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Where does the energy go when particle-antiparticle pairs spontaneously appear and annihilate? | The energy doesn't go anywhere, because there was zero energy to begin with and zero energy after.
The particle-antiparticle pairs you're referring to are called *virtual particles*. They aren't real particles, and they don't actually exist. They're mathematical tools that are used in calculations, but they fail to have many of the properties of real particles. In particular, *real* particles have a relationship between their mass, energy, and momentum: E^2 = p^2 c^2 + m^2 c^4. In particular, their (mass+kinetic) energy is always positive. That relationship is not true for virtual particles, and one of the pair of virtual particles just has negative energy (so the pair has total energy zero).
But--just to reiterate because this causes so much confusion--virtual particles aren't real. They're just a mathematical tool. | [
"If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can annihilate each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as + → + (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) are an example. The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, + → , cannot occur in free space because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. However, in the Coulomb field of a nucleus the translational invariance is broken and single-photon annihilation may occur. The reverse reaction (in free space, without an atomic nucleus) is also impossible for this reason. In quantum field theory, this process is allowed only as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the uncertainty principle. This opens the way for virtual pair production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may \"fluctuate\" into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the vacuum state and renormalization of a quantum field theory. It also opens the way for neutral particle mixing through processes such as the one pictured here, which is a complicated example of mass renormalization.\n",
"When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.\n",
"A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner leads to their \"mutual annihilation\", giving rise to various proportions of intense photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and sometimes less-massive particle-antiparticle pairs. Annihilation usually results in a release of energy that becomes available for heat or work. The amount of the released energy is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accordance with the mass–energy equivalence equation, .\n",
"An ionizing particle entering the gas collides with an atom of the inert gas and ionizes it to produce an electron and a positively charged ion, commonly known as an \"ion pair\". As the ionizing particle travels through the chamber it leaves a trail of ion pairs along its trajectory, the number of which is proportional to the energy of the particle if it is fully stopped within the gas. Typically a 1 MeV stopped particle will create about 30,000 ion pairs.\n",
"If one or both charged particles carry a larger amount of kinetic energy, various other particles can be produced. Furthermore, the annihilation (or decay) of an electron-positron pair into a \"single\" photon can occur in the presence of a third charged particle to which the excess momentum can be transferred by a virtual photon from the electron or positron. The inverse process, pair production by a single real photon, is also possible in the electromagnetic field of a third particle.\n",
"Most students who have taken a course in electromagnetism have encountered the Coulomb potential. It basically states that two charged particles attract or repel each other by a force which varies according to the inverse square of their separation. This is fairly unambiguous for particles at rest, but if one or the other is following an arbitrary trajectory the question arises whether one should compute the force using the instantaneous positions of the particles or the so-called retarded positions. The latter recognizes that information cannot propagate instantaneously, rather it propagates at the speed of light. However, the radiation gauge says that one uses the instantaneous positions of the particles, but doesn't violate causality because there are compensating terms in the force equation. In contrast, the Lorenz gauge imposes manifest covariance (and thus causality) at all stages of a calculation. Predictions of observable quantities are identical in the two gauges, but the radiation gauge formulation of quantum field theory avoids Goldstone's theorem.\n",
"Particle–antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. For example, the positrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays, a process exploited in positron emission tomography.\n"
] |
How many molecules wide are the sharpest blades? | Obisidian blades can be mere molecules thick, the preferred tool of optometrists. I'm not sure if its the SHARPEST but it is practically impossible to not cut yourself on one
Source: History of art professor, the first hand experience.
[and wikipedia as source](_URL_0_)
Edit: as others pointed out its actually Ophthalmologists | [
"Saw blades come in many different thicknesses and the choice of blade will depend on the material being sawn and nature of the work being done. For very fine delicate work, and for cutting very thin material use a finer blade, and for general purpose cutting a heavier blade. Saw blades have a range of sizes, from finest to coarsest: 8/0, 7/0, 6/0, 5/0, 4/0, 3/0, 2/0, 1/0, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.\n",
"Horizontal band knife blades are wider usually 30-60mm wide for foam converting is popular, for leather goods 40-50mm wide blade is popular, 85-110mm width is popular for the tannery splitting band knife. There are other widths depending on the machine manufacturer. The horizontal machine band knife blade is supported by a guide to give dimensional accuracies while cutting/splitting. Therefore, only blades that have passed as one main manufacturing step a surface grinding process reach the necessary thickness tolerances of less than 0,02mm. A higher tolerance would lead to marks on the surface of the split material like leather or rubber. Blades are available in different grades of exactness depending on the required exactness on the material to be cut/split. On modern machines in combination with a high grade blade a splitting thickness of 0,2mm for 1500mm material width is possible.\n",
"Barung blades are thick and very heavy with the weight aiding in the slicing capability of the sword. Barong blade lengths range from 8 to 22 inches (20 to 56 cm) as the average blade length is originally 14 inch. Newer blades, on the other hand, tend to be longer measuring at 18 to 22 inches (46 to 56 cm). Damascene patterns are also thick but again most often not as controlled as the more widely known kalis.\n",
"The kerf produced by the blades is somewhat wider than the blade thickness due to the set of the teeth. It commonly varies between 0.030 and 0.063 inches / 0.75 and 1.6 mm depending on the pitch and set of the teeth.\n",
"Blades for cutting wood are almost universally tungsten carbide tipped (TCT), but high-speed steel (HSS) blades are also available. The saw base can be adjusted for depth of cut and can tilt up to 45° and sometimes 50° in relation to the blade. Adjusting the depth of cut helps minimize kickback. Different diameter blades are matched to each saw and are available ranging from to .\n",
"Blades for bandsaws and reciprocating saws are often made with bimetal construction. The teeth, made of high speed steel, are bonded (by various methods, for example, electron beam welding or laser beam welding) to the high-strength carbon steel base. Such construction makes for blades with a better combination of cutting speed and durability than shown by non-bimetal blades, because the advantages and disadvantages of each of the metals are applied in the best locations: the teeth are harder (and thus cut better), but therefore also brittler; meanwhile, the body area of the band is softer (which would make for poorer teeth), but also less brittle, and thus more resistant to cracking and breaking (which is desirable in the body area). \n",
"Cuts made with a serrated blade are typically less smooth and precise than cuts made with a smooth blade. Serrated blades can be more difficult to sharpen using a whetstone or rotary sharpener than a non-serrated, however, they can be easily sharpened with a diamond. Serrated blades tend to stay sharper longer than a similar straight edged blade. A serrated blade has a faster cut but a plain edge has a cleaner cut. Some prefer a serrated blade on a pocket knife.\n"
] |
how is it possible to have a hole in your heart, and not die of internal bleeding? | Its not an expression, it is literally referring to a hole somewhere in the heart that there isn't supposed to be. Now bear in mind this doesn't mean there's a hole straight through the heart, or that the hole leads to the exterior of the heart. What it usually entails is that there is a defect in the walls that separate the chambers in the heart, or between the major vessels leading out of the heart.
I presume your curiosity was piqued because of that AMA about the kid and his hole-in-the-heart. Without knowing the exact details of his condition, basically the kid has a hole in the wall between one of his atrium and the adjacent ventricle (there are four chambers in your heart, two atrium and two ventricles). In a healthy heart, the atrium contracts and pushes blood into the ventricle, and then ventricle contracts and pushes the blood out of your heart (either to your lungs or the other organs). The hole between the atrium and ventricle means that when the ventricle contracts, some of that blood gets pushed backwards, back into the atrium.
You can have holes elsewhere in the heart, but the results are usually the same. The flow of blood is disrupted as some of it backflows through the defect.
These are always congenital defects. | [
"When there are holes in the septum that divide the four chambers of the heart the oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood mix this creates more stress on the heart to pump blood to where oxygen is needed. As a result, you get enlargement of the heart, heart failure (being unable to adequately supply body with needed oxygen, pulmonary hypertension, and pneumonia.\n",
"A coroner's inquiry into the death found that the cause of death was inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart, owing to the absorption of blood from the bruised parts of the thigh. Morcom's brother James testified that Morcom had been unwell recently and had been losing his eyesight.\n",
"As with any procedure involving the heart, complications can sometimes, though rarely, cause death. The mortality rate during angioplasty is 1.2%. Sometimes chest pain can occur during angioplasty because the balloon briefly blocks off the blood supply to the heart.\n",
"Permanent and temporary cavitation cause very different biological effects. A hole through the heart will cause loss of pumping efficiency, loss of blood, and eventual cardiac arrest. A hole through the liver or lung will be similar, with the lung shot having the added effect of reducing blood oxygenation; these effects however are generally slower to arise than damage to the heart. A hole through the brain can cause instant unconsciousness and will likely kill the recipient. A hole through the spinal cord will instantly interrupt the nerve signals to and from some or all extremities, disabling the target and in many cases also resulting in death (as the nerve signals to and from the heart and lungs are interrupted by a shot high in the chest or to the neck). By contrast, a hole through an arm or leg which hits only muscle will cause a great deal of pain but is unlikely to be fatal, unless one of the large blood vessels (femoral or brachial arteries, for example) is also severed in the process.\n",
"BULLET::::- Heart failure: One of the most serious types of enlarged heart, an enlarged left ventricle, increases the risk of heart failure. In heart failure, the heart muscle weakens, and the ventricles stretch (dilate) to the point that the heart can't pump blood efficiently throughout the body.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Embolism: blood vessels blocked likely due to deep vein thrombosis, a blood clot that forms in a deep vein, commonly in the legs but could be from other deep veins.* Pulmonary embolisms and strokes are blockages in the lungs and brain respectively and are severe, could lead to long term effects, or be fatal.\n",
"BULLET::::- Heart valve surgery: If an enlarged heart is caused by a problem with one of the heart valves, one may have surgery to remove the valve and replace it with either an artificial valve or a tissue valve from a pig, cow or deceased human donor. If blood leaks backward through a valve (valve regurgitation), the leaky valve may be surgically repaired or replaced.\n"
] |
Is there a scientific reason that the hexagon is 'nature's shape'? | Hexagons represent the shape with the lowest possible energy when nested / packed. If you imagine a soap bubble, it pulls itself into a sphere for the same reason - the sphere is the least possible surface area which contains the maximum volume - the lowest energy shape. If you subsequently nest soap bubbles together, the membranes between cells pull themselves into straight walls forming hexagons, as this is the lowest energy configuration. Similarly, this is why bees evolved to construct honeycomb cells in their hives. The close packed hexagons use the least amount of wax in their construction than any other possible shape, conserving energy. | [
"Very similar to the Spiral Chart, the Hexagon Chart is also a matrix of consecutive natural numbers, but the difference is that it starts with 0 in the central point, and the numbers spiral out in the form of a hexagon instead a square. The spiral direction in Gann's original course is also counterclockwise, because of its astrological overlay. Mathematically, the numbers in each additional layer represent the hexagonal numbers, which are the number of distinct dots consisting of the outlines of regular hexagons.\n",
"Closely related and important geometrical concepts are perpendicular lines, meaning lines that form right angles at their point of intersection, and orthogonality, which is the property of forming right angles, usually applied to vectors. The presence of a right angle in a triangle is the defining factor for right triangles, making the right angle basic to trigonometry.\n",
"The internal angles of a flat regular hexagon are 120°, while the preferred angle between successive bonds in a carbon chain is about 109.5°, the tetrahedral angle. Therefore, the cyclohexane ring tends to assume certain non-planar (warped) conformations, which have all angles closer to 109.5° and therefore a lower strain energy than the flat hexagonal shape. The most important shapes are called chair, half-chair, boat, and twist-boat. The molecule can easily switch between these conformations, and only two of them—\"chair\" and \"twist-boat\"—can be isolated in pure form.\n",
"Within Indic lore, the shape is generally understood to consist of two triangles—one pointed up and the other down—locked in harmonious embrace. The two components are called \"Om\" and the \"Hrim\" in Sanskrit, and symbolize man's position between earth and sky. The downward triangle symbolizes Shakti, the sacred embodiment of femininity, and the upward triangle symbolizes Shiva, or Agni Tattva, representing the focused aspects of masculinity. The mystical union of the two triangles represents Creation, occurring through the divine union of male and female. The two locked triangles are also known as 'Shanmukha'—the six-faced, representing the six faces of Shiva & Shakti's progeny Kartikeya. This symbol is also a part of several yantras and has deep significance in Hindu ritual worship and history.\n",
"Spherical harmonics are often used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM96 (Earth Gravity Model 1996), determined in an international collaborative project led by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, or NGA). The mathematical description of the non-rotating part of the potential function in this model is:\n",
"In geometry, a hexagon (from Greek ἕξ \"hex\", \"six\" and γωνία, \"gonía\", \"corner, angle\") is a six-sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the internal angles of any simple (non-self-intersecting) hexagon is 720°.\n",
"The logical hexagon (also called the hexagon of opposition) is a conceptual model of the relationships between the truth values of six statements. It is an extension of Aristotle's square of opposition. It was discovered independently by both Augustin Sesmat and Robert Blanché.\n"
] |
how do airlines know the exact departure and arrival times for flights months out in advance? | Plane routes don't change often. The same flight goes from NYC to LA everyday and comes back everyday. To do the same thing tomorrow. Pretty much only time schedules change is when some airline starts a new route. Or shuts down a route | [
"Time of arrival (ToA, also time of flight) is the amount of time a signal takes to propagate from transmitter to receiver. Because the signal propagation rate is constant and known (ignoring differences in mediums) the travel time of a signal can be used to directly calculate distance. Multiple measurements can be combined with trilateration and multilateration to find a location. This is the technique used by GPS. Systems which use ToA, generally require a complicated synchronization mechanism to maintain a reliable source of time for sensors (though this can be avoided in carefully designed systems by using repeaters to establish coupling).\n",
"Flight plans may be submitted before departure or even after the aircraft is in the air. However flight plans may be submitted up to 24 hours in advance either by voice or by data link; though they are usually filled out or submitted just several hours before departure. The minimum recommended time is 1 hour before departure for domestic flights, and up to three hours before international flights. This time depends on the country the aircraft is flying out of.\n",
"BULLET::::- arrived in time for check-in as indicated on the ticket or communication from the airline, or, if no time is so indicated, no less than 45 minutes prior to the scheduled departure time of the flight\n",
"Airlines are closely monitored on their on time performance. Numerous websites exist for reporting on punctuality for airlines, often operated by government departments. Virgin Australia, an airline, uses a rule that aircraft that depart within 15 minutes of scheduled departure are on time. The 15 minutes rules for on time performance is commonly applied throughout the airline industry. Airlines typically perform well when their on time performance reaches 90%.\n",
"Passengers can be updated on the movement of transport vehicles with passenger information systems. These systems display the arrival time of vehicles to stops, stations or airports, and typical information displayed is the time in minutes to the next scheduled arrival. Some of these systems have been extended to include apps to show the movement of trains/buses/planes/ferries. Where services are delayed, more information can be provided, such as alternative transport options, or estimated time till services resume.\n",
"In air travel, a stop or transfer (from one airplane to another) is considered to be a layover or connection up to a certain maximum allowed connecting time, while a so-called stopover is a substantially longer break in the flight itinerary. The maximum time depends on many variables, but for most U.S. and Canadian itineraries, it is 4 hours, and for most international itineraries (including any domestic stops), it is 24 hours. In general, layovers are cheaper than stopovers, because notionally layovers are incidental to traveling between two other points, whereas stopovers are among the traveler's destinations.\n",
"Flight/airline tracking, that is the use of flight trackers has been growing due to the obvious reason to know whether a flight has safely landed or whether everything goes according to the schedule so it is the time to go to the airport.\n"
] |
why are all of our fingers different lengths? | [I made a quick video to answer your question](_URL_0_)
If you prefer reading here is what I ran over:
- That it's due to evolution, we need it to improve our grip. We started using tools millions of years ago and we need the grip to use them! We still need the grip to date obviously, for items such as pens, tools and even phones. Try and grab an orange yourself and you will find that you can grip it so well due to the curvature of your fingers, and how because of the different length of each finger you end up holding it in various places which makes for great grip.
- We also need different length fingers to make fists to use as a defensive weapon. We wouldn't be able to make a fist if all our fingers were the same length!
Take it easy! | [
"In the classical Akkadian Empire system instituted in about 2250 BC during the reign of Naram-Sin, the finger was one-thirtieth of a cubit length. The cubit was equivalent to approximately 497 mm, so the finger was equal to about 17 mm. Basic length was used in architecture and field division. \n",
"The digit or finger is an ancient and obsolete non-SI unit of measurement of length. It was originally based on the breadth of a human finger. It was a fundamental unit of length in the Ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Ancient Greek and Roman systems of measurement.\n",
"Some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, use the little finger independently, compensating for the little finger's shortness by maintaining an extremely long fingernail. Rak and Yamashita have also generalized the use of the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb (the same technique as in the rasgueado of the Flamenco: as explained above the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side) both as a free stroke and as a rest stroke.\n",
"Fingers can be square-ended (such as in Cornwall and Norfolk), curved (as in Dorset) or triangular-ended (as is common in Somerset). Where timber was used for the fingers, place names are composed of individually affixed metal letters. Mileage is typically measured to the nearest quarter mile, with fractions being mounted on a separate ready-made plate, although measurements to the fifth or eighth of a mile are given in East Lothian. Due to their age, some fingerposts have 'fossilised' the historic spelling of places which was dominant at the time of their construction. Examples include \"Portisham\", rather than the modern spelling \"Portesham\" and the pre-decimal \"6D Handley\" for Sixpenny Handley in Dorset.\n",
"\"[and the] length [of the \"‛ūd\"] will be: thirty-six joint fingers – with good thick fingers – and the total will amount to three \"ashbār\". And its width: fifteen fingers. And its depth seven and a half fingers. And the measurement of the width of the bridge with the remainder behind: six fingers. Remains the length of the strings: thirty fingers and on these strings take place the division and the partition, because it is the sounding [or \"the speaking\"] length. This is why the width must be [of] fifteen fingers as it is the half of this length. Similarly for the depth, seven fingers and a half and this is the half of the width and the quarter of the length [of the strings]. And the neck must be one third of the length [of the speaking strings] and it is: ten fingers. Remains the vibrating body: twenty fingers. And that the back (soundbox) be well rounded and its \"thinning\"(kharţ) [must be done] towards the neck, as if it had been a round body drawn with a compass which was cut in two in order to extract two \"‛ūds\"\".\n",
"The middle finger, long finger, or tall finger is the third digit of the human hand, located between the index finger and the ring finger. It is typically the longest finger. In anatomy, it is also called \"the third finger\", \"digitus medius\", \"digitus tertius\" or \"digitus III\".\n",
"Nomograms for normal values of finger length as a ratio to other body measurements have been published. In clinical genetics the most commonly used index of digit length is the dimensionless ratio of the length of the 3rd (middle) finger to the hand length. Both are expressed in the same units (centimeters, for example) and are measured in an open hand from the fingertip to the principal creases where the finger joins the palm and where the palm joins the wrist.\n"
] |
What did Lucifer, as a Roman God, represented for the people of Rome? | Lucifer was not a Roman god. | [
"In the Middle Ages, the Cathars, practitioners of a dualistic religion, were accused of worshipping Satan by the Catholic Church. Pope Gregory IX stated in his work \"Vox in Rama\" that the Cathars believed that God had erred in casting Lucifer out of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful. On the other hand, according to Catharism, the creator-god of the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan.\n",
"Though associated with Satanism, a philosophy based on the Christian interpretation of the fallen angel, Luciferianism differs in that it does not revere merely the devil figure or Satan but the broader figure of Lucifer, an entity representing various interpretations of \"the morning star\" as understood by ancient cultures such as the Greeks and Egyptians. In this context, Lucifer is a symbol of enlightenment, independence, and human progression and is often used interchangeably with similar figures from ancient beliefs, such as the Greek titan Prometheus or the Jewish Talmudic figure Lilith.\n",
"Lucifer ( ; 'light-bringer') is a Latin name for the planet Venus as the morning star in the ancient Roman era, and is often used for mythological and religious figures associated with the planet. Due to the unique movements and discontinuous appearances of Venus in the sky, mythology surrounding these figures often involved a fall from the heavens to earth or the underworld. Interpretations of a similar term in the Hebrew Bible, translated in the King James Version as \"Lucifer\", led to a Christian tradition of applying the name Lucifer and its associated stories of a fall from heaven to Satan. Most modern scholarship regards these interpretations as questionable, and translates the term in the relevant Bible passage (Isaiah 14:12) as \"morning star\" or \"shining one\" rather than as a proper name, \"Lucifer\".\n",
"Levi was not the only occultist who wanted to use the term \"Lucifer\" without adopting the term \"Satan\" in a similar way. The early Theosophical Society held to the view that \"Lucifer\" was a force that aided humanity's awakening to its own spiritual nature. In keeping with this view, the Society began production of a journal titled \"Lucifer\".\n",
"Some Luciferians believe in Lucifer as an actual deity. However, Lucifer is not worshipped as the Judeo-Christian God but is revered and followed as a teacher and friend. Theistic Luciferians are followers of the Left-Hand Path and may adhere to different dogmata put forth by organizations such as the Neo-Luciferian Church or other congregations which are heavily focused on ceremonial magic, the occult, and literal interpretations of spiritual stories and figures.\n",
"Theistic Luciferian groups are particularly inspired by Lucifer (from the Latin for ‘bearer of light’), who they may or may not equate with Satan. While some theologians believe the Son of the Dawn, Lucifer, and other names were actually used to refer to contemporary political figures, such as a Babylonian King, rather than a single spiritual entity (although on the surface the Bible explicitly refers to the King of Tyrus), those that believe it refers to Satan infer that by implication it also applies to the fall of Satan.\n",
"In the classical Roman period, Lucifer was not typically regarded as a deity and had few, if any, myths, though the planet was associated with various deities and often poetically personified. Cicero pointed out that \"You say that Sol the Sun and Luna the Moon are deities, and the Greeks identify the former with Apollo and the latter with Diana. But if Luna (the Moon) is a goddess, then Lucifer (the Morning-Star) also and the rest of the Wandering Stars (Stellae Errantes) will have to be counted gods; and if so, then the Fixed Stars (Stellae Inerrantes) as well.\"\n"
] |
Plate Tectonics on Venus | Interesting explanation here: _URL_0_
Essentially, it doesn't have Earth like plate tectonics because it's too hot. It's a definitions issue, not a process one. | [
"BULLET::::- The typical signs of terrestrial plate tectonics - continental drift and basin floor spreading - are not evident on Venus. The planet's tectonics is dominated by a system of global rift zones and numerous broad, low domical structures called coronae, produced by the upwelling and subsidence of magma from the mantle.\n",
"Despite the fact that Venus appears to have no global plate tectonic system as such, the planet's surface shows various features associated with local tectonic activity. Features such as faults, folds, and volcanoes are present there and may be driven largely by processes in the mantle.\n",
"One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.\n",
"Turcotte (1993) suggested that Venus has episodic tectonics, whereby short periods of rapid tectonics are separated by periods of surface inactivity lasting on the order of 500 Ma. During periods of inactivity, the lithosphere cools conductively and thickens to over 300 km. The active mode of plate tectonics occurs when the thick lithosphere detaches and founders into the interior of the planet. Large scale lithosphere recycling is thus invoked to explain resurfacing events. Episodic large scale overturns can occur due to a compositionally stratified mantle where there is competition between the compositional and thermal buoyancy of the upper mantle.\n",
"Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved impact craters has been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are the dominantly in the range ~500 Mya–750Mya, although ages of up to ~1.2 Gya have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressionable thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent. There are almost 1,000 impact craters on Venus, more or less evenly distributed across its surface.\n",
"Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well-preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range , although ages of up to have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.\n",
"The tectonic deformations on Venus occur on a variety of scales, the smallest of which are related to linear fractures or faults. In many areas these faults appear as networks of parallel lines. Small, discontinuous mountain crests are found which resemble those on the Moon and Mars. The effects of extensive tectonism are shown by the presence of \"normal faults\", where the crust has sunk in one area relative to the surrounding rock, and superficial fractures. Radar imaging shows that these types of deformation are concentrated in belts located in the equatorial zones and at high southern latitudes. These belts are hundreds of kilometers wide and appear to interconnect across the whole of the planet, forming a global network associated with the distribution of volcanoes.\n"
] |
why do anesthetic needles hurt so much when numbing a nerve? | Because they fairly directly poke the nerve (or very close to it) before injecting. Poking a nerve directly tends to hurt. | [
"Local anesthetic toxicity is indicated by numbness and tingling around the mouth, metallic taste, or ringing in the ears. Additionally, this may lead to seizures, arrhythmias, and may progress to cardiac arrest. This reaction may stem from an allergy, excessive dose, or intravascular injection. Other complications include nerve injury which has an extremely low rate of 0.029-0.2%. Some research even suggests that ultrasound lowers the risk to 0.0037%. The use of ultrasound and nerve stimulation has greatly improved practitioners’ ability to safely administer nerve blocks. Nerve injury most often occurs from ischaemia, compression, direct neurotoxicity, needle laceration, and inflammation.\n",
"When local anesthetic is injected around a larger diameter nerve that transmits sensation from an entire region it is referred to as a nerve block or regional nerve blockade. Nerve blocks are commonly used in dentistry, when the mandibular nerve is blocked for procedures on the lower teeth. With larger diameter nerves (such as the interscalene block for upper limbs or psoas compartment block for lower limbs) the nerve and position of the needle is localized with ultrasound or electrical stimulation. The use of ultrasound may reduce complication rates and improve quality, performance time, and time to onset of blocks. Because of the large amount of local anesthetic required to affect the nerve, the maximum dose of local anesethetic has to be considered. Nerve blocks are also used as a continuous infusion, following major surgery such as knee, hip and shoulder replacement surgery, and may be associated with lower complications. Nerve blocks are also associated with a lower risk of neurologic complications compared to the more central epidural or spinal neuraxial blocks.\n",
"Paresthesia, a short-to-long-term numbness or altered sensation affecting a nerve, is a well-known complication of injectable local anesthetics and has been present even before articaine was available.\n",
"Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord, and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"The areas of cutaneous distribution (dermatomes) of the three branches of the trigeminal nerve have sharp borders with relatively little overlap (unlike dermatomes in the rest of the body, which have considerable overlap). The injection of a local anesthetic, such as lidocaine, results in the complete loss of sensation from well-defined areas of the face and mouth. For example, teeth on one side of the jaw can be numbed by injecting the mandibular nerve. Occasionally, injury or disease processes may affect two (or all three) branches of the trigeminal nerve; in these cases, the involved branches may be termed:\n",
"BULLET::::- Percutaneous techniques which all involve a needle or catheter entering the face up to the origin where the nerve splits into three divisions and then damaging this area, purposely, to produce numbness but also stop pain signals. These techniques are proven effective especially in those where other interventions have failed or in those who are medically unfit for surgery such as the elderly.\n",
"Contact between the side of the lumbar puncture needle and a spinal nerve root can result in anomalous sensations (paresthesia) in a leg during the procedure; this is harmless and people can be warned about it in advance to minimize their anxiety if it should occur.\n"
] |
why do addicts of hard drugs tend to lose many of their teeth? | Drug addicts don't typically have the best hygiene. Depending on the drug of choice, they may have no appetite and end up malnourished. | [
"The intense desire to recapture the initial high is what is so addictive for many users. On the other hand, Reinarman et al. wrote that the nature of crack addiction depends on the social context in which it is used and the psychological characteristics of users, pointing out that many heavy crack users can go for days or weeks without using the drugs.\n",
"A study released in 1997 examined the addictive nature of both crack and powder cocaine and concluded that one was no more addictive than the other. The study explored other reasons why crack is viewed as more addictive and theorized, \"a more accurate interpretation of existing evidence is that already abuse-prone cocaine users are most likely to move toward a more efficient mode of ingestion as they escalate their use. The \"Los Angeles Times\" commented, \"There was never any scientific basis for the disparity, just panic as the crack epidemic swept the nation's cities.\"\n",
"Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of mesolimbic dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.\n",
"Isaacs' drug addiction had a major impact on his voice, with most of his teeth falling out as a result. Isaacs said of his addiction in 2007: \"Drugs are a debasing weapon. It was the greatest college ever, but the most expensive school fee ever paid – the Cocaine High School. I learnt everything, and now I've put it on the side.\"\n",
"Especially among genetically vulnerable individuals, repeated exposure to a drug of abuse in adolescence or adulthood causes addiction by inducing stable downregulation or upregulation in expression of specific genes and microRNAs through epigenetic alterations. Such downregulation or upregulation has been shown to occur in the brain's reward regions, such as the nucleus accumbens. (See, for example, Epigenetics of cocaine addiction.)\n",
"Addiction to any substance, including crack, may be a risk factor for child abuse or neglect. Crack addiction, like other addictions, distracts parents from the child and leads to inattentive parenting. Mothers who continue to use drugs once their babies are born have trouble forming the normal parental bonds, more often interacting with their babies with a detached, unenthusiastic, flat demeanor. Conversely, low-stress environments and responsive caregiving may provide a protective effect on the child's brain, potentially compensating for negative effects of PCE. \n",
"Chronic cocaine intake causes strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it, resulting more or less in an \"off\" or \"working mode\" respectively, or they change their susceptibility for binding partners (ligands)mechanisms called downregulation and upregulation. However, studies suggest cocaine abusers do not show normal age-related loss of striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) sites, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective properties for dopamine neurons. Possible side effects include insatiable hunger, aches, insomnia/oversleeping, lethargy, and persistent runny nose. Depression with suicidal ideation may develop in very heavy users. Finally, a loss of vesicular monoamine transporters, neurofilament proteins, and other morphological changes appear to indicate a long term damage of dopamine neurons. All these effects contribute a rise in tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect.\n"
] |
Why are bike wheels so big? | It is partly because mechanically it offers the opportunity of higher road speeds on a pedal bike without having to pedal furiously or without the need of excessive gearing.
Also, larger wheels traditionally were used before bike had suspension to try to smooth out the uneven roads that bikes were used on when they were first invented.
surface area is a factor in dynamic friction because the surface area of the wheel determines the shear strength of the surface of the wheel, so a thinner/smaller wheel will skid easier, whereas a wide wheel will skid and leave marks less easily, which is why rear wheel drive sports cars and motorbikes have larger rear tires.
but not all bike wheels have a large diameter, city bikes that pack up into a suitcase have much smaller wheels for obvious reasons. | [
"Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. One of the more prevalent is the new, somewhat esoteric and exotic 650B (27.5 inch) wheelsize, based on the obscure wheel size for touring road bikes. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the front, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5\" travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities.\n",
"Smaller wheels are more maneuverable. For this reason, and in some cases for comic effect, they are used in some clown bicycles. Smaller wheels more faithfully follow the terrain, giving a harsher ride on bumpy roads that are effectively smoothed by larger ones. It may be desirable for bicycles with smaller wheels to also be fitted with some form of suspension to improve riding characteristics. Bicycles with small wheels normally have their gearing adjusted to provide the same effective wheel radius as large ones, so pedalling cadence is not different. Smaller wheels tend to weigh less than larger ones, thus bringing the performance benefits of light wheels.\n",
"Other touring bikes use 26-inch wheels for both off-road and on-road use. Advantages of the slightly smaller wheel include additional strength, worldwide tire availability, and lighter weight. Some touring bicycles, such as the Rivendell Atlantis and Surly Long Haul Trucker, offer frames designed for 26-inch (ISO 559) wheels or for 700C wheels, with the frame geometry optimal for the selected wheel size.\n",
"622 mm wheels are standard on road bikes and are commonly known as 700C. In some countries, mainly in Continental Europe, 700C (622 mm) wheels are commonly called 28 inch wheels. 24 inch wheels are used for dirt jumping bikes and sometimes on freeride bikes, rear wheel only, as this makes the bike more maneuverable. 29 inch wheels were once used for only Cross Country purposes, but are now becoming more commonplace in other disciplines of mountain biking. A mountain bike with 29\" wheels is often referred to as a 29er, and a bike with 27.5 inch wheels is called a 27.5 mountain bike or as a marketing term ″650B bike″.\n",
"Wheels are made up of plastic or metal hubs and pneumatic tires ranging in size of 8–13 inches. The 8\" wheel has evolved into the best choice for freestyle riding, and also an all purpose wheel for general riding. Larger wheels (generally 9\" and 10\") are more useful to the downhill rider; granting the rider access to high-speed runs and more stability when travelling at speed.\n",
"Possible styles of wheels vary from very thin (like a speed-sail's wheels) over standard size (like a wheelbarrow's) to very large, also known as \"big foot\". Wheels are not constructed with exposed bare spokes (like bicycle wheels are) because this would put the buggy driver's hands and kite handles at risk of getting caught in the wheel.\n",
"Most road and racing bicycles today use 622 mm diameter (700C) rims, though 650C rims are popular with smaller riders and triathletes. The 650C size has the ISO diameter size of 571 mm. Size 650B is 584 mm and 650A is 590 mm. 650B is being promoted as a 'best of both worlds' size for mountain biking. Most adult mountain bikes use 26 inch wheels. Smaller youth mountain bikes use 24 inch wheels. The larger 700C (29 inch) wheels have enjoyed some recent popularity among off-road bicycle manufacturers. The formerly popular (27 inch) wheel size is now rare. These rims are slightly larger in diameter than 700C wheels and are non-compatible with bicycle frames and tires designed for the 700C standard.\n"
] |
why do public women's toilets have lids if they're never going to be lifted up? | Standard parts for efficient manufacturing. | [
"Toilet seats often have a lid. This lid is frequently left open. It can be closed to prevent small items from falling in, to reduce odors, for aesthetic purposes or to provide a chair in the toilet room. Some people also close the lid to prevent the spread of aerosols on flushing (\"toilet plume\").\n",
"BULLET::::- Presence of toilet but not privacy: Some toilets do not have a real door, but have a cloth hung as a door. In some communities, toilets are located in places where women are shy to access them due to the presence of men.\n",
"The holders in many public toilets are designed to make it difficult for patrons to steal the toilet rolls. Various contraptions have been devised to lock the spare rolls away, and release them only when the active roll is used up.\n",
"A lid on the drop hole keeps light out of the pit and helps to stop flies and odors entering the toilet's superstructure. The lid can be made from plastic or wood and is used to cover the hole in the floor when the pit latrine is not in use. In practice, such a lid is not commonly used for squatting type pit latrines but only for sitting type pit latrines with a toilet seat.\n",
"In those settings, bucket toilets are more likely to be used without a liner, or the liner is not removed each time the bucket is emptied. This is because the users cannot afford to regularly discard suitably sized, sturdy liners. Instead, the users may place some dry material in the base of the bucket (newspaper, sawdust, leaves, straw, or similar) in order to facilitate easier emptying.\n",
"Toilets without cisterns are often flushed through a simple flush valve or \"Flushometer\" connected directly to the water supply. These are designed to rapidly discharge a limited volume of water when the lever or button is pressed then released.\n",
"Older toilets infrequently have service ducts and often in old toilets that have been modernized, the toilet cistern is hidden in a tiled over purpose-built 'box'. Often old toilets still have high-level cisterns in the service ducts. On the outside, the toilet is flushed by a handle (just like an ordinary low-level cistern toilet) although behind the wall this handle activates a chain. Sometimes a long flushing trough is used to allow closets to be flushed repeatedly without waiting for the cistern to refill. This trend of hiding cisterns and fittings behind the walls started in the late 1930s in the United States and in the United Kingdom from the 1950s, and by the late 1960s it was unusual for toilet cisterns to be visible in public toilets. In some buildings such as schools, however, a cistern can still be visible, although high-level cisterns had become outdated by the 1970s. Many schools now have low-level cisterns.\n"
] |
what is isis trying to accomplish with the beheading incidents and how do they release the videos? | ISIS believes that they can punish the US for conducting air strikes against itself, by executing American citizens who are so unfortunate as to fall into their hands, and that when America sees that it has been punished for its crimes, it will feel suitably remorseful and will then refrain from its criminal activities in order to avoid further punishment. I would say that this is a misreading of American psychology which is not generally inclined to surrender to extortion.
Releasing the videos is not difficult. A large fraction of the world's population has the means to release videos if they so desire, and ISIS has many sympathizers around the world who would assist in such a release. | [
"In addition to beheading videos, ISIS has released videos of their members doing nonviolent acts. For example, Imran Awan described one such instance in his article \"Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media\" where one video showed members of the Islamic State were seen helping people and visiting hospitals. These videos gave a humanistic nature to the terrorist group members, therefore, contradicting what civilians think terrorist groups should be.\n",
"ISIL released the videos of the massacre as part of their propaganda video \"Upon the Prophetic Methodology\". The cadets are seen being crammed into trucks, some of them wearing civilian clothes to hide their military uniforms. Most of them are lying on the ground, with their jeans stripped to reveal camouflage uniforms underneath. Some of the prisoners were forced to defame Iraq's prime minister Nuri al-Maliki, while others were forced to shout \"long live the Islamic State\". Some of them lined up as a cadet was beaten to death with a rifle. The killing methods varied, from shooting the cadets one by one to shooting them while lying down many times to ensure death.\n",
"In a video shared on February 26, 2015, ISIL entered the Mosul Museum with the purpose of destroying artifacts they deemed \"idolatrous\". Members of the group can be seen pushing over many statues, while using jackhammers and sledgehammers to damage the faces of others. A spokesperson appears in the beginning of the video, explaining the rationale behind the group's actions. The rationale pertains to the assumption that these objects (statues, figurines, etc.) were once worshiped instead of Allah.\n",
"Amnesty International infers that ISIL has “launched a systematic campaign of ethnic cleansing in northern Iraq,” where “many of those held by IS have been threatened with rape or sexual assault or pressured to convert to Islam. In some cases entire families have been abducted”. Thus, these crimes extend beyond gender-based violence as males, in addition to females, are being targeted. In this case sexual violence is employed to achieve a political goal, religious conversion to Islam as interpreted by ISIL.\n",
"In 2017, as part of the goal to counter terrorism, the Initiative pressured the United Nations Security Council to launch an investigation into the actions of ISIS against the Yazidi people. The result, UN Resolution 2379, was passed on September 21st, 2017 and \"authorized the creation of an independent team to investigate crimes committed by ISIL in Iraq ... this team is designed to investigate and preserve evidence relating to genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. This is to aid in bringing charges against those responsible for such atrocities.\"\n",
"Shortly after the battle began, news surfaced of ISIL kidnapping and executing civilians in Mosul. Pentagon spokesman Capt. Jeff Davis stated that ISIL was using civilians as human shields and holding people against their will in the city.\n",
"Shortly after the battle began, news surfaced of ISIL kidnapping and executing civilians in Mosul. Pentagon spokesman Capt. Jeff Davis stated that ISIL was using civilians as human shields and holding people against their will in the city.\n"
] |
how do frogs, toads and other amphibians know how and where to find new bodies of water? | Amphibians explore and migrate during cool moist weather. They can cover a lot of distance that way, especially if they can find damp places to take shelter in between stages of their journey.
Most animals (including us) are also perfectly capable of smelling water from a good distance. Wind blowing across a body of water will have more moisture in its air than the surrounding air. An exploring frog that smells water on the wind will likely come to check it out. | [
"The first \"Brachycephalus\" species was identified in 1824, but most of the frog species were discovered since the year 2000. The discovery of new frog species is difficult. Field work requires climbing steep mountain trails to the sites where the frogs live.\n",
"The frog was originally discovered by Dr. William F. Pyburn (former head of the Biology department of the University of Texas at Arlington) and J. K. Salser Jr. an amateur biologist. While collecting specimens in the Colombian rain forest near the village of Timbo on the Vaupes river, Dr. Pyburn heard the frog call. Using flashlights to triangulate the call the two determined where the call originated and began searching for the frog. After the leaf litter on the forest floor had been removed it became apparent that the frog was underground and it was captured after a careful excavation.\n",
"This aquatic frog occurs in permanent ponds and still-water pools of slow moving streams near larger rivers at an elevation of about above sea level. It can also occur in large water reservoirs. Breeding takes place in pools and streams. It is a locally common species that can suffer from habitat loss caused by agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development, and agricultural pollution. Its presence in protected areas is unknown.\n",
"Like other amphibians, the life cycle of a frog normally starts in water with an egg that hatches into a limbless larva with gills, commonly known as a tadpole. After further growth, during which it develops limbs and lungs, the tadpole undergoes metamorphosis in which its appearance and internal organs are rearranged. After this it is able to leave the water as a miniature, air-breathing frog.\n",
"Fish and amphibians are secondary indicators when it comes to assessing for a perennial streams because some fish and amphibians can inhabit areas without persistent water regime. When assessing for fish, all available habitat should be assessed; from pools, riffles, root clumps and other obstructions. Fish will seek cover if alerted to human presence but should be easily observed in perennial streams. Amphibians also indicate a perennial stream and range from tadpoles, frogs, salamanders, and newts. These amphibians can be found in stream channels, along streambanks, and even under rocks. Frogs and tadpoles usually inhabit shallow and slow moving waters near the sides of stream banks. Frogs will typically jump into water when alerted to human presence.\n",
"In addition to the common frog, 8 other amphibian species have been registered in the swamp: common newt (\"Lissotriton vulgaris\"), Balkan crested newt (\"Triturus ivanbureschi\"), yellow-bellied toad (\"Bombina variegata\"), common toad (\"Bufo bufo\" ), European green toad (\"Bufotes viridis\"), tree frog (\"Hyla orientalis\"), agile frog (\"Rana dalmatina\") and marsh frog (\"Pelophylax ridibundus\"). There is also a single registration of European pond turtle (\"Emys orbicularis\"). This relatively rich biodiversity in a rather small area confirms the significance of protected area “Muhalnitsa” for the conservation of the local fauna.\n",
"The frog occurs in mountain creeks, lakes and lakeshores, streams, and pools, preferring sunny areas. It rarely strays far from water, and can remain underwater for a very long time, likely through cutaneous gas exchange. The tadpoles require a permanent water habitat for at least two years while they develop. The frog has been noted at elevations of between about 1,214 and 7,546 feet (370 and 2,300 meters) in Southern California.\n"
] |
How easy was to get new identity and "vanish" at the end of WW2? | Follow up: If there were people that did this and were caught, what would the punishment be? | [
"That list has been adapted in that the persons who simply disappeared after the war, who were eliminated by the resistance during the war or who committed suicide before being convicted, have been taken off the list.\n",
"The surnames of those noted lost in the First World War are Lacey, Hind, Middleton, Herapath, Simpson, Henson, Hayes, Harrison, Marshall, Moulds, Carrington, Woolley, Henstock. Those from the Second World War; Cole, Pryor, Pepper, Phillips. The epitaph reads: \"Be thou faithful into death and I will give you a crown of life.\" \n",
"In 1943, the international section of the British Red Cross was asked by the Headquarters of the Allied Forces to set up a registration and tracing service for missing people. The organization was formalized under the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces and named the \"Central Tracing Bureau\" on February 15, 1944. As the war unfolded, the bureau was moved from London to Versailles, then to Frankfurt am Main, and finally to Bad Arolsen, which was considered a central location among the areas of Allied occupation and had an intact infrastructure unaffected by war.\n",
"Retroactive continuity, beginning with \"The Avengers\" #4 (March 1964), established that the original Captain America and Bucky went missing near the end of World War II and were secretly replaced by then-U.S. President Harry S. Truman with successor heroes using those identities.\n",
"How to Disappear Completely and Never Be Found is a book by Doug Richmond, originally released in 1985, which is a how-to guide on starting a new identity. It includes chapters on planning a disappearance, arranging for new identification, finding work, establishing credit, pseudocide (creating the impression of one's own death), and more. The book recommends a method of disappearing by assuming the identity of a dead person with similar vital statistics and age, and also includes a section on avoiding paper trails which, due to the age of the book, may no longer be relevant or useful.\n",
"\"This May Be the Year I Disappear\" was recorded in summer of 2003 at World War 4 in Austin, Texas with producer Rory Phillips originally as demos, later re-mixed by Andy Wallace in Los Angeles, California.\n",
"After the Second World War, in 1948, the agency, which was then under Soviet control, closed. Robert made unsuccessful efforts from America to recover the archive. However, some of the photos were hidden in a basement, and Friedrich Gondosch vanished, perhaps fearing reprisal.\n"
] |
how effective medical marijuana is. is it actually useful compared to other meds? or is it just used to get people to see the good side to marijuana | Hey! I have Crohn's disease, which is essentially a disease of the gastrointestinal system that has varying effects on the people afflicted. For me, when my Crohn's "flares" as my wife calls it, I am unable to properly digest anything. As a result, I have severe diarrhea, stomach cramps, and a loss of appetite. These symptoms started around 15 years of age, but symptoms weren't really severe until I was in college.
Prior to trying marijuana, I would have no appetite during my flare ups. It was not uncommon for me to lose 30 pounds in 2 weeks, simply because while you're stomach is in intense pain, food just is not palatable. I live in a state where it is not medicinal yet, though it will be on the ballot this fall, and I was really hesitant because of the illegality. Three years later, I am glad I did. It saved my life because it saved my friendships and my marriage.
There are a few medications on the market for Crohn's, from corticosteroids to immune modifiers to dietary supplements... though none of them are as effective for me as marijuana, and all of them presented different side effects that were equally troublesome as the Crohn's to my everyday life. For example, the steroids gave me increased blood pressure and occasional, serious mood swings.
For me, weed doesn't solve my stomach problems. I still have diarrhea, I still have cramps and stomach pain. What weed does is something more beneficial than any other medication I've been exposed to; it removes my pain from my focus. I am still in pain, but I don't mind it. I still gush water out of my asshole and, eventually, end up showering instead of wiping because my ass is raw, but my mind ignores the pain more easily because I'm focused on whatever else I am doing. It also gives me an appetite, not enough of one that I can't control myself, but just enough to make food taste enough that I don't get nauseous trying to swallow it. | [
"In 2003, the American Academy of Ophthalmology released a position statement stating that cannabis was not more effective than prescription medications. Furthermore, no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of cannabis use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available.\n",
"BULLET::::- Substance Use studies, including showing that patients who use marijuana have lower odds of achieving abstinence from other drugs and alcohol, that recreational drug use on weekends often turns into more frequent use, and that benzodiazepines increase the risk of opioid overdose.\n",
"Spicer said: \"There is a big difference between the medical use […] that is very different from the recreational use, which is something the Department of Justice will be further looking into.\" \"There’s two distinct issues here: medical marijuana and recreational marijuana. I think medical marijuana, I’ve said before, that the president understands the pain and suffering that many people go through, who are facing especially terminal diseases, and the comfort that some of these drugs, including medical marijuana, can bring to them. And that’s one that Congress, through a rider in 2014, put an appropriations bill saying that the Department of Justice wouldn’t be funded to go after those folks.\"\n",
"In April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as euphoria and dizziness.\n",
"Preliminary studies have found medical marijuana to be beneficial in treating neuropathic pain, but not other kinds of long term pain. As of 2018 even for neuropathic pain the evidence is not strong for any benefit and further research is needed.\n",
"Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial effects. Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic pain and muscle spasms. Low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome. When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also been recommended for anorexia, arthritis, migraine, and glaucoma. It is unclear whether American states might be able mitigate the adverse effects of the opioid epidemic by prescribing medical cannabis as an alternative pain managament drug.\n",
"BULLET::::- The American Nurses Association, American Public Health Association, Institute of Medicine, National Cancer Institute, and state medical societies of Rhode Island, California, and New York have attested to the significant therapeutic benefits of marijuana.\n"
] |
If you shine a white light through a blue filter, does it actually change the wavelength of the color? | Filters *remove* certain colors from the light beam. White light has all the colors mixed together: the blue filter removes everything but blue.
If the color isn't there to begin with, the filter can't add it. You can test this by getting a red laser pointer (which is *only* red) and shining it through a colored liquid like, say, apple juice or Mountain Dew. It'll change the brightness of the laser, but it'll stay red. | [
"The filter on a colorimeter must be set to red if the liquid is blue. The size of the filter initially chosen for the colorimeter is extremely important, as the wavelength of light that is transmitted by the colorimeter has to be same as that absorbed by the substance.\n",
"The blue filter is centered around 450 nm and the amber filter lets in light at wavelengths at above 500 nm. Wide spectrum color is possible because the amber filter lets through light across most wavelengths in spectrum and even has a small leakage of the blue color spectrum. When presented the original left and right images are run through the ColorCode 3-D encoding process to generate one single ColorCode 3-D encoded image.\n",
"The blue filter is centred on 450 nm and the amber filter lets in light at wavelengths at above 500 nm. Wide spectrum colour is possible because the amber filter lets through light across most wavelengths in spectrum.\n",
"In contrast to the naming convention of optical filters where the name of the filter denotes the wavelengths that are blocked, and in line with the convention for air filters and oil filters, photographic filters are named for the color of light they \"pass\". Thus a blue filter makes the picture look blue. A \"blue filter\" marginally allows more light in the blue wavelength to pass resulting in a slight shift of the color temperature of the photo to a cooler color. Because of this, the term \"IR filters\" is commonly used to refer to filters that pass infrared light while completely blocking other wavelengths. However, in some applications the term \"IR filter\" still can be used as a synonym of infrared cut-off filter.\n",
"The color or wavelength of the filter chosen for the colorimeter is extremely important, as the wavelength of light that is transmitted by the colorimeter has to be the same as that absorbed by the substance being measured. For example, the filter on a colorimeter might be set to red if the liquid is blue.\n",
"Each filter uses a pair of solutions, comprising specific amounts of distilled water, copper sulfate, mannite, pyridine, sulfuric acid, cobalt, and ammonium sulfate. The solutions are separated by a sheet of uncolored glass. The amounts of the ingredients are carefully chosen so that their combination yields a color temperature conversion filter; that is, the filtered light is still white.\n",
"Colored filters are commonly used in black and white photography to alter the effect of different colors in the scene, changing contrast recorded in black and white of the different colours. For example, a yellow or, more dramatically, orange or red, filter will enhance the contrast between clouds and sky by darkening the blue sky. A deep green filter will also darken the sky, and additionally lighten green foliage, making it stand out against the sky. A blue filter mimics the effect of older orthochromatic film, or even older film sensitive only to blue light, rendering blue as light and red and green as dark, showing blue skies as overcast with no contrast between sky and clouds, darkening blond hair, making blue eyes nearly white and red lips nearly black. Diffusion filters reduce contrast in addition to softening resolution.\n"
] |
Do certain activities increase/decrease brain activity during sleep? | One of the main functions of sleep and dreaming is to consolidate (new) memories and reorganise the brain's neural architecture accordingly. Because of this, dream experience seems to have a strong relation with what you have experienced and encoded in waking life.
It is not entirely clear if there are reliable causes of more intense dreams, but some possibilities might be inferred. Firstly, one could argue that the novelty, emotional valence, and arousal related to your novel experience could translate to a necessarily more 'thorough' reorganisation, and vivid dream experience, if the emotion and arousal of episodic events are co-activated during dreaming.
Secondly, one could argue that especially meaningful experiences could lead to more vivid dreams, if we assume meaningful experience to translate to more diverse and informative connections with existing memories/information in the brain.
The latter is based partly on the perspective that consciousness -and thus dream consciousness too- is dependent on a state of integrated information, which is still well possible during dreaming (as 'proven' by the fact that there's a subjective dream experience). To emphasize though, the above are not scientific knowledge, but a hypothesised answer based on it!
Hope the answer was satisfying, happy dreaming!
Sources:
Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Nature, 437(7063), 1272-1278.
Tononi, G. (2008). Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional m
Wamsley, E. J., & Stickgold, R. (2011). Memory, sleep, and dreaming: Experiencing consolidation. Sleep medicine clinics, 6(1), 97-108. | [
"The function of sleep is not fully understood; however, there is evidence that sleep enhances the clearance of metabolic waste products, some of which are potentially neurotoxic, from the brain and may also permit repair. Evidence suggests that the increased clearance of metabolic waste during sleep occurs via increased functioning of the glymphatic system. Sleep may also have an effect on cognitive function by weakening unnecessary connections.\n",
"Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep has been thought of to be an important concept in the overnight learning in humans by establishing information in the hippocampal and cortical regions of the brain. REM sleep elicits an increase in neuronal activity following an enriched or novel waking experience, thus increasing neuronal plasticity and therefore playing an essential role in the consolidation of memories. This has come into question in recent years however and studies on sleep deprivation have shown that animals and humans who are denied REM sleep do not show deficits in task learning. It has been proposed that since the brain is in a non-memory encoding state during sleep, consolidation would be unlikely to occur.\n",
"The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\n",
"Sleep can also serve to weaken synaptic connections that were acquired over the course of the day but which are not essential to optimal functioning. In doing so, the resource demands can be lessened, since the upkeep and strengthening of synaptic connections constitutes a large portion of energy consumption by the brain and tax other cellular mechanisms such as protein synthesis for new channels. Without a mechanism like this taking place during sleep, the metabolic needs of the brain would increase over repeated exposure to daily synaptic strengthening, up to a point where the strains become excessive or untenable.\n",
"One study has linked lack of sleep to a reduction in rodent hippocampal neurogenesis. The proposed mechanism for the observed decrease was increased levels of glucocorticoids. It was shown that two weeks of sleep deprivation acted as a neurogenesis-inhibitor, which was reversed after return of normal sleep and even shifted to a temporary increase in normal cell proliferation. More precisely, when levels of corticosterone are elevated, sleep deprivation inhibits this process. Nonetheless, normal levels of neurogenesis after chronic sleep deprivation return after 2 weeks, with a temporary increase of neurogenesis.\n",
"Deficits in cognitive performance due to continuous sleep restriction are not well understood. However, there have been studies looking into physiological arousal of the sleep-deprived brain. Participants, whose total amount of sleep had been restricted by 33% throughout one week, were subjected to reaction time tests. The results of these tests were analyzed using quantitative EEG analysis. The results indicate that the frontal regions of the brain are first to be affected, whereas the parietal regions remain active until the effects of sleep deprivation become more severe, which occurred towards the end of the week. In addition, EEG and ERP analysis reveals that activation deficits are more apparent in the non-dominant hemisphere than in the dominant hemisphere.\n",
"The neurobehavioral basis for these has been studied only recently. Sleep deprivation has been strongly correlated with increased probability of accidents and industrial errors. Many studies have shown the slowing of metabolic activity in the brain with many hours of sleep debt. Some studies have also shown that the attention network in the brain is particularly affected by lack of sleep, and though some of the effects on attention may be masked by alternate activities (like standing or walking) or caffeine consumption, attention deficit cannot be completely avoided.\n"
] |
how do you enter a gas giant? | > but is there a uniform boundary or is it just Space and then the planet kinda just "starts"?
Atmospheres tail off roughly exponentially as you go up in height. Earth's does too - there's no sharp "you're suddenly in space" line for Earth, either. | [
"Within the gas giant is the Helix, a Suliban aggregate structure composed of hundreds of Suliban ships, which the \"Enterprise\" crew scan to find Klaang. Using the grappler, \"Enterprise\" successfully grabs an attacking Suliban ship, the pilot ejecting. After studying the captured ship and its controls, Archer and Tucker pilot it to the Helix. Becoming separated, Tucker returns with Klaang to \"Enterprise\". After a brief physical confrontation between Archer and Silik in a temporally altered audience room, Tucker uses \"Enterprise\"s new transporter to beam Archer out of the Helix.\n",
"Instead the gas coalesces into bubbles, called gas slugs, that grow large enough to rise through the magma column, bursting near the top due to the decrease in pressure and throwing magma into the air. Each episode thus releases volcanic gases, sometimes as frequently as a few minutes apart. Gas slugs can form as deep as 3 kilometers, making them difficult to predict.\n",
"Consider a gas in a box of set volume. If the pressure in the box is higher than atmospheric pressure, then upon opening the box our gas will do work on the surrounding atmosphere to expand. As this expansion is adiabatic and the gas has done work\n",
"When the gas bubble's diameter equaled the water depth, , it hit the sea floor and the sea surface simultaneously. At the bottom, it started digging a shallow crater, ultimately deep and wide. At the top, it pushed the water above it into a \"spray dome\", which burst through the surface like a geyser. Elapsed time since detonation was four milliseconds.\n",
"If an eroded gas giant, the sun would have boiled the planet from a larger protoplanet, of 20 Earth masses up to half Jupiter's mass. If the latter, its current radius could be as high as 0.6 Jupiter.\n",
"If the atmosphere of a hot Jupiter is stripped away via hydrodynamic escape, its core may become a chthonian planet. The amount of gas removed from the outermost layers depends on the planet's size, the gases forming the envelope, the orbital distance from the star, and the star's luminosity. In a typical system, a gas giant orbiting at 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of a substantially larger fraction of the planet's mass. No such objects have been found yet and they are still hypothetical.\n",
"Unlike the original \"Caverns of Mars\", the ship in \"Caverns of Minos\" does not descend at a fixed rate: it is sped up gradually by gravity and the player can choose to fire thrusters to slow it down or move it upwards. As the ship moves down through the cavern, it encounters numerous enemies, some of which can be destroyed by firing at them. The ship fires continuously but the bullets fired can be steered by tilting the mobile device. The ship also encounters minotaurs which can be rescued by landing the ship on the ground near them. Landing without damage requires careful use of the thruster and smoother landings are rewarded with bonus points.\n"
] |
what does the f/stop in a camera do? | Building on the other two responses...
The F/stop works with the shutter speed to get the appropriate amount of light on the film. The smaller the F/stop number, the more light is being let in at once, and the larger fraction on the shutter speed, the longer time the light is allowed to reach the film.
So if you turn the F/stop up (closing the aperture more) you need to turn the shutter speed down to keep the same amount of light on the film (the same exposure). And if you turn the shutter speed up, you need to turn the F/stop down (opening the aperture) to keep the same exposure.
For fast moving objects, you'll want a fast shutter speed to cut down on blur, so that means you'll need a wide open aperture to match.
But the more open the aperture, the shallower depth of field you have. Depth of field is how far in front of and behind what you're focusing on is also in focus. If you have a very shallow depth of field, pretty much only the specific thing you're focusing on is sharp; everything else is fuzzy. If you have a deep depth of field, things are in focus for a long distance before and behind your subject.
So you need to decide how much you want in focus for how big you want your aperture, which affects the shutter speed you need. And you have to take into account how fast you need to take your picture for motion blur, which affects the F/stop you can use. It can be a frustrating dance. | [
"The stop-down lever at the right-hand camera front also operates the self-timer. Pushing the lever towards the lens activates the stop down match-needle meter, while pulling in the opposite direction winds the timer. As with the Canon FX and FP, the camera back is opened turning a key at the base. The film speed is set lifting and turning the rim of the shutter speed dial. The camera is designed for the obsolete 1.35 volt mercury battery, which may be directly replaced by a similar 1.4 volt hearing aid battery, it is usable for about a year after activation whether used or not. The battery compartment is at the left-hand edge of the camera, next to the rewind knob. The Pellix was replaced by the improved Canon Pellix QL first marketed in March 1966. Improvements included the addition of a quick film loading mechanism and contacts in the base of the battery compartment for a separately available electronic booster for the internal exposure meter.\n",
"In photography, the shutter-release button (sometimes just shutter release or shutter button) is a push-button found on many cameras, used to record photographs. When pressed, the shutter of the camera is \"released\", so that it opens to capture a picture, and then closes, allowing an exposure time as determined by the shutter speed setting (which may be automatic). Some cameras also utilize an electronic shutter, as opposed to a mechanical shutter. \n",
"In most digital cameras, by default autofocus is only activated (AF-on) when the shutter button is pressed halfway down, which helps to preserve battery life. However, some photographers find that having AF-on and the shutter release on the same button makes it harder to establish the correct focus point, or hold it once the desired point is established.\n",
"On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop ( EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of film speeds. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions are clicked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than 2.8 is 3.2, two-thirds smaller is 3.5, and one whole stop smaller is 4. The next few f-stops in this sequence are:\n",
"In camera design, a focal-plane shutter (FPS) is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.\n",
"The shutter speed and aperture controls are located at the top of the camera. Shutter speed control is through a sliding bar which is marked B 25 50 100 and 200. The number 50 is red, the other numbers are black. The other side, next to the f stop numbers, has markings that say BRIGHT (in red), HAZY and CL'DY BRT (both black). These words have lines pointing to different f stops, depending on where the shutter speed is set. The Aperture lever has 9 positive clicks labeled 3.5, 4, (black dot), 5.6, (red dot), 8, 11, 16, 22. The red dot indicated f 6.3. These exposure suggestions are based on ASA 10 (not 100!) film which in 1954 was still the standard film for color slides just as it had been when the Realist was introduced. The recommended setting for bright sun was a shutter speed of 1/50th with an aperture of f 6.3.\n",
"A tripod may be used to avoid motion blur due to camera shake. This will stabilize the camera during the exposure. A tripod is recommended for exposure times more than about 1/15 seconds. There are additional techniques which, in conjunction with use of a tripod, ensure that the camera remains very still. These may employ use of a remote actuator, such as a cable release or infrared remote switch to activate the shutter, so as to avoid the movement normally caused when the shutter release button is pressed directly. The use of a \"self timer\" (a timed release mechanism that automatically trips the shutter release after an interval of time) can serve the same purpose. Most modern single-lens reflex camera (SLR) have a mirror lock-up feature that eliminates the small amount of shake produced by the mirror flipping up.\n"
] |
Is there such a thing as space coordinates? | There aren't any absolute coordinates in the universe. However, you can broadcast our location relative other parts of the universe. For example, if you wanted to send a message within our [local group](_URL_1_), such as communicating our location to a civilization in the Andromeda galaxy, you could send our galaxy's location relative to others in the local group, [like this](_URL_0_). Then you could include a second message communicating our location within our own galaxy. | [
"Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example, Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term \"line coordinates\" is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line.\n",
"In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as the solution set of an equation of the form formula_23, where formula_24 and formula_25 are real numbers and formula_26 are the unknowns that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given by the orthogonal grid. The values formula_24 are the coordinates of a vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution set of a single linear equation with values in formula_28 or as the solution set of two linear equations with values in formula_29\n",
"In mathematics, a coordinate space is a space in which an ordered list of coordinates, each from a set (not necessarily the same set), collectively determine an element (or point) of the space – in short, a space with a coordinate system.\n",
"Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global weather simulation in a planet's atmosphere. A sphere that has the Cartesian equation has the simple equation in spherical coordinates.\n",
"on coordinate space. The naming and ordering of coordinates, with the same labels for space coordinates, but with the imaginary time coordinate as the \"fourth coordinate\", is conventional. The above expression, while making the former expression more familiar, may potentially be confusing because it is \"not\" the same that appears in the latter (\"time coordinate\") as in the former (\"time itself\" in some inertial system as measured by clocks stationary in that system).\n",
"A complex number can thus be identified with an ordered pair of real numbers, which in turn may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a two-dimensional space. The most immediate space is the Euclidean plane with suitable coordinates, which is then called complex plane or Argand diagram, named after Jean-Robert Argand. Another prominent space on which the coordinates may be projected is the two-dimensional surface of a sphere, which is then called Riemann sphere.\n",
"Using all three coordinates of 3D space is unnecessary if there are constraints on the system. If the system has degrees of freedom, then one can use a set of generalized coordinates , to define the configuration of the system. They can be in the form of arc lengths or angles. They are a considerable simplification to describe motion, since they take advantage of the intrinsic constraints that limit the system's motion, and the number of coordinates is reduced to a minimum. The time derivatives of the generalized coordinates are the \"generalized velocities\"\n"
] |
What is the probability of a couple having identical non-twins? | Here's [my answer](_URL_0_) to this question from about a month ago. The figures I give are for the probability of being unrelated (or rather of being substantially less related than the expectation), but the calculation is symmetric, so those probabilities are the same for the other half of the distribution.
It's not explicitly impossible, but the probability is so low that it basically won't even happen. | [
"More generally, it applies to any exchangeable sequence—it only relies on the fact that for any pair, 01 and 10 are \"equally\" likely: for independent trials, these have probabilities formula_105, while for an exchangeable sequence the probability may be more complicated, but both are equally likely.\n",
"Additional contributions by Weinberg to statistical genetics included the first estimate of the rate of twinning – Realizing that identical twins would have to be same-sex, while dizygotic twins could be either same or opposite sex, Weinberg derived the formula for estimating the frequency of monozygotic and dizygotic twins from the ratio of same sex and opposite twins to the total of maternities. Weinberg also estimated that the heritability of twinning itself was close to zero.\n",
"When using RFLP, the theoretical risk of a coincidental match is 1 in 100 billion (100,000,000,000), although the practical risk is actually 1 in 1000 because monozygotic twins are 0.2% of the human population. Moreover, the rate of laboratory error is almost certainly higher than this, and often actual laboratory procedures do not reflect the theory under which the coincidence probabilities were computed. For example, the coincidence probabilities may be calculated based on the probabilities that markers in two samples have bands in \"precisely\" the same location, but a laboratory worker may conclude that similar—but not precisely identical—band patterns result from identical genetic samples with some imperfection in the agarose gel. However, in this case, the laboratory worker increases the coincidence risk by expanding the criteria for declaring a match. Recent studies have quoted relatively high error rates, which may be cause for concern. In the early days of genetic fingerprinting, the necessary population data to accurately compute a match probability was sometimes unavailable. Between 1992 and 1996, arbitrary low ceilings were controversially put on match probabilities used in RFLP analysis rather than the higher theoretically computed ones. Today, RFLP has become widely disused due to the advent of more discriminating, sensitive and easier technologies.\n",
"In identical twins, if one is affected there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected. In non-identical twins the risk is 15%. These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures. If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%). Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population. Between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.\n",
"Among non-twin births, male singletons are slightly (about five percent) more common than female singletons. The rates for singletons vary slightly by country. For example, the sex ratio of birth in the US is 1.05 males/female, while it is 1.07 males/female in Italy. However, males are also more susceptible than females to die \"in utero\", and since the death rate \"in utero\" is higher for twins, it leads to female twins being more common than male twins.\n",
"Identical triplets or quadruplets are very rare and result when the original fertilized egg splits and then one of the resultant cells splits again (for triplets) or, even more rarely, a further split occurs (for quadruplets). The odds of having identical triplets is unclear. News articles and other non-scientific organizations give odds from one in 60,000 to one in 200 million pregnancies.\n",
"Three-pair is the only scoring variation that alters the likelihood of farkling, and only on the initial throw of six dice. If three pairs are not scored, the probability of farkling on the initial throw increases to 1 in 32.4 (5 in 162).\n"
] |
why do people stand along roads holding signs to promote sales of some stores? (e.g. furniture stores, stores going out of business, etc.,.) is there a law against posting signs? | Generally yes it is illegal in many towns to post signs and flyers because no one ever removes the signs later and they usually become trash in the streets, but that is not why they do it. They do it because people like you notice them. How many signs and posters do you stop to read that are posted to telephone poles and taped to windows? Unlike those signs that you don't even see any more, sign spinners get noticed, commented on and even talked about. Being noticed boots sales.
They, like most other simple jobs get payed minimum wage. | [
"There have often been complaints about road signs and infrastructure not being up to date in some parts of the country, with a traffic report in 2008 disclosing that local governments in many cases have not addressed damaged, vanished or outdated road regulatory signs. In Lahore alone, the report estimated that at least Rs. 800 million were required to furnish all scanty road signs in the city.\n",
"The road has had concerns over congestion in the footpath adjoining the road due to vegetable sale outlets being run on the footpath. As the pedestrian traffic is high on the footpath, these vegetable sale outlets had added to the congestion in addition to increasing the risk of injury to the pedestrians. Concerns of environmental damage had also been raised as these illegal sales outlets promote banned plastic carry bags. This issue also has had an effect on the business routine of regular authorized shopkeepers and retailers near the roadway.\n",
"Many stores will put up signs warning about the consequences of shoplifting or signs warning about the use of surveillance cameras in the store. This is intended to deter people from trying to shoplift.\n",
"Street sign theft by pranksters, souvenir hunters, and scrappers has become problematic: removal of warning signs costs municipalities money to replace lost signs, and can contribute to traffic collisions. Some authorities affix to the back sides of signs. Some jurisdictions have criminalized unauthorized possession of road signs or have outlawed their resale to scrap metal dealers. In some cases, thieves whose sign-removal lead to road fatalities have been charged with manslaughter. Artistically inclined vandals sometimes paint additional details onto warning signs: a beer bottle, a handgun, or a boom box added to the outstretched hand of the \"Pedestrian Crossing\" person, for example.\n",
"The province has very strict laws regarding use of roadside signs. Billboards and the use of portable signs are banned. There are standard direction information signs on roads in the province for various businesses and attractions in the immediate area. The by-laws of some municipalities also restrict the types of permanent signs that may be installed on private property.\n",
"It is possible that advertising signs in rural areas reduce driver boredom, which many believe is a contribution to highway safety. On the other hand, drivers may fixate on a billboard which unexpectedly appears in a monotonous landscape, and drive straight into it (a phenomenon known as \"highway hypnosis\").\n",
"Many groups such as Scenic America have complained that billboards on highways cause excessive clearing of trees and intrude on the surrounding landscape, with billboards' bright colors, lights and large fonts making it difficult to focus on anything else, making them a form of visual pollution. Other groups believe that billboards and advertising contribute negatively to the mental climate of a culture by promoting products as providing feelings of completeness, wellness and popularity to motivate purchase. One focal point for this sentiment would be the magazine AdBusters, which will often showcase politically motivated billboard and other advertising vandalism, called culture jamming.\n"
] |
how / why water goes "bad" when you leave it out but is fine in bottles? | Actually, water in plastic bottles CAN and does go bad (look at the expiration date!)
Exposed water will have dust settle in it, it will have smells and other floating stuff fall in to it, etc. Bacteria might get in it and start to multiply.
Bottled water will stay fresher longer, but since plastic does have very small pores/holes in it, eventually contaminants with find their way through the plastic in to the water (over the span of several years). | [
"Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n",
"Some experts state that there's generally no harm in reusing your own drinking bottle, but the risk for ingesting harmful bacteria increases if you share your bottle with others. University of Nebraska Medical Center Microbiologist Pete Iwen, Ph.D., says, “If it’s my bottle, my germs, I probably would not be all that paranoid about reusing the bottle. The main issue occurs when sharing bottles. Microbes present in my mouth may be harmful to others.” \n",
"The lowest impact water bottles are those made of glass or metal. They are not made from petroleum and are easily recyclable. By choosing to continuously fill any multi-use water bottle, the consumer keeps disposable bottles out of the waste stream and minimizes environmental impact.\n",
"The filled bottles are then exposed to the fullest sunlight possible. Bottles will heat faster and hotter if they are placed on a sloped Sun-facing reflective metal surface. A corrugated metal roof (as compared to thatched roof) or a slightly curved sheet of aluminum foil increases the light inside the bottle. Overhanging structures or plants that shade the bottles must be avoided, as they reduce both illumination and heating. After sufficient time, the treated water can be consumed directly from the bottle or poured into clean drinking cups. The risk of re-contamination is minimized if the water is stored in the bottles. Refilling and storage in other containers increases the risk of contamination.\n",
"BULLET::::15. In the event that the bottle/jar is broken, they will be stronger as they are now freed and there is nothing to restrain/control them. The owner will also be punished for breaking the bottle. The owner will then have to get the bottle replaced and get it refilled with corpse oil.\n",
"Once made, bottles may suffer from internal stresses as a result of unequal, or too rapid cooling. An annealing oven, or 'lehr' is used to cool glass containers slowly to prevent stress and make the bottle stronger. When a glass bottle filled with liquid is dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic stress, breaking the bottle.\n",
"To filter the water, one puts contaminated water in the back of the bottle, then screws the lid on. The lid has a built in pump which is operated manually with a hand; the pumping action forces the contaminated water through the nano-filter and safe drinking water collects in another chamber in the bottle. The drinker then opens the top of the bottle from which safe drinking water comes out.\n"
] |
why does a doughnut get nice and fluffy after 20 seconds in the microwave but hard after 40 seconds? | Microwaves act by making water molecules bounce around faster (increasing its kinetics)
The energy from this movement is released through the form of heat and it is dispersed evenly through the body of what you are heating.
If you overdo it you just completely dry out the object of the microwaves. Your doughnut becomes dehydrated. | [
"The production of puff pastry dough can be time-consuming, because it must be kept at a temperature of approximately 16 °C (60 °F) to keep shortening from becoming runny, and must rest in between folds to allow gluten strands time to link up and thus retain layering.\n",
"Many people believe it was the Dutch who invented doughnuts. A Dutch snack made from potatoes had a round shape like a ball, but, like Gregory's dough balls, needed a little longer time when fried to cook the inside thoroughly. These potato-balls developed into doughnuts when the Dutch finally made them into ring-shapes reduce frying time.\n",
"Process whereby bread is baked at 300 °C or above for 3 minutes, instead of the normal 200 °C for 15 minutes. Steam from inside the dough explodes causing the dough to puff out. The greater the difference in temperature between the dough and the oven, the better; however, in the case of dough that is mixed with chocolate, etc., it is more difficult to get the temperature high enough, quickly enough.\n",
"According to the Dictionary of Biological Psychology, fudge doughnuts are a potent reinforcer that loses its standard measure of influence as additional portions are consumed (so that the fourth or fifth does not have the original influence).\n",
"\"Overproofing\" occurs when a fermenting dough has rested too long. Its bubbles have grown so large that they have popped and tunneled, and dough baked at this point would result in a bread with poor structure. Length of rest periods, including proofing, can be determined by time at specific temperatures or by characteristics. Often the \"poke method\" is used to determine if a dough has risen long enough. If the dough, when poked, springs back immediately it is \"underproofed\" and needs more time. Some breads are considered fully proofed if the indent left by the poke springs back slowly, while others are considered fully proofed when the indent remains and does not spring back.\n",
"Roll-in fat gradually melts as the temperature in the oven increases. Some of the melting fat can migrate into the dough, which could then interfere with gluten protein crosslinking. The fat phase also contributes to dough lift through gas inflation, which will be described next.\n",
"Primary ingredients in an old-fashioned doughnut include flour, sugar, eggs, sour cream or buttermilk, and leavening agents such as baking powder or baking soda. Additional ingredients may include milk, butter, vanilla extract and salt. The use of buttermilk or sour cream may impart a rich flavor to the doughnut. It is typically deep-fried, and may be deep fried at a lower temperature compared to other doughnut styles, having a crunchier texture compared to other cake doughnut styles. Frying at a lower temperature contributes to its rough, cracked texture. Being turned several times while cooking in the oil also contributes to its texture.\n"
] |
why do i have horrendous farts after a night of drinking? | You have bugs in your stomach that like to eat carbohydrates. When they eat they produce gas. Alcohol contains carbs. The diarrhea is probably a side effect of not eating as well as you should while drinking.
If this happens every time you drink, you should see a doctor. | [
"After drinking it, the person will get cramps and loose motion are caused which ultimately will clean the bowels. This was a primitive method for purging and treating intestinal cleansing as well as worms. Now this practice is almost given up owing to access to health facility of allopathic medicines and lethargy of people for going to this so-called far-flung area.\n",
"Boredom, stress, habit and addiction are all possible causes of cribbing and wind-sucking. It was proposed in a 2002 study that the link between intestinal conditions such as gastric inflammation or colic and abnormal oral behavior was attributable to environmental factors. There is evidence that stomach ulcers may be correlated to a horse becoming a cribber.\n",
"Rumination syndrome, or Merycism, is an under-diagnosed chronic motility disorder characterized by effortless regurgitation of most meals following consumption, due to the involuntary contraction of the muscles around the abdomen. There is no retching, nausea, heartburn, odour, or abdominal pain associated with the regurgitation, as there is with typical vomiting. The disorder has been historically documented as affecting only infants, young children, and people with cognitive disabilities (the prevalence is as high as 10% in institutionalized patients with various mental disabilities).\n",
"Delirium tremens is mainly caused by a long period of drinking being stopped abruptly. Withdrawal leads to a biochemical regulation cascade. It may also be triggered by head injury, infection, or illness in people with a history of heavy use of alcohol.\n",
"Every year at the end of the dry season in Darwin, many of them display symptoms of apparent drunkenness. What causes this condition is unclear, though it is thought to be most likely due to a seasonal virus. Intoxication with fermented nectar has been ruled out.\n",
"Also, note that alcohol consumption does not cause chronic gastritis. It does, however, erode the mucosal lining of the stomach; low doses of alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid.\n",
"Ruminal tympany, also known as bloat, is a disease of ruminant animals, characterized by an excessive volume of gas in the rumen. Ruminal tympany may be primary, known as frothy bloat, or secondary, known as free-gas bloat.\n"
] |
how are digital devices functional in an mri room? how do they operate the mri in that strong magnetic field? | For the most part, magnetic fields are not as bad to electronics as people would lead you to believe. Specifically, magnetism isn't an important thing in the operation of electronics, and it doesn't somehow stop them from working. Really traditional hard drives are the only thing in a modern computer that has any meaningful sensitivity to magnets.
Electronics however do use electricity, and current is directly tied to magnetism, specifically a change in current by definition generates a change in the magnetic field, and a change in a magnetic field generates a change in current (that could have a huge effect on electronics). In an EMP, there is a rapid change in magnetic fields, and that's how an EMP destroys electronics. In an MRI though, it's really just one big constant magnetic field, never changing. A magnetic field that doesn't change really has a minor effect on electronics.
And finally to mitigate whatever sensitivity is left, we use [Mu-Metal](_URL_0_), basically you can make a case of metal, and the magnetic field lines will go through the case, not inside it (letting you make a hole of low magnetic field, inside a stronger one). Stop just put your computer inside a case made of Mu-Metal and it's thousands of times less sensitive to magnetic fields. | [
"An MRI gantry remains fixed, and contains strong electromagnets and radio receivers that manipulate hydrogen atoms in the human body via proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The machine then receives and processes the signals given off by the hydrogen atoms in order to produce a 3D image of the interior of the patient's body.\n",
"MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen protons) within body tissues, then uses a radio signal to disturb the axis of rotation of these nuclei and observes the radio frequency signal generated as the nuclei return to their baseline states. The radio signals are collected by small antennae, called coils, placed near the area of interest. An advantage of MRI is its ability to produce images in axial, coronal, sagittal and multiple oblique planes with equal ease. MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all the imaging modalities. With advances in scanning speed and spatial resolution, and improvements in computer 3D algorithms and hardware, MRI has become an important tool in musculoskeletal radiology and neuroradiology.\n",
"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without the use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnet to produce images of internal organs and their functions. Metal objects are attracted to the magnet and are normally not allowed near MRI machines. The magnet can interrupt the pacing and inhibit the output of pacemakers. If MRI must be done, the pacemaker output in some models can be reprogrammed. In February 2011, the FDA approved an MRI-safe pacemaker.\n",
"An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan is an imaging test that uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create pictures of the body. It does not use radiation. Single MRI images are called slices. The images can be stored on a computer or printed on film. One exam produces dozens or sometimes hundreds of images. To locate nerve palsy, MRI is used by physicians to detect the position and location of damaged peroneal nerve.\n",
"A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI scanner), or \"nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging\" scanner as it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei (i.e., single protons) of water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in images of the body. The MRI machine emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules. Radio frequency antennas (\"RF coils\") send the pulse to the area of the body to be examined. The RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction with respect to the primary magnetic field to change. When the RF pulse is turned off, the protons \"relax\" back to alignment with the primary magnet and emit radio-waves in the process. This radio-frequency emission from the hydrogen-atoms on water is what is detected and reconstructed into an image. The resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole (of which protons are one example) is called the Larmor frequency and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the nuclei of interest. MRI uses three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (typically 1.5 to 3 teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the primary field; gradient fields that can be modified to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, often simply called gradients; and a spatially homogeneous radio-frequency (RF) field for manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals, collected through an RF antenna.\n",
"The physical basis of MRI is the spatial encoding of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal obtainable from water protons (i.e. hydrogen nuclei) in biologic tissue. In terms of MRI, signals with different spatial encodings that are required for the reconstruction of a full image need to be acquired by generating multiple signals - usually in a repetitive way using multiple radio-frequency excitations.\n"
] |
Stem Cells for Rejuvenation | Cells from your body (eg your skin) can be manipulated and turned into [induced pluripotent stem cells](_URL_1_). These cells are, in theory, stem cells that can become any other type of cell in your body. Under the proper conditions, they can be induced to become neurons, blood cells, or any other cell type.
In theory, this technology could be used to produce organs (hearts, kidneys, livers) that could replace your organs as they became worn out over time. This would be difficult to do for complex organs that have multiple types of cells (the heart must contain muscle cells, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) This is the end goal of current research- however, this branch of research is still in its infancy, and it will be some time before it is ready for clinical application.
If your question is whether stem cells themselves can be injected into a patient and have them 'do their own thing' at the site of injection, it is unclear whether this will work or not. Wikipedia has a good [article](_URL_0_) describing potential treatments, although this line of research is also in its preliminary stages, and may or may not be successful in practice. It is currently being attempted for spinal regeneration and a few other areas.
If your question is whether the injection of a whole bunch of stem cells could rejuvenate someone in terms of reversing the aging process, this is unlikely. Stem cells, in general, do not have properties that are related to 'youth'- they are capable of becoming any type of cell, and they are capable of dividing infinitely, but they have no intrinsic properties that would remove wrinkles, restore cartilage, remove cholesterol buildup, etc. | [
"Under defined conditions, embryonic stem cells are capable of self-renewing indefinitely in an undifferentiated state. Self-renewal conditions must prevent the cells from clumping and maintain an environment that supports an unspecialized state. Typically this is done in the lab with media containing serum and leukemia inhibitory factor or serum-free media supplements with two inhibitory drugs (\"2i\"), the MEK inhibitor PD03259010 and GSK-3 inhibitor CHIR99021.\n",
"Pluripotent stem cells hold promise in the field of regenerative medicine. Because they can propagate indefinitely, as well as give rise to every other cell type in the body (such as neurons, heart, pancreatic, and liver cells), they represent a single source of cells that could be used to replace those lost to damage or disease.\n",
"When a stem cell self-renews it divides and does not disrupt the undifferentiated state. This self-renewal demands control of cell cycle as well as upkeep of multipotency or pluripotency, which all depends on the stem cell.\n",
"Hematopoietic stem cells are important for the production of all blood cells, including immune cells, and are able to replenish these cells throughout the life of an individual. Dormant hematopoietic stem cells are able to self-renew and are available to differentiate and produce new blood cells when they are needed. In addition to T cells, Vitamin A is important for the correct regulation of hematopoietic stem cell dormancy. When cells are treated with all-trans retinoic acid, they are unable to leave the dormant state and become active, however, when vitamin A is removed from the diet, hematopoietic stem cells are no longer able to become dormant and the population of hematopoietic stem cells decreases. This shows an importance in creating a balanced amount of vitamin A within the environment to allow these stem cells to transition between a dormant and activated state, in order to maintain a healthy immune system.\n",
"Adult stem cells can, however, be artificially reverted to a state where they behave like embryonic stem cells (including the associated DNA repair mechanisms). This was done with mice as early as 2006 with future prospects to slow down human aging substantially. Such cells are one of the various classes of induced stem cells.\n",
"\"Stem cell therapy\" is an intervention strategy that introduces new adult stem cells into damaged tissue in order to treat disease or injury. Many medical researchers believe that stem cell treatments have the potential to change the face of human disease and alleviate suffering. The ability of stem cells to self-renew and give rise to subsequent generations with variable degrees of differentiation capacities offers significant potential for generation of tissues that can potentially replace diseased and damaged areas in the body, with minimal risk of rejection and side effects.\n",
"In practice, stem cells are identified by whether they can regenerate tissue. For example, the defining test for bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is the ability to transplant the cells and save an individual without HSCs. This demonstrates that the cells can produce new blood cells over a long term. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to self-renew.\n"
] |
when an app crashes and i send a report, what exactly does that do, and how is it used? | It tells the developer that the app has crashed, first of all.
But it can also tell the developer what you were doing, what screen you were viewing, what data you were using, what route you took to get to that screen, and so on.
All of this can help fix the bug. Obviously the developer needs to know what screen you're looking at. But it's not uncommon to find find bugs where the app crashes every time you enter a " character, for example. By sending the data to the developer, the developer can look at the report from dozens or even hundreds of similar crashes, and can realise that the " character is the common denominator.
Obviously this has privacy issues - it's up to you to decide whether your privacy is worth sacrificing in order to help make the app better. If you use the app for banking or drug dealing, then probably not. If you use it for looking at pictures of cats you might be happy to share this data. | [
"Crash Reporting creates detailed reports of the errors in the app. Errors are grouped into clusters of similar stack traces and triaged by the severity of impact on app users. In addition to automatic reports, the developer can log custom events to help capture the steps leading up to a crash. Before acquiring Crashlytics, Firebase was using its own Firebase Crash Reporting.\n",
"When reporting a crash, the top text field of the window has the crash log, while the bottom field is for user comments. Users may also copy and paste the log into their e-mail client to send to a third-party application developer for the developer to use.\n",
"In macOS there is a standard crash reporter in /System/Library/CoreServices/Crash Reporter.app. Crash Reporter.app sends the Unix crash logs to Apple for their engineers to look at. The top text field of the window has the crash log, while the bottom field is for user comments. Users may also copy and paste the log in their email client to send to the application vendor for them to use. Crash Reporter.app has 3 main modes: display nothing on crash, display \"Application has crashed\" dialog box or display Crash Report window.\n",
"An application typically crashes when it performs an operation that is not allowed by the operating system. The operating system then triggers an exception or signal in the application. Unix applications traditionally responded to the signal by dumping core. Most Windows and Unix GUI applications respond by displaying a dialogue box (such as the one shown to the right) with the option to attach a debugger if one is installed. Some applications attempt to recover from the error and continue running instead of exiting.\n",
"A crash reporter is usually a system software whose function is to identify reporting crash details and to alert when there are crashes, in production or on development / testing environments. Crash reports often include data such as stack traces, type of crash, trends and version of software. These reports help software developers- Web, SAAS, mobile apps and more, to diagnose and fix the underlying problem causing the crashes. Crash reports may contain sensitive information such as passwords, email addresses, and contact information, and so have become objects of interest for researchers in the field of computer security.\n",
"In basic mode, if Crash Reporter notices an application has crashed twice in succession, it will offer to rename the application's preference file and try again (corrupted preference files being a common cause of crashes).\n",
"Depending on the application, the crash may contain the user's sensitive and private information. Moreover, many software bugs which cause crashes are also exploitable for arbitrary code execution and other types of privilege escalation. For example, a stack buffer overflow can overwrite the return address of a subroutine with an invalid value, which will cause a segmentation fault when the subroutine returns. However, if an exploit overwrites the return address with a valid value, the code in that address will be executed.\n"
] |
Why do trash cans smell even after they've been washed? | I can only speak in generalities -- but I think it's pretty reasonable that those smell molecules have simply diffused into the plastic. At the molecular level, the plastic will be quite porous. | [
"Some types of cans may have interior coatings containing chemicals such as Bisphenol A. Reusing containers originally holding paints and other types of chemicals may be injurious to the health of the user if the can is not properly cleaned and decontaminated.\n",
"Similarly, trash cans that are used inside and then taken out to the street and emptied into a Dumpster can be small or large. A large trash can does not need to be taken out to the Dumpster so often, but it may become so heavy when full that the user risks strain or back injury when moving it. The choice of waste receptacle is a trade-off between the frequency of needing to take the trash out for the Dumpster versus the ease and safety of use. In the case of food waste, a second trade-off presents itself as large trash cans are more likely to sit for a long time in the kitchen, leading to higher levels of decomposing food indoors and a potential pest attraction. With a small trash can, the can will be taken out to the Dumpster more often, thus eliminating the persist rot that attracts pests. Of course, a user of a large trashcan could carry the can outside frequently anyway, but the heavier can would weigh more and the user would have to think more about when to take the can out, or confine themselves to a schedule, compared to a smaller can which is evidently full when it takes taking out.\n",
"Disposal of rubbish is an important aspect of house cleaning. Plastic bags are designed and manufactured specifically for the collection of litter. Many are sized to fit common waste baskets and trash cans. Paper bags are made to carry aluminum cans, glass jars and other things, although most people use plastic bins for glass since it could break and tear through the bag. Recycling of some kinds of litter is possible.\n",
"The city's garbage is brought to the Garbage City in Manshiyat Naser by the Zabbaleen (garbage collectors), who then sort through the garbage to attempt to retrieve any potentially useful or recyclable items. As a passerby walks or drives down the road he will see large rooms stacked with garbage with men, women or children crouching and sorting the garbage into unsellable or sellable. Families typically specialize in a particular type of garbage they sort and sell — one room of children sorting out plastic bottles, while the next of women separating cans from the rest. Anything that can be reused or recycled is saved by one of the numerous families in Manshiyat Naser. Various recycled paper and glass products are made and sold from the city, while metal is sold by the kilo to be melted down and reused. Carts pulled by horse or donkey are often stacked high with the recyclable goods.\n",
"Waste collection considerations include type and size of bins, positioning of the bins, and how often bins are to be serviced. Overfilled bins result in rubbish falling out while being tipped. Hazardous rubbish like empty petrol cans can cause fires igniting other trash when the truck compactor is operating. Bins may be locked or stored in secure areas to avoid having non-paying parties placing rubbish in the bin. The cost of old waste is also a concern in collection of waste across the globe.\n",
"In areas where trash cannot be burned (much of the United States and especially during dry seasons) and no fortified trash containers are available, trash may also be raised in a separate bear bag to keep the food smells from attracting bears.\n",
"At the time, garbage cans were commonly called \"ash cans\" because they were used to hold soot and ash from wood and coal heating systems. The term was applied to these editions of comics because they had no value and were meant to be thrown away after being accepted by the Trademark Office. Some spare copies were given to editors, employees, and visitors to keep as souvenirs. Changes to the United States trademark law in 1946 allowed publishers to register a trademark with an intent to use instead of a finished product, and the practice of creating and submitting ashcans was abandoned when publishers began to consider it an unnecessary effort lawyers used to justify a fee. Because of their rarity, ashcans from this era are desired by collectors and often fetch a high price.\n"
] |
why does closing a credit card account hurt your credit? | Actually, to build great credit you want to have as much available credit (and **debt**) as possible.
Your credit score is a reflection of how trustworthy you are with credit. It's based on how **reliably you pay off your debt**, not how little debt you have. If you have a lot of credit cards, you use them all, and you pay the recommended amount on the recommended time schedule without fail, you are building your credit score.
Closing a credit card account means you're willingly lowering your maximum credit and debt situation, which tells lenders that you don't want that credit/debt, which hurts your overall ability to lend in the future. | [
"A simple solution to this problem is to call the credit card company, request a new card with a different account number, and cancel the previous account. They will transfer the debt amount from the old account to the new account. This makes companies that have the credit card information unable to continue charging the credit card of the person. \n",
"However, this law did not prohibit all forms of universal default. Credit card companies have begun the practice of canceling altogether the accounts of customers who are delinquent or in default with other credit agencies even if the customer is still in good standing with the credit card company.\n",
"The report explicitly states that while the investigation was into default charges levied towards credit card customers, there is no reason why the same principle should not extend to personal banking. Some customers have successfully demanded the return of penalty charges for returned cheques, direct debits and unauthorised overdraft charges.\n",
"Declines in credit card debt are often misinterpreted because they fail to include information about charge-offs. The possible causes for a decline in credit card debt are consumers paying down their debt, credit card companies writing charged-off debt off their books, or a combination of the two. Inclusion of charged-off debt can therefore significantly impact debt trends and the characterization of a nation's financial health. For example, the $10.3 billion decrease in outstanding credit card debt in Q3 2010 relative to the previous quarter might at first glance seem to be a significant consumer pay down. However, considering that the Q3 credit card charge-off rate was $16.9 billion, consumers actually increased their overall debt by $6.6 billion during this quarter.\n",
"Although the deposit is in the hands of the credit card issuer as security in the event of default by the consumer, the deposit will not be debited simply for missing one or two payments. Usually the deposit is only used as an offset when the account is closed, either at the request of the customer or due to severe delinquency (150 to 180 days). This means that an account which is less than 150 days delinquent will continue to accrue interest and fees, and could result in a balance which is much higher than the actual credit limit on the card. In these cases the total debt may far exceed the original deposit and the cardholder not only forfeits their deposit but is left with an additional debt.\n",
"This second form of credit card hijacking was created by marketers who recognized that subscription based services generally have relatively low periodic billing amounts which will generally go unnoticed on any given credit card statement. So what happens is that long after the user loses interest in the subscription, they forget to cancel the subscription and because the periodic billing is so low, they don’t tend to notice it on their credit card statement.\n",
"From the bank's point of view, when a debit card is used to pay a merchant, the payment causes a decrease in the amount of money the bank \"owes to\" the cardholder. From the bank's point of view, your debit card account is the bank's liability. A decrease to the bank's liability account is a debit. From the bank's point of view, when a credit card is used to pay a merchant, the payment causes an increase in the amount of money the bank \"is owed by\" the cardholder. From the bank's point of view, your credit card account is the bank's asset. An increase to the bank's asset account is a debit. Hence, using a debit card \"or\" credit card causes a debit to the cardholder's account in either situation when viewed from the bank's perspective.\n"
] |
why aren't there bigger pushes to abandon the political party system? | Originally there were no parties. Like- minded individuals formed parties organically.
If they got rid of the current parties the only thing that would happen is new ones would form, officially or othrwise it doesn't matter. | [
"By-elections can be crucial when the ruling party has only a small majority. In parliamentary systems, party discipline is often so strong that the governing party can only lose a vote of no confidence after losing enough by-elections for it to become a minority government. Examples are the Labour government of James Callaghan 1976–1979 and Conservative government of John Major 1992–1997. In the United States Senate, Scott Brown's election in 2010 ended the filibuster-proof supermajority formerly enjoyed by Democrats.\n",
"Arguments for or against change to these institutions often have political overtones. The Democratic Party often advocates change, as it is generally more popular in large cities and many of the more populated states, while the Republican Party often defends the current system, as that party is more popular in rural areas and many of the less populated states.\n",
"There have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views. Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses \"the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties.\" One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better \"centralization of policy expertise\" in government. Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions. Analyst Chris Weigant of \"the Huffington Post\" wrote that \"the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system\". After an election in which the party changes, there can be a \"polar shift in policy-making\" when voters react to changes.\n",
"The result is that American political parties have weak central organizations and little central ideology, except by consensus. A party really cannot prevent a person who disagrees with the majority of positions of the party or actively works against the party's aims from claiming party membership, so long as the voters who choose to vote in the primary elections elect that person. Once in office, an elected official may change parties simply by declaring such intent. An elected official once in office may also act contradictory to many of his or her party's positions (this had led to terms such as \"Republican In Name Only\").\n",
"Political change is often easier with a coalition government than in one-party or two-party dominant systems. If factions in a two-party system are in fundamental disagreement on policy goals, or even principles, they can be slow to make policy changes, which appears to be the case now in the U.S. with power split between Democrats and Republicans. Still coalition governments struggle, sometimes for years, to change policy and often fail altogether, post World War II France and Italy being prime examples. When one party in a two-party system controls all elective branches, however, policy changes can be both swift and significant. Democrats Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were beneficiaries of such fortuitous circumstances, as were Republicans as far removed in time as Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan. Barack Obama briefly had such an advantage between 2009 and 2011.\n",
"In many countries, party-switching takes the form of politicians refusing to support their political parties in coalition governments. This happens particularly commonly in countries without firmly-established political parties, such as Vanuatu and French Polynesia where in 2004, a few members of various parties left the governing coalition, forcing it to collapse. Party switches often occur with the formation of new parties — witness the situation in the United Kingdom, where some Liberals moved to the Labour Party in the early twentieth century. In formerly communist countries in Europe, de-Sovietisation saw many Communist-Party representatives switch to other parties ranging on the political spectrum from socialist to conservative.\n",
"A third party can enter the arena only if it can exploit the mistakes of a pre-existing major party, ultimately at that party's expense. For example, the political chaos in the United States immediately preceding the Civil War allowed the Republican Party to replace the Whig Party as the progressive half of the American political landscape. Loosely united on a platform of country-wide economic reform and federally funded industrialization, the decentralized Whig leadership failed to take a decisive stance on the slavery issue, effectively splitting the party along the Mason–Dixon line. Southern rural planters, initially attracted by the prospect of federal infrastructure and schools, aligned with the pro-slavery Democrats, while urban laborers and professionals in the northern states, threatened by the sudden shift in political and economic power and losing faith in the failing Whig candidates, flocked to the increasingly vocal anti-slavery Republican Party.\n"
] |
where does energy go in a short-circuited battery? | It all turns into heat. Short out a battery, and it'll heat up and get warm, hot, or even on fire.
All batteries have internal resistance. That is to say, the inside of the battery isn't superconducting. So even if you had a superconducting wire shorting the battery, it would still get hot. | [
"A secondary cell, commonly referred to as a \"rechargeable battery\" is an electrochemical cell that can be run as both a galvanic cell or as an electrolytic cell. This is used as a convenient way to store electricity, when current flows one way the levels of one or more chemicals build up (charging), while it is discharging they reduce and the resulting electromotive force can do work.\n",
"Batteries convert the chemical energy of the two metals (electrodes) interacting with the acid on the matboard (electrolyte) into electrical energy. In this situation, the metal surface serves as the electrode and an electric current (movement of electrons from one metal to the other) is created when the wire connects both metal surfaces. In the first hour, a five cell penny battery is able to provide about watts. Each cell is defined as a stack of a zinc penny, matboard, and a copper penny. Each cell can provide about 0.6 volts. Indicating that to power an LED light, needing 1.7 volts, only three cells need to be used. As time goes on the amount of energy that the battery can provide decreases. A five cell penny battery can last up to 6 1/2 hours providing minimal voltage. The stack of cells is also known as a voltaic pile.\n",
"It can use nearly all of the energy in a single-cell electric battery, even far below the voltage where other circuits consider the battery fully discharged (or \"dead\"); hence the name, which suggests the notion that the circuit is \"stealing\" energy or \"joules\" from the source - the term is a pun on the age-old expression \"jewel thief\".\n",
"In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal, which receives current from an external generator. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging.\n",
"Galvanic cells and batteries are typically used as a source of electrical power. The energy derives from a high-cohesive-energy metal dissolving while to a lower-energy metal is deposited, and/or from high-energy metal ions plating out while lower-energy ions go into solution. \n",
"Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage and current through them. For example, a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it provides power to a circuit, but as a load when it is connected to a battery charger and is being recharged, or a generator as a power source and a motor as a load.\n",
"Secondary batteries, also known as \"secondary cells\", or \"rechargeable batteries\", must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.\n"
] |
why does falling down hurt more/ longer when you get older | As you get older, you get taller. As you get taller, more of your body gets farther away from the ground. As they get farther from the ground, they have farther to fall.
Knock a three year old over.
Then hold that same three year old up to where his head is level with yours and drop him.
Don't actually do that unless you record it. For science. | [
"Falls in older adults are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and are an important class of preventable injuries. The cause of falling in old age is often multifactorial, and may require a multidisciplinary approach both to treat any injuries sustained and to prevent future falls. Falls include dropping from a standing position, or from exposed positions such as those on ladders or stepladders. The severity of injury is generally related to the height of the fall. The state of the ground surface onto which the victim falls is also important, harder surfaces causing more severe injury. Falls can be prevented by ensuring that carpets are tacked down, that objects like electric cords are not in one's path, that hearing and vision are optimized, dizziness is minimized, alcohol intake is moderated and that shoes have low heels or rubber soles.\n",
"There exist many risks for injury to older adults in the common household, therefore impacting upon their capability to successfully age in place. Among the greatest threats to an ability to age in place is falling. According to the CDC, falls are the leading cause of injurious death among older adults. Therefore, engagement in fall prevention is crucial to one's ability to age in place. Common features in an everyday household, such as a lack of support in the shower or bathroom, inadequate railings on the stairs, loose throw rugs, and obstructed pathways are all possible dangers to an older person. However, simple and low-cost modifications to an older person's home can greatly decrease the risk of falling, as well as decreasing the risk of other forms of injury. Consequently, this increases the likelihood that one can age in place.\n",
"There is an increased risk of falls associated with aging. These falls can lead to skeletal damage at the wrist, spine, hip, knee, foot, and ankle. Part of the fall risk is because of impaired eyesight due to many causes, (e.g. glaucoma, macular degeneration), balance disorder, movement disorders (e.g. Parkinson's disease), dementia, and sarcopenia (age-related loss of skeletal muscle). Collapse (transient loss of postural tone with or without loss of consciousness). Causes of syncope are manifold, but may include cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heart beat), vasovagal syncope, orthostatic hypotension (abnormal drop in blood pressure on standing up), and seizures. Removal of obstacles and loose carpets in the living environment may substantially reduce falls. Those with previous falls, as well as those with gait or balance disorders, are most at risk.\n",
"Falls and fall related injuries are among the most serious and common medical problems experienced by older adults. Nearly one-third of older persons fall each year, and half of them fall more than once. Over 3 million American over the age of 65 visited hospital emergency departments in 2015 due to fall related injuries with over 1.6 million being admitted. Because of underlying osteoporosis and decreased mobility and reflexes, falls often result in hip fractures and other fractures, head injuries, and even death in older adults. Accidental injuries are the fifth most common cause of death in older adults. In around 75% of hip fracture patients, recovery is incomplete and overall health deteriorates.\n",
"There are balance impairments associated with aging. Age-related decline in the ability of the above systems to receive and integrate sensory information contributes to poor balance in older adults. As a result, the elderly are at an increased risk of falls. In fact, one in three adults aged 65 and over will fall each year.\n",
"Older people and particularly older people with dementia are at greater risk than young people to injuries due to falling. Older people are at risk due to accidents, gait disturbances, balance disorders, changed reflexes due to visual, sensory, motor and cognitive impairment, medications and alcohol consumption, infections, and dehydration.\n",
"BULLET::::- Falls. Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a younger person. Every year, about one-third of those 65 years old and over half of those 80 years old fall. Falls are the leading cause of injury and death for old people.\n"
] |
why are salmon from the pacific prone to parasites while salmon from the atlantic safe to eat raw? | I don't believe this is actually a thing? Atlantic Salmon also frequently have warnings put out about parasite risks. [The NHS publishes warnings in the UK](_URL_0_) about it.
Now you can get sushi-grade fish, of course, but that's fish that has been flash frozen to kill any potential parasites in the fish. That can also be done with Pacific salmon. | [
"Many Atlantic salmon escape from cages at sea. Those salmon that further breed tend to lessen the genetic diversity of the species leading to lower survival rates, and lower catch rates. On the West Coast of North America, the non-native salmon could be an invasive threat, especially in Alaska and parts of Canada. This could cause them to compete with native salmon for resources. Extensive efforts are underway to prevent escapes and the potential spread of Atlantic salmon in the Pacific and elsewhere. The risk of Atlantic Salmon becoming a legitimate invasive threat on the Pacific Coast of N. America is questionable in light of both Canadian and American governments deliberately introducing this species by the millions for a 100-year period starting in the 1900s. Despite these deliberate attempts to establish this species on the Pacific coast; no established populations have been reported.\n",
"The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife cites that \"commonly expressed concerns surrounding escaped Atlantic salmon include competition with native salmon, predation, disease transfer, hybridization, and colonization\" A report done by that organization in 1999 did not find that escaped salmon posed a significant risk to wild populations.\n",
"An outbreak of salmonellosis caused by a rarer subspecies, \"Salmonella bareilly\", was reported in multiple US states primarily on the East Coast. No deaths were reported, but many episodes of sickness and some hospitalizations were linked to the consumption of raw scraped ground tuna product.\n",
"The European Commission (2002) concluded “The reduction of wild salmonid abundance is also linked to other factors but there is more and more scientific evidence establishing a direct link between the number of lice-infested wild fish and the presence of cages in the same estuary.” It is reported that wild salmon on the west coast of Canada are being driven to extinction by sea lice from nearby salmon farms. Antibiotics and pesticides are often used to control the diseases and parasites, as well as lasers.\n",
"Adult Atlantic salmon are considered much more aggressive than other salmon, and are more likely to attack other fish than others. A matter of concern is where they have become an invasive threat, attacking native salmon, such as Chinook salmon and coho salmon.\n",
"Most cases of salmonellosis are caused by food infected with \"S. enterica\", which often infects cattle and poultry, though other animals such as domestic cats and hamsters have also been shown to be sources of infection in humans. Investigations of vacuum cleaner bags have shown that households can act as a reservoir of the bacterium; this is more likely if the household has contact with an infection source (i.e., members working with cattle or in a veterinary clinic).\n",
"Despite being the source of considerable controversy, the likelihood of escaped Atlantic salmon establishing an invasive presence in the Pacific Northwest is considered minimal, largely because a number of 20th century efforts aimed at deliberately introducing them to the region were ultimately unsuccessful. From 1905 until 1935, for example, in excess of 8.6 million Atlantic salmon of various life stages (predominantly advanced fry) were intentionally introduced to more than 60 individual British Columbia lakes and streams. Historical records indicate, in a few instances, mature sea-run Atlantic salmon were captured in the Cowichan River; however, a self-sustaining population never materialized. Similarly unsuccessful results were realized after deliberate attempts at introduction by Washington as late as the 1980s. Consequently, environmental assessments by the US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and the BC Environmental Assessment Office have concluded the potential risk of Atlantic salmon colonization in the Pacific Northwest is low.\n"
] |
how can a spinning top stay upright while it's rotating? | When something spins, it has inertia just like an automobile and just like an automobile, it is very easy to move it in certain directions in respect to the direction of the movement and difficult in other directions. The trick is that with a top, the inertia isn't all in one direction, it is in all directions along a plane. Shifting that plane up, down, or to the side takes very little energy, but turning the orientation of it requires disrupting the inertia, so you will experience a force if you try to do so. As long as the force which tends to topple the top is less than the force resisting it, the top will stay up. | [
"When a tippe top is spun at a high angular velocity, its stem slowly tilts downwards more and more until it suddenly lifts the body of the spinning top off the ground, with the stem now pointing downward. Eventually, as the top's spinning rate slows, it loses stability and eventually topples over, like an ordinary top.\n",
"Once the top is spinning on its stem, it does \"not\" spin in the opposite direction to which its spin was initiated. For example, if the top was spun clockwise, as soon as it is on its stem, it will be spinning clockwise viewed from above. This constant spin direction is due to conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"If a top is set at a tilt on a horizontal surface and spun rapidly, its rotational axis starts precessing about the vertical. After a short interval, the top settles into a motion in which each point on its rotation axis follows a circular path. The vertical force of gravity produces a horizontal torque about the point of contact with the surface; the top rotates in the direction of this torque with an angular velocity such that at any moment\n",
"In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity – via the pitching motion – elicits gyroscopic precession (which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its side.\n",
"The disk, when spun on a flat surface, exhibits a spinning/rolling motion, slowly progressing through different rates and types of motion before coming to rest. Most notably, the precession rate of the disk's axis of symmetry accelerates as the disk spins down. The rigid mirror is used to provide a suitable low-friction surface, with a slight concavity which keeps the spinning disk from \"wandering\" off a support surface. \n",
"A spin is a special category of stall resulting in autorotation about the vertical axis and a shallow, rotating, downward path. Spins can be entered intentionally or unintentionally, from any flight attitude if the aircraft has sufficient yaw while at the stall point. \n",
"Inverted spinning and erect or upright spinning are dynamically very similar and require essentially the same recovery process but use opposite elevator control. In an upright spin, both roll and yaw are in the same direction, but an inverted spin is composed of opposing roll and yaw. It is crucial that the yaw be countered to effect recovery. The visual field in a typical spin (as opposed to a flat spin) is heavily dominated by the perception of roll over yaw, which can lead to an incorrect and dangerous conclusion that a given inverted spin is actually an erect spin in the reverse yaw direction (leading to a recovery attempt in which pro-spin rudder is mistakenly applied and then further exacerbated by holding the incorrect elevator input).\n"
] |
does my breastmilk have healthier properties if i eat healthier food? | Regarding healthy and unhealthy fats:
generally speaking: the membranes of your cells always feflect the stuff you eat. Of course the body has its own fattyacid metabolism and can contribute here. but regarding the fats the general rule applies: you are what you eat.
On the other hand: the milk you produce contains still certain healthy components eitherway. like omega3 fats that are important for the brain of the baby. Thats a propriety of breastmilk that should not be influenced by diet. | [
"The increasing trend to enrich foods with polyunsaturated acyl groups entails the potential risk of enriching the food with some OαβUAs at the same time, as has already been detected in some studies carried out in 2007. PUFA-fortified foods available on the market have been increasing since epidemiological and clinical researches have revealed possible effects of PUFA on brain development and curative and/or preventive effects on cardiovascular disease. However, PUFA are very labile and easily oxidizable, thus the maximum beneficial effects of PUFA supplements may not be obtained if they contain significant amounts of toxic OαβUAs, which as commented on above, are being considered as possible causal agents of numerous diseases.\n",
"In 2006, an American Heart Association review of soy protein benefits indicated only weak confirmation for the cholesterol-lowering claim about soy protein. The panel also found soy isoflavones do not reduce postmenopause \"hot flashes\" in women, nor do isoflavones lower risk of cancers of the breast, uterus, or prostate. Among the conclusions, the authors stated, \"In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health.\"\n",
"Other foods or substances are not recommended postpartum if breastfeeding because they may have effects on the baby via breastmilk. Some clinicians discourage the use of caffeine. This could produce fussiness in the baby. Alcohol use is strongly discouraged. Consuming fish is healthy and provides vitamins, minerals and proteins. Consumption of oily fish like haddock, herring, sardines, grouper, and tuna may need to be limited due to pollutants.\n",
"Historically, adults were recommended to consume three cups of dairy products per day. More recently, evidence is mounting that dairy products have greater levels of negative effects on health than previously thought and confer fewer benefits. For example, recent research has shown that dairy products are not related to stronger bones or less fractures; on the flip side, another study showed that milk (and yogurt) consumption results in higher bone mineral density in the hip. Overall, the majority of research suggests that dairy has some beneficial effects on bone health, in part because of milk's other nutrients.\n",
"A 2017 review concluded that tomato products and lycopene supplementation had small positive effects on cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated blood lipids and blood pressure. A 2010 review concluded that research has been insufficient to establish whether lycopene consumption affects human health. Lycopene has been studied in basic and clinical research for its potential effects on cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, although results through 2017 have not changed the prevailing FDA view that evidence of benefit remains inconclusive.\n",
"Current research as of 2018 suggests higher-fat-content dairy products carry greater nutritional benefit, with neutral impact on cardiovascular disease from milk, and neutral to favorable impact from fermented dairy products.\n",
"The manufacturer emphasises that Bionade tastes like a soft drink, but is healthier than conventional high-sugar soft drinks. They support the claim of healthiness by referring to the relatively low level of sugar, sodium and flavor-enhancing additives, the absence of phosphorus or a stabilising agent, while both calcium and magnesium are present. The website makes more health claims and suggests that calcium is needed for bones and teeth, for nerves and muscles, while magnesium is said to work against listlessness and fatigue.\n"
] |
is it possible to have a mind like sherlock holmes? | That doesn't really happen in the BBC series so much. Deductive reasoning is a real thing. I'm sure you're not seriously asking if you can slow down time with your mind though. | [
"Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson find themselves in a university town when a tutor and lecturer of St Luke's College, Mr. Hilton Soames, brings him an interesting problem. Soames had been reviewing the galley proofs of an exam he was going to give when he left his office for an hour. When he returned, he found that his servant, Bannister, had entered the room but accidentally left his key in the lock when he left, and someone had disturbed the exam papers on his desk and left traces that show it had been partially copied. Bannister is devastated and collapses on a chair, but swears that he did not touch the papers. Soames found other clues in his office: pencil shavings, a broken pencil lead, a fresh cut in his desk surface, and a small blob of black clay speckled with sawdust.\n",
"Mastermind: How to Think Like Sherlock Holmes, released January 3, 2013, is a book written by Maria Konnikova exploring ways to improve mindfulness, logical thinking and observation using Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional character Sherlock Holmes as an exemplar. Konnikova intertwines her analysis of Holmes's \"habits of mind\" with findings from the modern-day fields of neuroscience and psychology and offers advice on how to become a more rational thinker.\n",
"In order to make his interpretation of Holmes stand out, Frewer decided to tap deeper into Holmes' genius side. In an interview with \"The Globe and Mail\", Frewer commented on his take of the infamous sleuth, saying, \"I decided Holmes has these literal brainstorms. He can hardly keep up with his own ideas. His brain is working quickly but he's always hot this calm reserve and demeanour. So that's exactly how I decided to play him.\"\n",
"The heart of the novel consists of an account of Holmes' recovery from his addiction. Knowing that Sherlock would never willingly see a doctor about his addiction and mental problems, Watson and Holmes' brother Mycroft induce Holmes to travel to Vienna, where Watson introduces him to Dr. Freud. Using a treatment consisting largely of hypnosis, Freud helps Holmes shake off his addiction and his delusions about Moriarty, but neither he nor Watson can revive Holmes' dejected spirit.\n",
"References to the famous fictional detective Sherlock Holmes created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle appear throughout the series. Shore explained that he was always a Holmes fan and found the character's indifference to his clients unique. The resemblance is evident in House's reliance on deductive reasoning and psychology, even where it might not seem obviously applicable, and his reluctance to accept cases he finds uninteresting. His investigatory method is to eliminate diagnoses logically as they are proved impossible; Holmes used a similar method. Both characters play instruments (House plays the piano, the guitar, and the harmonica; Holmes, the violin) and take drugs (House is dependent on Vicodin; Holmes uses cocaine recreationally). House's relationship with Dr. James Wilson echoes that between Holmes and his confidant, Dr. John Watson. Robert Sean Leonard, who portrays Wilson, said that House and his character—whose name is very similar to Watson's—were originally intended to work together much as Holmes and Watson do; in his view, House's diagnostic team has assumed that aspect of the Watson role. Shore said that House's name itself is meant as \"a subtle homage\" to Holmes. House's address is 221B Baker Street, a direct reference to Holmes's street address. Wilson's address is also 221B.\n",
"In the show, Sherlock Holmes is a strange but clever pupil who lives in room 221B of Baker House, one of the houses of Beeton School. He sleeps during class and has poor grades, especially in literature, philosophy and astronomy. He is thought by teachers to be a troublemaker, but has brilliant reasoning powers and blows a party horn when he thinks about something.\n",
"Author Dorothy L. Sayers suggested that, given details in two of the stories, the fictional character Sherlock Holmes must have been at Cambridge rather than Oxford and that \"of all the Cambridge colleges, Sidney Sussex (College) perhaps offered the greatest number of advantages to a man in Holmes's position and, in default of more exact information, we may tentatively place him there\".\n"
] |
Did any groups still cling to the Roman deities after the fall of Rome? | The Roman Empire was of course not entirely Christian by the end of the fifth century, but it was pretty close. Pagans were never wiped out, but pretty much all our sources for this period and later were written by Christians, so we can't be entirely sure if they are accurate in their accounts of surviving pagans or not. I've written fairly detailed answers on paganism in the later Roman Empire and the early Byzantine empire [here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_), outlining in broad terms the evidence for pagans in a Christian empire. If you have any questions, I'll do my best to answer them :) | [
"After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.\n",
"BULLET::::- Chapter 1: Ancient Rome - The finite Graeco-Roman gods were not a sufficient inward base for the Roman society: Rome crumbled from within, and the invasions of the barbarians only completed the breakdown.\n",
"While Roman imperial cult maintained significance up until the late 4th century, the ancient pantheon of gods slowly faded out of existence along the way. Following the emperor Caracalla's death in 217 A.D., inscriptions have nothing more to say about cults such as the Paphian Aphrodite, the Zeus of Salamis, or the Apollo of Hyle at Curium. Each of these cults had enjoyed a long and prosperous history on the island, and, like the imperial cult, seemed to disappear rather suddenly around the 3rd and 4th centuries—the period of Severan rule. All across the island, both imperial cult and the traditional gods began to lack the necessary power to sustain religious faith; after the Roman period, the citizens of Cyprus began to turn to newer, more private gods that were easily accessible and suited to the needs of the individual.\n",
"Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption. Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.\n",
"In 476 the western Roman Empire, which had ruled modern-day Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and England for centuries, collapsed due to a combination of economic decline, and drastically reduced military strength which allowed invasion by barbarian tribes originating in southern Scandinavia and modern-day northern Germany. Historical opinion is divided as to the reasons for the fall of Rome, but the societal collapse encompassed both the gradual disintegration of the political, economic, military, and other social institutions of Rome as well as the barbarian invasions of Western Europe.\n",
"A turning point came after the Battle of the Frigidus of 395, ending the last serious attempt at a pagan revival in the now Christianized Roman Empire. After the defeat of Eugenius, the conservative pagan families of Rome gave up their resistance to Christianity and began to re-invent themselves to maintain their social leadership. By this time the Christian hierarchy had adopted classical education and culture as the marks of the civilized person, thus bringing the two social groups into alliance. Under the regency of Stilicho (395-408), some paganism was still tolerated, but later in the 5th century, legislation against pagan possessions, and other pagan practices, became increasingly strict. There appear to have been later attempts at a pagan revival, in 456 in circles surrounding the general Marcellinus and under Anthemius (r. 467-472), but these came to nothing. Marcian in 451 put the death penalty on the practice on pagan rites, and Leo I in 472 reinforced this by penalizing anyone who was aware that pagan rites were performed on his property.\n",
"At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war for a century, the Year of the Four Emperors. The cause was the fall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The descendants of Augustus had enjoyed the automatic and fervent loyalty of ordinary legionaries in the frontier armies. But Galba possessed no such legitimacy in their eyes. Supreme power was now open to whichever general was strong enough to seize it (and keep it). First, in AD 69, Galba's deputy, Otho, carried out a coup d'état in Rome against his leader, who was killed by the Praetorian Guard.\n"
] |
How did the ancient Romans think of what we today call race? | Some previous answers to this question while we wait for any further answers:
from /u/cleopatra_philopater -
_URL_3_
And another from cleopatra_philopater with further links to the origins of race perception -_URL_0_
From /u/medieval_pants -
_URL_2_
And some consolidated links from the FAQ - _URL_1_ | [
"The modern concept of race emerged as a product of the colonial enterprises of European powers from the 16th to 18th centuries which identified race in terms of skin color and physical differences. This way of classification would have been confusing for people in the ancient world since they did not categorize each other in such a fashion. In particular, the epistemological moment where the modern concept of race was invented and rationalized lies somewhere between 1730 to 1790. \n",
"The concept of race as a rough division of anatomically modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\") has a long and complicated history. The word \"race\" itself is modern and was used in the sense of \"nation, ethnic group\" during the 16th to 19th centuries and acquired its modern meaning in the field of physical anthropology only from the mid-19th century. The politicization of the field under the concept of racism in the 20th century led to a decline in racial studies during the 1930s to 1980s, culminating in a poststructuralist deconstruction of race as a social construct.\n",
"Apart from its function as a vernacular term, the term \"race\" – as Nancy Stepan notes in her 1982 book, \"The Idea of Race in Science, Great Britain 1800–1960\" – varied widely in its usage, even in science, from the 18th century through the 20th; the term referred \"at one time or another\" to \"cultural, religious, national, linguistic, ethnic and geographical groups of human beings\" — everything from \"Celts\" to \"Spanish Americans\" to \"Hottentots\" to \"Europeans\" (p. xvii).\n",
"According to Smedley and Marks the European concept of \"race\", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution, which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds, and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade, which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves.\n",
"The word \"race\", interpreted to mean an identifiable group of people who share a common descent, was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French ' (1512), from Italian '. An earlier but etymologically distinct word for a similar concept was the Latin word \"\" meaning a group sharing qualities related to birth, descent, origin, race, stock, or family; this Latin word is cognate with the Greek words \"genos\", () meaning \"race or kind\", and \"gonos\", which has meanings related to \"birth, offspring, stock ...\".\n",
"Speaking of the difference between modern thought and ancient times, Richard Smith warns that even apparently well-defined categories \"like 'race' can be confusing\". According to him, Ptolemy placed two peoples, the Leukaethiopes and Melanogaetulians ('Black Gaetulians'), in the far west of North Africa; namely, in southern Morocco. Smith suggests that the Leukaethiopes, \"literally, 'white Ethiopians'\", could also be described as \"white black men\" since in ancient times \"the term 'Ethiopian' referred to skin color\". He further asserts that Pliny the Elder places the Leukaethiopes south of the (Sahara) desert, between the white Gaetulians and the black Nigritae; the closest neighbours would then have been the Libyaegyptians, \"literally the 'Egyptian Libyans', another oxymoron\". However, Smith indicates that Pliny does not mention any black Gaetulians.\n",
"Marks (1995) argued that even as the idea of \"race\" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one racial group to adjacent racial groups emphasized that \"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them,\" as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation. In parts of the Americas, the situation was somewhat different. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World—western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia and southern and eastern Europe. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors—in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of Jamaicans to ∼23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans. In a survey of college students who self-identified as white in a northeastern U.S. university, the west African and Native American genetic contribution were 0.7% and 3.2%.\n"
] |
Can someone explain the dark trail in front of a plane in the sky? | It's the contrail creating a shadow in the low haze.
_URL_0_ | [
"A flash of light is seen, accompanied by severe turbulence, although the captain thinks it might be something else. There is no apparent damage to the aircraft. Still unable to contact anyone on the ground, and at the risk of potential collision with other aircraft, Farver finally decides to descend below the clouds: the crew is able to identify the coastline of Manhattan Island and other geographic landmarks, but there is no city. The crew realizes that they have traveled far back in time when they look out the window and see grazing dinosaurs.\n",
"Dark Flight () is a 2012 Thai horror film. The film was directed by Issara Nadee. It shows the journey of a passenger plane haunted by ghosts that gradually trick the passengers into going insane and killing each other.\n",
"Pilots can't see ash clouds at night. Also, ash particles are too small to return an echo to on-board weather radars on commercial airliners. Even when flying in daylight, pilots may interpret a visible ash cloud as a normal cloud of water vapour and not a danger—especially if the ash has travelled far from the eruption site. In the image from the Chaitén volcano, the ash cloud has spread thousands of kilometers from the eruption site, crossing the width of South America from the Pacific coast and spreading over the Atlantic.\n",
"\"Some 10 minutes passed and it was time when we would start approaching to the airstrip. Then we found many airborne aircraft in the direction over Shortland Island, south of Buin base. At altitude about 1,500 m (5,000 ft), they were in groups of P-38s. Their fuselages and wings were painted in green, they positioned at lower altitude, which helped them camouflaged. It was obvious that we were late to find them. I saw P-38s dropped their extra fuel tanks and were already zooming up to engage our two land-base attackers.\"\n",
"In 1913, Hans Fruhstorfer wrote: \"Dr. Hahnel reports its capture at Iquitos and Pebas. There it flies quickly and impetuously (sometimes at an elevation of 12 ft.), dashing out from among the branches, crossing the road and following clearings among the trees, in which they sail along just over the tops or in and out among the branches.\"\n",
"A chase plane is an aircraft that \"chases\" a \"subject\" aircraft, spacecraft or rocket, for the purposes of making real-time observations and taking air-to-air photographs and video of the \"subject aircraft\", during flight. \n",
"A 1983 Omni article says \"Colonel Ted Conrad the base commander... recalls five Air Force policemen spotted lights from what they thought was a small plane descending into the forest. Two of the men tracked the object on foot and came upon a large tripod-mounted craft. It had no windows but was studded with brilliant red and blue lights. Each time the men came within 50 yards of the ship, Conrad relates, it levitated six feet in the air and backed away. They followed it for almost an hour through the woods and across a field until it took off at 'phenomenal speed.' Acting on the reports made by his men, Colonel Conrad began a brief investigation of the incident in the morning. He went into the forest and located a triangular pattern ostensibly made by the tripod legs. ...he did interview two of the eyewitnesses and concludes, 'Those lads saw something, but I don't know what it was'.\"\n"
] |
When an atom emits a photon, is it one blob of energy shot out like a bullet? Or is it a radiating wavefront coming from any one side of the atom? Or does the wave carry in a full sphere around the atom? Does the nucleus cause an eclipse? | The photon at atomic scales can be thought of like a blob of energy, representing an excitation in the [discrete nature of the electromagnetic field](_URL_0_). It's only at larger scales that light appears to behave like a classical wavefront. | [
"If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons \"jumps\" to a \"higher orbit\". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.\n",
"A photon with wavelength collides with an electron in an atom, which is treated as being at rest. The collision causes the electron to recoil, and a new photon ' with wavelength ' emerges at angle from the photon's incoming path. Let ' denote the electron after the collision. Compton allowed for the possibility that the interaction would sometimes accelerate the electron to speeds sufficiently close to the velocity of light as to require the application of Einstein's special relativity theory to properly describe its energy and momentum.\n",
"An initial photon from this beam is absorbed by one of the sample atoms, exciting one of the atom's electrons to an intermediate excited state. A second photon then ionizes the same atom from the intermediate state such that its high energy level causes it to be ejected from its orbital; the result is a packet of positively charged ions which are then delivered to a mass analyzer.\n",
"An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to any electrons, but most probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, causing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally termed the photoelectric effect (external gamma rays and ultraviolet rays may also cause this effect). The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which a gamma ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a \"virtual gamma ray\" may be thought to mediate the process).\n",
"BULLET::::- If an incident photon is absorbed by an initial state of a target nucleus, that nucleus will be raised to a more energetic state of excitation. If that state can radiate its energy only during a transition back to the initial state, the result is a \"scattering process\" as seen in the schematic figure. That is not an example of IGE.\n",
"Compton found that some X-rays experienced no wavelength shift despite being scattered through large angles; in each of these cases the photon failed to eject an electron. Thus the magnitude of the shift is related not to the Compton wavelength of the electron, but to the Compton wavelength of the entire atom, which can be upwards of 10000 times smaller. This is known as \"coherent\" scattering off the entire atom since the atom remains intact, gaining no internal excitation.\n",
"Now consider two copies of this electron-atom system, one in the excited state (the emitter), the other in the lower energy state (the receiver). If the two systems are stationary relative to one another and the space between them is flat (i.e. we neglect gravitational fields) then the photon emitted by the emitter can be absorbed by the electron in the receiver. However, if the two systems are in a gravitational field then the photon may undergo gravitational redshift as it travels from the first system to the second, causing the photon frequency observed by the receiver to be different to the frequency observed by the emitter when it was originally emitted. Another possible source of redshift is the Doppler effect: if the two systems are not stationary relative to one another then the photon frequency will be modified by the relative speed between them.\n"
] |
Why were siege engines not used more often in ancient times? | Siege engines were expensive in terms of expertise to design, materials to gather for construction and (for some types) ammunition, time to build, and men to operate. They were also difficult to move and ranges were limited. [This interview with Peter Vemming](_URL_1_) discusses his work recreating a 22-ton trebuchet that was expected at the time to have a range of about 300m (about 328 yards). His was not the first attempt to recreate a medieval trebuchet, either, suggesting that despite our knowledge, authentic trebuchets required a great deal of knowledge to build properly.
On the topic of the range, a siege engine in the wrong place might be targeted by archers either trying to pick off crew or to damage or destroy the siege engine. CJ Longman wrote in 1894 of [attempts to replicate claims of longbow ranges above 300 yards](_URL_0_), and while he never quite reached it, he opined that a trained longbowman could probably reach 350 yards. Add in a little more distance due to shooting from a height (either a wall or a tower) and the range of the trebuchet suddenly becomes a potential problem. | [
"Siege engines are fairly large constructions—from the size of a small house to a large building. From antiquity up to the development of gunpowder, they were made largely of wood, using rope or leather to help bind them, possibly with a few pieces of metal at key stress points. They could launch simple projectiles using natural materials to build up force by tension, torsion, or, in the case of trebuchets, human power or counterweights coupled with mechanical advantage. With the development of gunpowder and improved metallurgy, bombards and later heavy artillery became the primary siege engines.\n",
"Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Relatively small efforts were made to develop the technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare that brought them repeated success. Up to the first century BC, the Romans utilized siege weapons only as required and relied for the most part on ladders, towers and rams to assault a fortified town. \"Ballistae\" were also employed, but held no permanent place within a legion's roster, until later in the republic, and were used sparingly.\n",
"The first two rulers to make use of siege engines to a large extent were Philip II of Macedonia and Alexander the Great. Their large engines spurred an evolution that led to impressive machines, like the Demetrius Poliorcetes' \"Helepolis\" (or \"Taker of Cities\") of 304 BC: nine stories high and plated with iron, it stood 40 m (132 ft) tall and 21 m (69 ft) wide, weighing 180 t (360,000 lb). The most utilized engines were simple battering rams, or \"tortoises\", propelled in several ingenious ways that allowed the attackers to reach the walls or ditches with a certain degree of safety. For sea sieges or battles, seesaw-like machines (\"sambykē\" or \"sambuca\") were used. These were giant ladders, hinged and mounted on a base mechanism and used for transferring marines onto the sea walls of coastal towns. They were normally mounted on two or more ships tied together and some sambykē included shields at the top to protect the climbers from arrows. Other hinged engines were used to catch enemy equipment or even opposing soldiers with opposable appendices which are probably ancestors to the Roman corvus. Other weapons dropped heavy weights on opposing soldiers.\n",
"Although most Roman siege engines were adaptations from earlier Greek designs, the Romans were adept at engineering them swiftly and efficiently, as well as innovating variations such as the repeating ballista. The 1st century BC army engineer Vitruvius describes in detail many of the Roman siege machines in his manuscript De Architectura.\n",
"A torsion siege engine is a type of artillery that utilizes torsion to launch projectiles. They were initially developed by the ancient Greeks, specifically Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, and used through the Middle Ages until the development of gunpowder artillery in the 14th century rendered them obsolete.\n",
"Siege engines of all types have been recorded as mounted on ships, with perhaps their first successful use at the Battle of Salamis (306 BCE) under the command of Demetrius \"The Besieger\". The enormous transport \"Syracusia\" possibly had the largest ship-mounted catapult of the ancient world, an machine that could fire arrows or stones up to .\n",
"Siege engines, such as battering rams and siege towers, would often be armoured in order to protect their crews from enemy action. Polyidus of Thessaly developed a very large movable siege tower, the \"helepolis\", as early as 340 BC, and Greek forces used such structures in the Siege of Rhodes (305 BC).\n"
] |
For a typical box fan, does the air move because the blades "push" it or because of the Bernoulli Effect? | Fan blades work the same way screws work. As the blade turns about it's axis, the pitch of the blades forces air to move in the direction of the fan's axis (as well as spinning with the fan, but that's irrelevant here).
Bernoilli's principle is just a way of expressing conservation of energy in a flow of fluid, so it can be applied here, but it's not necessary to explain how fans generate thrust.
If you examine the shape of the fan blades, it should be apparent that angle of attack is the primary reason fans drive air forward. Airplane propellers use a more complex blade cross-section, more like a wing, which helps with efficiency, but angle of attack is a huge factor there as well - it's not just an airfoil moving at zero attack angle.
Also, the low pressure is on the back side of the blade, just as low pressure is on the top of the wing - it sounds like you may be a bit confused there. | [
"The air flows through the channel in the pedestal of the fan when the motor is turned on. After that, the air flows through the hollow tube. Then the air is shot out through 16-mm slits. This air flows smoothly, rather than turbulently as with a traditional fan (fan with blades). The curvature of the inner wall of the fan creates an area of negative pressure like an airplane wing to draw more air into the flow, hence \"multiplying\" it. This property of the air is called inducement. Further, the air surrounding the edges of the fan also begins to flow with the direction of the breeze, or is \"entrained\" to it. Dyson says that the air-multiplier technology increases the output of the air flowing through the tube by at least 15 times compared to the airflow taken in at the base of the fan.\n",
"When the fan spins with the upper edge moving backwards and the lower edge forwards, the fixed half-duct is shaped to create a net backward flow of air, resulting in forward thrust. This backward flow over the upper surfaces also creates a net circulation of air around the rotor-wing combination, resulting in vertical lift.\n",
"The cross-flow fan comprises an arrangement of blades running parallel to a central axis and aligned radially, with the fan partially or fully enclosed in a shaped duct. Due to the specific shaping, rotating the fan causes air to be drawn in at one end of the duct, passed across the fan and expelled at the other end.\n",
"The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar. To correct this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing.\n",
"These either consist of cups that swing across the end of the exhaust nozzle and deflect the jet thrust forwards (as in the DC-9), or they are two panels behind the cowling that slide backward and reverse only the fan thrust (the fan produces the majority of the thrust). Fan air redirection is performed by devices called \"blocker doors\" and \"cascade vanes\". This is the case on many large aircraft such as the 747, C-17, KC-10, etc. If you are on an aircraft and you hear the engines increasing in power after landing, it is usually because the thrust reversers are deployed. The engines are not actually spinning in reverse, as the term may lead you to believe. The reversers are used to slow the aircraft more quickly and reduce wear on the wheel brakes.\n",
"This unstable operation results from the development of pressure gradients in the opposite direction of the flow. Maximum pressure is observed at the discharge of the impeller blade and minimum pressure on the side opposite to the discharge side. When the impeller blades are not rotating these adverse pressure gradients pump the flow in the direction opposite to the direction of the fan. The result is the oscillation of the fan blades creating vibrations and hence noise.\n",
"Axial-flow fans are used in systems that have low resistance levels. These fans move the air parallel to the fan's axis of rotation. The screw-like action of the propellers moves the air in a straight-through parallel path, causing a helical flow pattern.\n"
] |
why does depression increase a lot when you happen to fall in love ? | From personal experience, depression seems to happen because the brain is focused on itself and it’s perception of itself from an outside perspective. Falling in love with someone is heavily emotional and depends largely on how the person you are in love with treats you. A depressed brain heavily relies on positive validation, as without it, it identifies a lack of interaction from others to that of worthlessness.
Another someone that you are in love with is more valuable to you than the ones you normally interact with on a daily basis. I myself can receive positive validation from others on a daily basis, but for me only the validation from the girl I love matters most and can lift me out of a funk. Unfortunately this girl I love lives very far from me and our communication has become difficult, making me feel depressed as although her perspective of me have not changed, her thoughts about me are not shared frequently.
Basically, the feedback you get from the one you love has a significant influence on your mental state due to the way you value their thoughts, moods, opinions, and perception of you. And the worst part is that you have no control over it, so if it’s not perfect then it can really be damaging to your mental health. I hope you don’t have the same experience I do where you are lost in hopeless love, and remember that you deserve to feel loved no matter what kind of person you think you are. No human life is undeserving of love!
This may not be easily understood by a 5-year old, but anyways I hope this helps! | [
"Depression can lead to a high increase of unemployment. It is more likely a balance sheet recession can cause depression. \"Due to falling asset prices and bank losses, this has a large impact on economic activity\".\n",
"In addition to the loss of a relationship with a loved one, conflict has also been suggested as another way social factors can bring about depression. Divorce, separation, and the threat of either often result in both conflict and depression, and serious marital problems and divorce are two of the strongest predictors of depression. Conflict with other family members is also predictive of depression, although not to the extent of marital problems.\n",
"One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet it has an evolved function: to inform the organism that it is suffering damage, to motivate it to withdraw from the source of damage, and to learn to avoid such damage-causing circumstances in the future. Sadness is also distressing, yet is widely believed to be an evolved adaptation. In fact, perhaps the most influential evolutionary view is that most cases of depression are simply particularly intense cases of sadness in response to adversity, such as the loss of a loved one.\n",
"According to social psychologist Wendy Treynor, depression happens when one is trapped in a social setting that rejects the self, on a long-term basis (where one is devalued continually), and this rejection is internalized into self-rejection, winning one rejection from both the self and group—social rejection and self-rejection, respectively. This chronic conflict seems inescapable, and depression sets in. Stated differently, according to Treynor, the cause of depression is as follows: One's state of harmony is disrupted when faced with external conflict (social rejection) for failing to measure up to a group’s standard(s). Over time, this social rejection is internalized into self-rejection, where one experiences rejection from both the group and the self. Therefore, the rejection seems inescapable and depression sets in. In this framework, depression is conceptualized as being the result of long-term conflict (internal and external), where this conflict corresponds to self-rejection and social rejection, respectively, or the dual needs for self-esteem (self-acceptance) and belonging (social acceptance) being unmet, on a long-term basis. The solution to depression offered, therefore, is to end the conflict (get these needs met): Navigate oneself into an unconditionally accepting social environment, so one can internalize this social acceptance into self-acceptance, winning one peace both internally and externally (through self-acceptance and social acceptance—self-esteem and belonging, respectively), ending the conflict, and the depression. (Treynor obtained this result and framework by piecing together social psychological science research findings using mathematical logic.) But what if one cannot find an unconditionally accepting group to navigate oneself into? If one cannot find such a group, the solution the framework offers is to make the context in which one generally finds oneself the self (however, the self must be in meditative solitude—alone and at peace, not lonely and ruminating—as stated, a state commonly achieved through the practice of meditation). The framework suggests that a lack of self-acceptance lies at the root of depression and that one can heal their own depression if they (a) keep an alert eye to their own emotional state (i.e., identify feelings of shame or depression) and (b) upon identification, take reparative action: undergo a 'social environment' shift and immerse oneself in a new group that is unconditionally accepting (accepts the self, as it is)—whether that group is one that exists apart from the self or simply is the self [in meditative solitude]. Over time, the unconditional acceptance experienced in this setting will be internalized, allowing one to achieve self-acceptance, eradicating conflict, eliminating one's depression.\n",
"In general, women are at much higher risk of developing depression after a social loss than men. One explanation for this is that women tend to have larger networks of meaningful supporters than men where an important loss can happen. Evidence for this comes primarily from the finding that both sexes are equally likely to become depressed in response to conflict or death within the nuclear family, while women are more likely to become depressed in response to the loss of a friend and family members outside of the nuclear family. In addition to this, women may also be more sensitive to depression when conflict exists and is physically expressed as evidenced by women being more likely to be depressed after a physical attack but not men\n",
"Thus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism.\n",
"In this way, the depression can be traced back to a demand for perfection from which a person is deducing their own worthlessness, from which they are in turn deducing the horribleness of what happened.\n"
] |
why is lemmy such a big deal? | First off, I hate Motorhead.
However, most metal fans and musicians loved the band. They had a unique sound forged in the early days of metal. Lemmy was the front man and only consistent member of the band. He was an icon.
Oh, and [Lemmy was God.](_URL_0_) | [
"Lemmy wanted the music to be \"fast and vicious, just like the MC5\". His stated aim was to \"concentrate on very basic music: loud, fast, city, raucous, arrogant, paranoid, speedfreak rock n roll ... it will be so loud that if we move in next door to you, your lawn will die\". He recruited guitarist Larry Wallis (formerly of Pink Fairies) on the recommendation of Mick Farren, based on Wallis' work with Steve Peregrin Took's band Shagrat, and Lucas Fox on drums. According to Lemmy, the band's first practice was at the now defunct Sound Management rehearsal studios, in Kings Road, Chelsea in 1975. Sound Management leased the basement area of furniture store The Furniture Cave, located in adjacent Lots Road. Kilmister has said they used to steal equipment, as the band was short on gear. Their first engagement was supporting Greenslade at The Roundhouse, London on 20 July 1975. On 19 October, having played 10 gigs, they became the supporting act to Blue Öyster Cult at the Hammersmith Odeon.\n",
"The term \"duppy\" has been featured in various musical works from the Caribbean. According to Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, after Bob Marley wrote the song \"My Cup\", Marley was complaining to Lee that he was too \"successful\" and was being plagued by hangers-on and leeches, referring to them as duppy in the context of \"human vampires\" (or scroungers). Lee apparently consoled him by saying, \"Look, we'll sort this out — we are duppy conquerors.\" Marley then wrote \"Duppy Conqueror\". The term \"duppy\" is also referenced in the song \"Mr. Brown\".\n",
"Debby isn't ready to put her professional hopes on hold. But from the moment Darryl meets her, his own career takes off. He begins a full assault on baseball's single-season home run record of 61 (at that time) and considers Debby a good-luck charm, wanting her to be there at his games.\n",
"Lemmy: \"The album was a fuck-up from start to finish. That 'Opa-Loka' was a lot of fucking rubbish. I wasn't even on that. That was the drummer's thing, that track... We were kind of complacent anyway. If you have a hit album, you're complacent, and if you have two you really are in trouble. With them, they had four, 'cos they had \"In Search of Space\" before me... There's great stuff on all them albums. 'The Golden Void' was a beautiful track, but by then I was well out of favour.\"\n",
"Steinbeck's characters are often powerless, due to intellectual, economic, and social circumstances. Lennie possesses the greatest physical strength of any character, which should therefore establish a sense of respect as he is employed as a ranch hand. However, his intellectual handicap undercuts this and results in his powerlessness. Economic powerlessness is established as many of the ranch hands are victims of the Great Depression. As George, Candy and Crooks are positive, action- oriented characters, they wish to purchase a homestead, but because of the Depression, they are unable to generate enough money. Lennie is the only one who is basically unable to take care of himself, but the other characters would do this in the improved circumstances they seek. Since they cannot do so, the real danger of Lennie's mental handicap comes to the fore.\n",
"However, the reason that it made Harvey-Jones Britain's most notable and public business person was the fact that he engaged both the audience and the company on a human level. By both observing key issues (Harvey-Jones was always very focused on markets and customers first, and then systematic efficient production secondly, focused around people and responsibility), and then asked simple questions to confirm his view or see if the management actually saw the problem.\n",
"In March 1994, Elizabeth Kolbert of \"The New York Times\" wrote: \"Mr. Blobby's rise to stardom has provoked anguished commentaries about just what he stands for... Some commentators have called him a metaphor for a nation gone soft in the head. Others have seen him as proof of Britain's deep-seated attraction to trash.\" A \"Sun\" article published the previous month had reported that Blobby reduced a young girl to tears after throwing her birthday cake onto the floor during a show in Luton, causing the girl's father to mount the stage and assault Blobby. Neville Crumpton, who owns the rights to the character, said: \"If the press can knock him, they'll knock him whenever they can.\" A trio of failed Mr Blobby theme parks also resulted in considerable negative press and scandal.\n"
] |
what effects do electronic devices, wi-fi, electromagnetic fields, etc. really have on human health? | To date, there is no proof that there is any effect whatsoever. Doesn't mean that it's impossible, though. | [
"Most studies have been unable to demonstrate any link to health effects, or have been inconclusive. Electromagnetic fields may have an effect on protein expression in laboratory settings but have not yet been demonstrated to have clinically significant effects in real-world settings. The World Health Organization has issued a statement on medical effects of mobile phones which acknowledges that the longer term effects (over several decades) require further research.\n",
"Quantitative data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is relatively limited compared to other medical conditions because of the low number of cases to date, and because of the stochastic nature of some of the effects. Stochastic effects can only be measured through large epidemiological studies where enough data has been collected to remove confounding factors such as smoking habits and other lifestyle factors. The richest source of high-quality data comes from the study of Japanese atomic bomb survivors. In vitro and animal experiments are informative, but radioresistance varies greatly across species.\n",
"The \"Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale\" () , says that there is no demonstrated short-term effect of electromagnetic fields on health, but that there are open questions for long-term effects, and that it is easy to reduce exposure via technological improvements.\n",
"While health effects from extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields (0 to 300 Hz) generated by power lines, and radio/microwave frequencies (RF) (10 MHz - 300 GHz) emitted by radio antennas and wireless networks have been well studied, the intermediate range (IR) used increasingly in modern telecommunications (300 Hz to 10 MHz) has been studied far less. Direct effects of electromagnetism on human health have been difficult to prove, and documented life-threatening interferences from electromagnetic fields are limited to medical devices such as pacemakers and other electronic implants. However, a number of studies have been conducted with artificial magnetic fields and electric fields to investigate their effects on cell metabolism, apoptosis, and tumor growth.\n",
"Different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation. The upper frequencies of non-ionizing radiation near these energies (much of the spectrum of UV light and some visible light) are capable of non-thermal biological damage, similar to ionizing radiation. Health debate therefore centers on the non-thermal effects of radiation of much lower frequencies (microwave, millimeter and radiowave radiation). The International Agency for Research on Cancer recently stated that there could be some risk from non-ionizing radiation to humans. But a subsequent study reported that the basis of the IARC evaluation was not consistent with observed incidence trends. This and other reports suggest that there is virtually no way that results on which the IARC based its conclusions are correct. The Bioinitiative Report 2012 makes the claim that there are significant health risk associated with low frequency non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. This report claims that statistically significant increases in cancer among those exposed to even low power levels, low frequency, non-ionizing radiation. There is considerable debate on this matter. Currently regulatory bodies around the world have not seen the need to change current safety standards.\n",
"The World Health Organization (WHO) has researched electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and their alleged effects on health, concluding that such exposures within recommended limits do not produce any known adverse health effect.\n",
"Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are stochastic, meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose. Radiation-induced cancer, teratogenesis, cognitive decline, and heart disease are all examples of stochastic effects.\n"
] |
the fda and its role in tobacco regulation | I'm not knowledgeable on this subject, but I think the ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms) regulates tobacco, not the FDA. | [
"The FDA's authority to regulate came from the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). The FDA argued that nicotine was a \"drug\" and cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are \"devices\" that deliver nicotine to the body within the meaning of the FDCA. Congress had enacted a number of tobacco-specific laws after the FDCA, and the FDA had never exercised any control over tobacco. The Court concluded in light of this that Congress did not intend to give the FDA the power to regulate tobacco, and that the regulations were therefore invalid.\n",
"In 2009, the US Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act provided the Food and Drug Administration regulatory authority over the manufacturing, distribution, and marketing of cigarettes, roll-your-own tobacco and smokeless tobacco. In 2016, a deeming rule extended the FDA's authority to additional tobacco products including cigars, e-cigarettes and hookah. The objective of law is to reduce the impact of tobacco on public health by preventing Americans from starting to use tobacco products, encourage current users to quit, and decrease the harms of tobacco product use.\n",
"Regulation of tobacco by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began in 2009 with the passage of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act by the United States Congress. With this statute, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was given the ability to regulate tobacco products.\n",
"Prior to 1996, the FDA played no role in the regulation of tobacco products, and regulations were controlled through a combination of state and congressional regulation. Most state laws dealt with the sale of tobacco products, including the issue of selling to minors and licensing of distributors. By 1950, most states had laws prohibiting the sale of tobacco products to minors, which at the time, the purchase age differed in each state. In 1992 the federal government required states to set a minimum age of at least 18 years to purchase tobacco products, which was amended in all states by 1993.\n",
"In the United States, The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (Tobacco Control Act) became law in 2009. It gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products to protect public health.\n",
"On March 21, 2000, the Supreme Court in \"FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.\", in a 5-4 decision, held that the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, particularly when considering \"Congress’ subsequent tobacco-specific legislation,\" that Congress had not given the FDA the authority to regulate tobacco products as customarily marketed. Thus the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act was introduced to respond to the decision, which had held that the Clinton administration's FDA had \"overreached\" its Congressionally delegated authority, thus giving the FDA the authority the Court determined it had lacked.\n",
"The Center for Tobacco Products (CTP) is the branch of the FDA created in response to and for the implementation of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act. The FDA currently has eight divisions, each of which is responsible for protecting some aspect of the public health. The main duties of the Center for Tobacco control include:\n"
] |
how can manure/hay self combust in hot temperatures even though they're nowhere near 200+ degrees celsius? | hay is more than just dried grass... it’s actually undergone a natural curing process which locks in nutrients and makes it keep better. This happens because grass doesn’t die the moment it’s been mowed...its cells (and certain microbes on it) continue to respire, and this creates some heat.
now imagine this grass is a little bit damp... it gets made into hay bales and theyre stacked sky-high in a sealed barn. the middle of each bale has little chance to cool down (low air flow) and the cellular respiration... and maybe even now some fermentation... go on and on. this is like having a pile of oily rags in a hot room. the temperature inside the bale can climb to the tipping point where it starts smoldering. nobody notices. it’s packed can’t-reach-it deep in a barn full of fuel. ay yi yi. | [
"Hay baled before it is fully dry can produce enough heat to start a fire. Haystacks produce internal heat due to bacterial fermentation. If hay is stacked with wet grass, the heat produced can be sufficient to ignite the hay causing a fire. Farmers have to be careful about moisture levels to avoid spontaneous combustion, which is a leading cause of haystack fires. Heat is produced by the respiration process, which occurs until the moisture content of drying hay drops below 40%. Hay is considered fully dry when it reaches 20% moisture. Combustion problems typically occur within five days to seven days of baling. A bale cooler than is in little danger, but bales between need to be removed from a barn or structure and separated so that they can cool off. If the temperature of a bale exceeds more than , it can combust.\n",
"Hay is one of the more studied materials in spontaneous combustion. As hay varies by the type of grass and location grown utilized in its preparation, it is very hard to establish a unified theory of what occurs in hay self-heating. It is anticipated that dangerous heating will occur in hay that contains more than 25% moisture. The largest number of fires occurs within 2 to 6 weeks of storage, with the majority occurring at 4 to 5 weeks.\n",
"Hay steaming is a method of treating hay to reduce the airborne respirable dust which naturally occur in hay, causing respiratory problems in both humans and horses when in close contact. The method encompasses a steam generator which produces the steam and a connecting hose to direct the steam into a closed, sealed vessel containing the hay, exposing it to the steam. \n",
"When a professionally engineered and designed high temperature steaming method is used, the temperature of the hay reaches over 100⁰C. This has been scientifically proven to kill the Bacteria, mould and fungal spores thereby improving the hygienic quality of hay and dramatically reducing airborne respirable dust by up to 98% . With hay steaming, however, if the required high temperatures are not reached it can have a detrimental effect on the hygiene quality of the hay by creating an “incubator effect”, leading to a dramatic increase in observed bacteria.\n",
"In 1907 he published \"\"Die Selbsterhitzung des heus: eine biologische Studie\"\", in which he demonstrated that the phenomenon of \"self-heating hay\" was due to bacterial action. The following is a list of his noteworthy written efforts:\n",
"Heatstroke can affect livestock, especially in hot, humid weather; or if the horse, cow, sheep or other is unfit, overweight, has a dense coat, is overworked, or is left in a horsebox in full sun. Symptoms include drooling, panting, high temperature, sweating, and rapid pulse.\n",
"Superheated steam is used for soil steaming. Steam is induced into the soil which causes almost all organic material to deteriorate. Soil steaming is an effective alternative to chemicals in agriculture.\n"
] |
i have acid reflux. what is happening inside of my body that makes it feel like i am softly belching molten lava? | You are burping up a strong stomach acid and while your stomach has a protective lining, your throath has not.
The acid is corroding your throath and that feels like belching molten lava. | [
"During an episode of acid reflux, small amounts of stomach acid may manage to escape from the stomach and into the oesophagus. Typically, gravity minimises this upward leakage but combining an inversion table and acid reflux can be a painful, nauseating, and potentially dangerous combination.\n",
"This stage is characterised by the body employing physiological mechanisms, including neural, hormonal and bio-chemical mechanisms in an attempt to reverse the condition. As a result of the acidosis, the person will begin to hyperventilate in order to rid the body of carbon dioxide (CO). CO indirectly acts to acidify the blood and by removing it the body is attempting to raise the pH of the blood. The baroreceptors in the arteries detect the resulting hypotension, and cause the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine causes predominately vasoconstriction with a mild increase in heart rate, whereas epinephrine predominately causes an increase in heart rate with a small effect on the vascular tone; the combined effect results in an increase in blood pressure. The renin–angiotensin axis is activated, and arginine vasopressin (Anti-diuretic hormone; ADH) is released to conserve fluid via the kidneys. These hormones cause the vasoconstriction of the kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and other organs to divert blood to the heart, lungs and brain. The lack of blood to the renal system causes the characteristic low urine production. However the effects of the renin–angiotensin axis take time and are of little importance to the immediate homeostatic mediation of shock.\n",
"Inhalation of butyric acid may result in soreness of throat, coughing, a burning sensation, and laboured breathing. Ingestion of the acid may result in abdominal pain, shock, and collapse. Physical exposure to the acid may result in pain, blistering and skin burns, while exposure to the eyes may result in pain, severe deep burns and loss of vision.\n",
"When uracil reacts with anhydrous hydrazine, a first-order kinetic reaction occurs and the uracil ring opens up. If the pH of the reaction increases to 10.5, the uracil anion forms, making the reaction go much more slowly. The same slowing of the reaction occurs if the pH decreases, because of the protonation of the hydrazine. The reactivity of uracil remains unchanged, even if the temperature changes.\n",
"Performic acid is non-toxic; it does irritate the skin, but less so than peracetic acid. Concentrated acid (above 50%) is highly reactive; it readily decomposes upon heating, and explodes upon rapid heating to 80–85 °C. It may ignite or explode at room temperature when combined with flammable substances, such as formaldehyde, benzaldehyde, or aniline, and explodes violently upon addition of metal powders. For this reason, spilled performic acid is diluted with cold water and collected with neutral, non-flammable inorganic absorbents, such as vermiculite.\n",
"Sulfuric acid is capable of causing very severe burns, especially when it is at high concentrations. In common with other corrosive acids and alkali, it readily decomposes proteins and lipids through amide and ester hydrolysis upon contact with living tissues, such as skin and flesh. In addition, it exhibits a strong dehydrating property on carbohydrates, liberating extra heat and causing secondary thermal burns. Accordingly, it rapidly attacks the cornea and can induce permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes. If ingested, it damages internal organs irreversibly and may even be fatal. Protective equipment should hence always be used when handling it. Moreover, its strong oxidizing property makes it highly corrosive to many metals and may extend its destruction on other materials. Because of such reasons, damage posed by sulfuric acid is potentially more severe than that by other comparable strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.\n",
"Osmotic diuresis is the increase of urination rate caused by the presence of certain substances in the small tubes of the kidneys. The excretion occurs when substances such as glucose enter the kidney tubules and cannot be reabsorbed (due to a pathological state or the normal nature of the substance). The substances cause an increase in the osmotic pressure within the tubule, causing retention of water within the lumen, and thus reduces the reabsorption of water, increasing urine output (i.e. diuresis). The same effect can be seen in therapeutics such as mannitol, which is used to increase urine output and decrease extracellular fluid volume.\n"
] |
Physiology Blood type question, how can universal recipient receive any type of blood and universal donor can donate to any blood type without the transfused blood cells being attacked and destroyed? | Blood type describes the type of antigens (structures used in immune system response) found on a person’s red blood cells. The letters (A, B, & O) refer to sugar-based antigens. There are A antigens and B antigens. We use type O to refer to blood cells with neither A or B antigens. The plus/minus (Rh D) refers to a protein-based antigen. Plus blood types have the Rh D antigen, while minus types do not have it.
The immune system recognizes antigens as either native or foreign to the body. Any blood cells with foreign antigens will be attacked by the immune system; this is why blood types must be taken into account for blood transfusions. Red blood cells without these antigens will be accepted by any immune system. This is why O- is the universal donor; it does not have the A, B, or Rh D antigens, allowing it to avoid detection. In contrast AB+ is the universal recipient; it has all 3 antigens and therefore the immune system will be accepting of any blood type.
As a quick example, we can think about a type A- person (only have the A antigen) donating to our universal donor (O-) and our universal recipient (AB+). The universal recipient has A antigens in its blood already. So the universal recipient’s immune system is accepting of the A- blood. On the other hand, the universal donor does not have A antigens in its blood. So the universal donor’s immune system will attack the type A red blood cells. This will cause a transfusion reaction which can range from mild to life-threatening.
[Source 1]( _URL_0_), [Source 2]( _URL_1_) | [
"The donor's blood type must be determined if the blood will be used for transfusions. The collecting agency usually identifies whether the blood is type A, B, AB, or O and the donor's Rh (D) type and will screen for antibodies to less common antigens. More testing, including a crossmatch, is usually done before a transfusion. Type O negative is often cited as the \"universal donor\" but this only refers to red cell and whole blood transfusions. For plasma and platelet transfusions the system is reversed: AB positive is the universal platelet donor type while both AB positive and AB negative are universal plasma donor types.\n",
"Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.\n",
"Not all platelet transfusions use platelets collected by automated apheresis. The platelets can also be separated from donations of whole blood collected in a traditional blood donation, but there are several advantages to separating the platelets at the time of collection. The first advantage is that the whole-blood platelets, sometimes called \"random\" platelets, from a single donation are not numerous enough for a dose to give to an adult patient. They must be pooled from several donors to create a single transfusion, and this complicates processing and increases the risk of diseases that can be spread in transfused blood, such as human immunodeficiency virus.\n",
"In transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative blood are often called universal donors. Those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called universal recipients. However, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is individuals with hh antigen system (also known as the Bombay phenotype) who can only receive blood safely from other hh donors, because they form antibodies against the H antigen present on all red blood cells.\n",
"Although a pint of donated blood contains about two trillion red blood cells and over 107 million blood donations are collected globally, there is still a critical need for blood for transfusion. In 2014, type O red blood cells were synthesized at the Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service from iPSC. The cells were induced to become a mesoderm and then blood cells and then red blood cells. The final step was to make them eject their nuclei and mature properly. Type O can be transfused into all patients. Human clinical trials were not expected to begin before 2016.\n",
"Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.\n",
"These global hematopoietic cells from donors or cord blood units are used to transplant patients around the world with a variety of with life-threatening blood disorders such as leukemia, lymphoma, aplastic anemia, as well as certain immune system and metabolic disorders.\n"
] |
What would happen if a soldier in the U.S. military from the south, was stationed in the north during the start of the civil war, but he support the confederacy and wanted to go fight for them? Would he be arrested or allowed to leave? | Fun fact, only officers really defected to the Confederacy. I am aware of no rank and file soldier defecting after secession, and even if one or two did, there was no mass exodus out of the Regular Army.
Thats important, because Officers were held to a different standard. Firstly, many of the men who became prominent officers during the war were civilians during the secession movement. Obviously, in that weird political limbo, it was pretty easy to slip away to their state of choice. But for active officers even, there was a different code of "honor", and many of these men knew each other socially. Its not like today, where tens of thousands of officers served in active duty in the Army. With a small army, the officer corps naturally grew intimate in a way were not familiar with. And when your friend, a drinking buddy, a West Point classmate, a social acquaintance said they were heading south, it was a lot harder to arrest them for treason. | [
"Hylan Benton Lyon (February 22, 1836 – April 25, 1907) was a career officer in the United States Army until the start of the American Civil War, when he resigned rather than fight against the South. As a Confederate brigadier general, he led a daring cavalry raid into Kentucky in December 1864, in which his troops burned seven county courthouses which were being used as barracks by the Union Army.\n",
"During the American Civil War, many white men from Mathews County enlisted in the Confederate Army. Some Union sympathizers petitioned President Abraham Lincoln for help, alleging that Confederate sympathizers had harassed them. Union forces by 1862 controlled the Hampton Roads area and in July 1862 a detachment of Pennsylvania cavalry arrived at Gloucester Court House, then went to Mathews to arrest Carter B. Hudgins, but were unsuccessful. Several other Union raids occurred beginning in September 1863, initially designed to disrupt Confederate salt works. However, in the October 1863 raid, Union General Wistar later reported some of his troops behaved very badly, and Sands Smith was executed after he shot a Union soldier attempting to confiscate his cow. His son and grandson would become prominent Mathews County officials by century's end. Also, Miss Sally Louisa Tompkins, of a prominent Mathews family, went to Richmond, Virginia and established a private hospital for Confederate wounded, which achieved significant success, such that she was granted an officer's commission on September 9, 1861 by Confederate President Jefferson Davis and continued to nurse the wounded until 1865.\n",
"During the American Civil War a Confederate officer who is also a Captain in the Union Cavalry is keeping Federal troops in the Colorado Territory from reinforcing their armies in the East by forming an alliance of secessionists, outlaws, and opportunists as well as arming hostile Indians. Unable to send more reinforcements, the United States Secret Service sends one man, Military intelligence officer Lieutenant Jerry Burke to identify who is behind the troubles and put an end to it. Armed with a sweeping letter of both law enforcement and military powers signed by President Abraham Lincoln Jerry meets his old comrade in arms Gabby to go west.\n",
"During the Civil War, over 90 percent of local men who enlisted to fight served in the Confederate military. In November 1861, Confederate General Albert Gallatin Jenkins and his Confederate forces passed by the creek on their way east with Union sympathizers captured in the town of Guyandotte. Shortly thereafter, while Confederates rested in Chapmanville, West Virginia, Union Major Kellian V. Whaley escaped and made his way to safety up Big Harts Creek to Queens Ridge. His escape was widely reported upon by newspapers.\n",
"In August 1864, in a skirmish during the Civil War in what was known as the Gex Landing Incident, members of the African-American United States Colored Troops and the United States Colored Cavalry engaged with CSA troops seeking to rescue local resident James Southard, a ferryman and Confederate sympathizer who had been arrested. USCT soldiers suffered an undetermined number of casualties.\n",
"Department of the South staff officer James D. Fessenden was heavily involved in efforts to recruit volunteers for the 1st South Carolina. Although it saw some combat, the regiment was not involved in any of the war's major battles. Its first commander was Thomas Wentworth Higginson, who—like all the other officers—was white. A proclamation by Confederate President Jefferson Davis had indicated that members of the regiment would not be treated as prisoners of war if taken in battle: The enlisted men were to be delivered to state authorities to be auctioned off or otherwise treated as runaway slaves, while the white officers were to be hanged.\n",
"There was little military action in Winn Parish during the Civil War, but there was a problem with conscripts fleeing into the wooded areas to avoid military duty. The Confederate States Army defeated a Union detachment sent to destroy a salt works in the parish. Winn Parish contributed to the $80,000 raised to build fortifications on the nearby Red River.\n"
] |
what is the difference between a president, a chancellor, and a prime minister? | It varies from nation to nation. In general, many nations have both a head of government and a head of state.
In the Westminster system (UK, Canada, Australia), the Prime Minister is the head of the government and is in charge of all executive policy. The prime minister and other government ministers are also often, but not always, sitting members of the legislature. The head of state is largely a cerimonial role, often filled by a king, queen, or governor general.
In the United States of America, the president is the head of state and the head of the government's executive branch. However, the USA observes strict separation between the executive branch and the legislature. The president does not sit in the house, cannot vote on legislation (although he or she must either veto it or sign it into law), and cannot whip his or her party. However, the Vice President does have a tie-breaking role in the Senate.
In countries that have both a President and a Prime Minister, the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. What duties belong to whom varies from country to country however it is common for the President to handle foreign affairs, non-political affairs, and exercise discretionary reserve powers.
Chancellor is a title in Germany that is equivalent to Prime Minister. | [
"The Chancellor is the head of government and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the Federal Cabinet, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a \"constructive vote of no confidence\".\n",
"The chancellor is responsible for all economic and financial matters, equivalent to the role of finance minister in other nations. The position is considered one of the four Great Offices of State, and in recent times has come to be the most powerful office in British politics after the prime minister.\n",
"A Chancellor is typically appointed or dismissed together with his or her ministers, which means the whole government. Technically, the President can only appoint ministers on advice of the Chancellor, so the Chancellor is appointed first. Having been sworn in, the Chancellor presents the President with his or her list of ministers; they will usually have been installed just minutes later. Neither Chancellors nor ministers need to be confirmed by either house of parliament; the appointees are fully capable of discharging the functions of their respective offices immediately after having been sworn in.\n",
"Germany has a parliamentary system of government in which the chancellor (same rights and duties as a Prime Minister) is the head of government. The president has far-reaching ceremonial obligations, but also the right and duty to act politically. What is more, he can give direction to general political and societal debates and has some important \"reserve powers\" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81 of the Basic Law). The German presidents, who can be elected to two consecutive five-year terms, have wide discretion about how they exercise their official duties.\n",
"BULLET::::- The chancellor is the first minister of any new cabinet to be appointed and represents the cabinet vis-a-vis the president. Ministers other than the chancellor can only be appointed on nomination by the chancellor. The president also needs the chancellor's active cooperation to a minister other than the chancellor.\n",
"The head of state is the President of Germany, where the president completes a five-year term and can be reelected after that five-year term for only one time. He has similar roles like to other countries. He represents Germany as the Commander-in-chief of the military, He has the role of being the Minister of Defense and Germany cannot declare a state of war without the approval of the president. The president then appoints what is called a chancellor, which is known as Germany’s Head of state. Which the role is pretty comparable to a prime minister like in other countries. There are many roles the chancellor has here are a few of them. The chancellor provides basic law and for their party, it determines the composition of the Federal Cabinet. But the president then gives recommendation on appointing and dismissing Cabinet Minister, through the Federal Cabinet. The chancellor then goes by three main principles. The first is called the Chancellor Principles in which he or she is responsible for all government policies. The Second one is called The Principle of ministerial autonomy in which the chancellor prepares everything for the legislative and proposes other laws threw the Cabinet and the third one is called Cabinet Principle were this calls for disagreements between federal ministers over Jurisdictional or Budgeting relative things, in which is settled by the Cabinet. Germany has what is called a Federal legislative power which is divided between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag is elected by the German people. To were the Bundestrat represents the regional states. It seems that Bundestag is more powerful than the Bundesrat. The reason is because bundestag has more powers and responsibilities of that the states given to it. The judicial branch of Germany has three courts which are the Ordinary Courts, Specialized Courts and the Constitutional Courts. Ordinary courts, deal with criminal and civil cases. Specialized Courts, deal with administrative, labor, social, fiscal, and patent law and Constitutional Courts deal with more of judicial review and constitutional interpretation. The big thing in Germany constitution is individual liberty, which gives protection to individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human rights and also divides powers between the federal and state levels which are between the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches.\n",
"The federal chancellor's dual role as executive officeholder and heavyweight party official well-connected to the legislature makes him or her far more powerful than the formally senior federal president. Actual executive authority thus lies with the chancellor and his or her ministers, while the federal president is a figurehead rather than an actual head of government. Austria's presidents are largely content with their ceremonial role, \n"
] |
why are there so many fake movie trailers trending on youtube? | Majority of them are getting tricked, it's like people watching those GTA 6 videos. The people posting them do it on purpose for views, this one guy had practically made a living by making videos like "Rockstar accidentally sent me GTA 6!" If you throw some ads on you can make some pretty easy money | [
"Over the years, there have been many instances where trailers give misleading representations of their films. They may give the impression that a celebrity who only has a minor part in the film is one of the main cast members, or advertising a film as being more action-packed than it is. These tricks are usually done to draw in a larger audience. Sometimes the trailers include footage not from the film itself. This could be an artistic choice, or because the trailer was put together before the film's final cut, but at other times it is to give the audience a different impression of the movie. Then trailers could be misleading in a 'for the audience's own good' kind of way, in that a general audience would not usually see such a film due to preconceptions, and by bait and switching, they can allow the audience to have a great viewing experience that they would not ordinarily have. However, the opposite is true too, with the promise of great trailers being let down by mediocre films. An American woman sued the makers of \"Drive\" because their film \"failed to live up to its promo's promise\", although her lawsuit was dismissed. In August 2016, an American lawyer attempted to sue \"Suicide Squad\" for false advertising over lack of scenes including Joker.\n",
"Later examples of major motion picture events that used teaser trailers to gain hype are \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy, the \"Star Wars\" prequels, and the \"Spider-Man\" films. \"The Da Vinci Code\" teaser trailer was released even before a single frame of the movie had been shot. \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\"'s teaser trailer was released surprisingly late, but when it was pushed back from November 21, 2008 to July 17, 2009, the trailer was surprisingly early.\n",
"With continued growth of the Internet, including the ease of mixing videos and publishing to sites like YouTube, re-mix trailers continued to gain popularity. While most were made with the intent of present a film in a different genre than intended, other trailers were made to rectify what some might see as bad marketing or approaches to movie promotion. A notable example was the fan-made re-cut of \"John Carter\" based on the Edgar Rice Burroughs character. Michael Sellers, a fan of Burroughs' work, had been disappointed by the trailers Disney had released, including the one used during Super Bowl XLVI. He and his friend Mark Linthicum spent the evening after the Super Bowl downloading available material for the film and other works to piece together a more representative trailer of the source material; this caught not only the attention of the film's director Andrew Stanton, but of major media productions that praised the trailer's quality over Disney's own efforts. In a similar vein, the web series \"Honest Trailers\" from Screen Junkies similar remixes films to create trailers that sarcastically portray what happens in the film.\n",
"Before each segment, there are trailers advertising fake films, as well as vintage theater snipes and an ad for a fictional restaurant called Acuña Boys. According to Rodriguez, it was Tarantino's idea to film fake trailers for \"Grindhouse\". \"I didn't even know about it until I read it in the trades. It said something like 'Rodriguez and Tarantino doing a double feature and Tarantino says there's gonna be fake trailers.' And I thought, 'There are?'\" Rodriguez and Tarantino had originally planned to make all of the film's fake trailers themselves. According to Rodriguez, \"We had so many ideas for trailers. I made \"Machete\". I shot lobby cards and the poster and cut the trailer and sent it to Quentin, and he just flipped out because it looked so vintage and so real. He started showing it around to Eli Roth and to Edgar Wright, and they said, 'Can we do a trailer? We have an idea for a trailer!' We were like, 'Hey, let them shoot it. If we don't get around to shooting ours, we'll put theirs in the movie. If theirs come out really great, we'll put it in the movie to have some variety.' Then Rob Zombie came up to me in October at the Scream Awards and said, 'I have a trailer: \"Werewolf Women of the SS\".' I said, 'Say no more. Go shoot it. You got me.'\" Each trailer was shot in two days. While Wright and Roth shot only what ended up on screen, Zombie shot enough footage to work into a half-hour film and was particularly pained to edit it down. Some Canadian screening releases included the South by Southwest-winning trailer \"Hobo with a Shotgun\".\n",
"Some trailers use \"special shoot\" footage, which is material that has been created specifically for advertising purposes and does not appear in the actual film. The most notable film to use this technique was \"\", whose trailer featured an elaborate special effect scene of a T-800 Terminator being assembled in a factory that was never intended to be in the film itself. Dimension Films also shot extra scenes for their 2006 horror remake, \"Black Christmas\" - these scenes were used in promotional footage for the film, but are similarly absent from the theatrical release. A trailer for the 2002 blockbuster \"Spider-Man\" had an entire action sequence especially constructed that involved escaping bank robbers in a helicopter getting caught in a giant web between the World Trade Center's two towers. However, after the September 11 attacks the studio pulled it from theaters.\n",
"Film teasers are usually made for big-budget and popularly themed movies. Their purpose is less to tell the audience about a movie's content than simply to let them know that the movie is coming up in the near future, and to add to the hype of the upcoming release. Teaser trailers are often made while the film is still in production or being edited and as a result they may feature scenes or alternate versions of scenes that are not in the finished film. Often they contain no dialogue and some (notably Pixar films) have scenes made for use in the trailer only. Teaser trailers today are increasingly focused on internet downloading and the fan convention circuit. Some teaser trailers show a quick montage of scenes from the film.\n",
"Critics generally enjoyed the fake trailers. Geoff Pevere of the \"Toronto Star\" wrote that the use of the trailers helps the film establish \"its credibility as both mock-artifact and geeky fetish object even before the opening feature.\" Todd McCarthy of \"Variety\" claimed that the trailers were \"excellent candidates for exploitation immortality.\" Jeff Vice of \"Deseret News\", who gave the feature films negative reviews, called the trailers \"... the strongest aspect of the entire presentation.\" Maitland McDonagh of \"TV Guide\" added, \"With the exception of \"Werewolf Women\", which tries a little too hard, they're all spot-on pastiches.\"\n"
] |
What was life like in Rome's provinces? How different would life be in a province compared to Rome itself? | This is a very, very vast and complicated question. Not only does the meaning of what a province actually *is* change considerably over the course of Roman history, but the provinces themselves have an internal history and considerable variation, from Britannia to Egypt or Baetica to Syria. There can be more variation in a provicne itself than between Rome and a province, meaning, life in Augusta Treverorum/Trier in the 3rd/4th century would be more similar to life in Rome than to life in a small village 10 km away, or a villa rustica outside the gates of the citry.
If you could narrow it down to an area or time-frame that interests you, that would be very helpful since otherwise this is just too vast a question to answer easily (to give you an idea consider a modern analogy - switch provinces with U.S. states and Rome with Washington, even if it's a poor analogy - and try to answer that question over only some 300 years of history). | [
"Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or \"municipia\", whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (\"peregrini\"), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the \"civitates stipendariae\" were the lowest grade, after the \"civitates foederatae\" (\"allied states\") which were bound to Rome by formal treaty (\"foedus\"), and the \"civitates liberae\" (\"free states\"), which were granted specific privileges. The \"civitates stipendariae\" were by far the most common of the three—for example, in 70 BC in Sicily there were 65 such cities, as opposed to only 5 \"civitates liberae\" and 2 \"foederatae\"—and furnished the bulk of a province's revenue.\n",
"Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or \"municipia\", whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (\"peregrini\"), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the lowest were the \"civitates stipendariae\" (\"tributary states\"), followed by the \"civitates liberae\" (\"free states\"), which had been granted specific privileges. Unlike the latter, the \"civitates foederatae\" were individually bound to Rome by formal treaty (\"foedus\"). Although they remained formally independent, the \"civitates foederatae\" in effect surrendered their foreign relation to Rome, to which they were bound by perpetual alliance. Nevertheless, the citizens of these cities enjoyed certain rights under Roman law, like the \"commercium\" and the \"conubium\". In the Greek East, many of the Greek city-states (\"poleis\") were formally liberated and granted some form of formal guarantee of their autonomy. As they had a long history and tradition of their own, most of these communities were content with this status, unlike in the Latin West, where, with their progressive Romanization, many communities sought a gradual advancement to the status of a \"municipium\" or even a \"colonia\".\n",
"The province had about 10 Roman towns, all originating from the military camps that Trajan constructed during his campaigns. There were two sorts of urban settlements. Of principal importance were the \"coloniae\", whose free-born inhabitants were almost exclusively Roman citizens. Of secondary importance were the \"municipia\", which were allowed a measure of judicial and administrative independence.\n",
"The Roman provinces (Latin: \"provincia\", pl. \"provinciae\") were the lands and people outside of Rome itself that were controlled by the Republic and later the Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman who was appointed as governor. Although different in many ways, they were similar to the states in Australia or the United States, the regions in the United kingdom or New Zealand, or the prefectures in Japan. Canada refers to some of its territory as provinces.\n",
"Rome left a legacy of founding many cities as \"Colonia\". There were more than 500 Roman colonies spread through the Empire, most of them populated by veterans of the Roman legions. Some Roman colonies rose to become influential commercial and trade centers, transportation hubs and capitals of international empires, like Constantinople, London, Paris and Vienna.\n",
"Under Augustus, Roman provinces were classified as either public or imperial, meaning that their governors were appointed by either the senate or by the emperor. Generally, the older provinces that existed under the republic were public. Public provinces were, as before under the republic, governed by a proconsul, who was chosen by lot among the ranks of senators who were ex-consuls or ex-\"praetors\", depending on the province assigned. \n",
"Each province of the empire was divided into three types of local authority: \"coloniae\" (Roman colonies, founded by retired legionary veterans), \"municipia\" (cities with \"Latin Rights\", a sort of half-citizenship) and \"civitates peregrinae\", the local authorities of the \"peregrini\".\n"
] |
why does gravity influence objects with larger mass, even though they're farther away, more than those with smaller mass | The thing with space station is not that they're so far away or anything. If you build a tower as high as to reach ISS, you would experience about 90% of normal surface gravity on top of that building. You would not float, things would fall down almost as fast as on Earth.
The difference is that on ISS, people are on free fall. That's what makes weightlessness happen. In fact, that's how you train astronauts for weightlessness as well, you climb high up with aeroplane, and then just dive at free fall speed for as long as possible. People inside remain weightless until plane has to stop dive to avoid crashing.
ISS however is not gonna crash. Orbiting basically happens when you're moving sideways fast enough that on free fall you miss the Earth. That means everyone will remain weightless there.
The moon orbits Earth just the same, it falls towards Earth but keeps missing because of sideways motion | [
"The distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity does not vary too much on the surface of the Earth. In a uniform gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is directly proportional to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, weighing (using a weighing scale) is an entirely acceptable way of measuring mass. Similarly, a balance measures mass indirectly by comparing the weight of the measured item to that of an object(s) of known mass. Since the measured item and the comparison mass are in virtually the same location, so experiencing the same gravitational field, the effect of varying gravity does not affect the comparison or the resulting measurement.\n",
"The motion of any mass is affected by the gravitational field. The motion of planets is affected by the Sun's enormous gravitational field. Likewise, a heavier object will influence the motion of other objects of smaller mass in its vicinity. However, this change in the motion is very small compared to the motion of heavenly bodies. Hence, special instruments are required to measure such a minute change.\n",
"The motion of any mass is affected by the gravitational field. The motion of planets is affected by the Sun's enormous gravitational field. Likewise, a heavier object will influence the motion of other objects of smaller mass in its vicinity. However, this change in the motion is very small compared to the motion of heavenly bodies. Hence, special instruments are required to measure such a minute change.\n",
"Because at any given point on Earth the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, the mass of an object in kilograms is usually measured by comparing its weight to the weight of a standard mass, whose mass is known in kilograms, using a device called a weighing scale. The ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses.\n",
"The fact that many large celestial objects are approximately spheres makes it easier to calculate their surface gravity. The gravitational force outside a spherically symmetric body is the same as if its entire mass were concentrated in the center, as was established by Sir Isaac Newton. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius. For example, the recently discovered planet, Gliese 581 c, has at least 5 times the mass of Earth, but is unlikely to have 5 times its surface gravity. If its mass is no more than 5 times that of the Earth, as is expected, and if it is a rocky planet with a large iron core, it should have a radius approximately 50% larger than that of Earth. Gravity on such a planet's surface would be approximately 2.2 times as strong as on Earth. If it is an icy or watery planet, its radius might be as large as twice the Earth's, in which case its surface gravity might be no more than 1.25 times as strong as the Earth's.\n",
"A better scientific definition of mass is its description as being composed of inertia, which is the resistance of an object being accelerated when acted on by an external force. Gravitational \"weight\" is the force created when a mass is acted upon by a gravitational field and the object is not allowed to free-fall, but is supported or retarded by a mechanical force, such as the surface of a planet. Such a force constitutes weight. This force can be added to by any other kind of force.\n",
"Mass is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (a change in its state of motion) when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies.\n"
] |
what are the differences between the electricity in the usa vs. europe. | Europe uses a 220 volt system, whereas the United States uses a 110 volt system. The 220 volt system is just more powerful, but can also be more dangerous if you are shocked by it. | [
"As a whole, the European Union currently generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration, saving Europe an estimated 35 Mtoe per annum. However, there are large differences between the member states, with energy savings ranging from 2% to 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world's most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.\n",
"The United States is a net importer of electricity from Canada, and a net exporter to Mexico. Overall, in 2012 the US had net electricity imports of 47 thousand gigawatt-hours, which was less than 1.2% of the electrical power generated within the US.\n",
"The United States has long been the largest producer and consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%, followed by China, Japan, Russia, and India. As of Jan-2010, total electricity generation for the two largest generators was as follows: USA: 3,992 billion kWh (3,992 TWh); China: 3,715 billion kWh (3,715 TWh).\n",
"The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration. However, there is large difference between Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three countries with the world’s most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland. Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.\n",
"Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia.\n",
"The United States is the world's second largest producer and consumer of electricity. It consumes about 20% of the world's electricity supply. This section provides a summary of the consumption and generation of the nation's electric industry, based on data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2017 files. Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) files. Consumption is detailed from the residential, commercial, industrial, and other user communities. Generation is detailed for the major fuel sources of coal, natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, hydro, and the other renewables of wind, wood, other biomass, geothermal, and solar. Changes to the electrical energy fuel mix and other trends are identified. Progress in wind and solar contributing to the energy mix are addressed. Expected changes in the generation environment during the next 5 years are discussed.\n",
"The electricity sector of the United States includes a large array of stakeholders that provide services through electricity generation, transmission, distribution and marketing for industrial, commercial, public and residential customers. It also includes many public institutions that regulate the sector.\n"
] |
how are new data points created in a video such that a video filmed in 30 fps can be viewed at 60 fps? | Interpolation is a process where a display unit (TV/Monitor) takes two frames and puts them together (similar to an "average") to generate an extra frame in the middle. By inserting an extra frame between each one that was recorded, you effectively double the frames per second and can bring 30 to 60. | [
"Some teams use digital video cameras to record the pass, and then review frame-by-frame to develop an estimate of distance, but the traditional frame rate of 30 frames per second (FPS) can present a problem in that it is unlikely to capture a frame of the exact moment the returning dog breaches the plane of the start/finish line. More recently, high-speed consumer cameras such as the Casio Exilim EX-FH100 have been used to record video at much higher frame rates.\n",
"It is the first MILC that can record video with a bit rate of up to 72 megabits per second. That is significantly higher than the specification of AVCHD 2.0 of up to 28 megabits per second, which was released in July 2011 and is used for similar cameras and camcorders.\n",
"For best results, footage should be deinterlaced and frame-doubled to 60p. This preserves all of the footage's temporal information, which is key in determining what the \"missing\" points in time should look like when converting to 24 frame/s.\n",
"Video can be recorded in four quality settings: Ultra Fine (720 x 480, 8.5Mbit/s), Fine (720 x 480, 5.5Mbit/s), Normal (720 x 480, 4.2Mbit/s), and Economy (352 x 240, 1.5Mbit/s). The built-in harddrive has capacity of 30GB (40GB for GZ-MG575) and can hold up to 7 hours of video when recorded at the highest quality setting. \n",
"This is currently the highest quality method of converting 60i footage to 24p. It involves using optical flow to extrapolate 24 frames of information from 60 frames while compensating for the time displacement between the two. For example, in one second of 60i footage, each image is captured at 1/60 second, which does not perfectly align with images that would have been captured 24 times per second. Simply \"cherry picking\" 24 images out of 60 does not present 24 frames with perfect temporal consistency, since more or less time may have elapsed between frames. The result is a slightly jittery picture, which appears to jitter in a cyclic fashion. Optical flow algorithms will analyze the footage and make corrections to the picture in order to better \"fit\" each frame into the new 24 frame sequence. The resulting footage is much smoother because it simulates equal exposure time between frames.\n",
"The 50 Hz version of the camcorder, HDR-HC1E, throws away one field from the original interlaced video and doubles another, effectively halving both temporal and spatial resolution. The result can be treated as 25- frame/s progressive video because there is no motion between the two fields of one video frame.\n",
", the highest resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 35 megapixels (8192 x 4320). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording.\n"
] |
If a Tsunami is coming inland would it be better to attempt to go upward into skyscraper, or try to go inland? | That depends on your location on the beach, the structural integrity of the beach-side buildings and the size of the tsunami.
Most tsunami travel a fairly short distance once beached, think of how quickly a big wave stops when walking on sand. The flooding can reach 300 meters or more from the coastline, the average human can sprint this distance in 30 seconds to a minute so this is likely your best bet.
If you heppen to be in a skyscapper near the beach when a tsunami hits, you are likely safe (or really, really not safe; depends on the engineers who built it).
Otherwise it is probably not worthwhile to try to cram into one, as it will wase time you could spend running. Just make sure you don't get stuck in the horde and evacuate as soon as you hear a tsunami warning. If you can see the wave and are not in safe high groung, you are doing it wrong.
Also, mabe don't go to the beach after an earthquake.
| [
"Tsunamis, potentially enormous waves often caused by earthquakes, have great erosional and sediment-reworking potential. They may strip beaches of sand that may have taken years to accumulate and may destroy trees and other coastal vegetation. Tsunamis are also capable of flooding hundreds of meters inland past the typical high-water level and fast-moving water, associated with the inundating tsunami, can crush homes and other coastal structures.\n",
"As a tsunami moves into shallower water its speed decreases, its wavelength shortens and its amplitude increases enormously, behaving in the same way as a wind-generated wave in shallow water, but on a vastly greater scale. Either the trough or the crest of a tsunami can arrive at the coast first. In the former case, the sea draws back and leaves subtidal areas close to the shore exposed which provides a useful warning for people on land. When the crest arrives, it does not usually break but rushes inland, flooding all in its path. Much of the destruction may be caused by the flood water draining back into the sea after the tsunami has struck, dragging debris and people with it. Often several tsunami are caused by a single geological event and arrive at intervals of between eight minutes and two hours. The first wave to arrive on shore may not be the biggest or most destructive. Occasionally, a tsunami may transform into a bore, typically in a shallow bay or an estuary.\n",
"When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed \"run up\". Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run-up.\n",
"In areas where horizontal evacuation to higher ground is impossible, vertical evacuation to higher areas of a structure may be a way to shelter individuals from the surge of water, several meters high, that can follow an earthquake in coastal areas.\n",
"People in some areas would have had more than adequate time to seek safety if they were aware of the impending catastrophe. The only way to effectively mitigate the impact of a tsunami is through an early warning system. Other methods such as sea walls only work for a percentage of waves, but a warning system is effective for all waves originating outside a minimum distance from the coastline.\n",
"Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large.\n",
"As seen in the 1700 quake, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, subduction zone earthquakes can cause large tsunamis, and many coastal areas in the region have prepared tsunami evacuation plans in anticipation of a possible future Cascadia earthquake. However, the major nearby cities, notably Seattle, Portland, Vancouver, Victoria, and Tacoma, which are located on inland waterways rather than on the coast, would be sheltered from the full brunt of a tsunami. These cities do have many vulnerable structures, especially bridges and unreinforced brick buildings; consequently, most of the damage to the cities would probably be from the earthquake itself. One expert asserts that buildings in Seattle are vastly inadequate even to withstand an event of the size of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, let alone any more powerful one.\n"
] |
richard the lionheart. how did brits know what lions were if at that point they had never been to africa? | > If Brits didn't go to Africa until like the 17/1800s, why did they call Richard the first Richard the lionheart?
Here's your problem - this is untrue. It's true that there was less travel back then... but there was travel. Don't forget the Crusades were on during this time... which I believe is where Richard earned that moniker.
The English (calling them Brits is just incorrect historically) knew about lions. | [
"British Lions were a short-lived British rock band, together from 1977 to 1980, with former members of Mott and Medicine Head. They released just two studio albums with little commercial success in the UK.\n",
"The British Lions toured South Africa a number of times. Despite officially being South African tours, the Lions also played Rhodesia (as it was then). Later tours of the region were stopped until the 1990s, due to the controversy over playing Ian Smith's regime, and apartheid era South Africa.\n",
"The British and Irish Lions were regular visitors to South Africa until the 1980s, and the less formally segregated colony long before that. Their fondness for South Africa no doubt stemmed from the fact that the first tour they made was to South Africa. They would alternate these tours with tours to Australia and/or New Zealand.\n",
"The Barbary lion was a \"Panthera leo leo\" population in North Africa that is regionally extinct today. This population occurred in Barbary Coastal regions of Maghreb from the Atlas Mountains to Egypt and was eradicated following the spreading of firearms and bounties for shooting lions. A comprehensive review of hunting and sighting records revealed that small groups of lions may have survived in Algeria until the early 1960s, and in Morocco until the mid-1960s.\n",
"Lions are often identified as the king of the jungle and a symbol of power in the animal kingdom. The earliest pictures of lion hunting came from late pre-historic or early historic times and in the beginning it was not intended to be as a sport, but to rid the country of a plague, which was threatening people. Later, pictures emerged of the king taking hold of the lion to stab it to death as was displayed in Ramesses III's temple at Medinet Habu. Moreover, Tuthmosis III bragged about his ability to hunt lions, claiming that he killed seven lions in one second with his arrow shot. Amenophis III, a fan of big game hunting had a list of the animals he hunted, including one hundred and two wild lions in his first decade as ruler.\n",
"The 1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia was the twelfth tour by a British Isles team and the fifth to New Zealand and Australia. This tour is recognised as the first to represent a bona fide British team and the first to be widely dubbed the 'Lions', after the nickname was used by journalists during the 1924 tour of South Africa.\n",
"In the Middle Ages, when lions became a major element in heraldry, few Europeans had any chance to see actual lions. The lions were for them nearly as much legendary animals as were dragons or gryffins, which also commonly appeared on coats of arms.\n"
] |
Historic Document Translation? | You are correct, it means 'ditto'
It shows up very commonly in passenger and freight manifests for ships. Other things said would be 'same', 'above', 'SAA', a single or double quotation mark or a carrot.
Source: Pg 4, [Immigration Research Guide from _URL_0_](_URL_1_)
| [
"Translation history concerns the history of translators as a professional and social group, as well as the history of translations as indicators of the way cultures develop, interact, and may die. Some principles for translation history have been proposed by Lieven D'hulst and Pym. Major projects in translation history have included the Oxford History of Literary Translation in English and Histoire des traductions en langue française.\n",
"When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the \"Till Eulenspiegel\" folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.\n",
"There can be no one definitive English translation of the decree, not only because modern understanding of the ancient languages continues to develop, but also because of the minor differences between the three original texts. Older translations by E. A. Wallis Budge (1904, 1913) and Edwyn R. Bevan (1927) are easily available but are now outdated, as can be seen by comparing them with the recent translation by R. S. Simpson, which is based on the demotic text and can be found on line, or, best of all, with the modern translations of all three texts, with introduction and facsimile drawing, that were published by Quirke and Andrews in 1989.\n",
"Finally, Interpreting the Declaration of Independence by Translation is a roundtable of historians brought together to discuss the translation and reception of the Declaration of Independence in Japan, Mexico, Russia, China, Poland, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Israel. In addition to these reflections, the site includes actual translations of the Declaration into several different languages and \"re-translations\" back into English to illustrate the effects of translation on how a key historical document has been understood.\n",
"A number of translation documents were created in 1835 in connection with the translation of the Book of Abraham, one of which is called the Grammar and Alphabet of the Egyptian Language (GAEL). There is evidence that this document was used in deciphering the Kinderhook Plates. In a May 7, 1843 letter to a friend apostle Parley P. Pratt wrote, \"A large number of Citizens have seen them and compared the characters with those on the Egyptian papyrus which is now in this city.\" A sympathetic letter also dated May 7, 1843 published in the New York Herald for May 30th, 1843 presents further evidence:\n",
"The work was translated into other languages in ancient time (Latin, Syriac, Armenian). Codex Syriac 1 housed at the National Library of Russia is one of the oldest Syriac manuscripts, dated to the year 462. The first English translation was by Mary Basset, the granddaughter of Sir Thomas More, made between 1544 and 1553; the first version to be printed was by Meredith Hanmer, in 1576.\n",
"In September 2017, NRK reported that documents originated by Norwegian individuals and organizations and translated by Translate.com are openly available online, also specifically reporting on internal documents of Statoil. A couple of days later, YLE reported that it was easily able to find, via Google searches, hundreds of confidential documents originated by Finnish companies, organizations, and individuals that had been translated by Translate.com and made publicly available on the Internet. YLE reported that the license terms of Translate.com grant it the rights to keep documents translated by it, and to make them available online alongside its translation service.\n"
] |
why do so many apps require sign-up these days? | They require this information so they or their partners can send you marketing information based on what you so on you phone, where you are, what time it is, etc. If you want to use these apps most of the time you don't have a choice. Some of the app owners may also sell on the information they gather from you. | [
"A new single sign-on implementation known as \"Sign in with Apple\" was implemented, allowing users to create accounts with third-party services with a minimal amount of information. Users have the option to generate a disposable email address for each site, improving privacy, anonymity, and further reduces the amount of information that can be associated with a single email address. All iOS applications that support third-party login methods, such as Facebook and Google, must support the \"Sign in with Apple\" system, and the iOS human interface guidelines recommend that developers place the \"Sign in with Apple\" option above other login methods.\n",
"Single sign-on in theory can work without revealing identifying information like email address to the relying party (credential consumer), but many credential providers do not allow users to configure what information is passed on to the credential consumer. As of 2019, Google and Facebook sign-in do not require users to share email address with the credential consumer. 'Sign in with Apple' introduced in iOS 13 allows user to request a unique relay email each time the user signs up for a new service, thus reducing the likelihood of account linking by the credential consumer.\n",
"Developers need to sign their iOS and tvOS apps before running them on any real device and before uploading them to the App Store. This is needed to prove that the developer owns a valid Apple Developer ID. An application needs a valid profile or certificate so that it can run on the devices.\n",
"Computer app designers have been advised to take advantage of the IKEA effect by providing \"sample data, pre-filled defaults, and editable templates to help make your app feel animated with content and connections, and alive to users. Then use email triggers, prompts, and guidance to get people to interact with that content — even if it's just to move a card around on a board or reply to an email. This helps to lower the fear and frustration of dealing with a new product while increasing capabilities.\" The manufacturers of such computer products as Wistia, Basecamp, and iDoneThis have been guided by the IKEA effect in introducing them to the public.\n",
"SignEasy allows users to send documents to others for signatures. SignEasy was Featured among Best Business Apps in App Store 2014 & 2015. And the only eSignature app featured in Apple's global TV commercials.\n",
"Adobe Sign is a complete, automated electronic signature and web contracting solution that lets users send, e-sign, track, and file documents securely online. There is nothing to download or install because it's an online service used with a web browser. People can send and e-sign using mobile devices. Adobe Sign works with leading cloud-based automation tools like Salesforce, Dropbox, Workday, NetSuite, and Microsoft Office, SharePoint and Dynamics. Free and paid subscriptions are available. Users can access Adobe Sign from the Sign pane in Adobe Reader XI or Adobe Acrobat XI.\n",
"In January 2015, the apps gained the ability to translate physical signs in real time using the device's camera, as a result of Google's acquisition of the Word Lens app. The original January launch only supported seven languages, but a July update added support for 20 new languages, and also enhanced the speed of Conversation Mode translations.\n"
] |
Why were there so many different names for the ancient greeks? Lacedemonians, hellenes, etc... | In the Classical period, there is only one name for the Greeks: *hoi Hellênes*, the people of Hellas.
There were, however, numerous ways to refer to the Greeks in earlier times. In the works of Homer, the most common name for the Greeks is *hoi Akhaioi*, the Achaeans; this may have been an archaising way to refer to the Greeks, which originally dates back to the Mycenaean period. In Classical times, the name referred only to the people of Achaea, an unremarkable region in the north of the Peloponnese.
Additional names found in the Iliad and Odyssey are *hoi Danaoi*, the Danaans, and *hoi Argeioi*, the Argives. Like "Achaeans", the latter is a *pars pro toto* elision - the name of one part is used as a name for the whole. The city of Argos was one of the largest and most prominent cities in mainland Greece, and so its people were apparently used as a shorthand to mean all the Greeks.
None of the Homeric names remained in widespread use. For most of Antiquity, the standard Greek name for the Greeks was *hoi Hellênes*. However, the Greek world consisted of many hundreds of smaller states, regions, and dialect groups, all of which had their own names (and sometimes several names). Your example, "Lacedaemonians", does not mean "the Greeks" as a whole - it is the name for the inhabitants of Lacedaemon, a region in the southeastern Peloponnese of which the main urban centre was the town of Sparta.
There are certainly many names for the full citizens of Sparta. As citizens they were known as Equals and as Spartiates; as inhabitants of their region they were called Spartans and Laconians and Lacedaemonians; as speakers of Doric Greek, they were called Dorians; and finally, as inhabitants of Hellas, they were called Hellenes. But only that final word described the ancient Greeks as a whole. | [
"In the classical period, the generic term for Greeks was \"Hellenes\", echoing the Hesiodic foundation story in which Hellen was the founder of the Greek race. However, in the \"Iliad\", \"Hellenes\" is restricted to those inhabitants of \"Hellas\", a region in Thessaly. There were therefore at least two different traditions concerning the origins of the Greeks, and for this reason, a direct connection between the historic Achaeans and Mycenaean-era Greeks is difficult to establish on the basis of name alone. For instance, the historic Lacedaemonians used that name, but claimed no connection to the Lacedaemonians mentioned in the \"Iliad\"; the use of the same name does not therefore automatically imply direct descent.\n",
"Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\" (the Homeric \"long-haired Achaeans\" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are (Δαναοί) and (Ἀργεῖοι) while (Πανέλληνες) and (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the \"Iliad\"; all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity. In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.\n",
"The Greeks () have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is \"Hellen\" (), pl. Hellenes (); the name \"Greeks\" () was used by the ancient Romans and gradually entered the European languages through its use in Latin. The mythological patriarch \"Hellen\" is the named progenitor of the Greek peoples; his descendants the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians correspond to the main Greek tribes and to the main dialects spoken in Greece and Asia Minor (Anatolia).\n",
"The Achaeans (; \"Akhaioí,\" \"the Achaeans\" or \"of Achaea\") constitute one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's \"Iliad\" (used 598 times) and \"Odyssey\". The other common names are Danaans (; \"Danaoi\"; used 138 times in the \"Iliad\") and Argives (; ; used 182 times in the \"Iliad\") while Panhellenes ( \"Panhellenes,\" \"All of the Greeks\") and Hellenes (; \"Hellenes\") both appear only once; all of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek civilizational identity. In the historical period, the Achaeans were the inhabitants of the region of Achaea, a region in the north-central part of the Peloponnese. The city-states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League, which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.\n",
"The name first appears in Greek literature in Homer as Ἰάονες, \"iāones\", used on a single occasion of some long-robed Greeks attacked by Hector and apparently identified with Athenians, and this Homeric form appears to be identical with the Mycenaean form but without the *-w-. This name also appears in a fragment of the other early poet, Hesiod, in the singular Ἰάων, \"iāōn\".\n",
"The philosophical, religious, and tribal identities of the gymnosophists that the Greeks encountered in the 3rd Century B.C. at the town of Taxila in Ancient India were not preserved in the ancient Greek literature, leading to much modern speculation. The following have been proposed as non-mutually exclusive possibilities.\n",
"\"Lacedaemonia\" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica glossing place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's \"Lexicon\" (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a \"place in Lacedaemonia\" named after Agis. The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's \"Etymologiae\" (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. He relied heavily on Orosius' \"Historiarum Adversum Paganos\" (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's \"Chronicon\" (early 5th century AD) as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be \"Lacedaemonia Civitas\" but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, relying on Eusebius. There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of Lacedaemonia, in Diodorus Siculus, but probably with (‘’chúra’’, \"country\") suppressed.\n"
] |
Why don't Americans eat very much sheep? | Hi, not discouraging further contributions here, but you may be interested in some previous threads on sheep in the USA
* [If sheep were so numerous and popular in medieval times, why do we use so few sheep products now? What happened to the sheep?](_URL_0_), with a few follow-on comments here [Why do I not eat mutton?](_URL_2_)
* [Why/how did North Americans stop eating lamb in favour of other meats?](_URL_1_) | [
"Since the 1960s, per capita consumption of lamb and mutton declined from nearly 5 pounds to just about 1 pound, due to competition from poultry, pork, beef, and other meats. Since the 1990s, U.S. sheep operations declined from around 105,000 to around 80,000 due to shrinking revenues and low rates of return. According to the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, the \"sheep industry accounts for less than 1 percent of U.S. livestock industry receipts.\"\n",
"Because the traditional way of life had been taken away from the Native Americans, a domino effect of problems began to arise. During a normal day of hunting, gathering, and normal activities, the pre-reservation Indians expended approximately 4,000 calories a day, while eating a high fiber, low fat diet. After the reservation system went into effect, Indians were no longer able to hunt or gather food, but expected to farm in a community that at certain places had no water source, or there was no money to buy supplies for a farm in the first place, which led to more poverty. Poverty led to poor eating habits, which led to diseases such as diabetes mellitis.\n",
"Southeastern Native Americans also supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. Venison was an important meat staple, due to the abundance of white-tailed deer in the area. They also hunted rabbits, squirrels, opossums, and raccoons. Livestock, adopted from Europeans, in the form of hogs and cattle, were kept. Aside from the meat, it was not uncommon for them to eat organ meats such as liver, brains, and intestines. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like chitterlings, commonly called chitlins, which are the fried large intestines of hogs; livermush, a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver; and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly of hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying. Many of the early settlers were taught Southeastern Native American cooking methods.\n",
"Native Americans served as the caretakers of bison, so their forced movement towards bison-free reservation areas was particularly challenging. Upon their arrival to reservations, some tribes asked the Government officials if they could hunt cattle the way they hunted buffalo. During these cattle hunts, Plains Indians would dress up in their finery, sing bison songs, and attempt to simulate a bison hunt. These cattle hunts served as a way for the Plains Indians to preserve their ceremonies, community, and morale. However, the U.S. government soon put a halt to cattle hunts, choosing to package the beef up for the Native Americans instead.\n",
"The groups that depend on the blubber animals are the most fortunate in the hunting way of life, for they never suffer from fat-hunger. This trouble is worst, so far as North America is concerned, among those forest Indians who depend at times on rabbits, the leanest animal in the North, and who develop the extreme fat-hunger known as rabbit-starvation. Rabbit eaters, if they have no fat from another source—beaver, moose, fish—will develop diarrhea in about a week, with headache, lassitude and vague discomfort. If there are enough rabbits, the people eat till their stomachs are distended; but no matter how much they eat they feel unsatisfied. Some think a man will die sooner if he eats continually of fat-free meat than if he eats nothing, but this is a belief on which sufficient evidence for a decision has not been gathered in the North. Deaths from rabbit-starvation, or from the eating of other skinny meat, are rare; for everyone understands the principle, and any possible preventive steps are naturally taken.\n",
"Nowadays, freshwater mussels are generally considered to be unpalatable and are almost entirely not consumed, although the native peoples of North America ate them extensively and still do today. In the USA during the Second World War, mussels were commonly served in diners and eateries across the country. This was due to the lack of access to red meat (such as beef and pork) for the general public, in relation to the aspect of the American wartime rationing policy concerning food, with much of the meat available being sent to aid the US military's war efforts abroad. Instead, mussels became a popular substitute for most meats (with the exception of chicken).\n",
"On a much smaller scale sheep grazing was locally popular; sheep were easier to feed and needed less water. However, Americans did not eat mutton. As farmers moved in open range cattle ranching came to an end and was replaced by barbed wire spreads where water, breeding, feeding, and grazing could be controlled. This led to \"fence wars\" which erupted over disputes about water rights.\n"
] |
how was the chris hanson predator show not entrapment? | Entrapment involves inducing someone to commit a crime they otherwise would not be inclined to carry out. For example threatening someone to get them to buy drugs. However posing as a drug dealer and arresting those attempting to buy drugs is not entrapment, as people not inclined to illegally purchase drugs would not do so even if the opportunity was presented by the undercover officer.
In the case of To Catch a Predator the police were simply posing as underage children. Someone who was not a pedophile wouldn't be caught up in such an act, so it isn't entrapment. | [
"On 5 September 1997, the Court of Appeal gave Howard Hughes leave to appeal against his conviction for the abduction, rape and murder of Sophie Hook. Six months later he sparked further outrage by launching a £50,000 compensation claim against the Bryn Estyn children's home, where he claimed he was abused as a child. Two weeks later, the Court of Appeal rejected Hughes's bid to have his convictions quashed.\n",
"Entrapment of a suspect in Australia is legal if the police obtain a \"controlled operations authority certificate.\" However, the police did not get a certificate so the entrapment was illegal. At his trial Justice James Wood allowed the entrapment into evidence. Wood criticized the media for accepting claims as credible and giving them undue prominence in newspapers.\n",
"Prosecutors told jurors that a 2007 meeting between the defendants had been bugged by police, and revealed that SHAC supported illegal acts that were traced to attacks on people across Great Britain. The prosecution also alleged there was evidence of direct email links between SHAC, the Animal Liberation Front, and Animal Rights Militia. \"Der Spiegel\" wrote that as a result of the police operation the number of attacks on HLS and associated businesses declined drastically, although the day after the convictions new posts on SHAC's website indicated that the campaign would continue.\n",
"The blackmailers vandalise Farr's Chiswick property, painting \"\"FARR IS QUEER\"\" on his garage door. Farr resolves to help the police catch them and promises to give evidence in court, despite knowing that the ensuing press coverage will certainly destroy his career. The blackmailers are identified and arrested. Farr tells Laura to leave before the ugliness of the trial, but that he will welcome her return afterward. She tells him that she believes she has found the strength to return to him. Farr burns the suggestive photograph of him and Barrett.\n",
"Although entrapment does not ordinarily apply to actions taken by private organizations, when Perverted-Justice works sufficiently in concert with a law enforcement agency, the involvement of the state actor may allow for an entrapment defense. Perverted-Justice takes the position that it has precautions in place to avoid entrapment issues, claiming that volunteers never initiate contact with the target or instigate lewd conversations or talks of sexual meetings. However, former \"Dateline\" anchor Stone Phillips disputes that claim, arguing that, \"In many cases, the decoy is the first to bring up the subject of sex.\" Phillips defended the tactic as enticement as opposed to entrapment, stating that, \"Once the hook is baited, the fish jump and run with it like you wouldn't believe.\" In contrast, Montopoli contends that this alone may render \"Predator\"-related cases vulnerable to the defense of entrapment on the basis that targets might be enticed to commit a crime that they had no previous intent to commit.\n",
"Along the way, and unbeknownst to Danny, Velma and another male friend, Joe Lovelli, have committed blackmail. Velma has twice enticed men to her hotel room, where Joe waited in a closet with a camera. Using infrared film, Joe snapped photographs of the men in compromising positions with Velma. The blackmailers then extorted—or attempted to extort—hush-up money from their victims. Danny remains unaware of Velma and Joe's sideline until near the end of the book, when Velma's second blackmail victim, a mob-related big shot, propels the novel to its climax in a fatal car chase.\n",
"BULLET::::- In May 2007, Perverted-Justice was criticized in a now-dismissed employment lawsuit brought by former \"Dateline\" producer Marsha Bartel. In the filing, Bartel alleges that NBC provides financial incentives to the group to use trickery and to humiliate targets to \"enhance the comedic effect of the[ir] public exposure.\" According to Bartel, some of the men caught in the \"Predator\" sting operations have reported that the decoys begged them to come to the sting houses, even after they had decided to walk away. Perverted-Justice responded to the criticism by labeling Bartel a disgruntled former employee motivated by financial gain. The lawsuit was eventually dismissed after the New York Supreme Court ruled that \"an employer is free to terminate an employee at any time for any reason or no reason.\"\n"
] |
why does reddit have such a bad reputation amongst non-redditors | a lot of the big things reddit gets known for (the events that blow up) paint reddit in a bad light. The most popular probably is the witch hunt on the wrong guy for the Boston bombings, which made reddit look extremely racist. The other is the nazi flag on the front page (which is still the 6th most upvoted thing of all time) which..i mean you can see how that looks. And the other big one is the massive outpouring of anti-fat hatred and anti-woman hatred during the ellen pao fiasco | [
"Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like AdBlock and proxies, and they dislike \"feeling manipulated by brands\" but respond well to \"content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants.\" Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that \"Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign\" but there is a \"very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you.\" Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that \"reddit's communities belong to their members\" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions.\n",
"The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The possibilities that subreddits provide create new opportunities for raising attention and fostering discussion across various areas. In gaining popularity in terms of unique users per day, Reddit has been a platform to raise publicity for a number of causes. Additionally, the user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views.\n",
"reddit became a successful enterprise, calling itself “the front page of the Internet”, although it attracted its share of negative news, some of which arose from its \"hands off\" editorial approach of allowing content voted as worthy of retention to remain on its site. reddit's core values include anonymity and protecting identity, and these values center on the concept of open, free and protected speech on its website. reddit was acquired by Condé Nast Publications, the owner of technology Magazine WIRED in October 2006. Conde Nast wanted reddit to \"just focus on building out, which may involve adding to the current staff of four (all co-founders), who will all move from Boston to San Francisco and work at Wired's office.\" A long-standing rivalry also developed between reddit and Digg, a competing site, and a hostile feud with Gawker, a separate internet comment site, which remains at the time of writing, but by the time of the Violentacrez incident, Slowe had moved on.\n",
"Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions.\n",
"Since returning to Reddit, Huffman instituted a number of technological improvements including a better mobile experience and stronger infrastructure, as well as new content guidelines. These included a ban on content that incites violence, quarantining some material users might find offensive, and removing communities \"that exist solely to ... make Reddit worse for everyone else\". Shortly after returning, Huffman wrote that \"neither Alexis nor I created reddit to be a bastion of free speech, but rather as a place where open and honest discussion can happen.\" In a 2012 interview, Ohanian had used the same phrase to describe Reddit, as noted by \"The New Yorker\" and \"The Verge\".\n",
"As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn \"karma\" for their posts and comments, which reflects the user's standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit.\n",
"Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called \"subreddits\", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site's front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit's administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n"
] |
what action could navient take if all borrowers stopped paying our student loans? | I am sure there would be instant penalties for late payment. The borrowers would eventually have to pay extra interest. The debts are legal. Their manner of operation was not fair. If all the borrowers stopped paying the worth of the company would increase due to expected increased future revenue.
The company is good at collecting debt owed. They would just do it efficiently and make more money. | [
"Defaulting on student loans can also end in a lawsuit. The government and private lenders can sue in order to collect on loans. There is no time limit on suing to collect on federal student loans, and the borrower can be sued indefinitely. Private student loans, in most cases, are subject to statute of limitations laws depending on the state.\n",
"Student loan debtors have appealed to the US Department of Education for debt cancellation through defense to repayment claims. These efforts are premised on the allegations that they were defrauded. Students who attended the school during the time it closed may also be eligible for student loan cancellation. However, the Trump-DeVos administration has been unwilling to act in favor of students. \n",
"Unlike other consumer loans, Congress made student loans, both federal and private, exempt from discharge (cancellation) in the event of a personal bankruptcy, except when repaying the student loan would represent an undue hardship on the borrower and the borrower's dependents. This is a serious restriction that students rarely appreciate when obtaining a student loan.\n",
"Student loan deferment is an agreement between the student and lender that the student may reduce or postpone repayment of a student loan for a designated period. Deferment or forbearance will prevent the loan from going into default, but may increase the overall cost of the loan. If the student is experiencing financial hardship or is unemployed, he or she may be eligible for deferment. The lender may require valid proof of financial hardship and other financial information when the student applies.\n",
"Borrowers can either opt for a short-term relief by having their mortgage payment suspended for a short period of time (known as forbearance in the U.S.), or they can apply for reduced payments over the life of the loan’s term (known as loan modification in the U.S.). Lenders are required to give a particular reason as to why an application for hardship variation was being turned down by them. Borrowers are encouraged to talk to their internal complaints section of their respective bank or file a dispute.\n",
"Individuals who are worried that they are unable to service their student loan debt should receive advice and counseling. There are few options available for American students other than payment in full. The Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act makes discharging student loans through bankruptcy virtually impossible. Critics have noted that this lack of bankruptcy protection for consumers results in a \"risk-free\" loan for creditors, removing pressure on creditors to negotiate lower payments.\n",
"In the United States, student loans are rarely dischargeable in bankruptcy, and typically lenders provide student loans without requiring security. This stands in contrast to lenders requiring borrowers to have an equity stake in a comparably-sized real estate loan, as described above, secured by both a down payment and a mortgage. An explanation for the willingness of creditors to provide unsecured student loans is that, in a practical sense, American student loans are secured by the borrower's future earnings. This is so since creditors may legally garnish wages when a borrower defaults.\n"
] |
how old is the notion of the political party? | Many of the answers that have been given focus on the machinery of the modern political party, but the question is about the *notion* of the political party, which is rather different. As with many of the central ideas of modern liberal-democratic politics, this concept can be traced, broadly speaking, to 17th and 18th-century England. It's no surprise that David Hume, writing in the mid-18th century, comments on the novelty of the concept, listing beside "factions of interest" and "affection" the "parties from principle":
> Parties from principle, especially abstract speculative principle, are known only to modern times, and are, perhaps, the most extraordinary and unaccountable phænomenon, that has yet appeared in human affairs. [[Source](_URL_0_)]
Henry Bolingbroke was instrumental in formulating the idea, being one of the first figures to argue for the need for a systematic opposition. In his *On the Idea of a Patriot King*, Bolingbroke argued for a formal opposition party to scrutinise and oppose government policies. He used this argument to support the unity of the so-called "Country Party", a coalition that was formed to oppose the government at the time.
By the time of Edmund Burke in the later 18th century, the idea of the party had been firmly established: "a body of men united ... upon some particular principle".
This idea is closely linked to, and to a large extent enabled by, the development of British liberalism. The Enlightenment liberals essentially upheld the idea that it was possible to reasonably disagree on the common good -- this was rather in contrast to many previous arguments which had seen the definition of the common good as an inherent function of sovereignty (Hobbes, for instance, thought along these lines). On this basis it was possible to articulate the idea of factions of people united not because of venal interest or obligations, but because of their principled agreement on some particular issue.
It is interesting that in more recent history the idea of the party has swung back in the opposite direction, becoming seen not as a mechanism for legitimate disagreement but, as Hume would put it, a "faction of interest" (Marx, of course, was instrumental in triggering this change with his reduction of all political discourse to an economic 'base'). | [
"The First Party System is a model of American politics used in history and political science to periodize the political party system that existed in the United States between roughly 1792 and 1824. It featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress, and the states: the Federalist Party, created largely by Alexander Hamilton, and the rival Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party, formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, usually called at the time the Republican Party. The Federalists were dominant until 1800, while the Republicans were dominant after 1800.\n",
"Although American politics have been dominated by the two-party system, several other political parties have also emerged throughout the country's history. The oldest third party was the Anti-Masonic Party, which was formed in upstate New York in 1828. The party's creators feared the Freemasons, believing they were a powerful secret society that was attmpting to rule the country in defiance of republican principles.\n",
"The origin of the party can be traced back to the ideological divisions in the Labour Party in the 1950s (with its forerunner being the Campaign for Democratic Socialism established to support the Gaitskellites), but publicly lies in the 1979 Dimbleby Lecture given by Roy Jenkins as he neared the end of his presidency of the European Commission. Jenkins argued the necessity for a realignment in British politics, and discussed whether this could be brought about from within the existing Liberal Party, or from a new group driven by European principles of social democracy.\n",
"The first political party, established in the early 1970s, was called the New Hebrides National Party. One of the founders was Father Walter Lini, who later became Prime Minister. Renamed the Vanua'aku Pati in 1974, the party pushed for independence, which was gained amidst the brief Coconut War.\n",
"The idea of a political party with factions took form around the time of the Civil War. Soldiers from the Parliamentarian New Model Army and a faction of Levellers freely debated rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The Levellers published a newspaper (The Moderate) and pioneered political petitions, pamphleteering and party colours. Later, the pre-war Royalist (then Cavalier) and opposing Parliamentarian groupings became the Tory party and the Whigs in the Parliament.\n",
"The First Party System between 1792 and 1824 featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress, and the states: the Federalist Party was created by Alexander Hamilton and was dominant to 1800. The rival Republican Party (Democratic-Republican Party) was created by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, and was dominant after 1800. Both parties originated in national politics but moved to organize supporters and voters in every state. These comprised \"probably the first modern party system in the world\" because they were based on voters, not factions of aristocrats at court or parliament. The Federalists appealed to the business community, the Republicans to the planters and farmers. By 1796, politics in every state was nearly monopolized by the two parties.\n",
"Most of the Founding Fathers rejected political parties as divisive and disruptive. By the 1790s, however, most joined one of the two new parties, and by the 1830s parties had become accepted as central to the democracy. By the 1790s, the First Party System was born. Men who held opposing views strengthened their cause by identifying and organizing men of like mind. The followers of Alexander Hamilton, were called \"Federalists\"; they favored a strong central government that would support the interests of national defense, commerce and industry. The followers of Thomas Jefferson, the Jeffersonians took up the name \"Republicans\"; they preferred a decentralized agrarian republic in which the federal government had limited power.\n"
] |
Why did the pikemen of the Hellenistic phalanxes carry shields, while the medieval European pikemen didn't? | I don't know a ton about ancient pikemen, but as for the Swiss:
The massive pikes they used required two hands to use effectively, but that still could have allowed the use of a small shield. The Swiss pike formation adopted very aggressive tactics - the goal was to use a combination of speed, surprise, and shock to overrun the enemy force before they knew what hit them. Still, this doesn't necessarily preclude the use of a small shield.
I think a better answer would note that shields in general were in decline in European warfare at this time, or at least radical transformation when it came to their traditional function. First, the introduction of steel plate armor made shields increasingly redundant, as anything capable of getting through your breastplate would probably pierce a shield. Men-at-arms began to use two-handed weapons almost exclusively, and shields like the buckler became more associated with light armor. Second, the increasing use of firearms made the anti-archery function of shields less useful and prompted a focus on thick armor to deflect bullets over large shields to catch arrows.
So, in the time that the pike were rising (mid 15th to early 16th centuries) shields were on their way out due to better armor and a change in the likely threat from ranged attacks. The pikemen of the era wore plate corselets (and possibly more, up to three quarters or full plate armor if they could get it) to defend themselves, which provided more protection than shields were likely too against gunfire and enemy blades and gave them good protection while keeping their hands free.
Note that this is simplified - this is also the era of the buckler and Spanish "sword and buckler men" (who, despite the name, used full shields rather than bucklers). But the shields of that time focused more on complementing a maneuverable soldier who could use it in melee against a close-quarters opponent - not exactly a situation a pikeman is likely to find himself in.
Interested in anyone's comments, especially someone familiar with Hellenistic phalanxes - I'd love to compare and contrast. | [
"Such deep pike columns could crush lesser infantry in close combat and were invulnerable to the effects of a cavalry charge, but they were vulnerable to firearms if they could be immobilized (as seen in the Battle of Marignano). The Swiss mercenaries did deploy bows, crossbows, handguns and artillery of their own, however these always remained very subsidiary to the pike and halberd square. Despite the proven armour-penetration capability of firearms, they were also very inaccurate, slow-loading, and susceptible to damp conditions, and did not fit well with the fast-paced attack tactics used by the Swiss mercenary pike forces.\n",
"The proper use of the pike required complex operations in formation and a great deal of fortitude and cohesion by the pikemen, again making amassing large forces difficult. Starting in the early 14th-century, armourers added plate-armour pieces to the traditional protective linked mail armour of knights and men-at-arms to guard against the arrows of the longbow and crossbow. By 1415, some infantrymen began deploying the first \"hand cannons\", and the earliest small-bore arquebuses, with burning \"match locks\", appeared on the battlefield in the later 15th century.\n",
"The great length of the pikes allowed a great concentration of spearheads to be presented to the enemy, with their wielders at a greater distance, but also made pikes unwieldy in close combat. This meant that pikemen had to be equipped with an additional, shorter weapon such as a dagger or mace in order to defend themselves should the fighting degenerate into a melee. In general, however, pikemen attempted to avoid such disorganized combat, in which they were at a disadvantage. To compound their difficulties in a melee, the pikeman often did not have a shield, or had only a small shield which would be of limited use in close-quarters fighting.\n",
"The pike, being unwieldy, was typically used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often alongside other missile and melee weapons. However, better-trained troops were capable of using the pike in an aggressive attack with each rank of pikemen being trained to hold their pikes so that they presented enemy infantry with four or five layers of spearheads bristling from the front of the formation.\n",
"The use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the Granada War (1482–92). During the Italian Wars, under the direction of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, called \"the great captain\", the system of combined groups of pikemen, arquebusiers and swordsmen developed. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a tactically unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, but by 1534 this had been reduced to the tercio with a maximum of 3,000.\n",
"These formations were essentially immune to the attacks of mounted men-at-arms as long as the knights obligingly threw themselves on the spear wall and the foot soldiers remained steady under the morale challenge of facing a cavalry charge, but the closely packed nature of pike formations rendered them vulnerable to enemy archers and crossbowmen who could shoot them down with impunity, especially when the pikemen did not have adequate armor. Many defeats, such as at Roosebeke and Halidon Hill, were suffered by the militia pike armies when faced by cunning foes who employed their archers and crossbowmen to thin the ranks of the pike blocks before charging in with their (often dismounted) men-at-arms.\n",
"The long spears (pikes) of Scots and Swiss were an excellent defensive weapon against cavalry. The warriors stood in tight formations like an ancient phalanx, the end of their pikes embedded in the ground, presenting a massive spiked wall. In battle against the Scots, the English knights proved to be as narrow-minded as their French counterparts, employing the classic cavalry charge despite the new challenge of the Scottish pike. In the battles of Stirling Bridge (1297) and Bannockburn (1314) they were defeated by the Scots. While the English imitated this tactic successfully against the French, the Swiss perfected it. Despite longer lances for the knights, this formation was now almost impenetrable. Pikemen with polearms remained an important part of armies throughout the Thirty Years' War. Later tactics used against this formation included caracole maneuvers with ranged weapons. However, a well-trained cavalry force could outflank a force of enemy pikemen on even terrain and triumph. The most elite knights, with the best armour, immense prowess and extremely-well trained horses, could charge pike formations and still, even if only scarcely, hold their own, sometimes even triumphing; however, the cost to raise and maintain such troops was enormous and impractical when considering alternative options to the head-on charge.\n"
] |
Who is the current "Lineal Champion" of military history? | I don't think this is answerable (even if it didn't break the rules).
The greatest military minds in history are by definition generals who performed exceptionally well. They won wars after wars, beat all those around them, and by these feats are labelled as exceptional military leaders. In this sense they are considered exceptional military minds because they are the champions of their place and time.
That means there's no way to have a show down between these metaphorical champions. Alexander the Great, Bai Qi, Caesar, Ashoka, Napoleon, Uesugi Kenshin, Genghis Khan and a whole bunch of talented generals and admirals did not fight each other. They existed at different times and/or places. So there is simply no way to answer your question. | [
"Among memorable field leaders of the army were Nathaniel Lyon (first Union general to be killed in battle during the war), William Rosecrans, George Henry Thomas and William Tecumseh Sherman. Others, of lesser competence, included Benjamin F. Butler.\n",
"By some historians he is considered the most effective general of his generation as well as one of the greatest in military history. Although a tough leader, he was respected by his troops. He touched their sentiments e.g. by addressing them in his speeches as \"gentlemen soldiers\" (señores soldados), but was also popular among them for daring statements such as:\n",
"BULLET::::- Robert E. Lee, American and Confederate general, commander of the Confederate States Army during American Civil War, one of the moust famous military commanders of his time, considered one of the greatest generals of all time;\n",
"In the distant future, Dr. Sugar Brown: a well-renowned and famous scientist is determined to figure out on who the strongest fighter of history is and has gone to great lengths in order to finally gain the answer of his own question. Through the use of a time machine that he had built, Dr. Brown has brought together eight fighters from the distant past (each of whom are based on actual historical figures) so that all of them can compete and take part in a fighting tournament that Dr. Brown has organized, the tournament itself being used as a way to determine on who the strongest fighter of history is. Little does Dr. Brown and the participating fighters know and realize that an unknown threat is secretly watching them during the progression of the tournament and that this unknown threat could easily endanger them and the rest of the world.\n",
"BULLET::::- Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer, (1839–1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. Defeated and killed during the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Southeast Montana. Custer's defeat made him one of the most famous military figures in American history.\n",
"He fought in several wars and conflicts, including those on the North-West Frontier, in the Boxer Rebellion, in the First World War and in the Third Afghan War. During which he commanded his regiment and several brigades, rising in rank to major-general. He was also awarded several orders and was knighted for his service before retiring from the army in 1931.\n",
"General Hershey was one of only six generals in the history of the United States Army to have served as a general during three major conflicts. The other five were Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott (War of 1812, Mexican War and Civil War), General of the Army Douglas MacArthur (World War I, World War II and Korea), Lieutenant General Milton Reckord (World War II, Korea, Vietnam), Major General Leo Boyle (World War II, Korea, Vietnam), and General Hugh Shelton (Panama, Gulf War, War on Terror).\n"
] |
why does the federal reserve pay interest to banks? what is the impact of this? | It's the other way around: the banks pay interest to the Federal Reserve Bank on money they borrow from the FRB.
A higher rate on those loans makes it more expensive for banks to borrow money, which makes those banks charge more for loans (discouraging borrowers) or be more cautious about the loans they make. | [
"The United States Federal Reserve System lends money to eligible commercial institution called discount window, Purposely created in 1913 as a mean to operate the central bank in The United States. The interest on loans given out to commercial institutions are discount rate, which is a monetary policy tool used by the Federal Reserve to stimulate the U.S economy. Commercial banks mark up interest from the loans taken from the discount window to gain profit from interest on loan taken out by the public. With the high interest rates, people are less expected to take out loans. Thus, there are less money circulating in the economy, causing it to move in to a recessionary state. Decline in interest rates are made by the Central Bank if the economy goes into a recession. The Federal Reserve have varieties of tools along with the discount rate to manage and relieve tension in the economy.\n",
"According to UC Berkeley researchers, commercial institutions started to give loan to subprime borrowers in order to increase profits on risky investments. Since they were more likely to default on their loans, banks were losing money which resulted in increase interest rates. Consequently, interest rate prices are higher than usual, people weren't taking out loans causing the economy to be contractionary. In turn, the The Federal Reserve System recognized the problem and took counter measures to intervene with the downsizing economy. They decreased the interest rates at the discount window to bail out the economy during The Great Recession. Since the commercial banks are able to retrieve loans at a lower rate, this waterfalls down to the general public to be able to circulate money in the economy. Monetary policy used by The Central Banks caused the economy to thrive from the recession by utilizing the discount rate that bails out commercial banks.\n",
"The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms, involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion. Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap.\n",
"As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC.\n",
"The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. Each member bank (commercial banks in the Federal Reserve district) owns a nonnegotiable share of stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. However, holding Federal Reserve Bank stock is unlike owning stock in a publicly traded company. The charter of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks. Federal Reserve Bank stock cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. They do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"The Federal Reserve has responded to a potential slow-down by lowering the target federal funds rate during recessions and other periods of lower growth. In fact, the Committee's lowering has recently predated recessions, in order to stimulate the economy and cushion the fall. Reducing the federal funds rate makes money cheaper, allowing an influx of credit into the economy through all types of loans.\n"
] |
Why is Hitler's Muder of USSR Civilians never talked about? | [This thread](_URL_1_) from /u/commiespaceinvader discusses Generalplan Ost, which is the larger planned campaign of murder in the East, beyond simply the Holocaust. It doesn't specifically address "why is it never talked about" in the way you might be wondering, but I would caution you about *any* question which is premised in that way, as the answer is rarely one that can be approached entirely objectively, as it, in reality, says more about where and when you were in school, and what kind of media you generally have been exposed to, so the answer can vary wildly for, say, someone with a basic high school education who graduated in 1960, and someone like this /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov guy who has read extensively about the Eastern Front of World War II. [This answer I wrote a little while ago](_URL_0_) is *not* about Generalplan Ost, but it is about another topic on the Eastern Front, and I think is relevant for you here. The sum which carries over is that, while Generalplan Ost *is* a bigger deal than the Night Witches, it still is something which brief coverage - if any - is the best I would expect to see in a high school environment, and given how cursory education of even the Holocaust often is at that level (I'm failing to find it, but there have been some useful discussion chains between myself, /u/kugelfang52, and several others, about the poor quality of Holocaust education in the American school system, which perhaps he can remember the thread for), skipping over it is not at all surprising. | [
"In the Soviet occupation zone, members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rape by Soviet soldiers could result in a negative reaction by the German population towards the Soviet Union and the future of socialism in East Germany. Stalin is said to have angrily reacted: \"I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud.\"\n",
"Russian scholars attribute the high civilian death toll to the Nazi Generalplan Ost which treated the Soviet people as \"subhumans\", they use the terms \"genocide\" and \"premeditated extermination\" when referring to civilian losses in the occupied USSR. German occupation policies implemented under the Hunger Plan resulted in the confiscation of food stocks which resulted in famine in the occupied regions. During the Soviet era the partisan campaign behind the lines was portrayed as the struggle of the local population against the German occupation. To suppress the partisan units the Nazi occupation forces engaged in a campaign of brutal reprisals against innocent civilians. Historian Albert Seaton maintains that the Soviet government's \"disregard for life and its contempt for any form of humanity and decency was one of the decisive factors in recruiting and control of the partisan movement\". According to Seaton the local population was coerced by the Soviet led partisans to support their campaign which led to the reprisals. The extensive fighting destroyed agricultural land, infrastructure, and whole towns, leaving much of the population homeless and without food. During the war Soviet civilians were taken to Germany as forced laborers under inhuman conditions.\n",
"In his analysis of the motives behind the extensive Soviet rapes, Norman Naimark singles out \"hate propaganda, personal experiences of suffering at home, and an allegedly fully demeaning picture of German women in the press, not to mention among the soldiers themselves\" as a part reason for the widespread rapes. Naimark also noted the effect that tendency to binge-drink alcohol (of which much was available in Germany) had on the propensity of Soviet soldiers to commit rape, especially rape-murder. Naimark also notes the allegedly patriarchal nature of Russian culture, and of the Asian societies comprising the Soviet Union, where dishonor was in the past repaid by raping the women of the enemy. The fact that the Germans had a much higher standard of living visible even when in ruins \"may well have contributed allegedly to a national inferiority complex among Russians\". Combining \"Russian feelings of inferiority\", the resulting need to restore honor, and their desire for revenge may be the reason many women were raped in public as well as in front of husbands before both were killed.\n",
"Globke became a central target of Soviet propaganda, not so much because of his career during the Nazi era, but because of his powerful position in the West German government and trenchant anti-communist stance. In 1963 East Germany convicted him in a show trial \"in absentia\"; however, such East German trials were not recognised outside of the Soviet bloc, least of all by West Germany. The fact that much of the criticism of Globke came from the Soviet bloc, and that it mixed genuine information with false accusations, made it easier for the West Germans and the Americans to dismiss it as communist propaganda.\n",
"The suicidal atmosphere was enhanced by the Nazis' report of numerous Soviet mass graves and other atrocities committed by the NKVD and Red Army towards the end of the war. A Nazi leaflet distributed in February 1945 in Czech territories warned German readers about the \"Bolshevik murderer-pack\" whose victory would lead to \"incredible hatred, looting, hunger, shots in the back of the neck, deportation and extermination\" and appealed to German men to \"save German women and girls from defilement and slaughter by the Bolshevik bloodhounds\". These fears, and the portrayal of \"Soviet Bolsheviks\" as sub-human monsters, led to a number of mass suicides in eastern Germany. One female clerk in the city of Schönlanke within Pomerania said, \"Out of fear of these animals from the east, many Schönlankers ended their lives. (around 500 of them) Whole families were wiped out in this way.\" The fear of Soviet occupation was so great that even people living far from Soviet lines, including a pensioner in Hamburg, killed themselves in fear of what Soviet soldiers would do to them. The behavior of Soviet troops also played a role, as many Germans committed suicide to avoid rape or out of shame at having been raped. In addition, many suicides are believed to have occurred due to depression caused or exacerbated by living in a war zone among ruins.\n",
"Russian soldiers systematically humiliated the Germans in 1945 by raping large numbers of women, many of them repeatedly. Soviets raped an estimated two million women and girls in East Germany alone immediately after occupation. Naimark states that not only did each victim have to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her life, it inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation that affected the acceptability of Soviet control.\n",
"\"Ostarbeiter\" suffered from state-sanctioned stigmatisation, with special references in their passports (and the passports of their children and relatives) mentioning their time in Germany during the war. As a result, many jobs were off-limits to anyone unlucky enough to carry such a status, and during periods of repression former slave labourers would often be ostracised by the wider Soviet community. Many victims have testified that since the war they have suffered a lifetime of abuse and suspicion from their fellow countrymen, many of whom have accused them of being traitors who helped the Germans and lived comfortably in the Third Reich while Ukraine burned.\n"
] |
Is the optic nerve stretchy or is there some slack to let your eye move? | The optic nerve in an adult has about 8mm of slack to allow the eye to move.
Nerves in general do not stretch very much, and the optic nerve in particular cannot stretch at all. That's because it is part of the central nervous system.
Because the nerve connects directly to the brain, it is covered in an extension of the brain's protective membrane envelope. Those membranes are called the "meninges," and consist of three layers: the dura, the arachnoid, and the pia mater. The dura is the outermost layer. It's relatively thick and consists of tough, fibrous, connective tissue, to protect the other membrane layers and the underlying nerve itself. It doesn't stretch significantly, and that means the whole bundle has to stay a pretty much constant length. | [
"The nerve enters the deep surface of the muscle and is not easily visualised and differentiated from other structures running with it, such as the blood vessels. Parting the muscle damages the nerve further by stretching or even rupturing its branches which run superiorly on its deep surface.\n",
"When a muscle is stretched, primary type Ia sensory fibers of the muscle spindle respond to both changes in muscle length and velocity and transmit this activity to the spinal cord in the form of changes in the rate of action potentials. Likewise, secondary type II sensory fibers respond to muscle length changes (but with a smaller velocity-sensitive component) and transmit this signal to the spinal cord. The Ia afferent signals are transmitted monosynaptically to many alpha motor neurons of the receptor-bearing muscle. The reflexly evoked activity in the alpha motoneurons is then transmitted via their efferent axons to the extrafusal fibers of the muscle, which generate force and thereby resist the stretch. The Ia afferent signal is also transmitted polysynaptically through interneurons (Ia inhibitory interneurons), which inhibit alpha motorneurons of antagonist muscles, causing them to relax.\n",
"Stretch receptors have two parts: Spindle cells and Golgi tendons. Spindle cells, located in the center of a muscle, send messages for the muscle to contract. On the other hand, Golgi tendon receptors are located near the end of a muscle fiber and send messages for the muscle to relax. As these receptors are trained through continual use, stretching becomes easier. When reflexes that inhibit flexibility are released the splits then become easier to perform. The splits use the body's complete range of motion and provide a complete stretch.\n",
"The first of the two main groups of stretch receptors wrapping the intrafusal fibers are the Ia fiber, which are the largest and fastest fibers, and they fire when the muscle is stretching. They are characterized by their rapid adaptation, because as soon as the muscle stops changing length, the Ia stop firing and adapt to the new length. Ia fibers essentially supply proprioceptive information about the \"rate of change\" of its respective muscle: the derivative of the muscle's length (or position).\n",
"The long ciliary nerves provide sensory innervation to the eyeball, including the cornea. In addition, they contain sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion to the dilator pupillae muscle. The sympathetic fibers to the dilator pupillae muscle mainly travel in the nasociliary nerve but there are also sympathetic fibers in the short ciliary nerves that pass through the ciliary ganglion without forming synapses.\n",
"The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) or nerve fiber layer, stratum opticum, is formed by the expansion of the fibers of the optic nerve; it is thickest near the optic disc, gradually diminishing toward the ora serrata.\n",
"The muscle forms an important part of the lateral orbital wall in some animals and can act to change the wall's volume in lower mammals, while in humans it is not known to have any significant function, but its contraction may possibly produce a slight forward protrusion of the eyeball. Several sources have suggested a role in the autonomic regulation of the vascular system due to the pattern of innervation of the orbitalis.\n"
] |
Would inhabitants of the ISS be able to see with their bare eyes if a nuclear war started on earth? | oh yeah, no doubt they could see it and the fires burning after..
talking about things which explode brighter than the sun..
ISS is only 350 kilometers up or so.. not very far
| [
"Speaking at the plenary meeting of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe on 8 July 2019, she stated that “On the board of the International Space Station, [she and other astronauts] had a chance to see with naked eyes how bombs and shells exploded in Donbass and Luhansk. And they flew from the location of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Meanwhile, unarmed people died there. ” According to cosmonaut Yuri Baturin, such military operations are unlikely to be visible without special surveillance tools from the ISS. The altitude of the ISS above the ground ranges from 411.5 to 430.3 kilometers.\n",
"The second case of visual changes during long-duration spaceflight on board the ISS was reported approximately 3 months after launch when the astronaut noticed that he could now only see Earth clearly while looking through his reading glasses. The change continued for the remainder of the mission without noticeable improvement or progression. He did not complain of transient visual obscurations, headaches, diplopia, pulsatile tinnitus or visual changes during eye movement. In the months since landing, he has noticed a gradual, but incomplete, improvement in vision.\n",
"The crew also performed several biological experiments. They ran a small centrifuge in the orbital module to see how plants grew in artificial gravity. They also investigated the effects of cosmic rays on human vision. This effect had first been reported by Apollo astronauts who described bright flashes when they closed their eyes. This was due to cosmic rays passing through the eye. Soyuz 22 also carried a small aquarium so that the crew could watch the behavior of fish.\n",
"In addition, after long space flight missions, astronauts may experience severe eyesight problems. Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a manned mission to the planet Mars. Exposure to high levels of radiation may influence the development of atherosclerosis also.\n",
"The third case of visual changes while on board the ISS had no changes in visual acuity and no complaints of headaches, transient visual obscurations, diplopia or pulsatile tinnitus during the mission. Upon return to Earth, no eye issues were reported by the astronaut at landing. Fundus examination revealed bilateral, asymmetrical disc edema. There was no evidence of choroidal folds or cotton-wool spots, but a small hemorrhage was observed below the optic dics in the right eye. This astronaut had the most pronounced optic-disc edema of all astronauts reported to date, but had no choroidal folds, globe flattening or hyperopic shift. At 10 days post landing, an MRI of the brain and eyes was normal, but there appeared to be a mild increase in CSF signal around the right optic nerve.\n",
"The human naked eye has an angular resolution of approximately 0.00028 radians, and the ISS targets an altitude of 400km. Using basic trigonometric relations, this means that an astronaut on the ISS with 20/20 vision could potentially detect objects that are 112m or greater in all dimensions. However, since this would be at the absolute limit of the resolution, objects on the order of 100m would appear as unidentifiable specs, if not rendered invisible due to other factors, such as atmospheric conditions or poor contrast. For readability from the ISS, using the same trigonometric principles and an assumed legibility requirement of 18 arcminutes, each letter would need to be approximately 2km tall.\n",
"The seventh case of visual changes associated with spaceflight is significant in that it was eventually treated postflight. Approximately 2 months into the ISS mission, the astronaut reported a progressive decrease in his near and far acuity in both eyes. The ISS cabin pressure, CO and O levels were reported to be within normal operating limits and the astronaut was not exposed to any toxic substances. He never experienced losses in subjective best-corrected acuity, color vision or stereopsis. A fundus examination revealed a grade 1 bilateral optic-disc edema and choroidal folds (Figure 15).\n"
] |
How does your brain know how to assemble the signals from the individual cells in your retina into a spatial image? | It is both hard-wired and partly plastic.
The basic organization is hard-wired, particularly in the crossing of some neurons from the right eye to the left side of the brain and some neurons from the left eye to the right side of the brain (while some from the right eye stay on the same side of the brain, and the same for the left!). The visual field is broken down into small areas and organized in a visuotopic map in the primary visual cortex, by which a particular area of the visual field is always handled by the same area of the brain. A great deal of this is organized based on orientation - close areas of the visual field are represented nearby in the visual cortex. These areas in the visual cortex are organized into columns in the outside layer of the brain, the gray matter, in the occipital lobe.
But there are some complications. For instance, much of the visual field can be seen with both eyes simultaneously. In these instances, the two areas of the retina corresponding to a particular point in the visual field - one from each eye - are mapped to adjacent areas in the visual cortex. So you have patterns of columns that are organized so that the areas of the visual field are mapped to columns that are adjacent to each other or very nearby.
But this basic organization is also somewhat plastic - it can be changed, particularly if there is a problem with the eyes at a very young age. If one eye is faulty or destroyed very early in life, we see that the columns of the visual cortex for the normal eye will expand, "eating into" the areas for the damaged eye (which are not receiving meaningful input). The later in life this happens, the less the brain is able to repurpose the unused portions of the visual cortex.
Edit: But despite all this hard-wiring, the human brain can, amazingly, adapt to functioning in a world that is completely inverted, for instance, even if the inversion happens well into adulthood. All day, every day, George Stratton wore glasses that inverted the world - everything was upside down. By the 5th day, the inverted images appeared to be upright to him, and it was only when he concentrated that he was able to tell that they were inverted. His brain had seemingly reorganized its interpretation of the visual field to account for the change in orientation so that his mental image _seemed_ correct, even though it was inverted relative to the normal way light waves strike the retina. | [
"Eventually, the information these cells collect in the retina is sent to various parts of the visual cortex, including the posterior parietal cortex and area V5 through the dorsal stream, and the inferior temporal cortex and area V4 through the ventral stream.\n",
"When a visual stimulus is seen before a saccade, subjects are still able to make another saccade back to that image, even if it is no longer visible. This shows that the brain is somehow able to take into account the intervening eye movement. It is thought that the brain does this by temporarily recording a copy of the command for the eye movement, and comparing this to the remembered image of the target. This is called spatial updating. Neurophysiologists having recorded from cortical areas for saccades during spatial updating have found that memory-related signals get remapped during each saccade.\n",
"In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which will then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion.\n",
"In many locations within the brain, adjacent neurons have receptive fields that include slightly different, but overlapping portions of the visual field. The position of the center of these receptive fields forms an orderly sampling mosaic that covers a portion of the visual field. Because of this orderly arrangement, which emerges from the spatial specificity of connections between neurons in different parts of the visual system, cells in each structure can be seen as contributing to a map of the visual field (also called a retinotopic map, or a visuotopic map). Retinotopic maps are a particular case of topographic organization. Many brain structures that are responsive to visual input, including much of the visual cortex and visual nuclei of the brain stem (such as the superior colliculus) and thalamus (such as the lateral geniculate nucleus and the pulvinar), are organized into retinotopic maps, also called visual field maps.\n",
"Still other neurons, which they termed complex cells, detected edges regardless of where they were placed in the receptive field of the neuron and could preferentially detect motion in certain directions. These studies showed how the visual system constructs complex representations of visual information from simple stimulus features.\n",
"In vertebrate embryonic development, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, specifically the embryonic diencephalon; thus, the retina is considered part of the central nervous system (CNS) and is actually brain tissue. It is the only part of the CNS that can be visualized non-invasively.\n",
"Spatial view cells are used by primates for storing an episodic memory that helps with remembering where a particular object was in the environment. Imaging studies have shown that the hippocampus plays an important role in spatial navigation and episodic memories. Also, spatial view cells enable them to recall locations of objects even if they are not physically present in the environment. The neurons associated with remembering the location and object are often found in the primate hippocampus. These spatial view cells do not only recall specific locations, but they also remember distances between other landmarks around the place in order to gain a better understanding of where the places are spatially.\n"
] |
Did any countries in the Middle East play any roll in WWI or WWII? If so, what? | There were a number of allied invasions in the region during 1941, as Britain pre-emptively dealt with potential threats to their oil supplies and lines of communications. At the time, the British position in North Africa was looking somewhat dire, as German forces under Rommel started to advance into Egypt itself.
Iran (formerly Persia) was occupied by Britain and the USSR from 1941 through the end of the war, and the Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son. Iraq was also invaded by Britain in 1941 after a military coup there lead the British to worry about the safety of the oil supply. During that conflict, German and Italian aircraft were given permission to aid Iraq by staging through the Vichy French territories of Lebanon and Syria, leading to an allied invasion of those two.
[edit] I missed the fact that you were also asking about WWI. My mistake. As others have already covered that, I'll leave it at that. | [
"The premise of the game is a prophecy by Nostradamus that at the end of the 20th century there would be a major world war, beginning somewhere in the Middle East. The game was produced at a time of escalating violence in the Persian Gulf due to the Iran–Iraq War.\n",
"The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I saw action between 29 October 1914 and 30 October 1918. The combatants were, on one side, the Ottoman Empire (including Kurds and some Arab tribes), with some assistance from the other Central Powers; and on the other side, the British (with the help of Jews, Greeks, Assyrians and the majority of the Arabs, along with Indians under its empire), the Russians (with the help of Armenians) and the French from among the Allied Powers. There were five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, and the Gallipoli Campaign. There were also several minor campaigns: the Senussi Campaign, Arab Campaign, and South Arabia Campaign.\n",
"\"War in the West\" includes a four-turn introductory scenario on Poland 1939, as well as scenarios for France 1940, North Africa 1942 (from Gazala to Tunis), Italy 1943, and France 1944. \"War in the East\" includes a scenario for each of the years 1941, 1942, 1943, and 1944. The complete \"War in Europe\" contains a single scenario for the fall of Germany, beginning in December 1944 with the Battle of the Bulge. The full game can be played by two or three players (the Soviets have separate victory conditions, based on control of territorial objectives, from the Western Allies), but is also playable solitaire.\n",
"The game was flourishing in the 1930s, with Gibraltar producing many locally born players. However, the Second World War meant a cut back in the game, with many cricket fields giving way to the military, one even being converted into an airfield.\n",
"The Middle East Theatre of World War II is defined largely by reference to the British Middle East Command, which controlled Allied forces in both Southwest Asia and eastern North Africa. From 1943, most of the action and forces concerned were in the adjoining Mediterranean Theatre.\n",
"The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the league being split into Eastern and Western sections, with the winners of each playing for the overall championship in 1939–40, with the league then closing down for the duration of the combat until restarting in 1945.\n",
"War in Middle Earth is a real-time strategy game released for the ZX Spectrum, MSX, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, MS-DOS, Commodore Amiga, Apple IIGS, and Atari ST in 1988 by Australian company Melbourne House.\n"
] |
why is everyone blaming the current ad revenue problems on youtube on youtube itself? | It's a very complicated subject to be honest.
Youtube is responsible to where those ads will be put on. If an ad is put on a video promoting violence, then it's the responsibility of youtube. The advertisers had confidence in youtube that their ads won't be used on inappropriate video.
That said. There is a lot going on behind the curtain and everybody want to take advantage of the situation. Basically, youtube have blood in the sea and a lot of shark are going after it now.
Conventional media : They are losing audience and ad revenue because of youtube. Hurting youtube credibility and advertiser will spend the money they use to spend on youtube in other platform like in conventional media. So those media are putting more attention against youtube, even changing facts of some story to fit their agenda.
Media Advertiser and competition of youtube : The first and biggers advertiser to stop using youtube are media telecom. Compagnies like AT & T, Verizon, etc. Those company are competitor to youtube. Those own media company like HBO, TNT, TBS, Warner bros, CNN. Right now, those company need to put add on youtube if they want to reach a larger public. But if they hurt enough youtube, their own company could take the place of youtube.
I also heard of Eric Feinberg. Some people think that he have a big part to play into all of this. He believe that the only way youtube can fix the problem is with AI to identify video that shouldn't get ads on, but he also believe that youtube can't achieve that would either violating his patent in AI technology or buying the AI product from his own company. He made several media appearance that started this whole thing.
Basically, youtube have problems controlling on which video ads go so there is some situation where ads go in inappropriate video. That should be negotiate between youtube and their clients, but a lot of actors have to gain with this so they go public with it and embellish the situation so much that now advertiser without anything to gain in this are forced to remove their ads from youtube because they fear for their public image. | [
"Advertising is YouTube's central mechanism for gaining revenue. This issue has also been taken up in scientific analysis. Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams argue in their book \"Wikinomics\" that YouTube is an example for an economy that is based on mass collaboration and makes use of the Internet.\n",
"In March 2017, a number of major advertisers and prominent companies began to pull their advertising campaigns from YouTube, over concerns that their ads were appearing on objectionable and/or extremist content, in what the YouTube community began referring to as a 'boycott'. YouTube personality PewDiePie described these boycotts as an \"adpocalypse\", noting that his video revenue had fallen to the point that he was generating more revenue from YouTube Red subscription profit sharing (which is divided based on views by subscribers) than advertising. On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced planned changes to its Partner Program, restricting new membership to vetted channels with a total of at least 10,000 video views. YouTube stated that the changes were made in order to \"ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules\".\n",
"In March 2017, the government of the United Kingdom pulled its advertising campaigns from YouTube, after reports that its ads had appeared on videos containing extremist content. The government demanded assurances that its advertising would \"be delivered in a safe and appropriate way\". \"The Guardian\" newspaper, as well as other major British and U.S. brands, similarly suspended their advertising on YouTube in response to their advertising appearing near offensive content. Google stated that it had \"begun an extensive review of our advertising policies and have made a public commitment to put in place changes that give brands more control over where their ads appear\". In early April 2017, the YouTube channel h3h3Productions presented evidence claiming that a \"Wall Street Journal\" article had fabricated screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing Johnny Rebel music overlaid on a Chief Keef music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had actually been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video.\n",
"These numbers illustrate that, since the appearance of YouTube on February 15, 2005, absolutely no negative effects on earnings from usage rights can be detected to date. On the contrary, there has even been a considerable increase in income since 2005 (see Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany).\n",
"Another online advertising giant owned by Alphabet Inc. is video sharing website YouTube. In 2006, Google bought YouTube for $1.65 billion. In 2015, Bloomberg estimated YouTube to be worth approximately $70 billion, with over 30 million average daily visitors. YouTube content creators who publish and share their own videos can monetize them. In certain cases, YouTube will pay creators a percentage of the advertising revenue for advertisements that are placed within and before or after videos. The approximate share of advertising revenue paid to the creators of monetized videos is reported to be 55%; in 2013, the average creator's income was estimated to be $7.60 per thousand views.\n",
"Some industry commentators have speculated that YouTube's running costs (specifically the network bandwidth required) might be as high as 5 to 6 million dollars per month, thereby fuelling criticisms that the company, like many Internet startups, did not have a viably implemented business model. Advertisements were launched on the site beginning in March 2006. In April, YouTube started using Google AdSense. YouTube subsequently stopped using AdSense but has resumed in local regions.\n",
"Much of YouTube's revenue goes to the copyright holders of the videos. In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue. In May 2013, Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games. In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators.\n"
] |
how do refrigerants like hfcs and hfos work? | The way they absorb heat to act as greenhouse gases (absorption of infrared radiation) and the way they absorb heat to act as refrigerants (phase change at convenient temperatures and pressures) are unrelated to each other. They don't correlate because there is no reason for them to correlate.
Many substances are good at absorbing heat during phase changes. But most of them do so at temperatures or pressures which aren't practical to use in everyday refrigeration. Or, they are toxic, explosive, or corrosive. | [
"Vapor-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems.\n",
"The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.\n",
"Refrigerants are coolants used for reaching low temperatures by undergoing phase change between liquid and gas. Halomethanes were frequently used, most often R-12 and R-22, often with liquified propane or other haloalkanes like R-134a. Anhydrous ammonia is frequently used in large commercial systems, and sulfur dioxide was used in early mechanical refrigerators. Carbon dioxide (R-744) is used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, commercial refrigeration, and vending machines. Many otherwise excellent refrigerants are phased out for environmental reasons (the CFCs due to ozone layer effects, now many of their successors face restrictions due to global warming, e.g. the R134a).\n",
"Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).\n",
"In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for refrigeration. Refrigeration is used to liquefy gases – oxygen, nitrogen, propane, and methane, for example. In compressed air purification, it is used to condense water vapor from compressed air to reduce its moisture content. In oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to maintain certain processes at their needed low temperatures (for example, in alkylation of butenes and butane to produce a high-octane gasoline component). Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery. When transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by trucks, trains, airplanes and seagoing vessels, refrigeration is a necessity.\n",
"A \"refrigeration cycle\" describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the \"process\" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.\n",
"HFO refrigerants are categorized as having zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and low global warming potential (GWP) and so offer a more environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. Many refrigerants in the HFO class is inherently stable chemically and inert, non toxic, and non-flammable or mildly flammable. Many HFOs have the proper freezing and boiling points to be useful for refrigeration at common temperatures. They also show promise as blowing agents, i.e. in production of insulation foams, food industry, construction materials, and others.\n"
] |
what is the difference between weapons grade and non-weapons grade nuclear material? | Weapons grade fuels have high enrichment, power-grade fuels are low enrichment.
Enrichment is what % of the nuclear material is capable of a chain reaction on its own. Power reactor fuel is < 5% Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239. The other 95% is a filler material.
Weapons grade fuel is > 90% Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239.
If the enrichment is low ( < 10%) it is virtually impossible to make a nuclear bomb, because there's just not enough fuel there to do it. But it does a hell of a good job boiling water. | [
"Weapons-grade nuclear material is any fissionable nuclear material that is pure enough to make a nuclear weapon or has properties that make it particularly suitable for nuclear weapons use. Plutonium and uranium in grades normally used in nuclear weapons are the most common examples. (These nuclear materials have other categorizations based on their purity.)\n",
"There is no precise definition of the \"tactical\" category, neither considering range nor yield of the nuclear weapon. The yield of tactical nuclear weapons is generally lower than that of strategic nuclear weapons, but larger ones are still very powerful, and some variable-yield warheads serve in both roles, for example the W89 200 kiloton warhead was intended to arm both the tactical Sea Lance anti-submarine rocket propelled depth charge and the strategic bomber launched SRAM II stand off missile. Modern tactical nuclear warheads have yields up to the tens of kilotons, or potentially hundreds, several times that of the weapons used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Specifically on the Korean peninsula with a nuclear armed North Korea facing off against a NPT compliant South Korea there have been calls to request a return of US owned and operated short range low yield nuclear weapons, nomenclatured as tactical by the US military, to provide a local strategic deterrent to the North's growing domestically produced nuclear arsenal and delivery systems.\n",
"BULLET::::- B61 Mod 12 (also called a B61-12) – United States nuclear freefall bomb with a JDAM type guidance kit added. The higher accuracy allows a hardened target to be destroyed with a smaller nuclear weapon in terms of yield.\n",
"The terms conventional weapons or conventional arms generally refer to weapons whose ability to damage comes from kinetic or incendiary, or explosive energy and exclude weapons of mass destruction (\"e.g.\" nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons). Any armament used in crimes, conflicts or wars are categorized as conventional weapons and includes small arms, defensive shields and light weapons, sea and land mines, as well as (non-weapons of mass destruction) bombs, shells, rockets, missiles, cluster munitions, human rights violations, domestic and transnational crime etc.These weapons use explosive material based on chemical energy, as opposed to nuclear energy in nuclear weapons.\n",
"A tactical nuclear weapon (TNW) or non-strategic nuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations mostly with friendly forces in proximity and perhaps even on contested friendly territory. Generally smaller in explosive power, they are defined in contrast to strategic nuclear weapons: which are designed to be mostly targeted in the enemy interior away from the war front against military bases, cities, towns, arms industries, and other hardened or larger-area targets to damage the enemy's ability to wage war. \n",
"R&D intensity differs between different sectors: high-tech sectors (such as aircraft & spacecraft, electrical equipment, and pharmaceuticals) are characterized by the highest R&D intensity, while low-tech sectors (such as food products, iron and steel, and textiles) usually have low R&D intensity. In fact, R&D intensity could be used as the sole indicator to identify high-tech sectors.\n",
"BULLET::::- Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for example: the LM301 is the commercial grade version of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version). This may define operating temperature ranges and other environmental or quality factors.\n"
] |
If all ship's radars operate on the same frequency (S & X band), why don't they interfere with one another? | They generally would. Though specific bands are rather large, antennas/radars can operate in narrow frequency ranges within a band, and the frequency space required to prevent interference between two bands can be, by design, very narrow (you could have a radar operating at 9.985 GHz and another at 9.920 GHz). The amount of received power drops off dramatically as the received frequency deviates from an antenna's designed frequency.
Further, antennas on radars are frequently highly directional, both focusing energy emitted in one direction and highly attenuating energy received from directions other than the intended receiving direction.
Further, advanced radars can encode their transmissions using algorithms such as Binary Phase Shift Keying. This allows the receiver to filter out noise from its own signals. | [
"Frequency agile radars can offer the same advantages. In the case of several aircraft operating in the same location, the radars can select frequencies that are not being used in order to avoid interference. This is not as simple as the case of a cell phone, however, because ideally the radars would change their operating frequencies with every pulse. The algorithms for selecting a set of frequencies for the next pulse cannot be truly random if one wants to avoid all interference with similar systems, but a less-than-random system is subject to ELINT methods to determine the pattern.\n",
"Radar systems generally operate by sending out short pulses of radio energy and then turning off the broadcaster and listening for the returning echoes from various objects. Because efficient signal reception requires careful tuning throughout the electronics in the transceiver, each operating frequency required a dedicated transceiver. Due to the size of the tube-based electronics used to construct the transceivers, early radar systems, like those deployed in World War II, were generally limited to operating on a single frequency. Knowing this operating frequency gives an adversary enormous power to interfere with radar operation or gather further intelligence. \n",
"Conventional radar systems emit bursts of radio energy with a fairly narrow range of frequencies. A narrow-band channel, by definition, does not allow rapid changes in modulation. Since it is the change in a received signal that reveals the time of arrival of the signal (obviously an unchanging signal would reveal nothing about \"when\" it reflected from the target), a signal with only a slow change in modulation cannot reveal the distance to the target as well as can a signal with a quick change in modulation.\n",
"In 2007, the FCC began requiring that devices operating in channels 52, 56, 60 and 64 must have Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) capabilities. This is to avoid communicating in the same frequency range as some radar. In 2014, the FCC issued new rules for all devices due to interference with government weather radar systems. Fines and equipment seizure were listed as punishment for non-compliance.\n",
"Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience the same effect.\n",
"A second type of OTH radar uses much lower frequencies, in the longwave bands. Radio waves at these frequencies can diffract around obstacles and follow the curving contour of the earth, traveling beyond the horizon. Echos reflected off the target return to the transmitter location by the same path. These \"ground waves\" have the longest range over the sea. Like the ionospheric high-frequency systems, the received signal from these ground wave systems is very low, and demands extremely sensitive electronics. Because these signals travel close to the surface, and lower frequencies produce lower resolutions, low-frequency systems are generally used for tracking ships, rather than aircraft. However, the use of bistatic techniques and computer processing can produce higher resolutions, and has been used beginning in the 1990s.\n",
"Radar blackout further confuses these issues. Inherent to the formula above is the fact that higher frequencies are blacked out for shorter times. This suggests long-range radars should use as high a frequency as possible, although this is more difficult and expensive. The US PAR was initially designed to operate in the VHF region to allow it to be extremely powerful while also relatively low-cost, but during the design stage, it moved to the UHF region to help mitigate this effect. Even then, it would be heavily attenuated.\n"
] |
how all the counting numbers can be interesting at once | Well, you've simply created a paradox for yourself. By defining 'the first boring' as 'interesting' you've created an unbreakable loop, where your two classifications refute one another.
If it's the first boring number, it's not interesting. But if that makes it interesting, it's not the first boring number. | [
"If the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to measure the time interval for a predetermined number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a specified time. The latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count. This is called \"gating error\" and causes an average error in the calculated frequency of formula_11, or a fractional error of formula_12 where formula_13 is the timing interval and formula_14 is the measured frequency. This error decreases with frequency, so it is generally a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts N is small.\n",
"This is a list of articles about numbers. Due to the infinitude of many sets of numbers, this list will invariably be incomplete. Hence, only particularly notable numbers will be included. Numbers may be included in the list based on their mathematical, historical or cultural notability, but all numbers have qualities which could arguably make them notable. Even the least \"interesting\" number is paradoxically interesting for that very property. This is known as the interesting number paradox. \n",
"As an example of an integer number we can try to find the quater-imaginary counterpart of the decimal number 7 (or 7 since the base of the decimal system is 10). Since it is hard to predict exactly how long the digit string will be for a given decimal number, it is safe to assume a fairly large string. In this case, a string of six digits can be chosen. When an initial guess at the size of the string eventually turns out to be insufficient, a larger string can be used.\n",
"As we already knew, they all fit in 8 bits. Scaling these by 1/16 is the same as dividing by 16, which is the same as shifting the bits 4 places to the right. All that really means is inserting a binary point between the first four and last four bits of each number. Conveniently, that's the exact format of our fixed point fields. So just as we suspected, since all these numbers don't require more than 8 bits to represent them as integers, it doesn't have to take more than 8 bits to scale them down and fit them in a fixed point format.\n",
"In other applications, it is natural to allow the same number to appear more than once (or not at all) in a tableau. A tableau is called semistandard, or \"column strict\", if the entries weakly increase along each row and strictly increase down each column. Recording the number of times each number appears in a tableau gives a sequence known as the weight of the tableau. Thus the standard Young tableaux are precisely the semistandard tableaux of weight (1,1...,1), which requires every integer up to to occur exactly once.\n",
"While checking the mental calculation, it is useful to think of it in terms of scaling. For example, when dealing with large numbers, say 1531 × 19625, estimation instructs you to be aware of the number of digits expected for the final value. A useful way of checking is to estimate. 1531 is around 1500, and 19625 is around 20000, so a result of around 20000 × 1500 (30000000) would be a good estimate for the actual answer (30045875). So if the answer has too many digits, a mistake has been made.\n",
"It is important to get the integer sort size used in the recursive calls by rounding the 2/3 \"upwards\", e.g. rounding 2/3 of 5 should give 4 rather than 3, as otherwise the sort can fail on certain data. However, if the code is written to end on a base case of size 1, rather than terminating on either size 1 or size 2, rounding the 2/3 of 2 upwards gives an infinite number of calls.\n"
] |
A couple of rudimentary physics questions my teachers never could really answer, for some reason or another, that I'd like to still know. [Big post warning] | 1) Light has no *rest* mass but has momentum based on it's frequency. Newton's laws don't describe it as it wasn't discovered yet. Newtonian laws only apply to Newtonian physics.
2) They would repel one another as a function of distance squared.
3) Falling into a black hole is not destruction but compaction. At high enough energies non-fundamental particles can be broken down into their constituent particles by breaking the nuclear bonds that hold them together.
4) This is called a degenerate gas. It exists at the core of White Dwarf stars.
5) The time delay is the absorption and emission not the indirect path. The clarity depends on the composition of the material and whether the light is reflected/refracted (and at what angle) internally.
6) The nature of matter at the center is unknown, but the black holes still bends space so we assume the matter is still there and take the center of mass to do calculations.
7) Yes. From some frames of reference the Sun hasn't gone out and from others it has. Either one could be considered correct. This is called the relativity of simultaneity and it is indeed relative if the events are not causal.
8) Gravity bends space and light travels through space.
9) He would only have a few seconds to do anything in his spaceship.
10) If they apply the scientific method yes. If they count how many shrimp are in a bucket of water for fun then no.
11) The one that was farther away would be moving faster with respect to the surface, but colliding with something is equivalent to "seeing" outside. | [
"One of the most cited works in this area, Chi et al. (1981), examines how experts (PhD students in physics) and novices (undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics) categorize and represent physics problems. They found that novices sort problems into categories based upon surface features (e.g., keywords in the problem statement or visual configurations of the objects depicted). Experts, however, categorize problems based upon their deep structures (i.e., the main physics principle used to solve the problem).\n",
"Dear Gordon: This is the only way. For years I have been a failure - my research is worth nothing. Everyone else knows it, and S.N. physics has got away from me and I cannot come back. Everything I have started has stalled. Students will not come and they will put me out. Your mother will not see. She will get over this. Take care of her. I am sorry for the trouble I have caused you. Am sorry to make so much trouble. Do your best and tell the truth. With my best love, \"Papa\"\n",
"Former graduate student Richard Terrile remembers that Westphal \"not only taught me about astronomy and science, but also about more down-to-earth topics like self-reliance, dealing with people, and how to keep focused when things go bad. Jim had a wonderful way of reducing a problem to its most basic form. He said, 'There are always two ways to deal with a problem: You can get angry and upset and then try and fix it, or you can just fix it. Which way would you rather work on it?'\".\n",
"BULLET::::- A power question, where the entire team has one hour to solve a multiple-part (usually ten) question requiring explanations and proofs. This is usually an unusual, unique, or invented topic so students are forced to deal with complex new mathematical ideas. Each problem is weighted for a possible 50 points.\n",
"Not all review evaluations were positive. Eli Hawkins, acting as a referee on behalf of the \"Journal of Physics A\", suggested rejecting one of the Bogdanovs' papers: \"It is difficult to describe what is wrong in Section 4, since almost nothing is right. [...] It would take up too much space to enumerate all the mistakes: indeed it is difficult to say where one error ends and the next begins. In conclusion, I would not recommend that this paper be published in this, or any, journal.\"\n",
"At the prediction stage observers answer to the following question, “If you were a student in these classes today and you did everything the teacher asked you to do, what would you know and be able to do?” This question is asked to see what students could learn as a result of the completed assignments and tasks in the class. The responses of the observers could be: Learners will be able to solve mathematical problems, recall information, etc.\n",
"Unusual among science competitions, the USIYPT aims to improve physics teaching skills as well as student understanding of the subject. High school teachers are participating members of each school's research team. The sponsoring organization chooses problems for each tournament that are \"nontrivial, but not impossible,\" whose solutions are not necessarily unknown to practicing professional physicists, but are generally new to high school teachers and students. Research is expected to be conducted primarily in each team's school, with direction and assistance from a teacher at that school.\n"
] |
Is there really no way to know whether or not a shelter dog has rabies until/unless symptoms arise? | Yup. Only way to test for rabies is observation in quarantine or brain tissue. And the latter is the only real, definitive way.
> The shelter giving my dog the regular rabies vaccine for dogs wouldn't do anything if he was already infected with rabies, right?
Depends on progression of the disease.
Ideally, the shelter should do quarantine before putting animals up for adoption, but it's a 90 day quarantine for an unowned, unvaccinated animal, so it's not really feasible. It's kind of...'assumed' that the dog doesn't have rabies though, since it's relatively rare in the grand scheme of things.
| [
"Local animal control agencies or police are sometimes able to capture the animal and determine whether or not it is infected with rabies. This is important if the dog appears sick or is acting strangely.\n",
"It can be prevented in dogs by vaccination, and cleaning and disinfecting bite wounds (post-exposure prophylaxis). Rabies is undiagnosable before symptoms develop. It can be detected through tissue testing after symptoms develop.\n",
"In 1969 there was an outbreak of rabies when a dog, just released from a sixth month quarantine after returning from Germany, attacked two people on Camberley Common. The scare resulted in restriction orders for dogs and large-scale shoots to carry out the destruction of foxes and other wildlife.\n",
"Dogs from local animal shelters are taken in by Project POOCH and paired with young offenders, most of whom have been convicted of serious crimes such as murder and sexual assault. The dogs often have behavioral problems, including excessive barking or aggression.\n",
"The number of rabid dogs detected by the MARNDR, MSPP, and CDC is a huge risk to people and is not accurately reflected in their surveillance figures. Although international support is common in both technical help and donations, it is not comprehensive. In addition, the MARNDR, MSPP, and other actors do not communicate effectively because of human resource limitations. That being said, the 2015 elimination goal in the region was compromised and control of the disease could not yet be achieved, despite the efforts of resolute national officials. In conclusion, rabies in the dog population is still a problem and major threat to the Haitian population.\n",
"Where rabies occurs, rabies vaccination of dogs may be required by law. Other canine vaccines include canine distemper, canine parvovirus, infectious canine hepatitis, adenovirus-2, leptospirosis, bordatella, canine parainfluenza virus, and Lyme disease, among others.\n",
"CCAPN's website in 2014 offers information on controlling rabies in dog populations through vaccination rather than culling, information on controlling domestic cat populations in urban areas through trap-neuter-return rather than culling, and how to create an animal protection agency.\n"
] |
Were there other attempts at peace during World War 1? | There were two notable attempts by the papacy to broker a peace deal. In January of 1915, Benedict XV sent a papal diplomat as an envoy to Austrian emperor Franz Joseph. That diplomat was Eugenio Pacelli (who in 1939 would be elected pope and would take the name Pius XII). The goal was to try to keep Italy out of the war by having Austria agree to Italian territorial demands. This initiative was a failure.
In 1917, Pacelli was again selected to try to get Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany to agree to Benedict XV's 7-point peace plan. As Robert Ventresca says,
> [i]n the end, the discussions of the summer of 1917 went nowhere. Benedict XV's peace plan was effectively dead in the water. Despite some promising starts made by Pacelli in his first meeting with the German chancellor, the German military high command was in no mood for the concessions Bethmann-Hollweg had seemed ready to accept earlier that summer. (*Soldier of Christ*: The Life of Pope Pius XII*, pg 48)
So, early papal efforts to call for peace and keep the war from expanding were unsuccessful, as was the 1917 7-point proposal by Benedict XV. | [
"The obligation to refrain from separate peace was also made during the Second World War in both camps. The Tripartite Pact between the German, Italian and Japanese governments committed the three to prosecute the war together. On the Allied camp, that obligation was contained in the United Nations Declaration of January 1, 1942.\n",
"BULLET::::- U.S. President Woodrow Wilson made his famous \"peace without victory\" speech before a joint session with U.S. Congress, maintaining what while the United States would remain neutral during World War One, it could play a role as a major peace broker in the near future.\n",
"During World War I, the LKPR took the initiative for a peace organisation formed by women of the neutral countries with the aim to form pressure on the neutral governments to act as mediators between the warring parties. The Peace Movement was formed by the LKPR with members also from Fredrika Bremer Association, KFUK, the Social Democratic women's organisations (the Stockholms allmänna kvinnoklubb and its local branches) among others, with Anna Whitlock, Emilia Broomé and Kerstin Hesselgren as leading members. A great peace manifestation was to take place 19February 1915 organized by the Swedish women with support and participation also from the women of Denmark and Norway. On 18February, however, Agda Montelius was called to the Queen, Victoria of Baden, who demanded a stop to \"The foolish presumption of women\" to be involved in politics. King Gustav V of Sweden interrupted and said that women were of course entitled to present demands to the government, but that the situation made it difficult, and referred to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who warned them that such an action could damage Swedish neutrality. The action was therefore silenced in both Sweden, Denmark and Norway, and the women involved placed the blame on Victoria of Baden. The Swedish Peace Movement did, however, send 16 delegates to the international women's peace movement in the Hague in April 1915.\n",
"\"Peace in Their Time\" examines the state of international diplomacy and the conditions in the years immediately after World War I which led to the Kellogg-Briand Pact, a treaty between the war's major combatants which was intended to prevent any such destructive conflagration from happening again. Although the treaty would eventually be signed by many nations, the two countries most responsible for its development were France and the United States. Ferrell details the complex discussions between the respective French and American diplomats, noting that the pact was influenced not only by the competing national interests of the main signatories, but the increasingly vocal pacifist movements that emerged after WWI, concluding that the pact \"was the peculiar result of some very shrewd diplomacy and some very unsophisticated popular enthusiasm for peace.\" The agreement, in its early version, was presented by French foreign minister Aristide Briand as a bilateral antiwar treaty between France and the United States known as the \"Pact of Perpetual Friendship.\" Although one of the victors of WWI, France's postwar position was \"precarious,\" Ferrell writes, since its former enemy Germany had twice its population and considerable industrial capacity which could (and would) eventually be turned towards military production. Hence, the French sought alliances with other nations, and with the Pact of Perpetual Friendship, Briand hoped to secure either an American alliance or at least a guarantee of neutrality. The U.S. government, still isolationist, was resistant to becoming too embroiled in European politics, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg counterproposed a multilateral treaty renouncing war in general terms. Neither the French or American governments truly wanted a multilateral pact, writes Ferrell, but the French felt forced into accepting it lest they seem to reject their own stated aim for universal peace. And the pressure brought on by the popularity of worldwide peace movements increased pressure on diplomats to make the pact happen, even as they felt that it was little more than, in Castle's words, \"a big, peaceful gesture.\" \n",
"After World War I ended in 1918, a large number of treaties aiming to ensure peace were signed. According to historian Larry Addington it was \"the greatest effort to that time to control armaments and to discourage war through treaty\". These treaties ranged from the Treaty of Versailles, which contained provisions were intended to make the \"Reichswehr\" incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament, to the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928, in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve \"disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them\". Specific naval treaties that emerged during this era include the Washington Naval Treaty in 1921 and the London Naval Treaty in 1930.\n",
"In post-World War II times, when the international community frowned on wars of aggression, not all wars involving territorial acquisitions ended in a peace treaty. For example, the fighting in the Korean War ended in an armistice, without any peace treaty covering it.\n",
"On 14 September 1918, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Burián issued a statement advocating a settlement of World War I by peace treaty and it became apparent that the war was coming to an end. By early October, the Slovene-Croat-Serb movement were planning to set up a National Assembly. Svetozar Pribićević, the leader of the Croat-Serb Coalition, confronted Srđan Budisavljević, one of the leaders of this movement, in an effort to determine whether these plans were meant to undermine the Coalition, and the two reached an understanding whereby the Coalition would be invited to join any future National Council before a National Assembly was formed. At the same time, the organizers obtained support from the Croatian People's Peasant Party and the Serb People's Radical Party. On 5 and 6 October, a provisional assembly was convened and the formation of executive committees begun. Seats were apportioned to members of all parties, but not without acrimony over the \"ad hoc\" nature of the proceedings.\n"
] |
What causes the pale greenish tint we get when we are nauseous? | I googled that and got the answer pretty fast. it apparently has to do with the blood leaving your face leaving you with the yellow of your skin and the blue of your capillaries.
| [
"It may also result from inflammation or congestion of the vaginal mucosa. In cases where it is yellowish or gives off an odor, a doctor should be consulted since it could be a sign of several disease processes, including an organic bacterial infection (aerobic vaginitis) or STD.\n",
"It is caused by a defect in tryptophan absorption. Bacterial degradation of unabsorbed tryptophan in the intestine leads to excessive indole production and thus to indicanuria which, on oxidation to indigo blue, causes a peculiar bluish discoloration of the diaper (indoluria). Symptoms typically include digestive disturbances, fever and visual problems. Some may also develop disease due to the incomplete breakdown of tryptophan.\n",
"Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n",
"Minocycline may cause upset stomach, diarrhea, dizziness, unsteadiness, drowsiness, mouth sores, headache, and vomiting. It increases sensitivity to sunlight, and may affect the quality of sleep and rarely causes sleep disorders. It has also been linked to cases of lupus. Prolonged use of minocycline can lead to blue-gray staining of skin, fingernails, and scar tissue. This staining is not permanent, but can take a very long time for the skin color to return to normal; however, a muddy brown skin color in sun-exposed areas is usually permanent. Permanent blue discoloration of gums or teeth discoloration may also occur. Rare but serious side effects include fever, yellowing of the eyes or skin, stomach pain, sore throat, vision changes, and mental changes, including depersonalization.\n",
"Although pus is normally of a whitish-yellow hue, changes in the color can be observed under certain circumstances. Pus is sometimes green because of the presence of myeloperoxidase, an intensely green antibacterial protein produced by some types of white blood cells. Green, foul-smelling pus is found in certain infections of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The greenish color is a result of the bacterial pigment pyocyanin that it produces. Amoebic abscesses of the liver produce brownish pus, which is described as looking like \"anchovy paste\". Pus from anaerobic infections can more often have a foul odor.\n",
"Santonin often produces a singular effect upon the vision, causing surrounding objects to appear discolored, as if they were yellow or green, and occasionally blue or red; it also imparts a yellow or green color to the urine, and a reddish-purple color if that fluid be alkaline. Prof. Giovanni was led to believe that the apparent yellow color of objects observed by the eye, when under the influence of santonin, did not depend upon an elective action on the optic nerves, but rather to the yellow color which the drug itself takes when exposed to the air. Santonin colored by the air does not produce this effect, which only follows the white article. The air gives the yellow color to santonin, to passed urine containing it, and to the serum of the blood when drawn from a vein, and, according to Giovanni, it is owing to its direct action upon the aqueous humor, where it is carried by absorption, that objects present this color. The view now held, however, is that of Rose, that the alkaline serum dissolves the santonin, which then acts upon the perspective centers of the brain, producing the chromatopsia or xanthopsia.\n",
"Phenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a depressed excretion via the kidneys causing a buildup of the medication in the skin, and normally indicates a need to discontinue usage. Other such side effects include fever, confusion, shortness of breath, skin rash, and swelling of the face, fingers, feet, or legs. Long-term use may cause yellowing of nails.\n"
] |
how did letters like g and j, or c and k, come about? why do they share a common sound? | I think it's best expressed by a quote from James Nicoll:
*The problem with defending the purity of the English language is that English is about as pure as a cribhouse whore. We don't just borrow words; on occasion, English has pursued other languages down alleyways to beat them unconscious and riffle their pockets for new vocabulary.*
Bottom line, some of the languages we've beaten unconscious used C, and others used K. Some used G, and some used J. When they all were brought together in the English language, there was a bit of redundancy. | [
"For historical reasons, the consonant is written \"k\" in Czech words like \"kde\" ('where', Proto-Slavic *kъdě) or \"kdo\" ('who', Proto-Slavic *kъto). This is because the letter \"g\" was historically used for the consonant . The original Slavic phoneme changed into in the Old-Czech period. Thus, is not a separate phoneme (with a corresponding grapheme) in words of domestic origin; it occurs only in foreign words (e.g. \"graf\", \"gram\", etc.).\n",
"The letter \"j\" was only relatively recently accepted into Welsh orthography for those words borrowed from English in which the sound is retained in Welsh, even where that sound is not represented by \"j\" in English spelling, as in (\"garage\") and (\"fridge\"). Older borrowings of English words containing resulted in the sound being pronounced and spelt in various other ways, resulting in occasional doublets such as and (\"Japan\").\n",
"J̌ (minuscule: ǰ) is a letter of the Latin alphabet, derived from J with the addition of a háček. It is used in some phonetic transcription schemes, e.g. ISO 9, to represent the sound . It is also used in the Latin scripts or in the romanization of various Iranian and Pamir languages (Avestan, Pashto, Yaghnobi, and others), Armenian, Georgian, Berber/Tuareg, and Classical Mongolian. The letter was invented by Lepsius in his Standard Alphabet on the model of \"š\" and \"ž\" to avoid the confusion caused by the ambiguous pronunciation of the letter \"j\" in European languages.\n",
"In English orthography, the letter ⟨k⟩ normally reflects the pronunciation of [] and the letter ⟨g⟩ normally is pronounced or \"hard\" , as in \"goose\", \"gargoyle\" and \"game\"; or \"soft\" , generally before or , as in \"giant\", \"ginger\" and \"geology\"; or in some words of French origin, such as \"rouge\", \"beige\" and \"genre\". However, silent ⟨k⟩ and ⟨g⟩ occur because of apheresis, the dropping of the initial sound of a word. These sounds used to be pronounced in Old and Middle English.\n",
"As in Hebrew, the letter originally stood for two sounds, and . When pointing was developed, the sound was distinguished with a dot on top (), to give the letter \"ghayn\". In Maltese, which is written with the Latin alphabet, the digraph għ, called \"ʿajn\", is used to write what was originally the same sound.\n",
"Lj (lj in lower case) is a letter present in some Slavic languages, such as the Latin version of Serbo-Croatian and in romanised Macedonian, where it represents a palatal lateral approximant . For example, the word \"ljiljan\" is pronounced . Most languages containing the letter in the alphabet are phonemic, which means that every symbol represents one sound, and is always pronounced the same way. In this case, joining the letters \"L\" and \"J\" creates a new letter or a sound. Like its Latin counterpart, the Cyrillic alphabet has a specific symbol for the same sound: Љ.\n",
"The letter \"j\" was not used traditionally, but is now used in many everyday words borrowed from English, like \"jam\", \"jôc\" \"joke\" and \"garej\" \"garage\". The letters \"k\", \"q\", \"v\", \"x\", and \"z\" are used in some technical terms, like \"kilogram\", \"volt\" and \"zero\", but in all cases can be, and often are, replaced by Welsh letters: \"cilogram\", \"folt\" and \"sero.\" The letter \"k\" was in common use until the 16th century, but was dropped at the time of the publication of the New Testament in Welsh, as William Salesbury explained: \"C for K, because the printers have not so many as the Welsh requireth\". This change was not popular at the time.\n"
] |
how do sports commentators know all the players and their backgrounds so readily? i realize they are fed the info beforehand but they seem to spit out the info at appropriate times and so easily. | They typically have notes on hand during the broadcast, additionally they have a producer in the truck feeding them information. | [
"As a sports analyst you can go on different career paths within the field and even hold more than one position at once. First we have a sports journalist who reports to the public in the form of writing and includes information about sporting topics, events, and competitions. A sports commentator and sportscaster will give play by play details of a specific sporting event and game. They will also relay information necessary in order to understand the context of that specific sport. Sport commentator examples include Joe Buck, Brent Musburger, and Max Kellerman.\n",
"In some countries, the two-person commentating team is not used as much as elsewhere. In Germany, most broadcasts of sports matches traditionally feature a single play-by-play announcer who also provides commentary, background information, and statistics. If the broadcast is on TV, the announcer will usually not comment on visually obvious things. A two-person commentating team is used more often for sports where understanding of events depends more on details and subtle visual cues that not everybody might instantly get or might need extra information in order to reasonably understand – for example in auto racing or winter sport. In those cases, a current or former athlete or coach is often used as co-commentator or \"Experte\" (expert).\n",
"In sports commentating, a \"pundit\" or color commentator may be partnered with a play-by-play announcer who will describe the action while asking the pundit for analysis. Alternatively, pundits may be asked for their opinions during breaks in the play.\n",
"Commentary teams typically feature one professional commentator describing the passage of play, and another, usually a former player or coach, providing supplementary input as the game progresses. The color commentator will usually restrict his input to periods when the ball or puck is out of play or there is no significant action on the field and will defer to the main commentator whenever there is a shot on goal or other significant event, sometimes resulting in their being talked-over or cut short by the primary commentator. Additionally, former players and managers appear as pundits, carrying out a similar role to the co-commentator during the pre-game show preceding a given contest and the post-game show following it. In American motorsports coverage, there may be as many as two color commentators in the booth for a given broadcast. A rules analyst, typically a former official, may comment on rules enforcement and replays.\n",
"The \"analyst or color commentator\" provides expert analysis and background information, such as statistics, strategy on the teams and athletes, and occasionally anecdotes or light humor. They are usually former athletes or coaches in their respective sports, although there are some exceptions.\n",
"During the game, spectators are able to hear and see team discussions: what information and in what scope the players analyze, how much and what options are offered for continuation, at what depth they are calculated, how the evaluations of positions changes during the passing and what final decisions are taken as a result. For the first time this becomes available for spectators' assessment directly, rather than via expert analysis.\n",
"Tipsters are sometimes insiders of a particular sport able to provide bettors with information not publicly available. There are other tipsters who provide equally respectable results through analysis of commonly accessible information.\n"
] |
During the Cold War, why was it necessary for the USA and the USSR to build arsenals of literally thousands of nuclear weapons, enough to destroy all human life multiple times over? | This is more of a question about nuclear war strategy than history but here goes:
The buildup has to do with theories on nuclear war that require establishing enough of a strategic nuclear force to ensure a second strike capability. Theoretically, one side would attempt a counter-force first strike to nullify enemy strategic nuclear assets, which would leave the enemy country at the mercy of the aggressor. As a result, each side would have to build up enough of a strategic deterrent, through land based silos, SLBMs, and strategic bombers, to ensure that it would be able to reciprocate to any first strike with massive nuclear retaliation, hence the second strike. Since building up additional nuclear assets would require additional weapons to destroy them, both sides were caught in an arms race that resulted in many thousands of nuclear weapons. Arsenals basically kept growing until the introduction of the SALT I (1972) and SALT II (Effectively 1979) treaties and eventually the START (1991) treaties. You should keep in mind that the vast majority of nuclear warheads are tactical warheads which would be deployed on the tactical or operational level rather than the strategic warheads equipped on the ICBMs. | [
"At one time, the Soviet Union maintained the world's largest nuclear arsenal in history. According to estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council, the peak of approximately 45,000 warheads was reached in 1986. Roughly 20,000 of these were believed to be tactical nuclear weapons, reflecting the Red Army doctrine that favored the use of these weapons if war came in Europe. The remainder (approximately 25,000) were strategic ICBMs. These weapons were considered both offensive and defensive in nature. The production of these weapons is one of the factors that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n",
"Behind the scenes, the Soviet government was working on building its own atomic weapons. During the war, Soviet efforts had been limited by a lack of uranium but new supplies in Eastern Europe were found and provided a steady supply while the Soviets developed a domestic source. While American experts had predicted that the Soviet Union would not have nuclear weapons until the mid-1950s, the first Soviet bomb was detonated on August 29, 1949, shocking the entire world. The bomb, named \"First Lightning\" by the West, was more or less a copy of \"Fat Man\", one of the bombs the United States had dropped on Japan in 1945.\n",
"Though the Soviet Union had proposed various nuclear disarmament plans after the U.S. development of atomic weapons in the Second World War, the Cold War saw the Soviets in the process of developing and deploying nuclear weapons in full force. It would not be until the 1960s that the United States and the Soviet Union finally agreed to ban weapon buildups in Antarctica and nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater.\n",
"For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941, the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste to its cities and military centers. Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.\n",
"With the monopoly over nuclear technology broken, worldwide nuclear proliferation accelerated. The United Kingdom tested its first independent atomic bomb in 1952, followed by France in 1960 and then China in 1964. While much smaller than the arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union, Western Europe's nuclear reserves were nevertheless a significant factor in strategic planning during the Cold War. A top-secret White Paper, compiled by the Royal Air Force and produced for the British Government in 1959, estimated that British bombers carrying nuclear weapons were capable of destroying key cities and military targets in the Soviet Union, with an estimated 16 million deaths in the Soviet Union (half of whom were estimated to be killed on impact and the rest fatally injured) \"before\" bomber aircraft from the U.S. Strategic Air Command reached their targets.\n",
"Although the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the US and Russia retained thousands of nuclear weapons ready to launch at a moment's notice. Proliferation and the threat of nuclear terrorism have added to the nuclear danger in the post-Cold-War world.\n",
"At the time the US nuclear arsenal was limited in size, based mostly in the United States, and depended on bombers for delivery. Dropshot included mission profiles that would have used 300 nuclear bombs and 29,000 high-explosive bombs on 200 targets in 100 cities and towns to wipe out 85 percent of the Soviet Union's industrial potential at a single stroke. Between 75 and 100 of the 300 nuclear weapons were targeted to destroy Soviet combat aircraft on the ground.\n"
] |
What is the "speed limit" beyond the event horizon of a black hole? | > if light crosses the event horizon of a black hole, does it speed up beyond the speed of light on its way to the center?
Not really. What happens is that past the event horizon, the escape velocity (think: how fast would something, say, a rocket, need to go to "lift off") becomes faster than the speed of light. The photon itself won't speed up. It just can't escape the gravity. | [
"A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n",
"The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
"where is the gravitational constant, is the black hole mass, and is the speed of light in vacuum and is the Schwarzschild radius (the radius of the event horizon) - see below for a derivation of this result.\n",
"In the case of the horizon around a black hole, observers stationary with respect to a distant object will all agree on where the horizon is. While this seems to allow an observer lowered towards the hole on a rope (or rod) to contact the horizon, in practice this cannot be done. The proper distance to the horizon is finite, so the length of rope needed would be finite as well, but if the rope were lowered slowly (so that each point on the rope was approximately at rest in Schwarzschild coordinates), the proper acceleration (G-force) experienced by points on the rope closer and closer to the horizon would approach infinity, so the rope would be torn apart. If the rope is lowered quickly (perhaps even in freefall), then indeed the observer at the bottom of the rope can touch and even cross the event horizon. But once this happens it is impossible to pull the bottom of rope back out of the event horizon, since if the rope is pulled taut, the forces along the rope increase without bound as they approach the event horizon and at some point the rope must break. Furthermore, the break must occur not at the event horizon, but at a point where the second observer can observe it.\n",
"BULLET::::- At the event horizon, formula_30 the speed of light shining outward away from the center of black hole is formula_31 It can not escape from the event horizon. Instead, it gets stuck at the event horizon. Since light moves faster than all others, matter can only move inward at the event horizon. Everything inside the event horizon is hidden from the outside world.\n",
"The black hole event horizon is teleological in nature, meaning that we need to know the entire future space-time of the universe to determine the current location of the horizon, which is essentially impossible. Because of the purely theoretical nature of the event horizon boundary, the traveling object does not necessarily experience strange effects and does, in fact, pass through the calculatory boundary in a finite amount of proper time.\n",
"BULLET::::- Inside the event horizon, formula_19 the speed increases as the raindrop gets ever more closer to the singularity. Eventually, the speed becomes infinite at the singularity. As shown below the speed is always less than the speed of light. The results may not be correctly predicted by the equation at and very near the singularity since the true solution may be quite different when quantum mechanics is incorporated.\n"
] |
why do even numbers feel safer and more pleasing than odd numbers? | Because it is more familiar to you. You have 10 fingers, 10 toes, two eyes, two ears, two arms, two legs, etc. Yes, you have one nose and one mouth but the number two satisfies your natural sense of symmetry more easily. The reason that five is comfortable is because of five fingers and five toes. | [
"For an example of odd numbers being friendly, consider 135 and 819 (\"abundancy\" 16/9). There are also cases of even being \"friendly\" to odd, such as 42 and 544635 (\"abundancy\" 16/7). The odd \"friend\" may be less than the even one, as in 84729645 and 155315394 (\"abundancy\" 896/351).\n",
"This strong dependence on familiarity again undermines the mental calculation hypothesis. The effect also suggests that it is inappropriate to include zero in experiments where even and odd numbers are compared as a group. As one study puts it, \"Most researchers seem to agree that zero is not a typical even number and should not be investigated as part of the mental number line.\"\n",
"In larger numbers, being off by one is often not a major issue. In smaller numbers, however, and specific cases where accuracy is paramount committing an off-by-one error can be disastrous. Sometimes such an issue will also be repeated and, therefore, worsened, by someone passing on an incorrect calculation if the following person makes the same kind of mistake again (of course, the error might also be reversed).\n",
"This is why the \"nice\" number is usually called \"niceness\": a job with a high niceness is very kind to the users of your system (i.e., it runs at low priority), while a job with little niceness utilises more of the CPU. The term \"niceness\" could be considered awkward. Unfortunately, it's the only term that is both accurate (\"nice\" numbers are used to compute the priorities but are not the priorities themselves) and avoids horrible circumlocutions (\"increasing the priority means lowering the priority...\").\n",
"Psychological studies show that it becomes increasingly difficult to discriminate between two numbers as the difference between them decreases. This is called the \"distance effect\". This is important in areas of magnitude estimation, such as dealing with large scales and estimating distances. It may also play a role in explaining why consumers neglect to shop around to save a small percentage on a large purchase, but will shop around to save a large percentage on a small purchase which represents a much smaller absolute dollar amount.\n",
"Some Chinese assign a different set of meanings to the numbers and certain number combinations are considered luckier than others. In general, even numbers are considered lucky, since it is believed that good luck comes in pairs.\n",
"BULLET::::- 9 is considered lucky because in both Mandarin and Cantonese it sounds like the word \"longevity\". 6 is considered auspicious because it is a homonym for the word \"flow.\" The pronunciation for the number 6 is “liu” and it means smooth in English. Therefore, Chinese people often use 6 when they start a new business. 8 is considered lucky in Mandarin because it sounds like the word for \"Prosperity\" and \"Wealth\".\n"
] |
how do latrines flush away stool but get blocked because of tissie/toilet paper? | Toilets have pipes. A lot of paper will be difficult to compress and fit through those pipes. Turds, meanwhile, are relatively small and squishy. | [
"If clogging occurs, it is usually the result of an attempt to flush unsuitable items, or too much toilet paper. Clogging can occur spontaneously due to limescale fouling of the drain pipe, or by overloading the stool capacity of the toilet. Stool capacity varies among toilet designs and is based on the size of the drainage pipe, the capacity of the water tank, the velocity of a flush, and the method by which the water attempts to vacate the bowl of its contents. The size and consistency of the stool is a hard-to-predict contributory factor.\n",
"A close stool was an early type of portable toilet, made in the shape of a cabinet or box at sitting height with an opening in the top. The external structure contained a pewter or earthenware chamberpot to receive the user's excrement and urine when they sat on it; this was normally covered (closed) by a folding lid. \"Stool\" has two relevant meanings: as a type of seat and as human feces. Close stools were used from the Middle Ages (the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" gives the first citation as 1410) until the introduction of the indoor flush toilet.\n",
"Children and cats have taken to unrolling an entire roll of toilet paper by spinning it until it completely unravels on the floor, or as a game by children wadding up one end, putting it in the toilet bowl without tearing it and then using the flushing of the toilet to pull new paper into the toilet, with the objective of flushing the entire roll down the toilet section at a time without the toilet paper breaking. Special toilet paper insert holders with an oblong shape were invented to prevent continuous unrolling without tearing to discourage this practice.\n",
"Voluntary withholding of the stool is a common cause of constipation. The choice to withhold can be due to factors such as fear of pain, fear of public restrooms, or laziness. When a child holds in the stool a combination of encouragement, fluids, fiber, and laxatives may be useful to overcome the problem. Early intervention with withholding is important as this can lead to anal fissures.\n",
"Clumping litter usually also contains quartz or diatomaceous earth (sometimes called diatomaceous silica, which causes it to be mistakenly confused with silica gel litter). Because of the clumping effect, the manufacturers usually instruct not to flush clumping litters down the toilet, because it could clog it.\n",
"Because enemas work in 2–15 minutes, they do not allow sufficient time for a large fecal mass to soften. Even if the enema is successful at dislodging the impacted stool, the impacted stool may remain too large to be expelled through the anal canal. Mineral oil enemas can assist by lubricating the stool for easier passage. In cases where enemas fail to remove the impaction, polyethylene glycol can be used to attempt to soften the mass over 24–48 hours, or if immediate removal of the mass is needed, manual disimpaction may be used. Manual disimpaction may be performed by lubricating the anus and using one gloved finger with a scoop-like motion to break up the fecal mass. Most often manual disimpaction is performed without general anaesthesia, although sedation may be used. In more involved procedures, general anaesthesia may be used, although the use of general anaesthesia increases the risk of damage to the anal sphincter. If all other treatments fail, surgery may be necessary.\n",
"Internal hemorrhoids usually present with painless, bright red rectal bleeding during or following a bowel movement. The blood typically covers the stool (a condition known as hematochezia), is on the toilet paper, or drips into the toilet bowl. The stool itself is usually normally coloured. Other symptoms may include mucous discharge, a perianal mass if they prolapse through the anus, itchiness, and fecal incontinence. Internal hemorrhoids are usually only painful if they become thrombosed or necrotic.\n"
] |
What did knights/lancers do with their lance after a successful charge? | Typically a lance is used once in a battle, you charge, the lance either becomes embedded in your target, breaks or misses, in either case you drop it and draw a sidearm for close quarters fighting. There have of course been cases where lancers or knights have wheeled around, gone back to their original starting point, rearmed and charged again but I would consider this an exception to the rule. Typically a charge was intended to be the deciding move in a battle, shattering all or a crucial part of the enemy formation and thus ending the battle. | [
"In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were often at least 4m long, and had hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips.\n",
"However, from the dawn of the Hundred Years' War onward, the use of professional pikemen and longbowmen with high morale and functional tactics meant that a knight would have to be cautious in a cavalry charge. Men wielding either pike or halberd in formation, with high morale, could stave off all but the best cavalry charges, whilst English longbowmen could unleash a torrent of arrows capable of wreaking havoc, though not necessarily a massacre, upon the heads of heavy infantry and cavalry in unsuitable terrain. It became increasingly common for knights to dismount and fight as elite heavy infantry, although some continued to stay mounted throughout combat. The use of cavalry for flanking manoeuvres became more useful, although some interpretations of the knightly ideal often led to reckless, undisciplined charges.\n",
"At some time in mid morning the knights would line up for the charge (\"estor\"). At a signal, a bugle or herald's cry, the lines would ride at each other and meet with levelled lances. Those remaining on horseback would turn quickly (the action which gave the tournament its name) and single out knights to attack. There is evidence that squires were present at the lists (the staked and embanked line in front of the stands) to offer their masters up to three replacement lances. The mêlée would tend then to degenerate into running battles between parties of knights seeking to take ransoms, and would spread over several square miles between the two settlements which defined the tournament area. Most tournaments continued till both sides were exhausted, or till the light faded. A few ended earlier, if one side broke in the charge, panicked and ran for its home base looking to get behind its lists and the shelter of the armed infantry which protected them. Following the tournament the patron of the day would offer lavish banquets and entertainment. Prizes were offered to the best knight on either side, and awarded during the meals.\n",
"A lance was usually led and raised by a knight in the service of his liege, yet it is not uncommon in certain periods to have a less privileged man, such as a serjeants-at-arms, lead a lance. More powerful knights, also known as a knight bannerets, could field multiple lances.\n",
"At the marshal's signal, silence descended over the field and both knights spurred their horses and charged, their lances each striking the other's shield but not causing significant damage. Wheeling, both again struck, but failed to penetrate, scoring glancing blows on their helmets but remaining horsed. For a third time, they turned and charged and again they both struck. This time however the lances shattered, sending slivers of wood cartwheeling across the arena and nearly unseating both men. Regaining their balance, the knights closed on one another with battle axes drawn, trading furious two-handed blows. As the engagement progressed, Le Gris' superior strength began to tell and Carrouges was driven back until with a mighty swing, Le Gris' axe severed the spine of Carrouges' horse. The dying beast tumbled to the ground, Carrouges leaping clear and meeting Le Gris' charge with a side-step, allowing him to thrust his own axe's pike deep into the stomach of Le Gris' steed.\n",
"In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about .) to make it more manageable. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist pole weapons such as the pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased.\n",
"From the 11th to 14th centuries when medieval jousting was still practised in connection to the use of the lance in warfare, armour evolved from mail (with a solid, heavy helmet, called a \"great helm\", and shield) to plate armour. By 1400, knights wore full suits of plate armour, called a \"harness\" (Clephan 28-29).\n"
] |
how elevators know what floor to go to and how they stop perfectly *nearly* every single time | A certain number of rotations of the gears causes a specific change in height of the elevator. This isn't something that has any drift to it, it's pretty constant on the kind of scale we care about.
A little tuning and you have it set with all the heights. Not much to it. | [
"Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.\n",
"The elevators stop at only two levels, surface and platform level, with no intermediate stops. As a part of the station's geological theme, the signs inside the elevators refer to these two levels not by conventional floor numbers but by \"the present\" and \"16 million years ago\"—for the surface level and platform level, respectively. During ascent and descent, a moving indicator display inside each elevator shows the current position expressed as elevation above sea level in feet. The elevators allow selecting two floors, \"S\" and \"T\", for \"surface\" and \"tunnel\" (or possibly \"street\" and \"track\"). The 26-story (28 for the west elevators) equivalent ride takes about 25 seconds. Due to the hillside surface slope, the west elevators are taller than the east elevators.\n",
"Simply, if one is on the top floor of a building, \"all\" elevators will come from below (none can come from above), and then depart going down, while if one is on the second from top floor, an elevator going to the top floor will pass first on the way up, and then shortly afterward on the way down – thus, while an equal number will pass going up as going down, downwards elevators will generally shortly follow upwards elevators (unless the elevator idles on the top floor), and thus the \"first\" elevator observed will usually be going up. The first elevator observed will be going down only if one begins observing in the short interval after an elevator has passed going up, while the rest of the time the first elevator observed will be going up.\n",
"This layout is usually reflected in the internal elevator zoning. Since nearly all elevators require machine rooms above the last floor they service, mechanical floors are often used to divide shafts that are stacked on top of each other to save space. A transfer level or skylobby is sometimes placed just below those floors.\n",
"Elevators are typically controlled from the outside by a call box, which has up and down buttons, at each stop. When pressed at a certain floor, the button (also known as a \"hall call\" button) calls the elevator to pick up more passengers. If the particular elevator is currently serving traffic in a certain direction, it will only answer calls in the same direction unless there are no more calls beyond that floor.\n",
"The high-speed observation deck elevators accelerate to a world-record certified speed of in 16 seconds, and then it slows down for arrival with subtle air pressure sensations. The door opens after 37 seconds from the 5th floor. Special features include aerodynamic car and counterweights, and cabin pressure control to help passengers adapt smoothly to pressure changes. The downwards journey is completed at a reduced speed of 600 meters per minute, with the doors opening at the 52nd second.\n",
"In the example above, if there are 30 floors and 58 elevators, so at every minute there are 2 elevators on each floor, one going up and one going down (save at the top and bottom), the bias is eliminated – every minute, one elevator arrives going up and another going down. This also occurs with 30 elevators spaced 2 minutes apart – on odd floors they alternate up/down arrivals, while on even floors they arrive simultaneously every two minutes.\n"
] |
Upon launch, what kept the Space Shuttle from tilting backwards towards the orbiter? | If the rocket nozzles generate a thrust that points through the center of mass of the shuttle, then it won't rotate. | [
"The vehicle began re-entry by firing the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while flying upside down, backside first, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's velocity by about . The resultant slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital perigee down into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then flipped over, by pushing its nose down (which was actually \"up\" relative to the Earth, because it was flying upside down). This OMS firing was done roughly halfway around the globe from the landing site.\n",
"Once in orbit, the spacecraft could be rotated in yaw, pitch, and roll: along its longitudinal axis (roll), left to right from the astronaut's point of view (yaw), and up or down (pitch). Movement was created by rocket-propelled thrusters which used hydrogen peroxide as a fuel. For orientation, the pilot could look through the window in front of him or he could look at a screen connected to a periscope with a camera which could be turned 360°.\n",
"The system had some unique features including an intended two-week turn-around time (for the original Space Shuttle launch turn-around time) and the roll-on-roll-off for loading in aircraft (Earth-transportation).\n",
"Once the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and two drogue parachutes released, followed at by three main parachutes and airbags filled with nitrogen (N), which does not combust when exposed to heat, allowing the spacecraft to splashdown. The Command Module would then be returned to Kennedy Space Center for refurbishment for a later flight. Unlike the Apollo CM, which was used only for one flight, an Orion CM could theoretically be used up to ten times under normal operating conditions.\n",
"At Kennedy Space Center's 28.5 degree north latitude the situation is more complicated. Over the 90 minute orbit KSC will rotate about . Unlike the equatorial orbit case, however, letting the spacecraft stay in the inclined orbit a little longer will start taking it south of the launch site (for the most efficient launch eastward, where the orbital inclination is equal to the launch latitude, making the launch point the most northerly of its ground path), its closest point of approach being about to the southwest. A spacecraft wishing to return to its launch site will need about 300 miles of cross-range maneuverability during re-entry, and the NASA shuttle designs demanded about 450 miles in order to have some working room.\n",
"The gravity turn is commonly used with launch vehicles such as a rocket or the Space Shuttle that launch vertically. The rocket begins by flying straight up, gaining both vertical speed and altitude. During this portion of the launch, gravity acts directly against the thrust of the rocket, lowering its vertical acceleration. Losses associated with this slowing are known as gravity drag, and can be minimized by executing the next phase of the launch, the pitchover maneuver, as soon as possible. The pitchover should also be carried out while the vertical velocity is small to avoid large aerodynamic loads on the vehicle during the maneuver.\n",
"Shortly after liftoff, the Shuttle's main engines were throttled up to 104.5% and the vehicle began a combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuver that placed it onto the correct heading (azimuth) for the planned orbital inclination and in a heads down attitude with wings level. The Shuttle flew upside down during the ascent phase. This orientation allowed a trim angle of attack that was favorable for aerodynamic loads during the region of high dynamic pressure, resulting in a net positive load factor, as well as providing the flight crew with a view of the horizon as a visual reference. The vehicle climbed in a progressively flattening arc, accelerating as the mass of the SRBs and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the altitude of the International Space Station is , roughly equivalent to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Station orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions going there must set orbital inclination to the same value in order to rendezvous with the station.\n"
] |
special economic zones | It basically means the country or state has declared certain areas to have separate trade/regulation/economic policy than the rest of the country or state. It is typically done to encourage trade and boost their economy.
Here is an example. Two islandic countries fish for widgets. Country A has a socialist economy and very high taxes and regulation on businesses. Country B is capitalist and has a free market mentality. The cost to get the widget out of country A is much higher and they cannot compete on the global market. So the country declares a special economic zone for the industry/port. The widget company now has a separate set of laws and taxation than the rest of their country. | [
"A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country. SEZs are located within a country's national borders, and their aims include increased trade balance, employment, increased investment, job creation and effective administration. To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced. These policies typically encompass investing, taxation, trading, quotas, customs and labour regulations. Additionally, companies may be offered tax holidays, where upon establishing themselves in a zone, they are granted a period of lower taxation.\n",
"The creation of special economic zones by the host country may be motivated by the desire to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). The benefits a company gains by being in a special economic zone may mean that it can produce and trade goods at a lower price, aimed at being globally competitive. In some countries, the zones have been criticized for being little more than labor camps, with workers denied fundamental labor rights.\n",
"Free economic zones (FEZ), free economic territories (FETs) or free zones (FZ) are a class of special economic zone (SEZ) designated by the trade and commerce administrations of various countries. The term is used to designate areas in which companies are taxed very lightly or not at all to encourage economic activity. The taxation rules are determined by each country. The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) has content on the conditions and benefits of free zones.\n",
"BULLET::::- Special economic zone, a zone located within the national borders of, and controlled by, a sovereign country, but where business and trade laws differ from the rest of that country (and are usually less regulated).\n",
"In special economic zones business and trades laws differ from the rest of the country. The term, and a number of other terms, can have different specific meanings in different countries and publications. Often they have relaxed jurisdiction of customs or related national regulations. They can be ports or other large areas or smaller allocated areas.\n",
"Free zones are areas within the local territory which enjoy special customs and tax rules. They are intended to promote the industrialization of goods and provision of services aimed primarily at foreign markets and also the domestic market.\n",
"The A-Zone's core principles include a commitment to Participatory Economics (or Parecon), autonomy and solidarity, anti-colonialism \"at home\" and abroad, fair and equitable work, non-hierarchical decision-making, community economic development, and revolution .\n"
] |
After the Stanford Prison Experiment, what happened to all the ‘prisoners’ and ‘guards’ who were involved? Did any of them sue/have long term mental health issues from what went on in there? | I think it's well worth pointing out here that the Stanford experiment is highly controversial among psychologists, and the high reputation it has among the general public is by no means reflected in its reception by professionals.
There are numerous critiques of the experiment from the point of view of its design and, perhaps more seriously, several recent "exposés", and a film, [based on interviews with participants, ](_URL_5_)which contain significant charges regarding the degree to which the results were deliberately engineered by the "prisoners" and "guards", out of boredom or mischief.
In addition, the psychologist responsible for the experiment, Zimbardo, has been attacked for [giving out incorrect information about the trial design and the conditions under which the student participants took part](_URL_2_).
Fnally, [an attempt by a team of British psychologists](_URL_4_) to replicate the experiment under the same conditions that Zimbardo asserts he applied [failed miserably](_URL_1_).
As a result of all this, the Stanford experiment is actually not very widely taught in psychology classes and d[oes not appear in quite a number of standard textbooks](_URL_0_).
All of these charges would tend to suggest not only that the famous experiment was, at best, severely comprised, but also that it was much less likely than you might expect to inflict long term damage on the participants. For balance, you might like to know that Stanford maintains a resource that links to both [major critiques of the study](_URL_6_), and Zimbardo's [defences of it](_URL_3_). | [
"In the summer of 1971 a Stanford psychology professor, Philip Zimbardo, conducted a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard which is known as the Stanford prison experiment. The experiment, which was funded by the Office of Naval Research, surprised the professor by the authoritarian and brutal reaction of the \"guards\" and the passive acceptance of abuse by the \"prisoners\". The experiment was criticized as unethical and was a partial cause of the development of ethical guidelines for experiments involving human subjects.\n",
"In 1971, Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford prison experiment in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. The participants adapted to their roles beyond Zimbardo's expectations with prison guards exhibiting authoritarian status and psychologically abusing the prisoners who were passive in their acceptance of the abuse. The experiment was largely controversial with criticisms aimed toward the lack of scientific principles and a control group, and for ethical concerns regarding Zimbardo's lack of intervention in the prisoner abuse.\n",
"The Stanford prison experiment was a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted at Stanford University on August 14–20, 1971, by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students. It was funded by the U.S. Office of Naval Research and was of interest to both the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps as an investigation into the causes of conflict between military guards and prisoners. The experiment is a classic study on the psychology of imprisonment and is a topic covered in most introductory psychology textbooks.\n",
"The findings of the study were very different from those of the Stanford Prison Experiment. Specifically, (a) there was no evidence of guards conforming \"naturally\" to the role, and (b) in response to manipulations that served to increase a sense of shared identity amongst the prisoners, over time, they demonstrated increased resistance to the guards' regime. This culminated in a prison breakout on Day 6 of the study that made the regime unworkable. After this, the participants created a \"self-governing commune\" but this too collapsed due to internal tensions created by those who had organized the earlier breakout. After this, a group of former prisoners and guards conspired to install a new prisoner-guard regime in which they would be the \"new guards\". Now, however, they wanted to run the system along much harsher lines – akin to those seen in the Stanford study. Signs that this would compromise the well-being of participants led to early termination of the study.\n",
"The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) was a social psychology experiment that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers. It was conducted at Stanford University on the days of August 14–20, 1971, by a research group led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students. In the study, volunteers were randomly assigned to be either \"guards\" or \"prisoners\" in a mock prison, with Zimbardo himself serving as the superintendent. Several \"prisoners\" left mid-experiment, and the whole experiment was abandoned after six days. Early reports on experimental results claimed that students quickly embraced their assigned roles, with some guards enforcing authoritarian measures and ultimately subjecting some prisoners to psychological torture, while many prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, by the officers' request, actively harassed other prisoners who tried to stop it. The experiment has been described in many introductory social psychology textbooks, although some have chosen to exclude it because its methodology is sometimes questioned.\n",
"Now a more widely recognized study since the publication of his book, \"The Lucifer Effect\", the Stanford Prison Experiment is infamous for its blatant display of aggression in deindividuated situations. Zimbardo created a mock prison environment in the basement of Stanford University’s psychology building in which he randomly assigned 24 men to undertake the role of either guard or prisoner. These men were specifically chosen because they had no abnormal personality traits (e.g.: narcissistic, authoritarian, antisocial, etc.) The experiment, originally planned to span over two weeks, ended after only six days because of the sadistic treatment of the prisoners by the guards. Zimbardo attributed this behavior to deindividuation due to immersion within the group and creation of a strong group dynamic. Several elements added to the deindividuation of both guards and prisoners. Prisoners were made to dress alike, wearing stocking caps and hospital dressing gowns, and also were identified only by a number assigned to them rather than by their name. Guards were also given uniforms and reflective glasses which hid their faces. The dress of guards and prisoners led to a type of anonymity on both sides because the individual identifying characteristics of the men were taken out of the equation. Additionally, the guards had the added element of diffusion of responsibility which gave them the opportunity to remove personal responsibility and place it on a higher power. Several guards commented that they all believed that someone else would have stopped them if they were truly crossing the line, so they continued with their behavior. Zimbardo's prison study would have not been stopped if one of Zimbardo's graduate students, Christina Maslach, had not pointed it out to him.\n",
"A study conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 examined the effect of social roles on college students at Stanford University. Twenty-four male students were assigned to a random role of a prisoner or guard to simulate a mock prison in one of Stanford's basements. After only six days, the abusive behavior of the guards and the psychological suffering of prisoners proved significant enough to halt the two-week-long experiment. Human subjects play a role in this experiment. This study would show whether or not prisoners and guards have conflict which make conflict inevitable. This conflict would be due to possible sadistic behavior of guards (dispositional) or due to the hostile environment of the prison (positional). Due to the fact that prisoners could lack respect for the law and guards could behave in a hostile manner due to the power structure of the social environment that are within prisons. Yet, if prisoners and guards behaved in a non aggressive way, this would support the dispositional hypothesis. If the prisoners were just to behave in the same way that people did in real life, this would support the positional hypotheses. Using human subjects for this experiment is vital because the results is based on the way a human would react, with behaviors only humans obtain. Human subjects are the best way to get successful results from this type of experiment. The results of this experiment showed that people will readily conform to the specific social roles they are supposed to play. The prison environment played a part in making the guards behavior more brutal, due to the fact that none of the participants showed this type of behavior beforehand. Most of the guards had a hard time believing they had been acting in such ways. This evidence concludes this to be positional behavior, meaning the behavior was due to the hostile environment of the prison. \n"
] |
Were there "baby boomer" generations as a result of large armies returning from battle in ancient times? | Its important to remember that the Baby Boom in 1950s America was not simply caused by troops returning from WW2. Remember there was no real Baby Boom in Britain or France in response to WW2 and even within America after WW1 there was no real "boom" in population. David Faber in *The Age of Great Dreams* argues that the boom was more caused by availability of housing in the suburbs and widespread consumer goods in the economy which a huge amount of young couples feel confident enough to start families at the same time especially when you consider many of them came through the Great Depression. They saw the new opportunities as a great chance also considering the uncertainty in America due to the Cold War starting.
I know I did exactly answer your question and I don't have much data on battles in ancient times, but I would answer no since even America's baby boom was not the result of a large army returning, that is just an oversimplification of history. | [
"BULLET::::- Baby boomers, also known as Generation W or the Me Generation, are the generation that were born mostly following World War II, typically born from 1946 to 1964. Increased birth rates were observed during the post–World War II baby boom making them a relatively large demographic cohort.\n",
"One proposed reason why Baby Booms occur after periods of war, (like after World war 2 and the Rwandan Genocide) is because depopulation tends to free up resources for the survivors which creates an epigenetic tendency to reproduce. In other words, having children seems desirable when resources are plentiful, when there is less competition and demand for finite resources.\n",
"In the aftermath of World War II the birth rate spiked in the United States as millions of young men were discharged from the armed forces and began to establish new households. This \"baby boom\" significantly increased the number of families in the United States. \n",
"The middle of the 20th century was marked by a significant and persistent increase in fertility rates in many countries of the world, especially in the West, resulting in the famous baby boomer generation. Although the baby boom traditionally considered to be the post-war phenomenon started immediately after World War II, some demographers place it earlier, at the increase of births during the war or in the late 1930s.\n",
"Probably more than 100,000 children have been born to Asian mothers and US servicemen in Asia. This occurred chiefly during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Some of these children were born to mothers raped by men living on several US military bases in the region since World War II. Collectively these children are known as \"Amerasians\", a term coined by the author Pearl S. Buck.\n",
"In Japan, the first baby boom occurred between 1947 and 1949。The number of births in the past three years exceeds 2.5 million every year, bringing the total number of births to about 8 million. The 2.69 million births in 1949 are the largest ever in postwar statistics. The people born in this period is called the \"baby boom generation\" (団塊の世代, dankai no sedai, means \"the generation of nodule\").\n",
"In addition to the size of the group, Steve Gillon has suggested that one thing that sets the baby boomers apart from other generational groups is the fact that \"almost from the time they were conceived, Boomers were dissected, analyzed, and pitched to by modern marketers, who reinforced a sense of generational distinctiveness.\" This is supported by the articles of the late 1940s identifying the increasing number of babies as an economic boom, such as a 1948 \"Newsweek\" article whose title proclaimed \"Babies Mean Business\", or a 1948 \"Time\" magazine article called \"Baby Boom.\"\n"
] |
Were there black KKK members? | Maybe. Take a look at this 1920s [application](_URL_0_)(warning, PDF) to join the order. Note question 9: "are you of the white race or of a colored race?" Keep in mind that these forms are for vetting members. However, the question is tantalizing when we realize that the 1920s Klan, which has received the most scholarly attention, had several auxiliaries. The only auxiliary that has received any sustained attention is the Women's Ku Klux Klan (WKKK), beginning with Blee's work. But there are references to other Klan auxiliaries. There was the Junior Ku Klux Klan, Tri-K Girls, the American Krusaders, and the Ku Klux Kiddies. However, there are also references to another Klan auxiliary, the Klan's Colored Man auxiliary. It is unclear how successful the Klan was at organizing this auxiliary. One should not take the lack of archival deposits as evidence of their inability to organize the auxiliary; the Klan was very secretive and destroyed many of their documents. There are scattered references about membership, especially secondary resources, but it is uncertain how reliable these sources are. One such compendium of references is [this](_URL_1_) Klan website (WARNING: NSFW, KLAN WEBSITE). So, I'm afraid we cannot answer your questions right now. It is a big maybe. | [
"The White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (WKKKK) operated in the Southern District of Mississippi and elsewhere, and was a secret organization of adult white males who, among other things, targeted for violence African Americans they believed were involved in civil rights activity in order to intimidate and retaliate against such individuals.\n",
"BULLET::::- In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan was formed in Pulaski, Tennessee by a group of six Confederate War veterans. The KKK or \"Klan\" sought to use extralegal force to resist Reconstruction in the post-Civil War South of the United States. The KKK became a leading agent of racist and nativist violence in the United States.\n",
"Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three entirely different organizations (1860s, 1920s, post 1960) that used the same nomenclature and costumes but had no direct connection. The KKK of the 1920s was a purification movement that rallied against crime, especially violation of prohibition, and decried the growing \"influence\" of \"big-city\" Catholics and Jews, many of them immigrants and their descendants from Ireland as well as Southern and Eastern Europe. Its membership was often exaggerated but possibly reached as many as 4 million men, but no prominent national figure claimed membership; no daily newspaper endorsed it, and indeed most actively opposed the Klan. Membership was verily evenly spread across the nation's white Protestants, North, West, and South, urban and rural. Historians in recent years have explored the Klan in depth. The KKK of the 1860s and the current KKK were indeed violent. However, historians discount lurid tales of a murderous group in the 1920s. Some crimes were probably committed in Deep South states but were quite uncommon elsewhere. The local Klans seem to have been poorly organized and were exploited as money-making devices by organizers more than anything else. (Organizers charged a $10 application fee and up to $50 for costumes.) Nonetheless, the KKK had become prominent enough that it staged a huge rally in Washington DC in 1925. Soon afterward, the national headlines reported rape and murder by the KKK leader in Indiana, and the group quickly lost its mystique and nearly all its members.\n",
"Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie \"Birth of a Nation\", which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.\n",
"After the Civil War, on December 24, 1865, six Confederate veterans created the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). The KKK used violence, lynching, murder and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress African Americans in particular, and it created a sensation with its masked forays' dramatic nature.\n",
"The Ku Klux Klan is a racist and anti-immigrant organization which flourished in the Southern United States after the American Civil War. They wore white robes and hoods, burned crosses and violently attacked and murdered black Americans.\n",
"In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the group most associated with the white supremacist movement. Many white supremacist groups are based on the concept of preserving genetic purity, and do not focus solely on discrimination based on skin color. The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant. The KKK and other white supremacist groups like Aryan Nations, The Order and the White Patriot Party are considered antisemitic.\n"
] |
how do sodas travel the country all carbonated but as soon as you get one alone and it shakes up, its flat?! | I would like to add that soda in its final form rarely if ever makes a cross-country trip. What happens with the big companies is they stir up the beverage base at their own place (this is JUST the flavorings and stuff), then ship *that* to the various regional bottling factories who then mix it with carbonated water, and then ship the final product out.
This is why when you see Coke and Pepsi delivery trucks, they're *always* driving a "day cab" semi, which doesn't have the sleeper area in the back. Don't need the sleeper area if you clock in make your rounds and clock out and go home each day. | [
"Home soda siphons can carbonate flat water through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.\n",
"In the Eastern Bloc countries, self-service soda fountains, located in shopping centers, farmers markets, or simply on the sidewalk in busy areas, became popular by the mid-20th century. In the USSR, a glass of carbonated water would sell for 1 kopeck, while for 3 kopecks one could buy a glass of fruit-flavored soda. Most of these vending machines have disappeared since 1990; a few remain, usually provided with an operator.\n",
"The term may also refer to a small eating establishment or lunch counter, common from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, often inside a drugstore or other business, where a soda jerk served carbonated beverages, ice cream, and sometimes light meals. The soda jerk's fountain generally dispensed only unflavored carbonated water, to which various syrups were added by hand.\n",
"Phosphate soda is a type of beverage that has a tangy or sour taste. These beverages became popular among children in the 1870s in the United States. Phosphate beverages were made with fruit flavorings, egg, malt, or wine. In the 1900s, the beverages became popular, and fruit-flavoured phosphate sodas were served at soda fountains, before losing popularity to ice cream based treats in the 1930s. \n",
"BULLET::::- Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer \"pop\" over \"soda\" to refer to a carbonated beverage (though neither term is dominant in British English). \"Soft drink\" is also extremely common throughout Canada.\n",
"On April 9, 2019, the Town Meeting of West Tisbury, Massachusetts, banned the sale of non-alcoholic carbonated beverages in single-serve plastic bottles (defined as less than 34 ounces) starting January 1, 2020. This is apparently the first such law in the United State to cover soft drinks and similar beverages. Two neighboring towns on the island, Chilmark and Aquinnah, will vote on similar measures within the following month.\n",
"Social drinking changed with the counter-culture movement of the 1970s and the arrival of new bottled and canned beverages in the 1980s, and soda water has declined in popularity. Soda siphons are still bought by the more traditional bar trade and are available at the bar in many upmarket establishments, but in the UK there are now only two wholesalers of soda-water in traditional glass siphons, and an estimated market of around 120,000 siphons per year (2009). Worldwide, preferences are for beverages in recyclable plastic containers.\n"
] |
irc | My favorite description of IRC has always been "Multiplayer Notepad" | [
"IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in August 1988 to replace a program called MUT (MultiUser Talk) on a BBS called OuluBox at the University of Oulu in Finland, where he was working at the Department of Information Processing Science. Jarkko intended to extend the BBS software he administered, to allow news in the Usenet style, real time discussions and similar BBS features. The first part he implemented was the chat part, which he did with borrowed parts written by his friends Jyrki Kuoppala and Jukka Pihl. The first IRC network was running on a single server named tolsun.oulu.fi. Oikarinen found inspiration in a chat system known as Bitnet Relay, which operated on the BITNET.\n",
"IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP and, optionally, TLS. An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. There are many client implementations, such as mIRC, HexChat and irssi, and server implementations, e.g. the original IRCd. Most IRC servers do not require users to register an account but a nick (nickname) is required before being connected.\n",
"ircII (pronounced \"i-r-c-two\" or \"irk-two\", and sometimes referred to as \"IRC client, second edition\") is a free, open-source Unix IRC and ICB client written in C. Initially released in the late 1980s, it is the oldest IRC client still maintained. Several other UNIX IRC clients, including BitchX, EPIC, and ScrollZ, were originally forks of ircII. For some, ircII set the standard of quality for IRC clients, however other clients have since overtaken ircII in terms of popularity. The application has been promoted as being \"fast, stable, lightweight, portable, and easily backgrounded\".\n",
"An IRC operator (often abbreviated as IRCop or oper) is a user on an Internet Relay Chat network who has privileged access. IRC operators are charged with the task of enforcing the network's rules, and in many cases, improving the network in various areas. The permissions available to an IRC operator vary according to the server software in use, and the server's configuration.\n",
"IRCs are often used by amateur radio operators sending QSL cards to each other; it has traditionally been considered good practice and common courtesy to include an IRC when writing to a foreign operator and expecting a reply by mail. If the operator's home country does not sell IRCs, then a foreign IRC may be used.\n",
"IRCX defines ways to use SASL authentication to authenticate securely to the server, channel properties/metadata, multilingual support that can be queried using the enhanced \"LISTX\" command (to find a channel in your language), an additional user level (so there are three levels: owners, hosts, and voices), specific IRC operator levels, and full support for UTF-8 (in nicknames, channel names, and so on). IRCX is fully backwards compatible with IRC; the new features are downgraded to something a standard IRC client can see (and UTF-8 nicknames are converted to hexadecimal).\n",
"IRC subculture refers to the particular set of social features common to interaction on the various Internet Relay Chat (IRC) systems across the world, and the culture associated with them. IRC is particularly popular among programmers, hackers, and computer gamers.\n"
] |
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