adding small corrections from the gravitational attraction of the larger planets in their known orbits.\n", "In a 2018 paper, \"Quan-Zhi Ye et al.\" used recorded observations of the comet to recalculate the orbit, finding Le Verrier's 1844 calculations to be highly accurate. They simulated the orbit forwards to the year 2000, finding that 98% of possible orbits remained orbiting the Sun, 85% with a perihelion nearer than the asteroid belt, and 40% crossing Earth's orbit. The numbers remain consistent even when including non-gravitational parameters caused by pressures from a comet's jets.\n" ]

[ "In much of the world, pointing with the index finger is considered rude or disrespectful, especially pointing to a person. Pointing with the left hand is taboo in some cultures. Pointing with an open hand is considered more polite or respectful in some contexts. In Nicaragua, pointing is frequently done with the lips in a \"kiss shape\" directed towards the object of attention.\n", "Pointing may vary substantially across cultures, with some having many distinct types of pointing, both with regard to the physical gestures employed and their interpretation. Pointing, especially at other people, may be considered inappropriate or rude in certain contexts and in many cultures. It is generally regarded as a species-specific human feature that does not normally occur in other primates in the wild. It has been observed in animals in captivity; however, there is disagreement on the nature of this non-human pointing.\n", "Pointing toward someone with forefinger is considered rude. While pointing with the whole open palm or just a thumb (with other fingers folded) are considered most polite. Pointing direction by doing smooth and graceful motion with your chin is quite acceptable, except a sharp and strong movement, which is not polite and considered as an insult.\n", "For all the responses are often outrageously comedic, due to some being extremely near the knuckle, hosts have still had to reiterate on many occasions that the statements are not meant to be taken seriously in any way. Indeed, more often than not they actually have the intention of mocking those who \"would\" hold such an abhorrent view; even so, despite repeated clarification, complaints are still a fairly regular occurrence.\n", "Thus, it seems pointing may be more complex than a straightforward indicator of social understanding. Early pointing may not indicate an understanding of intention; rather it may indicate an association between the gesture and interesting objects or events. However, an understanding of intention may develop as the child develops a theory of mind and begins to use pointing to convey meaning about referents in the world.\n", "Foolish criticism is not necessarily arbitrary or willy-nilly, but it is \"foolish\", because it does the critic (or his intended target) no good. Typically it is therefore self-defeating, which might make people wonder why it is being stated at all. People can become terribly obsessed with a criticism, without really being aware of \"what\" it is truly about, \"why\" it is being made, or what the \"effect\" of it is. They might feel they should \"pipe in\" about an issue, without any awareness of a clear motivation.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eye-rolling:\" People can communicate disgust and anger, non-verbally, by rolling their eyes, sighing or making mouth noises. By doing so, that can often raise the level of animosity by inflaming the other person. It is important to recognize what is being done and abstain from doing it.\n" ]

[ "Salt poisoning is an intoxication resulting from the excessive intake of sodium (usually as sodium chloride) in either solid form or in solution (saline water, including brine, brackish water, or seawater). \n", "An Anacin advertisement in 1962 featured a mother trying to assist her grown daughter with various chores, such as preparing a meal. \"Don't you think it needs a little salt?\", the mother would say, only to have her nerve-racked daughter shout, \"Mother, please, I'd rather do it myself!\" As the mother wilted, the daughter would emote and rub her head, with her inner voice saying, \"Control yourself! Sure, you've got a headache, you're tense, irritable, but don't take it out on her!\" Another commercial had a wife greeting her husband as he pulled into their driveway in his car; the husband responded by yelling \"Helen, can't you keep Billy's bike \"out of the driveway?!?\"\" These advertisement scenarios became popular and were parodied a number of times, including in the Allan Sherman song \"Headaches\", the 1966 film \"The Silencers\" and the 1980 film \"Airplane\".\n", "BULLET::::- Salt poisoning is the most common cause in children. It has also been seen in a number of adults with mental health problems. Too much salt can also occur from drinking seawater or soy sauce.\n", "Crass male ignorance, helplessness and muddling… I rub as much salt into the sore places in their minds… because it is good for them; but I can't help melting a little when they are very humble and confess that the whole thing is a grievous and gigantic blunder and presents almost insoluble problems, and they don't know how to face it.\n", "Salt poisoning typically results in a feeling of confusion and jitteriness; more severe degrees of intoxication can cause seizures and coma. Death can result if medical intervention is not forthcoming. These symptoms are generally a consequence of hypernatremia—an abnormally high sodium level in the blood. (There are myriad causes of hypernatremia, which is frequently encountered in medical practice; salt poisoning is not a common cause.) \n", "Gargling salt water is often suggested, but evidence of its usefulness is lacking. Alternative medicines are promoted and used for the treatment of sore throats. However, they are poorly supported by evidence.\n", "Salt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow (hyperemia) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face (see cutaneous sinus of dental origin). Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat.\n" ]

[ "Hubble's skepticism about the universe being too small, dense, and young turned out to be based on an observational error. Later investigations appeared to show that Hubble had confused distant H II regions for Cepheid variables and the Cepheid variables themselves had been inappropriately lumped together with low-luminosity RR Lyrae stars causing calibration errors that led to a value of the Hubble Constant of approximately 500 km/s/Mpc instead of the true value of approximately 70 km/s/Mpc. The higher value meant that an expanding universe would have an age of 2 billion years (younger than the Age of the Earth) and extrapolating the observed number density of galaxies to a rapidly expanding universe implied a mass density that was too high by a similar factor, enough to force the universe into a peculiar closed geometry which also implied an impending Big Crunch that would occur on a similar time-scale. After fixing these errors in the 1950s, the new lower values for the Hubble Constant accorded with the expectations of an older universe and the density parameter was found to be fairly close to a geometrically flat universe.\n", "The cosmological constant makes the universe \"older\" for fixed values of the other parameters. This is significant, since before the cosmological constant became generally accepted, the Big Bang model had difficulty explaining why globular clusters in the Milky Way appeared to be far older than the age of the universe as calculated from the Hubble parameter and a matter-only universe. Introducing the cosmological constant allows the universe to be older than these clusters, as well as explaining other features that the matter-only cosmological model could not.\n", "Sandage began working at the Palomar Observatory. In 1958 he published the first good estimate for the Hubble constant, revising Hubble's value of 250 down to 75 km/s/Mpc, which is close to today's accepted value. Later he became the chief advocate of an even lower value, around 50, corresponding to a Hubble age of around 20 billion years. At the time, many, especially Sandage, believed that the cosmological constant was zero. In such a case, a low Hubble constant is necessary in order for the age of the universe (as opposed to the Hubble age) to be at least as old as the oldest objects it contains, i.e. ca. 14 billion years.\n", "Hubble's early estimate of his constant was 550 (km/s)/Mpc, and the inverse of that is 1.8 billion years. It was believed by many geologists such as Arthur Holmes in the 1920s that the Earth was probably over 2 billion years old, but with large uncertainty. The possible discrepancy between the ages of the Earth and the universe was probably one motivation for the development of the Steady State theory in 1948 as an alternative to the Big Bang; in the (now obsolete) steady state theory, the universe is infinitely old and on average unchanging with time. The steady state theory postulated spontaneous creation of matter to keep the average density constant as the universe expands, and therefore most galaxies still have an age less than 1/H. However, if H had been 550 (km/s)/Mpc, our Milky Way galaxy would be exceptionally large compared to most other galaxies, so it could well be much older than an average galaxy, therefore eliminating the age problem.\n", "The Hubble parameter is not thought to be constant through time. There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the universe which affect the expansion rate. It was earlier expected that the Hubble parameter would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the universe, and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the universe called the deceleration parameter which cosmologists expected to be directly related to the matter density of the universe. Surprisingly, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be less than zero (actually, consistent with −1) which implied that today the Hubble parameter is converging to a constant value as time goes on. Some cosmologists have whimsically called the effect associated with the \"accelerating universe\" the \"cosmic jerk\". The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was given for the discovery of this phenomenon.\n", "While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe, it also cast doubt on theories about its future. Astronomers from the High-z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground-based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating. Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery. The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood; the most common cause attributed is dark energy.\n", "where formula_1 is the Hubble parameter and the function \"F\" depends only on the fractional contribution to the universe's energy content that comes from various components. The first observation that one can make from this formula is that it is the Hubble parameter that controls that age of the universe, with a correction arising from the matter and energy content. So a rough estimate of the age of the universe comes from the Hubble time, the inverse of the Hubble parameter. With a value for formula_1 around , the Hubble time evaluates to formula_5 = billion years.\n" ]

[ "As with Uranus, the low light levels cause the major moons to appear very dim. The brightness of Triton at full phase is only −7.11, despite the fact that Triton is more than four times as intrinsically bright as Earth's moon and orbits much closer to Neptune.\n", "However, the low light levels at such a great distance from the sun ensure that the moons appear very dim; the brightest, Ariel, would shine only at magnitude −7.4, more than 100 times dimmer than the moon as seen from Earth. Meanwhile, the outer large moon Oberon would be only as bright as magnitude −4.9, about the same as Venus despite its proximity.\n", "Some of the most spectacular moons come during the full moon phase near sunset or sunrise. The moon on the horizon benefits from the moon illusion which makes it appear larger. The light reflected from the moon traveling through the atmosphere also colors the moon orange and/or red.\n", "Full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish. It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.\n", "Due to the high lunar standstill, the harvest and hunter's moons of 2007 were special because the time difference between moonrises on successive evenings was much shorter than average. The Moon rose about 30 minutes later from one night to the next, as seen from about 40° N or S latitude (because the full moon of September 2007 rose in the northeast rather than in the east). Hence, no long period of darkness occurred between sunset and moonrise for several days after the full moon, thus lengthening the time in the evening when enough twilight and moonlight to work to get the harvest in.\n", "As the phase angle of an object lit by the Sun decreases, the object's brightness rapidly increases. This is mainly due to the increased area lit, but is also partly due to the intrinsic brightness of the part that is sunlit. This is affected by such factors as the angle at which light reflected from the object is observed. For this reason, a full moon is more than twice as bright as the moon at first or third quarter, even though the visible area illuminated appears to be exactly twice as large.\n", "Though a terrestrial observer would find a dramatic decrease in available sunlight in these environments, the Sun would still be bright enough to cast shadows even as far as the hypothetical Planet Nine, possibly located 1,200 AU away, and would still outshine the full Moon.\n" ]

[ "Although the Hittites are first attested in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Anatolian branch seems to have separated at a very early stage from Proto-Indo-European, or may have developed from an older Pre-Proto-Indo-European ancestor. If it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it likely did so between 4500–3500 BCE.\n", "The Hittites, who established an extensive empire in the Middle East in the 2nd millennium BCE, are by far the best known members of the Anatolian group. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East. Despite the use of \"Hatti\" for their core territory, the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region (until the beginning of the 2nd millennium). The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, they were the forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter's demand for iron goods. The Hittite empire reached its height during the mid-14th century under Suppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BCE, amid the Bronze Age Collapse in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent \"Neo-Hittite\" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The lands of the Anatolian peoples were successively invaded by a number of peoples and empires at high frequency: the Phrygians, Bithynians, the Medes, the Persians, the Greeks, the Galatian Celts, Romans and the Oghuz Turks. Many of these invaders settled in Anatolia, in some cases causing the extinction of the Anatolian languages. By the Middle Ages, all the Anatolian languages (and the cultures accompanying them) were extinct, although there may be lingering influences on the modern inhabitants of Anatolia, most notably Armenians.\n", "The arrival of the Hittites in Anatolia in the Bronze Age was one of a superstrate imposing itself on a native culture (in this case over the pre-existing Hattians and Hurrians), either by means of conquest or by gradual assimilation. In archaeological terms, relationships of the Hittites to the Ezero culture of the Balkans and Maykop culture of the Caucasus have been considered within the migration framework. The Indo-European element at least establishes Hittite culture as intrusive to Anatolia in scholarly mainstream (excepting the opinions of Colin Renfrew, whose Anatolian hypothesis assumes that Indo-European is indigenous to Anatolia, and, more recently, Quentin Atkinson).\n", "Anatolians were Indo-European peoples of the Near East identified by their use of the Anatolian languages. These peoples were among the oldest Indo-European ethnolinguistic groups, one of the most archaic, because Anatolians were the first or among the first branches of Indo-European peoples to separate from the initial Proto-Indo-European community that gave origin to the individual Indo-European peoples. \n", "It is possible that the Demircihüyük culture (c.3500-2500 BC) is connected with the arrival of Indo-Europeans in Anatolia, since Proto-Anatolian must have split off around 3000 BC at the latest on linguistic grounds.\n", "It is generally assumed that the Hittites came into Anatolia some time before 2000 BC. While their earlier location is disputed, it has been speculated by scholars for more than a century that the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, in present-day Ukraine, around the Sea of Azov, spoke an early Indo-European language during the third and fourth millennia BC.\n", "The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as c. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC, although they have remained a minority in the region, namely in Hakkari, Sirnak and Mardin.\n" ]

[ "The Joker makes another television appearance with a similar threat. This time, he plans to kill Judge Thomas Lake and Bruce Wayne. Police officers are at both men's houses; however, Gordon is at Lake's. Bruce starts laughing and turns white, but his butler, Alfred Pennyworth, administers a shot to slow his heart rate to slow the spread of the poison. Meanwhile, a gang of armed men dressed as clowns drive onto Lake's property where a shoot-out takes place. Bruce, while under the poison, hallucinates the night his parents were murdered. He awakes, fully recovered, in an ambulance. Another gang of armed men dressed as clowns shoot at the ambulance. Bruce changes into his Batman costume, exits the ambulance unnoticed and defeats the clowns.\n", "The National Association of Theatre Owners distributed checklists from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to its members and said in a July 21 statement that members were \"working closely with local law enforcement agencies and reviewing security procedures\". AMC Theatres announced it would \"not allow any guests into our theatres in costumes that make other guests feel uncomfortable and we will not permit face-covering masks or fake weapons inside our buildings\". \"Security Director News\" raised the possibility in a July 23 article that \"the massacre could be a Virginia Tech for movie theaters, causing security to become a bigger part of the conversation and more stringent security procedures to be adopted at theaters across the country.\" Several theaters subsequently held tighter security on allowing unaccompanied singles to see films.\n", "The film was released on 6 February 2009, in Quebec, and on 20 March 2009, in Toronto, Vancouver and Calgary. Its release sparked controversy in Quebec and across Canada for its depiction of real life events involving the murder of unarmed students. The film was shown in 45 theatres in Quebec. By August 2009, the distributor Remstar had sold screening rights to around 12 countries.\n", "In a Fox News interview conducted several hours after the shooting occurred and before the killer was identified, controversial (and now disbarred) lawyer Jack Thompson, referred to by Fox News as a \"School Shootings Expert,\" stated that the shootings were motivated by violent video games, specifically the perpetrator's use of them. There were claims that Cho was a devoted player of Counter-Strike, but further investigation revealed little to no proof of his alleged gaming activities. Thompson even went as far as blaming Bill Gates for promoting the game and ordering him to take it offline, even though Counter-Strike is owned and operated by Valve.\n", "In the months prior to the hearings, there had been a small moral panic in America on gun-related crimes, which fueled the concerns related to violent video games. Both Congress and the Justice Department were looking to reduce the amount of violence on television.\n", "Rarely screened in movie theaters due to its lengthy running time, theaters generally show \"Sátántangó\" either in two separate parts, or in its entirety with two intermissions. Tarr has expressed a wish for the film to be viewed without any interruption.\n", "Two former SWAT members, one an active-shooter tactics expert and trainer, expressed misgivings about the three-hour delay in breaching the nightclub, citing the lesson learned from other mass shootings that officers can minimize casualties only by entering a shooting location expeditiously, even if it means putting themselves at great risk.\n" ]

[ "When the stars reach the point of their closest encounter, the mutual gravitational pull between the two stars will cause them to become slightly ellipsoidal in shape, which is the reason for their light being so variable.\n", "The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by John Michell in 1783 and Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796, using Isaac Newton's concept of light corpuscles (see: emission theory) and who predicted that some stars would have a gravity so strong that light would not be able to escape. The effect of gravity on light was then explored by Johann Georg von Soldner (1801), who calculated the amount of deflection of a light ray by the sun, arriving at the Newtonian answer which is half the value predicted by general relativity. All of this early work assumed that light could slow down and fall, which was inconsistent with the modern understanding of light waves.\n", "Light given off by a star is un-polarized, i.e. the direction of oscillation of the light wave is random. However, when the light is reflected off the atmosphere of a planet, the light waves interact with the molecules in the atmosphere and become polarized.\n", "During 1783 geologist John Michell wrote a letter to Henry Cavendish outlining the expected properties of dark stars, published by The Royal Society in their 1784 volume. Michell calculated that when the escape velocity at the surface of a star was equal to or greater than lightspeed, the generated light would be gravitationally trapped so that the star would not be visible to a distant astronomer.\n", "BULLET::::- According to general relativity, light does not travel along straight lines when it propagates in a gravitational field. Instead, it is deflected in the presence of massive bodies. In particular, starlight is deflected as it passes near the Sun, leading to apparent shifts of up 1.75 arc seconds in the stars' positions in the sky (an arc second is equal to 1/3600 of a degree). In the framework of Newtonian gravity, a heuristic argument can be made that leads to light deflection by half that amount. The different predictions can be tested by observing stars that are close to the Sun during a solar eclipse. In this way, a British expedition to West Africa in 1919, directed by Arthur Eddington, confirmed that Einstein's prediction was correct, and the Newtonian predictions wrong, via observation of the May 1919 eclipse. Eddington's results were not very accurate; subsequent observations of the deflection of the light of distant quasars by the Sun, which utilize highly accurate techniques of radio astronomy, have confirmed Eddington's results with significantly better precision (the first such measurements date from 1967, the most recent comprehensive analysis from 2004).\n", "Therefore, the authors posited that the most likely cause of the observed light curve was a closely orbiting planet, about twice the mass of Mercury, which was rapidly emitting small particles into independent orbits around the star. Exactly the cause of this phenomenon could be the direct sublimation of the planetary surface and its emission into space, the intense volcanism caused by the tidal effects of orbiting extremely close to the host star, or both processes mutually reinforcing the strength of each other in a positive feedback loop.\n", "Stars twinkle because they are so far from Earth that they appear as point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth's atmospheric turbulence, which acts like lenses and prisms diverting the light's path. Large astronomical objects closer to Earth, like the Moon and other planets, encompass many points in space and can be resolved as objects with observable diameters. With multiple observed points of light traversing the atmosphere, their light's deviations average out and the viewer perceives less variation in light coming from them.\n" ]

[ "As software is often designed with security features to prevent unauthorized use of system resources, many viruses must exploit and manipulate security bugs, which are security defects in a system or application software, to spread themselves and infect other computers. Software development strategies that produce large numbers of \"bugs\" will generally also produce potential exploitable \"holes\" or \"entrances\" for the virus.\n", "In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may be part of legitimate programs (see code injection). If a user attempts to launch an infected program, the virus' code may be executed simultaneously. In operating systems that use file extensions to determine program associations (such as Microsoft Windows), the extensions may be hidden from the user by default. This makes it possible to create a file that is of a different type than it appears to the user. For example, an executable may be created and named \"picture.png.exe\", in which the user sees only \"picture.png\" and therefore assumes that this file is a digital image and most likely is safe, yet when opened, it runs the executable on the client machine.\n", "Computer viruses infect a variety of different subsystems on their host computers and software. One manner of classifying viruses is to analyze whether they reside in binary executables (such as .EXE or .COM files), data files (such as Microsoft Word documents or PDF files), or in the boot sector of the host's hard drive (or some combination of all of these).\n", "BULLET::::- Computer Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data.\n", "Many users install antivirus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses when the computer attempts to download or run the executable file (which may be distributed as an email attachment, or on USB flash drives, for example). Some antivirus software blocks known malicious websites that attempt to install malware. Antivirus software does not change the underlying capability of hosts to transmit viruses. Users must update their software regularly to patch security vulnerabilities (\"holes\"). Antivirus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to recognize the latest threats. This is because malicious hackers and other individuals are always creating new viruses. The German AV-TEST Institute publishes evaluations of antivirus software for Windows and Android.\n", "A computer virus is a type of malicious software that, when executed, replicates itself by modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code. When this replication succeeds, the affected areas are then said to be \"infected\" with a computer virus.\n", "Another category of bug is called a \"race condition\" that may occur when programs have multiple components executing at the same time. If the components interact in a different order than the developer intended, they could interfere with each other and stop the program from completing its tasks. These bugs may be difficult to detect or anticipate, since they may not occur during every execution of a program.\n" ]

[ "Conduction velocities in both the Median sensory and Ulnar sensory nerves are negatively related to an individual's height, which likely accounts for the fact that, among most of the adult population, conduction velocities between the wrist and digits of an individual's hand decrease by 0.5 m/s for each inch increase in height. As a direct consequence, impulse latencies within the Median, Ulnar, and Sural nerves increases with height.\n", "People will sometimes feel as if they are gesturing, feel itches, twitch, or even try to pick things up. The missing limb often feels shorter and may feel as if it is in a distorted and painful position. Occasionally, the pain can be made worse by stress, anxiety and weather changes. Phantom limb pain is usually intermittent. The frequency and intensity of attacks usually declines with time.\n", "At the extreme end, being excessively tall can cause various medical problems, including cardiovascular problems, because of the increased load on the heart to supply the body with blood, and problems resulting from the increased time it takes the brain to communicate with the extremities. For example, Robert Wadlow, the tallest man known to verifiable history, developed trouble walking as his height increased throughout his life. In many of the pictures of the later portion of his life, Wadlow can be seen gripping something for support. Late in his life, although he died at age 22, he had to wear braces on his legs and walk with a cane; and he died after developing an infection in his legs because he was unable to feel the irritation and cutting caused by his leg braces.\n", "Along with gestures, phenotypic traits can also convey certain messages in nonverbal communication, for instance, eye color, hair color and height. Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed and Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers in the United Kingdom and found that height was a key factor in who was promoted. Height can have benefits and depressors too. \"While tall people often command more respect than short people, height can also be detrimental to some aspects of one-to-one communication, for instance, where you need to 'talk on the same level' or have an 'eye-to-eye' discussion with another person and do not want to be perceived as too big for your boots.\"\n", "Taller people have an increased risk of cancer because they have more cells than shorter people. Since height is genetically determined to a large extent, taller people have a heritable increase of cancer risk.\n", "I have never been self conscious about my height. I am more conscious of going fat and bald so that should tell you. I never let my height play a negative part in my life. I always do what I want, some tall people may be restricted as they are constantly stared at or people ask the same questions over and over. This is the only bad thing about being tall – the stupid remarks and questions. Other than that, being tall is great.\n", "Taller players are often thought to have an advantage in basketball because their shots have less distance to travel to the basket, they start closer to the rebound, and their ability to reach higher into the air yields a better chance of blocking shorter players' shots.\n" ]

[ "Demolition, or razing, is the science and engineering in safely and efficiently tearing down of buildings and other man-made structures. Demolition contrasts with deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes.\n", "The demolition of a house for military purposes is often undertaken in very different ways to conventional civilian demolitions. In peacetime situations, demolition is merely the first stage in a process that is usually intended to clear the ground for subsequent re-use (for instance, replacing an old building with a newer one or decommissioning an old industrial building). It is undertaken with extensive preparations, such as stripping the property of items of value, removing hazardous materials such as glass and asbestos insulation, and preparing the structure by removing features that might impede the demolition (such as internal partitions).\n", "In many conflicts, demolition frequently is carried out by using fire—often set with the aid of accelerants—as a simple but very effective means of quickly rendering a property uninhabitable. Armored bulldozers or tanks may be used to knock out the walls of a building, causing it to collapse. Combat engineering forces may use explosives to demolish a building, or it may simply be destroyed through direct bombardment by aircraft or artillery. The end result is not always the total demolition of a building—the walls may remain standing in the event of a fire, for instance—but it does achieve the main objective of making the building unfit for habitation. However, when the Israeli military demolishes a house using armored bulldozers, it totally flattens the structure to eliminate possible hideouts for snipers and booby traps.\n", "Before any demolition activities can take place, there are many steps that must be carried out beforehand, including performing asbestos abatement, removing hazardous or regulated materials, obtaining necessary permits, submitting necessary notifications, disconnecting utilities, rodent baiting and the development of site-specific safety and work plans.\n", "Military house demolitions are undertaken with the demolition itself being the primary objective, the aim being to deliberately deny subsequent use of the property. The methods used are therefore focused on simplicity and speed. Unlike civilian demolition, military house demolition is also often intended to destroy property \"within\" a building, such as food or personal effects, either to deny its use to an enemy or to impoverish the civilian occupants. House demolitions thus often takes place without the occupant's possessions first being removed and with minimal preparations beforehand.\n", "Demolition by neglect refers to the practice of allowing a building to deteriorate to the point that demolition becomes necessary or restoration becomes unreasonable. The practice has been used by property owners as a means of sidestepping historic preservation laws by providing justification for the demolition of historical buildings. In order to prevent demolition by neglect, a number of cities have adopted ordinances requiring property owners to properly maintain historical buildings.\n", "In the controlled demolition industry, building implosion is the strategic placing of explosive material and timing of its detonation so that a structure collapses on itself in a matter of seconds, minimizing the physical damage to its immediate surroundings. Despite its terminology, building implosion also includes the controlled demolition of other structures, such as bridges, smokestacks, towers, and tunnels.\n" ]

[ "Detroit has a variety of neighborhood types. The revitalized Downtown, Midtown, and New Center areas feature many historic buildings and are high density, while further out, particularly in the northeast and on the fringes, high vacancy levels are problematic, for which a number of solutions have been proposed. In 2007, Downtown Detroit was recognized as the best city neighborhood in which to retire among the United States' largest metro areas by CNN Money Magazine editors.\n", "In 1701, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, the future city of Detroit. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region. With expansion of the auto industry in the early 20th century, the city and its suburbs experienced rapid growth, and by the 1940s, the city had become the fourth-largest in the country. However, due to industrial restructuring, the loss of jobs in the auto industry, and rapid suburbanization, Detroit lost considerable population from the late 20th century to the present. Since reaching a peak of 1.85 million at the 1950 census, Detroit's population has declined by more than 60 percent. In 2013, Detroit became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy, which it successfully exited in December 2014, when the city government regained control of Detroit's finances.\n", "Detroit is a major port located on the Detroit River, one of the four major straits that connect the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States. The City of Detroit anchors the second-largest regional economy in the Midwest, behind Chicago and ahead of Minneapolis–Saint Paul, and the 13th-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and the Ambassador Bridge, the busiest international crossing in North America. Detroit is best known as the center of the U.S. automobile industry, and the \"Big Three\" auto manufacturers General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler are all headquartered in Metro Detroit.\n", "Detroit’s urban agriculture initiatives are well established compared to others in the United States. Because of the need for reliable and healthy food sources, Detroit shows potential for the expansion of urban agriculture from a neighborhood level to a city level.\n", "Detroit's six-county Metropolitan Statistical Area has a population of about 4.3 million, a workforce of about 2.1 million, and a Gross Metropolitan Product of $200.9 billion. Detroit's urban area has a population of 3.9 million. A 2005 PricewaterhouseCoopers study estimated that Detroit's urban area had a Gross Domestic Product of $203 billion.\n", "Detroit's architecture is recognized as being among the finest in the U.S. with the National Trust for Historic Preservation listing many of Detroit's skyscrapers and buildings as some of America's most endangered landmarks. Detroit has one of the largest surviving collections of late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century buildings in the U.S. Meanwhile, the suburbs contain some significant contemporary architecture and several historic estates.\n", "Detroit's unique culture, distinctive architecture, and revitalization and urban renewal efforts in the 21st century have given Detroit increased prominence as a tourist destination in recent years. \"The New York Times\" listed Detroit in its list of \"52 Places to Go in 2017\", while travel guide publisher \"Lonely Planet\" named Detroit the second-best city in the world to visit in 2018.\n" ]

[ "Currents bound inside the atoms of strong magnets can create counter-rotating currents in a copper or aluminum pipe. This is shown by dropping the magnet through the pipe. The descent of the magnet inside the pipe is observably slower than when dropped outside the pipe.\n", "Most often, magnet wire is composed of fully annealed, electrolytically refined copper to allow closer winding when making electromagnetic coils. High-purity oxygen-free copper grades are used for high-temperature applications in reducing atmospheres or in motors or generators cooled by hydrogen gas.\n", "The coil windings of a superconducting magnet are made of wires or tapes of Type II superconductors (e.g.niobium-titanium or niobium-tin). The wire or tape itself may be made of tiny filaments (about 20 micrometers thick) of superconductor in a copper matrix. The copper is needed to add mechanical stability, and to provide a low resistance path for the large currents in case the temperature rises above \"T\" or the current rises above \"I\" and superconductivity is lost. These filaments need to be this small \"because in this type of superconductor the current only flows skin-deep.\" (See Skin effect) The coil must be carefully designed to withstand (or counteract) magnetic pressure and Lorentz forces that could otherwise cause wire fracture or crushing of insulation between adjacent turns.\n", "During initiation, the wire heats with the passing current until melting point is reached. The heating rate is high enough that the liquid metal has no time to flow away, and heats further until it vaporizes. During this phase the electrical resistance of the bridgewire assembly rises. Then an electric arc forms in the metal vapor, leading to drop of electrical resistance and sharp growth of the current, quick further heating of the ionized metal vapor, and formation of a shock wave. To achieve the melting and subsequent vaporizing of the wire in time sufficiently short to create a shock wave, a current rise rate of at least 100 amperes per microsecond is required.\n", "In typical experiments, students measure the slower time of fall of the magnet through a copper tube compared with a cardboard tube, and may use an oscilloscope to observe the pulse of eddy current induced in a loop of wire wound around the pipe when the magnet falls through.\n", "In physics education a simple experiment is sometimes used to illustrate eddy currents and the principle behind magnetic braking. When a strong magnet is dropped down a vertical, non-ferrous, conducting pipe, eddy currents are induced in the pipe, and these retard the descent of the magnet, so it falls slower than it would if free-falling. As one set of authors explained\n", "The 90° redirection of the wire when exiting the hollow needle stresses the wire a lot and makes it difficult to wind copper wires with a diameter of more than 1 mm in a reasonable way. Orthocyclic winding with a needle winder is therefore only partly possible for these winding tasks.\n" ]

[ "The U.S. IBM PC keyboard has 104 keys, while the PC keyboards for most other countries have 105 keys. In an operating system configured for a non-English language, the keys are placed differently. For example, keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release space for Ñ/ñ; similarly those for French or Portuguese may have a special key for the character Ç/ç. Keyboards designed for Japanese may have special keys to switch between Japanese and Latin scripts, and the character ¥ (Japanese yen or Chinese yuan currency symbol) instead of \\ (backslash, which may be replaced by the former in some typefaces and codepages). Using a keyboard for alternative languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the key, because the standard keyboard layouts do not even share similar characters of different languages.\n", "Keyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system's input interpreter of the change, and some operating systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character \"\\\" as \"¥\" for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark \"\\\" as \"¥\" or both.\n", "Many languages or language families not based on the Latin alphabet such as Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic, or Hebrew have historically been represented on computers with different 8-bit extended ASCII encodings. Written East Asian languages, specifically Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, use far more characters than can be represented in an 8-bit computer byte and were first represented on computers with language-specific double byte encodings.\n", "Chinese, Japanese, and Korean require special input methods, often abbreviated to CJK IMEs (Input Method Editors), due to the thousands of possible characters in these languages. Various methods have been invented to fit every possibility into a QWERTY keyboard, so East Asian keyboards are essentially the same as those in other countries. However, their input methods are considerably more complex, without one-to-one mappings between keys and characters.\n", "Each language has its own standard keyboard layout, adopted from typewriters. With the flexibility of computer input methods, there are also transliterating or phonetic/homophonic keyboard layouts made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard. When practical Cyrillic keyboard layouts or fonts are unavailable, computer users sometimes use transliteration or look-alike \"volapuk\" encoding to type in languages that are normally written with the Cyrillic alphabet.\n", "When using a keyboard from another language, most operating systems require the user to type using an original Korean keyboard layout, the most common of which is \"2(du)-beolsik\". This is in contrast to some other languages, like Japanese, where text can be entered using a Romanization system on non-native keyboards.\n", "Although there are a large number of keyboard layouts used for languages written with Latin-script alphabets, most of these layouts are quite similar. They can be divided into three main families according to where the , , , , and keys are placed on the keyboard. These are usually named after the first six letters.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- An intruder detection or access control system could be used in conjunction with light level sensors to turn lights on and off. So when you walk into a dark room the lights turn on (if you are allowed to be there) and when you leave they turn off behind you, thus making energy savings by preventing lights from being left on.\n", "Almost any item can be booby-trapped in some way. For example, booby trapping a flashlight is a classic tactic: a flashlight already contains most of the required components. First of all, the flashlight acts as bait, tempting the victim to pick it up. More importantly, it is easy to conceal a detonator, some explosives, and batteries inside the flashlight casing. A simple electrical circuit is connected to the on/off switch. When the victim attempts to turn the flashlight on to see if it works, the resulting explosion blows their hand or arm off and possibly blinds them.\n", "The illumination problem is a resolved mathematical problem attributed to Ernst Straus in the 1950s. Straus asked if a room with mirrored walls can always be illuminated by a single point light source, allowing for repeated reflection of light off the mirrored walls. Alternatively, the question can be stated as asking that if a billiard table can be constructed in any required shape, is there a shape possible such that there is a point where it is impossible to the billiard ball in a at another point, assuming the ball is point-like and continues infinitely rather than stopping due to friction.\n", "For an analogy to more easily understand the differences in deflected vertically and horizontally polarized signals, place a mirror on the floor in the middle of a room. Have somebody hold a flashlight on the other side of the room. The flashlight represents a signal and your eyes are the receiver. The mirror represents a flat roof within region 1 of the Fresnel zone. Have the flashlight move up and down representing vertical polarization. Note that in the mirror, the flashlight moves in the opposite direction, that is, it moves down and up rather than up and down. This is out-of-phase. Now have the flashlight move to the left and right representing horizontal polarization. If you look in the mirror, the reflected image of the flashlight moves exactly in tandem with the actual flashlight. Left is left, right is right. This is in-phase.\n", "And when Zenodorus the astronomer came down to Arcadia and was introduced to us, he asked us how to find a mirror surface such that when it is placed facing the sun the rays reflected from it meet a point and thus cause burning.\n", "The Mirror Room is a room within the cavern that contains a stream of water about deep. However, when a group of lights are turned on, the depth of the water is perceived by many to be as great as , due to the reflection of the cavern's roof on the undisturbed water.\n", "The hidden room may be an identical mirror-image of the main room, so that its reflected image matches the main room's; this approach is useful in making objects seem to appear or disappear. This illusion can also be used to make one object or person reflected in the mirror appear to morph into another behind the glass (or vice versa). This is the principle behind the Girl-to-Gorilla trick found in old carnival sideshows. The hidden room may instead be painted black, with only light-colored objects in it. In this case when light is cast on the room, only the light objects reflect the light and appear as ghostly translucent images superimposed in the visible room. This can be used to make objects appear to float in space.\n" ]

[ "Most snakes move using lateral undulation where a lateral wave travels down the snake's body in the opposite direction to the snake's motion and pushes the snake off irregularities in the ground. This mode of locomotion requires these irregularities to function. Another form of locomotion, rectilinear locomotion, is used at times by some snakes, especially large ones such as pythons and boa. Here large scales on the underside of the body, known as scutes are used to push backwards and downwards. This is effective on a flat surface and is used for slow, silent movement, such as when stalking prey. Snakes use concertina locomotion for moving slowly in tunnels, here the snake alternates in bracing parts of its body on it surrounds. Finally the caenophidian snakes use the fast and unusual method of movement known as sidewinding on sand or loose soil. The snake cycles through throwing the front part of its body in the direction of motion and bringing the back part of its body into line crosswise.\n", "The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning. In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin. The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.\n", "Each point on the snake's body goes through alternating cycles of static contact and movement, with regions propagating posteriorly (i.e. any point on the snake will change from movement to stasis or vice versa shortly after the change occurs in the point anterior to it). This movement is quite strenuous and slow compared to other methods of locomotion. Energetic studies show that it takes more calories per meter to use concertina locomotion than either sidewinding or lateral undulation.\n", "Snakes can exhibit 5 different modes of terrestrial locomotion: (1) lateral undulation, (2) sidewinding, (3) concertina, (4) rectilinear, and (5) slide-pushing. Lateral undulation closely resembles the simple undulatory motion observed in many other animals such as in lizards, eels and fish, in which waves of lateral bending propagate down the snake's body.\n", "In the resultant movement, the snake's body is always in static (as opposed to sliding) contact when touching the ground. The head seems to be \"thrown\" forward, and the body follows, being lifted from the prior position and moved forward to lie on the ground ahead of where it was originally. Meanwhile, the head is being thrown forward again. In this way, the snake slowly progresses at an angle, leaving a series of mostly straight, J-shaped tracks. Because the snake's body is in static contact with the ground, without slip, imprints of the belly scales can be seen in the tracks, and each track is almost exactly as long as the snake.\n", "Traditional snakebots locomote purely by changing the shape of their body, just like snakes. Many variants have been created which use wheels or treads for locomotion. No snakebots have been developed yet that can completely mimic the locomotion of real snakes, but researchers have been able to produce ways of moving that do not occur in nature.\n", "Snake Hips is a movement in which the knees are moved forward and back, first one knee then the other, while keeping the feet together. As in Ball the Jack, in which the knees are held together, this results in a rotation of the hips.\n" ]

[ "Since Native Americans and First Nations peoples speaking a language of the Algonquian group were generally the first to meet English explorers and settlers along the Eastern Seaboard, many words from these languages made their way into English.\n", "Native Americans in the United States have developed several original systems of communication, both in Pre-Columbian times, and later as a response to European influences. For example, the Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called \"wampum\" that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Another form of communication was the Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing.\n", "After the first permanent English-speaking settlement was established in April 1607, at Jamestown, Virginia, Captain Christopher Newport led explorers northwest up the James River to an area inhabited by Powhatan Native Americans.\n", "In Native American communities prior to 1492, for instance, it seems one or more signed systems existed as a lingua franca which neighboring tribes used to communicate with one another Native American communities believed people born deaf were physically and mentally capable, while people in Europe, starting with the urging of Pedro Ponce de León, would not begin to believe so until the late 16th century. Accounts of such signing indicate these languages were fairly complex, as ethnographers such as Cabeza de Vaca described detailed communications between them and Native Americans that were conducted in sign. A number of Martha's Vineyard settlers from a community in Kent, England, for instance, seemed to be carriers of deaf genes, leading to a high density of deaf individuals on the island from the 1700s, being the highest around 1840. This environment proved ideal for the development of what is today known as Martha's Vineyard Sign Language, which was used by hearing and deaf islanders alike. Years earlier, their Kentish ancestors, too, may have had a number of deaf community members and developed their own signing system as well.\n", "Sometime prior to January 20, 1877, Isawa became the first person to use a language other than English on the telephone. According to Bell, the telephone's inventor, \"...a young Japanese student named Isawa...came to me for the purpose of studying the pronunciation of English. Of course, when he heard about the telephone he became very much interested. He said, “Mr. Bell, will this thing talk Japanese?” I said, “Certainly, any language.” He seemed very much astonished at that, and said he would like to try it. Mr. Isawa went to one end of the circuit and I stood at the other. He talked in Japanese and I reported the result to him. \"\n", "The first documented English-speakers came, in the spring of 1782, when James Moore, Larken Rutherford, and James Garretson, of Maryland and Virginia, settled at or near Bellefontaine. Upon their arrival, they were the first permanent English-speakers, in the entire Northwest Territory. James Moore and many of the settlers that followed him had been soldiers in George Rogers Clark's Illinois campaign of 1778. Moore established himself at the site of the namesake spring, and the tract remained in possession of the Moore family for over a century. \n", "The closest living language to them are the languages of the Mohawk and Tuscarora Iroquois, who once lived immediately north and south of them. The English and Dutch came to call them the Minqua, from Lenape, which breaks into min-kwe and translates to \"as a woman.\" As to when they arrived, some early records detailing their oral history seem to point to the fact that they descended from an Iroquoian group who conquered Ohio centuries before, but were pushed back east again by Siouan and Algonquin enemies. They also conquered and absorbed other unknown groups in the process, which probably explains how languages like Tuscarora came to be so completely divergent from other Iroquoian languages. It also appears possible that the word \"Iroquois\" actually derived from their language.\n" ]

[ "Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\".\n", "History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\". However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).\n", "As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a \"soft\" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.\n", "Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.\n", "The psychology of science has well-established literature in most every subfield of psychology, including but not limited to neuroscientific, developmental, cognitive, personality, motivational, social, industrial/organizational, and clinical. Feist's 2006 book \"The Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind\" reviews and integrates much of this literature. \n", "All sciences are founded on general theories: Biology has the theory of evolution; Physics, the theory of relativity; Chemistry, the theory of molecular quantum mechanics; and Geology, the theory of plate tectonics. Psychology has no general theory. In his 2018 monograph, 'A General Theory of Behaviour' (GTB), David Marks (2018) attempts to fill that gap with a central theory covering all areas of the discipline.\n", "BULLET::::- History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a \"physical science\", together called the \"physical sciences\". However, the term \"physical\" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).\n" ]

[ "On June 19, 2018, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley announced that the United States, under President Donald Trump, was pulling out of the United Nations Human Rights Council, accusing the council being \"hypocritical and self-serving\" and, in the past, Haley had accused it of \"chronic anti-Israel bias.\" \"When the Human Rights Council treats Israel worse than North Korea, Iran, and Syria, it is the Council itself that is foolish and unworthy of its name. It is time for the countries who know better to demand changes,\" Haley said in a statement at the time, pointing to the council's adoption of five resolutions condemning Israel. \"The United States continues to evaluate our membership in the Human Rights Council. Our patience is not unlimited.\"\n", "The U.S. State Department said on March 5, 2007 that, for the second year in a row, the United States has decided not to seek a seat on the Human Rights Council, asserting the body had lost its credibility with repeated attacks on Israel and a failure to confront other rights abusers. Spokesman Sean McCormack said the council has had a “singular focus” on Israel, while countries such as Cuba, Myanmar and North Korea have been spared scrutiny. He said that though the United States will have only an observer role, it will continue to shine a spotlight on human rights issues. The most senior Republican member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the U.S. House of Representatives, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, supported the administration decision. “Rather than standing as a strong defender of fundamental human rights, the Human Rights Council has faltered as a weak voice subject to gross political manipulation,” she said.\n", "In February 2016, Amnesty International launched its annual report of human rights around the world titled \"The State of the World's Human Rights\". It warns from the consequences of \"us vs them\" speech which divided human beings into two camps. It states that this speech enhances a global pushback against human rights and makes the world more divided and more dangerous. It also states that in 2016, governments turned a blind eye to war crimes and passed laws that violate free expression. Donald Trump signed an executive order in an attempt to prevent refugees from seeking resettlement in the United States. Elsewhere, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Iran, Thailand and Turkey carried out massive crackdowns, while authorities in other countries continued to implement security measures represent an infringement on rights. In June 2016, Amnesty International has called on the United Nations General Assembly to \"immediately suspend\" Saudi Arabia from the UN Human Rights Council. Richard Bennett, head of Amnesty's UN Office, said: \"The credibility of the U.N. Human Rights Council is at stake. Since joining the council, Saudi Arabia's dire human rights record at home has continued to deteriorate and the coalition it leads has unlawfully killed and injured thousands of civilians in the conflict in Yemen.\"\n", "In regard to the United Nations Human Rights Council, the position of the United States is: \"human rights have been a cornerstone of American values since the country's birth and the United States is committed to support the work of the UN Commission in promoting the principles embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. U.S. President George W. Bush declared that the United States would not seek a seat on the Council, saying it would be more effective from the outside. He did pledge, however, to support the Council financially. State Department spokesman Sean McCormack said, \"We will work closely with partners in the international community to encourage the council to address serious cases of human rights abuse in countries such as Iran, Cuba, Zimbabwe, Burma, Sudan, and North Korea\".\n", "On 19 June 2018, the United States pulled out of the UNHRC accusing the body of bias against Israel and a failure to hold human rights abusers accountable. Nikki Haley, US Ambassador to the UN called the organisation a \"cesspool of political bias\". At UNHRC's 38th Session, on 2 July 2018, Western nations held a \"de facto\" boycott of Agenda Item 7 by not speaking to the item.\n", "The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, \"as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations.\" The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The US did not ratify the social and economic rights sections.\n", "Regarding the UN Human Rights Council, Annan said \"declining credibility\" had \"cast a shadow on the reputation of the United Nations system. Unless we re-make our human rights machinery, we may be unable to renew public confidence in the United Nations itself.\" However, he did believe that, despite its flaws, the council could do good.\n" ]

[ "According to Ludvík Mucha, author of \"Webster's Concise Encyclopedia of Flags & Coats of Arms\", the white disk located in the center of the flag represents the sun. The red crescent and the five-pointed star, two ancient symbols of Islam, were most notably used on Ottoman flag and have since appeared on many flags of Islamic countries. The crescent is, from the viewpoint of an Arabic observer, supposed to bring good luck. The color red is a symbol of resistance against Turkish supremacy. Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols. Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.\n", "The Red Crescent emblem was first used by ICRC volunteers during the armed conflict of 1876–8 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The symbol was officially adopted in 1929, and so far 33 states in the Muslim world have recognized it. In common with the official promotion of the red cross symbol as a colour-reversal of the Swiss flag (rather than a religious symbol), the red crescent is similarly presented as being derived from a colour-reversal of the flag of the Ottoman Empire.\n", "Its design is based on that of the Palestinian flag, which in turn was derived from the colors used in the Arab Revolt. The star and crescent are considered symbols of Islam, and can be seen on flags of other neighbouring Islamic countries such as Algeria and Mauritania.\n", "In the Vaishnava tradition, the \"white lines represent the footprint of their God, while the red refers to his consort, Lakshmi\". The Swaminarayana tradition holds that the tilaka (yellow U-shaped mark) \"is a symbol of the lotus feet of Paramatma,\" and the kumkuma \"represents the bhakta\" (devotee). In both of these traditions, the forehead mark serves as a reminder that a devotee of God should always remain as a servant at the feet of God.\n", "The association of the crescent with the Ottoman Empire appears to have resulted in a gradual association of the crescent shape with Islam in the 20th century. A Red Crescent appears to have been used as a replacement of the Red Cross as early as in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877/8, and it was officially adopted in 1929.\n", "Replaced by Isis in literature after the 5th Dynasty, as Osiris \"takes the throne of Ra,\" images of Raet are rare. When she is depicted, she is shown as a woman with cow horns holding a sun disk on her head, similar to the headdress of Hathor. Additionally, any representation of Isis can be considered a type of rendering of Raet. The headdress is adorned with a uraeus or with feathers.\n", "Although a flag representing Islam as a whole does not exist, some Islamic denominational branches and Sufi brotherhoods employ flags to symbolize themselves. Among specific Islamic branches, Nizari branch of Ismaili-Shia Islam employs an official flag constitutes of green color which represents Muhammad's standard and Ali's cloak, as well as a red stripe meaning blood and fire. The flag was ordained by the Aga Khan IV as a part of the new constitution in 1986. The flag is flown on the Ismaili Jamatkhana, a place for congregational worship for Ismaili Muslims during the festive occasions. The Ahmadiyya movement also employs an official flag (\"Liwaa-i Ahmadiyya\") constitutes of black and white colors, first hoisted in 1939. Mirza Tahir Ahmad, the fourth caliph of the Ahmadiyya Caliphate, explained the symbolism of the colours black and white in terms of the concept of revelation and prophethood. Muslim African-American religious movement Nation of Islam deploys an official flag known as \"The Flag of Islam\" which symbolizes universal peace and harmony. \n" ]

[ "Neddie is doubtful. He says \"How can someone shoot themselves by pointing their finger at their head like this and going...\" At that point there is the sound of a gunshot, followed by Neddie's body falling to the ground.\n", "For a pistol duel, the two would typically start at a pre-agreed length of ground, which would be measured out by the seconds and marked, often with swords stuck in the ground (referred to as \"points\"). At a given signal, often the dropping of a handkerchief, the principals could advance and fire at will. This latter system reduced the possibility of cheating, as neither principal had to trust the other not to turn too soon. Another system involved alternate shots being taken, beginning with the challenged firing first.\n", "Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank.\n", "Many accounts state that both men fired in near perfect unison. Some stated it sounded as if one shot had been fired. \"One witness said it looked as if the guns were spitting fire at the same time.\" Then, a number of shots followed, ranging between five and nine according to different testimonies. As reports tell of a total of five entry wounds in the two men, the minimum number of shots fired had to be five. The exchange occurred rapidly. Reid received a bullet to one leg. Reid fired two more rounds, one grazing Smith's left arm and the other striking his left thigh above the knee and exiting the other side. Chambering his Winchester, Smith sent a bullet into Reid's lower abdomen and groin. Reid fell face down upon the planking, severely wounded. It is not known if Smith remained standing or also had fallen.\n", "Investigations on the gunfight concluded that while it was Courtright who went for his pistol first, it was Short who ultimately outdrew and killed him. Courtright's inability to fire off a shot was due to a number of possible scenarios; one was that his pistol got caught on his watch chain for a second as he drew it, and another was that his pistol broke when one of Short's bullets struck it and his thumb.\n", "Both men faced each other sideways in the dueling position and hesitated briefly. Then Tutt reached for his pistol. Hickok drew his gun and steadied it on his opposite forearm. The two men fired a single shot each at essentially the same time, according to the reports. Tutt missed, but Hickok's bullet struck Tutt in the left side between the fifth and seventh ribs. Tutt called out, \"Boys, I'm killed,\" ran onto the porch of the local courthouse and back to the street, where he collapsed and died.\n", "Pointed. When presented with a target, the soldier keeps the rifle at his side and quickly fires a single shot or burst. He keeps both eyes open and uses his instinct and peripheral vision to line up the rifle with the target. Using this technique, a target at 15 meters or less may be engaged in less than one second.\n" ]

[ "This article deals with radiation damage due to the effects of ionizing radiation on physical objects. Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, including health effects of radiation in humans. \n", "Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as \"The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this\". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.\n", "Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.\n", "Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.\n", "Ionizing radiation has many practical uses in medicine, research and construction, but presents a health hazard if used improperly. Exposure to radiation causes damage to living tissue; high doses result in Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), with skin burns, hair loss, internal organ failure and death, while any dose may result in an increased chance of cancer and genetic damage; a particular form of cancer, thyroid cancer, often occurs when nuclear weapons and reactors are the radiation source because of the biological proclivities of the radioactive iodine fission product, iodine-131. However, calculating the exact risk and chance of cancer forming in cells caused by ionizing radiation is still not well understood and currently estimates are loosely determined by population based data from the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and from follow-up of reactor accidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster. The International Commission on Radiological Protection states that \"The Commission is aware of uncertainties and lack of precision of the models and parameter values\", \"Collective effective dose is not intended as a tool for epidemiological risk assessment, and it is inappropriate to use it in risk projections\" and \"in particular, the calculation of the number of cancer deaths based on collective effective doses from trivial individual doses should be avoided.\"\n", "Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive contamination and irradiate the body from within. The latter is known as committed dose.\n", "Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such as burns. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.\n" ]

[ "According to its encyclopedic definition, the term folk music (that derives from the German word \"folk\" or people in English) serves to designate the music spontaneously created and preserved by the people of a country, in contrast with the terms commercial and classical music, which are related to works generated by trained specialists.\n", "Folk music includes traditional folk music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that.\n", "Folk music is one of the major divisions of music, now often divided into traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. There are many styles of folk music, all of which can be classified into various traditions, generally based around some combination of ethnic, racial, religious, tribal, political or geographic boundaries.\n", "This is a list of folk music traditions, with styles, dances, instruments, and other related topics. The term \"folk music\" cannot be easily defined in a precise manner. It is used with widely varying definitions depending on the author, intended audience and context within a work. Similarly, the term \"traditions\" in this context does not connote any strictly-defined criteria. Music scholars, journalists, audiences, record industry individuals, politicians, nationalists, and demagogues may often have occasion to address which fields of folk music are distinct traditions based along racial, geographic, linguistic, religious, tribal, or ethnic lines, and all such peoples will likely use different criteria to decide what constitutes a \"folk music tradition\". This list uses the same general categories used by mainstream, primarily English-language, scholarly sources, as determined by relevant statements of fact and the internal structure of works.\n", "Folk music, in the original sense of the term as coined in the 18th century by Johann Gottfried Herder, is music produced by communal composition and possessing dignity, though by the late 19th century the concept of ‘folk’ had become a synonym for ‘nation’, usually identified as peasants and rural artisans, as in the Merrie England movement and the Irish and Scottish Gaelic Revivals of the 1880s. Folk music was normally shared and performed by the entire community (not by a special class of expert or professional performers, possibly excluding the idea of amateurs), and was transmitted by word of mouth (oral tradition).\n", "The English term \"folklore\", to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk-song collectors and revivalists. The distinction between \"authentic\" folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany – for example popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed \"folk\" in America. The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, \"...has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community. But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready-made and remains unchanged.\"\n", "The Folk music genre is classified as the music that is orally passed from one generation to another. Usually the artist is unknown, and there are several different versions of the same song. The genre is transmitted by singing, listening and dancing to popular songs. This type of communication allows culture to transmit the styles (pitches and cadences) as well as the context it was developed. \n" ]

[ "Some movements are aperiodic, others regular, as the Earth tides caused by the lunar and solar gravitational field. The pendulums measure a distance of 95 m between the upper and lower mountings, which contributes to the fact that the instruments detect tectonic movements with high precision and are relatively immune to some of the noise which affects smaller instruments.\n", "In popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n", "The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.\n", "Major earthquakes cause abrupt polar motion by altering the volume distribution of the Earth's solid mass. These shifts, however, are quite small in magnitude relative to the long-term core/mantle and isostatic rebound components of polar motion.\n", "Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.\n", "Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.\n", "The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.\n" ]

[ "In 2011, researchers estimated the energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic. According to a study published in 2018, nearly 4% of global CO emission could be attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure. The study also said that online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to over 300 million tons of CO emission per year.\n", "Google disclosed in September 2011 that it \"continuously uses enough electricity to power 200,000 homes\", almost 260 million watts or about a quarter of the output of a nuclear power plant. Total carbon emissions for 2010 were just under 1.5 million metric tons, mostly due to fossil fuels that provide electricity for the data centers. Google said that 25 percent of its energy was supplied by renewable fuels in 2010. An average search uses only 0.3 watt-hours of electricity, so all global searches are only 12.5 million watts or 5% of the total electricity consumption by Google.\n", "OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 3.32 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 13% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n", "OLADE (Latin American Energy Association) estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 1.57 million tons of CO, which corresponds to 25% of total emissions from the energy sector.\n", "OLADE (\"Organización Latinoamericana de Energía\") estimated that CO emissions from electricity production in 2003 were 13.82 million tons of CO, which represents 25% of total emissions for the energy sector. It is estimated that, by 2030, emissions from electricity generation will account for the largest share of emissions from the energy sector, 39% (some 74 million tons) of the total.\n", "For the most recent Global Carbon Budget released in December 2018, the GCP projects fossil CO emissions in 2018 to rise by 2.7% (range 1.8% to 3.7%) to a record 37.1 billion tonnes (Gt) CO, as policy and market forces are currently insufficient to overcome growth in fossil energy use. Atmospheric CO concentration is set to increase by 2.3 ppm [range 2.0 to 2.6 ppm] to reach 407 ppm on average in 2018, 45% above pre-industrial levels. Increases in global use of natural gas and oil are the primary causes of rising atmospheric CO concentrations today. Global coal use will likely increase in 2018 but still remain below its historical peak in 2013. Over the past decade, coal has been displaced by natural-gas-fired, wind, and solar power in some countries.\n", "In 2011, according to the International Energy Agency, the actual CO emissions from electricity generation were 67.32 million metric tons, a share of 36.7% of the countries' total CO emissions from fuel combustion.\n" ]

[ "Because the ground coffee beans in cold-brewed coffee never come into contact with heated water, the process of leaching flavor from the beans produces a chemical profile different from conventional brewing methods. Coffee beans contain a number of constituent parts that are more soluble at higher temperatures, such as caffeine, oils and fatty acids. Brewing at a lower temperature results in lower acidity and lower caffeine content when brewed in equal volume. It is around 65 to 70 percent less acidic than hot drip coffee or espresso, per part. Although less caffeine is extracted with the cold brew method, a higher coffee-to-water ratio is often used, between 2 and 2 1/2 times. This may compensate for this difference in solubility, resulting in a brew with equal, if not more, caffeine (although this is unlikely).\n", "Coffee contains flavor and aroma qualities that are created due to the Maillard reaction during roasting and can be preserved with freeze-drying. Compared to other drying methods like room temperature drying, hot-air drying, and solar drying, Robusta coffee beans that were freeze-dried contained higher amounts of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine. Also, few non-essential amino acids that significantly contributed to taste were preserved.\n", "The spray-dried instant coffee contains nearly no oil, just tiny particles (coffee solids), some molecules responsible for flavour and taste, and caffeine. When dissolved, spray-dried coffee forms a simpler and more stable colloid relative to traditionally brewed coffee. This enables creation of the characteristic thick frothy layer at the top of the coffee. This layer appears similar to crema, the foam found in espresso, but is much thicker and the composition is different. It can be characterised mainly as a three phase colloid where tiny bubbles are held together by the coffee solids.\n", "This process is mainly used when processing \"Coffea arabica\". After de-pulping, the beans are collected in fermentation tanks where bacterial removal of the mucilage takes place over 12 to 36 hours. The fermentation phase is important in the development of the flavour of the coffee, which is partially due to the microbiological processes that take place. The emergence of yeasts and moulds in acidic water can lead to off-flavors like \"sour coffee\" and \"onion-flavour\". However, wet processing is believed to yield higher quality coffee than the other processes since small amounts of off-flavors give the coffee its particular taste and \"body\".\n", "As the brew continually seeps through the grounds, the overall temperature of the liquid approaches boiling point, at which stage the \"perking\" action (the characteristic spurting sound the pot makes) stops, and the coffee is ready for drinking. In a manual percolator it is important to remove or reduce the heat at this point. Brewed coffee left on high heat for too long will acquire a bitter taste.\n", "Maragogipe coffee's flavor varies depending on the soil where it grows. Poor soils produce a coffee with diminished flavors. That is why it is often referred to as a coffee with \"not much flavor\", but the flavor can be enhanced by allowing these coffee beans to dry with its natural sugars.\n", "The fermentation process has to be carefully monitored to ensure that the coffee doesn't acquire undesirable, sour flavors. For most coffees, mucilage removal through fermentation takes between 24 and 36 hours, depending on the temperature, thickness of the mucilage layer, and concentration of the enzymes. The end of the fermentation is assessed by feel, as the parchment surrounding the beans loses its slimy texture and acquires a rougher \"pebbly\" feel. When the fermentation is complete, the coffee is thoroughly washed with clean water in tanks or in special washing machines.\n" ]

[ "Recent studies indicate that a natural cannabinoid of cannabis, cannabidiol (CBD), increases adult neurogenesis while having no effect on learning. THC however impaired learning and had no effect on neurogenesis. \n", "According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\n", "A 25-year longitudinal study of \"1000 Christchurch born young people between the ages of 15–25\" concluded that \"regular or heavy cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of using other illicit drugs, abusing or becoming dependent upon other illicit drugs, and using a wider variety of other illicit drugs\". The lead author of the study, David Fergusson, stated:\n", "Marijuana: The American Medical Association stated in \"Report 3 of the Council on Science and Public Health (I-09)\" that \"...Results of short term controlled trials indicate that smoked cannabis reduces neuropathic pain...\".\n", "When cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients. Another 2015 review found limited evidence that medical cannabis was effective for neuropathic pain when combined with traditional analgesics.\n", "BULLET::::- Substance Use studies, including showing that patients who use marijuana have lower odds of achieving abstinence from other drugs and alcohol, that recreational drug use on weekends often turns into more frequent use, and that benzodiazepines increase the risk of opioid overdose.\n", "It is possible that drug users may accidentally purchase a product without knowing that it has been laced with a more potent drug, but psychiatrist Dr Bill MacEwan believes that drug dealers in British Columbia are intentionally lacing cannabis with methamphetamine to make it more addictive. He had some psychiatric patients that claimed they only smoked pot but their drug tests were positive for methamphetamine use.\n" ]

[ "Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely. However, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods.\n", "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n", "A very common and well known freeze dried item was the potato or when it was frozen, Chuño. All food grown or killed by the Inca could be freeze dried. Freeze drying is still very popular today. One of the biggest benefits for freeze drying is that it takes out all of the water and moisture but leaves all of the nutritious value. The water in meats and vegetables is what gives them a lot of their weight. This is what made it very popular for transportation purposes and storage because dried meats lasted twice as long as non freeze dried foods.\n", "A 1997 study performed by the University of Illinois, 2007 study performed by University of California - Davis and a 2003 Austrian study support that canned or frozen produce has no substantial nutritional difference not attributable to the presence of added salt, syrup or other flavouring, and in fact suggest that canned or frozen produce is nutritionally superior because of the very rapid deterioration of nutrients in fresh produce. \n", "Globally, about 60% of fresh foods are transported in the cold chain helping restrict loss in value and extending reach to distant markets. In India, While almost 12% of fruits and vegetables have access to storage capacity, less than 5% of such goods continue transport in the cold-chain with most of the fresh produce being subject to harsh climatic conditions. This results in the gross loss of perishable food items. Similar lack of cold-chain in the pharmaceutical sector witnesses increased risk and loss of medical products. Lack of appropriate integrated infrastructure in this sector also increases risk to frozen foods shipments. Despite being a large food producer globally, this disallows the supply chain to support India's aspirations to better serve its domestic population and increase its share in global food trade. NCCD is intended to address all segments and the developmental aspects of cold-chain.\n", "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n" ]

[ "Comfort behaviours are performed from an early age and change little during development. Several comfort behaviours are associated with the beginning of a rest period (e.g. grooming), whereas others are associated with the end of a rest period (e.g. stretching), possibly to prepare the body for escape or hunting. Others, (e.g. dust bathing) will be performed only when the appropriate internal and external stimuli are present (see also sham dustbathing). Animals generally perform comfort behaviours only when they are not engaged in essential activities (e.g. feeding, drinking, hunting, escape); these behaviours are therefore sometimes categorised as \"luxury activities\". However, animals can be highly motivated to perform some comfort behaviours (e.g. dust bathing in hens), and conditions that thwart these behaviours (e.g. battery cages) are considered to have a negative influence on animal welfare.\n", "There are many adaptive and functional purposes for comfort behaviours among a diverse group of animals. One function of comfort behaviours is hygiene, particularly in the form of ectoparasite removal. The animal removes the ectoparasites through the scratching or brushing of their own bodies, or the grooming of others. Through licking and brushing, animals such as the red squirrel clean wounds and remove dirt and debris from their bodies, also aiding in hygiene. Other physical purposes for comfort behaviours includes reduction in heart rates as seen in horses, and thermoregulation.\n", "In contrast to service dogs who assist disabled people with physical tasks, comfort dogs are not trained in skilled tasks, but serve as constant companions with a keen sense for someone feeling down. They can provide a way for people who are distressed to find sanctuary.\n", "Pets provide their owners (or \"guardians\") both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. There is a medically approved class of therapy animals, mostly dogs or cats, that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive or emotional goals with patients.\n", "As companions, they love people and children and do make good pets. Their activity level is generally reflective of the pace of their environment. This breed should not be kept or live outside since they thrive on human contact.\n", "Animals roles in society have commonly been companionship and work and research has found animals can have an overall positive effect on health and improve mood and quality of life. The positive effect has been linked to the human-animal bond. In a variety of settings, such as prisons, nursing homes, and mental institutions, animals are used to assist people with different disabilities or disorders. In modern times animals are seen as \"agents of socialization\" and as providers of \"social support and relaxation\". The earliest reported use of AAT for the mentally ill took place in the late 18th century at the York Retreat in England, led by William Tuke. Patients at this facility were allowed to wander the grounds which contained a population of small domestic animals. These were believed to be effective tools for socialization. In 1860, the Bethlem Hospital in England followed the same trend and added animals to the ward, greatly influencing the morale of the patients living there. However, in other pieces of literature it states that AAT was used as early as 1792 at the Quaker Society of Friends York Retreat in England. Velde, Cipriani & Fisher also state \"Florence Nightingale appreciated the benefits of pets in the treatment of individuals with illness.\"\n", "Comfort (or being \"comfortable\") is a sense of physical or psychological ease, often characterized as a lack of hardship. Persons who are lacking in comfort are uncomfortable, or experiencing discomfort. A degree of psychological comfort can be achieved by recreating experiences that are associated with pleasant memories, such as engaging in familiar activities, maintaining the presence of familiar objects, and consumption of comfort foods. Comfort is a particular concern in health care, as providing comfort to the sick and injured is one goal of healthcare, and can facilitate recovery. Persons who are surrounded with things that provide psychological comfort may be described as being \"in their comfort zone\". Because of the personal nature of positive associations, psychological comfort is highly subjective.\n" ]

[ "GoPro and other brands offer action cameras which are rugged, small and can be easily attached to helmet, arm, bicycle, etc. Most have wide angle and fixed focus, and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound.\n", "Pro-Vision initially began as a manufacturer of cameras and recording systems that could be used in vehicles. Dashcams and backup cameras could be installed in commercial vehicles, school buses, and police cars to prevent accidents and limit liability. These devices continue to be manufactured by Pro-Vision. In recent years, their trademarked \"Bodycam\" has become one of their notable products. These devices can be clipped on to an officer's uniform (generally in the shoulder or chest area) where it can capture and record video of any incident with the public. The cameras have a 150-degree field of vision, are IP68 waterproof, and have night vision technology. The cameras shoot in 1296p HD at 30 frames per second.\n", "GoPro released their first product, the GoPro HERO 35mm, which began a successful franchise of wearable cameras. The cameras can be worn atop the head or around the wrist and are shock and waterproof. GoPro cameras are used by many athletes and extreme sports enthusiasts, a trend that became very apparent during the early 2010s.\n", "In comparison to photo or video cameras, these special cameras are very simple. However, it makes no sense to use them in an isolated manner. They are, as other sensors, only components of a bigger system (please cf. System integration).\n", "Simple point-and-shoot cameras rely almost exclusively on their built-in automation and machine intelligence for capturing images under a variety of situations and offer no manual control over their functions, a trait which makes them unsuitable for use by professionals, enthusiasts and proficient consumers (also known as \"prosumers\"). Bridge cameras provide some degree of manual control over the camera's shooting modes, and some even have hot shoes and the option to attach lens accessories such as filters and secondary converters. DSLRs typically provide the photographer with full control over all the important parameters of photography and have the option to attach additional accessories using the hot shoe. including hot shoe-mounted flash units, battery grips for additional power and hand positions, external light meters, and remote controls. DSLRs typically also have fully automatic shooting modes.\n", "There are several types of tripods. The least expensive, generally made of aluminum tubing and costing less than US$50, is used primarily for consumer still and video cameras; these generally come with an attached head and rubber feet. The head is very basic, and often not entirely suitable for smooth panning of a camcorder. A common feature, mostly designed for still cameras, allows the head to flip sideways 90 degrees to allow the camera to take pictures in portrait format rather than landscape. Often included is a small pin on the front of the mounting screw that is used to stabilize camcorders. This is not found on the more expensive photographic tripods.\n", "Video camera readers use small video cameras with the same CCD technology as in a CCD barcode reader except that instead of having a single row of sensors, a video camera has hundreds of rows of sensors arranged in a two dimensional array so that they can generate an image.\n" ]

[ "Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part-time \"adjunct\" teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.\n", "Fink's third book, 1998's \"Progressive Intellectuals and the Dilemmas of Democratic Commitment,\" drew attention in the field of history for its focus on the tension which arises when educated historians study relatively uneducated workers. Using biographies of some of the top labor historians and intellectuals in the field of labor studies, Fink illustrated the problems which can arise when historians try to learn from workers at the same time that they attempt to advise them.\n", "BULLET::::- Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.\n", "Low employability is found among teaching, humanities and some social sciences fields of study, like history, geography, linguistics, philosophy, sociology; or to a lesser degree among the exact sciences and natural sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology or geology, when these courses are oriented towards a teaching career instead of a more technical or scientific research career.\n", "The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n", "The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, \"The Race between Education and Technology\" (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.\n", "Local history research, like that of family history, is accessible to people without prior historical training or experience. This is because the very nature of local history is such that starting points are always available locally. An intelligent lay researcher can learn the necessary skills as they research. Archivists and societies can provide advice, encouragement, and information; formal courses of study are also widely available. Many local historians are non-specialists whose enthusiasm for history and have applied this to their area.\n" ]

[ "80% of pills in the world are packed with blister packaging, which is the most convenient type for several reasons. Blister packs have two main components, the “lid” and the “blister” (cavity). Lid is mainly manufactured with aluminum (Al) and paper. The Cavity consists of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET) or aluminum (Al). If users employ proper disposal methods, all these materials can be recycled and the harmful effects to the environment can be minimized. However, a problem arises with the improper disposal either by burning or disposing as normal household waste.\n", "Blister packs are a common form of packaging. They are safe and easy to use and the user can see the contents without opening the pack. Many pharmaceutical companies use a standard size of blister pack. This saves the cost of different tools and changing the production machinery between products. Sometimes the pack may be perforated so that individual tablets can be detached. This means that the expiry date and the drug's name must be printed on each part of the package. The blister pack itself must remain absolutely flat as it travels through the packaging processes, especially when it is inserted into a carton. Extra ribs are added to the blister pack to improve its stiffness.\n", "Each box, as supplied by the manufacturer, contains 3 blister packs of 28 tablets packaged in individual boxes. Each blister pack of 28 tablets contains 24 pink active pills containing drospirenone 3 mg, ethinylestradiol 20 mcg, and levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg and four light orange inactive pills containing of levomefolate calcium 0.451 mg.\n", "Blister packs are commonly used as unit-dose packaging for pharmaceutical tablets, capsules or lozenges. Blister packs can provide barrier protection for shelf life requirements, and a degree of tamper resistance. In the US, blister packs are mainly used for packing physician samples of drug products or for over-the-counter (OTC) products in the pharmacy. In other parts of the world, blister packs are the main packaging type since pharmacy dispensing and re-packaging are not common. A series of blister cavities is sometimes called a blister card or blister strip as well as blister pack. The difference between a strip pack and blister pack is that a strip pack does not have thermo-formed or cold formed cavities; the strip pack is formed around the tablet at a time when it is dropped to the sealing area between sealing moulds. In some parts of the world the pharmaceutical blister pack is known as a push-through pack (PTP), an accurate description of two key properties (i) the lidding foil is brittle, making it possible to press the product out while breaking the lidding foil and (ii) a semi-rigid formed cavity being sufficiently collapsible to be able to dispense the tablet or capsule by means of pressing it out with the thumb. Breaking the lidding foil with a fingernail for the appropriate tablet will make the pressing out easier.\n", "In general longer fibers pill less than short ones because there are fewer ends of fibers, and because it is harder for the longer fibers to work themselves out of the cloth. Fabrics with a large number of loose fibers have a higher tendency to pill. Also, knitted fabrics tend to pill more than woven fabrics, because of the greater distance between yarn crossings in knitted fabrics than in woven ones. For the same reason, a tightly knitted object will pill less than a loosely knitted one. When a fabric is made of a blend of fibers where one fibre is significantly stronger than the other, pills tend to form as the weaker fibre wears and breaks, and the stronger fibre holds the pills onto the cloth.\n", "Pills do not interfere with the functionality of the textile, unless a spot with a lot of pills turns into a hole in the fabric. This is because both pills and holes are caused by the fabric wearing—a pill is fibre that was in the cloth. After the pill forms the fabric is thinner there, increasing the likelihood that a hole will form.\n", "Blister packs are pre-formed plastic/paper/foil packaging used for formed solid drugs. The primary component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made from a thermoformed plastic. This usually has a backing of paperboard or a lidding seal of aluminum foil or plastic film. Blister packs are useful for protecting drugs against external factors, such as humidity and contamination for extended periods of time.\n" ]

[ "The South Summit of Mount Everest in the Himalayas is the second-highest peak on Earth, and is a subsidiary peak to the primary peak of Mount Everest. Although its elevation above sea level of is higher than the second-highest mountain on Earth, K2 (whose summit is above sea level), it is only considered a separate peak and not a separate mountain as its prominence is only 11 meters.\n", "The highest summit in the world is Everest with height of 8844.43 m above sea level (29,029 ft). The first official ascent was made by Tenzing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary. They reached the mountain's peak in 1953.\n", "Mount Everest was climbed the following year. On 26 May, three days before the successful attempt, Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans reached the South Summit before turning back due to malfunctioning oxygen apparatus. Their height of 8,760 m (28,750 ft) represented a new, short lived, altitude record, and can be seen as a summit record if this is taken to include minor tops as well as genuine mountains. Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay finally reached the 8,848 m (29,029 ft) true summit on 29 May 1953, marking the final chapter in the history of the mountaineering altitude record. While the exact height of Everest's summit is subject to minor variation due to the level of snow cover and the gradual upthrust of the Himalaya, significant changes to the world altitude record are now impossible.\n", "Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. Its summit was first achieved in 1953 after numerous failed attempts that began in 1921. The first person to finally set foot on its summit was New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary, who was accompanied by Tenzing Norgay of India. Both M. Magendran and N. Mohanadas were conferred Datukships by the Penang state government in 2010 for their Himalayan achievement. Both men were also conferred the Federal 'Datukships' title by the King of Malaysia in Jun 2011 \n", "However, the massif remained unclimbed until 1960. The Amne Machin mountains had been overflown by a few American pilots who overestimated the elevation to 30,000 feet (9,100 m). A 1930 article of the National Geographic estimated the peak elevation to 28,000 feet [8,500 m] according to the report of Joseph Rock, an American botanist and explorer who, despite death threats from the Golog Tibetans, had ventured to within 80 km of the mountain. For a while, the mountains were considered as a possible place for a peak higher than Mount Everest. While Rock only downgraded his estimate publicly in 1956 to \"not much more than 21,000 feet\", he did give a detailed description of the peaks: By 1980 Anyi Machen had been resurveyed at .\n", "The summit of Everest is the point at which earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the \"tallest mountains on earth\". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains above sea level.\n", "The height of Mount Everest was calculated to be exactly high, but was publicly declared to be in order to avoid the impression that an exact height of was nothing more than a rounded estimate. Waugh is therefore wittily credited with being \"\"the first person to put two feet on top of Mount Everest\"\".\n" ]

[ "Since changes in season can coincide with favorable changes in environment, the distinction between seasonal breeder and opportunistic can be muddled. In equatorial climes, the change in seasons is not always perceptible and thus, changes in day length not remarkable. Thus, the tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus) previously categorized as a seasonal breeder is now suspected to be an opportunistic breeder.\n", "All prairie dogs, including the Gunnison's prairie dog are diurnal. This means they exert the most activity in the early morning and late afternoon. During warm weather, the highest activity levels occur at about 9 a.m., and from 2 p.m. to about an hour before the sun sets. When the temperature starts to cool, they become more active during the day. When it snows or rains, the prairie dogs will stay underground.\n", "Dogs may exhibit severe anxiety during thunderstorms; between 15 and 30 percent may be affected. Research confirms high levels of cortisol - a hormone associated with stress - affects dogs during and after thunderstorms. Remedies include behavioral therapies such as counter conditioning and desensitization, anti-anxiety medications, and Dog Appeasing Pheromone, a synthetic analogue of a hormone secreted by nursing canine mothers.\n", "Apart from daily alternations in the environment, there are substantial seasonal variations that animals must adapt to across the year. Working with Drent, Daan showed that one strategy used to deal with seasonal changes is to adjust the number and even sex of offspring.\n", "Even after astrology and its influence on health and agriculture waned in importance, the \"dog days\" continues to be vaguely applied to the hottest days of the summer, with its attendant effects on nature and society. In North America, it became proverbial among farmers that a dry growing season through the dog days was preferable to the trouble of a wet one:\n", "Dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction may exhibit many symptoms associated with senile behavior and dementia. Dogs will often find themselves confused in familiar places of the home, spending long periods of time in one area of the home, not responding to calls or commands, and experiencing abnormal sleeping patterns. Although some of these symptoms may be attributed to old age itself, when they are exhibited together, there is a higher likelihood of CCD.\n", "Sun dogs were apparently well known during the Middle Ages, as they are mentioned in the \"Old Farmer's Almanac\" (\"Bondepraktikan\") which states that the phenomenon forecasts strong winds, and also rain if the sun dogs are more pale than red. According to the passage in the \"Vasa Chronicle\", however, both Petri and the master of the mint Anders Hansson were sincerely troubled by the appearance of these sun dogs. Petri interpreted the signs over Stockholm as a warning from God and had the \"Vädersolstavlan\" painting produced and hung in front of his congregation. Notwithstanding this devotion, he was far from certain on how to interpret these signs and in a sermon delivered in late summer 1535, he explained there are two kinds of omens: one produced by the Devil to allure mankind away from God, and another produced by God to attract mankind away from the Devil — one being hopelessly difficult to tell from the other. He therefore saw it as his duty to warn both his congregation, mostly composed of German burghers united by their conspiracy against the king, and the king himself.\n" ]

[ "A DDoS attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. A hit-and-run DDoS is accomplished by using high volume network or application attacks in short bursts. The attacks only last long enough to bring down the server hosting the service, normally 20 to 60 minutes. The attack is then repeated every 12 to 24 hours over a period of days or weeks, causing issues for the company hosting the service.\n", "A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Another way of understanding DDoS is seeing it as attacks in cloud computing environment that are growing due to the essential characteristics of cloud computing. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8% experienced one in 2010. DoS attacks often use bots (or a botnet) to carry out the attack.\n", "A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when numerous systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple systems (for example a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted.\n", "An application layer DDoS attack (sometimes referred to as layer 7 DDoS attack) is a form of DDoS attack where attackers target application-layer processes. The attack over-exercises specific functions or features of a website with the intention to disable those functions or features. This application-layer attack is different from an entire network attack, and is often used against financial institutions to distract IT and security personnel from security breaches. In 2013, application-layer DDoS attacks represented 20% of all DDoS attacks. According to research by Akamai Technologies, there have been \"51 percent more application layer attacks\" from Q4 2013 to Q4 2014 and \"16 percent more\" from Q3 2014 over Q4 2014. In November 2017; Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that whilst network-level attacks continue to be of high capacity, they are occurring less frequently. Ali further notes that although network-level attacks are becoming less frequent, data from Cloudflare demonstrates that application-layer attacks are still showing no sign of slowing down.\n", "DDoS attacks are executed against websites and networks of selected victims. A number of vendors are offering \"DDoS resistant\" hosting services, mostly based on techniques similar to content delivery networks. Distribution avoids single point of congestion and prevents the DDoS attack from concentrating on a single target.\n", "A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. Such an attack is often the result of multiple compromised systems (for example, a botnet) flooding the targeted system with traffic. A botnet is a network of zombie computers programmed to receive commands without the owners' knowledge. When a server is overloaded with connections, new connections can no longer be accepted. The major advantages to an attacker of using a distributed denial-of-service attack are that multiple machines can generate more attack traffic than one machine, multiple attack machines are harder to turn off than one attack machine, and that the behavior of each attack machine can be stealthier, making it harder to track and shut down. These attacker advantages cause challenges for defense mechanisms. For example, merely purchasing more incoming bandwidth than the current volume of the attack might not help, because the attacker might be able to simply add more attack machines. This, after all, will end up completely crashing a website for periods of time.\n", "In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability.\n" ]

[ "Given that over 80% of almost all of the fully sequenced bacterial genomes consist of intact ORFs, and that gene length is nearly constant at ~1 kb per gene, it is inferred that small genomes have few metabolic capabilities. While free-living bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", \"Salmonella\" species, or \"Bacillus\" species, usually have 1500 to 6000 proteins encoded in their DNA, obligately pathogenic bacteria often have as few as 500 to 1000 such proteins.\n", "There are more than 900 restriction enzymes, some sequence specific and some not, have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria since the initial discovery of \"Hind\"II. These restriction enzymes generally have names that reflect their origin—The first letter of the name comes from the genus and the second two letters come from the species of the prokaryotic cell from which they were isolated. For example, \"Eco\"RI comes from Escherichia coli RY13 bacteria, while HindII comes from Haemophilus influenzae strain Rd. Numbers following the nuclease names indicate the order in which the enzymes were isolated from single strains of bacteria: \"Eco\"RI, \"Eco\"RII.\n", "New genes may be introduced into bacteria by a bacteriophage that has replicated within a donor through generalized transduction or specialized transduction. The amount of DNA that can be transmitted in one event is constrained by the size of the phage capsid (although the upper limit is about 100 kilobases). While phages are numerous in the environment, the range of microorganisms that can be transduced depends on receptor recognition by the bacteriophage. Transduction does not require both donor and recipient cells to be present simultaneously in time nor space. Phage-encoded proteins both mediate the transfer of DNA into the recipient cytoplasm and assist integration of DNA into the chromosome.\n", "Recently, two strains of this bacteria - subsp. \"sepidonicum\" and subsp. \"michiganensis\" - have had their genomes sequenced and annotated. There is still much to discover about this pathogen-host interaction but now that the genome has been sequenced, the rate of discoveries will likely increase. One of the main goals pertaining to research of these bacterial genomes is to develop resistant varieties. Unfortunately, no resistant varieties have yet been found.\n", "Bacteria genomes usually encode a few hundred to a few thousand genes. The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria, these are much rarer than in eukaryotes.\n", "Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 10 to 1 in 10 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but will also slow protein synthesis. manifesting, in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of \"S. pyogenes\", or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.\n", "Obligatory parasites and symbionts have the smallest genome sizes due to prolonged effects of deletional bias. Parasites which have evolved to occupy specific niches are not exposed to much selective pressure. As such, genetic drift dominates the evolution of niche-specific bacteria. Extended exposure to deletional bias ensures the removal of most superfluous sequences. Symbionts occur in drastically lower numbers and undergo the most severe bottlenecks of any bacterial type. There is almost no opportunity for gene transfer for endosymbiotic bacteria, and thus genome compaction can be extreme. One of the smallest bacterial genomes ever to be sequenced is that of the endosymbiont \"Carsonella rudii\".\n" ]

[ "The ISR (standing for \"Intersecting Storage Rings\") was a particle accelerator at CERN. It was the world's first hadron collider, and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum center of mass energy of 62 GeV. From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the J/ψ and the upsilon, as well as observable jet structure; however, the particle detector experiments were not configured to observe events with large momentum transverse to the beamline, leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s. Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in accelerator physics, including the first use of stochastic cooling, and it held the record for luminosity at a hadron collider until surpassed by the Tevatron in 2004.\n", "In 1966, work began on the Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, and in 1971, this collider was operational. The ISR was a pair of storage rings that accumulated particles injected by the CERN Proton Synchrotron. This was the first hadron collider, as all of the earlier efforts had worked with electrons or with electrons and positrons.\n", "The Large Hadron Electron Collider (LHeC) is an accelerator study for a possible upgrade of the existing LHC storage ring - the currently highest energy proton accelerator operating at CERN in Geneva. By adding to the proton accelerator ring a new electron accelerator, the LHeC would enable the investigation of electron-proton and electron-ion collisions at unprecedented high energies and rate, much higher than had been possible at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY at Hamburg, which terminated its operation in 2007. The LHeC has therefore a unique program of research, as on the substructure of the proton and nuclei or the physics of the newly discovered Higgs boson.\n", "The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland, was designed specifically to be able to either confirm or exclude the existence of the Higgs boson. Built in a 27 km tunnel under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP, it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at energies of per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6 times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to (14 TeV total) in future. Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able to reveal it. As one of the most complicated scientific instruments ever built, its operational readiness was delayed for 14 months by a magnet quench event nine days after its inaugural tests, caused by a faulty electrical connection that damaged over 50 superconducting magnets and contaminated the vacuum system.\n", "The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC ) is the first and one of only two operating heavy-ion colliders, and the only spin-polarized proton collider ever built. Located at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in Upton, New York, and used by an international team of researchers, it is the only operating particle collider in the US. By using RHIC to collide ions traveling at relativistic speeds, physicists study the primordial form of matter that existed in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. By colliding spin-polarized protons, the spin structure of the proton is explored.\n", "The LHCb (Large Hadron Collider beauty) experiment is one of seven particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics experiment, designed primarily to measure the parameters of CP violation in the interactions of b-hadrons (heavy particles containing a bottom quark). Such studies can help to explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the Universe. The detector is also able to perform measurements of production cross sections, exotic hadron spectroscopy, charm physics and electroweak physics in the forward region. The LHCb collaboration, who built, operate and analyse data from the experiment, is composed of approximately 1260 people from 74 scientific institutes, representing 16 countries. As of 2017, the spokesperson for the collaboration is Giovanni Passaleva. The experiment is located at point 8 on the LHC tunnel close to Ferney-Voltaire, France just over the border from Geneva. The (small) MoEDAL experiment shares the same cavern.\n", "BULLET::::- CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which had its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the world's most energetic collider of protons. It also became the most energetic collider of heavy ions after it began colliding lead ions. Earlier facilities include the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which was stopped on 2 November 2000 and then dismantled to give way for LHC; and the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator for the LHC and for fixed-target experiments.\n" ]

[ "The term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n", "The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night can be easily observed. Were the sky (in the absence of moon and city lights) absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n", "It may be less obvious why the \"moon\" (\"tsuki\") is an autumn kigo, since it is visible year round. In autumn the days become shorter and the nights longer, yet they are still warm enough to stay outside, so one is more likely to notice the moon. Often, the night sky will be free of clouds in autumn, with the moon visible. The full moon can help farmers work after the sun goes down to harvest their crops (a \"harvest moon\").\n", "The Moon is directly illuminated by the Sun, and the cyclically varying viewing conditions cause the lunar phases. Sometimes the dark portion of the Moon is faintly visible due to earthshine, which is indirect sunlight reflected from the surface of Earth and onto the Moon.\n", "Full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish. It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.\n", "BULLET::::- The Moon - A real, faceless, silent moon which appears every night of the year in Natterjack Forest. The moon is not always seen in the sky, but its only role is to brighten up the darkness in the forest between Dusk and Dawn every day of the year.\n", "Earth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n" ]

[ "Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. Despite these heat driven transformations (which may increase the energy density compared to typical organic matter), the embedded energy is still photosynthetic in origin.\n", "Hydrocarbon liquids such as Crude oil found in oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the left-over of once-living creatures. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n", "The World's natural oil supply is fixed because petroleum is naturally formed far too slowly to be replaced at the rate at which it is being extracted. Over many millions of years, plankton, bacteria, and other plant and animal matter became buried in sediments on the ocean floor. When conditions were right – a lack of oxygen for decomposition, and sufficient depth and temperature of burial – these organic remains were converted into petroleum compounds, while the sediment accompanying them was converted into sandstone, siltstone, and other porous sedimentary rock. When capped by impermeable rocks such as shale, salt, or igneous intrusions, they formed the petroleum reservoirs which are exploited today.\n", "Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro-organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment. Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates.\n", "Some abiogenic hypotheses have proposed that oil and gas did not originate from fossil deposits, but have instead originated from deep carbon deposits, present since the formation of the Earth. Additionally, it has been suggested that hydrocarbons may have arrived on Earth from solid bodies such as comets and asteroids from the late formation of the Solar System, carrying hydrocarbons with them.\n", "It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely large quantities.\n", "Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n" ]

[ "Since the elasticity of skin decreases with age, many senior citizens have fingerprints that are difficult to capture. The ridges get thicker; the height between the top of the ridge and the bottom of the furrow gets narrow, so there is less prominence.\n", "The strong effects of age on DNA methylation levels have been known since the late 1960s. A vast literature describes sets of CpGs whose DNA methylation levels correlate with age, e.g. The first robust demonstration that DNA methylation levels in saliva could generate accurate age predictors was published by a UCLA team including Steve Horvath in 2011 (Bocklandt et al 2011). The labs of Trey Ideker and Kang Zhang at the University of California, San Diego published the Hannum epigenetic clock (Hannum 2013), which consisted of 71 markers that accurately estimate age based on blood methylation levels. \n", "At least 25 studies have demonstrated that DNA damage accumulates with age in the mammalian brain. This DNA damage includes the oxidized nucleoside 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), single- and double-strand breaks, DNA-protein crosslinks and malondialdehyde adducts (reviewed in Bernstein et al.). Increasing DNA damage with age has been reported in the brains of the mouse, rat, gerbil, rabbit, dog, and human. Young 4-day-old rats have about 3,000 single-strand breaks and 156 double-strand breaks per neuron, whereas in rats older than 2 years the level of damage increases to about 7,400 single-strand breaks and 600 double-strand breaks per neuron.\n", "Lu et al. studied the transcriptional profiles of the human frontal cortex of individuals ranging from 26 to 106 years of age. This led to the identification of a set of genes whose expression was altered after age 40. They further found that the promoter sequences of these particular genes accumulated oxidative DNA damage, including 8-OHdG, with age (see DNA damage theory of aging). They concluded that DNA damage may reduce the expression of selectively vulnerable genes involved in learning, memory and neuronal survival, initiating a pattern of brain aging that starts early in life.\n", "In a study that analyzed the complete DNA methylomes of CD4 T cells in a newborn, a 26 years old individual and a 103 years old individual was observed that the loss of methylation is proportional to age. Hypomethylated CpGs observed in the centenarian DNAs compared with the neonates covered all genomic compartments (promoters, intergenic, intronic and exonic regions). However, some genes become hypermethylated with age, including genes for the estrogen receptor, p16, and insulin-like growth factor 2.\n", "DNA methylation's age relation has been further investigated in the promoter regions of several Alzheimer's related genes in the brains of postmortem late-onset Alzheimer's disease patients. The older patients seem to have more abnormal epigenetic machinery than the younger patients, despite the fact that both had died from Alzheimer's. Though this in of itself is not conclusive evidence of anything, it has led to an age-related epigenetic drift theory where abnormalities in epigenetic machinery and exposure to certain environmental factors which occur earlier in life lead to aberrant DNA methylation patterns far later, contributing to sporadic Alzheimer's Disease predisposition.\n", "In 2011, the government led by Abhisit Vejjajiva proposed that the minimum age for identification card should be reduced from 15 to 7 years, in order to reduce the use of birth certificate and other evidences for children.\n" ]

[ "Search engine optimization (SEO), is the ongoing practice of optimizing a website to help improve its rankings in the search engines. Several internal and external factors are involved which can help improve a site's listing within the search engines. The higher a site ranks within the search engines for a particular keyword, the more traffic they will receive.\n", "As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, the computer programmed algorithms which dictate search engine behavior, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines, and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. SEO is performed because a website will receive more visitors from a search engine the higher the website ranks in the search engine results page (SERP). These visitors can then be converted into customers. \n", "Search engine optimization (SEO) is the practice of utilizing search engine best practices to improve the visibility of a website or a webpage by ranking higher in the search engine results (\"SERPS\") for keywords relevant to that particular website or webpage. There are several ways to improve a website or webpage's visibility:\n", "Search engine optimization, or SEO, attempts to improve a website's organic search rankings in SERPs by increasing the website content's relevance to search terms. Search engines regularly update their algorithms to penalize poor quality sites that try to game their rankings, making optimization a moving target for advertisers. Many vendors offer SEO services.\n", "BULLET::::- SEO. SEO, search engine optimization, strives to make a company's online content as visible as possible on Google, Bing and other search engines in organic results for search queries relevant to its products and services. Because Google withholds organic keyword data from webmasters, accurate conversion analysis has become more important than ever in the structuring of SEO campaign tracking, since it has far more meaning than ranking data.\n", "Search engine optimization (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as Google has been popular for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as Google Scholar. SEO for academic articles is also called \"academic search engine optimization\" (ASEO) and defined as \"the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it\". ASEO has been adopted by organizations such as Elsevier, OpenScience, Mendeley, and SAGE Publishing to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives.\n", "SEO refers to the improvement of \"unpaid\" results (known as \"natural\" or \"organic\" results), and excludes direct traffic/visitors and the purchase of paid placement. Primarily SEO pertains to search engine. \n" ]

[ "1 (one, also called unit, unity, and (multiplicative) identity) is a number, and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It represents a single entity, the unit of counting or measurement. For example, a line segment of \"unit length\" is a line segment of length 1. It is also the first of the infinite sequence of natural numbers, followed by 2.\n", "In the first example we start by adding the two 1s in the first column (the \"ones' column\"), giving 2. Then we add the two 3s in the second column (the \"2\"i\"s column\"), giving 6; 6 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 2 as the result in the second column) and carry −1 into the fourth column. Adding the 0s in the third column gives 0; and finally adding the two 1s and the carried −1 in the fourth column gives 1.\n", "In some texts, \"\"a\" is a submultiple of \"b\"\" has the meaning of \"\"b\" being an integer multiple of \"a\"\". This terminology is also used with units of measurement (for example by the BIPM and NIST), where a \"submultiple\" of a main unit is a unit, named by prefixing the main unit, defined as the quotient of the main unit by an integer, mostly a power of 10. For example, a millimetre is the 1000-fold submultiple of a metre. As another example, one inch may be considered as a 12-fold submultiple of a foot, or a 36-fold submultiple of a yard.\n", "For each integer \"i\", Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the cohomology of this complex at position \"i\". It is zero for \"i\" negative. For example, Ext(\"A\", \"B\") is the kernel of the map Hom(\"A\", \"I\") → Hom(\"A\", \"I\"), which is isomorphic to Hom(\"A\", \"B\").\n", "which means \"1.1030402 times 1 followed by 5 zeroes\". We have a certain numeric value (1.1030402) known as a \"significand\", multiplied by a power of 10 (E5, meaning 10 or 100,000), known as an \"exponent\". \n", "In mathematics, a zero, also sometimes called a root, of a real-, complex- or generally vector-valued function formula_1 is a member formula_2 of the domain of formula_1 such that formula_4 \"vanishes\" at formula_2; that is, formula_2 is a solution of the equation formula_7.\n", "If \"i\" represents previously acquired linguistic competence and extra-linguistic knowledge, the hypothesis claims that we move from \"i\" to \"i+1\" by understanding input that contains \"i+1\". Extra-linguistic knowledge includes our knowledge of the world and of the situation, that is, the context. The \"+1\" represents 'the next increment' of new knowledge or language structure that will be within the learner's capacity to acquire.\n" ]

[ "Since the 19th century, some physicists, notably Albert Einstein, have attempted to develop a single theoretical framework that can account for all the fundamental forces of nature – a unified field theory. Classical unified field theories are attempts to create a unified field theory based on classical physics. In particular, unification of gravitation and electromagnetism was actively pursued by several physicists and mathematicians in the years between the two World Wars. This work spurred the purely mathematical development of differential geometry.\n", "In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to be a simplified model at longer length scales. Effective field theories typically work best when there is a large separation between length scale of interest and the length scale of the underlying dynamics. Effective field theories have found use in particle physics, statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, general relativity, and hydrodynamics. They simplify calculations, and allow treatment of dissipation and radiation effects.\n", "Thus, an effective field theory is a theory which describes phenomena in solid-state physics, notably the BCS theory of superconduction, which treats vibrations of the solid-state lattice as a \"field\" (i.e. without claiming that there is \"really\" a field), with its own field quanta, called phonons. Such \"effective particles\" derived from effective fields are also known as quasiparticles.\n", "Due to its relation with the most intimate aspects of matter, field theory is the closest branch of theoretical physics to the frontiers of knowledge. Formalisms and other powerful mathematical methods have been developed, in order to solve its problems. The project consists on the application of such formalisms to other branches of physics and, eventually, to other sciences.\n", "The early attempts at creating a unified field theory began with the Riemannian geometry of general relativity, and attempted to incorporate electromagnetic fields into a more general geometry, since ordinary Riemannian geometry seemed incapable of expressing the properties of the electromagnetic field. Einstein was not alone in his attempts to unify electromagnetism and gravity; a large number of mathematicians and physicists, including Hermann Weyl, Arthur Eddington, and Theodor Kaluza also attempted to develop approaches that could unify these interactions. These scientists pursued several avenues of generalization, including extending the foundations of geometry and adding an extra spatial dimension.\n", "Classically, however, a duality of the fields is combined into a single physical field. For over a century, unified field theory remains an open line of research and the term was coined by Albert Einstein, who attempted to unify his general theory of relativity with electromagnetism. The \"Theory of Everything\" and Grand Unified Theory are closely related to unified field theory, but differ by not requiring the basis of nature to be fields, and often by attempting to explain physical constants of nature. Earlier attempts based on classical physics are described in the article on classical unified field theories.\n", "Presently, effective field theories are discussed in the context of the renormalization group (RG) where the process of \"integrating out\" short distance degrees of freedom is made systematic. Although this method is not sufficiently concrete to allow the actual construction of effective field theories, the gross understanding of their usefulness becomes clear through an RG analysis. This method also lends credence to the main technique of constructing effective field theories, through the analysis of symmetries. If there is a single mass scale M in the \"microscopic\" theory, then the effective field theory can be seen as an expansion in 1/M. The construction of an effective field theory accurate to some power of 1/M requires a new set of free parameters at each order of the expansion in 1/M. This technique is useful for scattering or other processes where the maximum momentum scale k satisfies the condition k/M≪1. Since effective field theories are not valid at small length scales, they need not be renormalizable. Indeed, the ever expanding number of parameters at each order in 1/M required for an effective field theory means that they are generally not renormalizable in the same sense as quantum electrodynamics which requires only the renormalization of two parameters.\n" ]

[ "Research has shown that as in women, the emotional centers of a man's brain also become deactivated during orgasm but to a lesser extent than in women. Brain scans of both sexes have shown that the pleasure centers of a man's brain show more intense activity than in women during orgasm.\n", "With regard to the ease or difficulty of achieving orgasm, Hite's research (while subject to methodological limitations) showed that most women need clitoral (exterior) stimulation for orgasm, which can be \"easy and strong, given the right stimulation\" and that the need for clitoral stimulation in addition to knowing one's own body is the reason that most women reach orgasm more easily by masturbation. Replicating Kinsey's findings, studies by scholars such as Peplau, Fingerhut and Beals (2004) and Diamond (2006) indicate that lesbians have orgasms more often and more easily in sexual interactions than heterosexual women do.\n", "During sexual intercourse, most women experience involuntary vaginal contractions. The contraction causes the pelvic muscles to tighten around the penis, which increases the level of her partner's arousal and sexual frenzy and results in the man increasing the pace and force of thrusts as he approaches orgasm, which in turn further increases the woman's vaginal contraction. After a man has achieved orgasm, he will normally collapse onto the woman and will normally not be capable of further thrusting. Some men try to control their orgasm until their female partner also orgasms, but this is not always achieved. At times, a woman can achieve orgasm after the man has ceased thrusting by contracting her vaginal muscles and with pelvic movements, or the couple may change to another position that enables the woman to continue thrusting until she has reached orgasm, such as a woman on top position.\n", "The female sexual response is more varied than that of men, and women are capable of attaining additional or multiple orgasms through further sexual stimulation. However, there are many women who experience clitoral hypersensitivity after orgasm, which can effectively create a refractory period. These women may be capable of further orgasms, but the pain involved in getting there makes the prospect undesirable.\n", "Regular difficulty reaching orgasm after ample sexual stimulation, known as anorgasmia, is significantly more common in women than in men (see below). In addition to sexual dysfunction being a cause for women's inability to reach orgasm, or the amount of time for sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm being variable and longer in women than in men, other factors include a lack of communication between sexual partners about what is needed for the woman to reach orgasm, feelings of sexual inadequacy in either partner, a focus on only penetration (vaginal or otherwise), and men generalizing women's trigger for orgasm based on their own sexual experiences with other women.\n", "In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The practice of pegging (consisting of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo) stimulates the prostate. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n", "Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n" ]

[ "\"Big Political Donors Give Far and Wide, Influence Out-of-State Races and Issues\" is an analysis of contributions by wealthy individuals in seven states shows that their giving is greater than any one cause or race reveals—with millions flowing into state, federal and even local campaigns, parties and committees far and wide.\n", "Many of the donors are also big-money donors to the Democratic Party. Others, including Haim Saban, Fred Eychaner, George Soros, Edith Wasserman, Louise Gund, Jack C. Bendheim, Kathryn Hall, and George M. Marcus also contributed between $25,000 up to $25 million to the William J. Clinton Foundation.\n", "An intense public debate in the United States took place during the congressional review period. \"Some of the wealthiest and most powerful donors in American politics, those for and against the accord\", became involved in the public debate, although \"mega-donors\" opposing the agreement contributed substantially more money than those supporting it. From 2010 to early August 2015 the foundations of Sheldon Adelson, Paul Singer, and Haim Saban contributed a total of $13 million (at least $7.5 million, at least $2.6 million, and at least $2.9 million, respectively) to advocacy groups opposing an agreement with Iran. On the other side, three groups lobbying in support of the agreement received at least $803,000 from the Ploughshares Fund, at least $425,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and at least $68,500 from George Soros and his foundation. Other philanthropists and donors supporting an agreement include S. Daniel Abraham, Tim Gill, Norman Lear, Margery Tabankin, and Arnold Hiatt.\n", "A 2016 experimental study in the \"American Journal of Political Science\" found that politicians made themselves more available for meetings with individuals when they believed that the individuals had donated to their campaign. A 2011 study found that \"even after controlling for past contracts and other factors, companies that contributed more money to federal candidates subsequently received more contracts.\" A 2016 study in the \"Journal of Politics\" found that industries overseen by committees decreased their contributions to congresspeople who recently departed from the committees and that they immediately increase their contributions to new members of the committees, which is \"evidence that corporations and business PACs use donations to acquire immediate access and favor—suggesting they at least anticipate that the donations will influence policy.\" Research by University of Chicago political scientist Anthony Fowler and Northwestern University political scientists Haritz Garro and Jörg L. Spenkuch found no evidence that corporations that donated to a candidate received any monetary benefits from the candidate winning election.\n", "In the 2012 election campaign, most of the money given to super PACs came from wealthy individuals, not corporations. According to data from the Center for Responsive Politics, the top 100 individual super PAC donors in 2011–2012 made up just 3.7% of contributors, but accounted for more than 80% of the total money raised, while less than 0.5% of the money given to \"the most active Super PACs\" was donated by publicly traded corporations. \n", "According to McMaster University political scientist Henry Jacek, political contributions tend to come from the wealthy, and not the poor. It is also clear from other jurisdictions in the world that political donors typically are people that have more disposable income.\n", "The Hillary Victory Fund let the Clinton 2016 presidential campaign ask big donors for over $350,000 apiece per calendar year, or $700,000 from married couples. American presidential campaigns have a history of working to reach the legal maximum donations from single donors. In 2008, Barack Obama's presidential campaign sought $30,000 in donations from big donors, which was the legal limit for donations to the campaign and related fundraising committees. In 2014, the Supreme Court case McCutcheon v. FEC built on the Citizens United decision by ruling that limitations to an individual's total political donations were unconstitutional. These unregulated contributions to political party committees is known as \"soft money\", and had led to corruption cases in both parties from malfeasance in the 1980s and 90s before Congress barred its use in 2002. The 2014 Congressional omnibus budget bill also raised political party donation limits.\n" ]

[ "Tupperware developed a direct marketing strategy to sell products known as the Tupperware party. The Tupperware party allowed women of the 1950s to work and enjoy the benefits of earning an income without completely taking away the independence granted to women during the Second World War, when women first began entering the labor market, all the while keeping their focus in the domestic domain. The \"party plan\" model builds on characteristics generally developed by being a housewife (e.g., party planning, hosting a party, sociable relations with friends and neighbors) and created an alternative choice for women who either needed or wanted to work. \n", "Tupperware is still sold mostly through a party plan, with rewards for hosts and hostesses. A Tupperware party is run by a Tupperware \"consultant\" for a host or hostess who invites friends and neighbors into his or her home to see the product line. Tupperware hosts and hostesses are rewarded with free products based on the level of sales made at their party. Parties also take place in workplaces, schools, and other community groups.\n", "Feminist views vary regarding the Tupperware format of sales through parties, and the social and economic role of women portrayed by the Tupperware model. Opposing views state that the intended gendered product and selling campaign further domesticates women, and keeps their predominant focus on homemaking. The positive feminist views consider that Tupperware provided work for women who were pregnant or otherwise not guaranteed their position at work due to the unequal gender laws in the workplace. The company promoted the betterment of women and the endless opportunities Tupperware offered to women; whereas, the negative view includes the restriction of women to the domestic sphere and limiting the real separation between running the household and a career. The emergence of Tupperware in the American market created a new kind of opportunity to an entirely underrepresented labor demographic; women, and especially suburban housewives.\n", "Tupperware spread to Europe in 1960 when Mila Pond hosted a Tupperware party in Weybridge, England and subsequently around the world. At the time, a strict dress code was required for Tupperware ladies, with skirts and stockings (tights) worn at all times, and white gloves often accompanying the outfit. A technique called \"carrot calling\" helped promote the parties: representatives would travel door to door in a neighborhood and ask housewives to \"run an experiment\" in which carrots would be placed in a Tupperware container and compared with \"anything that you would ordinarily leave them in\"; it would often result in the scheduling of a Tupperware party.\n", "In recent years, Tupperware in North America has moved to a new business model which includes more emphasis on direct marketing channels and eliminated its dependency on authorized distributorships. This transition included selling through Target stores in the U.S., and Superstores in Canada, with disappointing results. Tupperware states this hurt direct sales. In countries with a strong focus on marketing through parties (such as Germany, Australia, and New Zealand), Tupperware's market share and profitability continue to decline.\n", "In most countries, Tupperware's sales force is organized in a tiered structure with consultants at the bottom, managers and star managers over them, and next various levels of directors, with Legacy Executive Directors at the top level. In recent years, Tupperware has done away with distributorships in the United States.\n", "In order for the company to stay in touch with its sales force, early on Tupperware published the monthly magazine \"Tupperware Sparks\". The magazine was full of snapshots of sales women across the country posing with awards and recognitions for high sales. In order to avoid spending money on advertising, Tupperware created events that attracted free publicity.\n" ]

[ "A second proposed explanation is that the visual system processes moving objects more quickly than flashed objects. This latency-difference hypothesis asserts that by the time the flashed object is processed, the moving object has already moved to a new position. The latency-difference proposal tacitly rests on the assumption that awareness (what the subject reports) is an on-line phenomenon, coming about as soon as a stimulus reaches its \"perceptual end-point\".\n", "The same effect occurs if the object is viewed at 59 flashes per second, except that each flash illuminates it a little later in its rotational cycle and so, the object will seem to be rotating forwards.\n", "It cannot move to where it is not, because no time elapses for it to move there; it cannot move to where it is, because it is already there. In other words, at every instant of time there is no motion occurring. If everything is motionless at every instant, and time is entirely composed of instants, then motion is impossible.\n", "A proposed explanation for this effect is that the visual system is predictive, accounting for neural delays by extrapolating the trajectory of a moving stimulus into the future. In other words, when light from a moving object hits the retina, a certain amount of time is required before the object is perceived. In that time, the object has moved to a new location in the world. The motion extrapolation hypothesis asserts that the visual system will take care of such delays by extrapolating the position of moving objects forward in time. As such it is related to the flash lag illusion.\n", "The first proposed explanation, called the 'motion extrapolation' hypothesis, is that the visual system extrapolates the position of moving objects but not flashing objects when accounting for neural delays (i.e., the lag time between the retinal image and the observer's perception of the flashing object). The second proposed explanation by David Eagleman and Sejnowski, called the 'latency difference' hypothesis, is that the visual system processes moving objects at a faster rate than flashed objects. In the attempt to disprove the first hypothesis, David Eagleman conducted an experiment in which the moving ring suddenly reverses direction to spin in the other way as the flashed object briefly appears. If the first hypothesis were correct, we would expect that, immediately following reversal, the moving object would be observed as lagging behind the flashed object. However, the experiment revealed the opposite — immediately following reversal, the flashed object was observed as lagging behind the moving object. This experimental result supports of the 'latency difference' hypothesis. A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by approaching perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time.\n", "Since the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.\n", "Motion aftereffect occurs when one views moving stimuli for an extended period of time and then focus on a stationary object. The object will appear to move in the opposite direction of the moving stimuli.\n" ]

[ "The following is a list of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The story has been adapted in numerous forms, including films, television series, manga and video games.\n", "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is a 14th-century historical novel which romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Written by Luo Guanzhong more than 1,000 years after the Three Kingdoms period, the novel incorporates many popular folklore and opera scripts into the character of Liu Bei, portraying him as a compassionate and righteous leader, endowed with charismatic potency (called \"de\" 德 in Chinese) who builds his state on the basis of Confucian values. This is in line with the historical background of the times during which the novel was written. Furthermore, the novel emphasises that Liu Bei was related, however distantly, to the imperial family of the Han dynasty, thus favouring another argument for the legitimacy of Liu Bei's reign. In the novel, he wields a pair of double edged swords called \"shuang gu jian\" (雙股劍).\n", "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong, a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during the Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as \"Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi\" (三國志通俗演義/三国志通俗演义) in an edition which bore a perhaps spurious preface date 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts.\n", "Romance of the Three Kingdoms () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 169 AD and ending with the reunification of the land in 280.\n", "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia, and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature. It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China.\n", "\"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" has been translated into English by numerous scholars. The first known translation was performed in 1907 by John G. Steele and consisted of a single chapter excerpt that was distributed in China to students learning English at Presbyterian missionary schools. Z. Q. Parker published a 1925 translation containing four episodes from the novel including the events of the Battle of Red Cliffs, while Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published excerpts in 1981, including chapters 43–50. A complete and faithful translation of the novel was published in two volumes in 1925 by Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor, a long time official of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service. The translation was well written, but lacked any supplementary materials such as maps or character lists that would aid Western readers; a 1959 reprint was published that included maps and an introduction by Roy Andrew Miller to assist foreign readers.\n", "One of the greatest achievements of \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" is the extreme complexity of its stories and characters. The novel contains numerous subplots. The following consists of a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel.\n" ]

[ "This may be done for medically necessary reasons, such as to change the form of the medication from a solid pill to a liquid, to avoid a non-essential ingredient that the patient is allergic to, or to obtain the exact dose(s) needed or deemed best of particular active pharmaceutical ingredient(s). It may also be done for more optional reasons, such as adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. \n", "As with solid formulations, liquid formulations combine the drug product with a variety of compounds to ensure a stable active medication following storage. These include solubilizers, stabilizers, buffers, tonicity modifiers, bulking agents, viscosity enhancers/reducers, surfactants, chelating agents, and adjuvants.\n", "A wide variety of drugs are injected. Among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs—including tablets, capsules, and even liquids and suppositories—are also occasionally injected. This applies particularly to prescription opioids, since some opioid addicts already inject heroin. Injecting preparations which were not intended for this purpose is particularly dangerous because of the presence of excipients (fillers), which can cause blood clots. Injecting codeine into the bloodstream directly is dangerous because it causes a rapid histamine release, which can lead to potentially fatal anaphylaxis and pulmonary edema. Dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, nicocodeine, and other codeine-based products carry similar risks. Codeine may instead be injected by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route. The effect will not be instant, but the dangerous and unpleasant massive histamine release from the intravenous injection of codeine is avoided. To minimize the amount of undissolved material in fluids prepared for injection, a filter of cotton or synthetic fiber is typically used, such as a cotton-swab tip or a small piece of cigarette filter.\n", "In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a “formula”). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.\n", "By preventing the drug from dissolving into the stomach, enteric coating may protect gastric mucosa from the irritating effects of the medication itself. When the drug reaches the neutral or alkaline environment of the intestine, its active ingredients can then dissolve and become available for absorption into the bloodstream. Drugs that have an irritant effect on the stomach, such as aspirin or potassium chloride, can be coated with a substance that will dissolve only in the small intestine. However, it has been shown that enteric coated aspirin may lead to incomplete inhibition of platelets. Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such types of drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus.\n", "An elixir is a clear, sweet-flavored liquid used for medical purposes, to be taken orally and intended to cure one's illness. When used as a pharmaceutical preparation, an elixir contains at least one active ingredient designed to be taken orally.\n", "The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research (2018) found an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery (a biopharmaceutical) into the blood stream.\n" ]

[ "On the other hand, liquids have little compressibility. Water, for example, will compress by only 46.4 parts per million for every unit increase in atmospheric pressure (bar). At around 4000 bar (400 megapascals or 58,000 psi) of pressure at room temperature water experiences only an 11% decrease in volume. Incompressibility makes liquids suitable for transmitting hydraulic power, because a change in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted undiminished to every other part of the liquid and very little energy is lost in the form of compression.\n", "When pressure is applied on an incompressible fluid the velocity of the fluid will change. The fluid accelerates or deccelerates depending on the relative direction of pressure with respect to the flow direction. This is because applying pressure on the fluid has caused momentum diffusion in that direction. Understanding the exact nature of diffusion is a key aspect towards understanding momentum diffusion due to pressure.\n", "The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low pressure in front of it (outside the faucet), due to Bernoulli's Principle there is an increase in velocity of the fluid flow.\n", "In contrast to other gas components, water content in air, or humidity, to a higher degree depends on vaporization and condensation from or into water, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure to a gas saturated with water, all components will initially decrease in volume approximately according to the ideal gas law. However, some of the water will condense until returning to almost the same humidity as before, giving the resulting total volume deviating from what the ideal gas law predicted. Conversely, decreasing temperature would also make some water condense, again making the final volume deviating from predicted by the ideal gas law.\n", "When water vapor pressure is increased, the oxide growth rate is increased. According to the model of Deal and Grove[4], the growth rate of the oxide layer is directly related to the effective diffusion coefficient of the water molecules into the oxide layer and the equilibrium concentration in the immediate area. When a carrier gas is used to deliver water vapor, the carrier gas molecules generate a partial pressure. This partial pressure lowers the partial pressure of water vapor and slows the diffusion of water into the oxide film. The result is lower driving force and slower growth rate.\n", "For liquids, and for supercritical fluids under high pressure, formula_8 increases as pressure increases. This is due to molecules being forced together, so that the volume can barely decrease due to higher pressure. Under such conditions, the Joule–Thomson coefficient is negative, as seen in the figure above.\n", "Due to internal attractive forces of a liquid, air bubbles within the liquids are compressed. The resulting pressure (bubble pressure) rises at a decreasing bubble radius. The bubble pressure method makes use of this bubble pressure which is higher than in the surrounding environment (water). A gas stream is pumped into a capillary that is immersed in a fluid. The resulting bubble at the end of the capillary tip continually becomes bigger in surface; thereby, the bubble radius is decreasing.\n" ]

[ "Vegetable oil is a liquid derived from plants. These are triglyceride-based, and includes cooking oils like sunflower oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils for industrial purposes, including as biofuels. \n", "Vegetable fats and oils are what are most commonly called vegetable oils. These are triglyceride-based, and include cooking oils like canola oil, solid oils like cocoa butter, oils used in paint like linseed oil and oils used for industrial purposes. Pressed vegetable oils are extracted from the plant containing the oil (usually the seed), using one of two types of oil press. The most common is the \"screw press\", which consists of a large-diameter metal screw inside a metal housing. Oil seeds are fed into the housing, where the screws mash the seeds, and create pressure which forces the oil out through small holes in the side of the press. The remaining solids, called \"seed cake\", are either discarded or used for other purposes. Oil presses can be either manual or powered. The second type of oil press is the \"ram press\", where a piston is driven into a cylinder, crushing the seeds and forcing out the oil. Ram presses are generally more efficient than screw presses.\n", "Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.\n", "Vegetable oils are produced by plants with the highest concentration being present in seeds and fruits. About 95% of each vegetable oil is primarily composed of triglycerides. Coconut oil and palm oil contain mainly saturated fatty acids, while other oils largely contain unsaturated fatty acids, for example oleic acid and linoleic acid. Accompanying substances in vegetable oils are, inter alia, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, squalene, carotenoids, vitamen E, polyphenols and triterpene alcohols. To avoid rancidity, preservatives or antiocidants are added to baby oils based on vegetable oils. On cosmetic products, these oils are listed according to the International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI), e.g.:\n", "Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are fats extracted from seeds, or less often, from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are \"mixtures\" of triglycerides. Soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are example of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable \"oil\" may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible; non-edible oils derived mainly from petroleum are termed mineral oils.\n", "Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care./onlyinclude\n", "Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops canola, corn, cotton and soybeans. Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, shortening and margarine and is used in prepared foods. There is a vanishingly small amount of protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) offer an alternative to conventional fats and oils. The length of a fatty acid influences its fat absorption during the digestive process. Fatty acids in the middle position on the glycerol molecules appear to be absorbed more easily and influence metabolism more than fatty acids on the end positions. Unlike ordinary fats, MCTs are metabolized like carbohydrates. They have exceptional oxidative stability, and prevent foods from turning rancid readily.\n" ]

[ "Color television as introduced in North America in 1954 is best described as being 'colored' television. The system used the existing black and white signal but with the addition of a component intended only for television receivers designed to show color. By careful application this 'colored' signal was ignored by ordinary TV sets and had negligible effect on the appearance of the black and white image. This meant that color programs were viewable on the many existing black and white receivers which fulfilled a requirement for 'compatibility' desired by the television industry. Once the so called 'composite' video signal containing the color component had been generated it could be handled just as if it were a black and white signal, eliminating the need to replace much of the existing TV infrastructure. Colorplexer was the RCA name for the equipment that created this 'composite' color signal from three separate images each created in the primary colors, Red, Green and Blue supplied by a color video camera. This process was by the standards of the day quite complex and demanded accurate control of all the various parameters involved if an acceptable color image was to be achieved. The simplification afforded by this 'head end' approach became evident and contributed to the gradual acceptance of color programming over the following decades.\n", "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used.\n", "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was not until the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. (This is conceptually similar to a DLP based projection display where a single DLP device is used for all three color channels.)\n", "While early color television experiments were kept in the component domain of RGB, most color television broadcasting and post production was compromised in the 1960s and 1970s to simplify infrastructure and transmission by combining the color and luminance (composite). However, once the color and luminance information was combined, it could never truly be uncombined as cleanly as originated.\n", "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n", "Color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the US Federal Communications Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n", "Color television had been studied, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals (RGB), broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a colored filter (or \"gel\") that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black and white television tube. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black and white sets. Another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of these problems, the United States Federal Communication Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950.\n" ]

[ "A touch-sensitive lamp is one that is activated by human touch rather than a flip, pushbutton, or other mechanical switch. These lamps are popular as desk and nightstand lamps. They act on the principle of body capacitance. Touch-sensitive lamp switches may be dimmable, allowing the brightness of the lamp to be adjusted by multiple touches. Most stop at level 3, which is for the brightest use.\n", "TouchLight is an imaging touch screen and 3D display for gesture-based interaction. It was developed by Microsoft Research employee Andrew D. Wilson and made known to the public in late 2005. The technology was licensed to Eon Reality in July 2006. \n", "Light.Touch.Matters is a cooperation between product designers, material scientists and the industry. Light.Touch.Matters is to create smart materials that can sense touch and movement and respond with light. The base technologies for the Light.Touch.Matters. project are piezo plastics and flexible OLEDs. The consortium consist of 17 partners from 9 EU countries.\n", "Optical touch technology functions when a finger or an object touches the surface, causing the light to scatter, the reflection is caught with sensors or cameras that send the data to software which dictates response to the touch, depending on the type of reflection measured.\n", "A light pen is a computer input device used in conjunction with a computer's CRT display. It is used to select a displayed menu item. A light pen can also allow users draw on the screen with great positional accuracy. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU. The first light pen was created around 1952 as part of the Whirlwind project at MIT. Because the user was required to hold his/her arm in front of the screen for long periods of time, the light pen fell out of use as a general purpose input device.\n", "Shader lamps is a computer graphic technique used to change the appearance of physical objects. The still or moving objects are illuminated, using one or more video projectors, by static or animated texture or video stream. The method was invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch, Kok-lim Low and Deepak Bandyopadhyay in 1999 as a follow on to Spatial Augmented Reality also invented at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1998 by Ramesh Raskar, Greg Welch and Henry Fuchs.\n", "An electric eye is a photodetector used for detecting obstruction of a light beam. An example is the door safety system used on garage door openers that use a light transmitter and receiver at the bottom of the door to prevent closing if there is any obstruction in the way that breaks the light beam. The device does not provide an image; only presence of light is detectable. Visible light may be used, but infrared radiation conceals the operation of the device and typically is used in modern systems. Originally, systems used lamps powered by direct current or the power line alternating current frequency, but modern photodetector systems use an infrared light-emitting diode modulated at a few kilohertz, which allows the detector to reject stray light and improves the range, sensitivity and security of the device.\n" ]

[ "Input of water is regulated mainly through ingested fluids, which, in turn, depends on thirst. An insufficiency of water results in an increased osmolarity in the extracellular fluid. This is sensed by osmoreceptors in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, which trigger thirst. Thirst can to some degree be voluntarily resisted, as during fluid restriction.\n", "Thirst is the craving for potable fluids, resulting in the basic instinct of animals to drink. It is an essential mechanism involved in fluid balance. It arises from a lack of fluids or an increase in the concentration of certain osmolites, such as salt. If the water volume of the body falls below a certain threshold or the osmolite concentration becomes too high, the brain signals thirst.\n", "Urinary water loss, when the body water homeostat is intact, is a \"compensatory\" water loss, \"correcting\" any water excess in the body. However, since the kidneys cannot generate water, the thirst reflex is the all-important second effector mechanism of the body water homeostat, \"correcting\" any water deficit in the body.\n", "Compared to dehydration, hyponatremia is a relatively recently recognized danger, and there are different opinions about how much water to drink at each water stop. Some texts say that thirst is not a reliable indicator of the need in water, while other say that obligatory drinking at every opportunity without real need increases the danger of hyponatremia. \"If you hear sloshing in your stomach... you can by-pass that water stop\". (Jeff Galloway)\n", "According to Kellogg, water provides remedial properties partly because of vital resistance and partly because of its physical properties. For Kellogg, the medical uses of water begin with its function as a refrigerant, a way to lower body heat by way of dissipating its production as well as by conduction. \"There is not a drug in the whole materia medica that will diminish the temperature of the body so readily and so efficiently as water.\" Water can also serve as a sedative. While other substances serve as sedatives by exerting their poisonous influences on the heart and nerves, water is a gentler and more efficient sedative without any of the negative side-effects seen in these other substances. Kellogg states that a cold bath can often reduce one's pulse by 20 to 40 beats per minute quickly, in a matter of a few minutes. Additionally, water can function as a tonic, increasing both the speed of circulation and the overall temperature of the body. A hot bath accelerates one's pulse from 70 to 150 beats per minute in 15 minutes. Water is also useful as an anodyne since it can lower nervous sensibility and reduce pain when applied in the form of hot fomentation. Kellogg argues that this procedure will often give one relief where every other drug has failed to do so. He also believed that no other treatment could function as well as an antispasmodic, reducing infantile convulsions and cramps, as water. Water can be an effective astringent as, when applied cold, it can arrest hemorrhages. Moreover, it can be very effective in producing bowel movements. Whereas purgatives would introduce \"violent and unpleasant symptoms\", water would not. Although it would not have much competition as an emetic at the time, Kellogg believed no other substance could induce vomiting as well as water did. Returning to one of Kellogg's most admired qualities of water, it can function as a \"most perfect eliminative\". Water can dissolve waste and foreign matter from the blood. These many uses of water led Kellogg to belief that \"the aim of the faithful physician should be to accomplish for his patient the greatest amount of good at the least expence of vitality; and it is an indisputable fact that in a large number of cases water is just the agent with which this desirable end can be obtained.\"\n", "Water intoxication, also known as water poisoning, hyperhydration, overhydration, or water toxemia is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside safe limits by excessive water intake. \n", "In a published statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, researchers concluded that drinking in accordance with the sensation of thirst is sufficient for preventing both dehydration and hyponatremia. This advice is contradicted by the American College of Sports Medicine, which has previously recommended athletes drink \"as much as tolerable. In October of 2015, ACSM President W. Larry Kenney stated that “[T]he clear and important health message should be that thirst alone is not the best indicator of dehydration or the body’s fluid needs.”\n" ]

[ "Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. \n", "The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures, it is achieved in less time and at lower temperatures, in more time. The heat sensitivity of micro-organisms varies, at , Giardia species (causes Giardiasis) can take ten minutes for complete inactivation, most intestine affecting microbes and \"E. coli\" (gastroenteritis) take less than a minute; at boiling point, \"Vibrio cholerae\" (cholera) takes ten seconds and hepatitis A virus (causes the symptom of jaundice), one minute. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms; the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at but are not water-borne or intestine affecting. Thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required.\n", "Temperature plays a key role in the ecology, physiology and metabolism of aquatic species. The rate of PCB metabolism was temperature dependent in yellow perch (\"Perca flavescens\"). In fall and winter, only 11 out of 72 introduced PCB congeners were excreted and had halflives of more than 1,000 days. During spring and summer when the average daily water temperature was above 20 °C, persistent PCBs had halflives of 67 days. The main excretion processes were fecal egestion, growth dilution and loss across respiratory surfaces. The excretion rate of PCBs matched with the perch's natural bioenergetics, where most of their consumption, respiration and growth rates occur during the late spring and summer. Since the perch is performing more functions in the warmer months, it naturally has a faster metabolism and has less PCB accumulation. However, multiple cold-water periods mixed with toxic PCBs with coplanar chlorine molecules can be detrimental to perch health.\n", "Any living organism relies on an external source of energy – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals – to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (CHO) and stearin (CHO) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria\n", "Thermus aquaticus is a species of bacteria that can tolerate high temperatures, one of several thermophilic bacteria that belong to the Deinococcus–Thermus group. It is the source of the heat-resistant enzyme \"Taq\" DNA polymerase, one of the most important enzymes in molecular biology because of its use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) DNA amplification technique.\n", "\"A. russatus\" is also very good at conserving the little water it gets from its diet of insects and plants. It does this by producing extremely concentrated urine with urea content up to 4800 mM and chloride concentration up to 1500 mM. This means that it could survive drinking sea water, which is very rare in mammals.\n", "Other research is being done on the effects of protein, pH, temperature, sodium chloride (NaCl), and sucrose on \"P. multocida\" development and survival in water. The research seems to show the bacteria survive better in 18 °C water compared to 2 °C water. The addition of 0.5% NaCl also aided bacterial survival, while the sucrose and pH levels had minor effects, as well. Research has also been done on the response of \"P. multocida\" to the host environment. These tests use DNA microarrays and proteomics techniques. \"P. multocida\"-directed mutants have been tested for their ability to produce disease. Findings seem to indicate the bacteria occupy host niches that force them to change their gene expression for energy metabolism, uptake of iron, amino acids, and other nutrients. \"In vitro\" experiments show the responses of the bacteria to low iron and different iron sources, such as transferrin and hemoglobin. \"P. multocida\" genes that are upregulated in times of infection are usually involved in nutrient uptake and metabolism. This shows true virulence genes may only be expressed during the early stages of infection.\n" ]

[ "On smaller CRT monitors (up to about ), few people notice any discomfort between 60–72 Hz. On larger CRT monitors ( or larger), most people experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is set to 72 Hz or higher. A rate of 100 Hz is comfortable at almost any size. However, this does not apply to LCD monitors. The closest equivalent to a refresh rate on an LCD monitor is its frame rate, which is often locked at 60 fps. But this is rarely a problem, because the only part of an LCD monitor that could produce CRT-like flicker—its backlight — typically operates at around a minimum of 200 Hz.\n", "While common multisync CRT computer monitors have been capable of running at even multiples of 24 Hz since the early 1990s, recent \"120 Hz\" LCDs have been produced for the purpose of having smoother, more fluid motion, depending upon the source material, and any subsequent processing done to the signal. In the case of material shot on video, improvements in smoothness just from having a higher refresh rate may be barely noticeable.\n", "Although the fact is now mainly of historical interest, most larger-tube CRT PC monitors had a maximum horizontal scan rate of 70 kHz or higher, which means they could have handled 2048x1152 at 60 Hz progressive if set to use a custom resolution (with slimmer vertical blanking margins than HD-MAC/Eu95 itself for those rated for less than 75 kHz). Monitors able to support the lower refresh rate, including smaller models incapable of 70 kHz but good for at least 58 kHz (preferably 62.5 kHz) and able to support the lower vertical refresh rate could instead be set to run 50 Hz progressive, or even 100 Hz interlace to avert the flicker that would otherwise cause.\n", "The term is primarily used for CRTs, especially televisions in 50 Hz countries (PAL or SECAM) and computer monitors from the 1990s and early 2000s – the 50 Hz rate of PAL/SECAM video (compared with 60 Hz NTSC video) and the relatively large computer monitors and close viewing distances of 1990s/2000s computer monitors (hence making more of the screen in the viewer's peripheral vision) make flicker most noticeable on these devices.\n", "At low refresh rates (60 Hz and below), the periodic scanning of the display may produce a flicker that some people perceive more easily than others, especially when viewed with peripheral vision. Flicker is commonly associated with CRT as most televisions run at 50 Hz (PAL) or 60 Hz (NTSC), although there are some 100 Hz PAL televisions that are flicker-free. Typically only low-end monitors run at such low frequencies, with most computer monitors supporting at least 75 Hz and high-end monitors capable of 100 Hz or more to eliminate any perception of flicker. Though the 100 Hz PAL was often achieved using interleaved scanning, dividing the circuit and scan into two beams of 50 Hz. Non-computer CRTs or CRT for sonar or radar may have long persistence phosphor and are thus flicker free. If the persistence is too long on a video display, moving images will be blurred.\n", "On September 5, 2014, Dell unveiled the first monitor with a 5K resolution, the UltraSharp UP2715K. This monitor featured a 27-inch 51202880 display, giving it a pixel density of around 218 ppi. The monitor only supported DisplayPort version 1.2, which is limited to 51202880 at 30 Hz. To work around this, the UP2715K implemented a system by which the bandwidth of two DisplayPort connections could be combined to achieve 60 Hz, using a picture-by-picture mode to virtually treat the display as two smaller 25602880 monitors side-by-side and driving each half with a separate DisplayPort connection.\n", "The 32×16 characters was the reason that the 6502 was clocked at 750 kHz. To get the circuitry to work at a (nearly) standard video rate meant that the pixel clock had to be 6 MHz. When the Microtan 65 was designed only a 1 MHz 6502 was available, and so 750 kHz was used (6 MHz divided by 8).\n" ]

[ "After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto called \"New Horizons\" was granted funding from the US government in 2003. \"New Horizons\" was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.\n", "On January 19, 2006 the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the these SRBs and Star 48B thirdstage . \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n", "\"New Horizons\" made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015, after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of \"New Horizons\" were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. On October 25, 2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or 6.25 gigabytes) was received from \"New Horizons\" from its close encounter with Pluto.\n", "\"New Horizons\" had its closest approach to Pluto on 14 July 2015—after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. \"New Horizons\" used a remote sensing package that includes imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments, to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. \"New Horizons\" also photographed the surfaces of Pluto and Charon.\n", "On January 19, 2006 the \"New Horizons\" spacecraft to Pluto was launched directly into a solar-escape trajectory at from Cape Canaveral using an Atlas V version with 5 of the AJ-60A SRBs and the Common Core Booster, Centaur upper stage, and Star 48B third stage. \"New Horizons\" passed the Moon's orbit in just nine hours.\n", "\"New Horizons\" Star 48B was calculated to arrive at planet Jupiter 6 hours before \"New Horizons\", and on Oct 15, 2015 would pass through Pluto's orbit at a distance of 213 million kilometers (over 1 AU) distant from Pluto. This was nearly four months after the \"New Horizons\" probe did.\n", "\"New Horizons\" was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the SolarSystem. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the \"New Horizons\" team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet. Pluto's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names (N and H) are the initials of \"New Horizons\". The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, plus Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.\n" ]

[ "During the 15 years from 1950 to 1965, American investments in Europe soared by 800% to $13.9 billion, and in the European Economic Community rose 10 times to $6.25 billion. Europe's share of American investments increased from 15% to 28%. The investments were of very high visibility and generated much talk of Americanization. Even so, American investments in Europe represented only 50% of the total European investment and American-owned companies in the European Economic Community employ only 2 or 3% of the total labor force. The basic reason for the U.S. investments is no longer lower production costs, faster economic growth, or higher profits in Europe, but the desire to maintain a competitive position based largely on American technological superiority. Opposition to U.S. investments, originally confined to France, later spread to other European countries. Public opinion began to resent American advertising and business methods, personnel policies, and the use of the English language by American companies. Criticism was also directed toward the international currency system which was blamed for inflationary tendencies as a result of the dominant position of the U.S. dollars. However, by the 1970s European investments in the U.S. increased even more rapidly than vice versa, and Geir Lundestad finds there was less talk of the Americans buying Europe.\n", "On 5 June 1947, George C. Marshall, at the time Secretary of State of the United States of America, gave an address at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he proposed a plan to aid European recovery after the events of World War II, in the form of financial and economic assistance from the United States. This assistance, however, was dependent on the co-operation of the European nations who would be the recipients of this aid. The countries involved would need to agree on their requirements, as well as to their own contributions to European recovery.\n", "In the US edition's introduction it states that it is possible to survive a trip in Europe on less than twenty-five US dollars per week. The US edition also included such information as US dollar to other currency exchange rates (current as of January 1972), weight and measurement conversion charts, and brief lists of phrases and numbers for French, German, Spanish and Italian. \n", "BULLET::::- The European Payments Union was created, for the benefit of fifteen Western European nations, to stabilize their currencies. The United States contributed $350,000,000 to the endowment fund.\n", "In 1937, Culbertson published a book supporting the Hull reciprocal trade policy. According to a review by George H. E. Smith, Culbertson's thesis is that \"[The United States has] become a world state... Our overseas expansion will go on whether we like it or not... Our production, our finance, and our trade then must operate on a world stage. If they are confined within our political frontiers by a narrow nationalism, no amount of governmental regulation and of governmental generosity will bring about real prosperity... I have become convinced that we cannot possibly pay out nationally except through a tremendous revival in foreign trade, both imports and exports, which in turn will stimulate and enlarge domestic trade and enterprise.\" The book continues by discussing the evolution of tariffs and the mechanisms through which they are made, and concludes with suggestions for a permanent foreign trade policy.\n", "BULLET::::- New York Times; March 16, 1931, Monday; Washington, March 15, 1931. Despite expansion of British loans to Latin America in 1930, American loans to all foreign nations last year exceeded those of Great Britain by more than $300,000,000, according to a survey by Iver C. Olsen of the Department of Commerce which was made public today.\n", "Gano Dunn, the President of J. G. White Engineering since 1913, was in Italy at the outbreak of World War I. Americans stranded in Europe had fled from Austria, France, Spain, Switzerland and Serbia to Italy, trying to book passage back to the United States. With banks refusing to cash personal checks, Americans were short on funds. In Italy, a bank moratorium had been declared, with banks paying only \"limited and small amounts daily\".\n" ]

[ "While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: \"At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings.\"\n", "She says she lost her virginity aged 11 with her 15-year-old boyfriend. In first grade, an accident damaged her clitoris. She has stated it is \"always hard but I don't feel anything\". However, she is still able to orgasm through stimulation of her g-spot, which often involves inserting large, wide objects into her vagina, and she has stated \"the deeper the better\". She appeared in a controversial double-fisting scene with fellow porn actress Alisha Klass in Seymore Butts' video \"Tampa Tushy Fest 1\". The film won the \"Best All-Girl Sex Scene – Video\" award at the 2000 AVN Awards.\n", "The clitoris has an abundance of nerve endings, and is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure. When sexually stimulated, it may incite female sexual arousal. Sexual stimulation, including arousal, may result from mental stimulation, foreplay with a sexual partner, or masturbation, and may lead to orgasm. The most effective sexual stimulation of the organ is usually manually or orally (cunnilingus), which is often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation; in cases involving sexual penetration, these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation.\n", "Sex educator Rebecca Chalker states that only one part of the clitoris, the urethral sponge, is in contact with the penis, fingers, or a dildo in the vagina. Hite and Chalker state that the tip of the clitoris and the inner lips, which are also very sensitive, are not receiving direct stimulation during penetrative intercourse. Because of this, some couples may engage in the woman on top position or the coital alignment technique to maximize clitoral stimulation. For some women, the clitoris is very sensitive after climax, making additional stimulation initially painful.\n", "The orgasms that result from stimulation of the AFE zone are thought to be distinct from the orgasms that result from stimulation of the clitoris, but some women who have experienced them say that they are similar in sensation to orgasms achieved by G-spot stimulation, while others say that they are more \"intense\".\n", "In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.\n", "General statistics indicate that 70-80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. Shere Hite's research on human female sexuality reports that, for most women, orgasm is easily achieved by cunnilingus because of the direct clitoral stimulation (including stimulation to other external parts of the vulva that are physically related to the clitoris) that may be involved during the act.\n" ]

[ "A human perceives the intensity of the sinusoidal disturbance as the brightness of the light and the frequency as the color. If a light is turned on or off at a specific time or otherwise modulated, then the amplitude of the sinusoidal disturbance is also time-dependent. The time-varying amplitude does not propagate at the phase velocity but rather at the group velocity. The group velocity depends not only on the refractive index of the material, but also the way in which the refractive index changes with frequency (i.e. the derivative of refractive index with respect to frequency).\n", "Exposure to light also has a significant effect on materials. It is not only the light visible to humans that can cause damage, but also ultraviolet light and infrared radiation. Measured in lux or the amount of lumens/m, the generally accepted level of illumination with sensitive materials is limited to 50 lux per day. Materials receiving more lux than recommended can be placed in dark storage periodically to prolong the original appearance of the object.\n", "The second postulate of Einstein's theory of special relativity states that the speed of light is invariant, regardless of the velocity of the source from which the light emanates. The extinction theorem (essentially) states that light passing through a transparent medium is simultaneously extinguished and re-emitted by the medium itself. This implies that information about the velocity of light from a moving source might be lost if the light passes through enough intervening transparent material before being measured. All measurements previous to the 1960s intending to verify the constancy of the speed of light from moving sources (primarily using moving mirrors, or extraterrestrial sources) were made only after the light had passed through such stationary material — that material being that of a glass lens, the terrestrial atmosphere, or even the incomplete vacuum of deep space. In 1961, Fox decided that there might not yet be any conclusive evidence for the second postulate: \"This is a surprising situation in which to find ourselves half a century after the inception of special relativity.\" Regardless, he remained fully confident in special relativity, noting that this created only a \"small gap\" in the experimental record.\n", "In Fig. 4‑3, the time interval between the events A (the \"cause\") and B (the \"effect\") is 'time-like'; i.e., there is a frame of reference in which events A and B occur at the \"same location in space\", separated only by occurring at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A precedes B in all frames accessible by a Lorentz transformation. It is possible for matter (or information) to travel (below light speed) from the location of A, starting at the time of A, to the location of B, arriving at the time of B, so there can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the effect).\n", "When light reflects off of a material with higher refractive index than the medium in which is traveling, it undergoes a 180° phase shift. In contrast, when light reflects off of a material with lower refractive index the reflected light is in phase with the incident light. This is an important principle in the field of thin-film optics.\n", "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n", "When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.\n" ]

[ "Metastable atoms are atoms that have been excited out of the ground state, but remain in an excited state for a significant period of time. Microscopy using metastable atoms has been shown to be possible, where the metastable atoms release stored internal energy into the surface, releasing electrons that provide information on the electronic structure\n", "In \"L'individuation psychique et collective\", Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation.\n", "A special case occurs where a system oscillates between two unstable levels that have the same life time formula_52 . If atoms are excited at a constant, say n/time, to the first state, some decay and the rest have a probability formula_53 to transition to the second state, so in the time interval between t and (t+dt) the number of atoms that jump to the second state from the first is formula_54, so at time t the number of atoms in the second state is\n", "During the time period of the 2006 \"One Year Later\" storylines, Atom is revealed to be contained by the modern day Atomic Knights inside a secret S.H.A.D.E. facility in Blüdhaven, and used to administer radiation treatments to metahumans. Later in 2008's \"Countdown\", it was revealed that the changes that were to befall Captain Atom in this period were due to the actions of Solomon, one of the newly-born Monitors who attacks Captain Atom almost as soon as he arrives back to New Earth from the Wildstorm Universe and damages his alien metal shell, causing him to leak dangerous amounts of radiation.\n", "Atom re-appears as the protagonist in the 2003 series; a robot with the ability to think and reason ('Kokoro', or Japanese for 'heart and soul'). Atom was created by Doctor Tenma as a ‘replacement’ for Tobio, his deceased son. Tenma, overcome with grief, decided to make an identical robot copy, which he will raise just like his own. Tenma, however, during the project lost the trust of his fellow scientists, who had thought that he has been overcome with grief and longing for his son and as a result went insane. Tenma, who was indeed displaying signs of insanity at that point, finished his project and named the robot after his son. Unfortunately, things got out of hand as soon as Astro was led into the basement full of broken robots (including Robita) and the robot Tobio (doing the same thing the original Tobio has done) asks for Tenma to fix it. After Tenma refuses, the robot Tobio rebels against him (the same thing the original Tobio has done) and as a result, Tenma shuts him down.\n", "In single-molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules. Instead of forming structures by removing or applying material after a pattern scaffold, the atoms are put together in a chemistry lab. In this way, billions of billions of copies are made simultaneously (typically more than 10 molecules are made at once) while the composition of molecules are controlled down to the last atom. The molecules used have properties that resemble traditional electronic components such as a wire, transistor or rectifier.\n", "Note that the xyz standard does not require that the number or chemical nature of atoms should be the same at subsequent snapshots, which allows for atoms disappearing from or coming into the field of view during the animation.\n" ]

[ "Another important benefit of removing the long half-life transuranics from the waste cycle is that the remaining waste becomes a much shorter-term hazard. After the actinides (reprocessed uranium, plutonium, and minor actinides) are recycled, the remaining radioactive waste isotopes are fission products, with half-life of 90 years (Sm-151) or less or 211,100 years (Tc-99) and more; plus any activation products from the non-fuel reactor components.\n", "The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consist primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered a transuranic waste. The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life of that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.\n", "During the first 40 years that nuclear waste was being created in the United States, no legislation was enacted to manage its disposal. Nuclear waste, some of which remains radioactive with a half-life of more than one million years, was kept in various types of temporary storage. Of particular concern during nuclear waste disposal are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 17 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years).\n", "Every 8 years 160 tons of spent fuel travel to the recycling facility, consisting of about 75% thorium, with 95% of the balance uranium. Without separation (other than removing the salt), the total fuel waste stream averages about 2 m per year.\n", "After \"spent nuclear fuel\" is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate. Due to a physical oddity referenced below, there is a large gap in the decay half-lives of fission products compared to transuranic isotopes. If the transuranics are left in the spent fuel, after 1,000 to 100,000 years, the slow decay of these transuranics would generate most of the radioactivity in that spent fuel. Thus, removing the transuranics from the waste eliminates much of the long-term radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel.\n", "While in the US, spent fuel is presently in its entirety, federally classified as a nuclear waste and is treated similarly, in other countries it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known as mixed oxide fuel or MOX. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived transuranic elements, which are led by reactor grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years).\n", "Reprocessing, which mainly takes the form of recycling reactor-grade plutonium back into the same or a more advanced fleet of reactors, was planned in the US in the 1960s. At that time the uranium market was anticipated to become crowded and supplies tight so together with recycling fuel, the more efficient fast breeder reactors were thereby seen as immediately needed to efficiently use the limited known uranium supplies. This became less urgent as time passed, with both reduced demand forecasts and increased uranium ore discoveries, for these economic reasons, fresh fuel and the reliance on solely fresh fuel remained cheaper in commercial terms than recycled. \n" ]

[ "Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases it can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.\n", "Malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals, is a potentially deadly disease that causes fever, fatigue, nausea, muscular pain, coughing, and, in extreme cases, coma and death. Malaria is caused by parasitic protozoans transferred through mosquito saliva into a person’s circulatory system, where they travel to the liver to mature. Though eliminated in the U.S., there were an estimated 219 million documented cases of malaria in 2010 according to the World Health Organization.\n", "Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. \"Plasmodium falciparum\" is the species of the malaria parasite that causes the vast majority of severe disease and death. In 2010, there were about 216 million cases of malaria globally, and about 655,000 deaths – mostly among children in Africa. Yet, malaria is preventable and treatable.\n", "Exposure to malaria will become a greater risk to humans as the number of female \"Anopheles\" mosquitos infected with either the \"Plasmodium falciparum\" or \"Plasmodium vivax\" parasite increases. The mosquito will transmit the parasite to the human host through a bite, resulting in infection. Then, when an uninfected mosquito bites the now infected human host, the parasite will be transmitted to the mosquitoes which will then become an exposure to other uninfected human hosts. Individuals who are constantly exposed to the Malaria parasite due to multiple bites by mosquitoes that carry the parasite are at greater risk of dying. Infected humans can also transmit the disease to uninfected or healthy humans via contaminated blood.\n", "Mosquito-borne diseases or mosquito-borne illnesses are diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites transmitted by mosquitoes. They can transmit disease without being affected themselves. Nearly 700 million people get a mosquito-borne illness each year resulting in over one million deaths.\n", "\"P. malariae\" can infect several species of mosquito and can cause malaria in humans. \"P. malariae\" can be maintained at very low infection rates among a sparse and mobile population because unlike the other \"Plasmodium\" parasites, it can remain in a human host for an extended period of time and still remain infectious to mosquitoes.\n", "The female mosquito of the genus \"Anopheles\" carries the malaria parasite. Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: \"Plasmodium falciparum\", \"Plasmodium malariae\", \"Plasmodium\" ovale and \"Plasmodium\" vivax (see \"Plasmodium\"). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by WHO. The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association.\n" ]

[ "Frozen food is food preserved by the process of freezing. Freezing food is a common method of food preservation which slows both food decay and, by turning water to ice, makes it unavailable for most bacterial growth and slows down most chemical reactions. Clarence Birdseye offered his quick-frozen foods to the public. Birdseye got the idea during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use freezing to preserve foods.\n", "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n", "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n", "Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n", "The food undergoes a process of cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. After the food is placed on the conveyor belt, it is sprayed with liquid nitrogen that boils on contact with the freezing food. This method of flash-freezing fresh foods is used to retain natural quality of the food. When the food is chilled through cryogenic freezing, small ice crystals are formed throughout the food that, in theory, can preserve the food indefinitely if stored safely. Cryogenic freezing is widely used as it is a method for rapid freezing, requires almost no dehydration, excludes oxygen thus decreasing oxidative spoilage, and causes less damage to individual freezing pieces. Due to the fact that the cost of operating cryogenic freezing is high, it is commonly used for high value food products such as TV dinners, which is a $4.5 billion industry a year that is continuing to grow with the constant introduction of new technology.\n", "Other than drying, other methods include salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic pressure: Refrigeration can increase the shelf life of certain foods and beverages, though with most items, it does not indefinitely expand it. Freezing can preserve food even longer, though even freezing has limitations. Canning of food can preserve food for a particularly long period of time, whether done at home or commercially. Canned food is vacuum packed in order to keep oxygen, which is needed by bacteria in aerobic spoilage, out of the can. Canning does have limitations, and does not preserve the food indefinitely. Lactic acid fermentation also preserves food and prevents spoilage.\n" ]

[ "The presiding interest of the midrash is not ultimately the eulogization of Aaron, but is rather the psychological analysis of Moses's inner struggle upon being commanded to inform Aaron of his impending demise. In service of this theme, the midrash touches on various aspects of Moses's tense relationship with God and with the Children of Israel, and interweaves this psychological tension with other aggadic elements to create a more powerful drama\n", "The midrash begins with the death of Miriam, sister of Moses, upon which occurrence expired the well that the Israelites through Miriam's merit had grown accustomed to rely on for water. Moses and Aaron mourn their sister's death, but the people grow impatient with Moses (significantly, not with Aharon) for his extended crying, and complain to him of the lack of water. Moses pleads for the privacy to mourn his sister in peace, and reminds the people that they have other officials and elders to whom they can appeal, but the people are implacable and threaten to stone Moses immediately if he does not produce water.\n", "The text portrays Yahweh as telling Moses that he is sending him to the Pharaoh in order to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, an action that Yahweh is described as having decided upon as a result of noticing that the Israelites were being oppressed by the Egyptians. Yahweh tells Moses to tell the \"elders\" of the Israelites that Yahweh would lead them into the land of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Hivites, and Jebusites, a region generally referred to as a whole by the term \"Canaan\"; this is described as being a land of \"milk and honey\".\n", "The Assumption of Moses (otherwise called the Testament of Moses) is a 1st century Jewish apocryphal pseudepigraphical work. It purports to contain secret prophecies Moses revealed to Joshua before passing leadership of the Israelites to him. It contains apocalyptic themes, but is characterized as a \"testament\", meaning it has the final speech of a dying person, Moses. \n", "Julius Wellhausen's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20-23 and 34 \"might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel.\" Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition.\n", "The documentary recounts Moses's encounter with the flaming bush and his involvement with the freeing of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. the Exodus is where the great epic of Israel starts. According to William G. Dever, archeologist, the desert can only support a few thousand nomads, not the purported 3-million that legend tells us accompanied Moses. Furthermore, only 1 or 2 sites mentioned in Exodus have been identified. For the scribes to write an accurate historical account of what occurred 700 years earlier was improbable. What was probable was bringing to text the eternal lessons that the story of Moses taught.\n", "Nehemiah is the central figure of the Book of Nehemiah, which describes his work in rebuilding Jerusalem during the Second Temple period. He was governor of Persian Judea under Artaxerxes I of Persia (c. 5th century BC). The name is pronounced or in English. It is in Hebrew , \"Nehemya\", \"Yahweh comforts\".\n" ]

[ "Rain has a population () of 2,214, of which 5.1% are foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 30.9%. Most of the population () speaks German (96.5%), with Albanian being second most common ( 0.7%) and Portuguese being third ( 0.5%).\n", "Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. The \"length\", or more accurately, \"depth\" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.\n", "The phrase \"acid rain\" was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0–5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8–4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (HSO) and nitric acid (HNO). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where HS is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.\n", "Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres in height collected on each square meter during a certain period, equivalent to litres per square metre. Previously rain was recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254 mm or 0.01 of an inch.\n", "The principal cause of basic rain is emissions from factories and waste deposits. Mineral dust containing large amounts of alkaline compounds such as calcium carbonate can also increase the pH of precipitation and contribute to basic rain. Basic rain can be viewed as opposite to acid rain.\n", "Normal annual rainfall is spread over an average 95 days, but observed annual rainfall has ranged from in 1908 and 1998 to in 1989. The wettest month on record is January 1980 with , while the most rain to occur in a single calendar day is on December 21, 1955. The most recent month without measurable (≥) rain is October 2013 with trace amounts, and the last without any rain is June 1957. \n", "\"Rain\" is a pop ballad with influence from trip hop and new-age music. Styled in adult contemporary format, the song is more \"friendly\" in its sound than the other singles released from \"Erotica\". According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing, the song is written in the key note of E major. The song's tempo is set in a moderate pace, but not too fast and has a metronome of 92 beats per minute. \"Rain\" begins with Madonna singing \"I feel it, it's coming\", and followed by the chord progression of E–A–B in the chorus and later A–B–E in the verse. A dark sounding C minor string and an echoing hi-hat accompanies Madonna's vocals, which are sung in her lowest register. The song's arrangement captures turbulent elements associated with rain (such as thunder), orchestral stabs that invokes crisp lightning bolts, and a surging bridge segue driven by what sounds like electric guitar snarls. A key change happens towards the end from B major to C major, followed by two spoken parts and a harmony alongside it. The coda has a different melody included with it, and the song ends in a group chorus without the harmonies.\n" ]

[ "Creditors who hold a certificate of unpaid debts against the debtor, or creditors in a bankruptcy, may file suit against third parties who have benefited from unfair preferences or fraudulent transfers by the debtor prior to a seizure of assets or a bankruptcy. If the challenge succeeds, the third party must return the assets formerly belonging to the debtor to the DBO or the BO, as the case may be, and the debtor may also be liable for criminal prosecution for bankruptcy fraud.\n", "In the event of the bankruptcy of the debtor, the unsecured creditors usually obtain a \"pari passu\" distribution out of the assets of the insolvent company on a liquidation in accordance with the size of their debt after the secured creditors have enforced their security and the preferential creditors have exhausted their claims.\n", "The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.\n", "When a troubled business is unable to pay its creditors, it may file (or be forced by its creditors to file) for bankruptcy in a federal court under Chapter 7. A Chapter 7 filing means that the business ceases operations unless those operations are continued by the Chapter 7 Trustee. A Chapter 7 trustee is appointed almost immediately, with broad powers to examine the business's financial affairs. The Trustee generally liquidates the assets and distributes the proceeds to the creditors. This may or may not mean that all employees will lose their jobs. When a large company enters Chapter 7 bankruptcy, entire divisions of the company may be sold intact to other companies during the liquidation.\n", "A debtor in possession in United States bankruptcy law is a person or corporation who has filed a bankruptcy petition, but remains in possession of property upon which a creditor has a lien or similar security interest. A corporation which continues to operate its business under Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings is a debtor in possession.\n", "The dispute was based on principles of bankruptcy law. A company in bankruptcy generally does not pay its debts while courts determine which creditors should get paid. But if that applied to all debts, no one would extend further credit to the company and it would be less able to administer the bankruptcy and ensure fair payment to its existing creditors. Therefore, bankruptcy law gives priority to new debts, incurred after filing of the bankruptcy, as part of administering the bankruptcy.\n", "The essence of bankruptcy is that the debtor's assets are transferred to an official who administers and realises them for the benefit of all creditors. The purpose is to release the bankrupt from an unsustainable debt burden and to distribute his assets amongst all creditors equally (although certain types of creditor enjoy priorities). The bankrupt person is subject to restrictions and disabilities on trading and on obtaining credit while a bankrupt but leaves the process with their debts forgiven.\n" ]

[ "In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. Of these, we highlight the archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island, which is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.\n", "The islands are remnants of an isolated extinct Pleistocene volcano with andesite rocks, one to two million years old. They lie on a bank with depths less than , but are separated from the continental shelf around Foveaux Strait by a narrow trough with depths in excess of (at least ). Therefore, the islands are included in the New Zealand Outlying Islands, despite their proximity to the mainland. The Solander Islands are the only New Zealand volcanic land features related to the subduction of the Australian Plate beneath the Pacific Plate.\n", "The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized, mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce. These remote refuges are \"the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction\". They protect many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.\n", "The Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, commonly known as the Pitcairn Islands or just Pitcairn, are a group of four volcanic islands in the South Pacific Ocean. The islands are a British overseas territory (formerly a British colony), the last remaining in the Pacific. Only Pitcairn Island, the second largest island, is inhabited.\n", "The Revillagigedo Islands (, ) or Revillagigedo Archipelago are a group of four volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, known for their unique ecosystem. They lie approximately southwest of Cabo San Lucas, the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, and west of Manzanillo. They are located around . Technically part of the Mexican state of Colima, the islands are under Mexican federal jurisdiction.\n", "The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, are a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four islands—Pitcairn proper, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno—are scattered across several hundred miles of ocean and have a combined land area of about . Henderson Island accounts for 86% of the land area, but only Pitcairn Island is inhabited. The nearest places are Mangareva (of French Polynesia) to the west and Easter Island to the east.\n", "The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was proclaimed a national monument on January 6, 2009, by U.S. President George W. Bush and follows his June 6, 2006, creation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It was expanded on September 25, 2014 by U.S. President Barack Obama. The monument covers , spanning areas to the far south and west of Hawaii: Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll, Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island. At Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef the terrestrial areas, reefs, and waters out to (radius) are part of the National Wildlife Refuge System. For Kingman Reef and Palmyra Atoll and Howland Island and Baker Island, fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (about square across) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. For Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, and Wake Island fishery-related activities seaward from the refuge boundaries out to the NMM boundary (U.S. EEZ waters) are managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The land areas at Wake and Johnston Atolls remain under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Air Force, but the waters from 0 to are protected as units of the National Wildlife Refuge System. The entire monument is closed to commercial fishing and other resource extraction activities, such as deep sea mining.\n" ]

[ "Such information, especially security questions and answers, could help hackers break into victims' other online accounts. Computer security experts cautioned that the incident could have far-reaching consequences involving privacy, potentially including finance and banking as well as personal information of people's lives, including information pulled from any other accounts that can be hacked with the gained account data. Experts also noted that there may be millions of people, as users of Flickr, Sky and BT who do not realize that they have a Yahoo! account as a result of past acquisitions and agreements made with Yahoo!. or Yahoo users who stopped using their accounts years earlier.\n", "Victims can be enticed to borrow or embezzle money to pay the advance fees, believing that they will shortly be paid a much larger sum and be able to refund what they misappropriated. Crimes committed by victims include credit-card fraud, check kiting, and embezzlement. San Diego-based businessman James Adler lost over $5 million in a Nigeria-based advance-fee scam. While a court affirmed that various Nigerian government officials (including a governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria) were directly or indirectly involved, and that Nigerian government officials could be sued in U.S. courts under the \"commercial activity\" exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, Adler was unable to get his money back due to the doctrine of unclean hands because he had knowingly entered into a contract that was illegal.\n", "Some users reported receiving extortion emails requesting 1.05 in bitcoins (approximately $225 at the time) to prevent the information from being shared with the user's significant other. Clinical psychologists argued that dealing with an affair in a particularly public way increases the hurt for spouses and children. On August 24 the Toronto Police Department spoke of \"two unconfirmed reports of suicides\" associated with the leak of customer profiles along with extortion attempts, offering a $500,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the hackers. At least one suicide previously linked to Ashley Madison has since been reported as being due to \"stress entirely related to issues at work that had no connection to the data leak\".\n", "In March 2019, German media reported that customers who had their account credentials stolen found it difficult to contact the bank and resolve the situation. Customer advocates reported that there was a growing number of complaints from phishing victims who were unable to access their accounts and found it difficult to contact the bank. In a widely reported case N26 took more than two weeks to restore access for a customer who had €80,000 stolen from their account. The reports raised the question if the rapid growth of the bank had left it ill equipped to deal with the increasing number of support cases.\n", "The essential fact in all advance-fee fraud operations is the promised money transfer to the victim never happens, because the money does not exist. The perpetrators rely on the fact that, by the time the victim realizes this (often only after being confronted by a third party who has noticed the transactions or conversation and recognized the scam), the victim may have sent thousands of dollars of their own money, and sometimes thousands more that has been borrowed or stolen, to the scammer via an untraceable and/or irreversible means such as wire transfer. The scammer disappears, and the victim is left on the hook for the money sent to the scammer.\n", "Once the victim's confidence has been gained, the scammer then introduces a delay or monetary hurdle that prevents the deal from occurring as planned, such as \"To transmit the money, we need to bribe a bank official. Could you help us with a loan?\" or \"For you to be a party to the transaction, you must have holdings at a Nigerian bank of $100,000 or more\" or similar. This is the money being stolen from the victim; the victim willingly transfers the money, usually through some irreversible channel such as a wire transfer, and the scammer receives and pockets it.\n", "The hackers then used this information to take over the victims’ bank accounts and make unauthorized transfers of thousands of dollars at a time, often routing the funds to other accounts controlled by a network of money mules, paid a commission. Many of the U.S. money mules were recruited from overseas. They created bank accounts using fake documents and false names. Once the money was in the accounts, the mules would either wire it back to their bosses in Eastern Europe, or withdraw it in cash and smuggle it out of the country.\n" ]

[ "When an embrasure linked to more than one arrowslit (in the case of Dover Castle, defenders from three embrasures can shoot through the same arrowslit) it is called a \"multiple arrowslit\". Some arrowslits, such as those at Corfe Castle, had lockers nearby to store spare arrows and bolts; these were usually located on the right hand side of the slit for ease of access and to allow a rapid rate of fire.\n", "BULLET::::- Dyrnwyn – Sword of Rhydderch Hael in Welsh legend; When drawn, it blazed with fire; if drawn by a worthy man, the fire would help him in his cause, but its fire would burn the man who drew it for an unworthy purpose.\n", "Flaming arrows required the shooter to get quite close to their desired target and most will have extinguished themselves before reaching the target. In response, another form of fire arrow was developed which consisted of curved metal bars connecting a tip and hollow end for the shaft. The resulting cage was filled with hot coals or other solid object which could be fired from a much stronger bow or ballista without fear of extinguishing and would be used to ignite straw or thatch roofs from a safer distance.\n", "Flamer is a spinning, circular, fire-shooting enemy that grants the Fire ability when inhaled. It tends to attach to surfaces and roll around on them. It first appeared in \"Kirby's Adventure\", and has appeared in multiple games since then.\n", "BULLET::::- Directly after this sequence, the \"blasting-fire\" is used to breach the wall. It is turned into magical projectiles resembling comets coming from Isengard (Aragorn, seeing them, calls out \"Fire of Isengard!\"). While Tolkien does not give detailed descriptions, \"blasting fire\" is clearly different in the book (as Orcs are said to have \"brought\" it).\n", "In its simplest form, an arrowslit was a narrow vertical opening; however, the different weapons used by defenders sometimes dictated the form of arrowslits. For example, openings for longbowmen were usually tall and high to allow the user to shoot standing up and make use of the bow, while those for crossbowmen were usually lower down as it was easier for the user to shoot whilst kneeling to support the weight of the weapon. It was common for arrowslits to widen to a triangle at the bottom, called a fishtail, to allow defenders a clearer view of the base of the wall. Immediately behind the slit there was a recess called an embrasure; this allowed a defender to get close to the slit without being too cramped. The width of the slit dictated the field of fire, but the field of vision could be enhanced by the addition of horizontal openings; they allowed defenders to view the target before it entered range.\n", "The invention of the arrowslit is attributed to Archimedes during the siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC (although archaeologic evidence supports their existence in Egyptian Middle Kingdom forts around 1860 BC). Slits \"of the height of a man and about a palm's width on the outside\" allowed defenders to shoot bows and scorpions (an ancient siege engine) from within the city walls. Although used in late Greek and Roman defences, arrowslits were not present in early Norman castles. They are only reintroduced to military architecture towards the end of the 12th century, with the castles of Dover and Framlingham in England, and Richard the Lionheart's Château Gaillard in France. In these early examples, arrowslits were positioned to protect sections of the castle wall, rather than all sides of the castle. In the 13th century, it became common for arrowslits to be placed all around a castle's defences.\n" ]

[ "According to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, \"instantaneous action at a distance\" violates the relativistic upper limit on speed of propagation of information. If one of the interacting objects were to suddenly be displaced from its position, the other object would feel its influence instantaneously, meaning information had been transmitted faster than the speed of light.\n", "If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event happened before the reception-event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A's frame but backwards in time in B's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B's frame but backwards in time in A's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in \"every\" frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. Mathematical details can be found in the tachyonic antitelephone article, and an illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found in \"Baker, R. (2003)\"\n", "In Einstein's theory, two observable objects are localised, each within its own distinct spacetime region (\"frame\"), which regions are separated from each other in space, and effects pass from one object to the other at the speed of light or slower. This is a key property of spacetime flowing from the special theory of relativity.\n", "Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to \"slow down\" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or \"warped\") by high-speed motion.\n", "Physically, traversed space and elapsed time are linked by velocity. Accordingly, several theories regarding the brain's expectations about stimulus velocity have been put forward to account for the kappa effect.\n", "Faster-than-light communication is, according to relativity, equivalent to time travel. What we measure as the speed of light in a vacuum (or near vacuum) is actually the fundamental physical constant \"c\". This means that all inertial observers, regardless of their relative velocity, will always measure zero-mass particles such as photons traveling at \"c\" in a vacuum. This result means that measurements of time and velocity in different frames are no longer related simply by constant shifts, but are instead related by Poincaré transformations. These transformations have important implications:\n", "This says that as we move along the worldline of each observer, their spatial triad is parallel-transported. Nonspinning inertial frames hold a special place in general relativity, because they are as close as we can get in a curved Lorentzian manifold to the Lorentz frames used in special relativity (these are special nonspinning inertial frames in the Minkowski vacuum).\n" ]

[ "In European clothing, fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic. According to historian Rebecca Unsworth, it was in the late 15th century that pockets became more noticeable. During the 16th century, pockets increased in popularity and prevalence.\n", "In slightly later European clothing, pockets began by being hung like purses from a belt, which could be concealed beneath a coat or jerkin to discourage pickpocketing and reached through a slit in the outer garment. \n", "Fitchets, resembling modern day pockets, also appeared in the 13th century. Vertical slits were cut in the super tunic, which did not have any side openings, to allow access to purse or keys slung from the girdle of the tunic.\n", "Indeed, at the time, pockets were not yet sewn to clothes, as they are today. This means that pockets were a little purse that people wore close to their body. This was especially true for women, since men's pockets were sewn \"into the linings of their coats\". Women's pockets were worn beneath a piece of clothing, and not \"as opposed to pouches or bags hanging outside their clothes\". These external pockets were still in fashion until the mid 19th century.\n", "The men among the Greeks and Romans wore the girdle upon the loins, and it served them to confine the tunic, and hold the purse, instead of pockets, which were unknown; girls and women wore it under the bosom. The \"Strophium\", \"Taenia\", or \"Mitra\" occurs in many figures. In the small bronze Pallas of the Villa Albani, and in figures on the Hamilton Vases, are three \"cordons\" with a knot, detached from two ends of the girdle, which is fixed under the bosom. This girdle forms under the breast a knot of ribbon, sometimes in the form of a rose, as occur on the two handsomest daughters of Niobe. Upon the youngest the ends of the girdle pass over the shoulders, and upon the back, as they do upon four Caryatides found at Monte Portio. This part of the dress the ancients called, at least in the time of Isidore, \"Succinctorium\" or \"Bracile\". The girdle was omitted by both sexes in mourning. Often when the tunic was very long, and would otherwise be entangled by the feet, it was drawn over the girdle in such a way as to conceal the latter entirely underneath its folds. It is not uncommon to see two girdles of different widths worn together, one very high up, the other very low down, so as to form between the two in the tunic, a puckered interval; but this fashion was mostly applied to short tunics. The tunic of the Greek males was almost always confined by a girdle.\n", "Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n", "Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.\n" ]

[ "His work on the 2010 Danny Boyle film \"127 Hours\" received notoriety for the amputation sequences designed, engineered, and built to recreate the actual event in extreme closeup detail. The film's pre-release screenings at several film festivals have resulted in audience members requiring medical assistance. Gardner stresses though that the desired result was accuracy and an immersion in a recreation of the experience so that the audience experiences things through Aron Ralston's eyes.\n", "This version of the film is shot in color and set in modern-day times. Sultanov adapted the screenplay, making the dialogue more fitting to today's speech. Sultanov chose actors with a dramatic, method acting approach to display the truthful effect of rheumatic pain.\n", "Chaney refused to use trick camera angles in this film. Instead, he wore an apparatus to simulate amputated legs, which consisted primarily of two wooden buckets and multiple leather straps, was complex and incredibly painful. Chaney's knees sat in the buckets, while his lower legs were tied back. Studio doctors asked that Chaney not wear the device, but he insisted on doing so, so that his costume would be authentic.\n", "The following disclaimer was later added to the official video on YouTube: \"\"This video is intended as a comedic parody. All surgery has risks. Plastic surgery should only be considered after extensive consultation with a qualified medical professional. The video is not meant to diagnose, treat or cure any medical condition. It is not intended to imply or guarantee surgical success or outcome. It is also not meant to condone or encourage teen bullying, anti-semitism, scissor throwing by cheerleaders, student-teacher relationships, jumping on Oprah's couch like Tom Cruise, piano playing, underage drinking on your neighbor's balcony, driving a Porsche with a guy wearing a wig and holding a threatening hammer, taping your nose to impress a girl, eating Fruit Loops, performing nasal surgery with circumcision instruments and rabbi present, walking into scissor shaped hedges, cutting peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with a giant steak knife, doing your boyfriend's math homework, or attending art class at 8AM on Monday...\"\"\n", "For the opening scene in which Gene Clifford undergoes plastic surgery, director Guy Magar filmed an actual plastic surgery procedure, with no special effects used during the scene. The film was shot over the course of 25 days in Los Angeles with a budget of $1.8 million.\n", "The film's stunts also created tension for the crew during shooting. Columbus said, \"Every time the stunt guys did one of those stunts it wasn't funny. We'd watch it, and I would just pray that the guys were alive.\" Stunts were originally prepared with safety harnesses, but because of their visibility on camera, the film's final stunts were performed without them. According to Buzzfeed, an injury had occurred between Pesci and Culkin during one of the rehearsals where \"Harry tries to bite off Kevin's finger.\" Culkin still has the scar.\n", "The film also extensively used computer-generated imagery for the first time in the franchise. For example, instead of using a \"collapsing knife\", the knife's blade was added during post-production with CGI effects. Anderson's death scene in which he is stabbed in the forehead and walks a few feet while talking before finally falling to his death, was not in the script but was inspired by a \"real-life medical emergency\" Craven had seen in a documentary about a person being stabbed through their head and walked into an emergency room. He thought it was \"extraordinary if somebody was stabbed in the head and still be alive for a while\". Craven also did not tell the studio that he was taking this approach for the death scene, jokingly saying he hoped he would not be fired the next day.\n" ]

[ "Specialized locking nuts exist to prevent this problem, but sometimes it is sufficient to add a second nut. For this technique to be reliable, each nut must be tightened to the correct torque. The inner nut is tightened to about a quarter to a half of the torque of the outer nut. It is then held in place by a wrench while the outer nut is tightened on top using the full torque. This arrangement causes the two nuts to push on each other, creating a tensile stress in the short section of the bolt that lies between them. Even when the main joint is vibrated, the stress between the two nuts remains constant, thus holding the nut threads in constant contact with the bolt threads and preventing self-loosening. When the joint is assembled correctly, the outer nut bears the full tension of the joint. The inner nut functions merely to add a small additional force to the outer nut and does not need to be as strong, so a thin nut (also called a jam nut) can be used.\n", "A jam nut is often used when a nut needs to be locked in place without clamping against another object. The jam nut essentially acts as the \"other object\", as the two nuts are tightened against each other. They can also be used to secure an item on a fastener without applying force to that object. This is achieved by first tightening one of the nuts onto the item. Then the other nut is screwed down on top of the first nut. The inner nut is then slackened back and tightened against the outer nut.\n", "In normal use, a nut-and-bolt joint holds together because the bolt is under a constant tensile stress called the \"preload\". The preload pulls the nut threads against the bolt threads, and the nut face against the bearing surface, with a constant force, so that the nut cannot rotate without overcoming the friction between these surfaces. If the joint is subjected to vibration, however, the preload increases and decreases with each cycle of movement. If the minimum preload during the vibration cycle is not enough to hold the nut firmly in contact with the bolt and the bearing surface, then the nut is likely to become loose.\n", "The bolt has one or two holes drilled through its threaded end. The nut is torqued properly and then, if the slot is not aligned with the hole in the fastener, the nut is rotated forward to the nearest slot. The nut is then secured with a split pin/cotter pin, R-clip or safety wire. It is a positive locking device.\n", "Because they avoid overhead from operating system process rescheduling or context switching, spinlocks are efficient if threads are likely to be blocked for only short periods. For this reason, operating-system kernels often use spinlocks. However, spinlocks become wasteful if held for longer durations, as they may prevent other threads from running and require rescheduling. The longer a thread holds a lock, the greater the risk that the thread will be interrupted by the OS scheduler while holding the lock. If this happens, other threads will be left \"spinning\" (repeatedly trying to acquire the lock), while the thread holding the lock is not making progress towards releasing it. The result is an indefinite postponement until the thread holding the lock can finish and release it. This is especially true on a single-processor system, where each waiting thread of the same priority is likely to waste its quantum (allocated time where a thread can run) spinning until the thread that holds the lock is finally finished.\n", "Rotating bolts can be adapted to automatic or semi-automatic designs and lever or pump actions. In these cases, the bolt is held by a bolt carrier. With the breech locked, an initial rearward movement of the bolt carrier causes the bolt to rotate and unlock. Similarly, when closing the breech, the final forward movement of the carrier causes the bolt to rotate and lock the breech. This action is commonly achieved by a slot cut in the carrier that engages a pin through the bolt perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. It is a type of linear cam.\n", "Jam nuts can be unreliable under significant loads. If the inner nut is torqued more than the outer nut, the outer nut may yield. If the outer nut is torqued more than the inner nut, the inner nut may loosen up.\n" ]

[ "Similarly to East Asia, bowing is the traditional form of greeting in many South Asian and Southeast Asian countries. A gesture known as the \"Añjali Mudrā\" is used as a sign of respect and greeting and involves a bow of varying degrees depending on whom one performs it to and hands pressed together generally at chest level. Practised throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia, the gesture is most commonly used in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Indonesia. Gestures across the region are known by different names such as the \"wai\" in Thailand, \"sampeah\" in Cambodia and Laos, \"sembah\" in Indonesia, \"namaste\" in India and Nepal, and in Sri Lanka the gesture is used as a greeting with the word \"Ayubowan\".\n", "Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used. \n", "Many different gestures are used throughout the world as simple greetings. In Western cultures the handshake is very common, though it has numerous subtle variations in the strength of grip, the vigour of the shake, the dominant position of one hand over the other, and whether or not the left hand is used.\n", "When dealing with non-East Asians, many East Asians will shake hands. Since many non-East Asians are familiar with the custom of bowing, this often leads to an awkward combined bow and handshake. Bows may be combined with handshakes or performed before or after shaking hands.\n", "Various sources have attributed the origin of the handshake, as an ancient sign of bravery and respect, to Lord Baden-Powell's encounter after battle with Prempeh I, or to earlier published works by Ernest Thompson Seton. There exist various versions of the Prempeh story, all centering on African warriors using the left hand to hold their shields and to lower it and shake the left hand of the person was to show they trusted each other.\n", "Traditionally, there was not much hand-shaking in Chinese culture. However, this gesture is now widely practiced among men, especially when greeting Westerners or other foreigners. Many Westerners may find Chinese handshakes to be too long or too weak, but this is because a weaker handshake is a gesture of humility and respect.\n", "BULLET::::- In some countries such as Turkey or the Arabic-speaking Middle East, handshakes are not as firm as in the West. Consequently, a grip which is too firm is rude. Hand shaking between men and women is not encouraged in the Arabic world. You should only use your right hand as well.\n" ]

[ "The neutrinos emitted in beta decay will have a spectrum of energy ranges, because although momentum is conserved, the momentum can be shared in any way between the positron and neutrino, with either emitted at rest and the other taking away the full energy, or anything in between, so long as all the energy from the Q-value is used. The total momentum received by the electron and the neutrino is not great enough to cause a significant recoil of the much heavier daughter nucleus and hence, its contribution to kinetic energy of the products, for the precision of values given here, can be neglected. Thus the neutrino emitted during the decay of nitrogen-13 can have an energy from zero up to 1.20 MeV, and the neutrino emitted during the decay of oxygen-15 can have an energy from zero up to 1.73 MeV. On average, about 1.7 MeV of the total energy output is taken away by neutrinos for each loop of the cycle, leaving about 25 MeV available for producing luminosity.\n", "The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum, and angular momentum (spin). In contrast to Niels Bohr, who proposed a statistical version of the conservation laws to explain the observed continuous energy spectra in beta decay, Pauli hypothesized an undetected particle that he called a \"neutron\", using the same \"-on\" ending employed for naming both the proton and the electron. He considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay.\n", "In the decay, an electron and an antineutrino are ejected at great speed from the tritium nucleus, changing one of the neutrons into a proton with the release of 18,600 electronvolts (eV) of energy. The neutrino escapes the system; the electron is generally captured within a short distance, but far enough away from the site of the decay that it can be considered lost from the molecule. Those two particles carry away most of the released energy, but their departure causes the nucleus to recoil, with about 1.6 eV of energy. This recoil energy is larger than the bond strength of the carbon–helium bond (about 1 eV), so this bond breaks. The helium atom almost always leaves as a neutral , leaving behind the carbocation .\n", "In nuclear physics, beta decay (\"β\"-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus. For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino, or conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron (positron emission) with a neutrino, thus changing the nuclide type. Neither the beta particle nor its associated (anti-)neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons. The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy. The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability. For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below) or Q value must be positive.\n", "A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β decay and β decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.\n", "A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so-called \"two-body decays\", in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom. In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino.\n", "where \"m\" is the mass of the neutron, \"m\" is the mass of the proton, \"m\" is the mass of the electron antineutrino, and \"m\" is the mass of the electron; and the \"K\" are the corresponding kinetic energies. The neutron has no initial kinetic energy since it is at rest. In beta decay, a typical \"Q\" is around 1 MeV.\n" ]

[ "Radiation exposure is a measure of the ionization of air due to ionizing radiation from photons; that is, gamma rays and X-rays. It is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the mass of that air. \n", "The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation except in very high doses, but the effects of ionization can be used to characterize the radiation. Parameters of interest include disintegration rate, particle flux, particle type, beam energy, kerma, dose rate, and radiation dose.\n", "Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is Internal dosimetry.\n", "Internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other biokinetic factors.\n", "When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation. The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a committed dose.\n", "Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive contamination and irradiate the body from within. The latter is known as committed dose.\n", "Radioactive contamination, also called radiological contamination, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable (from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) definition).\n" ]

[ "Moving the elevons downward in a delta-wing aircraft increases the lift (force), but also pitches its nose downward. The canards cancel out this nose-downwards moment, thus reducing the landing speed of the production Tu-144s to , still faster than that of Concorde. The NASA study lists final approach speeds during Tu-144LL test flights as . An FAA circular lists Tu-144S approach speed as , as opposed to Concorde's approach speed of , based on the characteristics declared by the manufacturers to Western regulatory bodies. It is open to argument how stable the Tu-144S was at the listed airspeed. In any event, when NASA subcontracted Tupolev bureau in the 1990s to convert one of the remaining Tu-144D to a Tu-144LL standard, the procedure set by Tupolev for landing defined the Tu-144LL \"final approach speed... on the order of 360 km/h depending on fuel weight.\" Brian Calvert, Concorde's technical flight manager and its first commercial pilot in command for several inaugural flights, cites final approach speed of a typical Concorde landing to be . The lower landing speed compared to Tu-144 is due to Concorde's more refined design of the wing profile that provides higher lift at low speeds without degrading supersonic cruise performance – a feature often mentioned in Western publications on Concorde and acknowledged by Tupolev designers as well.\n", "The droop-nose configuration is a distinctive feature of some supersonic aircraft, most notably both Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. When these aircraft were in service, the pilot would lower the nose cone to improve visibility of the runway and taxiways. When in flight, the nose would be raised. Concorde also had a moving visor that would slide into and out of the nose. The Tu-144's visor was part of the nose and did not retract.\n", "Concorde's drooping nose, developed by Marshall's of Cambridge at Cambridge Airport, enabled the aircraft to switch between being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimal aerodynamic efficiency without obstructing the pilot's view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose obstructed the view and necessitated the capability to droop. The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered. When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic streamlining.\n", "The Concorde droop nose was designed and manufactured under sub contract by Marshall Aerospace in Cambridge, UK, by a team led by Norman Harry OBE. The nose can be drooped to one of two positions - 5 degrees (for taxiing and for take-off), and the fully drooped 12.5 degree position (used during landing, when the nose-high attitude of Concorde requires this lower nose position so the pilots can see the approaching runway). The nose and visor are hydraulically operated, by a small lever on the co-pilot's side of the cockpit. There is also a standby droop system if the main system fails (operated from the cockpit centre console), and as a last resort if both hydraulic systems fail, a lever can be pulled in the cockpit which releases the mechanical latches, allowing the nose to fall under gravity to the 12.5 degree position.\n", "The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pressure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, maintaining lift. The normal landing speed was . Because of this high angle, during a landing approach Concorde was on the \"back side\" of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would increase the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to reduce the pilot's workload.\n", "Like a number of other delta-wing aircraft designed to cruise at very high speeds, the Valkyrie included a droop-nose that allowed the pilots to view the ground during the nose-high takeoff and landing. Both the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144 used a design where the entire nose section was angled downward, including outer window panels, exposing interior windows that were more vertically angled. In the B-70 design, only the upper section of the nose moved down into a fixed lower section, and the outer window panels moved with it to become more vertical, at 24 degrees slope. With the nose raised into its high-speed position, the outer windows were almost horizontal. A system that blew air from the engines was used for both defogging and rain removal. The lower forward section included a radar bay, and production machines were to be equipped with a refueling receptacle on the upper surface of the nose.\n", "Sideslip in the absence of rudder input causes incidence on the fuselage and empennage, thus creating a yawing moment counteracted only by the directional stiffness which would tend to point the aircraft's nose back into the wind in horizontal flight conditions. Under sideslip conditions at a given roll angle formula_112 will tend to point the nose into the sideslip direction even without rudder input, causing a downward spiraling flight.\n" ]