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how do skin grafts work?
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" how does that help the area you took it from."
It doesn't hurt it because you only take a small amount. It's more like gary has two apples, and both of your apples explode, so now you're going to starve. Gary gives you one apple so you won't starve, and now only has one apple.
BUT NEITHER YOU OR GARY WILL DIE AND THE FUCKING APPLES GROW BACK
|
[
"Skin grafting is patching of a defect with skin that is removed from another site in the body. The skin graft is sutured to the edges of the defect, and a bolster dressing is placed atop the graft for seven to ten days, to immobilize the graft as it heals in place. There are two forms of skin grafting: split thickness and full thickness. In a split thickness skin graft, a shaver is used to shave a layer of skin from the abdomen or thigh. The donor site regenerates skin and heals over a period of two weeks. In a full thickness skin graft, a segment of skin is totally removed and the donor site needs to be sutured closed.\n",
"Grafting refers to a surgical procedure to move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another creature, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed. A similar technique where tissue is transferred with the blood supply intact is called a flap. In some instances a graft can be an artificially manufactured device. Examples of this are a tube to carry blood flow across a defect or from an artery to a vein for use in hemodialysis.\n",
"Grafting is a surgical procedure to move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another person, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed. A similar technique where tissue is transferred with the blood supply intact is called a flap. In some instances a grafting can be an artificially manufactured device. Examples of this are a tube to carry blood flow across a defect or from an artery to a vein for use in hemodialysis.\n",
"The term grafting is most commonly applied to skin grafting, however many tissues can be grafted: skin, bone, nerves, tendons, neurons, blood vessels, fat, and cornea are tissues commonly grafted today.\n",
"Skin grafts are often employed after serious injuries when some of the body's skin is damaged. Surgical removal (excision or debridement) of the damaged skin is followed by skin grafting. The grafting serves two purposes: it can reduce the course of treatment needed (and time in the hospital), and it can improve the function and appearance of the area of the body which receives the skin graft.\n",
"There are two types of skin grafts, the more common type is where a thin layer is removed from a healthy part of the body (the donor section) like peeling a potato, or a full thickness skin graft, which involves pinching and cutting skin away from the donor section. A full thickness skin graft is more risky, in terms of the body accepting the skin, yet it leaves only a scar line on the donor section, similar to a Cesarean section scar. For full thickness skin grafts, the donor section will often heal much more quickly than the injury and is less painful than a partial thickness skin graft.\n",
"Skin grafts are often employed after serious injuries when some of the body's skin is damaged. Surgical removal (excision or debridement) of the damaged skin is followed by skin grafting. The grafting serves two purposes: reduce the course of treatment needed (and time in the hospital), and improve the function and appearance of the area of the body which receives the skin graft.\n"
] |
if a planet or meteor the size of pluto collided with earth what would it be like for the people on the opposite side of earth? what would they see or feel?
|
We would all be dead
|
[
"A large asteroid or comet could collide with the Earth's surface with the force of hundreds to thousands of times the force of all the nuclear bombs on the Earth. For example, the K/T boundary impact has been proposed to have caused extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Early estimates of this asteroid's size put it at about in diameter. This means it hit with nearly a force of 100,000,000 MT (418 ZJ). That is over six billion times larger than the atomic bomb yield (16 kilotons, 67 TJ) that was dropped on Hiroshima during WW2. This impactor excavated the Chicxulub crater that is in diameter. With an object this size, dust and debris would still be ejected into the atmosphere even if it hit the ocean, which is only deep. An asteroid, meteor, or comet would remain intact through the atmosphere by virtue of its sheer mass. However, an object smaller than would have to have a strong iron composition to breach the lower atmosphere.\n",
"Throughout recorded history, hundreds of Earth impacts (and exploding bolides) have been reported, with some small fraction causing deaths, injuries, property damage, or other significant localised consequences. Stony asteroids with a diameter of enter Earth's atmosphere approximately once per year. Asteroids with a diameter of 7 meters enter the atmosphere about every 5 years, with as much kinetic energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima (approximately 16 kilotons of TNT), of which their air burst represents about one third or 5 kilotons. These relatively small asteroids ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere and most or all of the solids are vaporized. Asteroids with a diameter of strike Earth approximately twice every century.\n",
"Simulation work published in 2005 by Robin Canup suggested that Charon could have been formed by a collision around 4.5 billion years ago, much like Earth and the Moon. In this model, a large Kuiper belt object struck Pluto at high velocity, destroying itself and blasting off much of Pluto's outer mantle, and Charon coalesced from the debris. However, such an impact should result in an icier Charon and rockier Pluto than scientists have found. It is now thought that Pluto and Charon might have been two bodies that collided before going into orbit about each other. The collision would have been violent enough to boil off volatile ices like methane () but not violent enough to have destroyed either body. The very similar density of Pluto and Charon implies that the parent bodies were not fully differentiated when the impact occurred.\n",
"If the asteroid had collided with Mars, it would have hit with a velocity of about 13.5 km/s (8.4 miles per second), and would have produced an explosion equivalent to about 3 megatons of TNT. Due to the thin atmosphere of Mars, it was predicted that the asteroid would have reached the surface intact and blasted out a crater approximately in diameter. A crater this size would be equal to the size of the Meteor Crater in Arizona, United States. NASA officials say if it had hit Mars, it would have done so north of the location of the Opportunity rover.\n",
"It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth's surface may have caused fragments of microbe-laden rock to escape Earth's gravity, suggesting the possibility of transpermia. Calculations indicate that these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System, including Titan. On the other hand, Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other.\n",
"BULLET::::- Pluto appears in several works by Larry Niven. In his novel \"World of Ptavvs\" (1966), it is theorized to have been a moon of Neptune knocked out of orbit by an interstellar craft moving near the speed of light. A fusion-driven spacecraft landing on Pluto in this story releases the frozen methane, oxygen, etc., and causes the entire planet to be engulfed in flames. In Niven's short story \"Wait It Out\" (1968), an astronaut is stranded on Pluto and enters a strange state of suspended animation. The short story \"The Borderland of Sol\" (1975), which takes place circa 2640, Pluto is considered an escaped moon of Neptune. The solar system's outer planets are listed as Neptune, Persephone, Caïna, Antenora and Ptolemea with \"Judecca\" reserved for the next discovery.\n",
"This asteroid is about three to six times the diameter of the meteor that exploded in the skies above Chelyabinsk, Russia in February 2013, which damaged over 7,200 buildings and injured 1,500 people, mostly from flying glass. If an asteroid of this size were to enter Earth's atmosphere, a good portion of it would likely disintegrate due to friction with the air. The remnants could survive entry however and impact the surface, thus causing regional damage dependent on various factors such as composition, speed, entry angle, and location of impact.\n"
] |
washington dc
|
Well... for one the whole point of the thing is that *it isn't a state or a part of a state*.
Its a neutral ground. Beholden to no state so that the Federal Government (representing all 50 states) can conduct its business.
So the reason no state (basically Virginia and Maryland) is trying to annex DC is because that's the whole point of the place and the other 49 states might get pissed about that.
|
[
"Law enforcement in Washington, D.C. is complicated by a network of overlapping federal and city agencies. The primary agency responsible for law enforcement in the District of Columbia is the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD). The MPD is a city agency headed by the Chief of Police, currently Peter Newsham, who is appointed by the mayor. The Metropolitan Police has 3,800 sworn officers and operates much like other municipal police departments elsewhere in the country. However, given the unique status of Washington as the United States capital, the MPD is adept at providing crowd control and security at large events. Despite its name, the MPD only serves within the boundaries of the District of Columbia and does not have jurisdiction within the surrounding Washington Metropolitan Area.\n",
"Washington, D.C., in the United States, is located at (the coordinates of the Zero Milestone, on The Ellipse). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a geographical area of , of which is land, and the remaining (10.16%) of which is water.\n",
"Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States. Founded after the American Revolution as the seat of government of the newly independent country, Washington was named after George Washington, the first president of the United States and a Founding Father. As the seat of the United States federal government and several international organizations, Washington is an important world political capital. The city, located on the Potomac River bordering Maryland and Virginia, is one of the most visited cities in the world, with more than 20 million tourists annually.\n",
"Washington, D.C., remained the \"de jure\" capital of the United States, but its proximity to the Confederate States made governing impractical from there. Philadelphia is the functional capital of the United States. Powel House is the home of the President. A side-effect is that Washingtonians are still denied, under the Constitution, having a representative of their own in Congress – without having (as they do in our timeline) the compensation of being at the center of the national decision-making.\n",
"The United States Army Military District of Washington (MDW) is one of nineteen major commands of the United States Army. Its headquarters are located at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington, D.C. The missions of the units in the Military District of Washington include ceremonial tasks as well as a combat role in the defense of the National Capital Region.\n",
"The Washington metropolitan area is the metropolitan area centered on Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The area includes all of the federal district and parts of the U.S. states of Maryland and Virginia, along with a small portion of West Virginia. It is part of the larger Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area.\n",
"The O'Neill House Office Building is an office building in Washington, D.C., that houses offices of both the House of Representatives and the Department of Health and Human Services. It is named after former United States Congressman from Massachusetts and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Thomas P. \"Tip\" O'Neill Jr. and located at 200 C Street Southwest in the Southwest Federal Center district, at the foot of Capitol Hill.\n"
] |
when the internet goes down in my neighbourhood, what normally happened? how is it fixed?
|
You probably have a router or a switch that lets you connect several computers at once to your single internet connection. Simply put, your ISP has larger, more powerful routers and switches that Connect the neighbourhood to a larger part of the internet.
something with these probably failed. it could be a software error, broken hardware that they had to replace, or a power failiure.
The ISP usually notices it pretty fast, though, as it is common to have surveillance tools pay attention to whenever or not their boxes are alive and talking.
|
[
"Under certain conditions, a network component shutting down can cause current fluctuations in neighboring segments of the network leading to a cascading failure of a larger section of the network. This may range from a building, to a block, to an entire city, to an entire electrical grid.\n",
"One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage were unreachable. At Hurricane Katrina's peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without power, while around 14% of Louisiana's networks were disrupted. Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”. Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas were two explanations for the long delay in returning service. The company Cisco has revealed a Network Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.\n",
"Network connections are avoided for two reasons. Firstly, an Internet connection is a potential attack vector via which the computer could be compromised. Secondly, there is a risk that a worm on a removable device might escape into a local area network if the sheep dip computer is connected to it.\n",
"The link-state message giving information about the neighbors is recomputed, and then flooded throughout the network, whenever there is a change in the connectivity between the node and its neighbors; e.g., when a link fails. Any such change will be detected by the reachability protocol which each node runs with its neighbors.\n",
"Meanwhile, the government has attempted to find a way to fix \"the internet,\" a large machine resembling a giant Linksys wireless router, which has stopped functioning for an unknown reason. Several fruitless attempts are made to repair it: negotiating with it, communicating with it musically, and even shooting at it. Acting on a hunch, Kyle disconnects and reconnects its power cord. The network indicator now glows green to indicate that nationwide Internet access has been re-established, much to everyone's surprise.\n",
"When the Bill was originally introduced to parliament it provided that a District Court could order the disconnection of internet subscribers for up to six months in certain circumstances. This provision has been amended and the new section 122PA provides that internet subscribers can not be disconnected until an Order in Council is made by the Governor General on the recommendation of the Justice Minister. It is anticipated that disconnection of internet subscribers will be considered in 2013, as part of the five year review of the amendments to the Copyright Act 1994 made in 2008.\n",
"BULLET::::- Automatic path choice - Once connected, devices find a path to the Internet also completely automatically. If a path fails, a new one will be chosen and, if necessary, new connections will be established with other devices.\n"
] |
why is the law to own a pistol 21, while to own a long gun is 18?
|
It isn't everywhere, it varies by State. As far as potential
Justifications for it, Long guns can be used for hunting, and are good for self defense in the home as well. Hand guns are good for concealement, and are the weapon most likely to be used in crimes.
|
[
"At the age of 18 or up, it is legal to buy a pistol with a purchase license from a private seller, at the age of 21, it is legal to buy a firearm from a Federally licensed (FFL) dealer. No purchase license is required to purchase a long gun (a firearm that is more than 26 inches long) in Michigan. According to state law, a long gun may be purchased by anyone aged 18 or over who is not subject to restrictions based on criminal history, mental health history, or other disqualifying factor. A person must be at least 18 years old to purchase a long gun from a federal dealer or a private seller under Michigan law.\n",
"Minors may own firearms that are given to them by their parents, relatives, or legal guardians. However, they may not generally possess firearms unsupervised until they are 18 years of age. There are exceptions to this rule, such as when a minor possessing a hunting license (and having passed a hunter's safety course) is hunting, possession of firearm(s) on certain types of private property, and possession of firearm(s) in one's own home.\n",
"Additionally, 18 U.S.C 922 (x) generally prohibits persons under 18 years of age from possessing handguns or handgun ammunition with certain exceptions for employment, target practice, education, and a handgun possessed while defending the home of the juvenile or a home in which they are an invited guest.\n",
"The law created a national firearm registry, a 28-day waiting period for firearm sales, and tightened firearm licensing rules. The law requires anyone wishing to possess or use a firearm with some exceptions, be over the age of 12. Owners must be at least 18 years of age, have secure storage for their firearms and provide a \"genuine reason\" for doing so.\n",
"Rifle and shotgun ownership permission can be given to \"sober and responsible\" persons 18 years or older. The applicant for the permission must document a need for the weapon. Two exceptions exist to this age qualification. Persons under the age of 18, but over 16 may apply for rifle or shotgun ownership licence with the consent of parents or guardian. For handguns, the lowest ownership age is 21 with no exceptions allowed. For inherited weapons, it is up to the local police chief to make a decision based on the individual facts of the case.\n",
"Pennsylvania state law refers to a handgun as a firearm, while long gun is used to describe a shotgun, or rifle of a certain length or longer. Below the age restriction for purchasing a long gun is 18, and the age restriction for purchasing a handgun is 21. Although someone can own a handgun if they are 18 and gifted the handgun. \n",
"Firearms dealers or private individuals may not sell any firearm to someone less than 18 years old, or less than 23 years old if the buyer was \"adjudicated a delinquent child for an act that would be a felony if committed by an adult\", or to a person who is mentally incompetent or is a drug or alcohol abuser.\n"
] |
How far do slugs travel?
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Based on a quick google search, a slug can travel .013 meters per second, and typically lives for 18 months. At this rate if it slept 1/3rd of it's life (based on snail numbers, didn't see anything in 5 seconds of searching around for slugs), it would travel a maximum total of 254 miles in it's lifetime. Slugs like to travel underground though, so I'd say it's likely total travel much less than this number.
|
[
"These sea slugs sometimes occur in abundant numbers during breeding time, swarming with over 1,000 individuals per square metre, as has been observed on numerous occasions. These swarms are all oriented in the same direction, determined by the flow of the tide. They follow each other at the same speed, forming columns, in different close-knitted rows.\n",
"Accuracy of wad slugs falls off quickly at ranges beyond 75 yards (70 m), thereby largely equaling the ranges possible with Foster slugs, while still not reaching the ranges possible with traditional sabot slugs using thicker-walled sabots.\n",
"A hump slug is designed for even slower operation than a yard slug. They are often 6 axle slugs and are often paired with lower powered six axle locomotives. They are designed for the specialized purpose of pushing a long cut of cars over a hump at 2 to 3 miles per hour, while yard slugs would normally operate at up to 10 to 15 mph.\n",
"Slugs formed by terrain slugging, hydrodynamic slugging or riser-based slugging are periodical in nature. Whether a slug is able to reach the outlet of the pipeline depends on the rate at which liquids are added to the slug at the front (i.e. in the direction of flow) and the rate at which liquids leave the slug at the back. Some slugs will grow as they travel the pipeline, while others are damped and disappear before reaching the outlet of the pipeline.\n",
"Having been spread throughout the galaxy by freighters and cargo ships, Duracrete slugs dig tunnels into building foundations and feed off of the concrete in there. Some specimens have been known to reach 10 m (32.8 ft) in length. They can consume almost any kind of concrete because the parts they cannot digest are excreted into armor nodules on their bodies.\n",
"\"B. hortorum\" have been found to fly distances up to 2.5 kilometers in a relatively short period of time, approximately one to four days. Queens in particular travel long distances in dispersal flights in order to positively influence gene flow in the species. When traveling long distance, bumblebees occasionally stop to rest, often taking their breaks on prominent structures in their landscape, such as trees.\n",
"This slug can reach in size, with its body extended. It has no eyes, and is white in colour. It is predominantly burrowing, living up to a metre underground, and rarely, at night, coming to the surface. Unlike the majority of slugs, it is a carnivore, feeding on earthworms using its blade-like teeth. Both the mantle and the breathing hole are found at the tail end of the body.\n"
] |
one of the primary enemies of nazis were communists. so why did stalin ever make a pact with hitler in the first place?
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The pact wasn't an alliance. It was a non-aggression pact, so that each would keep out of the other's business.
It didn't work.
|
[
"As Stalinism came to dominate the Comintern, the united front strategy was dropped. In the period preceding Adolf Hitler's electoral victory in Germany, the Comintern argued that the social democrats were \"social fascists\" and that they, rather than the Nazis, represented the real danger. Following Hitler's victory, the Comintern argued for popular fronts drawing in forces far beyond the working class movement. Trotsky, now exiled from the Soviet Union, argued that the first conclusion was disastrous because it prevented unity against the far-right and that the second, emphasizing popular fronts, was disastrous because the terms of the struggle would be dictated by mainstream liberal parties. He feared that the communists would have to subordinate their politics within the alliance. Trotsky continued to argue for a workers' united front against fascism.\n",
"Communists and parties on the left were increasingly threatened by the growth of the Nazi movement. Hitler came to power in January 1933 and rapidly consolidated his control over Germany, destroyed the communist and socialist movements in Germany, and rejected the restraints imposed by the Versailles treaty. Stalin in 1934 reversed his decision in 1928 to attack socialists, and introduced his new plan: the \"popular front.\" It was a coalition of anti-fascist parties usually organized by the local Communists acting under instructions from the Comintern. The new policy was to work with all parties on the left and center in a multiparty coalition against fascism and Nazi Germany in particular. The new slogan was: \"The People's Front Against Fascism and War\". Under this policy Communist Parties were instructed to form broad alliances with all anti-fascist parties with the aim of both securing social advance at home and a military alliance with the USSR to isolate the fascist dictatorships. The \"Popular Fronts\" thus formed proved to be successful in only a few countries, and only for a few years each, forming the government in France, Chile and Spain, and also China. It was not a political success elsewhere. The Popular Front approach played a major role in Resistance movements in France and other countries conquered by Germany after 1939. After the war it played a major role in French and Italian politics.\n",
"Communists and parties on the left were increasingly threatened by the growth of the Nazi movement. Hitler came to power in January 1933 and rapidly consolidated his control over Germany, destroyed the communist and socialist movements in Germany, and rejected the restraints imposed by the Versailles treaty. Stalin in 1934 reversed his decision in 1928 to attack socialists, and introduced his new plan: the \"popular front.\" It was a coalition of anti-fascist parties usually organized by the local Communists acting under instructions from the Comintern. The new policy was to work with all parties on the left and center in a multiparty coalition against fascism and Nazi Germany in particular. The new slogan was: \"The People's Front Against Fascism and War\". Under this policy, Communist Parties were instructed to form broad alliances with all anti-fascist parties with the aim of both securing social advance at home and a military alliance with the USSR to isolate the fascist dictatorships. The \"Popular Fronts\" thus formed proved to be successful in only a few countries, and only for a few years each, forming the government in France, Chile and Spain, and also China. It was not a political success elsewhere. The Popular Front approach played a major role in Resistance movements in France and other countries conquered by Germany after 1939. After the war it played a major role in French and Italian politics.\n",
"Hitler's regime swiftly destroyed both the German Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party, the worst blow the world socialist movement had ever suffered. This forced Stalin to reassess his strategy, and from 1935 the Comintern began urging the formation of Popular Fronts, which were to include not just the Social Democratic parties but critically also \"progressive capitalist\" parties which were wedded to a capitalist policy.\n",
"Meanwhile, Stalin simultaneously was secretly negotiating with the Germans. He was attracted to a much better deal by Hitler, the control of most of Eastern Europe, and decided to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.\n",
"As a result of the failure of the Popular Fronts and the inability of Britain and France to conclude a defensive alliance against Hitler, Stalin again changed his policy in August 1939 and signed a non-aggression pact, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, with Nazi Germany. Shortly afterwards World War II broke out, and within two years Hitler had occupied most of Europe, and by 1942 both democracy and social democracy in central Europe fell under the threat of fascism. The only socialist parties of any significance able to operate freely were those in Britain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. But the entry of the Soviet Union into the war in 1941 marked the turning of the tide against fascism, and as the German armies retreated another great upsurge in left-wing sentiment swelled up in their wake. The resistance movements against German occupation were mostly led by socialists and communists, and by the end of the war the parties of the left were greatly strengthened.\n",
"Trotskyists have blamed Stalin's line for the rise of Nazism because it precluded unity between the German communists with the German Social Democrats. Hitler's rise to power, consequently, was also a reason for the abandonment of the policy in favor of the Popular Front strategy because Germany became the biggest security threat to the Soviet Union.\n"
] |
how to buy stocks(from a company)?
|
You can buy stocks from any brokerage, some of the bigger national ones are Charles Schwab, etrade, Scottrade, Morgan Stanley, and even many of the major retail banks.
I think at your current knowledge level, you should consider buying index mutual funds, instead of trying to day-trade stocks, or other more advanced trading techniques. Otherwise it's gambling, not investing.
I would check out /r/personalfinance for more information.
|
[
"There are other ways of buying stock besides through a broker. One way is directly from the company itself. If at least one share is owned, most companies will allow the purchase of shares directly from the company through their investor relations departments. However, the initial share of stock in the company will have to be obtained through a regular stock broker. Another way to buy stock in companies is through Direct Public Offerings which are usually sold by the company itself. A direct public offering is an initial public offering in which the stock is purchased directly from the company, usually without the aid of brokers.\n",
"When it comes to financing a purchase of stocks there are two ways: purchasing stock with money that is currently in the buyer's ownership, or by buying stock on margin. Buying stock on margin means buying stock with money borrowed against the value of stocks in the same account. These stocks, or collateral, guarantee that the buyer can repay the loan; otherwise, the stockbroker has the right to sell the stock (collateral) to repay the borrowed money. He can sell if the share price drops below the margin requirement, at least 50% of the value of the stocks in the account. Buying on margin works the same way as borrowing money to buy a car or a house, using a car or house as collateral. Moreover, borrowing is not free; the broker usually charges 8–10% interest.\n",
"There are various methods of buying and financing stocks, the most common being through a stockbroker. Brokerage firms, whether they are a full-service or discount broker, arrange the transfer of stock from a seller to a buyer. Most trades are actually done through brokers listed with a stock exchange.\n",
"Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges, and such transactions are typically heavily regulated by governments to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options, issued by many companies as part of employee compensation, do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option is exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes).\n",
"A bought out deal is a method of offering securities to the public through a sponsor or underwriter (a bank, financial institution, or an individual). The securities are listed in one or more stock exchanges within a time frame mutually agreed upon by the company and the sponsor. This option saves the issuing company the costs and time involved in a public issue. The cost of holding the shares can be reimbursed by the company, or the sponsor can offer the shares to the public at a premium to earn profits. Terms are agreed upon by the company and the sponsor.\n",
"A stock exchange is a physical or digital place to which brokers and dealers send buy and sell orders in stocks (also called shares), bonds, and other securities. Price discovery is optimized by bringing together at one point in time and place all buy and sell orders for a particular security.\n",
"Stock traders can trade on their own account, called proprietary trading, or through an agent authorized to buy and sell on the owner’s behalf. Trading through an agent is usually through a stockbroker. Agents are paid a commission for performing the trade.\n"
] |
Is this a meteorite? (Here are pictures and surface x-ray results)
|
The high ferrite composition and the mix of some heavier elements(though in fewer percentages) would lead one to believe it might be a meteorite. The resource places are going to do the exact same thing you did. They're gonna use probably a higher end x-ray spectrograph and get more accurate results. Your best bet is to go to your local university physics/chemistry/astronomy department and talk with an administrator or professor. The weight of 225oz (14lbs) seems very low since the surface composition contains a lot of iron. It could be very porous on the inside.
One thing you could do.. is measure the volume (immersing in water, measuring the displaced water (1g of water = 1cm^3 ) using this you could estimate the weight if it were a solid piece of 70%iron ie. rho_iron*0.7*V etc.) using this you could hesitate a guess as to if the sample is porous on the inside, though this is just to estimate and should only be used for a general idea.
Also.. i noticed 3.4% of it is Palladium.. considering Palladium is a very rare earth metal and super expensive.. if we assume this is true.. we have between 6-8(8-10 troy oz) of palladium which is selling around 600-700 a troy oz.. You seem to have a lot of money worth of rare minerals.. indium, rhodium, cadmium,silver.
I would hesitate to say it's space junk due to the heavier elements involved, but the weight is what concerns me.. most meteors (A chunk they have at the Arizona crater, is about 4-5basketballs big and weights 200+lbs if i recall correctly..) are very heavy.
*edit*
added some additional ideas/thoughts
*Note* im currently an undergrad physics student, i have read a lot about meteorites and other information, but i cannot say for certain i am an authority, i would estimate myself between layman and knowledgeable on this topic, feel free to correct/disregard this information (if mods want me to remove this i will)
|
[
"Caroline Smith, meteorite curator at the Natural History Museum in London, stated that the pictures and video footage of the burning crater indicated that it was not a meteorite crater: meteorites are not aflame when they strike Earth. Smith also pointed out that there were no other reported sightings of any fireball in the sky, which would have been very clearly visible had the \"meteorite\" been real.\n",
"The meteorite is a nearly completely crystalline rock, with a composition typical of volcanic lava crystallized from molten silicate. The sample closely resembles that of basalts collected from Earth and the Moon. Close examination of this sample shows glassy feldspar, which can be shown to have formed under unique conditions, common with impact shock. This glass retains its original structure, showing evidence for no flow having occurred. This process is likely caused due to intense shock waves, such as a large meteoric impact.\n",
"Authorities discounted proposed explanations such as a plane crash, errant missile test, or reentering satellite debris and generally assumed it to be a meteor. Astronomer Paul Annear said the fireball was likely a meteor entering the Earth's atmosphere. Geophysicist George Wetherilo discounted speculations that it was debris from a satellite and agreed the reports were probably due to a meteor. Astronomers William P. Bidelman and Fred Hess said it undoubtedly was a meteor bolide. A spokesman for the Defense Department in Washington said first reports indicated the reported fireball was a natural phenomenon.\n",
"The Peekskill meteorite is among the most historic meteorite events on record. Sixteen separate video recordings document the meteorite burning through the Earth's atmosphere, whereupon it struck a parked car in Peekskill, New York. Peekskill is an H6 monomict breccia; its filigreed texture is the result of the shocking and heating following the impact of two asteroids in outer space. The meteorite is of the stony variety and approximately 20% of its mass is tiny flakes of nickel-iron. When it struck Earth, the meteorite weighed and measured one foot (0.30 m) in diameter. The Peekskill meteorite is estimated to be 4.4 billion years old.\n",
"The meteorite fragments were recovered within days after the fall, so it is considered an \"uncontaminated\" meteorite. The meteorite displays evidence of water weathering, and there are signs of elements being carried into cracks in the rocks by water or fluid, which is something never seen before in a Martian meteorite. Specifically, scientists found carbon and nitrogen-containing compounds associated with hydrothermal mineral inclusions. One team reported measuring an elevated carbon-13 (C) ratio, while another team reported a low C ratio as compared to the content in Mars' atmosphere and crust, and suggested that it may be of biological origin, but the researchers also noted that there a several geological processes that could explain that without invoking complex life-processes; for example, it could be of meteoritic origin and would have been mixed with Martian soil when meteorites and comets impact the surface of Mars, or of volcanic origin.\n",
"The Nōgata meteorite is an L6 chondrite meteorite fragment, found in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is believed to be the oldest fragment associated with a sighting of a meteor fall. Witnessed by a young boy on May 19, 861, who led others to the impact site, it was accepted as having come from the sky. It was analyzed and described by Masako Shima of the National Science Museum of Tokyo and accepted by the Nomenclature Committee of the Meteoritical Society in 1979. Shima published a complete analysis of the chemical makeup of the fragment in 1983. It is on display in a Shinto shrine in Nōgata.\n",
"The first fragment of the meteorite (N01) was recovered by Lisa Webber on 20 October after reading a story in the San Francisco Chronicle that described the NASA/CAMS meteor trajectory predicting a fall area in the North Bay. Lisa recalled hearing a sound on her roof the night of the meteor and went outside and located a 62 gram stone. Analysis of fragment N01 by Dr. Alan Rubin came back as a L6 breccia.\n"
] |
what is that bright halo around light that we always see?
|
You have two components in your eyes that actually "see". They are called "Rods" and "Cones". "Rods" are spread throughout your retina while "Cones" are almost exclusively found in your Fovea (the middle of your visible range where there is a dense cluster of cones). The perception of these different components actually varies quite a bit. Rods see a very limited range of color and are typically thought of as black and white vision although this isn't completely true. Cones can see color, but they aren't as sensitive to low light conditions as Rods. So, if you focus on an object, you are looking at it mostly with Cones. If you saw a picture of what you actually see, it would look like two pages that are mostly bluish gray blurry with a small circle in each that is in focus and in color. There would also be a black spot in each where the optic nerve connects (your blind spot). What we perceive is a trick. The back lobe of our brain does nothing but process what we see into a more usable image that our conscious mind works with. This is why you may see something move out of the corner of your eye that turned out to be nothing like what you thought you saw.
Anyway, when you look at a bright light, your rods and cones are picking it up, but the rods pick it up more intensely. This is why in the transition between the rods and cones, you actually see a re intensifying of the light or a "halo". Another neat trick, if it's really dim, you can actually see better by focusing on a point near where you are looking than actually on what you want to see. (like look 10 degrees away from the object) This is because you will be using more rods than cones, and they are more sensitive to low light conditions.
|
[
"In optics, the Arago spot, Poisson spot, or Fresnel bright spot is a bright point that appears at the center of a circular object's shadow due to Fresnel diffraction. This spot played an important role in the discovery of the wave nature of light and is a common way to demonstrate that light behaves as a wave (for example, in undergraduate physics laboratory exercises).\n",
"A halo (ἅλως; also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole) is an optical phenomenon produced by the interaction of light from the sun or moon with ice crystals in the atmosphere, resulting in colored or white arcs, rings or spots in the sky. Many halos are positioned near the sun or moon, but others are elsewhere and even in the opposite part of the sky. They can also form around artificial lights in very cold weather when ice crystals called diamond dust are floating in the nearby air.\n",
"The halo ring appears brightest in forward-scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by \"Galileo\". While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than , the halo's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form \"z\" to \"z\", where \"z\" is altitude over the ring plane. The halo's appearance in the back-scattered light, as observed by Keck and HST, is the same. However its total photon flux is several times lower than that of the main ring and is more strongly concentrated near the ring plane than in the forward-scattered light.\n",
"The mysterious dark \"orthicon halo\" around bright objects in an IO-captured image is based on the fact that the IO relies on the emission of photoelectrons, but very bright illumination can produce more of them locally than the device can successfully deal with. At a very bright point on a captured image, a great preponderance of electrons is ejected from the photosensitive plate. So many may be ejected that the corresponding point on the collection mesh can no longer soak them up, and thus they fall back to nearby spots on the target instead, much as water splashes in a ring when a rock is thrown into it. Since the resultant splashed electrons do not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.\n",
"Among the best-known halos is the 22° halo, often just called \"halo\", which appears as a large ring around the Sun or Moon with a radius of about 22° (roughly the width of an outstretched hand at arm's length). The ice crystals that cause the 22° halo are oriented semi-randomly in the atmosphere, in contrast to the horizontal orientation required for some other halos such as sun dogs and light pillars. As a result of the optical properties of the ice crystals involved, no light is reflected towards the inside of the ring, leaving the sky noticeably darker than the sky around it, and giving it the impression of a \"hole in the sky\". The 22° halo is not to be confused with the corona, which is a different optical phenomenon caused by water droplets rather than ice crystals, and which has the appearance of a multicolored disk rather than a ring.\n",
"In China, the phenomenon is called Buddha's light (or halo). It is often observed on cloud-shrouded high mountains, such as Huangshan and Mount Emei. Records of the phenomenon at Mount Emei date back to A.D. 63. The colorful halo always surrounds the observer's own shadow, and thus was often taken to show the observer's personal enlightenment (associated with Buddha or divinity).\n",
"How often a circumhorizontal arc is seen, depends on the location and the latitude of the observer. In the United States it is a relatively common halo, seen several times each summer in any one place. In contrast, it is a rare phenomenon in northern Europe for several reasons. Apart from the presence of ice-containing clouds in the right position in the sky, the halo requires that the light source (Sun or Moon) be very high in the sky, at an elevation of 58° or greater. This means that the solar variety of the halo is impossible to see at locations north of 55°N or south of 55°S. A lunar circumhorizon arc might be visible at other latitudes, but is much rarer since it requires a nearly full Moon to produce enough light. At other latitudes the solar circumhorizontal arc is visible, for a greater or lesser time, around the summer solstice. Slots of visibility for different latitudes and locations may be looked up here. For example, in London, England the sun is only high enough for 140 hours between mid-May and late July, whereas Los Angeles has the sun higher than 58 degrees for 670 hours between late March and late September.\n"
] |
el15: how many fps does the human eye see?
|
This article goes into great detail about how the human eye interprets movies and the real world.
_URL_0_
For those that don't want to read, this quote pretty much sums it up.
" Seeing framewise is simply not the way how the eye\brain system works. It works with a continuous flow of light\information."
An example they use is that a movie of a slow moving fog can seem fluid at extremely low framerates ( < 10) because of it's lack of sharp edges and fast movement.
On the other hand, fluidity a game, where quick movement and high detail are present, can be greatly affected by framerate. It's pretty easy to see a difference between 30 and 60 fps, and higher refresh smooth things out even more.
The human eye can discern fluid movement at a wide range of fps, but when viewing the real world, it does not see in "fps", as light is constantly streaming into it and being processed.
***apologies for poor formatting. Mobile user***
|
[
"The human eye can detect a luminance range of 10, or one hundred trillion (100,000,000,000,000) (about 46.5 f-stops), from 10 cd/m, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per square meter to 10 cd/m or one hundred million (100,000,000) candelas per square meter. This range does not include looking at the midday sun (10 cd/m) or lightning discharge.\n",
"The fastest f-number for the human eye is about 2.1, corresponding to a diffraction-limited point spread function with approximately 1 μm diameter. However, at this f-number, spherical aberration limits visual acuity, while a 3 mm pupil diameter (f/5.7) approximates the resolution achieved by the human eye. The maximum density of cones in the human fovea is approximately 170,000 per square millimeter, which implies that the cone spacing in the human eye is about 2.5 μm, approximately the diameter of the point spread function at f/5.\n",
"Featuring a 14 megapixel image sensor and further increased autofocus (hybrid autofocus with phase detection/contrast-detect AF and AF-assist illuminator) speed to 15 frames per second (fps), the maximum continuous shooting speed stays at 60 fps for up to 40 frames.\n",
"Featuring a new 14 megapixel image sensor and further increased autofocus (hybrid autofocus with phase detection/contrast-detect AF and AF-assist illuminator) speed to 15 frames per second (fps), the maximum continuous shooting speed stays at 60 fps for up to 40 frames.\n",
"The LG G Pro Lite has an 8 MP back-illuminated camera sensor and a single LED flash. The phone is also capable of recording FullHD 1080p video at 30 FPS. The phone also features a front-facing 1.3 MP camera, capable of recording HD 720p video at 30 FPS. The camera supports digital zoom of up to 8X magnification.\n",
"The FGS will be sensitive enough to reach 58 µJy at 1.25 µm (~Jab = 19.5), and has a 2.4×2.4 arcminute square field of view. This combination of sky coverage and sensitivity ensures that an appropriate guide star can be found with 95% probability at any point in the sky, including high galactic latitudes.\n",
"The maximum angular resolution of the human eye is 28 arc seconds or 0.47 arc minutes, this gives an angular resolution of 0.008 degrees, and at a distance of 1 km corresponds to 136 mm. This is equal to 0.94 arc minutes per line pair (one white and one black line), or 0.016 degrees. For a pixel pair (one white and one black pixel) this gives a pixel density of 128 pixels per degree (PPD).\n"
] |
Why doesn't all the hydrogen in the sun undergo fusion simultaneously?
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When two hydrogen nuclei (protons) managed to slam together hard enough to fuse, they form a "diproton" (effectively a Helium-2 nucleus). This is a hideously unstable particle, and the vast majority of them simply immediately decay back into two protons, to no net effect. The tiny fraction that instead decay into deuterium (one proton becomes a neutron) is what drives the [proton-proton fusion cycle](_URL_0_). The incredible slowness of this first step is what lets the Sun continue shining for billions of years; if it was faster, it would've burnt out long ago (although it probably still wouldn't happen *instantly*, due to the effects mentioned by others in this thread).
|
[
"Because lithium-8 and beryllium-12 form natural stopping points on the table of isotopes for hydrogen fusion, it is believed that all of the higher elements are formed in very hot stars where higher orders of fusion predominate. A star like the Sun produces energy by the fusion of simple H-1 into helium-4 through a series of reactions. It is believed that when the inner core exhausts its H-1 fuel, the Sun will contract, slightly increasing its core temperature until He-4 can fuse and become the main fuel supply. Pure He-4 fusion leads to Be-8, which decays back to 2 He-4; therefore the He-4 must fuse with isotopes either more or less massive than itself to result in an energy producing reaction. When He-4 fuses with H-2 or H-3, it forms stable isotopes Li-6 and Li-7 respectively. The higher order isotopes between Li-8 and C-12 are synthesized by similar reactions between hydrogen, helium, and lithium isotopes.\n",
"This would imply that for the core of the sun, which has a Boltzmann distribution with a temperature of around 1.4 keV, the probability hydrogen would reach the threshold is formula_7, that is, fusion would never occur. However, fusion in the sun does occur due to quantum mechanics.\n",
"This is discussed below. It is notable that although most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements, such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion that occurs in so-called hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (either tritium or deuterium, or both) in order for the process to work.\n",
"If there were no deuterium fusion, there would be no stars with masses more than about two or three times the mass of the Sun in the pre-main-sequence phase, as the more intense hydrogen fusion would occur and prevent the object from accreting matter. Deuterium fusion allows further accretion of mass by acting as a thermostat that temporarily stops the central temperature from rising above about one million degrees, a temperature not hot enough for hydrogen fusion, but allowing time for the accumulation of more mass. When the energy transport mechanism switches from convective to radiative, energy transport slows, allowing the temperature to rise and hydrogen fusion take over in a stable and sustained way. Hydrogen fusion will begin at .\n",
"Hydrogen fusion may occur in a stable manner on the surface of the white dwarf for a narrow range of accretion rates, giving rise to a super soft X-ray source, but for most binary system parameters, the hydrogen burning is unstable thermally and rapidly converts a large amount of the hydrogen into other, heavier chemical elements in a runaway reaction, liberating an enormous amount of energy. This blows the remaining gases away from the surface of the white dwarf surface and produces an extremely bright outburst of light.\n",
"Fusion powers stars and produces virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. The Sun is a main-sequence star, and, as such, generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen and makes 606 million metric tons of helium each second. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.7% of the mass is carried away in the form of kinetic energy of an alpha particle or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"Since the Sun formed, the main fusion process has involved fusing hydrogen into helium. Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed. Within the core, the proportion of helium has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere towards the center of the Sun because of gravity. The proportions of metals (heavier elements) is unchanged. Heat is transferred outward from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they remain in the core and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun's core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium. In the current photosphere the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and become a red giant.\n"
] |
why do fat/obese/overweight people generally have a lot of strength even if they do not work out?
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They gotta carry their fat ass everywhere they go
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[
"Obesity induced from lack of exercise also contributes to a decrease in general mental health. Overweight children and teens are more likely to suffer from poor self-esteem, negative body image, teasing, and bullying.\n",
"Obesity is a physical marker of poor health, increasing the likelihood of various diseases. Due to social constructs surrounding health, the belief that being skinny is healthy and discrimination against those perceived to be 'unhealthy', people who are considered overweight or obese on the BMI scale face many social challenges. Challenges can range from basic things such as buying clothes, pressure from society to change their body, and being unable to get a job. This can lead to various problems such as eating disorders, self-esteem issues, and misdiagnosis and improper treatment of physical ailments due to discrimination.\n",
"Dieting to reduce excess body fat is widely practiced in Western society, while some traditional societies still value obesity as a sign of prosperity. Development of muscles through exercise, previously disdained as a stigma of doing heavy manual labor, is now valued as a sign of personal achievement. Some groups, such as extreme bodybuilders and sumo wrestlers use special exercise and diet to \"bulk up\" into an impressive appearance.\n",
"Being underweight is associated with certain medical conditions, including anorexia, type 1 diabetes, hyperthyroidism, cancer, or tuberculosis. People with gastrointestinal or liver problems may be unable to absorb nutrients adequately. People with certain eating disorders can also be underweight due to lack of nutrients/over exercise.\n",
"BULLET::::- There is no evidence that obesity is related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Weight gain and loss are directly attributable to diet and activity. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate.\n",
"Obesity is most commonly caused by a combination of excessive food intake, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibility. A few cases are caused primarily by genes, endocrine disorders, medications, or mental disorder. The view that obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism is not medically supported. On average, obese people have a greater energy expenditure than their normal counterparts due to the energy required to maintain an increased body mass.\n",
"Body fat can impact on an individual mentally, for example high levels of android fat have been linked to poor mental wellbeing, including anxiety, depression and body confidence issues. On the reverse, psychological aspects can impact on body fat distribution too, for example women classed as being more extraverted tend to have less android body fat.\n"
] |
if a 5 year old were to fall into a coma and wake up 20 years later, how would they act?
|
Probably like a two year old.
You don't spend 15 years in a coma and come back without some severe mental deficits.
|
[
"People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual, and psychological difficulties that need special attention. It is common for coma patients to awaken in a profound state of confusion and suffer from dysarthria, the inability to articulate any speech. Recovery usually occurs gradually. In the first days, patients may only awaken for a few minutes, with increased duration of wakefulness as their recovery progresses and may eventually recover full awareness. That said, some patients may never progress beyond very basic responses.\n",
"A person in a state of coma is described as comatose. In general patients surviving a coma recover gradually within 2–4 weeks. But recovery to full awareness and arousal is not always possible. Some patients do not progress further than vegetative state or minimally conscious state and sometimes this also results in prolonged stages before further recovery to complete consciousness.\n",
"A brain-damaged man, trapped in a coma-like state for six years, was brought back to consciousness in 2003 by doctors who planted electrodes deep inside his brain. The method, called deep brain stimulation (DBS) successfully roused communication, complex movement and eating ability in the 38-year-old American man who suffered a traumatic brain injury. His injuries left him in a minimally conscious state (MCS), a condition akin to a coma but characterized by occasional, but brief, evidence of environmental and self-awareness that coma patients lack.\n",
"10. In 2005, a youngster from Cundinamarca, Andean Colombia, suffered an accident that left her in a coma. After some months of prayer by her family using Our Lord of Miracles novena, she recovered consciousness.\n",
"Comas can last from several days to several weeks. In more severe cases a coma may last for over five weeks, while some have lasted as long as several years. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a vegetative state, and others die. Some patients who have entered a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness and in some cases, may remain in vegetative state for years or even decades (the longest recorded period being 42 years).\n",
"At the age of thirteen, a life-threatening horse accident caused her to spend a month and a half in the hospital to recover from a coma due to a skull fracture. That event left a mark and, even though she was just a little girl, she promised herself she would always live her life at the fullest.\n",
"Jan Grzebski (1942 – 12 December 2008) was a Polish railroad worker who fell into a coma in 1988 and woke up in 2007. He actually stayed in coma for four years but fully recovered only 19 years after.\n"
] |
Who actually wrote the Magna Carta?
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I was going to summarise [this lecture](_URL_1_) from May but fortunately _URL_2_ has it online! The person giving this paper is one of the leads on the AHRC-funded [Magna Carta Project](_URL_0_), which represents the culmination of several years of study by scholars from the University of Easy Anglia and Kings College London including several notable authorities on thirteenth-century England such as Nick Vincent and David Carpenter.
|
[
"Magna Carta is an English charter originally issued in 1215 which influenced the development of the common law and many later constitutional documents, such as the 1689 English Bill of Rights, the 1789 United States Constitution, and the 1791 United States Bill of Rights. \n",
"\"1215: The Year of Magna Carta\" is a rare documentation because it is a work of creative non-fiction, a method of writing which is rarely used in writing a historical text. Based on the title, one may expect to read a book entirely about the Magna Carta, the document that changed the course of England's history. However, the book goes into detail about life in the Middle Ages, specifically in the year 1215. The book begins by explaining the everyday life of someone of royalty, then of the average peasant. It explains school, the countryside, hunting, tournaments, battles and the church. Throughout the book, several references to the Magna Carta are intertwined with everyday events. For example, the chapter entitled \"Family Strife\" begins with the quotation from clause 62 of the Magna Carta: “We have completely remitted and pardoned to all any ill will, grudge and rancor that have arisen between us and our subjects.” \n",
"The first draft of the Magna Carta was written at St Albans Abbey in 1213. It contained significant provisions still in force to this day, including the principle of \"habeas corpus\" (which was first invoked in court in 1305). Two years later, King John was in St Albans when he learned of the Archbishop of Canterbury's suspension. Though John agreed to the Magna Carta, he did not adhere to it, and Hertfordshire was the main battlefield in the civil war that followed. On 16 December 1216, during the First Barons' War, Hertford Castle surrendered after a siege from Dauphin Louis (later Louis VIII of France), whom the English barons had invited to England to replace John as King. Berkhamsted Castle surrendered around the same time.\n",
"At the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as \"habeas corpus\". Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings propounded by the Stuart monarchs. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the American Constitution in 1787, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. \n",
"The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the \"Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis\" of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527.\n",
"Magna Carta was originally written because of disagreements between Pope Innocent III, King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the King to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered—most notably the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment.\n",
"1215: The Year of Magna Carta is a historical documentation of life in Medieval England written by author and journalist Danny Danziger and emeritus professor of history at the London School of Economics John Gillingham. It was originally published in 2003 by Hodder & Stoughton, a division of Hodder Headline. In 2004, it was published in the United States by Touchstone. This book is a sequel to Danziger's previous work, \"The Year 1000\", which he co-authored with author Robert Lacey.\n"
] |
Magnitude or depth, which is more important to strength of an earthquake?
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In terms of perceived strength at a location (i.e. the [intensity of an earthquake](_URL_1_)), both the depth and magnitude will matter, as will horizontal distance from the epicenter (this together with depth will determine how far seismic waves have had to travel to reach your location and generally waves attenuate with distance), [seismic site effects](_URL_3_) and the [directivity](_URL_7_) of the earthquake rupture with respect to the location. Generally (if we were standing on the epicenter so depth = distance from the [hypocenter](_URL_5_)) we could say that as depth increases or magnitude decreases, the perceived intensity of the earthquake at a point on the surface will decrease, but given the variability and the importance of the details for any particular rupture, there is no unique answer as to which one would be the larger determinant. Anecdotally, I would probably argue that depth has a potentially larger importance given the huge depth range over which earthquakes can occur. For example, this [M 8.2, 600 km deep earthquake](_URL_4_) was [barely felt](_URL_6_) where as this [M 8.2, 47 km deep earthquake](_URL_8_) was [widely felt](_URL_0_) and indeed [killed 78 people](_URL_2_). The 600 km deep earthquake is definitely an anomaly (we don't see too many earthquakes that deep, let alone that big at that depth), but it illustrates that extreme depth can really attenuate shaking felt at the surface.
|
[
"In seismology, the depth of focus or focal depth refers to the depth at which an earthquake occurs. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than are classified as shallow-focus earthquakes, while those with a focal depth between and are commonly termed mid-focus or intermediate-depth earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths in the mantle, ranging from up to .\n",
"The focal depth can be calculated from measurements based on seismic wave phenomena. As with all wave phenomena in physics, there is uncertainty in such measurements that grows with the wavelength so the focal depth of the source of these long-wavelength (low frequency) waves is difficult to determine exactly. Very strong earthquakes radiate a large fraction of their released energy in seismic waves with very long wavelengths and therefore a stronger earthquake involves the release of energy from a larger mass of rock.\n",
"The correlation between magnitude and intensity is far from total, depending upon several factors including the depth of the hypocenter, terrain, distance from the epicenter. For example, a 4.5 magnitude quake in Salta, Argentina, in 2011, that was 164 km deep had a maximum intensity of I, while a 2.2 magnitude event in Barrow in Furness, England, in 1865, about 1 km deep had a maximum intensity of VIII.\n",
"The depth is important, but uncertain in the top 50 km. The depths of earthquakes range from 0 to about 700 km. Generally, only the earthquakes in the top 100 km are close enough to settlements to cause casualties. The decrease of the wave amplitudes as a function of distance (Figure 2) shows that dangerous intensities, I≥VII, do not exist beyond 30 to 50 km for major earthquakes. Thus, deep earthquakes are usually not of interest for alerts.\n",
"Richter chose to use the term \"magnitude\" to describe an earthquake's strength because of his early interest in astronomy; stargazers use the word to describe the brightness of stars. Gutenberg suggested that the scale be logarithmic so an earthquake of magnitude 7 would be ten times stronger than a 6, a hundred times stronger than a 5, and a thousand times stronger than a 4. (The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that shook San Francisco was magnitude 6.9.)\n",
"The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake. This is used in the moment magnitude scale or the Richter magnitude scale. For example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 32 times and a 6.0 releases 1000 times the energy of a 4.0. Another logarithmic scale is apparent magnitude. It measures the brightness of stars logarithmically. Yet another example is pH in chemistry; pH is the negative of the common logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions (the form hydrogen ions take in water). The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 10 mol·L, hence a pH of 7. Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3. The difference of 4 corresponds to a ratio of 10 of the activity, that is, vinegar's hydronium ion activity is about .\n",
"The Local magnitude scale was developed on the basis of shallow (~ deep), moderate-sized earthquakes at a distance of approximately , conditions where the surface waves are predominant. At greater depths, distances, or magnitudes the surface waves are greatly reduced, and the Local magnitude scale underestimates the magnitude, a problem called \"saturation\". Additional scales were developed – a surface-wave magnitude scale () by Beno Gutenberg in 1945, a body-wave magnitude scale () by Gutenberg and Richter in 1956, and a number of variants – to overcome the deficiencies of the scale, but all are subject to saturation. A particular problem was that the scale (which in the 1970s was the preferred magnitude scale) saturates around , and therefore underestimates the energy release of \"great\" earthquakes such as the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan earthquakes. These had magnitudes of 8.5 and 8.4 respectively but were notably more powerful than other M 8 earthquakes; their moment magnitudes were closer to 9.6 and 9.3.\n"
] |
Baltic and North Seas meet but don't mix because of the differing density. Is a difference in density sufficient to cause immiscibility?
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They may have a boundary like that but diffusion happens between the two bodies. It is not correct to think they wall each other off. Keep in mind that this is a surface picture only.
|
[
"The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land (rivers, streams and alike), combined with the shallowness of the sea itself; runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about and yearly runoff is about .\n",
"The Nordic Seas include the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the Iceland Sea. The Greenland and the Norwegian Sea are separately distinguished by Mohn’s Ridge. The Greenland and Iceland Sea are separated by the Jan Mayen fracture zone, and the Norwegian and Iceland Seas have the Aegir Ridge between them. The Nordic Seas have varying and diverse features as a result of each sea having separate water mass structures and circulation patterns. The Greenland Sea produces dense waters because of its high salinity and cooler temperatures from winter cooling. Higher salinity is present as a result of the Greenland Sea’s close proximity to the salinity inflow that occurs from the Atlantic Ocean. Another dense water source comes from the Arctic waters that also flow into the Greenland Sea. These water source mixtures are important because they play a role in the overflows that occur in the North Atlantic. The water that overflows from the Greenland ridge becomes the North Atlantic Deep Water dense water, even though this body of water does not make up the deep waters of the Nordic Sea.\n",
"Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Originally the confluence of two major river systems prior to the Pleistocene, since then it has been flooded by the North Sea but still receives so much freshwater from the adjacent lands that the water is brackish. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is denser than freshwater, the water in the Baltic is stratified, with salt water at the bottom and freshwater at the top. Limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species only found in deep water in the Baltic, while pike are confined to the less saline surface waters.\n",
"The open surface waters of the Baltic Sea \"proper\" generally have a salinity of 0.3 to 0.9%, which is border-line freshwater. The flow of fresh water into the sea from approximately two hundred rivers and the introduction of salt from the southwest builds up a gradient of salinity in the Baltic Sea. The highest surface salinities, generally 0.7–0.9%, is in the southwestern-most part of the Baltic, in the Arkona and Bornholm Basins (the former located roughly between southeast Zealand and Bornholm, and the latter directly east of Bornholm). It gradually falls further east and north, reaching the lowest in the Bothnian Bay at around 0.3%. Drinking the surface water of the Baltic as a means of survival would actually hydrate the body instead of dehydrating, as is the case with ocean water.\n",
"The water masses that encompass the Nordic Seas are always changing in response to the local variations that occur between atmosphere-ocean fluxes and convection of intermediate to deep water. The Nordic Seas are found between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean, both having variable surface water conditions. The Nordic Seas are complex in the variety of water masses it contains: two surface waters, three intermediate waters, and three deep waters. Figure 3 shows the water mass circulations that occur in the Nordic Seas, displaying the surface waters, the intermediate waters, and the deep waters.\n",
"The surface temperature of the Baltic Sea will increase as the air temperature increases. Some models predict up to 4 °C increases in surface water temperature. Sea ice cover is expected to decrease and be localized to the northern Gulf of Bothnia by the end on the century. The salinity of the Baltic Sea is predicted to fall in some climate models as a result of increased influx of freshwater from the mainland, though other models differ significantly with some even showing an increase in salinity.\n",
"The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology. The remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen and in species. Thus, statistically, the more of the entrance that is included in its definition, the healthier the Baltic appears; conversely, the more narrowly it is defined, the more endangered its biology appears.\n"
] |
how does pi contain every word or combination of words?
|
This is a common misconception.
Pi is an irrational number. Irrational numbers are numbers that can't be expressed as a quotient of two whole numbers. One minor property of irrational numbers is that when you try to write them as decimal fractions, you get an infinite and non-repeating sequence of digits.
There are a lot more irrational numbers, for example e (euler's constant), the square roots of 2, 3, 5 (and every other number that isn't a whole square) and many others - in fact, there are more irrational numbers than rationals.
A special subset of irrationals are *normal* numbers. In the decimal expansion of a normal number, sequences of digits are distributed uniformly - so for example every possible digit appears about 1/10th of the times, and every possible pair of digits appears 1/100th of the times, etc. (it's a bit more complex, but lets leave it at that). In a normal number, every possible combination of digits appears somewhere. Since we can use numbers to encode letters (a=1, b=2, c=3...) you can say that a normal number contains every possible word or phrase.
Here's an example for a normal number: 0.12345678910111213141516171819202122.....99100101102103104.....
Pi is hypothesized to be a normal number, however it is yet to be proven. Not every irrational number is normal - for example, the number 0.101001000100001000001000000... is obviously infinite and not repeating (hence it is irrational), but it doesn't contain the digits 2-9.
|
[
"Mnemonic phrases or poems can be used to encode numeric sequences by various methods, one common one is to create a new phrase in which the number of letters in each word represents the according digit of pi. For example, the first 15 digits of the mathematical constant pi (3.14159265358979) can be encoded as \"Now I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics\"; \"Now\", having 3 letters, represents the first number, 3. Piphilology is the practice dedicated to creating mnemonics for pi.\n",
"All PIDs consist of a lower-case letter, followed by seven or more other characters which may be lower case letters, or digits. Vowels (a, e, i, o, u) are not used, so that offensive words cannot be generated inadvertently. The first letter \"b\" means the content reference identifier (CRID) authority is Red Bee; a \"p\" means that the authority is the BBC's Programme Information Pages database, (PIPs). An \"s\" is used internally, for PIDs identifying partners and suppliers. Other sources, denoted by different opening letters, could potentially be introduced.\n",
"The piku follows the rules of conventional haiku (three lines of 5, 7 and 5 syllables), but with the added mnemonic trick that each word contains the same number of letters as the numerals of pi, e.g.\n",
"Pi (; uppercase Π, lowercase π and ϖ; ) is the sixteenth letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the sound . In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 80. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Pe (). Letters that arose from pi include Cyrillic Pe (П, п), Coptic pi (Ⲡ, ⲡ), and Gothic pairthra (𐍀).\n",
"While in this example each word is the same number of letters as the next digit of pi (and ten letters for the digit 0), some sections use words of more than ten letters as a one followed by another digit:\n",
"The plural enclitic \"=pi\" is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics \"=kte\", \"=kiŋ\", \"=kštó\", or \"=na\". If the vowel preceding \"=pi\" is high/open, \"=pi\" becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), \"=pi\" becomes [o] (if the preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): \"hi=pi=kte\", \"they will arrive here\", [hiukte]; \"yatkáŋ=pi=na\", \"they drank it and...\", .\n",
"In its basic form, PIL uses first order logic without equality, with the usual connectives formula_1 (\"and, or, not\" and \"implies\" respectively), quantifiers formula_2 finitely many predicate (relation) symbols, and countably many constant symbols formula_3.\n"
] |
how can someone with a peanut allergy develop a semi-immunity to peanuts?
|
Immunotherapy has been applied to many allergies, yes.
There's two general competing mechanisms that drive allergy.
The first is what you could call the "pro atopic" side. This is the allergic response, and in these types of allergies it is mediated by a class of antibody called IgE. To simplify it a lot, more IgE against the allergen = more allergic response.
The second is the regulatory side. The regulatory side is what inhibits the allergic response and reduces IgE levels. This is mediated, in part, by a class of antibody called IgG4. Also very simplified, more IgG4 against the allergen = less allergic response.
We know that some factors favor an IgE response. These are: later exposure in life, intermittent exposure, high dose exposure.
We know some factors favor an IgG4 response / lower IgE response: earlier exposure in life, consistent exposure, low dose exposure.
Immunotherapy works by giving you a low dose, consistent exposure to the allergen to build up a regulatory response.
It's been proven to work in a lot of clinical trials for many common allergies, but work is still ongoing. Part of the trick is that you have to do the immunotherapy just right, or the allergy may just get worse. The best preventive measure, though, seems to be exposure to the allergen before 1-2-years-old (based on other trials).
|
[
"Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur.\n",
"The clinical trial results indicate that with the administration of TNX-901, patients, who could tolerate an average of half a peanut before the treatment, were able to ingest up to 9 peanuts before they started to have allergic reactions. Therefore, TNX-901 cannot cure peanut allergy, but could protect patients from the often violent and life-threatening reactions upon the accidental exposure to peanut. Note that this clinical study was not done on patients who were known to develop deadly anaphylactic reactions to minute traces of peanut.\n",
"As Bamba is made with peanuts, people allergic to peanuts may be severely affected by it. However early peanut consumption is associated with less prevalence of peanut allergy. In fact, a 2008 study concluded that, due to the extensive consumption of Bamba by infants in Israel, peanut allergy is rare. A control group of Jewish children in the UK had ten times higher rates of allergy; the difference is not accounted for by differences in atopy, social class, genetic background, or peanut allergenicity.\n",
"When infants consume peanut proteins while 4 to 11 months old, the risk of developing peanut allergy before the age of 5 years decreases by 11-25%, specifically in children with higher allergy risk via their parents with peanut allergy. From these results, the American Academy of Pediatrics rescinded their recommendation to delay exposure to peanuts in children, also stating there is no reason to avoid peanuts during pregnancy or breastfeeding.\n",
"Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive. Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products.\n",
"Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n",
"People with confirmed peanut allergy may have cross-reactivity to tree nut, soy, and other legumes, such as peas and lentils and lupinus. The cause of cross-reactivity results from similarity in the structures of storage proteins between the food sources. Allergenic proteins are grouped by protein families: cupins, prolamins, profilin and others. Peanuts and soybeans have proteins in the cupin, prolamin, and profilin families, while lentils contain cupin proteins. Reviews of human clinical trials report that 6–40% of people with a confirmed peanut allergy will have allergic symptoms when challenged with tree nuts or legumes.\n"
] |
why after staring for too long into a light source (i.e. the traffic light), that pattern gets burned onto our sight?
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Im no expert but I think this is because the cones/rods which sense light in our eyes "adapt" when exposed to light and become less activated so when you look away it takes some time to adapt again and you see a negative of that image for a while afterwards
|
[
"Some witnesses describe the light as appearing to approach them several times before retreating. Others report that the lights were able to keep pace with them when they were in a moving motor vehicle.\n",
"A 1972 article in the \"Wilmington Star-News\" argued that \"most investigators\" had believed the light was traceable to refraction from car headlights on a nearby highway, U.S. Route 74. Reprinting a 1950 long-exposure photograph of the light, the newspaper stated that a bend on the highway was the cause of the phenomenon, noting both that amber and red lights had been seen close to the main light when viewed through a telescope (corresponding to truck turn and brake signals) and that the light had been rarely seen since highway widening in the late 1960s eliminated the bend. Refuting the stories of some locals, who claimed that the light had still appeared while the highway was closed for a period during World War II, the \"Star-News\" researcher noted that a thorough check of archives twenty years earlier to verify this part of the tale had failed to reveal any evidence of such a closure taking place. The newspaper was the scene of a good deal of discussion on the subject, with one resident writing that \"the Maco Light is what [the \"Star-News\"] says it is [...] all the Maco Light is now is just a lovers' lane and a place to start a lot of trouble\". However, the light retained some supporters: in the mid 1970s a reporter for \"The Robesonian\" was eventually, after several failed attempts, able to see the light, which he described as \"chilling\" and \"resembling the light thrown from a kerosene lantern as seen from a distance of about 50 feet [...] primarily white light with an ever so little reddish tint. It tended to travel down the center of the track, swinging to and fro with slight vertical undulations\".\n",
"As the phenomenon was discovered so recently, researchers have speculated about whether MIB occurs outside the laboratory, without being noticed as such. Situations such as driving, in which some night drivers should see stationary red tail lights of the preceding cars disappear temporally when they attend to the moving stream of lights from oncoming traffic may be case points.\n",
"Light trails is another photographic effect where motion blur is used. Photographs of the lines of light visible in long exposure photos of roads at night are one example of effect. This is caused by the cars moving along the road during the exposure. The same principle is used to create star trail photographs.\n",
"BULLET::::- A common experience while travelling on state highways is being 'flashed' by oncoming vehicles. This is when an oncoming vehicle flicks its high beam headlights quickly but noticeably (day or night), and serves to warn drivers they are approaching a hazard: a speed camera or Police vehicle/Radar/Random Breath Test (most commonly), or a motor vehicle accident, or animals/rocks on the road . Many drivers acknowledge this with a return wave or a brief reply 'flash' of their high beam headlights.. It is also done to alert the other driver if they have neglected to turn their own headlights on when necessary.\n",
"In some areas, a \"prepare to stop\" sign with two alternately flashing yellow lights is installed in locations where a high-speed road (design speed usually at least 55 mph / 90 km/h) leads up to a traffic light, where the traffic light is obscured from a distance (or both conditions), or before the first traffic signal after a long stretch of road with no signals. This is installed so that drivers can view it from a distance. This light begins blinking with enough time for the driver to see it and slow down before the intersection light turns yellow, then red. The flashing yellow light can go out immediately when the light turns green, or it may continue for several seconds after the intersection light has turned green, as it usually takes a line of cars some time to accelerate to cruising speed from a red light. These are relatively common in areas such as the United States, Canada, Western Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand and Liberia. Japan uses a variant signal with two lamps, a green one and a flashing yellow one, for the same purpose.\n",
"Flicker can also be perceived from naturally modulated light sources like candle light or a sunlit water surface or it may be experienced while driving along a row of trees lit by the sun. TLMs and resulting flicker can be seen also while driving with a certain speed along a street or through a tunnel lit by lighting equipment positioned with a regular spacing.\n"
] |
Recycling of International Space Station?
|
To move anything from Earth orbit to Lunar orbit, you need about three times its mass as propellant. To do that for the entire space station, that would mean about 1,350,000 kg of propellant. To get all that to low Earth orbit, would mean about 11 Saturn V launches, or double that for Falcon Heavy.
As to why small pieces of it couldn't be reused, I'm not sure. If it has a module that would be perfect for a Moon/Mars mission then it would certainly save in fuel costs to have it in orbit already. Most likely has to do with engineering issues, how to separate the right module from the station, then dock it with your space craft and so on. But I wouldn't completely rule out the possibility that something like that might be done.
Edit: Also the space station has a constant upkeep cost. You can't just leave it there and at some later point pick modules out of it when you need them. You need to keep boosting its orbit periodically. Just one of those reboosting missions might as well instead take a new better module to orbit for your other mission to use.
|
[
"The crew continued the task of building and enhancing the International Space Station by delivering the U.S. Destiny Laboratory Module. It was the first NASA lab to be permanently used ever since the days of Skylab nearly three decades earlier. It was manufactured by Boeing at the Michoud Assembly Facility and the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1997. Upon transport to Kennedy Space Center's industrial buildings, it was fitted with equipment, machines, racks and cables at the Operations and Checkout Building and Space Station Processing Facility. The U.S. laboratory module is long and wide. It is made from stainless steel and aluminum, and comprises three cylindrical sections and two end-cones that contain the hatch openings through which astronauts enter and exit the module. The ends are colored blue and white respectively for the crew to navigate easily. A -diameter window is located on one side of the center module segment.\n",
"A Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) was a large pressurized container used on Space Shuttle missions to transfer cargo to and from the International Space Station (ISS). Two MPLMs made a dozen trips in the Shuttle cargo bay and initially berthed to the \"Unity\" module and later the \"Harmony\" module on the ISS. From there, supplies were offloaded, and finished experiments and waste were reloaded. The MPLM was then reberthed in the Shuttle for return to Earth. Three modules were built by the Italian Space Agency (ASI): \"Leonardo\", \"Raffaello\", and \"Donatello\".\n",
"The Interim Control Module (ICM) is a NASA-constructed module designed to serve as a temporary \"tug\" for the International Space Station in case the Zvezda service module was destroyed or not launched for an extended period of time. It was derived from a formerly-classified Titan Launch Dispenser used to distribute reconnaissance satellites to different orbits. It would have been able to prolong the lifespan of the Zarya module by providing equivalent propulsion capabilities to the Service Module, although not any of the other life support capabilities.\n",
"Hardware developed for the Space Shuttle met various ends with conclusion of the program, including donation, disuse and/or disposal, or reuse. An example of reuse, is that one of the three Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) was converted to a permanent module for the International Space Station.\n",
"The completion of the International Space Station has provided expanded and improved facilities for performing industrial research. These have and will continue to lead to improvements in our knowledge of materials sciences, new manufacturing techniques on Earth, and potentially some important discoveries in space manufacturing methods. NASA and Tethers Unlimited will test the Refabricator aboard the ISS, which is intended to recycle plastic for use in space additive manufacturing.\n",
"The project to create the International Space Station required the utilization and/or construction of new and existing manufacturing facilities around the world, mostly in the United States and Europe. The agencies overseeing the manufacturing involved NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency, JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency. Hundreds of contractors working for the five space agencies were assigned the task of fabricating the modules, trusses, experiments and other hardware elements for the station.\n",
"STS-101 delivered supplies to the International Space Station, hauled up using a Spacehab double module and an Integrated Cargo Carrier pallet. The crew performed a spacewalk and then reboosted the station from to .\n"
] |
how are the red blood cells separated from your blood during platelet donation?
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If you want to separate something like blood that's made of water and different types of cells, you put it in a *centrifuge*, which is a machine that simply spins a hollow drum with test tubes in it ***really, really*** fast. As you spin the drum, the red stuff is forced to the bottom of the tube since it's heaviest, then you have the “buffy coat” on top of that, which has platelets and protein bits, and the top layer is the plasma.
|
[
"Donated blood is usually subjected to processing after it is collected, to make it suitable for use in specific patient populations. Collected blood is then separated into blood components by centrifugation: red blood cells, plasma, platelets, albumin protein, clotting factor concentrates, cryoprecipitate, fibrinogen concentrate, and immunoglobulins (antibodies). Red cells, plasma and platelets can also be donated individually via a more complex process called apheresis.\n",
"Red blood cells are the limiting step for whole blood donations, and the frequency of donation varies widely depending on the type of donor and local policies. During whole blood donation, blood is drawn from the inner forearm venipuncture area from the right or left arm. The blood goes to the main collection bag located on the shaker which is next to the donor bed and this bag holds one pint of whole blood. After collection the blood bag along with three tubes of blood for testing and typing is sent to the laboratory. Here, the blood bag is separated into its different component parts in a centrifuge process (red cells, platelets, and plasma).\n",
"Due to their higher relative density, white blood cells are collected as an unwanted component with the platelets. Since it takes up to 3 liters of whole blood (the amount of a dozen blood bags) to generate a dose of platelets, white blood cells from one or several donors will also be collected along with the platelets. A 70 kg (154 lb) man has only about 6 liters of blood. If all of the incidentally collected white blood cells are transfused with the platelets, substantial rejection problems can occur. Therefore, it is standard practice to filter out white blood cells before transfusion by the process of leukoreduction.\n",
"Red blood cells can be obtained from whole blood by centrifugation, which separates the cells from the blood plasma in a process known as blood fractionation. Packed red blood cells, which are made in this way from whole blood with the plasma removed, are used in transfusion medicine. During plasma donation, the red blood cells are pumped back into the body right away and only the plasma is collected.\n",
"During a platelet donation, the blood is drawn from the patient and the platelets are separated from the other blood components. The remainder of the blood, red blood cells, plasma, and white blood cells are returned to the patient. This process is completed several times for a period of two hours to collect a single donation.\n",
"Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"Most frequently, whole blood is collected from a blood donation and is spun in a centrifuge. The red blood cells are denser and settle to the bottom, and the majority of the liquid blood plasma remains on the top. The plasma is separated and the red blood cells are kept with a minimal amount of fluid. Generally, an additive solution of citrate, dextrose, and adenine is mixed with the cells to keep them alive during storage. This process is sometimes done as automated apheresis, where the centrifuging and mixing take place at the donation site.\n"
] |
why are things cheaper in the countryside?
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MUCH cheaper land. Other things may be less expensive (like fruit and meat if you're in a farming area), and some things may be more expensive (like electricity, internet access, and utilities). However, anything you're buying locally has to have a store, and for most stores, rent and property taxes is one of their largest expenses. Rent and property taxes are FAR lower in the country than in the city. This means less overhead and so stores can charge less and still profit.
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[
"Smaller communities have fewer choices in food retailers. Resident small grocers struggle to be profitable partly due to low sales numbers, which make it difficult to meet wholesale food suppliers' minimum purchasing requirements. The lack of competition and sales volume can result in higher food costs. For example, in New Mexico the same basket of groceries that cost rural residents $85, cost urban residents only $55. However, this is not true for all rural areas. A study in Iowa showed that grocers in four rural counties had lower costs on key foods that make up a nutritionally balanced diet than did larger supermarkets outside these food deserts (greater than 20 miles away).\n",
"Additionally, organic local food tends to be more costly so this is not an appealing option to consumers who are shopping on a budget. Small-scale farmers do not receive government subsidies and are not able to support their business on prices comparable to those of industrial-scale food production, so they must sell at higher prices to make a living. Therefore, in order for the appeal of the local agriculture movement to overcome the economic cost, people must be willing to invest in it, which is unlikely when apparently similar products are available in grocery stores for a lower cost. Despite this, distribution costs of expansive food trade must also be factored in; with increasing gas prices, it becomes more expensive to ship food from outside sources.\n",
"Goods are also more costly here than in other parts of the country. The town is isolated from its economically prosperous neighbors by rough terrain including mountains and rivers that swell to overtake the highway during rainy season, making transportation of goods to the town costly.\n",
"BULLET::::2. Towns typically finance their public goods instead through a property tax that is levied in proportion to the value of homes. The problem that this property taxation causes is that the poor chase the rich. Richer people pay a larger share of the public goods bill than do poorer people, so people who value those goods would like to live in a community with people richer than they are.\n",
"This is because while wealthy urban residents have access to better education and food, their rural, chronically poor counterparts are less educated, have lower literacy levels, and have limited food access. In 1997, 900,000 households that were located in formal reserves had no arable land access, 1.4 million had no access to any livestock besides chickens, and 770,000 households had access to neither arable land or other livestock. Unfortunately, many of the rural households that did have access to livestock had to sell the livestock in order to alleviate poverty. All this results in a severe shortage of food among the rural poor, thereby leading to a shortage of nutrients.\n",
"There are many economic advantages in farming on a small-scale land. Local farmers generate a local economy in their rural communities. An American study showed that small farms with incomes of $100,000 or less spend almost 95 percent of their farm-related expenses within their local communities. The same study took in comparison the fact that farms with incomes greater than $900,000 spend less than 20 percent of their farm-related expenses in the local economy. Thus, small-scale agriculture supports local economy.\n",
"As one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. Because householders do not rely heavily on these factors and can afford the reduced costs (compared with those in the inner and outer core), they can purchase land here. The farther from the inner core, the cheaper the land. This is why inner-city areas are very densely populated (with, e.g., terraces, flats, and high rises), while suburbs and rural areas are more sparsely populated (with semi-detached and detached houses).\n"
] |
Accessible Viking Primary Sources
|
So the problem with the "from the Viking's perspective" part is that they were pre-literate during much if what we call the "Viking Age" (c.800-c. 1050). All of the sources from this time period are thus written by Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Arabs, etc. The sagas and later stuff are all pretty far removed from the period of most activity.
For documents from this period, you can check out [Viking Sources in Translation](_URL_0_) for an online source-book.
There are a few documents which may be especially useful to you:
The [Account of Ohthere and Wulfstan](_URL_1_) is an interesting source. It comes from an Anglo-Saxon translation of Orosius' *Historiae Adversus Paganos* but the Anglo-Saxion "author" added two brief accounts by two Norse captains about their voyages. They are short and they are probably the closest we have to an actual first person account.
The [Vita Anskarii](_URL_3_) is a saint's life of the so-called Apostle to the North, Anskar, written shortly after his death by his pupil Rimbert. It is super Christian and long and boring for the most part But there are a few interesting tidbits in there about life in Scandinavia. See esp. chapters 10, 19, 27, and 30. Anyway a quick skim might locate some stuff for your students.
The [Rök Stone](_URL_2_) is an *actual* viking "document" and you might be able with a bit of searching to find more rune stone transcriptions online.
In terms of sagas and later work someone else can hopefully answer that, as they fall outside of my time period and I don't have them immediately off my head. I'll think a bit more and see if I can find/think of anything useful.
|
[
"Modern scholars consider \"Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib\" to be a piece of \"brilliant propaganda\" written in a \"bombastic style and full of patriotic hyperbole.\" Although the chronicle remains a valuable source of information about the Viking Age in Ireland, its accuracy is uncertain.\n",
"Information about the Viking Age is drawn largely from what was written about the Vikings by their enemies, and primary sources of archaeology, supplemented with secondary sources such as the Icelandic Sagas.\n",
"The text is one of the most important sources of Northern German and Scandinavian history and geography in the Viking Age and the beginning High Middle Ages. It covers the relations between Saxons, Wends (West Slavs) and Danes (Vikings). The third book is focused on the biography of archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg.\n",
"\"The Vikings\" is a British-based society of re-enactors, dedicated to the study and re-enactment of the culture of the Viking Age (790–1066) and the display of authentic Dark Ages living history and combat.\n",
"Arise: From Ginnungagap to Ragnarök – The History of the Vikings Volume III is a concept album by German metal band Rebellion and is the last part of the Viking History Trilogy. This album tells the history of the Norse Gods and Norse religion.\n",
"A variety of sources illuminate the culture, activities, and beliefs of the Vikings. Although they were generally a non-literate culture that produced no literary legacy, they had an alphabet and described themselves and their world on runestones. Most contemporary literary and written sources on the Vikings come from other cultures that were in contact with them. Since the mid-20th century, archaeological findings have built a more complete and balanced picture of the lives of the Vikings. The archaeological record is particularly rich and varied, providing knowledge of their rural and urban settlement, crafts and production, ships and military equipment, trading networks, as well as their pagan and Christian religious artefacts and practices.\n",
"Until recently, the history of the Viking Age was largely based on Icelandic sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian \"Primary Chronicle\", and \"Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib\". Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources, as historians now rely more on archaeology and numismatics, disciplines that have made valuable contributions toward understanding the period.\n"
] |
can the shape of earbuds damage your ears/hearing.
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It could if you decide to jam something that does not fit into your ear. Imagine a ten centimeter diameter hole in piece of paper, now imagine trying to fit a 20cm diameter rod through that same hole, it's going to rip the hole if forced through. TLDR: one size does not fit all and its up to the user to realise this and act on it accordingly.
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[
"Dysfunction of the three small bones of the middle ear – malleus, incus, and stapes – may cause conductive hearing loss. The mobility of the ossicles may be impaired for different reasons including a boney disorder of the ossicles called otosclerosis and disruption of the ossicular chain due to trauma, infection or ankylosis may also cause hearing loss.\n",
"In general, structural damages to any anatomical part of the human ear can cause hearing-related problems. Usually, minor bending of the stereocilia of the inner ear is associated with temporary hearing loss and is involved in auditory fatigue. Complete loss of the stereocilia causes permanent hearing damage and is more associated with noise-induced hearing loss and other auditory diseases.\n",
"Defects affecting the external ear such as the auricle results from malformation or suppression of the auricular hillocks, which are small swellings on the embryonic visceral arches or the beginnings of the external ears; the small swellings are derived from the first and second pharyngeal arches. \n",
"There can be damage either to the ear, whether the external or middle ear, to the cochlea, or to the brain centers that process the aural information conveyed by the ears. Damage to the middle ear may include fracture and discontinuity of the ossicular chain. Damage to the inner ear (cochlea) may be caused by temporal bone fracture. People who sustain head injury are especially vulnerable to hearing loss or tinnitus, either temporary or permanent.\n",
"BULLET::::- Abnormalities of the external ears (unusually large or small, unusually shaped, sometimes with sensorineural hearing loss or deafness due to lesions or dysfunctions of part of the internal ear or its nerve tracts and centers or conductive hearing loss from the external or middle ear), dysplastic ears, lop ear (over-folded ear helix), preauricular tags or pits (a rudimentary tag of ear tissue typically located just in front of the ear).\n",
"The external ear is sometimes small, rotated, malformed, or absent entirely in people with TCS. Symmetric, bilateral narrowing or absence of the external ear canals is also described. In most cases, the bones of the middle ear and the middle ear cavity are misshapen. Inner ear malformations are rarely described. As a result of these abnormalities, a majority of the individuals with TCS have conductive hearing loss.\n",
"Conductive hearing loss is present when the sound is not reaching the inner ear, the cochlea. This can be due to external ear canal malformation, dysfunction of the eardrum or malfunction of the bones of the middle ear. The eardrum may show defects from small to total resulting in hearing loss of different degree. Scar tissue after ear infections may also make the eardrum dysfunction as well as when it is retracted and adherent to the medial part of the middle ear.\n"
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Why do our mouths fill with saliva right before we vomit?
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To protect your teeth from stomach acid, which essentially turns your enamel into gum. This is also why you shouldn't brush your teeth directly after, and not at all if you don't have fluoride mouthwash to use prior to brushing.
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[
"Saliva contains digestive enzymes called amylase, and lingual lipase, secreted by the salivary glands and serous glands on the tongue. The enzymes start to break down the food in the mouth. Chewing, in which the food is mixed with saliva, begins the mechanical process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus to enter the stomach. In the stomach the gastric phase of digestion takes place. The food is further broken down by mixing with gastric acid until it passes into the duodenum, in the third intestinal phase of digestion, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Digestion is helped by the chewing of food carried out by the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and the teeth, and also by the contractions of peristalsis, and segmentation. Gastric acid, and the production of mucus in the stomach, are essential for the continuation of digestion.\n",
"Saliva production is greatly increased, and attempts to drink, or even the intention or suggestion of drinking, may cause excruciatingly painful spasms of the muscles in the throat and larynx. This can be attributed to the fact that the virus multiplies and assimilates in the salivary glands of the infected animal with the effect of further transmission through biting. The ability to transmit the virus would decrease significantly if the infected individual could swallow saliva and water.\n",
"Saliva, the watery substance that constantly circulates the oral cavity, is capable of impacting both the remineralisation and demineralisation processes. It is secreted through the major salivary glands including the parotid, submandibular, sublingual and Von Ebner's glands as well as the hundreds of minor salivary glands that are located throughout the oral cavity.\n",
"Saliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.\n",
"The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food bolus. The lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the oesophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.\n",
"Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.\n",
"Saliva stagnates and forms a mucus plug behind the stricture during sleep when the salivary output of the parotid is reduced. Then, when salivary secretion is stimulated, the mucus plug becomes stuck in the stricture. The backlog of saliva behind the blockage causes the swelling, and the increased pressure inside the gland causes the pain. When the mucus plug is dislodged, the built up saliva is released and the swelling subsides.\n"
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why do i still need the disk for ps3 games after it's 'installed'?
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Because it's not the entire game being installed.
Some games have a pre-install to store information on your PS3 so loading times in-game will be kept to a minimum. If they were installing the entire game to your PS3's hard drive then you would run out of space after the first game.
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[
"The Linux Kit turns the PlayStation 2 into a full-fledged computer system, but it does not allow for use of the DVD-ROM drive except to read PS1 and PS2 discs due to piracy concerns by Sony. Although the HDD included with the Linux Kit is not compatible with PlayStation 2 games, reformatting the HDD with the utility disc provided with the retail HDD enables use with PlayStation 2 games but erases PS2 Linux, though there is a driver that allows PS2 Linux to operate once copied onto the APA partition created by the utility disc. The Network Adaptor included with the kit only supports Ethernet; a driver is available to enable modem support if the retail Network Adaptor (which includes a built-in V.90 modem) is used. The kit supports display on RGB monitors (with sync-on-green) using a VGA cable provided with the Linux Kit, or television sets with the normal cable included with the PlayStation 2 unit.\n",
"Disk image loading is a necessity for most console emulators, as most computing devices do not have the hardware required to run older console games directly from the physical game media itself. Even with optical media system emulators such as the PlayStation and PlayStation 2, attempting to run games from the actual disc may cause problems such as hangs and malfunction as PC optical drives are not designed to spin discs the way those consoles do. This, however, has led to the advantage of it being far easier to modify the actual game's files contained within the game ROMs. Amateur programmers and gaming enthusiasts have produced translations of foreign games, rewritten dialogue within a game, applied fixes to bugs that were present in the original game, as well as updating old sports games with modern rosters. It is even possible to use high-resolution texture pack upgrades for 3-D games if available and possible.\n",
"Through this method it has become possible to use custom Linux distros and other UNIX-like operating systems compiled for the PlayStation 2 and this has enabled users to use more compatible Linux kernels with smaller footprints and programs specially designed for the console. These methods often require the use of PS2 exploits such as Free MCBoot which allows the end user to boot from the PlayStation 2 memory card and launch custom made homebrew applications packaged as ELF files and other exploits such as SwapMagic etc. however these tend to void the warranty as some require the opening of the PlayStation 2 console itself. \n",
"Unofficial software called HD Loader (later also HD Advance and Open Playstation Loader) allow users to copy entire games to the HDD and run them without the discs. They also allow using some standard consumer hard drives in the PS2, however they will not be compatible with software that is expecting the standard PS2 hard drive. This software combined with a hard drive allows one to play games without using the original disc. This is desirable as it protects the fragile and perhaps rare game discs from harm, in some cases it may improve performance. However, the practice is not without controversy. HDLoader bypasses the usual copy protection mechanisms built into the console, allowing for piracy.\n",
"The game also utilizes the Disk System's feature of being able to exchange game discs while the device is powered on. The game is divided into two discs, and the player must exchange disks while the Disk System is still powered on in order to activate the second disc (note: Disc 2 is not playable without the first). This format was also used in the game's sequel \"Yūyūki\" and the \"\" series.\n",
"The original PlayStation 3 also included the ability to install other operating systems, such as Linux. This was not included in the newer slim models and was removed from all older PlayStation 3 consoles with the release of firmware update 3.21 in April 2010. The functionality is now only available to users of original consoles who choose not to update their system software beyond version 3.15 or who have installed third-party, modified and unofficial versions of the firmware instead.\n",
"Prior to the PlayStation, reproducing copyrighted material for game consoles was restricted to either enthusiasts with exceptional technical ability, or people who had access to CD manufacturers. However, due to the increased availability of cheap CD burners at this time, Sony modified the shape of the first portion of the data track on PlayStation formatted discs: A normal data track follows a smooth spiral path around a disc, whereas the modified portion follows a wavy spiral path. As a result, any discs that did not contain this modification, such as CD-R copies or standard pirated discs, would not boot on the console. This modified portion of the data path is also used to encode the disc \"region\"; for example, a disc distributed in the NTSC-U/C region would encode the letters \"SCEA\"; in Europe, \"SCEE\"; in Japan, \"SCEI\". This served as copy protection as well as region-locking.\n"
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if a "double-yolk" egg was fertilized, would it, hypothetically, hatch 2 chiclets? what about a triple-yolk?
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It depends on if there was a bird embryo on each yolk. The babby chicken is the little white (or red) goopy wisp thing you see on the yolk. The yolk is just the chick's food supply.
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"In normal monozygotic twin development, one egg is fertilized by a single sperm. The egg will then completely split into two, normally at the two-cell stage. If the egg splits in the early blastocyst stage, two inner cell masses will be present, eventually leading to the twins sharing the same chorion and placenta, but with separate amnions. However, the egg can split into two, but still have one blastocyst. This will lead to one inner cell mass and one blastocyst. Then, as the twins develop, they will share the same placenta, chorion, and amnion. This is thought to be the most likely reason why conjoined twins occur, and could possibly play a role in the development of craniopagus parasiticus.\n",
"Double fertilisation is the process in angiosperms (flowering plants) in which two sperm from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in a female gametophyte (sometimes called an embryo sac) that is inside an ovule. After the pollen tube enters the gametophyte, the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates and the two sperm cells are released; one of the two sperm cells \"fertilises\" the egg cell (at the bottom of the gametophyte near the micropyle), forming a diploid (2n) zygote. This is the point when fertilisation actually occurs; pollination and fertilisation are two separate processes. The nucleus of the other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei (contained in the central cell) in the centre of the gametophyte. The resulting cell is triploid (3n). This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue, inside the seed.\n",
"After the egg is fertilized by the sperm, a zygote (single diploid cell) is formed. At this stage, it should have two pronuclei, one of each derived from the egg and the sperm cell respectively and two tiny cells called polar bodies.\n",
"Twinning would occur, in principle, if the egg cell and a polar body were both fertilized by separate sperms. However, even if fertilization occurs, further development would usually not occur because the zygote formed by the fusion of the sperm and polar body would not have enough cytoplasm or stored nutrients to feed the developing embryo.\n",
"Fertilization takes place when the spermatozoon has successfully entered the ovum and the two sets of genetic material carried by the gametes fuse together, resulting in the zygote (a single diploid cell). This usually takes place in the ampulla of one of the fallopian tubes. The zygote contains the combined genetic material carried by both the male and female gametes which consists of the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the ovum and the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus of the sperm. The 46 chromosomes undergo changes prior to the mitotic division which leads to the formation of the embryo having two cells.\n",
"Double-yolk eggs occur when ovulation occurs too rapidly, or when one yolk becomes joined with another yolk. These eggs may be the result of a young hen's reproductive cycle not yet being synchronized.\n",
"In flowering plants, double fertilization occurs, which involves two sperm fertilizing the two gametes inside the megagametophyte (the egg cell and the central cell) to produce the embryo and the endosperm.\n"
] |
can dogs understand other dogs when they bark?
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Dogs don't bark in a language like how you speak English. Languages are an invention which must be taught to our children and requires constant care and revision to be mutually intelligible. Dog barks are extremely simple vocalizations. Though it is probable that dogs have a better idea of why another dog is barking than your average human, that doesn't mean that there's any content for the dog to "understand". Dogs don't bark to communicate with each other in sentences, they are merely vocalizations that are indicative of aroused emotional states.
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"Stanley Coren identifies 56 signals which untrained dogs make and people can understand, including 10 barks, 5 growls, 8 other vocalizations, 11 tail signals, 5 ear and eye positions, 5 mouth signals and 12 body positions. Faragó et al. describe research that humans can accurately categorize barks from unseen dogs as aggressive, playful, or stressed, even if they do not own a dog. This recognizability has led to machine learning algorithms to categorize barks, and commercial products and apps such as BowLingual, TalkWithYourDog, and TalkDog.\n",
"BULLET::::3. In her book Barking: The Sound of a Language, Turid Rugaas explains that barking is a way a dog communicates. She suggests signalling back to show the dog that the dog's attempts to communicate have been acknowledge and to calm a dog down. She suggests the use of a hand signal and a Calming Signal called Splitting.\n",
"By the age of four weeks, the dog has developed the majority of its vocalizations. The dog is the most vocal canid and is unique in its tendency to bark in a myriad of situations. Barking appears to have little more communication functions than excitement, fighting, the presence of a human, or simply because other dogs are barking. Subtler signs such as discreet bodily and facial movements, body odors, whines, yelps, and growls are the main sources of actual communication. The majority of these subtle communication techniques are employed at a close proximity to another, but for long-range communication only barking and howling are employed.\n",
"Dogs have shown an ability to understand human communication. In object choice tasks, dogs utilize human communicative gestures such as pointing and direction of gaze in order to locate hidden food and toys. It has also been shown that dogs exhibit a left gaze bias when looking at human faces, indicating that they are capable of reading human emotions. Dogs do not make use of direction of gaze or exhibit left gaze bias with other dogs.\n",
"The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.\n",
"While an Australian Cattle Dog generally works silently, it will bark in alarm or to attract attention. It has a distinctive intense, high-pitched bark. Barking can be a sign of boredom or frustration, although research has shown that pet dogs increase their vocalisation when raised in a noisy environment. It responds well to familiar dogs, but when multiple dogs are present, establishing a pecking order can trigger aggression. It is not a breed that lives in a pack with other dogs.\n",
"Dog communication is the transfer of information between dogs, as well as between dogs and humans. Behaviors associated with dog communication are categorized into visual and vocal. Visual communication includes mouth shape and head position, licking and sniffing, ear and tail positioning, eye gaze, facial expression, and body posture. Dog vocalizations, or auditory communication, can include barks, growls, howls, whines and whimpers, screams, pants and sighs. Dogs also communicate via gustatory communication, utilizing scent and pheromones.\n"
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what was the purpose of the holocaust? why did hitler want to kill millions of people, and how did he select the ethnic/minority groups?
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He saw the "Aryan" race as superior, which was essentially Caucasian and strictly not Jewish. He wanted to wipe out all "undesirables". This didn't entail Jews alone. He sought to wipe out Roma and Sinti people, homosexuals, political enemies such as communists, and only wanted chosen individuals within the Aryan race to breed. Someone could probably add more to the minorities he sought to wipe out.
Edit: Also consider that Anti-Semitism was prominent long before Nazi-Germany, so it wasn't exactly difficult for him to persuade the masses into following the regime.
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[
"The military campaign to remove certain classes of persons (above all, Jews) from Germany and other German-held territories during World War II, often with extreme brutality, is known as the Holocaust. It was carried out primarily by German forces and collaborators, German and non-German. Early in the war, millions of Jews were concentrated in urban ghettos. In 1941, Jews were , and by December, Hitler had decided to exterminate all Jews living in Europe at that time. The European Jewish population was reduced from 9,740,000 to 3,642,000; the world's Jewish population was reduced by one-third, from roughly 16.6 million in 1939 to about 11 million in 1946. The extermination of Jews had been a priority to the Nazis, regardless of the consequences.\n",
"The Holocaust began in 1933 prior to World War II in Germany when the Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler's rule attempted to wipe out the \"inferior\" people of the country. This primarily included people of the Jewish culture, but also included Gypsies, the disabled, some Slavic people, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals. By the end of the Holocaust in 1945, more than 6 million Jewish people had been killed. Of these 6 million that had been killed, 1.5 million were children between ages zero and eighteen. By killing off many Jewish children, the Nazi regime hoped to exterminate the core and root of the Jewish culture.\n",
"To protect the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, Poles and most other Slavs, along with the physically and mentally handicapped. They disenfranchised and segregated homosexuals, Africans, Jehovah's Witnesses and political opponents. The persecution reached its climax when the party-controlled German state set in motion the Final Solution–an industrial system of genocide which achieved the murder of an estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews and millions of other targeted victims, in what has become known as the Holocaust.\n",
"The primary responsibility for the Holocaust rests on Hitler, and the Nazi Party leadership, but initiatives to persecute Jews, Gypsies, and others were also perpetrated by the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS), the German military, ordinary German citizens as well as by collaborationist members of various European governments, including their military personnel and civilians alike. A host of factors contributed to the environment under which atrocities were committed across the continent, ranging from general racism (including antisemitism), religious hatred, blind obedience, political opportunism, coercion, profiteering, and xenophobia.\n",
"Recognized as one of the most extreme cases of ethnic cleansing in history, the Holocaust was the Nazi regime's mass murder of about 6 million Jews during World War II. Accomplished in stages, the Holocaust began with legislation to remove Jews from German society before World War II. Concentration and extermination camps were then created to incarcerate and execute the millions of Jews who were living in Germany and most of them were either shot, killed in gas chambers, or worked to death. Killing approximately 90 percent of the Jews who were living in Poland and 87 percent of the Jews who were living in Germany and Austria, the Nazi regime's motives, the horrific ways in which its victims were executed, and the number of ethnic Jews who were murdered make the Holocaust one of the clearest and least disputed cases of ethnic cleansing in history.\n",
"Holocaust victims were people who were targeted by the government of Nazi Germany for various discriminatory practices due to their ethnicity, religion, political beliefs, or sexual orientation. These institutionalized practices came to be called The Holocaust, and they began with legalized social discrimination against specific groups, and involuntary hospitalization, euthanasia, and forced sterilization of those considered physically or mentally unfit for society. These practices escalated during World War II to include non-judicial incarceration, confiscation of property, forced labor, sexual slavery, medical experimentation, and death through overwork, undernourishment, and execution through a variety of methods, with the genocide of different groups as the primary goal.\n",
"The Holocaust and Germany's war in the East were based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that \"Lebensraum\" was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The \"Generalplan Ost\" (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or \"Germanised\" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.\n"
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Why can a rocket fly straight up without wings and doesn't tip over?
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Large commercial rockets are actively steered. Either the engines are 'gimbaled' (the angle is adjusted) constantly, or small sideways-pointed rockets are fired as needed, to push the rocket where the computer is programmed to send it.
Smaller rockets without adjustable engines or controls normally cause the rocket to spin as it flies, so any off-angle forces are canceled out. Doing this without fins is tricky, which is why smaller rockets generally do have fins.
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"Another problem in this maneuver is that higher lift from the faster moving outside wing will roll the airplane to the left (or to the right). Most pilots find holding forward right (or left) stick necessary throughout the pivot.\n",
"If the engine kept pushing the nose straight up even as the rest of the rocket swung like a pendulum under it, the rocket would have a possibility to get pulled straight and be stable. However, the engines are fixed to the rest of the rocket, so when the rocket tilts, the engine won't apply an upward, stabilising force, but simply push forward in whatever direction the rocket happens to be pointing, not steering it one way or the other at all.\n",
"It is often easier, because the pilot only has to run forward, but the pilot cannot see his wing until it is above him, where he has to check it in a very short time for correct inflation and untangled lines before the launch.\n",
"Stabilizing fins cause the rocket to fly nose-first which will give significantly higher speed, but they will also cause it to fall with a significantly higher velocity than it would if it tumbled to the ground, and this may damage the rocket or whomever or whatever it strikes upon landing.\n",
"Airplane approaches the runway in steady sideslip, maintains the sideslip during flare and touch down. Sideslip is maintained by lowering the wing into the wind and applying opposite rudder just enough to prevent the heading from changing. The longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the runway centerline. Though, it is a sideslip but airplane actually doesn't slip in the direction of lower wing because of the crosswind pushing the airplane back on the desired track. This technique is not recommended by Airbus because the bank angle required to fly the steady sideslip is large and places the airplane close to the geometry and roll/rudder limits. Excessive bank angle close to the ground may lead to wing/engine scraping the ground.\n",
"Anyone in an aircraft that is making a coordinated turn, no matter how steep, will have little or no sensation of being tilted in the air unless the horizon is visible. Similarly, it is possible to gradually climb or descend without a noticeable change in pressure against the seat. In some aircraft, it is possible to execute a loop without pulling negative G so that, without visual reference, the pilot could be upside down without being aware of it. This is because a gradual change in any direction of movement may not be strong enough to activate the fluid in the vestibular system, so the pilot may not realize that the aircraft is accelerating, decelerating, or banking.\n",
"Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are described below.\n"
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Were the German bunkers on Omaha beach much further from the shire than popularly dramatised in thr film Saving Private Ryan?
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One of the historical 'inaccuracies' about Saving Private Ryan is that the film does shorten the beach considerably. Omaha Beach has a very shallow slope and the distance between the low tide and high tide marks can be as much as 400-500m. The landings were timed to start at low tide in order that the various beach obstacles would be exposed. This would both allow the obstacles to be avoided and for the engineers to blow them in order to clear lanes for the follow on waves.
However this meant that the assault waves had a considerable amount of open beach to cross before reaching even the limited cover of the shingle line just above the high tide mark. The German gunner Heinrich Severloh notes that after the troops left their boats he had to wait a while for them to reach the 400m mark which was his range for opening fire. The film fails here by showing German gunners firing down on US troops emerging from boats at what seems to be just 100-200m away. In reality the firing angle would have been much shallower.
Very few, if any, US troops attempted to fight from the open beach. To do so was suicide. Instead they re-grouped and began reducing the defenses from the shingle and rocks at the bottom of the bluffs. In this respect the film does a decent job of showing how the fight went. The bunkers themselves were very close to the high water mark.
Primary source : Joe Balkoski, *Omaha Beach*
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[
"Midway between the old harbour and the camping ground an old German bunker, constructed around the time of World War I, appears on the beach. During World War I, it formed part of \"Sicherungsstellung Nord\", a German line of 900 bunkers spanning the region of Sønderjylland, constructed to halt an eventual English invasion via the coast of Jutland. In the local dialect, Sønderjysk, the bunker is called \"Æ Unnestan\".\n",
"Where concrete bunkers were encountered, the troops worked their way around them, cutting the German troops off and forcing them to surrender. Despite their resistance, the German second line was captured without delay. Half of the 13th and 14th Welsh, along with the 15th RWF, then pushed towards Iron Cross Ridge. German troops holding Rudolphe Farm, in the area allocated to the 51st (Highland) Division which had not yet advanced as far, were able to fire into the flanks of the advancing troops. A platoon from 15th Welsh was diverted and assaulted the farm, capturing 15 men and killing or scattering the rest, securing the flank of the advance. The 14th Welsh then rushed Iron Cross Ridge and engaged in hand-to-hand combat to seize the position, before pushing on to capture a dressing station. Their charge had resulted in heavy losses, but yielded 78 prisoners and three machine guns. The 15th RWF had fallen behind the protective creeping barrage to their front and came under fire from a German position known as Battery Copse. Despite many losses, they pushed forward and were able to secure their portion of Iron Cross Ridge.\n",
"Its Type 10 bunkers were more strongly constructed than the earlier border fortifications. These had thick ceilings and walls. A total of 3,471 were built along the entire length of the Siegfried Line. They featured a central room or shelter for 10-12 men with a stepped embrasure facing backwards and a combat section higher. This elevated section had embrasures at the front and sides for machine guns. More embrasures were provided for riflemen, and the entire structure was constructed so as to be safe against poison gas.\n",
"When the Siegfried Line (in German the \"Westwall\") was built in 1939, a standby bunker was constructed for the Wehrmacht inside the Kalvarienberg. The underground bunker was located 20 to 30 metres below the top of the hill and consisted of a 100-metre-long and a 60-metre-long tunnel. After the Second World War, French troops dumped 500 tons of ammunition there, which was supposed to be used to blow up the fortifications of the Siegfried Line. The population of Prüm knew about this storage and was concerned about it.\n",
"BULLET::::- Bunker Museum Hirtshals: The shorelines around the city of Hirtshals was part of the German Atlantic Wall defence during World War II. The museum presents the only excavated complete WWII bunker system in Denmark and holds 54 bunkers and many artillery nests between radar and lighting facilities spread out over a 3.5 km long strip of shoreline.\n",
"On one of the main routes to the \"Wassenaarseslag\", the main beach for \"Wassenaarders\", a World War II bunker can be found. For safety reasons and the instability of the structure, it was sealed off to prevent entrance.\n",
"On 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, forces of the 2nd Division landed on four beaches. The easternmost, Blue Beach, which was situated at the foot of a sheer cliff, presented the most difficulties; the Royal Regiment of Canada, with a company of the Black Watch, was held at bay by two platoons of German defenders. Only six percent of the men that landed on Blue Beach returned to Britain.\n"
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how does an automated check-out tell the difference between the different notes (eg: £5, £10, £20) and different coins? how does it tell these from regular paper (notes) or items of a similar shape/weight (coins)?
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_URL_0_
Notes are scanned and matched up to images stored in the software, which also checks for some security features. If you produce a sufficiently good fake, it will be accepted, but it would be easier to pass it to a human.
Coins fall into slots which are the correct sizes. The slots have valves which only open if the coin is the correct weight. For example see _URL_1_ Some coins are magnetic and this is also tested. Any object which doesn't fall into a valid slot will come out into the reject tray.
Coins are made of specific proportions of metals and it is hard to make something which is the same size and weight, unless you use the same materials. Therefore the main way to obtain something that would be accepted as a coin would be another coin from a different country, as there are only so many possible sizes and shapes. This is why the Thai 10-baht used to be accepted as 2-euros in Eurozone vending machines until the owners started realising they were getting scammed, then they upgraded their machines to tell these coins apart.
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"Electronic counting systems, with no moving parts, exist that count both notes and coins on the same machine and sum the value of all denominations counted. They are normally used to count individual deposits or the content of cash drawers and do not sort or check for counterfeit or damaged notes.The machine uses a LC display with a back light so that the total amount of the notes is shown brightly and is easy to see.\n",
"In order to make explicit the amount in words on a check (BrE cheque), Americans write \"three and \" (using this solidus construction or with a horizontal division line): they do not need to write the word \"dollars\" as it is usually already printed on the check. On a cheque UK residents would write \"three pounds and 24 pence\", \"three pounds ‒ 24\", or \"three pounds ‒ 24p\" since the currency unit is not preprinted. To make unauthorized amendment difficult, it is useful to have an expression terminator even when a whole number of dollars/pounds is in use: thus, Americans would write \"three and \" or \"three and \" on a three-dollar check (so that it cannot easily be changed to, for example, \"three million\"), and UK residents would write \"three pounds only\".\n",
"Whenever a banknote of a specific denomination is changed (design, security features, colour, etc.), a new series is released. Every banknote issued by this bank measures approximately 6.6 cm x 15.5 cm. Every note also has the serial and series numbers printed in red ink. Exceptions occurred with:\n",
"In naming the notes of a scale, it is customary that each scale degree be assigned its own letter name: for example, the A major scale is written A–B–C–D–E–F–G rather than A–B–D–D–E–E–G. However, it is impossible to do this in scales that contain more than seven notes, at least in the English-language nomenclature system.\n",
"There are currently four different denominations of notes – £5, £10, £20 and £50. Each value has its own distinct colour scheme and the size of each note increases in length and width as the value increases.\n",
"The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the first degree of the scale. For example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to each other: C and E create an interval of a third (in this case a major third); D and F also create a third (in this case a minor third).\n",
"In double entry bookkeeping, debits and credits (abbreviated Dr and Cr, respectively) are entries made in account ledgers to record changes in value resulting from business transactions. Generally speaking (in T-Account terms), if cash is spent in a business transaction, the cash account is \"credited\" (that is, an entry is made on the right side of the T-Account's ledger), and conversely, when cash is obtained in a business transaction, it is described as a \"debit\" (that is, an entry is made on the left side of the T-Account's ledger). Debits and Credits can occur in any account. For simplicity it is often best to view Debits as positive numbers and Credits as negative numbers. When all the debits and credits that are transacted in each account are added up the resulting account total could be a net Debit (positive number) or a net Credit (negative number). If the total of the account is in a net Debit position (positive), it is generally classified in the Asset section of the balance sheet, whereas accounts that total to a net Credit (negative) are shown in the liability section of the balance sheet. Accounts that relate to the company's profit (example: Sales, Cost of Sales, Expenses) are totaled to yield company earnings and are classified in the Equity section of the balance sheet. When recording incoming cash (revenue) a Debit will be made to Cash or equivalent Assets and a Credit will be made on the revenue account in the income statement. If a company has a positive Net Income, the Retained Earnings will receive a Credit when closing out the Income Statement for the year, while a Net Loss will result in a Debit to the Retained Earnings. A net Credit (negative) balance in Retained Earnings in the Equity Section demonstrates that the company has been profitable over time, whereas a Debit (positive) balance in the Equity section, would demonstrate that the company has been unprofitable. In most companies the following accounts end-up in Credit positions: accounts payable, share capital, loans payable; while Debit accounts typically include Equipment, Inventory, Accounts Receivable. Debits (positive numbers) must equal Credits (negatives) in each transaction; individual transactions may require multiple debit and credit \"entries\".\n"
] |
Has any other ancient civilization/Empire other than from India come up with the Philosophy of Nonviolence?
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Gandhi's own belief in non-violence was strongly influenced by Leo Tolstoy's, expressed in his book *The Kingdom of God is Within You*, whose pacifism is credited to his religious views as a Christian. Tolstoy wrote in *A Confession, The Gospels in Brief, and What I Believe*:
> The passage which served me as key to the whole was Matthew, v. 38, 39: "Ye have heard that it was said, An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto you, Resist not him that is evil" ... These words suddenly appeared to me as something quite new, as if I had never read them before. Previously when reading that passage I had always, by some strange blindness, omitted the words, "But I say unto you, Resist not him that is evil", just as if those words had not been there, or as if they had no definite meaning.
> Subsequently, in my talks with many and many Christians familiar with the Gospels, I often had occasion to note the same blindness as to those words. No one remembered them, and often when speaking about that passage Christians referred to the Gospels to verify the fact that the words were really there. '
Gandhi was quite receptive to Tolstoy's book, and praised it by writing:
> Tolstoy's *The Kingdom of God is Within You* overwhelmed me. It left an abiding impression on me. Before the independent thinking, profound morality, and the truthfulness of this book, all the books given me by Mr. Coates seemed to pale into insignificant
Pacifist philosophy did exist as a movement within Christianity, with Tolstoy being its most famous advocate. Pacifism was also present in pre-Buddhist Chinese philosophy, but someone more knowledgeable on that topic will have to elaborate on it.
|
[
"The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights, especially those led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela.\n",
"The Asian idea of nondualism is developed in the Vedic and post-Vedic Hindu philosophies, as well as in the Buddhist traditions. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian thought are found in the earlier Hindu Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, as well as other pre-Buddhist Upanishads such as the Chandogya Upanishad, which emphasizes the unity of individual soul called Atman and the Supreme called Brahman. In Hinduism, nondualism has more commonly become associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Adi Shankara.\n",
"The philosophy of Dvaita or Tattvavada was an obscure movement within Vedanta in medieval India. Philosophically, its tenets stood in direct opposition to Advaita in that its progenitor, Madhva, postulated that the self (Atman) and god (Brahman) are distinct and that the world is real. As Advaita was the prevailing sub-sect of Vedanta at the time, the works of Madhva and his followers came under significant attack and ridicule. Madhva deployed his disciples to promulgate the philosophy across the country, which led to the establishment of a small and diffuse network of \"mathas\", or centres of worship, across the subcontinent. The early years of Dvaita were spent spreading its basic tenets including participating in debates with the Advaita scholars.\n",
"Freedom of religion in the Indian subcontinent is exemplified by the reign of King Piyadasi (304–232 BC) (Ashoka). One of King Ashoka's main concerns was to reform governmental institutes and exercise moral principles in his attempt to create a just and humane society. Later he promoted the principles of Buddhism, and the creation of a just, understanding and fair society was held as an important principle for many ancient rulers of this time in the East.\n",
"The Hindu concept of \"Advaita\" refers to the idea that all of the universe is one essential reality, and that all facets and aspects of the universe is ultimately an expression or appearance of that one reality. According to Dasgupta and Mohanta, non-dualism developed in various strands of Indian thought, both Vedic and Buddhist, from the Upanishadic period onward. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian thought may be found in the Chandogya Upanishad, which pre-dates the earliest Buddhism. Pre-sectarian Buddhism may also have been responding to the teachings of the Chandogya Upanishad, rejecting some of its Atman-Brahman related metaphysics.\n",
"\"Advaita\" is also part of other Indian traditions, which are less strongly, or not all, organised in monastic and institutional organisations. Although often called \"Advaita Vedanta,\" these traditions have their origins in vernacular movements and \"householder\" traditions, and have close ties to the Nath, Nayanars and Sant Mat traditions.\n",
"Indian-origin religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all of which are based on the concept of dharma and karma. Ahimsa, a philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi who through civil disobedience brought India together against the British Raj and this philosophy further inspired Martin Luther King, Jr. during the American civil rights movement. Foreign-origin religion, including Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present in India, as well as Zoroastrianism and Bahá'í Faith both escaping persecution by Islam have also found shelter in India over the centuries.\n"
] |
Why is the ethnic majority of China referred to as "Han Chinese"?
|
You're right in thinking that the Han was a dynasty of China. It lasted from 206BCE to 220CE, and was an incredibly important dynasty in Chinese history in terms of scientific, cultural and political developments. Think of it as the Classical Chinese period.
The reason that we talk about 'Han Chinese' is because of the Han Dynasty's prominence in international and so people began to call themselves '漢人' (hànrén), 'The People of Han'.
Some groups of Southern Han peoples use a different phrase however, '唐人' (tángcháo) which means 'People of Tan' in reference to the later Tan Dynasty (618-907CE) which was another very important Dynasty.
|
[
"11 - 92% of the Chinese believe that they are of one race, the Han Chinese, unlike the other most populous nations such as India, the United States, Brazil, Indonesia and Turkey which recognize themselves to be highly multi-racial and multi-cultural\n",
"Han Chinese people, the largest ethnic group in China, are often referred to as \"Chinese\" or \"ethnic Chinese\" in English. The ethnic Chinese also form a majority or notable minority in other countries, and may comprise as much as 19% of the global human population.\n",
"Ethnic Han Chinese is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han Chinese ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in Chinese, but do not identify as Han Chinese. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions.\n",
"In modern China, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups. Throughout Chinese history, many non-Chinese ethnic groups have assimilated with the Han Chinese, retained their distinct ethnic identities, or faded away. At the same time, the Han Chinese majority has maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions throughout the ages. The term Zhonghua Minzu () has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name.\n",
"During the Qing dynasty, the Manchu rulers also used the name Han to distinguish the local Chinese from the Manchus. After the fall of the Qing government, the Han became the name of a nationality within China. Today the term \"Han Persons\", often rendered in English as Han Chinese, is used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the most populous of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups of China. The \"Han Chinese\" are simply referred to as \"Chinese\" by some.\n",
"Even with its diversity, over 90% of the Chinese population think of themselves as being part of the Han ethnicity, a huge unifying coverall term when in reality the Han are an amalgamation of multiple ethnicities. This also differs from how Brazil and the US think of themselves as multi-ethnic nations.\n",
"Chinese people are the various individuals or ethnic groups associated with China, usually through ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship or other affiliation. Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in China, at about 92% of the population, are often referred to as \"Chinese\" or \"ethnic Chinese\" in English, however there are dozens of other related and unrelated ethnic groups in China.\n"
] |
Hi Reddit! How fast can the effects of gravity be felt? I don't really know how to word this, check out the text for further description.
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Gravitational waves would travel at the speed of light, so we'd move normally for about eight minutes.
|
[
"Critical response for Professor Heinz Wolff's Gravity has generally been lukewarm, receiving an overall score of 63 on Metacritic. The website IGN awarded it 59 out of 100, citing it had potential to be a sleeper hit, but was too light on content for the price tag.\n",
"The effects for negative g-force can be more dangerous producing hyperemia and also psychotic episodes. In space, G forces are almost zero, which is called microgravity, meaning that the person is floating in the interior of the vessel. This happens because the gravity acts on the spaceship and in the body equally, both are pulled with the same forces of acceleration and also in the same direction.\n",
"It is not yet known whether exposure to high gravity for short periods of time is as beneficial to health as continuous exposure to normal gravity. It is also not known how effective low levels of gravity would be at countering the adverse effects on health of weightlessness. Artificial gravity at 0.1\"g\" and a rotating spacecraft period of 30 s would require a radius of only . Likewise, at a radius of 10 m, a period of just over 6 s would be required to produce standard gravity (at the hips; gravity would be 11% higher at the feet), while 4.5 s would produce 2\"g\". If brief exposure to high gravity can negate the harmful effects of weightlessness, then a small centrifuge could be used as an exercise area.\n",
"Gravitational time dilation is at play e.g. for ISS astronauts. While the astronauts' relative velocity slows down their time, the reduced gravitational influence at their location speeds it up, although at a lesser degree. Also, a climber's time is theoretically passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust. \"A clock used to time a full rotation of the earth will measure the day to be approximately an extra 10 ns/day longer for every km of altitude above the reference geoid.\" Travel to regions of space where extreme gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as near a black hole, could yield time-shifting results analogous to those of near-lightspeed space travel.\n",
"\"Gravity Hurts\" is a song by Danish rock band Cryoshell featuring the Budapest Art Orchestra, released as the lead single from their upcoming sophomore studio album \"Next to Machines\" on January 12, 2018. Written by Mikkel Maltha, the single was recorded in 2017 and produced by Jacob Hansen. It is a symphonic pop song – the second remake of \"Gravity Hurts\" since its original alternative rock variant was released in 2008.\n",
"Measurements in which the only effect was gravitational have been conducted by Iijima et al. between 1975 and 1977. They carried a commercial cesium clock back and forth from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan in Mitaka, at above sea level, to Norikura corona station, at above sea level, corresponding to an altitude difference of . During the times when the clock stayed at Mitaka, it was compared with another cesium clock. The measured change in rate was (29±1.5)×10, consistent with the result of 30.7×10 predicted by general relativity.\n",
"The net result is a relatively smooth and constant (then gradually decreasing) gravitational pull due to acceleration, coupled with a diminishing aerodynamic friction as the upper atmosphere is reached and surpassed.\n"
] |
Does covering your mouth when you sneeze/cough actually help prevent the spread of disease?
|
Yes it does; [while not the best scientific source, a good visual representation](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing and flu vaccination may also be protective. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use and is not recommended in children less than six years of age. Salbutamol is not effective in children with an acute cough who do not have restricted airways. There is weak evidence that salbutamol may be useful in adults with wheezing due to a restricted airway; however, it may result in nervousness, shakiness or a tremor. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms.\n",
"Oral hygiene can help prevent oral candidiasis when people have a weakened immune system. For people undergoing cancer treatment, chlorhexidine mouthwash can prevent or reduce thrush. People who use inhaled corticosteroids can reduce the risk of developing oral candidiasis by rinsing the mouth with water or mouthwash after using the inhaler.\n",
"While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.\n",
"In adults short term use of nasal decongestants may have a small benefit. Antihistamines may improve symptoms in the first day or two; however, there is no longer-term benefit and they have adverse effects such as drowsiness. Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine appear effective in adults. Combined oral analgesics, antihistaminics and decongestants are generally effective for older children and adults. Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose but has little effect on stuffiness. The safety and effectiveness of nasal decongestant use in children is unclear.\n",
"In the case of nasal symptoms, antihistamines are normally the first option. They may be taken together with pseudoephedrine to help relieve a stuffy nose and they can stop the itching and sneezing. Some over-the-counter options are Benadryl and Tavist. However, these antihistamines may cause extreme drowsiness, therefore, people are advised to not operate heavy machinery or drive while taking this kind of medication. Other side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, difficulty with urination, confusion, and light-headedness.\n",
"It is best to take oral antihistamine medication before exposure, especially for seasonal allergic rhinitis. In the case of nasal antihistamines like azelastine antihistamine nasal spray, relief from symptoms is experienced within 15 minutes allowing for a more immediate 'as-needed' approach to dosage. There is not enough evidence of antihistamine efficacy as an add-on therapy with nasal steroids in the management of intermittent or persistent allergic rhinitis in children, so its adverse effects and additional costs must be considered.\n",
"While generally harmless in healthy individuals, sneezes spread disease through the infectious aerosol droplets, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 5 µm. A sneeze can produce 40,000 droplets. To reduce the possibility of thus spreading disease (such as the flu), one holds the forearm or the inside of the elbow in front of one's mouth and nose when sneezing. Using one's hand for that purpose has recently fallen into disuse as it is considered inappropriate, since it promotes spreading germs through human contact (such as handshaking) or by commonly touched objects (most notably doorknobs).\n"
] |
Why did we have to send a probe to Pluto to get a photo of it?
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The photo of the black hole is not a "photo" in the sense you are thinking. It is a visualization of very high-frequency radio waves. While these are still electromagnetic waves just like visible light, they are way outside of our visible range. This is necessary to "penetrate" through all of the super-heated matter that surrounds the black hole. In the visible spectrum, all we would see is a big ball of light ([_URL_0_](_URL_0_)).
Pluto does not emit radio waves on the scale of a supermassive black hole (if at all), so we cannot get a similar image.
|
[
"In July 2015 NASA published photographs taken as the New Horizons space probe passed within 7000 miles of Pluto. A photo of Pluto's largest moon, Charon, shows a large dark area near its north pole. The dark area has been unofficially called Mordor Macula.\n",
"On February 12, 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken from January 25 to 31) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. The exposure time was too short to see Pluto's smaller, much fainter, moons.\n",
"Photographs of Pluto taken on 14 July 2015 taken 15 minutes after \"New Horizon\" closest approach, from a distance of 18,000 kilometers and sent to Earth on 13 September 2015 show a near-sunset on Pluto with details of the surface and a haze in the atmosphere.\n",
"The first images of Pluto from \"New Horizons\" were acquired September 21–24, 2006, during a test of LORRI. They were released on November 28, 2006. The images, taken from a distance of approximately , confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.\n",
"On 4 February 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken on 25 and 27 January) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. On 20 March 2015, NASA invited the general public to suggest names for surface features that will be discovered on Pluto and Charon. On 15 April 2015, Pluto was imaged showing a possible polar cap. Between April and June 2015, \"New Horizons\" began returning images of Pluto that exceeded the quality that the Hubble Space Telescope could produce.\n",
"Mission planners searched for one or more additional Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) of the order of in diameter as targets for flybys similar to the spacecraft's Plutonian encounter. However, despite the large population of KBOs, many factors limited the number of possible targets. Because the flight path was determined by the Pluto flyby, and the probe only had 33 kilograms of hydrazine propellant remaining, the object to be visited needed to be within a cone of less than a degree's width extending from Pluto. The target also needed to be within 55AU, because beyond 55AU, the communications link will become too weak, and the RTG power output will have decayed significantly enough to hinder observations. Desirable KBOs would be well over in diameter, neutral in color (to contrast with the reddish Pluto), and, if possible, have a moon that imparts a wobble.\n",
"Images from July 1 to 3, 2013, by LORRI were the first by the probe to resolve Pluto and Charon as separate objects. On July 14, 2014, mission controllers performed a sixth trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM) since its launch to enable the craft to reach Pluto. Between July 19–24, 2014, \"New Horizons\" LORRI snapped 12 images of Charon revolving around Pluto, covering almost one full rotation at distances ranging from about . In August 2014, astronomers made high-precision measurements of Pluto's location and orbit around the Sun using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) to help NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft accurately home in on Pluto. On December 6, 2014, mission controllers sent a signal for the craft to \"wake up\" from its final Pluto-approach hibernation and begin regular operations. The craft's response that it was \"awake\" arrived to Earth on December 7, 2014, at 02:30 UTC.\n"
] |
how do programs like ccleaner clean the windows registry?
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Registry cleaners are pretty much useless these days, as Windows is pretty good about keeping the registry clean itself. Regardless, cleaning the registry doesn't really result in much of a performance impact.
One of the big things that registry cleaning does is remove entries that refer to files/folders that no longer exist. Poor software uninstallers do not remove all of the programs registry entries, that's the biggest contributor to unnecessary registry data.
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[
"Most Windows applications still store their user settings in individual .ini (initialization) files spread across the disk. They additionally use the Windows Registry to store information which might be of interest for other software. For such programs the Windows Registry acts rather as a bulletin board, than as a user settings system. When such an application is removed (uninstalled), it is also rather the default than the exception, that its registry entries are not being purged and remain in the database. The Windows Registry is rather extensive and with time becomes more and more bloated. Without the user knowing exactly what to look for, a simple search can be compared to finding the \"needle in a haystack.\" Therefore, with regards to purpose and volume, dconf cannot be compared to the Windows Registry. In fact the only commonality between dconf and the Windows Registry is the usage of a database.\n",
"The Windows registry, introduced with Windows NT 3.1, is a central, hierarchical configuration database designed to allow configuration of computers over the network and to replace the commonly-used text-based configuration files, like INI files, AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS. Using the undocumented registry editor, the Windows registry can be viewed and edited by the user.\n",
"Windows 2000 comes with two utilities to edit the Windows registry, \"REGEDIT.EXE\" and \"REGEDT32.EXE\". REGEDIT has been directly ported from Windows 98, and therefore does not support editing registry permissions. REGEDT32 has the older multiple document interface (MDI) and can edit registry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT's REGEDT32 program could. REGEDIT has a left-side tree view of the Windows registry, lists all loaded hives and represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32 has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys and it represents values as a list of strings. REGEDIT supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32 requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. Windows XP is the first system to integrate these two programs into a single utility, adopting the REGEDIT behavior with the additional NT features.\n",
"The Windows Registry is a hierarchical database that stores low-level settings for the Microsoft Windows operating system and for applications that opt to use the registry. The kernel, device drivers, services, Security Accounts Manager, and user interface can all use the registry. The registry also allows access to counters for profiling system performance.\n",
"Windows Search supports IFilters, components that enable search programs to scan files for their contents and metadata. Once an appropriate IFilter has been installed for a particular file format, the IFilter is used to extract the text from files which were saved in that format.\n",
"The operating system never clears the archive bit unless explicitly told to do so by the user. Even when a user explicitly tells the operating system to copy a file for the purpose of archiving it, the archive bit will still not be cleared. A specific command for clearing or setting the bit must be executed. In MS-DOS as well as nearly all versions of Windows, the archive bit's status can be viewed or changed with the attrib command-line utility, or by viewing the properties of a file with the Windows shell or Windows Explorer. The archive bit's status can also be viewed or changed with the GetFileAttributes, GetFileAttributesEx, and SetFileAttributes Windows APIs. The archive bit can be set or cleared with the attributes property in VBScript or JScript.\n",
"The Desktop Cleanup Wizard is a component included with Microsoft's Windows XP operating system. It aims to reduce the clutter in a user's desktop environment by moving unused shortcuts to a separate directory called \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\". When run it shows a list of shortcuts, and the user can select which shortcuts to move to the \"Unused Desktop Shortcuts\" directory.\n"
] |
I've just read a very short article about Old French Sign Language. What we do know of deaf life, culture and community in 18th century Paris? How was deafness depicted in general in France in this period?
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Do you have a link to the article?
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[
"In France, the first sign languages developed in the 18th century. Old French Sign Language was used in Paris' deaf community, before l'Abbé Charles Michel de l'Épée started his deaf school in 1760 in Paris. L'Épée's lessons were based upon his observations of deaf people signing with hands in the streets of Paris. Synthesized with French grammar, it evolved into the French Sign Language. Laurent Clerc, a graduate and former teacher in Paris, went to the United States with Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet to found American School for the Deaf at Hartford.\n",
"Old French Sign Language is the language of the deaf community in 18th-century Paris at the time of the establishment of the first deaf schools. The earliest records of the language are in the work of the Abbé de l'Épée, who stumbled across two sisters communicating in signs and, through them, became aware of a signing community of 200 deaf Parisians.\n",
"French Sign Language is frequently, though mistakenly, attributed to the work of Charles Michel de l'Épée (l'abbé de l'Épée). In fact, he is said to have discovered the already existing language by total accident; having ducked into a nearby house to escape the rain, he fell upon a pair of deaf twin sisters and was struck by the richness and complexity of the language that they used to communicate among themselves and the deaf Parisian community. The abbé set himself to learning the language, now known as Old French Sign Language, and eventually he established a free school for the deaf. At this school, he developed a system he called \"methodical signs\", to teach his students how to read and write. The abbé was eventually able to make public demonstrations (1771–1774) of his system, demonstrations that attracted educators and celebrities from all over the continent and that popularised the idea that the deaf could be educated, especially by gesture.\n",
"In 1815, an American Protestant minister, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, travelled to Europe to research teaching of the deaf. He was rebuffed by both the Braidwood schools who refused to teach him their methods. Gallaudet then travelled to Paris and learned the educational methods of the French Royal Institution for the Deaf, a combination of Old French Sign Language and the signs developed by Abbé de l’Épée. As a consequence American Sign Language today has a 60% similarity to modern French Sign Language and is almost unintelligible to users of British Sign Language.\n",
"From the few descriptions that exist, modern linguists are unable to build up a complete picture of Old French Sign Language, but ongoing research continues to uncover more pieces of the puzzle. It is not known how the language was acquired or how long the language had been developing before Épée established his school. However, evidence suggests that whenever a large enough population of deaf people exists, a sign language will spontaneously arise (cf. Nicaraguan Sign Language). As Paris had been the largest city in France for hundreds of years (and with 565,000 inhabitants in 1750), French Sign Language is a good candidate for one of the oldest sign languages in Europe.\n",
"From this time French Sign Language flourished until the late 19th century when a schism developed between the manualist and oralist schools of thought. In 1880 the Milan International Congress of Teachers for the Deaf-Mute convened and decided that the oralist tradition would be preferred. In due time the use of sign language was treated as a barrier to learning to talk and thus forbidden from the classroom.\n",
"The Abbe de l’Épée has often been credited with the invention of sign language, but this is incorrect. Desloges' book proves that French Sign Language predates the establishment of the famous school for the Deaf in Paris and is truly the invention of deaf people.\n"
] |
Someone told me it was "too cold to snow". How?
|
The amount of moisture in the air is dependent upon its temperature, below a certain point there is too little moisture for precipitation.
There are various large stretches of the Antarctic that qualify as deserts because they have so little precipitation due to this principle. But -2 is certainly warm enough to snow.
Can anyone put a name to this principle?
|
[
"After a successful trial with Norwegian club Bodø/Glimt he joined them on initially on loan in 2012. Having moved from Senegal to the Arctic Circle, Ndiaye admitted it was a culture shock.—\"When I got up on the first day and opened the front door I was terrified. I had never seen snow before, or at least only on TV. Gradually I learned not to care about the weather. If it’s cold, then it’s cold. I have received that attitude from my parents; it’s important to adapt.\"\n",
"We have only seen him once. It was in the winter, during several days of snow, when communications were virtually at a standstill. It was cold enough to split stones. We noticed a foot-warmer, then an easel, then a man, swathed in three coats, his hands in gloves, his face half-frozen. It was M. Monet, studying a snow effect. \n",
"Out ahead of the passage of a warm front, falling snow may partially melt and refreeze into a frozen rain drop before it reaches the ground. These ice pellets are called \"sleet\" in most of the US. Because it is easily seen and does not accumulate ice, it is not as dangerous as freezing rain.\n",
"It was reported that people stopped their cars and emerged from their homes to see the snow in great numbers, many having never seen snow flurries in their lifetimes. That day the high only reached 47 °F (8 °C) in Miami. The associated cold air began to subside on January 21.\n",
"On the afternoon of 21 January, the Peterborough-Huntingdon area was experiencing a very bad snow storm; more than one witness at the Inquiry said they had never known worse: \"\"freezing blowing and snowing .. bad for seeing signals\"\". Crucially, the snow/sleet fell onto already cold ground and equipment, freezing on them.\n",
"Many snow events were plagued by high winds, causing dangerous conditions. An opening ceremony took place in extreme cold with a wind chill temperature of -22°C and some visitors left early because of the harsh cold.\n",
"The first snows fell earlier than usual, in November, and were reported as some of the worst in memory. Extreme cold killed humans and animals. Some people got lost near their houses and froze to death very near their front doors. The winter weather even reached the West Coast, with snowfall of 3.7 inches in downtown San Francisco setting an all-time record on February 5, 1887.\n"
] |
what keeps movies unreleased? what stops any movie studio employee from just downloading a movie that hasn’t come out and leaking it to the internet?
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Because theft and distribution are crimes. People aren't keen on having their lives ruined to show off some movie.
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[
"\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"A copy of the film leaked onto peer-to-peer file sharing networks just hours after opening in theaters. The film was a time-stamped workprint, suggesting it may have come from within the industry rather than from someone who videotaped an advance screening. Eight people were later charged with copyright infringement and distributing material illegally. Documents filed by the Los Angeles District Attorney allege that a copy of the film was taken from an unnamed Californian post-production office by an employee, who later pleaded guilty to his charges. The illegal copy was passed among seven people until reaching an eighth party, who also pleaded guilty to uploading to an unnamed P2P network.\n",
"Shortly before release, \"Dead Men Tell No Tales\" was allegedly stolen by a group of piracy hackers, who demanded a large sum of money from Disney in order for them not to leak the unreleased film. The company refused to do so and worked with the FBI in order to uncover the identity of the group. Disney CEO Bob Iger reported that hackers did not steal their movie.\n",
"On 6 July 2016, the film's digital copy was reported to be available in the darknet. Confirming that the copy was created from the sample sent by the producers to the CBFC board for review, cyber crime experts investigating the leak said, \"The leak is confirmed. The copy of the movie is available on the darknet and soon it will be available on torrent.\" However, Yash Raj Films, the film's producer, denied such development. Kislay Chaudhary, a private investigator, claimed that the links of the 2-hour-36-minute-long movie were available, and shared the screenshot of the same with Mail Today. \"Many websites have been blocked since Tuesday evening and links were removed immediately,\" he added.\n",
"\"Steal This Film (Part 2)\" was distributed in a similar manner, but with more trackers and indexes involved, including Isohunt and Mininova. Estimates of the total current downloads of the film hover at around the 6 million mark via bittorrent alone. Since the creators have not attempted to restrict copying, the film is also available on YouTube, Google Video and many other web-based video services.\n",
"There are also director's cut versions of films that are only available on bootleg; for example, the workprint version of Richard Williams' \"The Thief and the Cobbler\". Although movie studios generally do not make full-length workprints readily available to the public, there are exceptions; examples include the \"Work-In-Progress\" version of \"Beauty and the Beast\", and the Denver/Dallas pre-release version of \"Blade Runner\". Deleted scenes or bonus footage included on DVD releases are sometimes left in workprint format as well, e.g. the \"Scrubs\" DVD extras. A workprint as source for a leaked television show is rather unusual, but it happened with the third season's first episode of \"Homeland\" a month before it aired.\n",
"Upon learning that bootleg copies of the film were already circulating, the cast and crew of the film campaigned on social media to discourage potential viewers from buying or downloading unlicensed copies of the film, and were soon joined by fans posting image macroes and other such memes encouraging viewers to support the film instead of unauthorized copies. The Optical Media Board and the Philippine National Police made raids against the distribution of illegal DVD copies of the film.\n"
] |
how is it that the mars curiosity rover is able to go years without fuel/recharging and how are we able to send such a strong signal?
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Curiosity, the MSL rover that was successfully landed in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012, uses one MMRTG to supply heat and electricity for its components and science instruments. Reliable power from the MMRTG will allow it to operate for several years.
In February 20, 2015, a NASA official reported that there is enough plutonium available to NASA to fuel three more MMRTG like the one used by the Curiosity rover. One is already committed to the Mars 2020 rover. The other two have not been assigned to any specific mission or program, and could be available by late 2021.
_URL_0_
|
[
"When fully illuminated, the rover triplejunction solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol). The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two rechargeable lithium ion batteries weighing each, that provide energy when the sun is not shining, especially at night. Over time, the batteries will degrade and will not be able to recharge to full capacity.\n",
"BULLET::::- 25 November – NASA reports that the Curiosity rover on Mars has resumed full science operations, with no apparent loss of capability, after completing the diagnosis of an electrical problem first observed on 17 November. Apparently, an internal short in the rover's power source, the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, caused an unusual and intermittent decrease in a voltage indicator on the rover.\n",
"On January 26, 2010 (sol ), after several months attempting to free the rover, NASA decided to redefine the mobile robot mission by calling it a stationary research platform. Efforts were directed in preparing a more suitable orientation of the platform in relation to the Sun in an attempt to allow a more efficient recharge of the platform's batteries. This was needed to keep some systems operational during the Martian winter. On March 30, 2010, Spirit skipped a planned communication session and as anticipated from recent power-supply projections, had probably entered a low-power hibernation mode.\n",
"On May 8, 2012 (Sol 2947), the rover moved . On that day the Solar energy production was 357 watt-hours with a solar array dust factor of 0.536. \"Opportunity\" had been stationary on Greeley Haven for 130 Sols (Mars' days), with a 15 degrees tilt to the North to help survive the winter; after the drive the northerly tilt decreased to 8 degrees. The drive marked the end of the geodynamics science experiment, which used radio Doppler measurements while the rover was stationary. By June 2012, it studied Mars dust and a nearby rock vein christened \"Monte Cristo\" as it headed North.\n",
"The safety mechanism worked until \"Opportunity\" approached the first winter on Mars. As the Sun began to retreat lower in the sky and solar power levels dropped, it became clear that \"Opportunity\" would not be able to keep the batteries charged with a heater draining power all night long. On Sol (May 28, 2004), rover operators began using a procedure known as \"deep sleep,\" during which \"Opportunity\" disconnected the batteries at night. Deep sleep prevented the stuck heater (and everything else on the rover except the clock and the battery heaters) from drawing power. When the Sun came up the next morning and sunlight began hitting the solar arrays, the batteries automatically reconnected, the robotic arm became operational, the shoulder joint warmed up, and the thermostatic switch opened, disabling the heater. As a result, the shoulder joint was extremely hot during the day and extremely cold at night. Such huge temperature swings, which tend to make electric motors wear out faster, were taking place every sol.\n",
"The mission of Mars rover \"Opportunity\" continued, and by May 1, 2012 (Sol 2940), energy production had increased to 365 watt-hours, with the solar array dust factor at 0.534. The team prepared the rover for movement and finished up collecting data on Amboy rock. 60 Doppler radio passes were completed over the winter.\n",
"In February 20, 2015, a NASA official reported that there is enough plutonium available to NASA to fuel three more MMRTG like the one used by the \"Curiosity\" rover. One is already committed to the Mars 2020 rover. The other two have not been assigned to any specific mission or program, and could be available by late 2021.\n"
] |
We all hear about species being extinct. But how often does a new species "evolve" into a new one?
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[This article](_URL_0_) (PDF) seems to put it at about 3 new species per year but it is very debatable. Speciation may occur in burst and there are many other factors. Hopefully someone else can dig up more information.
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[
"If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then obviously, it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.\n",
"Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation—where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche—and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years.\n",
"As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years, although this varies widely between taxa.\n",
"\"The species can undergo such a large number of modifications in its forms and qualities, that without losing its vital capacity, it may be, by its latest conformation and properties, farther removed from its original state than from a different species: it is in that case metamorphosed into a new species.\"\n",
"A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons.\n",
"In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (many people would say premature extinction) of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the \"overkill hypothesis\", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before present), Madagascar, Hawaii (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.\n",
"Species go extinct constantly as environments change, as organisms compete for environmental niches, and as genetic mutation leads to the rise of new species from older ones. Occasionally biodiversity on Earth takes a hit in the form of a mass extinction in which the extinction rate is much higher than usual. A large extinction-event often represents an accumulation of smaller extinction- events that take place in a relatively brief period of time.\n"
] |
why do i get sleepy when i get nervous?
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You might have some kind of chemical imbalance, disease, or infection. You should get that checked out. There isn't really an ELI5 answer to this.
|
[
"Seriously anxious people find it difficult to control their worry and typically experience symptoms like Restlessness, Fatigue, Difficulty in concentrating, Irritability, Muscle tension and Sleep disturbance.\n",
"According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine there is a wide range of potential causes, including anxiety, stimulant like caffeine and nicotine, stress and strenuous activities in the evening. It also may be facilitated by fatigue or sleep deprivation. However, most hypnic jerks occur essentially at random in healthy people. Nevertheless, these repeated, intensifying twitches can cause anxiety in some individuals and a disruption to their sleep onset.\n",
"BULLET::::- An individual may experience an increase in their restlessness while trying to sleep. Restlessness can often lead to pacing and or wandering which can be potentially harmful for an individual in a confused state.\n",
"Studies showed that there is a correlation between the frequency of hypnic jerks and anxiety. Fatigue, discomfort of the bed, highly intense exercise and stress might cause people to jerk during sleeping.\n",
"People with insomnia tend to excessively worry about getting enough sleep and the consequences of not getting enough sleep. These people use safety behaviors in an attempt to reduce their excessive anxiety. However, the use of safety behaviors serves to increase anxiety and reduce the chances that the affected person will disconfirm these anxiety-provoking thoughts. A common safety behavior used by affected people is attempting to control the anxiety-provoking thoughts by distracting themselves with other thoughts. The affected person may also cancel appointments and decide not to work because the person believes that he or she will not function properly. The affected person may take naps to compensate for the lack of sleep.\n",
"Disrupted sleep patterns are characteristic of Smith–Magenis syndrome, typically beginning early in life. Affected people may be very sleepy during the day, but have trouble falling asleep and awaken several times each night, due to an inverted circadian rhythm of melatonin.\n",
"However, in a subset of cases sleep deprivation can, paradoxically, lead to increased energy and alertness and enhanced mood. This effect is most marked in persons with an eveningeness type (so called night-owls) and people suffering from depression. For this reason it has sometimes been used as a treatment for major depressive disorder.\n"
] |
how come chinese words in english are spelled funky?
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Zhou is not pronounced like Joe. Chinese words are generally spelled according to their pinyin (phonetic system) which has correlates English letters to pronunciation.
|
[
"Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, \"Israel\" becomes \"Yǐsèliè\", \"Paris\" becomes \"Bālí\". A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including / \"shāfā\" \"sofa\", / \"mǎdá\" \"motor\", \"yōumò\" \"humor\", / \"luóji\"/\"luójí\" \"logic\", / \"shímáo\" \"smart, fashionable\", and \"xiēsīdǐlǐ\" \"hysterics\". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghai dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, / \"sofa\" and / \"motor\" in Shanghainese sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as \"so faa\" \"sofa\" and \"mo daa\" \"motor\".\n",
"Standard Chinese (whose syntax is typical of Chinese varieties generally) features a mixture of head-final and head-initial structures. Noun phrases are head-final. Modifiers virtually always precede the noun they modify. For examples of this involving relative clauses, see .\n",
"Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic without compounding, as in \"kūlong\" from \"kǒng\" 孔; this is especially common in Jin.\n",
"Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with Chinese characters, while native Japanese words could also be written using the character(s) for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Most kanji have both the native (and often multi-syllabic) Japanese pronunciation, or the kun'yomi, and the (mono-syllabic) Chinese-based pronunciation, or the on'yomi. For example, the native Japanese word \"katana\" is written as in kanji, which uses the kanji's kun'yomi since the word is native to Japanese, while the Chinese loanword \"nihontō\" (meaning \"Japanese sword\") is written as , which uses the on'yomi of each character. While nowadays loanwords from non-Sinosphere languages are usually just written in katakana, one of the two syllabary systems of Japanese, loanwords that were borrowed into Japanese before the Meiji Period were typically written with Chinese characters whose on'yomi had the same pronunciation as the loanword itself, words like \"Amerika\" (kanji: , katakana: , meaning: America), \"karuta\" (kanji: , , katakana: , meaning: card, letter), and \"tempura\" (kanji: , , katakana: , meaning: tempura), although the meanings of the kanji used often had no relation to the words themselves. Kanji that are used to only represent the sounds of a word are called ateji. While foreign loanwords in Japanese words are usually written only in kana, there are some words that normally use ateji to this day, like \"kurabu\" (ateji: , katakana: , meaning: club) and \"sushi\" (ateji: , katakana: ).\n",
"While most Chinese varieties form compounds consisting of a qualifier followed by a qualified element, Yue dialects use the reverse order. For example, the Standard Chinese word for \"guest\" is 客人 \"kèrén\" \"guest-person\", but the same morphemes are interchanged in Cantonese \"jɐn ha:k\", Taishanese \"ŋin hak\" and Tengxian \"jən hɪk\". This is generally attributed to the influence of Tai languages, in which modifiers normally follow nouns.\n",
"Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the furigana represent sound, one can combine the two to create puns or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for \"blue\", but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word \"blue\"; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name (such as \"Firebolt\" in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to clarify extended meanings. For example, in a work of science fiction, some astronaut could use the word , \"furusato\", meaning \"my hometown\", when referring to planet Earth. To clarify that for the reader, the word \"furusato\" (hometown) might be written in hiragana over the kanji for \"chikyuu\" (Earth).\n",
"The Chinese loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively Chinese. Words of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying Hokkien/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as traditional and simplified characters) include \"pisau\" (匕首 bǐshǒu – knife), \"loteng\", (樓/層 = lóu/céng – [upper] floor/ level), \"mie\" (麵 面 Hokkien mī – noodles), \"lumpia\" (潤餅 (Hokkien = lūn-piáⁿ) – springroll), \"cawan\" (茶碗 cháwǎn – teacup), \"teko\" (茶壺 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [Hokkien] = teapot), 苦力 kuli = 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) and even the widely used slang terms \"gua\" and \"lu\" (from the Hokkien 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝 – meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').\n"
] |
During the California gold rush why didn't the American government at the time leave it for other immigrants
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The gold of the California gold fields - as it was understood in 1849 and the early 1850s - was an extensive resource, meaning that it was broadly distributed in small amounts. It took tens of thousands of people to process hundreds of thousands of tons of dirt to find the gold they were seeking, and at that, $4 - roughly a quarter of an ounce - was considered a good day.
The General Government (as the US federal government was known) did not have the resources - human or otherwise - to work the gold fields and process all that material. Most miners were only making a living wage to do the work and very few people ended up with surplus wealth. If the government had nationalized the gold fields, which is what you're suggesting, it would have had to pay all those workers, and it would not likely have profited much.
By the mid 1850s, California miners were seeking underground "intensive" gold deposits in the form of gold veins. These were concentrated, but their retrieval required a great deal of technology and supplies as well as skilled labor. Again, the government could have nationalized the mines, but it would have been a tremendous challenge to harness the people and to find the money to invest in a highly speculative, risky undertaking. It was best left to the private sector to shoulder the cost and to take the risk.
Because of all this, the national mining acts of 1866 and then, 1872, outline an approach to mineral resources, particularly on federally managed land. Because the risk of failure was so great, the federal law basically offers the resource to anyone who can find it and develop it. The perceived common good was in the mineral wealth being pumped into the economy and in the development of remote locations in North America. Although there have been many attempts to amend the generous aspects of the 1872 Mining Law, it remains the statute that governs mining to this day: it has not been possible to built a consensus around any alternative.
|
[
"In January 1848, two weeks after California was ceded to the United States, gold was discovered in California, resulting in a flood of fortune seekers gravitating to the state in the following months and years. Due to the ambiguity of existing laws regarding squatting on federal land, individual mining camps developed squatting laws to fill the legal void. Policies relating to abandonment and work requirements were established on a camp-by-camp basis. As extraction became more capital-intensive, the share of mining camps that allowed a company to own land increased significantly. Mining laws for mining on federally-owned land passed in 1872 and helped develop the western states in America, but as time passed, their effectiveness and appropriateness waned. \n",
"Miners and prospectors in the California Gold Rush of 1849 found themselves in a legal vacuum. Although the US federal government had laws governing the leasing of mineral land, the United States had only recently acquired California by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and had little presence in the newly acquired territories.\n",
"After the California Gold Rush began in 1848, which caused many people to leave Australia for California to look for gold there, the New South Wales government rethought its position, and sought approval from the Colonial Office in England to allow the exploitation of the mineral resources and also offered rewards for the finding of payable gold.\n",
"In the wake of the 1853 recession, many Californians who owned the rights to the land on which the gold was mined were looking for cheap labor to maximize profits. Chinese immigrants came to America for a variety of reasons, including longstanding trans-Pacific economic connections, a culture of migrant work in the Pearl River delta region, and the presence of reasonably fast trade routes to the United States, and the allure of gold. Many Chinese immigrants made the voyage on credit, and upon arrival in California had no choice but to accept lower wages to repay their creditors. As a result of their lower demand for wages, and their tendency to form self-supporting communities without much support from their employers, Chinese immigrants became the preferred option of labor for many landowners. Domestic miners responded with the creation of “anticoolie” clubs that sought to create clear divisions between white workers and Chinese workers. The clubs almost served like white unions that represented the interests of the white miners in the west, and they expanded in prominence as manufacturing jobs moved to the west and Chinese workers continued to play the role of cheap labor. In 1857, just a few years prior to the passage of the Anti-Coolie Act in California, Chinese workers were accepting wages between one and two dollars less than their white counterparts.\n",
"By 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve, Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained. The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ($ per month as of 2020), and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign miners, particularly Latin Americans and Chinese.\n",
"During the Gold Rush era, the white men from the east coast captured the ranchos and more ranches and farms plus corrals were built. However, the new people did not like California as an unorganized unincorporated land, and that prompted California to join the union as a state.\n",
"When the California Gold Rush began, people from all over the country ran to Gold Country to try to make their fortunes. Likewise in northwestern California, many men headed that way, leaving their wives, children, and homes. The Tolowa were being forcibly resettled in the region and were beginning to take their vengeance on those who stayed behind. Settlers petitioned the Army for protection, but their pleas were not well received by the Department of the Pacific, whose troops were already stretched thin from protecting stagecoach travelers.\n"
] |
Were there any European explorers prior to 1700 who attempted to cross the pacific ocean from Asia?
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If you are asking if Europeans had been crossing the Pacific before 1741, the answer is a ***clear yes***. Magellan's expedition in 1519-1522 was the first to cross the Pacific in from east to west direction, going from Magellan's straits to Phillipines. And it was followed up by many more till 1741
If you are asking if other Europeans had been crossing the Pacific in a specifically from west to east direction - from Asia to Americas - prior to 1741, the answer is ***also a clear yes***. In the follow up to Magellan's voyage, Spanish sent numerous expeditions to try to establish a commercial route from Americas to Asia, with the problem being that contrary winds prevented an easy return to American continent.
It wasn't until 1565 when following the conquest of Philippines by Miguel López de Legazpi, ships under Alonso de Arellano and Andrés de Urdaneta returned to America by first going north to 38th parallel where they found (as they had expected to find) winds blowing in the eastern direction which they used to steer the ships back to America. Sadly I do not know enough information about the expedition to go into more details, but suffice to say the ships headed from the Philippines, steered north to 38th parallel, then changed course due east, reaching first California and then heading south to Mexico where Spanish settlements were to be found. The discovery of this route was then been immediately taken advantage of by the Spanish. For the next several centuries, pretty much every year several ships were crossing the Pacific from Acapulco to Manila and then back, carrying New World's silver to be exchanged for Far Eastern goods. A system which is nowadays most commonly referred to as "Manila Galleons" and on which plenty of literature exists.
So the answer is that without any doubt, Europeans were regularly crossing the Pacific from Asia for almost two centuries before 1741. The reference you quote, of a Russian ship being the "first Europeans to arrive in Northwestern North America" can then only be considered serious if we limit the scope to just Northwestern North America (whatever that means) and definitely not implying they were the first to go from Asia to Americas
|
[
"In 1519, an expedition sent by the Spanish Crown to find a way to Asia was led by the experienced Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan. The fleet explored the rivers and bays as it charted the South American coast until it found a way to the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Magellan.\n",
"In the second half of the 16th century and the 17th century exploration of Asia and the Pacific Ocean continued with explorers such as Andrés de Urdaneta (1498–1568), who discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas; Pedro Fernandes de Queirós (1565–1614), who discovered the Pitcairn Islands and the Vanuatu archipelago; Álvaro de Mendaña (1542–1595), who discovered the Tuvalu archipelago, the Marquesas, the Solomon Islands and Wake Island.\n",
"António de Abreu (c.1480–c.1514) and Francisco Serrão (14?–1521) led the first direct European fleet into the Pacific Ocean (on its western edges), through the Sunda Islands, reaching the Moluccas. Andres de Urdaneta (1498–1568) discovered the maritime route from Asia to the Americas. \n",
"The Crown of Castile organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus to compete with Portugal for the spice trade with Asia, but instead, landed in a New World. The search for a route to Asia was resumed a few years later, after explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and became the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean from the New World, confirming that the Americas were separate continents. The Spanish crown then prepared a great westward voyage with Ferdinand Magellan, in order to reach Asia from Spain across the Atlantic, and then Pacific Oceans. On October 21, 1520, his expedition crossed the strait that bears his name in the southern tip of South America, opening the Pacific to European exploration. On March 16, 1521, the ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice Islands, ultimately resulting in the Manila Galleon trade, the first westward spice trade route to Asia.\n",
"The first European to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Spanish captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred in 1587, when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain.\n",
"The first European to explore the coast was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, sailing for the Spanish Crown; in 1542, Cabrillo's expedition sailed perhaps as far north as the Rogue River in today's Oregon. Beginning in 1565, the Spanish Manila galleons crossed the Pacific Ocean from Mexico to the Spanish Philippines, with silver and gemstones from Mexico. The Manila galleons returned across the northern Pacific, and reached North America usually off the coast of northern California, and then continued south with their Asian trade goods to Mexico.\n",
"Spain was convinced that it had finally reached Asia with the expedition undertaken by Christopher Columbus, this expedition was tremendously important because they arrived in the Americas, an immense and highly unknown territory that began an era of exploration and conquest whose Spanish soldier-explorers called 'Conquistadors' explored much of the interior territory of the New World. The Spanish Vasco Núñez de Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean for the first time crossing the Isthmus of Panama. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, convinced Charles I of Castile (Habsburg) to finance an expedition exploring the Pacific Ocean. Magellan was killed in Mactan (now Lapu-Lapu, Philippines) by its ruler, but the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano and his remaining crew was able to continue the voyage, following Magellan's plan and bringing the good news of their circumnavigation of the world to Castile.\n"
] |
How important was the Act of Union (1707) to the growth of the already existing English empire? Would England itself have had a comparable empire in size to the British Empire had it not formed the Kingdom of Great Britain with Scotland?
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This question would be better suited to /r/HistoricalWhatIf
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[
"In 1707, the Acts of Union received their Royal assent, thereby abolishing the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland and their respective parliaments to create a unified Kingdom of Great Britain with a single Parliament of Great Britain. Anne formally became the first occupant of the unified British throne, and Scotland sent 45 MPs to the new parliament at Westminster. Perhaps the greatest single benefit to Scotland of the Union was that she could enjoy free trade with England and her possessions overseas. For England's part, a possible ally for European states hostile to England had been neutralised while simultaneously securing a Protestant succession to the new British throne.\n",
"The Treaty of Union of 1706, which with effect from 1707 combined England and Scotland into a new sovereign state called Great Britain, provided for the subjects of the new state to \"have full freedom and intercourse of trade and navigation to and from any port or place within the said united kingdom and the Dominions and Plantations thereunto belonging\". While the Treaty of Union also provided for the winding up of the Scottish African and Indian Company, it made no such provision for the English companies or colonies. In effect, with the Union they became British colonies.\n",
"After this personal union, the new monarch, James I and VI, sought to unite the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England into a state which he referred to as \"Great Britain\". Nevertheless, Acts of Parliament attempting to unite the two countries failed in 1606, in 1667, and in 1689.\n",
"Despite opposition from within both Scotland and England, a Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706 and was then ratified by the parliaments of both countries with the passing of the Acts of Union 1707. With effect from 1 May 1707, this created a new sovereign state called the \"Kingdom of Great Britain\". This kingdom \"began as a hostile merger\", but led to a \"full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world\"; historian Simon Schama stated that \"it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history\".\n",
"By the start of the 16th century, the number of states in Great Britain had been reduced to two: the Kingdom of England (which included Wales and controlled Ireland) and the Kingdom of Scotland. The once independent Principality of Wales fell under the control of English monarchs from the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. The Union of Crowns in 1603, the accidental consequence of a royal marriage one hundred years earlier, united the kingdoms in a personal union, though full political union in the form of the Kingdom of Great Britain required a Treaty of Union in 1706 and Acts of Union in 1707 (to ratify the Treaty).\n",
"The Kingdoms of England and Scotland were unified in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. Following an attempted republican revolution in Ireland in 1798, the Kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain were unified in 1801, creating the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands remaining outside of the United Kingdom but with their ultimate good governance being the responsibility of the British Crown (effectively the British government). Although, the colonies of North America that would become the United States of America were lost by the start of the 19th century, the British Empire expanded rapidly elsewhere. A century later it would cover one third of the globe. Poverty in the United Kingdom remained desperate, however, and industrialisation in England led to terrible condition for the working classes. Mass migrations following the Irish Famine and Highland Clearances resulted in the distribution of the islands' population and culture throughout the world and a rapid de-population of Ireland in the second half of the 19th century. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Anglo-Irish Treaty (1919–1922), with the six counties that formed Northern Ireland remaining as an autonomous region of the UK.\n",
"The political union between the Kingdoms of England (also including Wales as an English possession) and Scotland was created by the Acts of Union, passed in the parliaments of both kingdoms in 1707 and 1706 respectively, which united the governments of what had previously been independent states (though they had shared the same monarch in a personal union since 1603) under the Parliament of Great Britain. The Union was brought into existence under the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707.\n"
] |
what can someone do if they have your ip address? can they see all your internet activity and places you've posted? can they identify who you are?
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If they *only* had your actual IP address, they could DDOS you and potentially locate you within a rough geographic area. But that's about it.
If they had your IP but also purchased or collected date from cookies and such, they could learn a lot more.
|
[
"In 2010 the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland found that IP addresses are personal information and that under Swiss privacy laws they may not be used to track Internet usage without the knowledge of the individuals involved.\n",
"Finding \"relevant\" and \"reachable\" IP addresses is the objective of the reconnaissance phase of attacking an organization over the Internet. The relevant IP addresses are determined by collecting as many [[Domain Name System|DNS]] host names as possible and translating them to IP addresses and IP address ranges. This is called footprinting.\n",
"This raises the question of reasonableness: assume it is theoretically possible to identify a person from information which does not include a name or address, but does contain clues which could be pursued to find out who it relates to. How much extra effort does it take to make it unreasonable that such information could be identified? For instance, if the information involves an IP address, and the relevant ISP stores logs which could easily be inspected (if you had sufficient legal justification) to re-link the IP address to the account holder, can their identity be \"reasonably ascertained\"? If such linking used to be expensive, slow and difficult, but becomes easier, does this change the answer at some point?\n",
"However, IP addresses are generally not a reliable way to track a session or identify a user. Many computers designed to be used by a single user, such as office PCs or home PCs, are behind a network address translator (NAT). This means that several PCs will share a public IP address. Furthermore, some systems, such as Tor, are designed to retain Internet anonymity, rendering tracking by IP address impractical, impossible, or a security risk.\n",
"If geolocation software maps IP addresses associated with an entire county or territory to a particular location (such as the geographic center of the territory), this can cause considerable problems for the people who happen to live there, as law enforcement authorities and others may mistakenly assume any crimes or other misconduct associated with the IP address to originate from that particular location.\n",
"User applications therefore have no knowledge of the user's \"real\" IP address, nor do they have access to any information about the physical hardware. In order to obtain such information, an application would have to find a way \"break out\" of the VM, or to subvert the Gateway (perhaps through a bug in Tor or the Gateway's Linux kernel).\n",
"While signing up for internet services, each computer contains a unique IP, Internet Protocol address. This particular address will not give away private or personal information, however, a weak link could potentially reveal information from one's ISP.\n"
] |
why does 'latin' mean hispanic?
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Likewise, Hispanic means you're from Hispania, or Spain. It doesn't really make sense to call someone from say, Venezula an Hispanic, even if they speak Spanish. That's like saying someone from Minnesota is English.
Regardless, Hispanic is still used that way.
|
[
"Though often used interchangeably in American English, \"Hispanic\" and \"Latino\" are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. \"Hispanic\", from the Latin word for \"Spain,\" has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. \"Latino\"—which in Spanish means \"Latin\" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word \"latinoamericano\"—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only \"Hispanic\" can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a \"Hispanic\", not a \"Latino\", and one cannot substitute \"Latino\" in the phrase \"the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures\" without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word.\n",
"Latino () is an Italian, Sicilian, Sardinian, Spanish, and Portuguese noun and adjective often used in the United States to refer to people with cultural ties to Latin America, in contrast to \"Hispanic\" which is a demonym that includes Spaniards and other speakers of the Spanish language.\n",
"The words \"Latino\" and \"Hispanic\" are sometimes given distinct meanings, with \"Latino\" referring to persons of Latin American descent, and \"Hispanic\" referring to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Spain or to the Iberian Peninsula as a whole, as well as to persons of Latin American descent, whereas the term \"Lusitanic\" usually refers to persons having an ancestry, language or culture traceable to Portugal specifically.\n",
"The term \"Hispanic\" derives from Latin \"Hispanicus\" ('Spanish'), the adjectival derivation of Latin (and Greek) \"Hispania\" ('Spain') and \"Hispanus\"/\"Hispanos\" ('Spaniard'), ultimately probably of Celtiberian origin. In English the word is attested from the 16th century (and in the late 19th century in American English).\n",
"The term \"Hispanic\" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States. Today, the word \"Latino\" is often used as a synonym for \"Hispanic\". The definitions of both terms are non-race specific, and include people who consider themselves to be of distinct races (Black, White, Amerindian, Asian, and mixed groups). However, there is a common misconception in the US that Hispanic/Latino is a race or sometimes even that national origins such as Mexican, Cuban, Colombian, Salvadoran, etc. are races. In contrast to \"Latino\" or \"Hispanic\", \"Anglo\" refers to non-Hispanic White Americans or non-Hispanic European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not necessarily of English descent.\n",
"The Hispanic–Latino naming dispute is an ongoing disagreement over the use of the ethnonyms \"Hispanic\" and \"Latino\" to refer collectively to the inhabitants of the United States who are of Latin American or Spanish origin—that is, Latino or Hispanic Americans. The usage of both terms has changed to adapt to a wide range of geographical and historical influences. The term \"Hispanic\" was used first; later, some Hispanics in the western United States came to prefer the term \"Latino\". The Census does not classify persons of Portuguese or Brazilian descent as Hispanic, as those are Portuguese-speaking populations. According to a 2011 study by the Pew Research Center, the majority (51%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans prefer to identify with their families' country of origin, while only 24% prefer the terms \"Hispanic\" or \"Latino\".\n",
"The term \"Hispanic\" actually refers to \"Hispania\"—a large geographical area notably recognized in the Roman era. It consists of the entire Iberian peninsula, not just the modern-day state of Spain. Thus, the more recent division between the modern-day states of Spain and Portugal arguably has no bearing on these terms. (In this manner, Brazilians would be considered Hispanic.) Additionally, the term \"Latin America\" () is a relatively recent invention by the French in the 19th century, intended to promote all Latin-based European interests and influence in the Western Hemisphere—further highlighting a clear and arguably erroneous inconsistency if excluding Quebec, modern French Louisiana, the French Caribbean as Haiti, and French Guiana from the terms \"Latin America\" or \"Latino\" (however, contemporary usage of the term \"Latin American\" in Latin America itself always excludes these regions, and tend to ignore Brazil too). Ultimately, one may use the term \"Hispanic America\" instead.\n"
] |
Why does my skin look different under different lighting conditions?
|
Different kinds of lights are composed of different wavelengths of light. That is some lights have more red others more blue etc. When these reflect off your skin which reflects different colors differently you get different colors. It has nothing to do with x-rays.
|
[
"Skin-lightening products are still prevalent in many parts of the world. This may be due to aesthetic or social-standing reasons, in areas where a lighter skin tone is considered to be a sign of wealth or beauty.\n",
"Often restaurants, bars and other social gathering places will dim lighting to maximise amber shift. The reason for this is that the warmer (amber shifted) light shows skin tones in a more attractive manner. Some interior designers also feel that warmed light gives a more intimate feel.\n",
"A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n",
"Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n",
"Sensitivity of the skin to a light source can take various forms. People with particular skin types are more sensitive to sunburn. Particular medications make the skin more sensitive to sunlight; these include most of the tetracycline antibiotics, heart drugs amiodarone, and sulfonamides. \n",
"Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals. Keratocytes from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to the heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly pigmented skin, it can absorb more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays. Darkly pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture free radicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, which are created by the interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after UVR irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, UVB damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on Langerhans cells. The stratum corneum of people with dark or heavily tanned skin is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin.\n",
"Many individuals experience leathery skin where the skin appears dark and thick. Excessive hair growth is known to be found in these darker areas of the skin (hypertrichosis). The eyes may develop a white or clear covering the cornea (corneal opacities) which can cause problems with vision.\n"
] |
if the polar ice caps were developed during the last ice age, why is it so bad that they are melting now? isn’t that more of a return to where we were rather than an anomaly?
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The earth doesn't give a shit what's happening to it. You do along with all the things that live on it because they've adapted to the conditions that existed after the last ice age and they don't want to adapt again to rapidly changing conditions because that means a lot of them and their offspring are going to die.
|
[
"Earth's polar caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000 years. Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the Sun. Additionally, in geologic time scales, the ice caps may grow or shrink due to climate variation. If the polar ice caps are too hot then they will melt. However if they are too cold they will increase their sizes.\n",
"Climate change could have different effects on ice melt and brine rejection. Previous studies have suggested that as ice cover thins, it will become a weaker insulator, resulting in larger ice production during the autumn and winter. The consequent increase in winter brine rejection will drive ocean ventilation, and strengthen the inflow of warm Atlantic waters. Studies of the last glacial maximum (LGM) have indicated that a drastic reduction in the production of sea ice and thus reduction of brine rejection, would result in the weakening of the stratification in the global deep oceans and in CO release into the shallow oceans and the atmosphere, triggering global deglaciation.\n",
"Its melting also caused major disruptions to the global climate cycle, because the huge influx of low-salinity water into the Arctic Ocean via the Mackenzie River is believed to have disrupted the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water, the very saline, cold, deep water that flows from the Greenland Sea. That interrupted the thermohaline circulation, creating the brief Younger Dryas cold epoch and a temporary re-advance of the ice sheet, which did not retreat from Nunavik until 6,500 years ago.\n",
"Climate scientists have hypothesized that the stratospheric polar vortex jet stream will gradually weaken as a result of global warming and thus influence U.S. conditions. This trend could possibly cause changes in the future such as increasing frost in certain areas. The magazine \"Scientific American\" noted in December 2014 that ice cover on the Great Lakes had recently \"reached its second-greatest extent on record\", showing climate variability.\n",
"Decreasing Arctic sea ice cover is one of the most visible manifestations of climate change, often linked to rising global temperatures. However, there are several reports that shrinking polar ice is due more to changes in ambient wind direction than to increasing environmental temperatures \"per se\".\n",
"The current rate of decline of the ice caps has caused many investigations and discoveries on glacier dynamics and their influence on the world's climate. In the early 1950s, scientists and engineers from the US Army began drilling into polar ice caps for geological insight. These studies resulted in “nearly forty years of research experience and achievements in deep polar ice core drillings... and established the fundamental drilling technology for retrieving deep ice cores for climatologic archives.” Polar ice caps have been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the “rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years.” In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice is \"700,000 sq km below the previous minimum of 4.17m sq km set in 2007\". In August 2013, Arctic sea ice extent averaged 6.09m km, which represents 1.13 million km below the 1981–2010 average for that month.\n",
"Ice caps have significant effects on the geomorphology of the area that they occupy. Plastic moulding, gouging and other glacial erosional features become present upon the glacier's retreat. Many lakes, such as the Great Lakes in North America, as well as numerous valleys have been formed by glacial action over hundreds of thousands of years.\n"
] |
With the massive influx of gold miners immigrating to California during its gold rush, was there enough food and water grown locally for them? Was food sent in? The miners obviously weren’t growing their own food.
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Water was usually not a problem - the California Gold Country has plenty of streams and rivers. During the drier times, miners had to wait for enough flow to "wash dirt" - the method used to expose gold, but there was always enough to drink.
Miners spent a lot of time hunting. I co-edited the [letters of the Grosh Brothers](_URL_0_) - placer miners in the California Gold Rush. They described how two of their group would wash dirt while one or two others would go hunting. They would then share everything that each was able to produce during the day - food and gold. That was the typical approach for the first miners in the Gold Country.
There were also those who farmed. The Grosh Brothers gave up mining at some points and took up agriculture, but the lure of gold always brought them back (and they eventually died in the effort). There was also a great deal imported to California. Ships were repeatedly making the trip to Mexico and South American, bringing back passengers (and the mail!), but also a great deal of food grown in those areas. Costs were inflated in Gold Rush-era California, but acquiring food was not difficult.
As the Gold Rush went through its cycle of initial rush, depletion of gold, and then retreat from the Gold Country, infrastructure improved and more people were involved in agriculture, exploiting the rich natural resources of Northern California, which continue to feed the nation. Acquiring food was never that big of a problem; the real question was a matter of distribution and cost, but since the first years were "flush" with gold, money was no object.
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[
"During the California Gold Rush there were many new immigrants who were familiar with fishing. There was a large demand for fresh food including fresh fish and shellfish among the rapidly increasing California population. Providing fresh food products were one of the most wanted and lucrative trades that developed among the California Argonauts. The small Californio population before the rush were only able to provide some beef—their main \"product\" before 1850 had been cowhides and tallow. After the California Gold Rush started developing a market for fresh fish, many Azorean-Portuguese turned from gold mining to fishing. Fisherman established several small fishing communities up and down the California coast selling fish in towns and cities from San Diego to Eureka. They built their own small fishing boats using the traditional \"lateen\" sail technology common in the Mediterranean on their fishing boats.\n",
"In 1860, a much closer gold rush occurred in the San Bernardino Mountains when prospector William Holcomb discovered significant deposits, just over the northern drainage divide of the Santa Ana River. This discovery exploded into a full-scale gold mining operation in days. The Santa Ana River served as a conduit for miners traveling to the region and many of the forests in the upper basin experienced clearcutting as a result of the high resource demands of the boom. Gold was also discovered in Lytle Creek in that same year. Following the gold rush, the cultivation of citrus became the mainstay of the economy of the lower Santa Ana River area. Through the late 19th century, citrus fields covered much of the coastal plain and led to the naming of Orange County.\n",
"In the 1850s, the California Gold Rush brought large numbers of European-American settlers into the area, followed by many Mexican, African and Chinese immigrants. These settlers brought diseases with them, to which the Native Americans had no immunity. Within a few years, these diseases wiped out most of the native population. The Yuba River and its forks were one of the richest parts of the Mother Lode, and miners poured to the region in great numbers. Although gold was first extracted by simple methods such as panning and sluicing, large-scale industrial hydraulic mining left a much greater impact. About 25 million cubic yards (19,400,000 m) of hydraulic mining debris was carried down the Yuba River. This raised stream beds up to in places, buried riverside land under sediment, and increased the risk of flooding. The practice was banned in 1884 following lawsuits from farmers who had been affected by the debris flows. \n",
"In 1849 and 1850, several parties of gold seekers bound for the California Gold Rush panned small amounts of gold from various streams in the South Platte River valley at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, and the discoveries were not reported for several years.\n",
"After the gold rush played out, the settlers who remained turned to agriculture. With the help of irrigation from the nearby Snake River, the region became a large supplier of potatoes, grain and other crops. Residential and commercial development gradually appeared by 1882.\n",
"The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial. Native Americans, dependent on traditional hunting, gathering and agriculture, became the victims of starvation and disease, as gravel, silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them. Later farming spread to supply the settlers' camps, taking more land away from the Native Americans.\n",
"The gold rush brought tens of thousands of miners and settlers to northern California, putting pressure on native populations. Gold mining damaged water supplies and killed fish; the deer left the area. The settlers brought new infectious diseases such as smallpox and measles. The northern Yana group became extinct while the central and southern groups (who later became part of Redding Rancheria) and Yahi populations dropped dramatically. Searching for food, they came into conflict with settlers, leading to them setting bounties on the natives. Prices included 50 cents per scalp and 5 dollars per head. In 1865, the settlers attacked the Yahi while they were still asleep.\n"
] |
How have the eyes of animals that need clear vision in and out of water evolved to cope with the varying refractive indices?
|
Anableps fish just have eyes that are half-and-half divided, with the top half working well out of water and the bottom working well in. It's _weird_.
Seal pupils contract in the bright light of the surface, and their eyes focus better in air. In dim light (like they experience underwater) the pupils expand and the eyes focus better underwater. But at night on land, their pupils expand and their eyes can't cope well with seeing through air, giving them terrible night vision. It's apparently pretty entertaining to walk around a beach where they have hauled out at night....they know you are there but can't actually see you well at all.
|
[
"Aquatic animals must rely entirely on their lens for both focusing and to provide almost the entire refractive power of the eye as the water-cornea interface does not have a large enough difference in indices of refraction to provide significant refractive power. As such, lenses in aquatic eyes tend to be much rounder and harder.\n",
"Water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. Most animals' eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment.\n",
"The shape and function of the eyes in aquatic animals are dependent on water depth and light exposure: limited light exposure results in a retina similar to that of nocturnal terrestrial mammals. Additionally, cetaceans have two areas of high ganglion cell concentration (\"best-vision areas\"), where other aquatic mammals (e.g. seals, manatees, otters) only have one.\n",
"In many aquatic vertebrates, the lens is considerably thicker, almost spherical, to increase the refraction. This difference compensates for the smaller angle of refraction between the eye's cornea and the watery medium, as they have similar refractive indices. Even among terrestrial animals, however, the lens of primates such as humans is unusually flat.\n",
"Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n",
"Changes in the eye came about because the behavior of light at the surface of the eye differs between an air and water environment due to the difference in refractive index, so the focal length of the lens altered to function in air. The eye was now exposed to a relatively dry environment rather than being bathed by water, so eyelids developed and tear ducts evolved to produce a liquid to moisten the eyeball.\n",
"In some animals, the retina contains a reflective layer (the tapetum lucidum) which increases the amount of light each photosensitive cell perceives, reflecting the light out of the eye, allowing the animal to see better under low light conditions.\n"
] |
why, when most people orgasm, they instinctively want to vocalize their excitement/expressions?
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No scientific answer here, but I can only assume it is like any other "unexpected" rush of emotions or feeling. When you step on a nail, you shriek. When you burn your hand, you shriek. Just like anonoman925 said, it is probably an involuntary reaction to too much stimulus.
TL;DR: Too much stimulus = Involuntary reaction.
|
[
"Normally, a human being is able to feel pleasure from an orgasm. Upon reaching a climax, chemicals are released in the brain and motor signals are activated that will cause quick cycles of muscle contraction in the corresponding areas of both males and females. Sometimes, these signals can cause other involuntary muscle contractions such as body movements and vocalization. Finally, during orgasm, upward neural signals go to the cerebral cortex and feelings of intense pleasure are experienced. People who have this disorder are aware of reaching an orgasm, as they can feel the physical effects of it, but they experience very limited or no sort of pleasure.\n",
"In humans, coital vocalizations are linked to orgasm, hence occurring during copulation and serving as an expression of sexual pleasure. Vocalizations can be used intentionally by women in order to boost the self-esteem of their partner and to cause quicker ejaculation.\n",
"On the other hand, recent studies have indicated that most copulatory vocalizations in women do not accompany their own orgasm, but rather their partner’s ejaculation. The study showed that the man typically finds the woman’s vocalization arousing and highly exciting, and that the woman herself is aware of this. Most women in the study, furthermore, indicated that they vocalized during intercourse to make their man ejaculate more quickly, or to boost his enjoyment or self-esteem, or both. A correlation has been found between the frequency of vocalizations and sexual satisfaction for both men and women.\n",
"While stroking the clitoris, the parts of the female brain responsible for processing fear, anxiety and behavioral control start to diminish in activity. This reaches a peak at orgasm when the female brain's emotion centers are effectively closed down to produce an almost trance-like state. Holstege is quoted as saying, at the 2005 meeting of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Development: \"At the moment of orgasm, women do not have any emotional feelings.\"\n",
"Orgasm (from Greek ὀργασμός \"orgasmos\" \"excitement, swelling\"; also sexual climax) is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by sexual pleasure. Experienced by males and females, orgasms are controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system. They are often associated with other involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in multiple areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm (known as the refractory period) is often a relaxing experience, attributed to the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin as well as endorphins (or \"endogenous morphine\").\n",
"Human orgasms usually result from physical sexual stimulation of the penis in males (typically accompanying ejaculation) and of the clitoris in females. Sexual stimulation can be by self-practice (masturbation) or with a sex partner (penetrative sex, non-penetrative sex, or other sexual activity).\n",
"Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: \"Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm.\" Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood.\n"
] |
What would happen if a MAGLEV train lost power?
|
They have wheels.
|
[
"The train started moving at 09:53. 57seconds later emergency braking was recorded. Approximately half a second and 25metres later the maglev train hit the maintenance vehicle at a speed of 162km/h. The aerodynamic design of the transrapid caused it to dive under the heavy (60 tonne) maintenance vehicle, ripping off the roof of the maglev train. The wreckage continued for another 300 meters on the track before coming to a halt.\n",
"There were also technical problems; in testing, the complex systems needed to switch trains on the magnetic tracks froze up in cold weather, and would require a re-design. A US report also noted that the system was surprisingly loud and had poor ride quality. With Krauss-Maffei's financial support gone, and daunting technical problems remaining to be solved, the maglev project died. The test track at the CNE was abandoned in place, with the foundations and a few support pillars already constructed. Krauss-Maffei continued development of the original inter-city Transrapid, but at a very slow pace and through a series of mergers with other companies involved in maglev technology. The first Transrapid system did not enter service until 30 years later.\n",
"On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle at on the test track in Lathen, Germany. The maintenance vehicle destroyed the first section of the train, then lifted off the track to complete two full rotations before landing in a pile of pre-exploded debris. This was the first major accident involving a Transrapid train. The news media reported 23 fatalities and that several people were severely injured, these being the first fatalities on any maglev. The accident was caused by human error with the first train being allowed to leave the station before the maintenance vehicle had moved off the track. This situation could be avoided in a production environment by installing an automatic collision avoidance system.\n",
"The derailment also caused a massive power outage on the line; another train, which was located in the tunnel at the time of accident some from Slavyansky Bulvar, was also stuck, and passengers had to be evacuated. There were no medical injuries reported from that train.\n",
"It has been reported that the line is operating at a loss. A proposal was put forth in 2005 that a maglev train operation would solve the problem of noise pollution, but its feasibility on operating costs became a subject of ridicule.\n",
"As built, the length of the track was , and trains \"flew\" at an altitude of . The line operated successfully for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems, and a lack of spare parts, made it unreliable in its later years. The system closed in July 1995 when an investigation concluding the cost of reinstating and maintaining the Maglev to be too high. Initially the cars for the Maglev were stored by the airport owners, Birmingham International Airport Ltd., on the airport site.\n",
"Due to gaps in the Third rail in complex pointwork or level crossings, a short electric locomotive such as the Class 73 is going to momentarily lose power. This results in noticeable arcing if the Driver does not shut off power. However, despite the \"sparks effect\" this rarely affected the locomotives, except to burn out the carbon brush pick up shoes a little more quickly. The problem of arcing only became a bit of a problem when some of these locomotives were altered to work \"Gatwick Express\" services using modified Mark 2 coaching stock and 500 hp Gatwick Luggage Vans (GLV). As 750v Power jumpers between locos or units were banned on BR designs (The last EMUs to have such things were the Bulleid designed 4SUBs). The Class 73s could not benefit from the pickup shoes at the opposite end of the train on the GLV. As a result of removing the last bank of resistance on the Class 73 locos to make them quicker on acceleration with these trains, arcing increased. Therefore, to reduce damage from the increased arcing to other electrical equipment these particular locomotives had \"flash guards\" fitted on their bogies around the shoes. Stories of Class 73s catching fire were greatly exaggerated, as with the Bulleid Pacific steam locos before them.\n"
] |
how would the space agencies respond if they detect an incoming asteroid large enough to cause damages?
|
The space agencies would report it to the public. They are in no position to keep anything like that a secret and in no position to do anything about it. The only thing they can do is warn people the best they can in the hopes that people might get to safety. The only thing anyone might be able to do about it is to launch a nuclear ICBM against it in the hope that it will break up and cause a number of smaller less dangerous meteorites. The space agencies does not have ICBMs as they are used by the military but the space agencies will hopefully be able to help in such an event. We have not tried such a thing either and have no idea if an ICBM can fly the radically different flight path needed or what a nuclear device does to an asteroid.
|
[
"Sub-150m impacting asteroids would not cause global damage but are still locally catastrophic. They can, by contrast to larger ones, only be detected when they come very close to the Earth, which in most cases only happens during their final approach. Those impacts therefore will always need a constant watch and typically cannot be identified earlier than a few weeks in advance, far too late for interception. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would presently require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Meeting the asteroid and deflecting it by least the diameter of the Earth after its interception would then needs several additional years.\n",
"If a more severe impact is predicted, the response may require evacuation of the area, or with sufficient lead time available, an avoidance mission to repel the asteroid. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched.\n",
"On the day of the impact, Bloomberg News reported that the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs had suggested the investigation of creating an \"Action Team on Near-Earth Objects\", a proposed global asteroid warning network system, in face of 's approach. As a result of the impact, two scientists in California proposed directed-energy weapon technology development as a possible means to protect Earth from asteroids.\n",
"In the late 20th and early 21st century scientists put in place measures to detect Near earth objects, and predict the dates and times of asteroids impacting earth, along with the locations at which they will impact. The International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the global clearing house for information on asteroid orbits. NASA's Sentry System continually scans the MPC catalog of known asteroids, analyzing their orbits for any possible future impacts. Currently none are predicted (the single highest probability impact currently listed is ~7 m asteroid , which is due to pass earth in September 2095 with only a 5% predicted chance of impacting).\n",
"The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System, now in operation, conducts frequent scans of the sky with a view to later-stage detection on the collision stretch of the asteroid orbit. Those would be much too late for deflection, but still in time for evacuation and preparation of the affected Earth region.\n",
"Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) is a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth.\n",
"The need for an asteroid detection program has been compared to the need for monsoon, typhoon, and hurricane preparedness. As the B612 Foundation and other organizations have publicly noted, of the different types of natural catastrophes that can occur on our planet, asteroid strikes are the only one that the world now has the technical capability to prevent.\n"
] |
how are news outlets and online articles able to be so misleading and sometimes downright wrong with their stories?
|
Back up a bit and imagine a government body who's job is to decide what is and isn't true, and to censor or fine news agencies that it believes are wrong.
A) It would be incredibly unconstitutional, as freedom of the press is a critical right that we all have.
B) Consider the possibility of abuse. Is it staffed by people? If yes, then its entirely possible that they'll bring in their own biases, and start shutting down points of view that they disagree with.
C) What is true or false. We can all think of blatant examples, as that's easy. Where do you draw the line. Could an organization be punished for a mistake? How about a matter of opinion, which much of the news media focuses on. Are you willing to give a government agency the ability to silence reporters because their opinions are "wrong," or because the person they're interviewing is wrong about something.
Such a thing could never be safely or effectively implemented in a free country.
|
[
"Because news organizations and websites hotly compete for viewers, there is a need for great efficiency in releasing stories to the public. News media companies broadcast stories 24 hours a day, and break the latest news in hopes of taking audience share from their competitors. News is also produced at a pace that does not always allow for fact-checking, or for all of the facts to be collected or released to the media at one time, letting readers or viewers insert their own opinions, and possibly leading to the spread of misinformation.\n",
"The \"Encyclopedia of Journalism\" states that the problem with paying sources for news stories is that the sources will have a natural temptation to embellish or exaggerate their description of events. Since they are being paid, sources may feel obligated to keep the story interesting. When the public learns that the sources of news were paid, however, they often consider the information as being tainted, a mere commodity which was purchased, and thereby less credible. That change of opinion can easily affect the credibility of the news organization or the entire profession.\n",
"A major long term consequence of this kind of journalism is that it reduces news reporting to a competition with news organizations competing over breaking stories. This results in the public missing out on other important news. Readers and viewers of news might not take this kind of reporting seriously, and they might not feel the news is a reliable source of information.\n",
"Journalism scandals are high-profile incidents or acts, whether intentional or accidental, that run contrary to the generally accepted ethics and standards of journalism, or otherwise violate the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly.\n",
"News sources can protect their entire audience from this effect if all reporters stories are reviewed by editors who use a quality checklist for all stories which includes an assessment of the false neutrality bias of view-from-nowhere reporting.\n",
"BULLET::::- Explanation: Spread of information has become viral today, because of the Internet. This also means that false news or rumors can spread speedily through social networking sites or emails. Being involved in the circulation of incorrect information is unethical. Mails and pop-ups are commonly used to spread the wrong information or give false alerts with the only intent of selling products. Mails from untrusted sources advertising certain products or spreading some hard-to-believe information, are not uncommon. Direct or indirect involvement in the circulation of false information is ethically wrong. Giving wrong information can hurt other parties or organizations that are affected by that particular theme.\n",
"The basic strategy of news playing is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is \"good\" or \"bad\" must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market's expectations, not how good it is in absolute terms.\n"
] |
why do injuries tend to hurt more in winter than in summer?
|
Generally speaking, we feel more pain in the cold because there is a relationship between blood circulation and nerve pain. When its cold outside and you aren’t dressed up for it, it’s very difficult for your body to heat itself because your heart rate slows in the cold as a way to survive. Our nerves are a network that send signals to the brain -ouch- that hurt! As circulation and heat increase our nerves calm down. The cold is more painful because it increases pressure on our nerves and stiffens soft tissues- such as your muscles. This in itself can increase your likelihood of injury (which is why runners do warm ups and wear sweats!)
|
[
"During the summer rains are common in the late afternoon. Temperatures at this time are always very high. In the winter the arrival of polar air masses that drop and cause frost. In this time of year the relative humidity is too low, and causes discomfort to the population.\n",
"Rising temperatures have two opposing direct effects on mortality: higher temperatures in winter reduce deaths from cold; higher temperatures in summer increase heat-related deaths. The net local impact of these two direct effects depends on the current climate in a particular area. Palutikof \"et al.\" (1996) calculate that in England and Wales for a 1 °C temperature rise the reduced deaths from cold outweigh the increased deaths from heat, resulting in a reduction in annual average mortality of 7000, while Keatinge \"et al.\" (2000) \"suggest that any increases in mortality due to increased temperatures would be outweighed by much larger short term declines in cold related mortalities.\" Cold-related deaths are far more numerous than heat-related deaths in the United States, Europe, and almost all countries outside the tropics. During 1979–1999, a total of 3,829 deaths in the United States were associated with excessive heat due to weather conditions, while in that same period a total of 13,970 deaths were attributed to hypothermia. In Europe, mean annual heat related mortalities are 304 in north Finland, 445 in Athens, and 40 in London, while cold related mortalities are 2457, 2533, and 3129 respectively. According to Keatinge \"et al.\" (2000), \"populations in Europe have adjusted successfully to mean summer temperatures ranging from 13.5°C to 24.1°C, and can be expected to adjust to global warming predicted for the next half century with little sustained increase in heat related mortality.\"\n",
"Brutal winters diminished supplies and left both sides cold, starving, and wet. Lack of shoes and good clothes caused vulnerability and the spread of disease. Rain, snow, heat, and cold all played their role in World War One because of the giant amount of areas the war was fought in.\n",
"Summer is warm, with temperatures around 30 °C. Winters are cold on the whole, and by night the temperature goes below 0 °C, but the protective effect of surrounding mountains and the mitigating effect of Lake Como make the winter cold less severe, with temperatures only a few degrees below 0. During spring and autumn temperatures vary suddenly, but generally are moderate.\n",
"End of summer in which, day temperatures remain a bit high. But evenings, nights and mornings are quite pleasant. Temperature starts to drop more in the night. And by the end of September, summer seems to have gone away. And Autumn starts to approach. It all depends on the rains. If there are much rains in September, weather will change quickly. If not, then the weather changes gradually. Monsoon rains continue till the mid-week of September, but they can be showers till the end of the month. After that monsoon completely withdraws from the city. Western disturbance cause showers or little drizzle in this month. The highest temperature is (1982) and lowest is (1994). The highest rainfall in this month stands at (2014).\n",
"The effects of summer heat and rainfall patterns are real, but vary by latitude and location according to many factors. For example, London, UK is farther north than Calgary, Canada, but has a milder climate from the presence of the sea and the warm Gulf Stream current. A medical institution has reported a connection between Finland's dog days and increased risk of infection in deep surgery wounds, although that research remains unverified.\n",
"Summers are moderately warm, but rarely uncomfortable, with the daily maximum temperature only occasionally reaching as high as . Autumn is a pleasant season, as the moderating Gulf waters delay the onset of frost, although storm activity increases compared to the summer. There is ample precipitation throughout the year, although it is heaviest in the late autumn, early winter and mid spring.\n"
] |
How can moons get "captured" by planetary bodies without having done a "retrograde burn"?
|
Triton is Neptune's captured moon. To go into orbit, Triton still had to lose momentum somehow, just as you do a burn to get captured by Duna (or, perhaps get your orbit adjusted by Ike). In KSP, the moons and planets are all on rails, but in real space, you would transfer some of your momentum to Ike to get captured by Duna. Your orbit will still intersect Ike's, so you'll either get ejected or eventually settle into a resonance.
Neptune probably didn't have a large moon for Triton to transfer momentum to -- but Triton, like Pluto and many other outer solar system bodies, was probably a binary object. So Triton's partner got sped up as Triton slowed down, letting Triton get captured by Neptune while its partner got boosted to higher-energy orbit.
|
[
"The mission to Meta is postponed when the crew seemingly contract a virus, later dying on (although the cause of death is subsequently revealed to be \"magnetic radiation\" emanating from nuclear waste disposal areas on the Moon's far side). With the arrival of a back-up crew, preparations for launch resume, but both \"Meta Probe\" and Space Dock are lost when the disposal sites detonate and the resulting chain reaction forces the Moon from its orbit. \"Meta Probe\" is hurled into interplanetary space.\n",
"Following the conclusion of the original \"Doom \"series, the sole Marine who survived the horrors of Hell returned to Earth, reclaiming it from the invasion that almost eradicated the human race. Demons still lingered within the abandoned halls and complexes of Phobos and Deimos. As a last-ditch effort, the military decided to bombard the moons with extreme radiation in hopes of killing off any remaining demons. It was initially successful, however, something survived the exposure. The radiation blocked the military's sensors, and allowed something to slip past them undetected. This mysterious entity, possessing the ability to resurrect any demon it came across, recreated the entire demonic horde and made it stronger than ever before. A Marine strike force was ordered to contain the advancing armies of Hell, but was mercilessly slaughtered within moments. The player's character is the sole survivor of this group.\n",
"The carbonaceous boulder that would have been captured by the mission (maximum 6 meter diameter, 20 tons) is too small to harm the Earth because it would burn up in the atmosphere. Redirecting the asteroid mass to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon would ensure it could not hit Earth and also leave it in a stable orbit for future studies.\n",
"BULLET::::- There have been no spacecraft collisions with any Jovian moons. Note that to avoid collision with Europa and possible contamination by Earth microbes, the NASA Galileo spacecraft was intentionally deorbited into Jupiter's atmosphere on September 21, 2003.\n",
"The small inner moons constantly perturb each other. The system is chaotic and apparently unstable. Simulations show that the moons may perturb each other into crossing orbits, which may eventually result in collisions between the moons. Desdemona may collide with either Cressida or Juliet within the next 100 million years.\n",
"The SunDog has shields and two weapons systems (lasers and a cannon), but both have to be controlled manually. Hits from the pirates on the SunDog deplete shields and will damage systems and the hull if the shields get low. A player can destroy a pirate, survive to reach a planet, at which point the SunDog can safely land, or charge up their warp drive and warp (however warping from inside a system may fail). As a last resort the SunDog may jettison its cargo, which will make the pirates lose interest. If the player destroys a pirate, they may be able to obtain whatever cargo it was carrying. Damage to the SunDog's systems can be repaired on the fly by the player by leaving the cockpit and replacing damaged components, if they can afford the time.\n",
"The mining ship is soon attacked by pirates, which causes them to launch an emergency landing on a moon close to Bandomeer. The Jedi, Offworld, and Offworld's rival faction must work together to fight against predators and other threats. Offworld's uprising is also stopped during this truce, and once the ship is repaired, the factions travel together to Bandomeer.\n"
] |
How did the Merchant Republics in Italy arise in isolation while the rest of Europe seems steeped in Feudalism?
|
I'm not sure the question as it's posed will yield a satisfactory answer. Feudalism and a republic aren't mutually exclusive, as the former isn't a type of government. Besides, the republics present in Italy weren't the kinds of republics we think of today. They were essentially city-states dominated by elites and ruled by particular noble families (e.g. the de'Medicis in Florence). The Dutch republic and the state of Novgorod functioned in much the same way.
For more info, I'd check out Daniel Waley and Trevor Dean, [_The Italian City-Republics_](_URL_1_) and Perry Anderson's [_Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism_](_URL_0_).
|
[
"During the Early Middle Ages, Italy endured sociopolitical collapse and barbarian invasions, but by the 11th century, numerous rival city-states and maritime republics, mainly in the northern and central regions of Italy, rose to great prosperity through trade, commerce and banking, laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. These mostly independent statelets served as Europe's main trading hubs with Asia and the Near East, often enjoying a greater degree of democracy than the larger feudal monarchies that were consolidating throughout Europe; however, part of central Italy was under the control of the theocratic Papal States, while Southern Italy remained largely feudal until the 19th century, partially as a result of a succession of Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Angevin, Aragonese and other foreign conquests of the region. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration and art. Italian culture flourished, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths. During the Middle Ages, Italian explorers discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery. Nevertheless, Italy's commercial and political power significantly waned with the opening of trade routes that bypassed the Mediterranean. Furthermore, centuries of infighting between the Italian city-states, such as the Italian Wars of the 15th and 16th centuries, left the region fragmented, and it was subsequently conquered and further divided by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria.\n",
"This change also gave the merchants almost complete control of the governments of the Italian city-states, again enhancing trade. One of the most important effects of this political control was security. Those that grew extremely wealthy in a feudal state ran constant risk of running afoul of the monarchy and having their lands confiscated, as famously occurred to Jacques Coeur in France. The northern states also kept many medieval laws that severely hampered commerce, such as those against usury, and prohibitions on trading with non-Christians. In the city-states of Italy, these laws were repealed or rewritten.\n",
"Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.\n",
"Cambridge University historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner has pointed out how Otto of Freising, a German bishop who visited central Italy during the 12th century, commented that Italian towns had appeared to have exited from feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to absolutist monarchies or other more centrally controlled states, the Italian communes and commercial republics enjoyed relative political freedom conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Geographically, and because of trade, Italian cities such as Venice became international trading and banking hubs and intellectual crossroads.\n",
"The Italian \"Repubbliche Marinare\" (Maritime Republics) of Venice, Genoa, Amalfi and Pisa developed their own \"empires\" in the Mediterranean shores. The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Genoese and the Venetians, who profited immensely from it. The Republic of Pisa and later the Republic of Ragusa used diplomacy to further trade and maintained a libertarian approach in civil matters to further sentiment in its inhabitants.\n",
"Italian towns had appeared to have exited from Feudalism, so that their society was based on merchants and commerce. Even northern cities and states were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Compared to feudal and absolute monarchies, the Italian independent communes and merchant republics enjoyed relative political freedom that boosted scientific and artistic advancement.\n",
"No ultramontanian empire could succeed in unifying Italy or in achieving more than a temporary hegemony because its success threatened the survival of medieval Italy's other powers: the Byzantines, the Papacy, and the Normans. They and the descendants of the Lombards, who became fused with earlier Italian ethnic groups, conspired and fought against and eventually destroyed any attempt to create a dominant political order in Italy.\n"
] |
what causes that characteristic "grandma scent?"
|
technically it's described as:
* floral
* aldehydic (a sub category of floral, think soapy and citrusy)
* musky
* powdery
To ELI5, it's typically Chanel No 5 with a slight baby powder note.
|
[
"Phantosmia (olfactory hallucinations), smelling an odor that is not actually there, and parosmia (olfactory illusions), inhaling a real odor but perceiving it as different scent than remembered, are distortions to the sense of smell (olfactory system) that, in most cases, are not caused by anything serious and usually go away on their own in time. It can result from a range of conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, dental problems, migraines, head injuries, seizures, strokes, or brain tumors. Environmental exposures are sometimes the cause as well, such as smoking, exposure to certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). The perceived odors are usually unpleasant and commonly described as smelling burned, foul spoiled, or rotten.\n",
"One study suggested that old person smell may be the result of 2-nonenal, an unsaturated aldehyde which is associated with human body odor alterations during aging; however, there are other hypotheses. Another study failed to detect 2-nonenal at all, but found significantly increased concentrations of benzothiazole, dimethylsulphone, and nonanal on older subjects.\n",
"Its original name is \"Xia Sha Ren Xiang\" (; \"scary fragrance\"). Legend tells of its discovery by a tea picker who ran out of space in her basket and put the tea between her breasts instead. The tea, warmed by her body heat, emitted a strong aroma that surprised the girl.\n",
"Inhaling the vapor causes symptoms that begin in the upper airway and expand to the lower airway. Increased concentrations cause worse symptoms. Mild inhalation exposure causes rhinorrhea (runny nose), sneezing, barking cough (a harsh cough that sounds somewhat like a dog barking), epistaxis (nosebleed), dyspnea (shortness of breath) that affects smokers and asthmatics, hoarseness that turns into toneless voice, ageusia (loss of taste), and anosmia (loss of smell); later on, sinus and nose pain develops. With more severe inhalation exposure, the airway becomes inflamed, pneumonia develops, and the respiratory epithelium can begin to have necrosis and slough off, forming a pseudomembrane that can occlude the airway. This occlusion can be fatal, as can the pneumonia.\n",
"Her best friend smells of a comforting sea breeze. She registers her father’s contentment as the sweet scent of caramelized sugar. But why does the cutest guy in school smell so rancid? With these new senses she discovers that some people's spirits have been infected by a sentient disease.\n",
"Modern chypre perfumes have various connotations such as floral, fruity, green, woody-aromatic, leathery, and animalic notes, but can easily be recognized by their \"warm\" and \"mossy-woody\" base which contrasts the fresh citrus top, and a certain bitterness in the dry-down from the oak moss and patchouli. The accord consists of:\n",
"Piperonal has a floral odor which is commonly described as being similar to that of vanillin or cherry. For this reason it is commonly used in fragrances and artificial flavors. The compound was named Heliotropin after the 'cherry pie' notes found in the heliotrope flower's fragrance (even though the chemical is not present in the flower's true aroma). Perfumers began to use the fragrance for the first time by the early 1880s. It is commonly used to add vanilla or almond nuances, generally imparting balsamic, powdery, and floral aspects to a scent's character.\n"
] |
what would happen if you took laxatives for an entire week?
|
Former laxative abuser here. Assuming you are talking about stimulant laxatives, while continuing a normal diet, the only weight loss would come from holding less waste in your body and dehydration, as your body still digests the food normally. You may experience severe muscle cramps, intestinal bloating from inflammation, joint pain, a sore raw butthole, and headaches from the dehydration. Continued prolonged laxative abuse will also cause nausea, weakness, and can lead to seizures from electrolyte imbalance. Not to mention the normal intestinal cramping from the laxatives itself. There were instances where the nausea and pain were so intense that I would also throw up while having a bowel movement. While taking the laxatives, bowel movements can also become unpredictable, and experiencing random "leaking" is very common, which is usually triggered around half an hour after eating. Your body can also get used to the dose you have been taking, and to continue having the desired effect, you may have to up your dose. Aside, taking stimulant laxatives regularly without continuing to eat can cause you to poop stomach bile, which burns like the fires of hell all the way out. Once you stop taking them after such a period of time, you will experience constipation, as your body has come to rely on the effect of the stimulant laxative to eliminate waste. The constipation will last anywhere from a few days to weeks depending on the individual's response to detoxing from the laxatives.
|
[
"Methods of prevention include gradually decreasing the dose among those who wish to stop, though it is possible for symptoms to occur with tapering. Treatment may include restarting the medication and slowly decreasing the dose. People may also be switched to the long acting antidepressant fluoxetine which can then be gradually decreased.\n",
"Methods of prevention include gradually decreasing the dose among those who wish to stop, though it is possible for symptoms to occur with tapering. Treatment may include restarting the medication and slowly decreasing the dose. People may also be switched to the long acting antidepressant fluoxetine which can then be gradually decreased.\n",
"Physicians warn against the chronic use of stimulant laxatives due to concern that chronic use could cause the colonic tissues to get worn out over time and not be able to expel feces due to long-term overstimulation. A common finding in patients having used stimulant laxatives is a brown pigment deposited in the intestinal tissue, known as melanosis coli.\n",
"Ketotifen relieves and prevents eye itchiness and/or irritation associated with most seasonal allergies. It starts working within minutes after administering the drops. The drug has not been studied in children under three. The mean elimination half life is 12 hours. Besides its anti-histaminic activity, it is also a functional leukotriene antagonist and a phosphodiesterase inhibitor.\n",
"Stimulant laxatives are substances that act on the intestinal mucosa or nerve plexus, altering water and electrolyte secretion. They also stimulate peristaltic action and can be dangerous under certain circumstances.\n",
"Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lubricant and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas under certain circumstances. Sufficiently high doses of laxatives may cause diarrhea.\n",
"In 2007, there were concerns about the high incidence of reported side effects. This led to restriction in its dosage and maximum duration of use. In the UK, treatment was initiated only in a hospital, although this was not designed to exclude its use in prehospital care and mountain rescue settings. Dosing guidelines were published at that time.\n"
] |
if we can't see atoms how did ibm make a movie with them?
|
Those are Carbon Monoxide molecules.
For that note, electron microscopes can operate pretty much on an atomic scale.
|
[
"Scientists at IBM used a scanning tunneling microscope to single out and move individual atoms which were used to make characters in \"A Boy and His Atom\". This was the tiniest scale stop-motion video made at that time.\n",
"In 1980, he produced \"The Atomic Alphabet\" – a giant, poster-sized hand-colored lithograph – and performed the text dressed in leather and punctuating each letter with an angry stomp. Twenty editions of the work were produced and are largely in the possession of museums, including SFMOMA and the Whitney Museum of American Art.\n",
"IBM researcher Don Eigler was the first to manipulate atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope in 1989. He used 35 Xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo. He shared the 2010 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work.\n",
"During Apple and Samsung's patent war over consumer electronics design, in 2011 Samsung used a still image from the scene in which two astronauts are eating at a table with what appear to be tablet computers as an exhibit to counter Apple's patent claiming the original abstract design of tablet computers.\n",
"IBM in atoms was a demonstration by IBM scientists in 1989 of a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms. A scanning tunneling microscope was used to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company initialism. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.\n",
"The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.\n",
"Atoms is good friends with fellow animator Tom \"Mr.\" Warburton, creator of \"\" and C. H. Greenblatt, the creator of \"Chowder\". He and Tom have made multiple references to each other's shows and have made a cross-over TV movie, \"The Grim Adventures of the Kids Next Door\". As well for C.H, he voiced the character Fred Fredburger in several episodes of Billy and Mandy, alongside a brief cameo of Chowder in \"Underfist\". Atoms was also an executive producer and voice actor of the Disney show \"Fish Hooks\" with Noah Z. Jones.\n"
] |
were little old people always little or do they shrink as they age?
|
Most people do shrink as they get older and their bodies degenerate.
The very little old people you're thinking of were short to begin with and shrivel up more.
|
[
"Depending on sex, genetic and environmental factors, shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be universal in the extremely aged. This decrease in height is due to such factors as decreased height of inter-vertebral discs because of desiccation, atrophy of soft tissues and postural changes secondary to degenerative disease.\n",
"The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\n",
"Gerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves. However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.\n",
"At the start of the 1980s, the oldest members of the population, having matured during the great depression, were being replaced by a generation of Baby Boomers, steadily reaching middle age and approaching the threshold of retirement. Their swelling numbers signaled profound demographic changes ahead that would steadily expand the aging population throughout the world.\n",
"Shortness in children and young adults nearly always results from below-average growth in childhood, while shortness in older adults usually results from loss of height due to kyphosis of the spine or collapsed vertebrae from osteoporosis. The most common causes of short stature in childhood are constitutional growth delay or familial short stature. \n",
"Before the surge in the over-65 population, accidents and disease claimed many people before they could attain old age, and health problems in those over 65 meant a quick death in most cases. If a person lived to an advanced age, it was due to genetic factors and/or a relatively easy lifestyle, since diseases of old age could not be treated before the 20th century.\n",
"Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10. Other problems may include narrowing of the airway passage in the throat and enlargement of the tonsils and adenoids, making it difficult to eat or swallow. Recurring respiratory infections are common.\n"
] |
How do we measure gas levels of an exoplanet's atmosphere?
|
Molecules have characteristic absorption lines in the electromagnetic spectrum. The width of these absorption lines depends on the optical thickness of the gas. Meaning, with more gas in our line of sight we will have a stronger (wider) absorption band.
In order to measure the atmosphere of a planet, the planet needs to orbit infront of the star. Then some light of the star will pass through the planets atmosphere. We can then compare the spectrum of the star with the planet and without. The difference between the two spectra allows us to see the effect of the atmosphere of the exo planet on the spectrum. By using some sophisticated data and error analysis it is theoretically possible to estimate the content of the atmosphere. However in order to reliably do this you need very high resolution spectrographs and you need to be able to estimate all the other parameters that can also broaden the spectral lines. This could be thermal doppler broadening of atmospheric molecules, broadening due to the rotation of the planet, shifts due to the motion of the planet around its host star, pressure broadening, etc. etc. It is not a trivial process and this kind of technology is not very far yet. However our technology improves every year and we make theoretical advances every year so soon we should be able to characterise exoplanet atmospheres more reliably.
|
[
"The first exoplanet whose atmospheric composition was determined is HD 209458b, a gas giant with a close orbit around a star in the constellation Pegasus. Its atmosphere is heated to temperatures over 1,000 K, and is steadily escaping into space. Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and sulfur have been detected in the planet's inflated atmosphere.\n",
"Studies of exoplanets have measured atmospheric escape as a means of determining atmospheric composition and habitability. The most common method is Lyman-alpha line absorption. Much as exoplanets are discovered using the dimming of a distant star's brightness (transit), looking specifically at wavelengths corresponding to hydrogen absorption describes the amount of hydrogen present in a sphere around the exoplanet. This method indicates that the hot Jupiters HD209458b and HD189733b and Hot Neptune GJ436b are experiencing significant atmospheric escape.\n",
"NICMOS observed the exoplanet XO-2b at star XO-2, and a spectroscopy result was obtained for this exoplanet in 2012. This uses the spectroscopic abilities of the instrument, and in astronomy spectroscopy during a planetary transit (an exoplanet passes in front of star from the perspective of Earth) is a way to study that exoplanet's possible atmosphere.\n",
"Spectroscopy has been used to characterize extrasolar gas giants, but has not yet been used on rocky exoplanets. However, numerical modeling has demonstrated that spectroscopy could detect atmospheric sulfur dioxide levels as low as 1 ppm; presence of sulfur dioxide at this concentration may be indicative of a planet without surface water with volcanism 1500–80,000 times higher than Earth.\n",
"Targeting exoplanet observations in the 6–40 μm wavelength range, it will measure the temperatures and search for basic chemical ingredients for life in the atmospheres of small, warm planets at habitable temperatures (∼) and measure their atmospheric composition. This may be accomplished by a combination of transit spectroscopy and direct coronagraphic imaging. Important atmospheric diagnostics include spectral bands of ammonia (, a unique tracer of nitrogen), the 9 μm ozone line (ozone, is a key biosignature), the 15 μm band (carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas), and many water wavelength bands. \n",
"It does so by expressing oxygen concentration as a ratio of the partial pressure of oxygen at a given altitude or pressure to Standard Atmospheric Pressure; rather than as a ratio of the PO at a given pressure to the total pressure of the gas mixture. The latter would generally be 0.2095, the atmospheric concentration by volume of O, although FO and P vary for extraterrestrials. Calculations occur as follows:\n",
"The gas exchange (GEX) experiment (PI: Vance Oyama, NASA Ames) looked for gases given off by an incubated soil sample by first replacing the Martian atmosphere with the inert gas helium. It applied a liquid complex of organic and inorganic nutrients and supplements to a soil sample, first with just nutrients added, then with water added too. Periodically, the instrument sampled the atmosphere of the incubation chamber and used a gas chromatograph to measure the concentrations of several gases, including oxygen, CO, nitrogen, hydrogen, and methane. The scientists hypothesized that metabolizing organisms would either consume or release at least one of the gases being measured.\n"
] |
Can house flies, fruit flies, or other insects see the microscopic organisms or bacteria on stuff that we can't see?
|
I don't believe they can. Their eyes, [compound eyes](_URL_1_), are not intended to see high detail images because their largest threats are larger than they are (ie, a cow's tail or your hand trying to swat them). Instead, they are intended to see fast movements over a large angular resolution, they can see movements from more angles than we can (again, the cow's tail or your hand coming in from a weird angle) however, their eyes lack [visual acuity](_URL_0_).
|
[
"BULLET::::- Insect stages - \"Some larvae, nymphs and adult insects that live in freshwater.\" \"A UK-based web site with microscopic photos of various insects and other microorganisms as well as biological information.\"\n",
"Micro-animals are animals so small that they can be visually observed only under a microscope. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites, spider mites, and some crustaceans such as copepods and certain cladocera. Another common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Some nematode species are microscopic, as well as many loricifera, including the recently discovered anaerobic species, which spend their entire lives in an anoxic environment. \n",
"Two \"Fritschea\" species have been identified in insects. These are candidatus species because they only grow in insect bacteriocytes and have not been cultured in vitro. Whiteflies are the host of Candidatus \"Fritschea bemisiae\" (strain Falk). Scale insects are the host of Candidatus \"Fritschea eriococci\" (strain Elm).\n",
"In order to identify \"Pythium irregulare\" it is necessary to isolate the organism and observe it microscopically. First, it is important to identify that the microbe is an oomycete by looking for characteristics that are specific to oomycetes, such as coenocytic hyphae, zoospores, and oospores. After that, one can identify the microbe as being in the genera \"Pythium\" by observing disease symptoms, host range, as well as the presence of a vesicle, where zoospores form, which is attached to the sporangia. In contrast, most other oomycetes do not have a vesicle and the zoospores form in the sporangia. Finally, once the genera has been identified, it is helpful to use a dichotomous key to identify the species. Some of the key identifiers for \"P. irregulare\" include oogonia with irregular shaped, cylindrical projections, sporangia that occur singly, sporangia that are not filamentous, and oogonia smaller than 30 μm. There are also many genomic tests that can be done to determine species based on specific DNA markers. It is also important to note that many diagnosticians do not identify to the species level because it can be difficult to find all necessary microscopic structures and many management techniques can be applied to all \"Pythium\" species.\n",
"By convention, the microscopic scale also includes classes of objects that are most commonly too small to see but of which some members are large enough to be observed with the eye. Such groups include the \"Cladocera\", planktonic green algae of which \"Volvox\" is readily observable, and the protozoa of which \"stentor\" can be easily seen without aid.\n",
"Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.\n",
"The housefly is the typical sponging insect. The labium gives the description, being articulate and possessing at its end a sponge-like labellum. Paired mandibles and maxillae are present, but much reduced and non-functional. The labellum's surface is covered by minute food channels, formed by the interlocking elongate hypopharynx and epipharynx, forming a proboscis used to channel liquid food to the oesophagus. The food channel draws liquid and liquified food to the oesophagus by capillary action. The housefly is able to eat solid food by secreting saliva and dabbing it over the food item. As the saliva dissolves the food, the solution is then drawn up into the mouth as a liquid.\n"
] |
why do some people enjoy massages but it causes pain for others?
|
There is a huge difference between massages just for the feeling of someone rubbing your back with some more force in it and massages for relaxing muscles. I have a rather high pain tolerance, but if my muscles are really tense, having them massaged hurts *a lot*. I can't give you a good explanation for that (any physicians/medicine-students around here?), but this is one reason why a lot of people do not enjoy massages meant for really relaxing the muscles. And if my muscles are really tense, even slightly pressing them will hurt, so maybe your neck is just ridiculously tense? In this case I'd recommend going to get a medical massage. I've known folks running around with muscles that were never really relaxed for years. They didn't even know what a relaxed back feels like, so they didn't miss it.
Massages for relaxing the muscles are generally made harder, so they might even hurt slightly if your muscles are not tense and you are not "used to it" (meaning your pain tolerance to this kind of pain is very low). Another possibility: The guys giving you a massage didn't know, what they were doing. A wrong massage hurts too, but it will only tense your muscles even more.
|
[
"People state that they use massage because they believe that it relieves pain from musculoskeletal injuries and other causes of pain, reduces stress and enhances relaxation, rehabilitates sports injuries, decreases feelings of anxiety and depression, and increases general well being.\n",
"All types of massage, including Thai massage, can help people relax, temporarily relieve muscle and / or joint pain, and temporarily boost a person's mood. However, many practitioners' claims go far beyond those effects well demonstrated by clinical study. Most clinicians dispute its efficacy.\n",
"Peer-reviewed medical research has shown that the benefits of massage include pain relief, reduced trait anxiety and depression, and temporarily reduced blood pressure, heart rate, and state of anxiety. Additional testing has shown an immediate increase and expedited recovery periods for muscle performance. Theories behind what massage might do include enhanced skeletal muscle regrowth and remodeling, blocking nociception (gate control theory), activating the parasympathetic nervous system, which may stimulate the release of endorphins and serotonin, preventing fibrosis or scar tissue, increasing the flow of lymph, and improving sleep.\n",
"BULLET::::- Pain relief: Relief from pain due to musculoskeletal injuries and other causes is cited as a major benefit of massage. A 2015 Cochrane Review concluded that there is very little evidence that massage is an effective treatment for lower back pain. A meta-analysis conducted by scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign failed to find a statistically significant reduction in pain immediately following treatment. Weak evidence suggests that massage may improve pain in the short term for people with acute, sub-acute, and chronic lower back pain.\n",
"Today, erotic massage is used by some people on occasion as a part of sex, either as foreplay or as the final sex act, or as part of sex therapy. There is also a large commercial erotic massage industry in some countries and cities.\n",
"Massage is the manipulation of soft tissues in the body. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet, or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pain. A person who was professionally trained to give massages was traditionally known as a masseur (male) or a masseuse (female), but those titles are outmoded, and carry some negative connotations. In the United States, the title massage therapist has been recognized as a business norm for those who have been professionally trained to give massages.\n",
"Erotic massage may be used in sex therapy as a means of stimulating the libido or increasing the ability of a person to respond positively to sensual stimulus. In some cases, erotic massage can be a form of foreplay without sexual gratification, intended to heighten the sensitivity of an individual prior to another engagement where sexual arousal and fulfillment is intended. In other cases, erotic massage may be used professionally to help men address issues of premature ejaculation. Methods employed may teach the recipient to relax the musculature of his pelvis and thus prolong arousal and increase pleasure.\n"
] |
When was the highest % of the global population enslaved and did ancient societies with more slaves have an economic advantage over their rivals?
|
Follow-up: Did areas with high percentages of slaves have poor freemen angry over economic woes? It seems like there would be a shortage of paying jobs when the wealthy could simply buy slaves to fill almost every role from farmhands to pedagogues.
|
[
"According to the \"Encyclopedia of African History\", \"It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture.\" The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million.\n",
"By the end of the second century BCE, 80 percent of the population consisted of emancipated slaves or their descendants. After the wars of expansion, as the slave pool dried up villas converted to tenant or employed laborers. By the end of the empire most slaves worked in domestic service as the owners’ private staff, rather than as laborers on the estates.\n",
"They constituted less than 5% of the twelve million enslaved people brought from Africa to the Americas. The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S., and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction. The number of enslaved people in the U.S. grew rapidly, reaching by the 1860 Census. From 1770 to 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.\n",
"According to the \"Encyclopedia of African History\", \"It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture.\"\n",
"Slavery and the slave trades had a significant impact on the size of the population and the gender distribution throughout much of Africa. The precise impact of these demographic shifts has been an issue of significant debate. The Atlantic slave trade took 70,000 people, primarily from the west coast of Africa, per year at its peak in the mid-1700s. The Arab slave trade involved the capture of peoples from the continental interior, who were then shipped overseas through ports on the Red Sea and elsewhere. It peaked at 10,000 people bartered per year in the 1600s. According to Patrick Manning, there were consistent population decreases in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of these slave trades. This population decline throughout West Africa from 1650 until 1850 was exacerbated by the preference of slave traders for male slaves. In eastern Africa, the slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labor, Zanj slaves captured from the southern interior were sold through ports on the northern seaboard in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in the Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Persian Gulf, India, Far East and the Indian Ocean islands.\n",
"During the nearly four centuries in which slavery existed in the Americas, Brazil was responsible for importing 35 percent of the slaves from Africa (4 million) while Spanish America imported about 20 percent (2.5 million) all during the Atlantic Slave Trade. These numbers are significantly higher than the imported slaves of the United States (less than 5 percent). High death rates, an enormous number of runaway slaves, and greater levels of manumission(granting a slave freedom) meant that Latin America and Caribbean societies had fewer slaves than the United States at any given time. However they made up a higher percentage of the population throughout the colonial period. This being said, the upper class of these societies constantly feared for uprising among not only slaves but Indians and the poor of all racial ethnic groups.\n",
"Research indicates that technological superiority and higher land productivity had significant positive effects on population density but insignificant effects on the standard of living during the time period 1–1500 AD. In addition, scholars have reported on the lack of a significant trend of wages in various places over the world for very long stretches of time. In Babylonia during the period 1800 to 1600 BC, for example, the daily wage for a common laborer was enough to buy about 15 pounds of wheat. In Classical Athens in about 328 BC, the corresponding wage could buy about 24 pounds of wheat. In England in 1800 AD the wage was about 13 pounds of wheat. In spite of the technological developments across these societies, the daily wage hardly varied. In Britain between 1200 and 1800, only relatively minor fluctuations from the mean (less than a factor of two) in real wages occurred. Following depopulation by the Black Death and other epidemics, real income in Britain peaked around 1450–1500 and began declining until the British Agricultural Revolution. Historian Walter Scheidel posits that waves of plague following the initial outbreak of the Black Death throughout Europe had a leveling effect that changed the ratio of land to labor, reducing the value of the former while boosting that of the latter, which lowered economic inequality by making employers and landowners less well off while improving the economic prospects and living standards of workers. He says that \"the observed improvement in living standards of the laboring population was rooted in the suffering and premature death of tens of millions over the course of several generations.\" This leveling effect was reversed by a \"demographic recovery that resulted in renewed population pressure.\"\n"
] |
why is it easy to pick up a child that weighs 40 to 50 kilograms but very difficult to pick up a 40 to 50 kilogram weight?
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The weight of the child is spread out over a large area compared to the relatively small area of the weight, making the child appear easier because it uses more muscles.
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[
"For instance, the factor \"153,552,935\" (5 turns around a capstan with a coefficient of friction of 0.6) means, in theory, that a newborn baby would be capable of holding (not moving) the weight of two supercarriers (97,000 tons each, but for the baby it would be only a little more than 1 kg). The large number of turns around the capstan combined with such a high friction coefficient mean that very little additional force is necessary to hold such heavy weight in place. The cables necessary to support this weight, as well as the capstan's ability to withstand the crushing force of those cables, are separate considerations.\n",
"BULLET::::- All children who are smaller than and younger than 14 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must be either 14 years old or 4'11\" to ride without a booster seat.\n",
"BULLET::::- All children who are smaller than and younger than 7 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must use a car seat at ages 0–4; Ages 5–7 a booster is required.\n",
"Due to basic geometry, a child's weight to surface area ratio is lower than an adult's, children more readily lose their body heat through radiation and have a higher risk of becoming hypothermic. Smaller body size in children often makes them more prone to poly traumatic injury.\n",
"Two players compete to gain the most weight in a limited amount of time by eating various foods. They start out at 100 kg and must finish at 200. If players lose enough weight, they will return to normal size and subsequently to a mummy state.\n",
"The procedure is to take the child's weight in pounds, divide by 150 lb, and multiply the fractional result by the adult dose to find the equivalent child dosage. For example, if an adult dose of medication calls for 30 mg and the child weighs 30 lb, divide the weight by 150 (30/150) to obtain 1/5 and multiply 1/5 times 30 mg to get 6 mg.\n",
"This is another game for the boys. One boy would bend and the other boys, may be one or two or three get on top of him, if he could bear the weight, he would win. In case he could not bear the weight and fell, he would lose.\n"
] |
If an Amnesia victim has lost their memories for a significant amount of time and recovers their memories, will they regain their original personality or keep the amnesia personality?
|
What we observe as personality is the product of variance in regions of the brain- this study, for example, shows the correlation between neuroticism and amygdala variance- _URL_0_ . An individual's personality is quite stable over the long run- see here _URL_1_ and here _URL_2_ .
Amnesia, specifically in your case retrograde amnesia, impacts the brains ability to utilize its episodic memory system. From the wikipedia article on amnesia- "This type of amnesia first targets the patient's most recent memories, the amount of memories lost depends on the severity of the case. The person may be able to memorize new things that occur after the onset of amnesia (unlike in anterograde amnesia), but is unable to recall some or all of their life or identity prior to the onset. The effects of retrograde amnesia (RA) occurs on fact memory on a lower degree than its affects on autobiographical memory, which can be affected over the whole lifespan of the patient by RA."
So, to answer the question, personality wise, they would be the same throughout. If their memories returned, their personality wouldnt change- all that would change is their ability to recall the memories they had "lost".
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[
"The form of amnesia that is linked with recovered memories is dissociative amnesia (formerly known as psychogenic amnesia). This results from a psychological cause, not by direct damage to the brain, and is a loss of memory of significant personal information, usually about traumatic or extremely stressful events. Usually this is seen as a gap or gaps in recall for aspects of someone's life history, but with severe acute trauma, such as during wartime, there can be a sudden acute onset of symptoms.\n",
"A person with amnesia may slowly be able to recall their memories or work with an occupational therapist to learn new information to replace what was lost, or to use intact memories as a basis for taking in new information. If it is caused by an underlying cause such as Alzheimer's disease or infections, the cause may be treated but the amnesia may not be.\n",
"In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. In the other case, which has been studied extensively since the early 1970s, patients often have permanent damage, although some recovery is possible, depending on the nature of the pathophysiology. Usually, some capacity for learning remains, although it may be very elementary. In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred.\n",
"Functional amnesia can also be situation specific, varying from all forms and variations of traumas or generally violent experiences, with the person experiencing severe memory loss for a particular trauma. Committing homicide; experiencing or committing a violent crime such as rape or torture; experiencing combat violence; attempting suicide; and being in automobile accidents and natural disasters have all induced cases of situation-specific amnesia (Arrigo & Pezdek, 1997; Kopelman, 2002a). As Kopelman (2002a) notes, however, care must be exercised in interpreting cases of psychogenic amnesia when there are compelling motives to feign memory deficits for legal or financial reasons. However, although some fraction of psychogenic amnesia cases can be explained in this fashion, it is generally acknowledged that true cases are not uncommon. Both global and situationally specific amnesia are often distinguished from the organic amnesic syndrome, in that the capacity to store new memories and experiences remains intact. Given the very delicate and oftentimes dramatic nature of memory loss in these such cases, there usually is a concerted effort to help the person recover their identity and history. This will allow the subject to sometimes be recovered spontaneously when particular cures are encountered.\n",
"BULLET::::- Traumatic amnesia; this involves the loss of memories of traumatic experiences. The younger the subject and the longer the traumatic event is, the greater the chance of significant amnesia. He stated that subsequent retrieval of memories after traumatic amnesia is well documented in the literature, with documented examples following natural disasters and accidents, in combat soldiers, in victims of kidnapping, torture and concentration camp experiences, in victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in people who have committed murder.\n",
"Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease, but it can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. In some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a few months of memory. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time. These two types are not mutually exclusive; both can occur simultaneously.\n",
"Movies often restore victim's memory through a second trauma, or through a kind of cued recall when they revisit familiar places or see familiar objects. The phenomenon of the second trauma can be seen in \"Singing in the Dark\" (1956) where the victim experiences the onset of amnesia because of the trauma of the Holocaust, but memory is restored with a blow to the head. Although neurosurgery is often the cause of amnesia, it is seen as a solution in some movies, including \"Deluxe Annie\" (1918) and \"Rascals\" (1938).\n"
] |
can alcohol turn you into a different person?
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In my experience, alcohol just loosens inhibitions. So people who "get mean" when they drink are just mean people who usually keep it together. Just like I get really sentimental when I drink; I'm a sentimental guy, it's just normally under the surface.
|
[
"To produce a spiritual conversion necessary for sobriety and sanity, alcoholics needed to realize that they couldn't conquer alcoholism by themselves—that surrendering to a higher power and working with another alcoholic were required. Sober alcoholics could show drinking alcoholics that it was possible to enjoy life without alcohol, thus inspiring a spiritual conversion that would help ensure sobriety.\n",
"Approximately three percent of people who are suffering from alcoholism experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to the long-term effects of alcohol resulting in distortions to neuronal membranes, gene expression, as well as thiamin deficiency. It is possible in some cases that alcohol abuse via a kindling mechanism can cause the development of a chronic substance induced psychotic disorder, i.e. schizophrenia. The effects of an alcohol-related psychosis include an increased risk of depression and suicide as well as causing psychosocial impairments.\n",
"A lot of people think drinking alcohol gives them a sense of identity that may help them fit in with social networks. Some also believe it heightens confidence to take part in social situations. Some may oppose the fact that they are being pressured into consuming alcohol, but others look to find social networks where consuming alcohol is common as enhancing a sense of belonging and identity formation.\n",
"One of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, \"without significantly impairing sensory motor functions.\" This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of usable vision than people who are sober. The information the brain receives from the eyes \"becomes disrupted if eyes must be turned to the side to detect stimuli, or if eyes must be moved quickly from one point to another.\"\n",
"Alcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects of state-dependent memory while intoxicated for chronic drinkers than for those who do not drink often.\n",
"An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol), an anesthetic that has been used as a psychoactive drug for several millennia. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans. Ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes for taxation and regulation of production: beers, wines, and spirits (distilled beverages). They are legally consumed in most countries around the world. More than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption.\n",
"Alcohol is a liquid form substance which contains ethyl alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) that can cause harm and even damage to a persons DNA. \"Alcohol consumption is recognized worldwide as a leading risk factor for disease, disability, and death.\" and is rated as the most used and abused substance by adolescences. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological changes, usually a time in a person life in which they go through puberty. Combining these transitional stages and the intake of alcohol, can leave a number of consequences for an adolescent. \n"
] |
Like Google Maps...but for History
|
The website [GeoCron](_URL_1_) is a good place to start. You can skip to any year and it will show you roughly what the world looked like. It is not entirely accurate at some points, like sometimes the author just places a circle and the name of the civilization where he may not have much information. However, it is a good place to start and gives a good visual of empires, the first civilizations, and the such.
Of course, more detailed maps can be used in collaboration with GeoCron to give your students a better understanding. I have found [Euratlas](_URL_0_) to be a decent sources for maps of different European regions in 100 year increments. So a bit of big stretches between maps, but decent if it has one near the year you are interested in.
|
[
"BULLET::::4. Google Maps beginning as a \"thought bubble\" and a series of random scribbles on a white board in 2004 by Noel Gordon, one of the four men who founded the Sydney-based software company Where 2 Technologies. Google Earth developed separately in the US around the same time while Google Street View followed in 2007.\n",
"Google Maps is a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets (Street View), real-time traffic conditions, and route planning for traveling by foot, car, bicycle and air (in beta), or public transportation.\n",
"As one of the first Google Maps mashups, it helped influence Google to create its official Google Maps API. Newspaper sites such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" and the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" have incorporated a map from EveryBlock, the successor to chicagocrime.org, into their web sites.\n",
"Google Maps first started as a C++ program designed by two Danish brothers, Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen, at the Sydney-based company Where 2 Technologies. It was first designed to be separately downloaded by users, but the company later pitched the idea for a purely Web-based product to Google management, changing the method of distribution. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google Inc. where it transformed into the web application Google Maps.\n",
"Online resources such as Google Earth are increasingly useful for other than the most detailed technical analysis. One challenge remains the indexing of maps in geographical information systems, since multiple projections and coordinate systems are used both in maps and in imagery.\n",
"Google Maps began as a C++ desktop program at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application. After additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a realtime traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The service's front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax. Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allowed users to collaboratively expand and update the service's mapping worldwide but was discontinued from March 2017. However, crowdsourced contributions to Google Maps were not discontinued as the company announced those features will be transferred to the Google Local Guides program.\n",
"Since the advent of Google Maps and the publication of its API, numerous users have used online maps to illustrate their web pages. Google Maps is in itself not a GeoCMS but a building block for GeoCMS applications. Similarly Mapserver can also be used for creating GeoCMS.\n"
] |
modulo
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Mod is basically the remainder of a division problem.
50mod7 is 1 because 50/7 = 7 with a remainder of 1. 7*7 = 49. 49 + 1 = 50. 50mod7 = 1.
39mod5 = 4
100mod12 = 4
92mod3 = 2
|
[
"\"Modulo\" is mathematical jargon that was introduced into mathematics in the book \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. Given the integers \"a\", \"b\" and \"n\", the expression \"a\" ≡ \"b\" (mod \"n\") (pronounced \"\"a\" is congruent to \"b\" modulo \"n\"\") means that \"a\" − \"b\" is an integer multiple of \"n\", or equivalently, \"a\" and \"b\" both leave the same remainder when divided by \"n\". It is the Latin ablative of \"modulus\", which itself means \"a small measure.\" \n",
"Polyphonic C# is an extension of the C# programming language. It introduces a new concurrency model with synchronous and asynchronous (which return control to the caller) methods and chords (also known as ‘synchronization patterns’ or ‘join patterns’).\n",
"The word modulo (Latin, with respect to a modulus of ___) is the Latin ablative of \"modulus\" which itself means \"a small measure.\" It was introduced into mathematics by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. The term has gained many meanings—some exact and some imprecise. Generally, the term is expressed:\n",
"In the Quadrasynth's composite synthesis system, up to four \"tones\" are used to create a single \"patch\" or synthesizer sound. These individual \"tones\" are created by using 16-bit digital single-cycle waveforms or digital samples as oscillator sources, and are then processed via a digital non-resonant filter, various LFOs and envelope generators, and so on - in the usual manner. The Quadrasynth contained 16MB of ROM containing PCM-based waveforms and samples, with the option of expanding the sample base via PCMCIA expansion cards which plug into the back of the synthesizer.\n",
"The quadratic sieve attempts to find pairs of integers \"x\" and \"y(x)\" (where \"y(x)\" is a function of \"x\") satisfying a much weaker condition than \"x\" ≡ \"y\" (mod \"n\"). It selects a set of primes called the \"factor base\", and attempts to find \"x\" such that the least absolute remainder of \"y(x)\" = \"x\" mod \"n\" factorizes completely over the factor base. Such \"y\" values are said to be \"smooth\" with respect to the factor base.\n",
"In mathematics, the result of the modulo operation is an equivalence class, and any member of the class may be chosen as representative; however, the usual representative is the least positive residue, the smallest nonnegative integer which belongs to that class, \"i.e.\" the remainder of the Euclidean division. However, other conventions are possible. Computers and calculators have various ways of storing and representing numbers; thus their definition of the modulo operation depends on the programming language or the underlying hardware.\n",
"The quadratic sieve is an optimization of Dixon's method. It selects values of \"x\" close to the square root of N such that \"x\" modulo \"N\" is small, thereby largely increasing the chance of obtaining a smooth number.\n"
] |
Why have no new phyla developed since the Cambrian Explosion?
|
This is because of the way that phyla (and other taxonomic groups) are defined. Phyla are essentially arbitrarily-defined groups, and there is no particular amount of structural or genetic divergence that causes us to classify a particular group as a phylum. However, like other taxonomic groups, scientists do strive to make phyla represent monophyletic groups (groups of organisms that contain a common ancestor and all of its descendants). This means that in order for a new phylum to be recognized, we would have to split up a currently recognized phylum, possibly into several groups.
|
[
"In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was \"explosive\" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as \"Opabinia\", which did not fit into any known phylum. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's \"weird wonders\" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the \"weird wonders\" were evolutionary \"aunts\" or \"cousins\" of modern groups—for example that \"Opabinia\" was a member of the lobopods, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades. Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.\n",
"The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record, and many more phyla now extinct. This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today, although they did not resemble the species of today.\n",
"If the Cambrian Explosion is thought of as producing the modern phyla, the GOBE can be considered as the \"filling out\" of these phyla with the modern (and many extinct) classes and lower-level taxa. The GOBE is considered to be one of the most potent speciation events of the Phanerozoic era increasing global diversity severalfold. \n",
"BULLET::::- Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla?\n",
"Before the Cambrian explosion, most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. As the rate of diversification subsequently accelerated, the variety of life began to resemble that of today. Almost all present animal phyla appeared during this period.\n"
] |
Before French and Latin, has there been any other lingua franca?
|
Greek! The Romans themselves were Grekophiles, and most well-educated Romans would be expected to know Greek. Greek was the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean (and was also widely spoken in many western mediteranean settlements like Massalia and Emporion) and continued to be the primary language of communication there up to the fall of the Byzantine Empire. [You can read more here](_URL_0_).
|
[
"The term \"lingua franca\" derives from Mediterranean Lingua Franca, the pidgin language that people around the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from late medieval times, especially during the Renaissance era, to the 18th century. At that time, Italian-speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the Ottoman Empire and a simplified version of Italian, including many loan words from Greek, Old French, Portuguese, Occitan, and Spanish as well as Arabic and Turkish came to be widely used as the \"lingua franca\" (in the generic sense) of the region.\n",
"\"Lingua franca\" means literally \"language of the Franks\" in Late Latin, and originally referred specifically to the language that was used around the Eastern Mediterranean Sea as the main language of commerce. However, the terms \"Franks\" and \"Frankish\" were actually applied to all Western Europeans during the late Byzantine Period. Later, the meaning of \"lingua franca\" expanded to mean any bridge language. Its other name in the Mediterranean area was \"Sabir\", deriving from a Romance base meaning \"to know\".\n",
"The Mediterranean Lingua Franca was largely based on Italian and Provençal. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities (Genoa, Venice, Florence, Milan, Pisa, Siena) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.\n",
"Lingua francas have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called \"trade languages\" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic, and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term is taken from the medieval Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a Romance-based pidgin language used (especially by traders and seamen) as a lingua franca in the Mediterranean Basin from the 11th to the 19th century. A world language – a language spoken internationally and by a large number of people – is a language that may function as a global lingua franca.\n",
"BULLET::::- Lingua franca (Italian \"lingua Franca\", \"Frankish language\"). Its usage to mean a common tongue originated from its meaning in Arabic and Greek during the Middle Ages, whereby all Western Europeans were called \"Franks\" or \"Faranji\" in Arabic and \"Phrankoi\" in Greek.\n",
"\"Lingua francas\" have arisen around the globe throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called \"trade languages\") but also for diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. The term originates with one such language, Mediterranean Lingua Franca, a pidgin language used as a trade language in the Mediterranean area from the 11th to the 19th century. Examples of lingua francas remain numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example as of the early 21st century is English. There are many other lingua francas centralized on particular regions, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Greek, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish.\n",
"Catalan in Spain's northern and central Mediterranean coastal regions and the Balearic Islands is closely related to Occitan, sharing many linguistic features and a common origin (see Occitano-Romance languages). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature among Romance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Guerau de Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerverí de Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.\n"
] |
Why does it spread germs/illnesses to leave a bathroom with hands unwashed, yet oral-genital contact is not regarded as a surefire way to get the same illnesses?
|
Washing your hands after using the bathroom is not just about the germs gathered during the time using the bathroom. Ingraining that habit into people while they are at a sink with water gets them to clean away other germs they may have picked up without having to make a special trip to wash.
Human fecal matter is the real germ problem, not the human genitals. The genitals themselves, if clean should carry no more germs than the rest of the skin. Ineffective wiping however leaves fecal matter, and potentially it ends up on the hands. Washing removes it. In reality a male standing to pee, or either gender who doesn't wipe at all shouldn't be gaining any more germs on their hands than from any other activity. Its just easier to train people to always wash after a bathroom event so the bases are covered. It has the added benefit of removing other germs gathered before the bathroom event.
|
[
"General sanitary hygiene is the most important method of preventing sapovirus. This can be done by thoroughly washing hands after using the restroom and before eating/preparing food. Contaminated surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant and or solutions containing bleach. Other preventative measures include avoiding contact and sharing drinks/food with infected individuals.\n",
"Infections can be prevented from occurring in homes as well. In order to reduce their chances to contract an infection, individuals are recommended to maintain a good hygiene by washing their hands after every contact with questionable areas or bodily fluids and by disposing of garbage at regular intervals to prevent germs from growing.\n",
"The most obvious way to prevent the contraction and spread of direct contact diseases is to try not to touch door handles at all, of course this is not always possible. Therefore, thoroughly washing your hands after going to the bathroom or returning from a public place should be a behaviour that is instilled in children from an early age though this is not enough to stop most germs from breeding. Automatic doors are becoming more and more popular in hospitals, chemists and other public buildings due to them reducing the risk of cross-contamination since there is no need to handle the door at all. Another prevention technique, which is mainly used in luxury hotels, is the use of a doorman who will open and close the main door, screening visitors and deliveries. These mean passers through do not have to touch the door at all therefore eliminating all risk of catching or passing on direct contact diseases. Precautionary measures which can be taken in order to prevent such diseases include wearing gloves, using paper towel or tissues to open handles or using tools, like the loodini, to avoid using door handles all together.\n",
"Laundry hygiene involves practices that prevent disease and its spread via soiled clothing and household linens such as towels. Items most likely to be contaminated with pathogens are those that come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal towels, facecloths, nappies. Cloths or other fabric items used during food preparation, or for cleaning the toilet or cleaning up material such as feces or vomit are a particular risk.\n",
"The typhoid outbreak may have encouraged replacement of traditional laundered roller towels in public toilets, which allowed bacterial cross-infection from person to person, by disposable paper towels and warm air hand driers.\n",
"Cystoisospora belli does not require an intermediate host and currently is only known to transmit from person to person. The method of transmission is ingesting food or water that has been contaminated with feces from someone who is infected. Washing your hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and before handling food is vital. Also, educating children the importance of hand-washing and good hygiene practice is important.\n",
"There are certain situations during which hand washing with water and soap are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of \"Clostridioides difficile\", parasites such as \"Cryptosporidium\", and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as when after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC recommends hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.\n"
] |
how can i invest and grow my money without knowing how to invest?
|
The market overall is down right now, so it makes sense that you lost some money. The three main things you need to know: Investment gains are slow; it wouldn't be a surprise for it to take a year or so before you make $10 on $500. The safest way to invest is to diversity; buying shares of an index fund or an ETF will let you invest in hundreds of stocks at once rather than putting all of your cash into one or two companies. Third thing to consider is what pre-tax investment options you have. See if your work offers a 401k plan; any money you put into that wont get taxed until you take it out, and some employers will give you extra money for contributions you make to it.
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[
"By investing \"directly\" in an institution, rather than purchasing stock, an investor is able to create a greater social impact: money spent purchasing stock in the secondary market accrues to the stock's previous owner and may not generate social good, while money invested in a community institution is put to work. For example, money invested in a Community Development Financial Institution may be used by that institution to alleviate poverty or inequality, spread access to capital to under-served communities, support economic development or green business, or create other social good. In 1984, Trillium Asset Management's founder, Joan Bavaria, invited Chuck Matthei of the Institute for Community Economics (ICE), an organization that helps communities create and sustain land trusts, to a meeting of US SIF. It is likely that this was the first time a nonprofit organization with a loan fund would meet directly with SRI managers. Trillium clients began investing in ICE later that year.\n",
"Individuals have long known that it is possible to make money by investing in real estate, but very few, proportionately speaking, have the capital available to be able to do any investing. The solution is for individuals to join real estate investment clubs (which need to be distinguished from a formally established [real estate investment trust], so that their money can be pooled together in order to purchase properties that they otherwise could not afford to buy.\n",
"An investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to invest it. The financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the interests that he will receive from a borrower (the bank account on which he has the money deposited).\n",
"An investor who has some money has two options: to spend it right now or to save it. But the financial compensation for saving it (and not spending it) is that the money value will accrue through the compound interest that he or she will receive from a borrower (the bank account in which he has the money deposited).\n",
"To raise capital, you require funds from investors who are interested in the investments. You have to present those investors with high-return projects. By displaying high-level potentials of the projects, investors would be more attracted to put their money into those projects. After certain amount of time, usually in a year’s time, rewards of the investment will be shared with investors. This makes investors happy and they may continue to invest further. If returns do not meet the intended level, this could reduce the willingness of investors to invest their money into the funds. Hence, the amounts of financial incentives are highly weighted determinants to ensure the funding remains at a desirable level.\n",
"\"Investing in the Internet is similar in a way to investing in a farm. A farmer sows his seeds and 180 days later, he harvests. With start-up investments you sow your seeds and the harvest could take two or three years, but in the end it will always come. Perhaps that's what confuses the investors. They see wagon-loads of produce and they run to sow, but they cannot see when the harvest will come.\n",
"Leverage is a powerful reason for investing in real estate. If an investor used 100% cash to acquire a house worth $100,000, and the house increased in value by $5,000 in one year, then the investor made a return of 5% (assuming no other costs in this case). However, if the investor obtained 95% financing, only $5,000 cash would be required at the closing table, and a bank or other lender would loan the remaining $95,000 to acquire the property.\n"
] |
sound. yes i get that is a wave but how is a wave able to encode so much variety (voice, instruments, sound effects)?
|
If it were a single wave, it would not convey so much. But sounds like you describe are a series of waves, spread out over time and interpreted by an excellent computer -- your brain.
|
[
"Wave Sequences were first introduced on Korg's Wavestation synthesizer, released in 1990. Wave Sequences allow a single note to play through a list of samples, one after the other, with or without crossfades, with other associated parameters changing for each sample, as listed below. This can create smooth, evolving timbres, or rhythmic effects. Internally, Wave Sequences are implemented by using two voices; voice A plays the first sample, voice B plays the second sample, voice A plays the third sample, and so on. Other synthesizers have featured concepts which are similar in some aspects, such as PPG, Waldorf, and Access Virus wavetables, Synclavier resynthesis, and Ensoniq Transwaves and Hyperwaves (see the Ensoniq TS 10).\n",
"Wave field synthesis is a spatial audio rendering technique that synthesizes wave fronts by using Huygens–Fresnel principle. First the original sound is recorded by microphone arrays and then loudspeaker arrays are used to reproduce the sound in the listening area. The arrays are placed along the boundaries of their own area. Microphones and loudspeakers are the same as the arrays with regard to their respective area. The different part this technique has is that it allows multiple listeners to move in the listening area and still hear the same sound from all directions. This is the unique thing that the binaural and transaural techniques can't achieve. Generally, the sound reproduction systems using wave field synthesis place the loudspeakers in a line or around the listener in a 2D space. And similar systems are also proposed to reproduce a sound field in a 3D space. However, since these systems are very expensive and the loudspeakers are visible in the listener's field of vision, it is very difficult to construct an audio-visual system using these systems. So papers on how to reduce the number of microphones and loudspeakers have been written. One of them achieve their goal by considering the auditory capability of the listeners.\n",
"Control of sound waves is mostly accomplished through the bulk modulus \"β\", mass density \"ρ\" and chirality. The bulk modulus and density are analogs of permittivity and permeability in electromagnetic metamaterials. Related to this is the mechanics of sound wave propagation in a lattice structure. Also materials have mass and intrinsic degrees of stiffness. Together, these form a resonant system and the mechanical (sonic) resonance may be excited by appropriate sonic frequencies (for example audible pulses).\n",
"With waveforms containing many overtones, complex transient timbres can be achieved by assigning each overtone to its own distinct transient amplitude envelope. Unfortunately, this has the effect of modulating the loudness of the sound as well. It makes more sense to separate loudness and harmonic quality to be parameters controlled independently of each other. \n",
"The sound produced by digital waveshapers tends to be harsh and unattractive, because of problems with aliasing. Waveshaping is a non-linear operation, so it's hard to generalize about the effect of a waveshaping function on an input signal. The mathematics of non-linear operations on audio signals is difficult, and not well understood. The effect will be amplitude-dependent, among other things. But generally, waveshapers—particularly those with sharp corners (e.g., some derivatives are discontinuous) -- tend to introduce large numbers of high frequency harmonics. If these introduced harmonics exceed the nyquist limit, then they will be heard as harsh inharmonic content with a distinctly metallic sound in the output signal. Supersampling can somewhat but not completely alleviate this problem, depending on how fast the introduced harmonics fall off. Supersampling involves the following procedure:\n",
"There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location. Some of these terms have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant analyses.\n",
"Waveshapers are used mainly by electronic musicians to achieve an extra-abrasive sound. This effect is most used to enhance the sound of a music synthesizer by altering the waveform or vowel. Rock musicians may also use a waveshaper for heavy distortion of a guitar or bass. Some synthesizers or virtual software instruments have built-in waveshapers. The effect can make instruments sound noisy or overdriven.\n"
] |
Is this any intuitive way to think about normal distribution function ?
|
The gaussian distribution is e^-x^2. It is the heart to the shape that is called the normal distribution. The pis, the sigmas, the various other values are just adjustments.
The constant term in front of the exponential is just a multiplier to make the area under the curve equivalent to 1 (so that the sum of the probabilities is 100%.))
The x-a term in the exponent is to shift the function right or left. Ie if you set a to 5, the function would peak at 5.
The sigma is widening the curve.
|
[
"In mathematics, a distribution function is a real function in measure theory. From every measure on the algebra of Borel sets of real numbers, a distribution function can be constructed, which reflects some of the properties of this measure. Distribution functions (in the sense of measure theory) are a generalization of distribution functions (in the sense of probability theory).\n",
"The normal distribution is useful because of the central limit theorem. In its most general form, under some conditions (which include finite variance), it states that averages of samples of observations of random variables independently drawn from independent distributions converge in distribution to the normal, that is, they become normally distributed when the number of observations is sufficiently large. Physical quantities that are expected to be the sum of many independent processes (such as measurement errors) often have distributions that are nearly normal. Moreover, many results and methods (such as propagation of uncertainty and least squares parameter fitting) can be derived analytically in explicit form when the relevant variables are normally distributed.\n",
"A \"distribution\" (or \"generalized function\") is a linear map assigning a number to each \"test\" function, typically a smooth function with compact support, in a continuous way: in the above terminology the space of distributions is the (continuous) dual of the test function space. The latter space is endowed with a topology that takes into account not only \"f\" itself, but also all its higher derivatives. A standard example is the result of integrating a test function \"f\" over some domain Ω:\n",
"The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution. The Gaussian function, which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean and standard deviation , naturally contains :\n",
"Distribution functions are used in statistical physics to estimate the mean number of particles occupying an energy level (hence also called occupation numbers). These distributions are mostly derived as those numbers for which the system under consideration is in its state of maximum probability. But one really requires average numbers. These average numbers can be obtained by the Darwin–Fowler method. Of course, for systems in the thermodynamic limit (large number of particles), as in statistical mechanics, the results are the same as with maximization.\n",
"A distribution \"T\" is a linear mapping \"T\" : D(R) → R. Instead of writing \"T\"(\"formula_1\"), it is conventional to write formula_2 for the value of \"T\" acting on a test function \"formula_1\". A simple example of a distribution is the Dirac delta \"δ\", defined by\n",
"The normal distribution is perhaps the most important case. Because the normal distribution is a location-scale family, its quantile function for arbitrary parameters can be derived from a simple transformation of the quantile function of the standard normal distribution, known as the probit function. Unfortunately, this function has no closed-form representation using basic algebraic functions; as a result, approximate representations are usually used. Thorough composite rational and polynomial approximations have been given by Wichura and Acklam. Non-composite rational approximations have been developed by Shaw.\n"
] |
This Week's Theme: The 14th Century, AD
|
**Current**: 14th Century AD
**On Deck:** Resistance and Conformity
**In the Hole**: Propaganda
|
[
"The 15th century is part of the High Middle Ages, the period from the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 to the close of the 15th century, which saw the fall of Constantinople (1453), the end of the Hundred Years War (1453), the discovery of the New World (1492), and thereafter the Protestant Reformation (1515). It also marked the later years of scholasticism and the growth of Christian humanism and other developments of the early Renaissance.\n",
"\"The Start of the New Century\" (\"Der Antritt des neuen Jahrhunderts\") is a poem written by Friedrich Schiller early in the 19th century, possibly in 1801. It deals with the Peace of Lunéville and the Napoleonic Wars.\n",
"The 15th and 16th centuries were a time of strong economic and populational development of Alvito, which reached 1700 inhabitants in 1527. The Castle of Alvito was rebuilt between 1494 and 1504, and its architecture and decoration show an interesting mix of Manueline (Portuguese late Gothic) and Mudéjar (Arab-influenced) styles, typical of the Alentejo region. Also the main church (\"matriz\") of Alvito, in a mix of Manueline and early Renaissance styles, dates from the early 16th century.\n",
"The cultural and artistic events of Italy during the period 1400 to 1499 are collectively referred to as the Quattrocento (, , ) from the Italian for the number 400, in turn from , which is Italian for the year 1400. The Quattrocento encompasses the artistic styles of the late Middle Ages (most notably International Gothic), the early Renaissance (beginning around 1425), and the start of the High Renaissance, generally asserted to begin between 1495 and 1500.\n",
"Key events of the period include: the Council of Trent (1545–1563); the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570); the Battle of Lepanto (1571); the adoption of the Gregorian calendar under Pope Gregory XIII; the French Wars of Religion; the Long Turkish War; the final phases of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648); and the formation of the last Holy League by Innocent XI during the Great Turkish War.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Medieval and Renaissance Europe\" UPC 798936840554: The Medieval Manor (1956) / Chaucer's England (1956) / Martin Luther: Beginning of Reformation (1973) / Hamlet: The Age of Elizabeth (1959)\n",
"Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman as well as more recent Arabic texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance.\n"
] |
Do the descendants of the major Japanese clans (Tokugawa, Oda, etc) still have influence or command respect? Are their any clans that still 'exist', so to speak?
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After the Meiji restoration, the clans were [converted into noble families](_URL_1_), along the lines of European nobility. Their domains were [converted into prefectures](_URL_0_), with a centralized authority, though they were allowed to keep 10% of the province's revenue. If you're interested in this time period, there's a great biography of Saigo called (unfortunately, due to the horrible Tom Cruise Movie) *The Last Samurai*, by Mark Ravina. It's a really good read.
The nobility was finally eliminated in 1947, though their descendents continued to do pretty well for themselves. ([This book](_URL_2_) is pretty much exactly what you're looking for.) After WWII, they maintained an elitist status, referring to non-former-nobles who became rich as *nariagari* (upstarts) or *narikin* (nouveau riche). They were criticized for being ostentatious with their wealth (austerity was a virtue in old money families, with many boasting their maids wore better kimono than their own daughters).
|
[
"The was a powerful \"daimyō\" family of Japan. They nominally descended from Emperor Seiwa (850–880) and were a branch of the Minamoto clan (Seiwa Genji) by the Nitta clan. The early history of this clan remains a mystery. Members of the clan ruled Japan as \"shōguns\" from 1603 to 1867.\n",
"The was a prominent samurai clan of Japan's Sengoku period. The most famous member of the clan is likely Kikkawa Motoharu (1530-1586), one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's generals, who was adopted into the family. Along with the Kobayakawa clan, the Kikkawa played an important role in Hideyoshi's Kyūshū Campaign (1586-7), and later became daimyō in Izumo province and Iwakuni after that.\n",
"Tokugawa's descendants further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the \"shōgun\". \"Fudai daimyō\" were hereditary vassals of Ieyasu, as well as of his descendants. \"Tozama\" (\"outsiders\") became vassals of Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara. \"Shinpan\" (\"relatives\") were collaterals of Tokugawa Hidetada. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the \"tozama\" as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the \"tozama\" less likely to rebel. In the end, it was the great \"tozama\" of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.\n",
"Though the Oda were effectively eclipsed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi following Nobunaga's death, it is not often known that the Oda continued to be a presence in Japanese politics. One branch of the family became \"hatamoto\" retainers to the Tokugawa shōgun, while other branches became minor \"daimyō\" lords. As of the end of the Edo period, these included Tendō Domain (also known as Takahata Domain, Dewa Province, 20,000 \"koku\"), Yanagimoto han (Yamato Province, 10,000 \"koku\"), Kaiju han (also known as Shibamura han; Yamato Province, 10,000 \"koku\"), and Kaibara han (Tanba Province, 20,000 \"koku\").\n",
"The were three branches of the Tokugawa clan of Japan. They were descended from the eighth of the fifteen Tokugawa shōguns, Yoshimune (1684–1751). Yoshimune established the \"Gosankyo\" to augment (or perhaps to replace) the \"Gosanke\", the heads of the powerful \"han\" (fiefs) of Owari, Kishū, and Mito. Two of his sons, together with the second son of his successor Ieshige, established the Tayasu, Hitotsubashi, and Shimizu branches of the Tokugawa. Unlike the \"Gosanke\", they did not rule a \"han\". Still, they remained prominent until the end of Tokugawa rule, and some later shōguns were chosen from the Hitotsubashi line.\n",
"The Adachi clan (安達氏) is a family of samurai who are said to have been descended from Fujiwara no Yamakage. Their historical significance derives from their successes during the Genpei War and their subsequent affiliation with the Hōjō clan.\n",
"The , also called simply , or even , were the most noble three branches of the Tokugawa clan of Japan: Owari House of Tokugawa, Kii House of Tokugawa, and Mito House of Tokugawa, all of which were descended from clan founder Tokugawa Ieyasu's three youngest sons, Yoshinao, Yorinobu, and Yorifusa, and were allowed to provide a shōgun in case of need. In the Edo period the term \"gosanke\" could also refer to various other combinations of Tokugawa houses, including (1) the shogunal, Owari and Kii houses and (2) the Owari, Kii, and Suruga houses (all with the court position of \"dainagon\"). \n"
] |
Ionized water
|
Could you be more specific? In general, anyone claiming to make "ionized" water is running a scam, but depending on what device they're selling, it may produce any of a number of things.
|
[
"Although the exact ion formation mechanism is not clear, water can be ionized directly by Penning ionization. Another proposal is that water is ionized by the same mechanism that has been proposed for atmospheric pressure chemical ionization\n",
"A water ionizer (also known as an alkaline ionizer) is a home appliance which claims to raise the pH of drinking water by using electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and alkaline components. The alkaline stream of the treated water is called alkaline water. Proponents claim that consumption of alkaline water results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims violate basic principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no medical evidence for any health benefits of alkaline water.\n",
"The self-ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is an ionization reaction in pure water or in an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule, HO, deprotonates (loses the nucleus of one of its hydrogen atoms) to become a hydroxide ion, OH. The hydrogen nucleus, H, immediately protonates another water molecule to form hydronium, HO. It is an example of autoprotolysis, and exemplifies the amphoteric nature of water.\n",
"Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of the solution that it is in; it readily produces both and ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of and is a constant, so their respective concentrations are inversely proportional to each other.\n",
"The theory of ion exchange involves replacing undesirable or potentially harmful ions with more desirable or harmless ones. This is implemented in domestic water treatment system as water softeners. These not only remove calcium ions, but also lead and other heavy metals from water.\n",
"Water ionizers work by simply siphoning off the water near the cathode. Water siphoned off the cathode side contains increased levels of hydroxide (OH) and would be expected to have a higher pH (i.e. be more alkaline), whereas water siphoned off near the anode would have increased levels of H making it acidic. The acidic water is claimed to be useful for household disinfecting.\n",
"In dilute aqueous solutions, the activities of the solute particles are approximately equal to their concentrations. Thus, the \"ionization constant\", \"dissociation constant\", \"self-ionization constant\",\"water ion-product constant\" or \"ionic product\" of water, symbolized by \"K\", may be given by:\n"
] |
why do i get these rashes on my throat after i've shaved?
|
A few years back I switched to a brush+lather shave and never looked back. Canned shave gel is total garbage.
This made all the difference in the world to me. That and picking up a safety razor.
|
[
"After a hair has been shaved, it begins to grow back. Curly hair tends to curl into the skin instead of straight out the follicle, leading to an inflammation reaction. PFB can make the skin look itchy and red, and in some cases, it can even look like pimples. These inflamed papules or pustules can form especially if the area becomes infected.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sycosis vulgaris, Sycosis barbae or Barber's itch is a staphylococcus infection of the hair follicles in the bearded area of the face, usually the upper lip. Shaving aggravates the condition.\n",
"Sycosis vulgaris is a cutaneous condition characterized by a chronic infection of the chin or bearded region. The irritation is caused by a deep infection of hair follicles, often by species of \"Staphylococcus\" or \"Propionibacterium\" bacteria. Asymptomatic or painful and tender erythematous papules and pustules may form around coarse hair in the beard (sycosis barbae) or the back of the neck (sycosis nuchae).\n",
"A rash at the time of shaving is usually a sign of lack of lubrication. Razor burn is a common problem, especially among those who shave coarse hairs on areas with sensitive skin like the bikini line, pubic hair, underarms, chest, and beard. The condition can be caused by shaving too closely, shaving with a blunt blade, dry shaving, applying too much pressure when shaving, shaving too quickly or roughly, or shaving against the grain.\n",
"In southeast Queensland a 'maddening rash' (known locally as 'scrub itch') is caused by infestation by many tick larvae. This especially affects people clearing leafy bushland such as lantana scrub. Not infrequently a single tick embedded over an eyelid will result in gross facial and neck swelling within a few hours. The person can go on to develop very severe signs of throat (tracheopharyngeal) compression within 5–6 hours after the first onset of symptoms.\n",
"Seborrhoeic dermatitis can occur in infants younger than three months and it causes a thick, oily, yellowish crust around the hairline and on the scalp. Itching is not common among infants. Frequently, a stubborn diaper rash accompanies the scalp rash.\n",
"Before wet shaving, the area to be shaved is usually doused in warm to hot water by showering or bathing or covered for several minutes with a hot wet towel to soften the skin and hair. A lathering or lubricating agent such as cream, shaving soap, gel, foam or oil is normally applied after this. Lubricating and moisturizing the skin to be shaved helps prevent irritation and damage known as razor burn. Many razor cartridges include a lubricating strip, made of polyethylene glycol, to function instead of or in supplement to extrinsic agents. It also lifts and softens the hairs, causing them to swell. This enhances the cutting action and sometimes permits cutting the hairs slightly below the surface of the skin. Additionally, during shaving, the lather indicates areas that have not been addressed. When soap is used, it is generally applied with a shaving brush, which has long, soft bristles. It is worked up into a usable lather by the brush, either against the face, in a shaving mug, bowl, scuttle, or palm of the hand.\n"
] |
what is tickling? why do we have places like on our sides and armpits that makes us laugh out of panic when there is no real danger?
|
This is just a short explanation based on the video at the end of my comment:
Small tickling (like from a feather) is called knismesis. It makes you scratch/touch places. This is to make us get rigd of insects, spiders and other stuff we don't want to have on our skin. Many animals are ticklish too so it shows us our evolutionary history.
The more rough version (e.g. from fingers poking you) is called Gargalesis. It is something all primates have and might be there to teach each other self defence without hurting each other. It makes you react to something that might hurt your most vulnerable parts.
Source: SciShow about this topic.
_URL_0_
|
[
"A third, hybrid hypothesis, has suggested that tickling encourages the development of combat skills. Most tickling is done by parents, siblings and friends and is often a type of rough-and-tumble play, during which time children often develop defensive and combat moves. Although people generally make movements to get away from, and report disliking, being tickled, laughter encourages the tickler to continue. If the facial expressions induced by tickle were less pleasant the tickler would be less likely to continue, thus diminishing the frequency of these combat lessons.\n",
"Tickling is defined by many child psychologists as an integral bonding activity between parent and children. In the parent-child concept, tickling establishes at an early age the pleasure associated with being touched by a parent with a trust-bond developed so that parents may touch a child, in an unpleasant way, should circumstances develop such as the need to treat a painful injury or prevent harm from danger. This tickling relationship continues throughout childhood and often into the early to mid teen years.\n",
"Charles Darwin theorized on the link between tickling and social relations, arguing that tickling provokes laughter through the anticipation of pleasure. If a stranger tickles a child without any preliminaries, catching the child by surprise, the likely result will be not laughter but withdrawal and displeasure. Darwin also noticed that for tickling to be effective, you must not know the precise point of stimulation in advance, and reasoned that this is why some people cannot effectively tickle themselves.\n",
"When considering tickling in terms of its qualities as a sensation, it results from a mild stimulation moving across the skin. The dual character of tickling refers to the associated behaviors that include smiling, laughter, twitching, withdrawal and goose bumps. The tickle can be divided into two separate categories of sensation, knismesis and gargalesis. Knismesis, also known as a \"moving itch\", is a mildly annoying sensation caused by a light movement on the skin, such as from a crawling insect. This may explain why it has evolved in many animals. Gargalesis reactions refer to a laughter-provoking feeling caused by a harsher, deeper pressure, stroked across the skin in various regions of the body. These reactions are thought to be limited to humans and other primates, although some research has indicated that rats can also be tickled in this way. A German study also indicates that the gargalesis type of tickle triggers a defense mechanism for humans in the hypothalamus conveying submissiveness or fleeing from danger.\n",
"As with parents and siblings, tickling serves as a bonding mechanism between friends, and is classified by psychologists as part of the fifth and highest grade of social play which involves special intimacy or \"cognitive interaction\". This suggests that tickling works best when all the parties involved feel comfortable with the situation and one another. It can also serve as an outlet for sexual energy during adolescence, and a number of people have stated in a study that their private areas were ticklish.\n",
"One hypothesis, as mentioned above, is that tickling serves as a pleasant bonding experience between parent and child. However, this hypothesis does not adequately explain why many children and adults find tickling to be an unpleasant experience. Another view maintained is that tickling develops as a prenatal response and that the development of sensitive areas on the fetus helps to orient the fetus into favourable positions while in the womb.\n",
"While the reasons for the inhibition of the tickling sensation during self-tickling remain unknown, research shows that the human brain is trained to know what sensation to expect when the body moves or performs an action. Another reason may be the lack of awareness of many sensations arising from self-movement, such as not paying attention to one's own vocal cords. When we try to tickle ourselves by grabbing our sides, the brain foresees this contact between body and hand and prepares itself for it. This removes the feeling of unease and panic, causing the body to not react to tickling in the same way it would if someone else supplied the stimulus.\n"
] |
Why does some music just sound... Old? Is it recording quality, or were instruments constructed differently?
|
Can you shoot some examples of what recorded music you're thinking of?
|
[
"Vintage musical equipment is older music gear, including instruments, amplifiers and speakers, sound recording equipment and effects pedals, sought after, maintained and used by record producers, audio engineers and musicians who are interested in historical music genres. While any piece of equipment of sufficient age can be considered vintage, in the 2010s the term is typically applied to instruments and gear from the 1970s and earlier. Guitars, amps, pedals, electric keyboards, sound recording equipment (e.g., reel to reel tape decks and microphones) from the 1950s to 1970s are particularly sought. Musical equipment from the 1940s and prior eras is often expensive, and sought out mainly by museums or collectors.\n",
"Delicate sounds and fine overtones were mostly lost, because it took a lot of sound energy to vibrate the recording horn diaphragm and cutting mechanism. There were acoustic limitations due to mechanical resonances in both the recording and playback system. Some pictures of acoustic recording sessions show horns wrapped with tape to help mute these resonances. Even an acoustic recording played back electrically on modern equipment sounds like it was recorded through a horn, notwithstanding a reduction in distortion because of the modern playback. Toward the end of the acoustic era, there were many fine examples of recordings made with horns.\n",
"While most music production is done using sophisticated software, some musicians and producers prefer the sound of older analog technology. Professor Albin Zak claims that the increased automation of both newer processes and newer instruments reduces the level of control and manipulation available to musicians and producers.\n",
"As time passes, even later recordings, made in the early stereo era are also being released as \"historical\" recordings, especially if they were never released or were dropped from the record catalogs due to loss of popularity or \"antiquated\" sound. Typically such recordings are of artists and performances that were particularly notable at the time they were first released, or were unavailable because they were private recordings made at concerts or radio broadcasts. The latter can be of rather high quality if the recording derives from tapes made and archived by the broadcaster or the organization mounting the performance.\n",
"Records themselves became an art form because of the large surface onto which graphics and books could be printed, and records could be molded into unusual shapes, colors, or with images (picture discs). The turntable remained a common element of home audio systems well after the introduction of other media, such as audio tape and even the early years of the compact disc as a lower-priced music format. However, even though the cost of producing CDs fell below that of records, CDs remained a higher-priced music format than either cassettes or records. Thus, records were not uncommon in home audio systems into the early 1990s.\n",
"The quality of sound depends on many factors, including the lengths, gauges, and types of strings, the character of the wind, and the material of the resonating body. Metal-framed instruments with no sound board produce a music very different from that produced by wind harps with wooden sound boxes and sound boards. There is no percussive aspect to the sound like that produced by a wind chime; rather crescendos and decrescendos of harmonic frequencies are played in rhythm to the winds. Their vibrant timbres produce an ethereal, almost mystical, music that many people find alludes to higher realms.\n",
"The sound quality of a reproduction or recording depends on a number of factors, including the equipment used to make it, processing and mastering done to the recording, the equipment used to reproduce it, as well as the listening environment used to reproduce it. In some cases, processing such as equalization, dynamic range compression or stereo processing may be applied to a recording to create audio that is significantly different from the original but may be perceived as more agreeable to a listener. In other cases, the goal may be to reproduce audio as closely as possible to the original.\n"
] |
why is nuclear fusion considered the "holy grail" of nuclear power compared to fission?
|
> but I fail to understand why fusion is safer
Because it requires extremely specific circumstances to occur. The second those conditions are lost, the reaction can't physically happen. If you don't have enough heat in the system, the fuel won't have enough energy in it to fuse.
> cleaner
It doesn't use radioactive fuel and the radioactive byproducts are extremely minimal.
> produces more energy
This is the same system that powers the sun. You're using E=mc^2 basically. Fission is just using the radioactive release of heavy elements to heat water. Fusion converts the entire atom to energy (well not exactly but that's not important for this discussion).
> I thought fusion required very high energy input to even occur
It does initially but the hope is that once you get it running the power output is larger than the input. And NO this does NOT break physics, the input merely allows for the output to occur, it doesn't magically double itself or whatever.
Another bonus: Fuel is easy to come by. It uses light elements, which are the most common in the universe. There's enough hydrogen in the ocean to last us beyond the heat-death of the universe.
_URL_0_
|
[
"As a source of power, nuclear fusion is expected to have several theoretical advantages over fission. These include reduced radioactivity in operation and little high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, achieving the necessary temperature/pressure/duration combination has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but to date, no design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.\n",
"Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.\n",
"Hybrid nuclear fusion–fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their nuclear waste.\n",
"Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.\n",
"Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.\n",
"There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. Fission is used in all current nuclear power plants. Fusion is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.\n",
"Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.\n"
] |
why are white americans not called european americans? similar to asian americans and african americans.
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We should not use any of these segregating terms.
We should simply use the term Americans instead.
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[
"The term is used by some to emphasize the European cultural and geographical ancestral origins of Americans, in the same way as is done for African Americans and Asian Americans. A European American awareness is still notable because 90% of the respondents classified as white in the U.S. Census knew their European ancestry. Historically, the concept of an American originated in the United States as a person of European ancestry, thus excluding non-European groups.\n",
"Many African Americans have expressed a preference for the term \"African American\" because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the nation. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the United States under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.\n",
"White Americans have developed their own music, art, cuisine, fashion, and political economy largely based on a combination of traditional European ones. Most religious white Americans are Christian. Many Europeans often Anglicized their names and over time most Europeans adopted English as their primary language and intermarried with other white groups.\n",
"African Americans (also known as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is \"breaking the color barrier\".\n",
"The racial classification of Indian Americans has varied over the years and across institutions. Originally, neither the courts nor the census bureau classified Indian Americans as a race because there were only negligible numbers of Indian immigrants in the United States. For most of America's early history, the government only recognized two racial classifications, \"White\" or \"Colored\". Due to racist immigration laws of the time, those deemed \"Colored\" were often stripped of their American citizenship or denied the ability to become citizens. For these reasons, various South Asians in America took the government to court to try and be considered \"White\" instead of \"Colored\", using various rationales. It wasn't until 1980, amid pressures within the Indian community for recognition, that the census created an \"Asian Indian\" category. Around 360,000 people identified as such in 1980; in the last census, in 2010, this grew to 2.8 million. \n",
"African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4% of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1% of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14% of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.\n",
"Surveys show that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for \"African American\" versus \"Black American\", although they have a slight preference for \"Black American\" in personal settings and \"African American\" in more formal settings.\n"
] |
why were trains invented so much earlier than cars? it seems like trains would be harder to manufacture and create.
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Imagine a car running a steam engine, burning coal in a furnace, using the heat to heat up water, pump that water, and turn the wheels. Also storage for coal to be able to go hundreds of miles.
This is easier to go in a 200 tonne stab of metal than a tiny box with people inside.
Also no need for steering, just turn wheels and drive forward.
|
[
"In the early 20th century, when automobiles were still new technology, their production levels were low enough that they could be shipped in sufficient quantities in boxcars. Two to four automobiles would usually fit into one boxcar. But as the automobile industry grew in size, railroads found that they needed to modify the boxcars for more efficient loading. Some modifications included longer boxcars, larger sliding double side doors located near one end of the boxcar, or doors located on the boxcar ends.\n",
"It was built because it had been shown during the First World War that it was a great disadvantage, from a servicing and maintenance point of view, for each state railway to have its own locomotive classes with no standardization. In addition, the military railways needed a fast, powerful, goods train locomotive, that did not, however, have a high axle load. Even spare parts for locos of the same class often did not fit their sister locos.\n",
"The inventions of new propulsion techniques based on electric motors, internal combustion engines and gas turbines brought a new generation of machines in the 20th century from cars to household appliances. Not only the product range of the machinery industry increased considerably, but especially smaller machines could also deliver products in much greater numbers fabricated in mass production. With the rise of mass production in other parts of the industry, there was also a high demand for manufacturing and production systems, to increase the entire production.\n",
"The self-propelled railcar was not a new concept in North American railroading. Beginning in the 1880s railroads experimented with steam-powered railcars on branch lines, where the costs of operating a conventional steam locomotive-hauled set of cars was prohibitive. These cars failed for several reasons: the boiler and engine were too heavy, water and fuel took up too much space, and high maintenance costs eliminated whatever advantage was gained from reducing labor costs. In the 1900s steam railcars gave way to gasoline, led by the McKeen Motor Car Company, which produced 152 between 1905–1917. J. G. Brill sold over 300 \"railbuses\" in the 1920s. Newcomer Electro-Motive Corporation, working with the Winton Motor Carriage Company, dominated the market at the end of the 1920s but had exited it completely by 1932 as the Great Depression gutted rail traffic.\n",
"The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.\n",
"These modifications helped, but the demand for new automobiles outpaced the railroads' abilities to build and modify boxcars in which to ship them. In 1923, the Grand Trunk Western Railroad experimented with modifying a group of -long wood-frame flat cars to increase their capacity by adding collapsible frames to allow for double-deck operation. The concept was not perfected and therefore failed to gain acceptance. In the 1940s and 1950s, some railroads experimented with automobile-loading assemblies that would lift one or more automobiles above others within a boxcar. The success of these assemblies was limited due to their special use and specific size; it proved uneconomical to maintain a fleet of these assemblies that could only be loaded into boxcars from the ends of the cars.\n",
"As the 1840s approached and more American railroads began to experiment with the new locomotive type, the fell out of favor since it was not as able as the to pull a paying load. continued to be built into the 1850s, but their use was restricted to light-duty trains since, by this time, most railroads had found them unsuitable for regular work.\n"
] |
Historical Fencing in the US of A
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Matthew J. O'Rourke, a captain of volunteers on the Union side during the Civil War, published a treatise on the use of the saber in 1872, which was adopted as the Army's standard. You can get a free ebook of the manual here: _URL_0_
The first half of the the book is "the Manual," regulations for how to draw a sword on parade, etc. The Part you're probably interested is the second half, "the Exercise," which contains the actual fencing. If you're familiar with other 19th century military sabre systems, say from the U.K., its fairly similar, but with a few differences.
|
[
"Many people self-identify as classical fencers, but do not share the concept of classical fencing described in this article, preferring the early to mid-20th-century style of competitive fencing (which, in the United States, was formalized and governed by the American Fencing League, or AFL) to the more classical style of the 19th century. This should not be confused with the Amateur Fencers League of America (AFLA), which was renamed to the current United States Fencing Association (USFA) in 1981, which is affiliated with the FIE.\n",
"Used in this sense, classical fencing is a style of historical fencing focusing on the 19th- and early 20th-century national fencing schools, especially in Italy and France, \"i.e\". the schools out of which the styles of contemporary sports fencing have developed. Masters and legendary fencing figures such as Giuseppe Radaelli, Louis Rondelle, Masaniello Parise, the Greco brothers, Aldo Nadi and his rival Lucien Gaudin are today considered typical practitioners of this period.\n",
"The post and rail fencing has mostly disappeared, but had historical and aesthetic significance as a clear example of a style favoured by wealthy Victorian and Edwardian landowners at the turn of the century, and as such, carried some social significance as well. They warrant reinstatement.\n",
"These events in the early 1980s solidified the evolutionary branching between fencing (under the USFA) and standard fencing (which in 2006 began to experience a revival under the fledgling American Fencing League). The intervening two decades also brought on the classical fencing and historical fencing movements, neither of which have much connection to USFA/AFLA fencing.\n",
"Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels and self defense. Fencing is believed to have originated in Spain; some of the most significant books on fencing were written by Spanish fencers. \"Treatise on Arms\" was written by Diego de Valera between 1458 and 1471 and is one of the oldest surviving manuals on western fencing (in spite of the title, the book of Diego Valera was on heraldry, not about fencing) shortly before dueling came under official ban by the Catholic Monarchs. In conquest, the Spanish forces carried fencing around the world, particularly to southern Italy, one of the major areas of strife between both nations. Fencing was mentioned in the play \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" written sometime prior to 1602.\n",
"By the end of the 19th century, the immediate ancestor of modern fencing had developed with its familiar pedagogy and collection of techniques and theory. At this time, the two predominant schools within the Italian tradition are the Radaellian (after Maestro G. Radaelli) and the Neapolitan. In 1883 the Italian Ministry of War selects the treatise by Neapolitan Masaniello Parise to be the official syllabus of the newly founded Scuola Magistrale of fencing; now called Classical Italian Fencing, Parise's teachings survive to this day almost unchanged, although many of Radaelli's saber teachings were incorporated.\n",
"Basic conventions were collated and set down during the 1880s by the French fencing master Camille Prévost. It was during this time that many officially recognised fencing associations began to appear in different parts of the world, such as the Amateur Fencers League of America was founded in 1891, the Amateur Fencing Association of Great Britain in 1902, and the Fédération Nationale des Sociétés d’Escrime et Salles d’Armes de France in 1906.\n"
] |
In high and late medieval Europe, German & Yiddish-speaking Jews had very high rates of literacy. However, was this isolated to Hebrew literature or could most Jewish people also read the Latin alphabet?
|
Gotz Aly (Why the Germans, why the Jews) explained that having extremely limited opportunities, European Jews invested heavily in and prioritized education. Whether their own religious education or secular education. As a result, they often had a mastery or at least understanding of multiple languages.
Being persecuted and discriminated against, Jewish people needed the ability to communicate with the Non Jews they were living with. Accordingly, they had to be able to read and talk in the language of their neighbours.
|
[
"By the Middle Ages, large numbers of Jews lived in the Holy Roman Empire and had assimilated into German culture, including many Jews who had previously assimilated into French culture and had spoken a mixed Judeo-French language. Upon assimilating into German culture, the Jewish German peoples incorporated major parts of the German language and elements of other European languages into a mixed language known as Yiddish. However tolerance and assimilation of Jews in German society suddenly ended during the Crusades with many Jews being forcefully expelled from Germany and Western Yiddish disappeared as a language in Germany over the centuries, with German Jewish people fully adopting the German language.\n",
"From the beginning of the 20th century, the literacy rate among the Jewish minority was significantly higher than the Muslim masses. In 1945 about 80 percent of the Jewish population were literate, whereas most Muslims could not read and write. In 1968 only 30 percent of Muslims were literate, whereas this figure was more than 80 percent for the Jews.\n",
"Despite this schooling system, many children did not learn to read and write. It has been estimated that at least 90 percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine in the first centuries CE could merely write their own name or not write and read at all, or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent. Exact literacy rates among ancient Jews in Roman Palestine cannot be determined \n",
"But equivalent translation efforts have been less widespread among Jews. This is partially due to the fact that English became a major spoken language among Jews only in the era since the Holocaust. Before then, even Jews in English-speaking countries were still part of an immigrant culture to a large extent, which meant that they could either understand the Hebrew Bible in its original language to a certain degree or, if they required a translation, were still not fully comfortable in English. Many translated Bibles and prayer books from before the Holocaust were still in Yiddish, even those published in countries like the United States.\n",
"At the beginning of the 16th century, the number of Jews in Eastern Europe was estimated at between 10,000 and 30,000. As early as the beginning of the 17th century, it was known that there were Jews living in cities of Lithuania, whose language was \"Russiany\" (from Hebrew: רוסיתא) and they did not know the \"Ashkenaz tongue\", i.e. German-Yiddish. In the mid-18th century, the number of Jews increased to about 750,000. During this period only one-third of East European Jews lived in areas with a predominantly Polish population. The rest of the Jews lived among other peoples, mainly in the Ukrainian and Russian-Lithuanian environments. The numerical increase was due to mass migration of Jews from Central Europe to Eastern Europe in the 16th century, as well as a high birth rate among these immigrants.\n",
"A lack of Latin literacy in eighth century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate Bible. An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages, that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe.\n",
"Jews in the Middle Ages were instrumental in the development of Spanish into a prestige language. Erudite Jews translated Arabic and Hebrew works, often translated earlier from Greek, into Spanish. Christians translated them again into Latin for transmission to Europe.\n"
] |
what does the death of kim jong-il mean for north korea/the rest of the world?
|
It's very hard to say at this point. There is very little information out about Kim Jong-un and we have no clue whether the regime will be better or worse under him. One of the many problems that analysts have outlined is that it isn't just the outside world that is unfamiliar with Kim Jong-un. Most North Koreans, outside of his name, aren't familiar with the successor either. Analysts say that this could lead to the government making drastic moves in order to make the North Korean people embrace the new ruler and the most obvious way in which a North Korean leader can gain approval is through aggression towards South Korea. Another cause for concern is the issue of having a power vacuum in a state possessing nuclear weapons. No one is sure as of right now whether North Korea is even dealing with a power vacuum as Kim Jong-Il's illness was well known and Kim Jong-un was being prepared to succeed his father. However, if there is, this situation could lead to disaster as potentially, many people could have access to these nuclear weapons.
EDIT: Another interesting note that may or may not be important in predicting what Kim Jong-un's regime will be like is the fact that he was educated at an international school in Berne, separating him from his NK-educated father and grandfather. This could mean that he will have more western principles and as a result, he might not be as radical as his predecessors.
|
[
"Kim Jong-il's funeral took place on 28 December in Pyongyang, with a mourning period lasting until the following day. South Korea's military was immediately put on alert after the announcement and its National Security Council convened for an emergency meeting, out of concern that political jockeying in North Korea could destabilise the region. Asian stock markets fell soon after the announcement, due to similar concerns.\n",
"The death of Kim Jong-il was reported by North Korean state television news on 19 December 2011. The presenter Ri Chun-hee announced that he had died on 17 December at 8:30 am of a massive heart attack while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. Reportedly, he had received medical treatment for cardiac and cerebrovascular diseases. During the trip though, he was said to have had an advanced acute myocardial infarction, complicated with a serious heart shock. However, it was reported by South Korean media in December 2012 that he had died in a fit of rage over construction faults at a crucial power plant project.\n",
"BULLET::::- – Foreign Secretary William Hague said \"The people of North Korea are in official mourning after the death of Kim Jong-Il. We understand this is a difficult time for them. This could be a turning point for North Korea. We hope that their new leadership will recognise that engagement with the international community offers the best prospect of improving the lives of ordinary North Korean people. We encourage North Korea to work for peace and security in the region and take the steps necessary to allow the resumption of the Six Party Talks on denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula\".\n",
"BULLET::::- – General Secretary of the ruling FRELIMO party Filipe Chimoio Paúnde described Kim Jong-il's death as a \"sadness\" for the North Korean people. \"Considering the relations that exist between the two states we also feel the loss\". North Korea \"gave its support during the national liberation war\" which FRELIMO fought against the colonial power Portugal, Paúnde said.\n",
"On 13 February 2017, Kim died after being exposed to VX nerve agent at Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia. It was widely believed that he was killed on the orders of his half-brother Kim Jong-un. Four North Korean suspects left the airport shortly after the attack, travelling back to Pyongyang.\n",
"It was reported that Kim Jong-il had died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 8:30a.m. while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. It was reported in December 2012, however, that he had died \"in a fit of rage\" over construction faults at a crucial power plant project at Huichon in Jagang Province. He was succeeded by his youngest son Kim Jong-un, who was hailed by the Korean Central News Agency as the \"Great Successor\". According to the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), during his death a fierce snowstorm \"paused\" and \"the sky glowed red above the sacred Mount Paektu\" and the ice on a famous lake also cracked so loud that it seemed to \"shake the Heavens and the Earth.\"\n",
"Kim Jong-un was left in charge while his father was on a state visit to China. Outsider observers also believed North Korea's sinking of a South Korean ship in March 2010 was part of Kim Jong-il's attempt to secure succession for the youngest Kim.\n"
] |
what the suds in dish soap do and how they work.
|
Dish soap is made out of special molecules are both polar (slight charge) and non-polar. This property allows them to form a microscopic "bubble" called a [micelle](_URL_0_) around non-polar molecules (such as fat and oils) which can then be dissolved in water. The reason it is so hard to get things like oil off of your hands without soap is because they are non-polar and do not dissolve in water. Using a soap helps to dissolve the oils and they can then be washed off of your hands with water.
|
[
"A soap dish is a shallow, open container or platform where a bar of soap may be placed to dry after use. Soap dishes are usually located in or near a sink, shower, or bathtub. Most soap dishes are made from waterproof materials such as plastic, ceramic, metal, or glass, though some are made from bamboo. A china saucer or sponge may serve as a soap dish. A soap dish accommodates bar soap, whereas a soap dispenser accommodates liquid soap or foam soap.\n",
"Most soap dishes are standalone accessories whose placement is at the user's discretion, though some are a built-in feature of a sink, shower, or bathtub. Standalone soap dishes may be entirely portable or may include options for semi-permanent or permanent installation on a horizontal or vertical surface. Locating a soap dish outside the perimeter of a faucet's or showerhead's stream helps the soap to avoid excess erosion.\n",
"Elements in the design of a soap dish include safety, ventilation, cleanliness, placement, aesthetics, and cost. When a soap dish is part of a bath accessories set, coordinated group design may be utilized. Notable soap dish designs include Leonard L Hierath's May 2018 US Patent #US-9962042 Article Support (soap dish) US Patent and Trademark Office; Robert A. Pitton's 1956 US patent for a reversible, hemispherical soap dish and Bernard Cohen's October 2017 design for the \"SoapAnchor\" (patent pending).\n",
"Because of their intended use in wet and potentially hazardous environments, most soap dishes are designed with safety in mind. Such features include unbreakable materials, non-slip surfaces, rounded edges, and secure installation elements (e.g., wall mount hardware, a suction cup, or non-skid feet). Depositing or retrieving a slippery bar of soap is facilitated by an open (or semi-open) sided design or by a shallow lip.\n",
"Traditional shaving soap is often sold as a round puck, either with a rounded bottom intended for use with a shaving scuttle or a flat bottom for use in a mug. High-end soaps may be sold with their own dishes, typically made of either wood or ceramic, and be formed to fit the dish with which the puck is sold. Shaving soap may also be formed in a stick, sold either in a plastic tube or wrapped in foil or paper. Shaving soap is more rarely sold as rectangular bars (as is common with body soap).\n",
"Dishwashing liquid (BrE: washing-up liquid), known as dishwashing soap, dish detergent and dish soap, is a detergent used to assist in dishwashing. It is usually a highly-foaming mixture of surfactants with low skin irritation, and is primarily used for hand washing of glasses, plates, cutlery, and cooking utensils in a sink or bowl. In addition to its primary use, dishwashing liquid also has various informal applications, such as for creating bubbles, clothes washing and cleaning oil-affected birds.\n",
"The raw material used for these kinds of soap is olive oil. The Tripoli soap is also composed of: honey, essential oils, and natural aromatic raw materials like flowers, petals, and herbs. The soaps are dried in the sun, in a dry atmosphere, allowing the evaporation of the water that served to mix the different ingredients. The drying operation lasts for almost three months. As the water evaporates, a thin white layer appears on the soap surface, from the soda that comes from the sea salts. The craftsman brushes the soap very carefully with his hand until the powder trace is entirely eliminated.\n"
] |
Atlatls VS bows in the Americas
|
[This post](_URL_0_) has it that bows and arrows emerged between 3-4 thousand years ago, probably independently, in a number of locations in North America. To my knowledge, atlatls were widely spread throughout North America both before and after bows were in use.
|
[
"The spear-thrower was used by early Americans as well. It may have been introduced to America during the immigration across the Bering Land Bridge, and despite the later introduction of the bow and arrow, atlatl use was widespread at the time of first European contact. Atlatls are represented in the art of multiple PreColumbian cultures, including the Basketmaker culture in the American Southwest, Maya in the Yucatan Peninsula, and Moche in the Andes of South America. Atlatls were especially prominent in the iconography of the warriors of the Teotihuacan culture of Central Mexico. A ruler from Teotihucan named Spearthrower Owl is an important figure described in Mayan stelae. Complete wooden spear-throwers have been found on dry sites in the western United States and in waterlogged environments in Florida and Washington. Several Amazonian tribes also used the atlatl for fishing and hunting. Some even preferred this weapon over the bow and arrow, and used it not only in combat but also in sports competitions. Such was the case with the Tarairiu, a Tapuya tribe of migratory foragers and raiders inhabiting the forested mountains and highland savannahs of Rio Grande do Norte in mid-17th-century Brazil. Anthropologist Harald Prins offers the following description:\n",
"In many parts of the world including much of Africa, the Americas, northern Europe, and Southern Asia, the great majority of traditional bows are self bows. The first bow artifacts, the Stellmoor and Holmegaard artifacts of Northern Europe, are self bows. The Stellmoor bow was made from the heartwood of a Scots pine while the oldest Holmegaard bows were carved from small-diameter elms. In primitive flight archery competitions, bows inspired by the design of the Holmegaard bows perform very well because of their light, non-bending tips.\n",
"However, as the \"Super Smash Bros.\" games sometimes differ slightly from the canon of the series that it represents, the bow's name and origin were changed in \"Kid Icarus: Uprising\". In \"Uprising\", it retains its updated design from \"Brawl\", but is now known as the Palutena Bow and is revealed to have been crafted by its namesake, the Goddess of Light Palutena. Aside from the Palutena Bow, Pit can use various other bows, as well as new types of weapons that provide vastly different effects.\n",
"The belembaotuyan is a musical bow played in Guam, also spelled \"belumbaotuyan\", \"belenbaotuchan\", and \"belimbau-tuyan\". This gourd-resonating musical bow likely has common roots with the Brazilian berimbau, due to constant trade between Asia and South America in the nineteenth century, during which the instrument may have been introduced to the Chamorro people.\n",
"Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, but it persisted into the early 19th century in Eastern cultures and in hunting and tribal warfare in the New World. In the Canadian Arctic bows were made until the end of the 20th century for hunting caribou, for instance at Igloolik. \n",
"BULLET::::- Bowser's first American appearances were as the antagonist in all three \"Super Mario Bros.\" cartoons (produced by DIC Entertainment) voiced by Harvey Atkin. The character is typically referred to as \"King Koopa\" rather than Bowser. His appearance in the cartoons was also different than his video game appearances. He had green skin and lacked his red hair and ability to breathe fire, although he did wield a magic wand similar to those seen in \"Super Mario Bros. 3\".\n",
"The cuatro is a family of Latin American string instruments found in Central and South America, Puerto Rico and other parts of the West Indies, derived from the Spanish guitar. Although some have viola-like shapes, most cuatros resemble a small to mid-sized classical guitar.\n"
] |
What is the limiting factor in human eyesight?
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At some point, the eye will be diffraction limited (see Rayleigh Criterion and Angular Resolution [here](_URL_0_)). Even if your eye was physically perfect/ideal in every way, your vision is still limited by the size of the circular aperture of the eye.
I actually did a presentation on this for a lower division physics class and can send it to you if interested, but I can't do that until tomorrow (have to get the file from a lab computer).
EDIT: [Link to said small presentation](_URL_1_). Only three slides, and only one really discusses the physics.
Second edit: I do remember attending a talk where the speaker discussed using a clever algorithm to combine input from multiple lenses (i.e. two eyes) to beat the diffraction limit, but it didn't provide a huge increase in resolution by any means. Will try to hunt down the abstract.
|
[
"In anatomy, an eyestalk (sometimes spelled as eye stalk or known as an ommatophore) is a protrusion that extends the eye away from the body, giving the eye a better field of vision. It is a common feature in nature and frequently appears in fiction.\n",
"The external limiting membrane (or outer limiting membrane) is one of the ten distinct layers of the retina of the eye. It has a network-like structure and is situated at the bases of the rods and cones.\n",
"\"central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which has a limitation in the field of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees should also be considered as having a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less.\"\n",
"Legibility \"refers to perception\" (being able to see as determined by physical limitations of the eye) and readability \"refers to comprehension\" (understanding the meaning). Good typographers and graphic designers aim to achieve excellence in both.\n",
"The reduced eye is an idealized model of the optics of the human eye. Introduced by Franciscus Donders, the reduced eye model replaces the several refracting bodies of the eye (the cornea, lens, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor) are replaced by an ideal air/water interface surface that is located 20 mm from a model retina. This, converts a system with six cardinal points (two focal points, two principal points and two nodal points) into one with three cardinal points (two focal points and one nodal point).\n",
"\"Eyes Wide Open\" looks at five key issues: population, consumption, energy, food, and climate, drawing on history, psychology, sociology, and the role of money to explain both environmental issues and the human reaction to such issues, with a particular focus on \"defense mechanisms,\" such as denialism, projection, and regression.\n",
"Ciliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as accommodation. The near point and far point define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the lens has become with age. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer than normal reading distance—approximately 25 cm.\n"
] |
What are some good books about US Armored Forces in WWII
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More generally Band of Brothers and Citizen Soldier are two great books if you want more of a narrative than a by-the-numbers historical account. Do realize that with books by Steven Ambrose you would do well to research what may or may not have been plagiarized. The core message is still solid even if Ambrose had sticky literary fingers.
Steven Zaloga (being lazy, linking wikipedia for a book list here _URL_1_) is a good source for discussion of US tank tactics and strategy in WW2.
Forty too. _URL_0_
To elaborate a bit on the M4 and the M26, Patton personally had very little to do with the delay- he was no stranger to the inadequacy of the M4 and even ordered his own troops to engage in on-field modifications to effectively upgrade M4's to their Jumbo Sherman counterpart. He wasn't even in a position to decide what did and didn't get built.
Unfortunately US tank doctrine was decided by a career artilleryman, and intended as a reaction to Blitzkrieg tactics; dedicated tank fighting groups were separate from the main US forces and intended to move from fire fight to fire fight (which explains why the US was the only major nation in WW2 building tank destroyers with very light armor, fully operational turrets *and* open tops) while the M4 Sherman was intended as an infantry support tank. In that sense it was a fantastic tank- it excelled at the same role that the Panzer 4 was intended for (the soviets and the British had no clear contemporary tanks) but was grossly inadequate at fighting late war tanks like panthers and tigers. That was a job intended for the M10, M18 and M36.
US tank doctrine was largely inflexible because everything had to be shipped 3000 miles from US factories to the European front. Which is why the M26 joins a laundry list of potent tanks that never made it past prototype phases or saw only limited production.
|
[
"At the end of World War II, two 6th Armored Division G3 officers, Majors Paul L. Bogen and Clyde J. Burke along with Aide-de-Camp Captain Cyrus R. Shockey, compiled a \"Combat Record of the Sixth Armored Division in the European Theatre of Operations 18 July 1944-8 May 1945\". The official history by George F. Hofmann, \"The Super Sixth: History of the 6th Armored Division in World War II\" (1975, reprinted 2000) has been called by World War II scholar Martin Blumenson, a \"first-rate military history.\" He also noted that General Patton called the 6th AD one of the two best divisions in his Third Army.\n",
"BULLET::::- Roberts, Charles C. \"Armored Strike Force, The Photo History of the American 70th Tank Battalion in World War II \". Lanham, Maryland:Stackpole Books, 2016. https://www.amazon.com/Armored-Strike-Force-American-Battalion/dp/0811717658\n",
"At the height of the battle, the 3rd Armored Division included 32 battalions and 20,533 personnel. It was the largest coalition division in the Gulf War and the largest U.S. armored division in history. In its moving arsenal were 360 Abrams main battle tanks, 340 Bradley Fighting Vehicles, 128 self-propelled 155 mm howitzers, 27 Apache attack helicopters, 9 multiple-launch rocket systems, and more.\n",
"The 825th Tank Destroyer Battalion was a tank destroyer battalion of the United States Army active during the Second World War. It was organized as a towed battalion, with 3\" anti-tank guns, and initially saw service during the Battle of Normandy as a rear-area security unit. Parts of the unit were sent into combat as part of an ad hoc task force on 16 December 1944, on the northern flank of the Ardennes Offensive, where it defended Amblève river bridges at Malmedy and Stavelot. It returned to security duties at the end of January 1945, and served in rear areas for the remainder of the war.\n",
"\"The Twelfth Armored Division Memorial Museum is located in Abilene, Texas, near (9 miles south of) the site of the former Camp Barkeley where the Division trained prior to being sent overseas into the European Theater of Operations. The Museum holds collections of the 12th Armored Division, World War II archives, memorabilia, and oral histories, along with selected equipment and material loaned or donated by others. The education plan focuses on expanding academic access to World War II historical materials, veterans, and their families; preserving the history of the 12th Armored Division for study, research, and investigations by future generations; providing training in public history professions, developing new education programs for students and establishing a technology bridge between the 12th Armored Division Historical Collection and the public.\"\n",
"As the United States approached entry into World War II, armored employment was doctrinally governed by Field Manual 100–5, Operations (published May 1941, the month following selection of the M4 tank's final design). That field manual stated:\n",
"The 612th Tank Destroyer Battalion was a unit of the United States Army during World War II. It played an instrumental role in defending Hofen during the Battle of the Bulge. The specialized tank destroyer unit was attached to various organizations during the war. In December, 1944, the twelve 3 inch guns of Company A were integrated into the defensive positions of the 395th Infantry Regiment and were key to keeping the attacking Sixth Panzer Army from gaining essential objectives in the first days of the offensive. \n"
] |
I'm interested in the history of the addition of Hawaii to the United States. What was the reasoning behind it? Did the people accept it with open arms?
|
Hawaii was a major importer of sugar to the United States in the mid and late 19th century. However, after the McKinley Tariff (1890), which raised taxes on imports significantly, the sugar growers realized that they could bypass the costly tariff by becoming annexed into the US. They staged a rebellion against the local regent, Queen Luliokalani (who was staunchly against foreign influence in Hawaii), and with the help of US marines, forced her to abdicate. President Grover Cleveland, however, had not authorized the action, and after various inquiries into the legitimacy of the uprising (and as something of an anti-imperialist), refused to annex the ripe territory. Hawaii, despite pressure from the US to reinstate Luliokalani to the throne, remained the Republic of Hawaii (ruled essentially by the American sugar plantation owners) until in 1898 William McKinley signed an annexation treaty, largely motivated by Hawaii's usefulness as a staging area in the Spanish-American War. Hawaii remained a US territory until 1959 when Eisenhower signed it into the union as a state, and the residents of Hawaii accepted accepted the referendum nearly unanimously.
|
[
"Upon the inauguration of William McKinley as the 25th President of the United States on March 4, 1897, the Republic of Hawaii resumed negotiations for annexation, which continued into the summer of 1898. In April 1898, the United States went to war with Spain, and Republic of Hawaii declared its neutrality. In practice, it gave enormous support to the United States, demonstrating its value as a naval base in wartime, and winning widespread American approval for its non-neutral behavior.\n",
"Hawaiʻi was the first non-European indigenous state whose independence was recognised by the major powers. The United States declined to join with France and the United Kingdom in this statement. Even though President John Tyler had verbally recognized Hawaiian independence, it was not until 1849 that the United States did formally.\n",
"Throughout the nineteenth century, the United States made a number of treaties with the then Kingdom of Hawaii, the final being in 1887. These treaties recognized the Kingdom of Hawaii as being sovereign and independent. In 1893, John L. Stevens, US minister assigned to the Kingdom of Hawaii, led a group of non-indigenous people to overthrow Queen Lili‘uokalani, which was backed by United States naval forces. They established a Provisional government, which then declared itself the Republic of Hawaii. In 1899, the US annexed Hawaii. Many Hawaiian sovereignty activists feel that because of the aforementioned treaties, Hawaii should today be its own Nation instead of part of the United States.\n",
"In 1897 President William McKinley signed the treaty of annexation for the Republic of Hawaii. It failed to gain two thirds support in the Senate, with only 46 out of 90 senators voting yes. In April 1898, the United States went to war with Spain, and the Republic of Hawaii declared its neutrality. In practice, it gave enormous support to the United States, demonstrating its value as a naval base in wartime, and winning widespread American approval for its non-neutral behavior. With the opposition weakened, Hawaii was supposedly annexed by means of the Newlands Resolution; a domestic congressional law, which required only majority vote in both houses, and no input from Native Hawaiians. Despite the bill being authored by a Democrat, most of the support came from Republicans. It passed the house by a vote of 209 to 91; the yeas included 182 Republicans. It was approved on July 4, 1898 and signed on July 7 by McKinley. On August 12 a ceremony was held on the steps of ʻIolani Palace to signify the official transfer of Hawaiian sovereignty to the United States. The majority of Hawaiian citizens did not recognize the legitimacy of this event and did not attend.\n",
"In 1898 United States Congress passed the “Newlands Resolution” it was signed into law by President McKinley on July 7, 1898. Sixty-one years later in 1959, the Hawaiian Islands were recognized as the 50th state of the United States. The Annexation caused many repercussions as their land and culture were effectively dominated by the culture of the United States. Hawaiians had no say in anything political or economic that had to do with their land. At the height of the Hawaiian population there were an estimated 683,000 Native Hawaiians on the island. By the year 1900 the population had dropped to below 100,000. Hawaiians have also been reduced to 20% of resident population. A huge factor of the decline of Native Hawaiians consisted of the spread of diseases by foreigners such as smallpox, cholera, influenza, and gonorrhea.\n",
"From 1893 to 1896, the Republic of Hawaii actively sought annexation to the United States. However, despite intensive debate on the matter in the legislature, annexation was strongly opposed by the U.S. Presidency, the people of Hawaii, and much of Congress; the Turpie Resolution in 1894 took annexation off the table entirely.\n",
"Hawaii had long been targeted by expansionists as a potential addition to the United States, and a reciprocity treaty in the 1870s had made the Kingdom of Hawaii a \"virtual satellite\" of the United States. After Queen Liliʻuokalani announced plans to issue a new constitution designed to restore her power, she was overthrown by the business community, which requested annexation by the United States and eventually established the Republic of Hawaii. President Harrison tried to annex Hawaii, but his term ended before he could win Senate approval of an annexation treaty, and Cleveland withdrew the treaty. Cleveland deeply opposed annexation because of a personal conviction that would not tolerate what he viewed as an immoral action against the little kingdom. Additionally, annexation faced opposition from domestic sugar interests opposed to the importation of Hawaiian sugar, and from some Democrats who opposed acquiring an island with a large non-white population.\n"
] |
why do (most) countries have a tomb of the unknown soldier?
|
It's mainly just a respect thing. War leaves a lot of dead bodies that no one can identify. I think the British or the French started the tradition around WW1.
|
[
"Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Russia is in Alexander Garden in Moscow and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.\n",
"The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier refers to a monument dedicated to the services of an unknown soldier and to the common memories of all soldiers killed in any war. Such tombs can be found in many nations and are usually high-profile national monuments. Throughout history, many soldiers have died in war with their remains being unidentified. Following World War I, a movement arose to commemorate these soldiers with a single tomb, containing the body of one such unidentified soldier. It is a tomb for unknown soldiers.\n",
"The Tombs of the Unknown Soldiers typically contain the remains of a dead soldier who is unidentified (or \"known but to God\" as the stone is sometimes inscribed). These remains are considered impossible to identify, and so serve as a symbol for all of a country's unknown dead wherever they fell in the war being remembered. The anonymity of the entombed soldier is the key symbolism of the monument; it could be the tomb of anyone who fell in service of the nation, and therefore serves as a monument symbolizing all of the sacrifices.\n",
"The Tomb of the Known Soldier is the grave of Private Charles W. Graves (1893–1918). Private Graves was an infantryman in the American Expeditionary Force who fought in World War I. On October 5, 1918, Private Graves was killed by German artillery shrapnel on the Hindenburg Line. His mother received the telegram from the War Department that informed her about Private Graves' death; however, his body was not returned to America until March 29, 1922 when they brought American soldiers' remains from France and Belgium aboard the troopship \"Cambria\" to New York City. The U.S. Government had the idea of creating Unknown Soldier and \"Known Soldier\" in Arlington Cemetery to honor World War I soldiers. Private Graves was chosen for \"America's Known Soldier\" by a blindfolded sailor who picked Graves' name from American soldier remains list, but his mother objected to his burial at Arlington. The War Department wanted to give his body flag-draped coffin a parade on Fifth Avenue, in New York with generals, admirals, and politicians before his mother buried Graves in the cemetery near Antioch Church on April 6, 1922. On September 22, 1923, Romans decided to relocate Private Graves' body from Antioch Cemetery to Myrtle Hill Cemetery as \"America's Known Soldier\" after his mother's death and his brother's agreement. Private Graves was buried a third and final time. On November 11, 1923, Armistice Day, Private Graves and the other 33 young men from Floyd County who died in World War I were honored with three Maxim guns and 34 magnolia trees.\n",
"The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier or the Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to deceased U.S. service members whose remains have not been identified. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I \"Unknown\" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals. The monument has no officially designated name.\n",
"The British grave of The Unknown Warrior (often known as 'The Tomb of The Unknown Warrior') holds an unidentified British soldier killed on a European battlefield during the First World War. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, London on 11 November 1920, simultaneously with a similar interment of a French unknown soldier at the Arc de Triomphe in France, making both graves the first to honour the unknown dead of the First World War. It is the first example of a tomb of the Unknown Soldier.\n",
"The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier () is a monument in Warsaw, Poland, dedicated to the unknown soldiers who have given their lives for Poland. It is one of many such national tombs of unknowns that were erected after World War I, and the most important such monument in Poland.\n"
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the perceived animosity of the nypd towards bill de blasio.
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The mayor has repeatedly come across as being in support of those who are angry with the police, even in instances where that anger is not justified. The mayor isn't seen as being on the side of his police force.
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[
"Under Mayor Bloomberg, Kelly's NYPD also incurred criticism for its handling of the protests surrounding the 2004 Republican National Convention, which resulted in the City of New York having to pay out millions in settlement of lawsuits for false arrest and civil rights violations, as well as for its rough treatment of credentialed reporters covering the 2011 Occupy Wall Street demonstrations.\n",
"Under Mayor Bloomberg, Kelly's NYPD also incurred criticism for its handling of the protests surrounding the 2004 Republican National Convention, which resulted in the City of New York having to pay out millions in settlement of lawsuits for false arrest and civil rights violations, as well as for its rough treatment of credentialed reporters covering the 2011 Occupy Wall Street demonstrations.\n",
"Following NYC Mayor Bill de Blasio's election in 2013, running largely on a message of reining in abusive NYPD tactics, including \"Stop and Frisk\", the PBA began actively organizing against Mayor de Blasio, accusing him of failing to support the NYPD, as it has charged other mayors over the decades.\n",
"With New York State Senator Eric Adams, Congressman Hakeem Jeffries, and NY city councilman Jumaane Williams, James called upon Mayor Bloomberg to investigate systemic corruption in the NYPD in November 2011. She was also one of four councilmembers to sue the NYPD over its treatment of protesters at Occupy Wall Street.\n",
"Louis Eppolito and Stephen Caracappa were simultaneously on the payrolls of the NYPD and the Lucchese crime family and were abusing their authority as officers of the NYPD. They would routinely violate the civil rights of the citizens of New York City, and moonlighted for the crime family. They would use NYPD files to track down the enemies of the crime family and were ultimately convicted of the murders of Eddie Lino, Michael Greenwald (an informant for the FBI) and innocent man Nick Guido who had the same name as a man targeted by the crime family. Eppolito received life in prison with an additional 100 years and Caracappa received life in prison with an additional 80 years. They were also fined a combined $4 million. They received a monthly salary of $5000 from the crime family.\n",
"The team finds opposition within the NYPD, primarily from Captain Connor and the recently retired Chief Byrnes, both of whom are more committed to protecting the reputations of New York's high society than they are to finding the perpetrators of the crimes; as well as from the working poor and lower class citizens who distrust them for being outsiders.\n",
"NYPD Commissioner William Bratton reassigned four top NYPD officers as a consequence of a federal corruption investigation of the NYPD being led by the U.S. Attorney's Office and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Deputy Chief Michael Harringon, Deputy Inspector James Grant, Deputy Chief David Colon, and Deputy Chief Eric Rodriguez were each disciplined by being given desk jobs even before the outcome of the investigation was made clear. The investigation of the NYPD was reportedly connected to probes of two businessmen with ties to Mayor Bill de Blasio. Although the complete nature, and identity of all of the targets, of the federal investigation were not made clear, agents of the FBI's political corruption unit were participating in the probe.\n"
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