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Is it a coincidence that the first four planets nearest to the sun are all much smaller then the four other planets?
|
No, it definitely isn't. The conventional explanation is as follows:
There are three main types of neutral materials in the universe, which (listed in decreasing order of abundance) are:
1. Gases (Hydrogen and Helium)
2. Ices (Water, Ammonia, Methane, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide)
3. Rocks and metals
Materials in category 1 are always gases, while materials in category 3 are always solids. But materials in category 2 are gases close to the Sun and solids farther away (note that we're referring to conditions of low pressure like those in space, where no materials are liquid).
Far from the Sun, solid cores of planets can get much larger because they can contain abundant ices rather than rare rocks and metals. They can even get large enough to capture Category 1 materials (gases) and get really big, like in the case of Jupiter and Saturn. So outer planets should be much larger than inner planets.
That's the conventional story, but things are more complicated due to the possibility of orbital migration. That's why we've seen hot Jupiters close to their stars. But if violent migration of this type doesn't happen, we expect that things will be like our Solar System, with big planets far out and small planets close in.
|
[
"The two planets are in a 4:3 resonance, meaning that every time the outer planet orbits the star three times, the inner planet orbits the star four times. The two planets are separated by only 0.35 AU (52 Gm). Because of the small separation between the two massive planets, the gravitational tugs between the two planets is nearly 3 million times greater than the gravitational force between Earth and Mars, 700 times larger than that between Earth and the Moon, and 4 times larger than the pull of the Sun on Earth.\n",
"The orbits of the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system are very flat and compact. All seven of TRAPPIST-1's planets orbit much closer than Mercury orbits the Sun. Except for \"b\", they orbit farther than the Galilean satellites do around Jupiter, but closer than most of the other moons of Jupiter. The distance between the orbits of \"b\" and \"c\" is only 1.6 times the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The planets should appear prominently in each other's skies, in some cases appearing several times larger than the Moon appears from Earth. A year on the closest planet passes in only 1.5 Earth days, while the seventh planet's year passes in only 18.8 days.\n",
"Then in 1802, Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas, a second \"planet\" at roughly the same distance from the Sun as Ceres. That two planets could occupy the same orbit was an affront to centuries of thinking; even Shakespeare had ridiculed the idea (\"Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere\"). Even so, in 1804, another world, Juno, was discovered in a similar orbit. In 1807, Olbers discovered a fourth object, Vesta, at a similar orbital distance.\n",
"On June 21, 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting the star was announced. The planets, a super-Earth and a \"mini-Neptune\" are unusual in that they have very close orbits; their semi-major axes differ by only 0.013 AU. The outer planet orbits only 11% further than the inner one. Coupled with masses significantly higher than Earth, their gravitational influence to each other is significant, meaning that their interaction causes extreme transit timing variations for both. Kepler-36b and c have estimated densities of 6.8 and 0.86 g/cm, respectively. The two planets are close to a 7:6 orbital resonance. The large difference in densities, despite the close proximity of the planets' orbits, is likely due to the large difference in mass. The innermost and less massive planet likely lost most, or all, of the hydrogen/helium envelope acquired during formation. \n",
"It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n",
"While several Jovian-sized planets have been discovered, most have been found orbiting close to their stars. It is now hypothesized that Jupiter's movement in the Solar System may have cleared the way for the rocky inner planets, including Earth, to form. The similarity extends to the star that centers the system; like the Sun, HIP 11915 is a G-class star.\n",
"All six known planets in the Kepler-80 system orbit very close to the star, and their distances to the star (the semi major axes) are all smaller than 0.2 AU. For comparison the planet in the Solar System closest to the star, Mercury, has a semi major axis of 0.389 AU, and so the entire known system of Kepler-80 can lie within the orbit of Mercury. This makes Kepler-80 a very compact system and it is one of many STIP's (Systems with Tightly-packed Inner Planets) that have been discovered by the Kepler telescope.\n"
] |
How popular was Uncle Tom's Cabin in the south?
|
Another question: Were there any contemporary reviews of the book published in Southern Newspapers that criticized it as a lie/slander?
I'm imagining something along the lines of how Pravda's review of Solzhenitsyn's "The Gulag Archipelago" had the title "A vile slanderer seeking to earn filthy capitalist lucre by besmirching the homeland that nurtured him".
|
[
"Even though \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was the best-selling novel of the 19th century, far more Americans of that time saw the story as a stage play or musical than read the book. Eric Lott, in his book \"Uncle Tomitudes: Racial Melodrama and Modes of Production\", estimates that at least three million people saw these plays, ten times the book's first-year sales.\n",
"The area was named after \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\", the 1852 anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. In 1885 a local landlord named \"Thomas\" opened a public house at the southern rim of the forest and installed several small huts in his beer garden to shelter his guests from the rain. These huts were referred to as \"Tom's Cabins\", which reminded many of the famous book. Over the years the estate, the station, even the cinema and the \"\" took on the name as well. The pub was demolished in 1979.\n",
"\"Published at the end of 1850, \"The Wide, Wide World\" by Susan Warner went through fourteen editions in two years, and may ultimately have been as popular as \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" with 19th century American readers\".\n",
"Uncle Tom's Cabin is a 1914 American silent historical drama film directed by William Robert Daly and starring Sam Lucas, Walter Hitchcock and Hattie Delaro. It was based upon playwright George L. Aiken's theatrical adaptation of Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel, \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\". It was produced at Fort Lee, New Jersey by the newly-founded World Film studio.\n",
"\"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" has influenced numerous movies, including \"The Birth of a Nation\". This controversial 1915 film set the dramatic climax in a slave cabin similar to that of Uncle Tom, where several white Southerners unite with their former enemy (Yankee soldiers) to defend, according to the film's caption, their \"Aryan birthright.\" According to scholars, this reuse of such a familiar image of a slave cabin would have resonated with, and been understood by, audiences of the time.\n",
"Other movies influenced by or making use of \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" include \"Dimples\", a 1936 Shirley Temple film; \"Uncle Tom's Uncle\", a 1926 \"Our Gang\" film; its 1932 remake \"Spanky\"; the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical \"The King and I\", in which a ballet called \"Small House of Uncle Thomas\" is performed in traditional Siamese style; and \"Gangs of New York\", in which Leonardo DiCaprio and Daniel Day-Lewis's characters attend an imagined wartime adaptation of \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\".\n",
"Even though \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was the best-selling novel of the 19th century, far more Americans of that time saw the story in a stage play or musical than read the book. Some of these shows were essentially minstrel shows that utilized caricatures and stereotypes of black people, and thus inverting the intent of the novel. \"Tom shows\" were popular in the United States from the 1850s through the early 1900s.\n"
] |
why is there such a demand in asia for rhino and elephant tusks? how did it start?
|
Traditional Chinese Medicine uses herbs and powders and other natural ingredients to cure various ailments. They believe it will cure things such as impotence or even cancer. So, there's high demand for these items.
|
[
"Asian elephants once roamed a large swath of China, but are now confined to the Xishuangbanna and Pu'er Prefectures of southern Yunnan. Xishuangbana means 12 elephants in the local Thai language. In recent years, Chinese demand for ivory has led to a sharp increase in elephant poaching around the world. Thanks to strict enforcement of elephant protection laws with capital punishment for poachers and government financed feeding programs, the population of elephants within China from 1994 to 2014 roughly doubled to nearly 300.\n",
"The demand for ivory as a result of rapid economic development during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in East Asia, led to rampant poaching and the serious decline of elephants in many Asian and African range countries. In Thailand, the illegal trade in live elephants and ivory still flourishes. Although the quantity of worked ivory seen openly for sale has decreased substantially since 2001, Thailand still has one of the largest and most active ivory industries seen anywhere in the world. Tusks from Thai poached elephants also enter the market; between 1992 and 1997 at least 24 male elephants were killed for their tusks.\n",
"The demand for ivory, which is highest in China, leads to the illegal poaching of both African and Asian elephants. For example, one of the world's largest elephants, Satao, was recently killed for his iconic tusks. Another iconic Kenyan elephant, Mountain Bull, was also killed by poachers, and with the street value for ivory now exceeding that of gold, African elephants face a poaching epidemic. Elephants are also poached for meat, leather, and body parts, with the illegal wildlife trade putting elephants increasingly in danger, because it is perceived to be a low risk and high profit endeavor. Poachers are often considered trained for this activity due to the amount of tools needed to be transported as well as the large size of these animals.\n",
"Eurasian elephant ivory was usually obtained from the tusks of elephants in India, and in Roman times, from North Africa; from the 18th century sub-Saharan Africa became the main source. Ivory harvesting led to the extinction, or near-extinction of elephants in much of their former range. In early medieval Northern Europe, walrus ivory was traded south from as far away as Norse Greenland to Scandinavia, southern England and northern France and Germany. In Siberia and Arctic North America, mammoth tusks could be recovered from permafrost and used; this became a large business in the 19th century, with convicts used for much of the labour. The 25,000-year-old Venus of Brassempouy, arguably the earliest real likeness of a human face, was carved from mammoth ivory no doubt freshly killed. In northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages walrus ivory was more easily obtained from Viking traders, and later Norse settlements in Greenland than elephant ivory from the south; at this time walrus were probably found much further south than they are today. Sperm whale teeth are another source, and bone carving has been used in many cultures without access to ivory, and as a far cheaper alternative; in the Middle Ages whalebone was often used, either from the Basque whaling industry or natural strandings.\n",
"Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Poaching of tuskers impacts on sex ratios that become highly female biased; genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline. Poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where between 1969 and 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122.\n",
"The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence. Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold. The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century. This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan. Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks. CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected. Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local elephant populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes.\n",
"Elephants and rhinoceros are poached for ivory and rhinoceros horn. The trends of rhinoceros and elephant poaching are largely dependent on global demand. Rhinoceros horns are used for decorative purposes and some Asian medicines. In South Africa, rhino poaching commonly happens on privately owned land, which is difficult for officials to prevent. Another common place to poach is Kruger National Park. The African elephant (\"Loxodonta africana\") is the elephant species that inhabits southern Africa. While elephant populations in Eastern and Central Africa are steadily decreasing, elephant population sizes in southern Africa are stable. The current elephant population in southern Africa is 293, 447. However, poaching continues to threaten the status of elephant populations, specifically in Kruger National Park, where the PIKE (Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants) value has increased 23% from 2014 to 2015.\n"
] |
Has a US President ever not been to one of the States at the time of his Presidency?
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When Barack Obama recently visited South Dakota, it was widely reported that he is only fourth President to visit all 50 states. The other three [were](_URL_0_) Richard Nixon, George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton. That means that Kennedy, Johnson, Ford, Carter and Reagan have not been to some states. But I don't remember if any of the articles said something about Presidents before there were 50 states.
|
[
"Four men have become President of the United States after serving as Governor of New York: Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, and six were Vice President of the United States. Van Buren and Theodore Roosevelt held both offices. Two governors have been Chief Justice of the United States: John Jay held that position when he was elected governor in 1795, and Charles Evans Hughes became chief justice in 1930, two decades after leaving the governorship.\n",
"The first official visits by a sitting president were those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were an offshoot of Allied diplomatic interactions during World War II. Of the 12 independent countries on the continent, all but Bolivia, Guyana and Paraguay have been visited by an American president. Ecuador has only been visited by a president elect.\n",
"During his 1874–75 state visit to the United States, he made history as the first reigning monarch to visit the United States. His trip to Washington, D.C. established two diplomatic benchmarks. One was the United States Congress holding their first joint meeting in the body's history, less formal than a joint session, specifically for an audience with him. The second was President Ulysses S. Grant hosting him as honoree of the first state dinner at the White House. \n",
"The first American president who served in the navy was John F. Kennedy (who commanded the famous \"PT-109\"). Others included Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and George H. W. Bush. Both Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Assistant Secretary of the Navy prior to their presidencies. Many members of Congress served in the navy, notably U.S. Senators Bob Kerrey, John McCain, and John Kerry. Other notable former members of the U.S. Navy include astronauts, entertainers, authors and professional athletes.\n",
"For over two centuries (1789-1989) of early U.S. history, all Presidents with the exception of two (Van Buren and Kennedy) were descended from the varied colonial British stock, from the Pilgrims and Puritans to the Scotch-Irish and English who settled the Appalachia.\n",
"The first President of the United States, General George Washington, traveled through the town twice and on one occasion slept at a home along the Bay Path in 1790 while on his way to and from Boston.\n",
"BULLET::::- 18 presidents previously served as U.S. representatives; 6 of 18 held this office prior to the four 'previous positions' shown in this table. Only one – James A. Garfield – was a Representative immediately before election as president. Only John Quincy Adams served as a U.S. representative after being president. Additionally, after being president, John Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress and was later elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but he died before taking his seat.\n"
] |
Why is the king James version of the Bible considered by a lot of churches to be the best version?
|
We tend to call this "King James Version Only"-ism. The [wikipedia](_URL_0_) page is reasonably well-written, if you want an overview.
At its heart it's a view of both the textual tradition of Greek and Hebrew texts that undergird the KJV, usually coupled with a view of the process of translation that led to the KJV's translation in the first place.
On the textual side, KJVO advocates usually view the 'Received Text' (Textus Receptus) which underlines the KJV as superior, faithful, and sometimes divinely protected from corruption. They view with disdain and rejection the discipline of modern textual criticism, and tend to favour simple majority of manuscripts, vs. genealogising and 'weighing' manuscripts.
On the process side, some believe that the KJV is an divinely authoritative translation for English and remains so for all time.
The best introduction to this issue is, in my view, the extensive work of Christian Apologist, James White. I suppose you might go around trying to find a secular take on this issue, but quite frankly secular scholars have rarely found the issue interesting enough to do some of the work White has.
There certainly are other translations, a great deal of them. As far as I know, while some argue that particular translations are 'best' on the market, there are not churches functioning in English that have similar views to KJVO in regards to another version.
|
[
"Some Christian fundamentalists believe that the King James Version is the only version of the Bible English speakers should use due to the conclusion that corruptions are present in the other translations. Some who follow this belief have formed a King James Only movement. Similarly some non-English speakers prefer translations based upon Textus Receptus, or \"Received Text\", instead of the Alexandrian text edited by Wescott and Hort in 1881. Proponents of this belief system point to verses such as Ps. 12:6-7, Matt. 24:35, and others, claiming that \"perfect preservation\" was promised, often basing this reasoning on the fact that these verses utilize the plural form \"words\", supposedly indicating that it is more than merely \"the word\" that will be preserved. The issue also extends to which edition is being used, particularly, the Pure Cambridge Edition.\n",
"In 1992, the church's First Presidency announced the King James Version was the church's official English Bible, stating \"[w]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations.\" In 2010, this statement was written into the church's \"Handbook\", which directs official church policy and programs.\n",
"On the question of why the Textus Receptus underlying the King James Version and not Luther's German Bible, or the Spanish Reina Valera, or the Polish Biblia Gdanska, or the French Martin Bible, or some other language Bible is chosen (while VPP proponents do not deny such Bibles to be faithful and reliable versions that are accurately translated and based on the Textus Receptus), God's stamp of approval is clear from the fruits (Matthew 7:17-20). Helped along by the course of history (under the control of God) which has made English a worldwide language used by at least 300 million people who have English as their native tongue and by many more millions whose second language is English, the King James Version is known the world over and more widely read than any other translation of the holy scriptures and it has been used by many missionaries as a basis and guide for their own translation work into other foreign languages to reach converts who know no English.\n",
"The King James Version (or Authorized Version) of the English Bible – which has no equal amongst all of the other English translations – is a true, faithful, and accurate translation of the two providentially preserved Texts so that one can – with rejecting the \"inspired version,\" \"advanced revelation,\" and \"super superiority\" position of Peter Ruckman and Gail Riplinger – confidently hold up the Authorized Version of 1611 and say \"This is the WORD OF GOD!\" while realizing that one must in some verses go back to the underlying original language Texts (i.e., the Traditional Masoretic Hebrew Text and the Traditional Received Greek Text) for complete clarity, and also compare Scripture with Scripture.\n",
"The King James Version was first published in 1611 as a complete Bible (Herbert #309) and a New Testament (Herbert #310). Translated by 47 translators using the widest range of source texts, it became known as the \"Authorized Version\" in England and is the most widely used of the Early Modern English Bible translations. Its use has continued in some traditions up to the present. Even though modern scholarship continues to claim problems with some of the translation, it is widely admired for its style and use of language.\n",
"The King James Only movement asserts that the King James Version of the Bible is superior to all other English translations. Adherents, largely from evangelical, conservative holiness movement and Baptist churches, believe that the KJV is the greatest English translation ever produced, needing no further improvements, and that all other English translations produced after the KJV are corrupt.\n",
"The King James Version (KJV), also known as the King James Bible (KJB) or simply the Version (AV), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, begun in 1604 and completed as well as published in 1611 under the sponsorship of James VI and I. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, an intertestamental section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament. The translation is noted for its \"majesty of style\", and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.\n"
] |
Did Joseph Kennedy lobotomize his daughter, Rosemary Kennedy, to preserve the reputation of his family?
|
Short answer is yes. In his book, *An unfinished life*, Robert Dallek gives this explanation for the lobotomy.
''After years of effort that had produced small gains in her ability to deal with adult matters, Rosemary turned violent at the age of twenty-one, throwing tantrums and raging at caretakers who tried to control her. In response, Joe, without Rose's knowledge, arranged for Rosemary to have a prefrontal lobotomy, which contemporary medical understanding recommended as the best means for alleviating her agitation and promising a more placid life. The surgery, however proved to be a disaster, and Joe felt compelled to institutionalize Rosemary in a Wisconsin nunnery, where she would spend the rest of her life.
Part of the family's impulse in dealing with Rosemary as they did was to hide the truth about her condition. In the twenties and thirties, mental disabilities were seen as a mark of inferiority and an embarrassment best left undisclosed. Rosemary's difficulties were especially hard to bear for a family as preoccupied with its glowing image as the Kennedys. It was one thing for them to acknowledge limitations among themselves, but to give outsiders access to such information or put personal weaknesses on display was to open the family to possible ridicule or attack from people all too eager to knock down Kennedy claims of superiority. Hiding family problems, particularly medical concerns, later became a defense against jeopardizing election to public office.''
**SOURCE** : Robert Dallek, *An unfinished life : John F. Kennedy*, Back bay book, New York, 2003. p.72-73
I'd like to add that Dallek's book is a thoroughly written one and I trust his explanation.
|
[
"Kennedy was the only surviving male in the family after two outbreaks of cholera killed his father and brother. He started work at fourteen as a stevedore in the docks. Kennedy owned three saloons and a whisky import house, and eventually had major interests in coal and banking. He moved successfully into politics, as a sociable man able to mix comfortably with both the Catholic and the Protestant elite, and he sat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and in the Massachusetts Senate. His involvement with the behind-the-scenes machinations made Boston politics notorious.\n",
"In his earlier life, Kennedy had developed a reputation as the family's attack dog. He was a hostile cross-examiner on Joseph McCarthy's Senate committee; a fixer and leg-breaker as JFK's campaign manager; an unforgiving and merciless cutthroat—his father's son right down to Joseph Kennedy's purported observation that \"he hates like me.\" Yet Bobby Kennedy somehow became a liberal icon, an antiwar visionary who tried to outflank Lyndon Johnson's Great Society from the left.\n",
"Joe Sr. was satisfied with Kennedy as an adult, believing him to have become \"hard as nails\", more like him than any of the other children, while his mother believed he exemplified all she had wanted in a child. Mills wrote, \"His parents' conflicting views would be echoed in the opinions of millions of people throughout Bobby's life. Robert Kennedy was a ruthless opportunist who would stop at nothing to attain his ambitions. Robert Kennedy was America's most compassionate public figure, the only person who could save a divided country.\"\n",
"Kennedy was born in Washington, D.C.. Three days after her birth, her father resigned as chief counsel of the Senate Rackets Committee. She appeared, age 3, in the 1963 Robert Drew documentary \",\" saying hello to U.S. Justice Department official Nicholas Katzenbach by phone from the office of her father, Robert F. Kennedy, Attorney General at the time. Her father was assassinated in 1968. She is a graduate of The Putney School and Brown University and received her Juris Doctor from Boston College Law School.\n",
"Kennedy's widow Ethel Kennedy did not attend the press conference, but was nearby, in a second-floor bedroom of Hickory Hill on doctor's orders, awaiting the birth of her eleventh child. She issued a statement saying it was the hope of her husband's family and friends that the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial would carry forward the ideals he worked for during his lifetime: \"He wanted to encourage the young people and to help the disadvantaged and discriminated against both here and abroad, and he wanted to promote peace in the world. These will be the goals of the memorial.\"\n",
"Kennedy was born in Kansas City, Missouri, to an African-American family. Her father Wiley Kennedy was a Pullman porter, and later had a taxi business. The second of her parents' five daughters, she had a happy childhood, full of support from her parents, despite experiencing poverty in the Great Depression and racism in her mostly white neighborhood. Kennedy remembered a time when her father had to be armed with a shotgun in order to ward off the strong neighborhood Ku Klux Klan presence that was trying to drive her family out. She later commented: \"My parents gave us a fantastic sense of security and worth. By the time the bigots got around to telling us that we were nobody, we already knew we were somebody.\"\n",
"In April 2011, Kennedy wrote an article for \"The Boston Globe Magazine\" about her family life growing up and her father's influence on her. Kennedy revealed her close relationship with her father, and the role he played in helping her to wage her battle against lung cancer.\n"
] |
How does the Brain know which nerve receptor is sending a message ?
|
The brain knows because the signal is conducted from the spot of sensation through a chain of neurons up to the brain, like dominoes. The more interesting part is something called "lateral inhibition", which causes a decrease in firing frequency for the neurons flanking a stimulated neuron. This helps us to localize the spot of stimulation, and assign magnitude to the level of stimulation. Ultimately, it's not a one-neuron-code that gets sent, then, the brain is also detecting changes in firing in other, local neurons.
Additionally, it's a little cruder of a sensing tool than I may have just made it sound. If you take two pencils, and press the tips equally onto your skin with decreasing distances between the tips, there will be a point where you can no longer say that you feel two tips touching you, your brain will tell you it's only one. This is a type of resolution called "two-point discrimination".
Lastly, there's a bizarre phenomenon called "referred pain", where you experience injury in one spot, but feel it in a totally different location on your body. A common example is left arm pain without heart pain during a heart attack, less common is shoulder pain during miscarriage/rupturing ovarian cysts. Although this hasn't been entirely explained, the probable explanation involves what spinal level the input synapses on, and what else normally signals there. The brain doesn't seem to distinguish well between very rare inputs, like strong heart pain, and a much more common input, like pain in your left arm, and assigns the pain sensation to the more common area of pain.
|
[
"In the brain, messages are passed from a nerve cell to another via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The presynaptic cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters including serotonin into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the surface of the recipient postsynaptic cell, which upon this stimulation, in turn, relays the signal. About 10% of the neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the other 90% are released from the receptors and taken up again by monoamine transporters into the sending presynaptic cell, a process called \"reuptake\".\n",
"At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this \"broadcast\" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides \"point-to-point\" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.\n",
"The human brain contains, on average, about 86 billion nerve cells called neurons, each individually linked to other neurons by way of connectors called axons and dendrites. Signals at the junctures (synapses) of these connections are transmitted by the release and detection of chemicals known as neurotransmitters. The established neuroscientific consensus is that the human mind is largely an emergent property of the information processing of this neural network.\n",
"In the mammalian central nervous system, signal transmission is carried out by interconnected networks of nerve cells, or neurons. For the basic pyramidal neuron, the input signal is carried by the axon, which releases neurotransmitter chemicals into the synapse which is picked up by the dendrites of the next neuron, which can then generate an action potential which is analogous to the output signal in the computational case.\n",
"Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n",
"A neuron receives signals from neighboring cells through branched, cellular extensions called dendrites. The neuron then propagates an electrical signal down a specialized axon extension to the synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to propagate the signal to another neuron or effector cell (e.g., muscle or gland). The polarity of the neuron thus facilitates the directional flow of information, which is required for communication between neurons and effector cells.\n",
"A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.\n"
] |
why are transgender issues suddenly all over the place?
|
Causes are fashion for many people. And transgender issues are currently the most fashionable. I say this as someone who fully believes that trans people deserve equality and freedom from persecution, but also as someone who recognises that people clearly bandwagon.
|
[
"Transgender people who are going through divorce, inheritance battles or custody disputes are vulnerable to legal challenges. This is because the validity of their marriages is often called into question due to inconsistent laws regulating transgender equality.\n",
"People's ignorance of and prejudice against LGBT people can contribute to the spreading of misinformation about them and subsequently to violence. In 2018, a transgender woman was killed by a mob in Hyderabad, India, following false rumors that transgender women were sex trafficking children. Three other transgender women were injured in the attack.\n",
"In addition to the inequality faced by transgender women, inequality, prejudice, and violence against transgender men and women, as well as gender nonconforming individuals and non-binary individuals, are also prevalent in the United States. Transgender individuals suffer from prejudices in the workforce and employment, higher levels of domestic violence, higher rates of hate crimes, especially murder, and higher levels of police brutality when compared to the cisgender population.\n",
"Transgender people vary greatly in choosing when, whether, and how to disclose their transgender status to family, close friends, and others. The prevalence of discrimination and violence (transgender people are 28% more likely to be victims of violence) against transgender persons can make coming out a risky decision. Fear of retaliatory behavior, such as being removed from the parental home while underage, is a cause for transgender people to not come out to their families until they have reached adulthood. Parental confusion and lack of acceptance of a transgender child may result in parents treating a newly revealed gender identity as a \"phase\" or making efforts to change their children back to \"normal\" by utilizing mental health services to alter the child's gender identity.\n",
"Transgender individuals, especially transgender women, are at a high risk of suffering from domestic abuse due to invisibility, lack of access to support facilities such as shelters, and a lack of legal and social protection. Transgender individuals are also more likely to be sexually and physically assaulted, both by strangers and acquaintances, than cisgender individuals are. In addition, there are several factors that limit transgender people's access to health care facilities and proper medical care, including transphobia and the tendency of gender-segregated homeless and domestic violence shelters to refuse service to transgender and gender nonconforming individuals. One study reported that 19% of transgender individuals interviewed reported being refused medical care due to their gender identity, while 28% reported being harassed in a medical setting and 2% reported violence toward them in a medical setting due to their gender identity. In the same study, 50% percent of transgender respondents reported the need to educate their medical providers about the health care needs of transgender individuals.\n",
"The pure social stigma of being transgender is a root cause for poor health care, which manifests into other areas of transgender people. Social determinants of health, including violence and discrimination, may result in negative personal psychological and physiological effects. The access to proper health care is essential in both the transitioning and resilience. In a study of resilience of transgender people of color, Jay, a 41-year-old FTM POC, stated he “had no place to turn to get help in transition—and worked five jobs trying to save money for surgery that [he] never knew if [he] would be able to afford.” Another key factor to the resilience to opposition of transgender POC involved having a strong sense of pride in both ethnic and gender identities. Developing this sense of pride can be a process, which involves overcoming barriers such as transphobia and racism. However, once these barriers are in fact crossed, transgender POC can start to see themselves in a better light and use their inner strength and confidence to be more persistent, optimistic, and positivity-oriented.\n",
"One of the largest factors that causes and perpetuates transgender inequality is a lack of understanding and awareness among cisgender people. A 2002 survey found that, of the American respondents polled, only 70% had heard of the term transgender, while 67% agreed that it is possible for a person to be born as one gender, but inside feel like another gender. In addition, the survey found that 61% of Americans believe that the country needs anti-discrimination laws to protect transgender individuals, 57% incorrectly believed that it was not legal to fire someone on the basis of their gender identity if they are trans, 53% believed being transgender was acceptable while 37% did not, 77% believed that transgender students should be allowed to attend public school, and 8% said they would refuse to work with a transgender co worker. A 2012 study found that the heterosexual cisgender individuals who believe there are natural binary genders and there are natural differences between men and women are more likely to have negative attitudes toward transgender individuals.\n"
] |
Why is it that we can recognize sarcasm in speech, but not through text?
|
According to older communication theory ([Ruesch & Bateson 1951](_URL_0_)), we recognize sarcasm through "metacommunicative" messages in other "channels". These include tone of voice, facial expressions, hand gestures, body postures, or an amalgamation of these. They function as "instructions" on how the message is to be interpreted. For example, if someone says "You're *sooo* smart." while rolling their eyes, we immediately understand that "so" shouldn't be drawled out and the speaker should be looking at you if it were an earnest expression.
While this kind of sarcasm involves the addition of some nonverbal component that cues sarcasm, there is also the opposite: [Deadpan](_URL_1_) is a type of delivery that works it's humor by not displaying the appropriate signals. This is what Aubrey Plaza does in Parks and Recreation - she uses expressions that *should* come with a distinct tone of voice or facial expression, but instead she's as inexpressive as possible, creating a kind of dissonance between how something is normally said and how she delivers it.
There are also textual attempts at metacommunication, such as the reversed question mark "⸮" and the sarcasm switch "/s" added at the end of a sarcastic statement to indicate that the statement is to be taken sarcastically. But since these aren't as pronounced as the tone of voice or facial expression, they can be ignored by inattentive readers and lead to confusion.
|
[
"In English, sarcasm is often telegraphed with kinesic/prosodic cues by speaking more slowly and with a lower pitch. Similarly, Dutch uses a lowered pitch; sometimes to such an extent that the expression is reduced to a mere mumble. But other research shows that there are many ways that real speakers signal sarcastic intentions. One study found that in Cantonese, sarcasm is indicated by raising the fundamental frequency of one's voice. In Amharic, rising intonation is used to show sarcasm.\n",
"Understanding the subtlety of this usage requires second-order interpretation of the speaker's or writer's intentions; different parts of the brain must work together to understand sarcasm. This sophisticated understanding can be lacking in some people with certain forms of brain damage, dementia and sometimes autism, and this perception has been located by MRI in the right parahippocampal gyrus. Research has shown that people with damage in the prefrontal cortex have difficulty understanding non-verbal aspects of language like tone, Richard Delmonico, a neuropsychologist at the University of California, Davis, told an interviewer. Such research could help doctors distinguish between different types of neurodegenerative diseases, such as frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease, according to David Salmon, a neuroscientist at the University of California, San Diego.\n",
"Prosody is also important in signalling emotions and attitudes. When this is involuntary (as when the voice is affected by anxiety or fear), the prosodic information is not linguistically significant. However, when the speaker varies her speech intentionally, for example to indicate sarcasm, this usually involves the use of prosodic features. The most useful prosodic feature in detecting sarcasm is a reduction in the mean fundamental frequency relative to other speech for humor, neutrality, or sincerity. While prosodic cues are important in indicating sarcasm, context clues and shared knowledge are also important.\n",
"Professionals in psychology and related fields have long looked upon sarcasm negatively, particularly noting that sarcasm tends to be a maladaptive coping mechanism for those with unresolved anger or frustrations. Psychologist Clifford N. Lazarus describes sarcasm as \"hostility disguised as humor\". While an occasional sarcastic comment may enliven a conversation, Lazarus suggests that too frequent use of sarcasm tends to \"overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation\".\n",
"Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm ... The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.\n",
"Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: \"Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it\". Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was \"usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded.\" RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it \"may not travel well.\" Another study of sarcasm over email verifies these claims. A professional translator has advised that international business executives \"should generally avoid sarcasm in intercultural business conversations and written communications\" because of the difficulties in translating sarcasm.\n",
"BULLET::::- Frequent ironic speech that is marked neither through intonation nor through gestures. In most cases, sarcasm must be identified through its context. Especially for foreigners, it is a source of misunderstandings. Such ironic speech is common in the Viennese sense of humour, which is better known as \"Wiener Schmäh\".\n"
] |
what is the painful tingly feeling in your feet when you jump down from something?
|
Typically when you jump, you adjust your feet unconsciously so that the force of landing is not applied only to your foot/ankle, but also parts of your legs. Sometimes when you take a wrong step or jump/fall in an unexpected way, you can land such that the force cannot be redistributed from your foot. This causes a larger force to be applied to your ankle and the resultant pain.
|
[
"A sensation of falling occurs when the labyrinth or \"vestibular apparatus\", a system of fluid-filled passages in the inner ear, detects changes in acceleration. This sensation can occur when a person begins to fall, which in terms of mechanics amounts to a sudden acceleration increase from zero to roughly 9.8 m/s. If the body is in free fall (for example, during skydiving) with no other momenta (rotation, etc.) there is no falling sensation. This almost never occurs in real-life falling situations because when the faller leaves their support there are usually very significant quantities of residual momenta such as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\n",
"\"It's bloody mad and extremely scary... it feels like bungee-jumping, except with the bungee pulling you forwards and not upwards. The sheer sense of uncontrollable acceleration building and the wind noise rushing up to meet you\", said John Cantlie of \"Motor Cycle News\".\n",
"Hedeman lasted four seconds. Looking back at the ride, Hedeman feels he was \"overconfident and underprepared\". \"When I nodded for him, the first jump felt fine,\" he said. \"Then, all of a sudden, whack! When I hit the ground, I felt numb.\" What Hedeman could not see was how his face really looked; how much blood was on it. \"When I was walking out of the arena I bit down and my teeth didn't come together, so I figured my jaw was broken,\" Hedeman recalled. \"I didn't realize my whole face was smashed. But when I looked at people looking at me, they looked like they'd seen the devil.\" At the hospital, doctors diagnosed Hedeman and said every major bone in his face was broken. Hedeman went through two surgeries which installed six titanium plates and totaled 13 hours. On discharge, the swelling of his face was so extreme that his own young son could not recognize him.\n",
"During the interview, Eiji opens up about how he has fallen into a professional slump. When Ibe asks Eiji about why he looks sad when he competes, he responds that it is because he feels nothing when he jumps. Upon viewing the photos Ibe has taken of Eiji's jump, both men observe that what Eiji is really feeling is a sense of weightlessness; Ibe remarks that the bliss on Eiji's face looks like a \"home run ball up in the sky.\"\n",
"It was the kind of jump in which, even when arriving [at the bottom of the hill] in the landing position and not knowing at all what lies ahead, I remember that my legs were trembling. That's how terrified I was. ... Overcoming your own fears is the best feeling. The nature of the sport is that one has to challenge themselves. That's why this jump has remained a highlight of my career.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some users report experiencing frightening or fearful effects during the experience. Users describe feeling frigid or cold on reaching a plateau, while others feel wrapped in comfortable blankets/ultimate pleasure.\n",
"Symptoms include pain on weight bearing, frequently after only a short time. The nature of the pain varies widely among individuals. Some people experience shooting pain affecting the contiguous halves of two toes. Others describe a feeling akin to having a pebble in the shoe or walking on razor blades. Burning, numbness and paresthesia may also be experienced. The symptoms progress over time, often beginning as a tingling sensation in the ball of the foot.\n"
] |
What's making these ice pieces slowly move onto land like this? So bizarre I can't explain it...VIDEO inside.
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This is a lake shore property. The ice is coming off the lake, moved by the wind. Imagine a *huge* sheet of ice, several square kilometers, and blow a strong, steady wind across it. The force from all the wind adds up and can be enough to push the entire ice sheet slowly, but steadily onto land. This results in what you see in the video here.
|
[
"Shelf ice is a floating mat of ice, but unlike a pond or a small lake that freezes over, the shelf is not a uniform sheet of ice. Created by the wind and waves, the shelf ice is a jumble of ice chunks, pushed onto each other. It is as if you took a pile of rubble and pushed up against a wall. The more you push, the narrow the pile becomes, and it rises in a ridge. But there is nothing stable in the pile. The individual pieces (ice in the case of shelf ice) are not initially connected; they only float upon the water surface and rest upon each other. Many become jammed together but throughout the structure, there are pockets of air. Since each piece of ice developed independently, each is of a different thickness, creating variations in strength, density, and depth.\n",
"Ice discs, ice circles, ice pans, or ice crepes are a natural phenomenon that occur in slow moving water in cold climates. They are thin circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly on a body of water's surface. \n",
"BULLET::::- \"Theodore and the Ice Ship\": Theodore, George, and Hank find an enormous ice sculpture floating in the water, but can't identify the ship inside of it. When the ice melts, it turns out to be Shamus, a fishing trawler, and the tugs soon discover how wonderful the ice ship was on the inside, when he was good for nothing on the outside.\n",
"The process of ice crystals sticking together is called aggregation. This happens when ice crystals are slick or sticky at temperatures of and above, because of a coating of water surrounding the crystal. The different sizes and shapes of ice crystals fall at different terminal velocities and commonly collide and stick.\n",
"Ice discs form on the outer bends in a river where the accelerating water creates a force called 'rotational shear', which breaks off a chunk of ice and twists it around. As the disc rotates, it grinds against surrounding ice — smoothing into a circle. A relatively uncommon phenomenon, one of the earliest recordings is of a slowly revolving disc spotted on the Mianus River and reported in an 1895 edition of \"Scientific American\".\n",
"The shapes in the ice sometimes form profiles of human-like faces, most pronounced in the \"repoussoir\" of ice on the left. As described by Carr, there are also intentional \"vague humanoid profiles\" on the right, \"skull-like\" ice blocks in the foreground, and a \"floating ice-'siren'\" near the grotto. In the foreground, melted water is a light blue, and at upper left a small waterfall deposits water into a patch of emerald beneath. Church observed that freshly frozen water within the cracks of icebergs produced a striking blue color; these veins of sapphire are illustrated at left. In the distance, the largest iceberg shows old waterlines, indicating its continuing ascent, and the foreground appears wetter, having risen from the ocean more recently. Church's signature is on the block of ice to the left of the mast, which was painted in later, and may be seen to form a crucifix. Carr notes that the water level in the grotto is not consistent with that of the rest of the painting.\n",
"Made on a large vertical or horizontal drums, scale ice is formed on either the inner or outer surface of the drum by pouring a film of water over it, then contact freezing it into a thin sheet of ice. This ice is sub-cooled down to -7°C in order to make it brittle, then cracked off by a harvesting blade. The ice then falls by gravity into the ice store. These large, flat pieces are good for layering, and are available with a single evaporator up to 50 tonnes.\n"
] |
If alien beings have a sense of sight, is it unlikely that they can see the same wavelengths as us?
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There are a couple of reasons why the spectrum we see in is convenient. One, is that the atmosphere is [fairly transparent at those frequencies](_URL_0_) meaning that much of the light of the sun makes it to the surface. This is called the [optical window](_URL_2_). Second, visible light frequencies are high enough that you can get great resolution with a reasonably small aperture. Third, they are [non-ionizing](_URL_1_) so we don't have to hide from them too much.
Infrared shares many of these properties, but would incur significant loss by a water-filled eye or lens.
This all doesn't mean that some other part of the spectrum could be used, only that our part represents a significant local optimum.
|
[
"An alien race almost exactly the same in appearance as humans, Miraluka differ in that they have no eyes or blank white sockets and cannot see through the focusing of light. Miraluka typically hide their lack of eyes by wearing a headband, a mask, or similar concealing headwear, because they are much less common than humans, and it is easier to travel if they are seen as being of the dominant species; thus the common confusion as to who is or isn't a Miraluka. Miralukas see through the Force , as they are a Force-sensitive race; they are often quite shocked if shown life not connected to the Force, like the Jedi Exile.\n",
"The aliens are humanoid bipeds, but see in the infrared portion of the spectrum. Also, instead of using sound to communicate among themselves they use microwaves emitted from an organ in their heads. As one human points out, \"From our point of view, they have telepathy. Of course from their point of view, so do we.\"\n",
"Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n",
"Individuals with a visual disability not only have to find ways to communicate effectively with the people around them, but their environment as well. The blind or visually impaired rely largely on their other senses such as hearing, touch, and smell in order to understand their surroundings.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the 1942 novel \"Perelandra\", C. S. Lewis describes the colors of angelic beings when they manifest themselves: \"We think that when creatures of the hypersomatic kind choose to 'appear' to us, they are not in fact affecting our retina at all, but directly manipulating the relevant parts of our brain. If so, it is quite possible that they can produce there the sensations we should have if our eyes were capable of receiving those colours in the spectrum which are actually beyond their range.\" (Chapter 16)\n",
"Their senses did not include sight, but what senses they had could penetrate all material obstructions. They were only partially matter, but still solid enough to affect, and be stopped by, normal materials. This trait also gave them a high resistance to most forms of physical damage, but they could be destroyed by certain types of electrical energy. Their minds were so strange that the Great Race of Yith could not perform psychic transfers with them.\n",
"As far as senses, which vary slightly depending on species, they are superior in most ways to other creatures; like any predator, they have exceptionally acute senses, which only increase with age. Like avian creatures, they have excellent depth perception and comparingly good peripheral vision, able to see twice as well as a human in daylight; unlike avians, they have great night vision, and are able to see even when conditions have no light to offer, although in such conditions they cannot discern between colors.\n"
] |
What is the insignia on this cannon??
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a Cannon bearing a Crown symbol and the initials GR for Georgios Rex reference to the reigning monarch King George.
It's a British cannon, i think the actual fabric was in scotland.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Shield: The shield depicts three field cannons facing left and three cannonballs and forms part of the Coat of Arms granted to the Board of Ordnance in 1823. On all cap badges the cannon face to the left, with the exception of the first pattern NZAOC badge where the cannons face to the right.\n",
"The cannon itself is a Civil War era Dahlgren gun, named for its inventor Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren. This gun, with its unique \"soda bottle\" shaped barrel, was manufactured in many sizes and became the standard weapon on Union Naval vessels after 1856.\n",
"The cannon is a replica of a 24-pounder long gun, an approximately 8 foot long barrel mounted on wooden wheels. It is frequently covered in many layers of paint, so none of the original colors of the cannon are discernible. Due to the amount of paint, it is no longer mobile and requires machinery to be moved. It can often be found with varying graffiti, including words and designs, advertisements, messages and other announcements. On occasion, when offensive paintings or obscenities are added, the cannon has been painted by Tufts administration.\n",
"The cannon measures 24 ft in length and fired 4.75 inch (121 mm) calibre cannonballs. The cannon is decorated with engravings of fruit, flowers, grotesques, and figures symbolizing Liberty, Victory and Fame. There is also a Tudor coat of arms which includes a verse in Dutch, which translates in English as \"Break, tear every wall and rampart, Am I called, Across mountain and valley, pierces my ball, By me stricken\".\n",
"The Cannon is a replica of a cannon from the USS \"Constitution\" on the campus of Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, located in between Goddard Chapel and Ballou Hall. It serves as a billboard for campus activities and groups, and has been utilized as the basis for social and political campus movements.\n",
"BULLET::::- The cannon represents the gun on the Green in Chobham High Street. The original cannon was presented to the village by Queen Victoria following a review of her troops on Chobham Common to celebrate her Jubilee. The original cannon was requisitioned during WW2 and melted down. After the war the village of Chobham replaced it with the present day replica.\n",
"The cannon bears two Persian inscriptions. The front one reads: \"By the order of the Emperor [Ahmad Shah], DuriDurran, Shah Wali Khan wazir made the gun named Zamzama or the Taker of Strongholds.\" And the longer versified inscription reads: \"A destroyer even of the strongholds of the heaven.\"\n"
] |
what are the actual statistics on what muslims believe?
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_URL_0_ This should do.
|
[
"The U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. Various institutions and organizations have given widely varying estimates about how many Muslims live in the U.S. Tom W. Smith, author of \"Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States\", said that of twenty estimates he reviewed during a five-year period until 2001, none was \"based on a scientifically-sound or explicit methodology. All can probably be characterized as guesses or assertions. Nine came from Muslim organizations such as the Islamic Society of North America, the Muslim Student Association, the Council on American-Islamic Relations, the American Muslim Council, and the Harvard Islamic Society or unspecified 'Muslim sources'. None of these sources gave any basis for their figures.\" In 2005, according to \"The New York Times\", more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than in any year in the previous two decades.\n",
"Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.\n",
"In 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported that according to the World Christian Database, Muslims made up 3.6 percent of the population. It also reported that 0.4% of the population identified as agnostic, and that Buddhism and Chinese folk religion each made up 0.2% of the population. It also reported that non-negligible populations followed the Bahá'í Faith, Hinduism, and Neoreligions, with each group comprising under 0.1% of the population.\n",
"As per 2011 census Muslims constitute over 90% of the population, while Hindus constitute 8.5% and remaining rest constitute 1%. A survey in late 2003 confirmed that religion is the first choice by a citizen for self-identification. The Constitution denominates Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and Buddhism.\n",
"The Qur'an describes many prophets and messengers within Judaism and Christianity, and their respective followers, as Muslim: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus and his apostles are all considered to be Muslims in the Qur'an. The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values, which included praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus' disciples tell him, \"We believe in God; and you be our witness that we are Muslims (\"wa-shahad be anna muslimūn\").\" In Muslim belief, before the Qur'an, God had given the Tawrat (Torah) to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) to David and the Injil (Gospel) to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets.\n",
"According to the Pew Research Center, according to the results of the study, 99.4% of the population are Muslims. The same research center reported in 2010 that 96.9% of the population is Muslim, and less than 1% of people do not consider themselves as affiliated to any of the religions. \n",
"BULLET::::- William Montgomery Watt points out that we do not know how far Muhammad was acquainted with Christian beliefs prior to the conquest of Mecca and that dating of some of the passages criticizing Christianity is uncertain. His view is that Muhammad and the early Muslims may have been unaware of some orthodox Christian doctrines, including the nature of the trinity, because Muhammad's Christian informants had a limited grasp of doctrinal issues.\n"
] |
what was europe trying to do by instigating the euro?
|
The answer is that Germany, which didn't really exist as a country until the 19th Century, is too big to fit within the confines of the European power structure. So in the 20th Century, there were two world wars about containing Germany and lots of folks died.
In order to bring Europe closer together and solve "the German problem" France and Germany began a long process of integration in the 1950's starting with Coal and Steel agreements and working from there.
Here are some links for further reading.
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
_URL_2_
|
[
"European countries created the Euro to simplify trading between European Union countries. Adopting the Euro would remove currency risk and the cost of currency conversion, and provide a common monetary policy among members. Policy learning took places as more European countries learned that joining the Eurozone would give them access to other markets. Citizens of EU member countries could travel to other EU countries within the Schengen area without transiting a border checkpoint. The learning did not reach all policy sectors. Some EU countries kept their budgets in near balance amid strong growth and employment, while others' budgets were so far out of balance that their overall debt created fears about their ability to make their payments.\n",
"The Blair ministry decided against joining the Eurozone, and adopting the euro as the currency to replace the pound sterling. This decision was generally supported by the British public, and by all political parties in the UK, as well as the media.\n",
"The use of the euro in Montenegro and Kosovo has helped stabilise their economies, and for this reason the adoption of the euro by small states has been encouraged by former Finance Commissioner Joaquín Almunia. Former European Central Bank president Jean-Claude Trichet has stated the ECB – which does not grant representation to those who unilaterally adopt the euro – neither supports nor deters those wishing to use the currency.\n",
"Theoretically the adoption of the euro could have several advantages. Adopting what is perceived by some as a historically stronger currency might help Iceland to \"avoid the turbulence surrounding speculations in international financial markets\". In addition, Icelandic economists listed several arguments in favour of the Euro before the crisis. \"In terms of growth potentials and welfare, the euro could be expected to bring lower long-term interest rates [...]. This would of course increase capital investment and labour productivity. The euro might lower consumer prices by facilitating a comparison with other euro countries.\"\n",
"The introduction of the euro seems to have had a strong effect on European financial integration. According to a study on this question, it has \"significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets [...] However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated.\" Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.\n",
"Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU. This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of private international law that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the European Union legislation to that effect. However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition. Of particular importance, the U.S. states of Illinois and New York adopted legislation to ensure a large proportion of international financial contracts recognized the euro as the successor of the ECU.\n",
"The Eurozone is a special case where some members, principally Germany, enjoy a large current account surplus and so could accept or even benefit from currency appreciation. Other countries though such as Greece, Spain, Portugal and Ireland have twin deficits and so to a large extent would benefit from a depreciation. While the European Central Bank (ECB) did practice some QE in 2009, this was to a much lower extent than the US or UK, and they did not deploy a second round. The value of the Euro has been effectively left to float, and in fact early in 2010 central authorities intervened to defend the Euro’s value against the market. Following the generally positive results from bank stress testing that were released in summer, market participants stopped speculating against the Euro, and the currency has tended to rise as a result of other countries practicing competitive devaluation. A major driver for the rise in the Euro in the latter half of 2010 was China's purchase of Euro-denominated bonds. While China's intervention was in some ways helpful for the Eurozone, it also generated concern with several European officials speaking out against the action. These officials included: ECB governor Jean-Claude Trichet and Eurogroup president Jean-Claude Juncker.\n"
] |
what's the difference between emergency care and urgent care, and why is ec so much more expensive?
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Emergency Care is part of a hospital and has the full resources of the hospital available to it. Urgent care is basically a doctor's office that is open around the clock. An emergency room will likely have surgeons that wait around just in case someone needs to go to surgery. They will have other specialists too. These specialists are really expensive and having them work odd hours requires you to pay them more.
Urgent care facilities are usually staffed by general practice doctors. Since they aren't specialists they don't generally command extraordinarily high wages.
|
[
"The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act requires virtually all hospitals to accept all patients, regardless of the ability to pay, for emergency room care. The act does not provide access to non-emergency room care for patients who cannot afford to pay for health care, nor does it provide the benefit of preventive care and the continuity of a primary care physician. Emergency health care is generally more expensive than an urgent care clinic or a doctor's office visit, especially if a condition has worsened due to putting off needed care. Emergency rooms are typically at, near, or over capacity. Long wait times have become a problem nationally, and in urban areas some ERs are put on \"diversion\" on a regular basis, meaning that ambulances are directed to bring patients elsewhere.\n",
"Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom provide emergency care to people with acute illness or injury and are predominantly provided free at the point of use by the four National Health Services of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Emergency care including ambulance and emergency department treatment is free to everyone, regardless of immigration or visitor status.\n",
"In the United Kingdom for example, a relatively comprehensive, \"free at the point of delivery\" health care system exists, funded by the state. Hospital care is thus relatively easily available to all legal residents, although free emergency care is available to anyone, regardless of nationality or status. As hospitals prioritise their limited resources, there is a tendency for 'waiting lists' for non-crucial treatment in countries with such systems, as opposed to letting higher-payers get treated first, so sometimes those who can afford it take out private health care to get treatment more quickly.\n",
"Emergency medicine can be distinguished from urgent care, which refers to immediate healthcare for less emergent medical issues, but there is obvious overlap and many emergency physicians work in urgent care settings. Emergency medicine also includes many aspects of acute primary care, and shares with family medicine the uniqueness of seeing all patients regardless of age, gender or organ system . The emergency physician workforce also includes many competent physicians who trained in other specialties.\n",
"The Extended Care Program: The main goal of an ECP is to respond to non-emergency calls in nursing homes where they will assess and potentially treat patients on site. This will reduce the need for some patients to go to hospital via ambulance and wait in the emergency department for several hours, thus creating a more personal approach to health care by allowing patients and their families to remain in a comfortable environment for as long as possible.\n",
"In the United States, high costs are incurred by non-emergency use of the emergency room. The National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey looked ath the ten most common symptoms for which giving rise to emergency room visits (cough, sore throat, back pain, fever, headache, abdominal pain, chest pain, other pain, shortness of breath, vomiting) and made suggestions as to which would be the most cost-effective choice among virtual care, retail clinic, urgent care or emergency room. Notably, certain complaints may also be addressed by a telephone call to a person's primary care provider.\n",
"Despite the practice emerging over the past few decades, the delivery of emergency medicine has significantly increased and evolved across diverse settings as it relates to cost, provider availability and overall usage. Prior to the Affordable Care Act (ACA), emergency medicine was leveraged primarily by \"uninsured or underinsured patients, women, children, and minorities, all of whom frequently face barriers to accessing primary care\". While this still exists today to an extent as mentioned above, it is critical to consider the location in which care is delivered to understand the population and system challenges related to overutilization and high cost. In rural communities where provider and ambulatory facility shortages exist, a primary care physician (PCP) in the ED with general knowledge is likely to be the only source of health care for a population, as specialists and other health resources are generally unavailable due to lack of funding and desire to serve in these areas. As a result, the incidence of complex co-morbidities not managed by the appropriate provider results in worse health outcomes and eventually costlier care that extends beyond rural communities. Though typically quite separated, it is crucial that PCPs in rural areas partner with larger health systems to comprehensively address the complex needs of their community, improve population health, and implement strategies such as telemedicine to positively impact health outcomes and reduce ED utilization for preventative illnesses. (See: Rural health.)\n"
] |
how are the transistors in a cpu/micro-controller controlled?
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Transistors just work because physics. A waterwheel does the same thing; it's not configured, it's simply made such that physics will force it to do what we want.
As /u/LondonPilot said you make the logic gates or other useful circuits by combining it all together into interesting setups. You can then in turn chain those together and make more and more complex circuits.
|
[
"The controller performs tasks, processes data and controls the functionality of other components in the sensor node. While the most common controller is a microcontroller, other alternatives that can be used as a controller are: a general purpose desktop microprocessor, digital signal processors, FPGAs and ASICs. A microcontroller is often used in many embedded systems such as sensor nodes because of its low cost, flexibility to connect to other devices, ease of programming, and low power consumption. A general purpose microprocessor generally has a higher power consumption than a microcontroller, therefore it is often not considered a suitable choice for a sensor node. Digital Signal Processors may be chosen for broadband wireless communication applications, but in Wireless Sensor Networks the wireless communication is often modest: i.e., simpler, easier to process modulation and the signal processing tasks of actual sensing of data is less complicated. Therefore, the advantages of DSPs are not usually of much importance to wireless sensor nodes. FPGAs can be reprogrammed and reconfigured according to requirements, but this takes more time and energy than desired.\n",
"Many controllers incorporate programmable logic controllers (PLCs) rather than electromechanical components. A microcontroller is ideal, since it enables precise timing of phase activations. It also enables a soft start function in software form, in order to reduce the amount of hardware required.\n",
"In ARM-based machines, peripheral devices are usually attached to the processor by mapping their physical registers into ARM memory space, into the coprocessor space, or by connecting to another device (a bus) that in turn attaches to the processor. Coprocessor accesses have lower latency, so some peripherals—for example, an XScale interrupt controller—are accessible in both ways: through memory and through coprocessors.\n",
"The system interface controller supports glue-less symmetrical multiprocessing (SMP) of up to four microprocessors. Systems using the R10000 with external logic can scale to hundreds of processors. An example of such a system is the Origin 2000.\n",
"A controller, based on the 6502 CPU also found in the robot's contemporary, the Apple II, can control up to eight motors - the robot and two other items, such as a turntable or the aforementioned sliding base.\n",
"The microprocessor receives inputs from the command decoder, operates on these inputs in accordance with a program that is stored in ROM or RAM, and then outputs the results to the interface circuitry. Because there is such a wide variety of command types and messages, most command systems are implemented using programmable micro-processors. The type of interface circuitry needed is based on the command sent by the processor. These commands include relay, pulse, level, and data commands. Relay commands activate the coils of electromagnetic relays in the central power switching unit. Pulse commands are short pulses of voltage or current that is sent by the command logic to the appropriate subsystem. A level command is exactly like a logic pulse command except that a logic level is delivered instead of a logic pulse. Data commands transfer data words to the destination subsystem.\n",
"The I&C devices built using microprocessors are commonly referred to as intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). Microprocessors are single chip computers that allow the devices into which they are built to process data, accept commands, and communicate information like a computer. Automatic processes can be run in the IEDs. Some IEDs used in power-system automation are:\n"
] |
If you move a wild bug far from its home but the same environment will it go back home or make a new life there?
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It really depends on the insect.
Many insects, I believe including grasshoppers, typically do not have one nest or other type of "home" they can return to. Most insects also do not rely on being part of one society or group. They live where they happen to be at the moment, and if they can't find what they need in an area, they keep moving until they find it.
Other insects, notably the ants, wasps, and bees, are "central place foragers." They have a nest or hive or other "home" where they hang out, and if you displaced them they would fly up to [miles away](_URL_0_) to get home as long as they have memorized enough landmarks and directional cues (and they are very good at that.) Some of these insects are social, and have a strong drive to return to their own social group, which they are typically related to.
|
[
"Another notable insect resident of this ecoregion is the rain beetle (\"Pleocoma\" sp.) It spends up to several years living underground in a larval stage and emerges only during wet-season rains to mate.\n",
"Although Triatominae bugs feed on them, birds appear to be immune to infection and therefore are not considered to be a \"T. cruzi\" reservoir. Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters, they can re-emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient, sylvatic (referring to wild animals) infection cycle. This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah, with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation.\n",
"A habitat corridor could be considered as a possible solution in an area where the destruction of a natural area has greatly affected its native species. Development such as roads, buildings, and farms can interrupt plants and animals in the region being destroyed. Furthermore, natural disasters such as wildfires and floods can leave animals with no choice but to evacuate. If the habitat is not connected to a safer one, it will ultimately lead to death. A remaining portion of natural habitat is called a remnant, and such portions need to be connected because when migration decreases, extinction increases (Fleury 1997).\n",
"They are often found roaming in a home and can cover great distances in a house. They are quite a safe spider to be in a home and can deal with other insect problems because of the amount they travel in a short period of time.\n",
"Some insect micropredators migrate regularly from one host to another. The hawthorn-carrot aphid overwinters on its primary host, a hawthorn tree, and migrates during the summer to its secondary host, a plant in the carrot family.\n",
"Corridor dwellers can occupy the passage anywhere from several days to several years. Species such as plants, reptiles, amphibians, birds, insects, and small mammals can spend their entire lives in linear habitats. In this case, the corridor must include everything that a species needs to live and breed, such as soil for germination, burrowing areas, and multiple other breeding adults (Beier & Loe 1992).\n",
"Certain familiar animals go feral easily and successfully, while others are much less inclined to wander and usually fail promptly outside domestication. Some species will detach readily from humans and pursue their own devices, but do not stray far or spread readily. Others depart and are gone, seeking out new territory or range to exploit and displaying active invasiveness. Whether they leave readily and venture far, the ultimate criterion for success is longevity. Persistence depends on their ability to establish themselves and reproduce reliably in the new environment. Neither the duration nor the intensity with which a species has been domesticated offers a useful correlation with its feral potential. \n"
] |
alcohol and painkillers
|
The metabolism of acetaminophen produces a toxic intermediate (NAPQI) that is usually rapidly eliminated.
However, if the breakdown pathway is overwhelmed, such as in an acetaminophen overdose or by ethanol, that intermediate may not be rapidly eliminated, possibly causing liver damage.
|
[
"A Painkiller is a rum cocktail trademarked by Pusser's Rum Ltd, their signature drink. It is often associated with Tiki establishments. The Painkiller is a blend of Pusser's rum with 4 parts pineapple juice, 1 part cream of coconut and 1 part orange juice, well shaken and served over the rocks with a generous amount of fresh nutmeg on top. It may be made with either two, three or four ounces of Pusser's dark rum.\n",
"Sedatives — most commonly alcohol but also GHB, Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), and to a lesser extent, temazepam (Restoril), and midazolam (Versed) — have been reported for their use as date rape drugs (also called a Mickey) and being administered to unsuspecting patrons in bars or guests at parties to reduce the intended victims' defenses. These drugs are also used for robbing people.\n",
"Benzodiazepines are also sometimes used for drug facilitated sexual assaults and robbery, however, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in drug facilitated assaults. The muscle relaxant, disinhibiting and amnesia producing effects of benzodiazepines are the pharmacological properties which make these drugs effective in drug-facilitated crimes. Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer admitted to using triazolam (Halcion), and occasionally temazepam (Restoril), in order to sedate his victims prior to murdering them.\n",
"Describing the effects of using alcohol to treat pain is difficult. Alcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances. Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder.\n",
"High-alcohol liquor, two forms of which were found in the US Pharmacopoeia up until 1916 and in common use by physicians well into the 1930s, has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS depressant effects of ethyl alcohol, a notable example being the American Civil War. However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g., morphine, codeine). As such, in general, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.\n",
"BULLET::::- Patients suffering from chronic pain that are prescribed opioid painkillers (such as morphine) may build up a tolerance to the effect of the painkillers, requiring higher doses to achieve the same pain reducing effect. This risky practice of dose escalation can lead to drug overdoses.\n",
"Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.\n"
] |
how do they make intricate objects with glass (and other things)?
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They take glass components that are melted to something called working and softening temperatures. These allow the melt to be soft enough to mold with a rod and yet viscous enough to resist flowing much like honey just a lot slower moving. Things like a rose can be made by using pliars to physically pull pedals from a glass blob on the end of a rod. It is then dipped back into the melted batch to gain an extra layer to pull more petals. Once the rose pedals are made a stem is pulled from the melt extended and then the cooling pedals are attached to the stem. It then sits in something called a lehr to cool slowly.
Basically, most shapes are uniquely crafted layer by layer and is usually reheated multiple times over several hours to shape it appropriately. Glass blowing only adds to the complexity of it and doesnt allow for much time to reheat.
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[
"This technique is related to the origin of glass as a substitute for gemstones. By borrowing techniques for stone and carved gems, artisans were able to produce a variety of small containers from blocks of raw glass or thick moulded blanks, including cameo glass in two or more colours, and cage cups (still thought by most scholars to have been decorated by cutting, despite some debate).\n",
"If the glass batch is used to create a large massive block instead of pre-shaping it as it cools, the result may then be carved into smaller items in the same manner as stone. Conversely, glass artisans may make beads by lampworking the glass on an individual basis; once formed, the beads undergo little or no further shaping after the layers have been properly annealed.\n",
"Working with glass as a material fascinates Rozenman. Glass is fragile and vulnerable, but at the same time it is everlasting. Glass can be clear or non-translucent like ceramic, and fragile, or to the contrary, hard and unbreakable. Rozenman's method of working with glass resembles that of a smith, the way he melts a lump of glass in his oven, and then works the glass into abstract shapes. Rozenman's sculptures remind patrons of small architectonic structures, residues of an industrial building in decay; motors and machines rusted through the passing of endless time, or prehistoric creatures fossilized in a piece of amber; the remains of a world that ceased to exist thousands of years ago. The sculptures make a robust impression, threatening, but at the same time they are ambivalent, because decay, and the object's transitory nature are themes that are recurring in his work. Rozenman's sculptures are objects whose essences existed in the past, but seem that they have no present function. What remains is purity and beauty in an unconventional way.\n",
"Custom architectural crafted glass, tempered glass, textured glass pieces, and the ancient art of verre églomisé, or reverse gilded glass, are applied to contemporary uses including countertops, backsplashes, and tabletops. Glass work may be customized to suit by craftsmen in the studio, then installed on site either in small components (such as a kitchen countertop composed of three rectangles of verre églomisé) or as immense, single units (for example, a glass countertop and sink basin formed of one continuous piece of textured glass). Surface texture comes in several variations, such as sanded, melted, pixels, and linear. Glass countertops also often have customized edges, including: bushed polished, textured, and fire polished edges. The glass is non-porous, relatively stain-proof, extremely hygienic, and \"extremely heat resistant (up to 700 degrees).\"\n",
"Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of working techniques, though the use of it for large works is a recent development. It can be carved, with considerable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but unique. Hot casting can be done by ladling molten glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds. Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a kiln until they are liquid and flow into a waiting mold below it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part of a blown object. More recent techniques involve chiseling and bonding plate glass with polymer silicates and UV light.\n",
"Art glass is an item that is made, generally as an artwork for decoration but often also for utility, from glass, sometimes combined with other materials. Techniques include stained glass windows, leaded lights (also called leadlights), glass that has been placed into a kiln so that it will mould into a shape, glassblowing, sandblasted glass, and copper-foil glasswork. In general the term is restricted to relatively modern pieces made by people who see themselves as artists who have chosen to work in the medium of glass and both design and make their own pieces as fine art, rather than traditional glassworker craftsmen, who often produce pieces designed by others, though their pieces certainly may form part of art. Studio glass is another term often used for modern glass made for artistic purposes. Art glass has grown in popularity in recent years with many artists becoming famous for their work; and, as a result, more colleges are offering courses in glass work.\n",
"Modern glass studios use a great variety of techniques in creating their pieces. The ancient technique of blown glass, where a glassblower works at a furnace full of molten glass using metal rods and hand tools to blow and shape almost any form of glass, is one of the more popular ways to work. Most large hollow pieces are made this way, and it allows the artist to be improvisational as they create their work.\n"
] |
what happened that resulted in canada going into a recession.
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The main reason for the recession is the current crash in oil prices. For Canada to get out of the recession oil prices need to hit $70 a barrel, that is the sweet spot for companies to start spending money on drilling again.
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[
"The recession brought on in the United States by the collapse of the dot-com bubble beginning in 2000, hurt the Toronto Stock Exchange but has affected Canada only mildly. It is one of the few times Canada has avoided following the United States into a recession.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1990–1992 – A major recession hits Ontario. Many companies began to massively downsize and threaten to leave Canada all together. New advancements in manufacturing such as automation and globalization further destabalize the Province, and lead to a decade of instability\n",
"Canada experienced economic recession in the early 1980s and again in the early 1990s. This led to massive government deficits, high unemployment, and general disaffection. The poor economy helped lead to the overwhelming rejection of the\n",
"Canada was one of the last industrialized nations to enter into a downturn. GDP growth was negative in Q1, but positive in Q2 and Q3 of 2008. The recession officially started in Q4. The almost 1-year delay of the start of the recession in Canada relative to the U.S. is largely explained by two factors. First, Canada has a strong banking sector not weighed-down by the same degree of consumer-related debt issues that existed in the United States. The United States economy collapsed from within, while the Canadian economy was being hurt by its trade relationship with the United States. Second, commodity prices continued to rise through to June 2008, supporting a key component of the Canadian economy and delaying the start of recession. In early December 2008, the Bank of Canada, in announcing that it was lowering its central bank interest rate to the lowest level since 1958, also declared that Canada's economy was entering in recession. The Bank of Canada has since announced that it has two consecutive months of GDP decline (Oct -0.1% & Nov -0.7%). The country's unemployment rate could rise to 7.5% in the next two years, according to the latest OECD report.\n",
"Canada was hard hit by the Great Depression. When the American economy began to collapse in the late 1920s the close economic links and the central banking system meant that the malaise quickly spread across the border. The world demand fell for wheat, lumber and mining products; prices fell, profits plunged, and unemployment soared.\n",
"However, in the wider economy, Canada was surprisingly unhurt by these events. While growth slowed, the economy never actually entered a recession. This was the first time that Canada had avoided following the United States into an economic downturn. The rate of job creation in Canada continued at the rapid pace of the 1990s. A number of explanations have been advanced to explain this. Canada was not as directly affected by 9/11 and the subsequent wars, and the downward pressure of these events was more muted. Canada's fiscal management during the period has been praised as the federal government continued to bring in large surpluses throughout this period, in sharp contrast to the United States. Unlike the United States no major tax cuts or major new expenditures were introduced. However, during this time, Canada did pursue an expansionary monetary policy in an effort to reduce the effects of a possible recession. Many provincial governments suffered greater problems with a number of them returning to deficits, which was blamed on the fiscal imbalance. 2003 saw elections in six Canadian provinces and in only one did the governing party not lose seats.\n",
"In the early 1980s, the global economy deepened into the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression. Canada, along with all of the economies of Europe (except for Norway due to their petroleum industry) and the economy of the United States, fell into a worldwide recession.\n"
] |
how is wifi not damaging me but other kinds of radiation are?
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Plenty of kinds of radiation isn't damaging. For example, there's the megahertz-range radiation being blasted at high levels by giant towers all over the place- they send out a signal referred to as an "FM radio station".
There's also tons of smaller devices peppering you with high levels of terahertz-range radiation every day. In fact, you're so used to them that you might have trouble if we got rid of them all. We call them "lights".
Wi-Fi is right in between these two harmless types of radiation (with frequencies in the gigahertz range). It's just that for some reason people refer to Wi-Fi as "radiation" while referring to the other forms of radiated electromagnetic waves as "radio waves" or "light". Radiation is only a problem when the frequency is very high (higher than visible light), or when it's really intense (in which case it makes things hot).
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[
"Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by radiation poisoning. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and \"can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to radiation burns and acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure.\"\n",
"On the other hand, radiation from other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as ultraviolet light and gamma rays, are known to cause significant harm in some circumstances. For more information on the health effects due to specific electromagnetic phenomena and parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles:\n",
"Radiophobia is a fear of ionizing radiation. Given that significant doses of radiation are harmful, even deadly (i.e. radiation-induced cancer, and acute radiation syndrome), every threat of the radiation exposure may cause significant fear. The term is also used to describe the opposition to the use of nuclear technology (i.e. nuclear power) arising from concerns disproportionately greater than actual risks would merit.\n",
"This article deals with radiation damage due to the effects of ionizing radiation on physical objects. Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, including health effects of radiation in humans. \n",
"Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such as burns. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.\n",
"Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as \"The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this\". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.\n",
"Non-ionising radiation is the terms used to describe the part of the electromagnetic spectrum covering 'Optical radiation', such as ultraviolet light and 'electromagnetic fields' such as microwaves and radio frequencies. Health risks caused by exposure to this type of radiation will often be as a result of too much exposure to ultraviolet light either from the sun or from sunbeds which could lead to skin cancer.\n"
] |
How did apple pie become an icon of American culture, even inspiring the phrase 'as American as apple pie', when it's a popular pastry in several European countries. Especially when it's also an icon of Dutch culture, even appearing in a Dutch cookbook in 1514.
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/r/AskFoodHistorians might be a good place to cross-post this
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[
"Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"Although eaten in Europe since long before the European colonization of the Americas, apple pie as used in the phrase \"as American as apple pie\" describes something as being \"typically American.\" \" In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, apple pie became a symbol of American prosperity and national pride. A newspaper article published in 1902 declared that \"No pie-eating people can be permanently vanquished.\" The dish was also commemorated in the phrase \"for Mom and apple pie\" - supposedly the stock answer of American soldiers in World War II, whenever journalists asked why they were going to war. Jack Holden and Frances Kay sang in their patriotic 1950 song “The Fiery Bear”, creating contrast between this symbol of U.S. culture and the Russian bear of the Soviet Union:\n",
"BULLET::::- Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"BULLET::::- Apple pie - New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"Apple pie was brought to the colonies by the English, the Dutch, and the Swedes during the 17th and 18th centuries. The apple pie had to wait for the planting of European varieties, brought across the Atlantic, to become fruit-bearing apple trees, to be selected for their cooking qualities as there were no native apples except crabapples, which yield very small and sour fruit. In the meantime, the colonists were more likely to make their pies, or \"pasties\", from meat, calling them coffins (meaning basket) rather than fruit; and the main use for apples, once they were available, was in cider. However, there are American apple pie recipes, both manuscript and printed, from the 18th century, and it has since become a very popular dessert. Apple varieties are usually propagated by grafting, as clones, but in the New World, planting from seeds was more popular, which quickly led to the development of hundreds of new native varieties.\n",
"The History of Apple Pie were an English rock band from London. They released their debut album \"Out of View\" on 28 January 2013, which went in at number 8 in the UK Indie Breakers Chart, and number 2 in the UK Record Store Chart.\n",
"The pumpkin is native to the continent of North America. The pumpkin was an early export to France; from there it was introduced to Tudor England, and the flesh of the \"pompion\" was quickly accepted as pie filler. During the seventeenth century, pumpkin pie recipes could be found in English cookbooks, such as Hannah Woolley's \"The Gentlewoman's Companion\" (1675). Pumpkin \"pies\" made by early American colonists were more likely to be a savory soup made and served in a pumpkin than a sweet custard in a crust.\n"
] |
what is another solution to shootings, outside of gun control?
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1) Obviously, we need to take a closer look at mental health issues (this also pertains to suicides, which make up 2/3rds of all gun deaths in the US). A big part of this would be lowering the stigmas associated with depression and related problems, and encouraging people to get help, in addition to getting actual funding.
2) Since no one else is saying it, I will; African American males between the ages of 16 and 35, representing about 3% of the overall population of the United States, are responsible for about *half* of its gun violence. We need to take a look in the mirror and realize that an enormous amount of crime is coming out of the "black community" in the United States. The fix to that ultimately is better jobs and education for inner-city communities. To fix the school issue, in particular, we have to start taking a closer look at how we actually fund schools, and take steps to equalize funding (currently the Feds actually try to do this, but those programs don't have nearly enough money to cover the difference). In addition, allegations of "systemic racism" by the police are likely true more often than not, but honestly I feel that this is a *symptom* that will clear itself up if a meaningful way to reduce violence is achieved. Less crime directly translates into a lower police presence.
This also applies (although to a lesser extent) to Hispanics within the US, who are murdered at twice the rate that Whites are (and is three times *lower* than the rate African Americans are).
3) In addition, I'd promote gun literacy; make it such that everyone knows how to handle and use a gun responsibly. Honestly, I'd include it as an extension of civics classes in high school.
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[
"Sociologist James D. Wright suggests that to convince inner-city youths not to carry guns \"requires convincing them that they can survive in their neighborhood without being armed, that they can come and go in peace, that being unarmed will not cause them to be victimized, intimidated, or slain.\" Intervention programs, such as CeaseFire Chicago, Operation Ceasefire in Boston and Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, have been shown to be effective. Other intervention strategies, such as gun \"buy-back\" programs have been demonstrated to be ineffective.\n",
"The one thing that point shooting methods have in common is that they do not rely on the sights, and they strive to increase the shooter's ability to hit targets at short range under the less-than-ideal conditions expected in close quarters, life-threatening situations, self-defense, and combat situations.\n",
"Shooting is also used in warfare, self-defence, crime and law enforcement. Duels were sometimes held using guns. Shooting without a target has applications such as celebratory gunfire, 21-gun salute, or firing starting pistols, incapable of releasing bullets.\n",
"Most shooters attempt to out-deke the goalie in order to create a better scoring chance. Former Detroit Red Wings forward Pavel Datsyuk and New York Rangers forward Martin St. Louis are examples of players who commonly use this tactic. However, it is not uncommon for a shooter to simply shoot for an opening without deking. This is commonly referred to as sniping. This is most commonly performed when a goalie challenges a shooter by giving them an open hole (by keeping a glove, pad or stick out of position or being out of sound goaltending position altogether to tempt the shooter to aim for the given opening). Former NHL forwards Markus Näslund and Brett Hull are two players commonly referred to as snipers. Very rarely a shooter may take a slapshot or wrist shot from the point or top of the slot. This is almost exclusively performed when a shooter either has a high level of confidence in their shot or they attempt to catch the goalie by surprise. Retired player Brian Rolston, Detroit Red Wings winger Todd Bertuzzi, Philadelphia Flyers defenseman Chris Pronger, and Vancouver Canucks winger Daniel Sedin have all used this tactic with success.\n",
"Most shooters attempt to out-deke the goaltender in order to create a better scoring chance. Minnesota Wild forward Mikko Koivu, Detroit Red Wings forward Pavel Datsyuk, Washington Capitals forward TJ Oshie and New York Rangers forward Martin St. Louis are examples of players who commonly use this strategy. However, it is not uncommon for a shooter to simply shoot for an opening without deking. This is commonly referred to as sniping. This is most commonly performed when a goaltender challenges a shooter by giving them an open hole (by keeping a glove, pad or stick out of position or being out of sound goaltending position altogether to tempt the shooter to aim for the given opening).\n",
"Following a March 2018 school shooting in Southern Maryland, Morgan responded with pessimism that proposed gun control legislation would be effective in preventing future shootings, saying \"I don’t know if there is a policy fix.\"\n",
"The shooters will stand at the 5 yard line facing the adversarial targets, with a cover garment as to not alert threats of the intentions of the shooter. At the tone or when targets face the shooter will draw and engage the first target with 2 rounds, then transition to each target engaging with 2 rounds. Shooter must conduct a reload after the 1st target and anytime before the 5th target.\n"
] |
how can games companies sell unfinished games and in some cases games that are unplayable (activision)?
|
Simply answer, because consumers keep buying them.
Longer answer, due to the new and easier channels of distribution, mainly pre-order, digital downloads, etc. games can be bought way before any serious reviews by game critics or consumers alike have been established.
So by the time the problems of a game are known, the majority of sales have already been made. Coupled with promises of updates and fixes, many consumers stick around or even buy the game later when it's fixed.
This way game companies get both, the money from early buyers who purchase the game without knowing it's quality as well as patient gamers who wait until the game is fixed.
Since this behavior doesn't seem to damage the long-term reputation of the company it remains a viable business model.
|
[
"On November 29, 2007, GameTap announced that as of December 11, over 70 games would be removed from their catalog, many of them Electronic Arts or Interplay titles, likely due to expiration of the two-year licensing agreement with those companies.\n",
"Any video game company, notably independent video game developers, may publish their own games via the Nintendo eShop as download-only software for the Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, and Nintendo Switch. Various titles, which may be sold as retail games in some regions, might be released as download-only software in others for various reasons, such as cost-effective localisation.\n",
"In November 2018, Telltale Games began the process of closing down the studio due to financial issues. Most of its games started to become delisted from digital storefronts, including \"Minecraft: Story Mode\". According to GOG.com, they had to pull the title due to \"expiring licensing rights\". The \"Minecraft\" team stated that even for those that had purchased the titles before their delisting, the episodes would no longer be downloadable after June 2019. Because the Xbox Live Marketplace does not allow for removing games from sale while at the same time allowing existing owners to download the game, each episode of the game's Xbox 360 version was repriced to in the few weeks ahead of the delisting to deter users from purchasing them.\n",
"Entertainment Games, Inc. ceased trading as an entertainment company in April, 2012 due to financial difficulties. The company name, ticker symbol EGAM, and public company structure were acquired by a mining company, Tamino Minerals, in a reverse merger.\n",
"Entertainment Games, Inc. ceased trading as an entertainment company in April, 2012 due to financial difficulties. The company name, ticker symbol EGAM, and public company structure were acquired by a mining company, Tamino Minerals, in a reverse merger.[2][3]\n",
"In March 2012, several suppliers, including Nintendo, Electronic Arts and Capcom refused to supply their latest products due to concerns over Game's creditworthiness. Game subsequently entered administration on 26 March 2012, and was purchased by OpCapita the following week. Baker Acquisitions was subsequently renamed Game Retail Ltd.\n",
"Thatgamecompany's employees are not opposed to making action titles, and, as a break from their regular projects, have internally created \"exciting\" games that were well received by Sony. However, Chen believes that there is no reason for the company to commercially produce such games, as they would not be creating new ideas that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio, as opposed to working for existing game developers. Similarly, Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make \"big budget blockbuster games\", as he believes that the financial pressure would stifle innovation.\n"
] |
what is happening in bunkerville between the rancher cliven bundy and the feds?
|
Mexico lost territory in Western North America to the US during the Mexican American War, and so the land was transferred to the Federal Government. In effect, 80(ish)% of Nevada land is owned by the Feds. Ranchers can use this land to graze their cattle, but must pay a grazing fee in order to make use of it.
Bundy stopped paying his fees about 20 years ago, and has been in a long legal battle with the BLM (the Federal agency that manages all federally owned land in the US), all centered on his family's claim to the land. However, he has no claim that the courts will recognize. He continued grazing on BLM land, and so the BLM got fed up and are confiscating his cattle.
It is also important that the Feds recognize his ownership of his own ranch, but *not* the surrounding land that the BLM oversees. They're not forcing him off of his own land, but off of Federally owned land that he's been grazing his cattle on.
|
[
"In the spring of 2014, Bunkerville was the scene of the Bundy standoff, an armed confrontation between protesters and law enforcement over the non-payment of the grazing fees by Cliven Bundy, a local rancher.\n",
"Some time later, a large herd of cattle is found in one of the outside communities. MacAllister orders Dwight's father, Colonel Jeff Allison, to bring the cattle to the bunker for \"government protection\". Dwight believes it would be wrong to take the cattle when the outsiders depend on them for survival and hurries to tell Bill. Bill and Dwight decide that the best course of action would be to leave the bunker and warn the community which owns the cattle; Ophelia accompanies them, but she does so because they are the people she is closest to, not because she feels they are doing the right thing.\n",
"Charles Hurwitz (born 1940) is a financier known for his role in the Savings and loan crisis and his takeover of Pacific Lumber Company, a logging company active in Humboldt County, California. His holdings have included Kaiser Aluminum Corporation, pari-mutual racing facilities in Texas, real estate developments throughout the Southwest and the Ozark Mountains in Arkansas; retail store complexes in western New York; a golf resort in Florida and a hotel-condominium resort and 1,300 acres developed in Puerto Rico. His company built a $75-million resort hotel in Rancho Mirage, Calif., overcoming opposition from residents, including Frank Sinatra.\n",
"The Cliven Bundy family owns a 160-acre farm southwest of Bunkerville, which serves as headquarters and base property for the family's ranching operation on nearby public lands. The farm property was purchased by the Bundy family in 1948, after they moved from Bundyville, Arizona, and Bundy has claimed that he inherited \"pre-emptive grazing rights\" on public domain land because some of his maternal grandmother's ancestors had kept cattle in the Virgin Valley beginning in 1877. Bundy alternatively argued in legal cases that federal grazing rules infringe on Nevada's rights.\n",
"Bundy participated in the 2014 Bundy standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada, in which his father, Cliven Bundy, was the central figure. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) attempted to confiscate Cliven's cattle for grazing on public land for years without a permit.\n",
"The ranch is located near the North Branch of Crazy Woman Creek south of Buffalo, Wyoming, with the Big Horn Mountains to the west. The property is significant for its role as the scene of a three-day siege in the Johnson County Range War, and as an example of an intact ranching operation.\n",
"Aunt Mathilde \"Ma\" Hutchins (Maude Eburne) and the other ranchers of the valley are in danger of losing her ranches. Mr. Cavanaugh (Walter Fenner), an Eastern promoter, wants to develop a dude ranch on their land. In order to get their land, Cavanaugh arranges for the government to put up nearby public lands for auction—lands the ranchers use to graze their cattle. The auction would drive the ranchers out of business and allow Cavanaugh to acquire the land at a cheap price.\n"
] |
During the late Medieval and Renaisance period, when Kings derived their right to rule from divine mandates, how did people view republics & elective monarchies? Were they seen as less legitimate than herditary monarchies?
|
For most of the medieval period, in Italy at least, republican governments could only guarantee an uneasy peace between dynasties, and at best institutionalized warfare. I have a very specific example of fighting consequential to Republican government [here](_URL_0_). However, other republics were seen as just as legitimate than monarchies; and at times even more so, as I described [here](_URL_1_).
|
[
"The Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Treaty of Westphalia heralded the birth of the sovereign states system. The Treaty endorsed states as territorially-based political units having sovereignty. As a result, the monarchs were able to exert domestic control by emasculating the feudal lords and to stop relying on the latter for armed troops. Henceforth, monarchs could form national armies and deploy a professional bureaucracy and fiscal departments, which enabled them to maintain direct control and supreme authority over their subjects. In order to meet administrative expenditures, monarchs controlled the economy. This gave birth to absolutism. Until the mid-eighteenth century, absolutism was the hallmark of Europe.\n",
"This belief in the god-given authority of monarchs was central to the Roman Catholic vision of governance in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and \"Ancien Régime\". Although this was most true of what would later be termed the ultramontaine party and the Catholic Church has recognized, on an exceptional basis, Republics as early as 1291 in the case of San Marino.\n",
"For centuries, monarchs ruled by the idea of divine right. Sometimes this began to be used by a monarch to support the notion that the king ruled both his own kingdom and Church within its boundaries, a theory known as caesaropapism. On the other side was the Catholic doctrine that the Pope, as the Vicar of Christ on earth, should have the ultimate authority over the Church, and indirectly over the state. Moreover, throughout the Middle Ages the Pope claimed the right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe and tried to exercise it, sometimes successfully (see the investiture controversy, below), sometimes not, such as was the case with Henry VIII of England and Henry III of Navarre.\n",
"Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult and seek a measure of acceptance for their policies if they are to enjoy the broad cooperation of their subjects. Early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country. However, under the feudal system that evolved in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military power bases of their own through major ownership of land and the feudal obligations of their tenants (some of whom held lands on condition of military service). The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of religious law courts.\n",
"A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot), Visigothic Hispania, and medieval Scandinavia and in the Principality of Transylvania. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II of France. In a much later period of its history, France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy when Napoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor – which, him being the nephew and heir of the Emperor Napoleon I, was not entirely a surprise.\n",
"In feudal Europe the most widespread justification of the state was the emerging idea of the divine right of kings, which stated that monarchs draw their power from God, and that the state should only be an apparatus that puts the monarch's will into practice. The legitimacy of the state's lands derived from the lands being the personal possession of the monarch. The divine-right theory, combined with primogeniture, became a theory of hereditary monarchy in the nation states of the early modern period. The Holy Roman Empire was not a state in that sense, and was not a true theocracy, but rather a federal entity.\n",
"New ideas also affected views of government, described as new or Renaissance monarchy, which emphasised the status and significance of the monarch. The Roman Law principle that \"a king is emperor in his own kingdom\", can be seen in Scotland from the mid-fifteenth century. In 1469 Parliament passed an act declaring that James III possessed \"full jurisdiction and empire within his realm\". From the 1480s, the king's image on his silver groats showed him wearing a closed, arched, imperial crown, in place of the open circlet of medieval kings, probably the first coin image of its kind outside Italy. It soon began to appear in heraldry, on royal seals, manuscripts, sculptures and as crown steeples on churches with royal connections, as at St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. The first Scottish monarch to wear such a crown was James V, whose diadem was reworked to include arches in 1532. They were included when it was reconstructed in 1540, subsisting in the Crown of Scotland. The idea of imperial monarchy emphasised the dignity of the crown and included its role as a unifying national force, defending national borders and interests, royal supremacy over the law and a distinctive national church within the Catholic communion. New Monarchy can also be seen in the reliance of the crown on \"new men\" rather than the great magnates, the use of the clergy as a form of civil service, the development of standing armed forces and a navy. The aggrandisement of the monarchy reached its apogee in James VI's development of the concept of imperial rule into a divine right.\n"
] |
Is there dark antimatter?
|
One of the things we learn from the merger of special relativity and quantum mechanics is that each particle has a corresponding antiparticle.
However, for some particles (e.g., the Z^(0) and the photon), the antiparticle and the particle are the same, while for others (e.g., the electron or a quark), the particle and antiparticle are distinct from each other.
As of now, we don't know which of these two categories dark matter falls into.
|
[
"In the unlikely event that dark stars have endured to the modern era, they could be detectable by their emissions of gamma rays, neutrinos, and antimatter and would be associated with clouds of cold molecular hydrogen gas that normally would not harbor such energetic particles.\n",
"A darker version of Energon called Dark Energon (also known as the Blood of Unicron) is also known to exist. Megatron is the only major user of Dark Energon, though Starscream once embedded a shard in his own Spark and used it to reanimate Skyquake. The power can bring dead Cybertronians back to life as zombie-like Terrorcons. It is revealed at the end of season one that Earth's core is really made of Dark Energon because Unicron was at the center of the Earth. Dark Energon is the lifeforce of Unicron and produced by his Anti-Spark, the dark counterpart to the AllSpark (possibly based on \"Beast Wars Neo's\" Angolmois energy).\n",
"A dark star is a theoretical object compatible with Newtonian mechanics that, due to its large mass, has a surface escape velocity that equals or exceeds the speed of light. Whether light is affected by gravity under Newtonian mechanics is unclear but if it were accelerated the same way as projectiles, any light emitted at the surface of a dark star would be trapped by the star's gravity, rendering it dark, hence the name. Dark stars are analogous to black holes in general relativity.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Dark Ones: A species of evil entities with the power to destroy creation that were created by an unknown cosmic force when the universe was young. While many were confined in the Netherworld, some of them are dormant in their planets' cores. They have so much evil that any organic life is painfully weakened in the Netherworld.\n",
"Aside from the explicit introduction, the book depicts various fictional experts explaining matters in science, technology, and history in which critics have pointed out inaccuracies. An example of this is the antimatter discussions, wherein the book suggests that antimatter can be produced in useful and practical quantities and will be a limitless source of power. CERN published an FAQ page about \"Angels & Demons\" on their website stating that antimatter cannot be used as an energy source because creating it takes more energy than it produces.\n",
"The Dark One (voiced by Phil LaMarr) is the main antagonist of \"\". Is a creature with the intention of ending the universe, and the last of his species. Towards the end of the film it is discovered that he is really the desert muck leech that lived on Mars, and that Leela welcomed as a pet to prevent his death. He is ultimately defeated and eaten by Zoidberg.\n",
"However, the dark star is capable of emitting indirect radiation – outward-aimed light and matter can leave the \"r\" = 2\"M\" surface briefly before being recaptured, and while outside the critical surface, can interact with other matter, or be accelerated free from the star through such interactions. A dark star, therefore, has a rarefied atmosphere of \"visiting particles\", and this ghostly halo of matter and light can radiate, albeit weakly. Also as Faster than light speeds are possible in Newtonian mechanics, it is possible for particles to escape.\n"
] |
why is e120 carmine (red dye made out of bugs) still being used instead of an artificial dye?
|
A dye is just a chemical that happens to be a certain color. In this case it is bright red. The chemical can often be produced in different ways but with different costs. It might be possible to make Carmine with organic chemistry but it would require a lot of expensive processes. Both in terms of time, resources and pollution. You might also be able to genetically engineer some bacteria or algae to make Carmine but that would cost a lot to develop and still not be as cheap as the bugs. And the bugs are not used directly either, they are chemically processed to clean them up before they are used. So in a sense it is already artificially produced.
|
[
"Because of public concerns about possible health risks associated with synthetic dyes, many companies have switched to using natural pigments such as carmine, made from crushing the tiny female cochineal insect. This insect, originating in Mexico and Central America, was used to make the brilliant scarlet dyes of the European Renaissance.\n",
"Nowadays carmine dyes are used for coloring foodstuffs, medicines and cosmetics. As a food additive in the European Union, carmine dyes are designated E120, and are also called cochineal and Natural Red 4. Carmine dyes are also used in some oil paints and watercolors used by artists.\n",
"Made into a red dye known as carmine, cochineal are incorporated into lots of products, ranging cosmetics, food, paint, fabric, etc. About 100,000 insects are needed to make a single kilogram of dye. The shade of red the dye yields depends on how the insect is processed. France is the world’s largest importer of carmine.\n",
"Strong red colors for eye products have been produced using the dye carmine, made from carminic acid extracted from the crushed bodies of the cochineal insect. Carmine was once the only bright red color permitted by the FDA for use around the eye.\n",
"Carmine dyes are obtained from resinous secretions of scale insects such as the Cochineal scale Coccus cacti, and certain Porphyrophora species (Armenian and Polish cochineal). Cochineal dye, the so-called \"laq\" was formerly exported from India, and later on from Mexico and the Canary Islands. Insect dyes were more frequently used in areas where Madder (Rubia tinctorum) was not grown, like west and north-west Persia.\n",
"Carmine dyes are obtained from resinous secretions of scale insects such as the Cochineal scale Coccus cacti, and certain Porphyrophora species (Armenian and Polish cochineal). Cochineal dye, the so-called \"laq\" was formerly exported from India, and later on from Mexico and the Canary Islands. Insect dyes were more frequently used in areas where Madder (Rubia tinctorum) was not grown, like west and north-west Persia.\n",
"The carmine dye was used in North America in the 15th century for coloring fabrics and became an important export good during the colonial period. After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, natural-dye production gradually diminished. Health fears over artificial food additives, however, have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again, with Peru being the largest exporter. Some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca are still working in handmade textiles using this cochineal.\n"
] |
why is chocolate milk cheaper than regular milk?
|
Milk is graded by quality at the dairy, similar to, for example, steaks' prime or triple A. High grade is used for direct consumption, other grades go through various processing according to the grade. A lower quality grade is less expensive as there is less market for it. Milk just below top grade is flavored with chocolate as it is very effective at masking other flavors. This is not to suggest that chocolate milk is unfit for consumption, just that there is something in it that either might induce an off flavor or would greatly reduce it's shelf life. Even lower grade milk is often used in production baked goods. About the lowest grade milk often goes to chemical processors for casein extraction used in plastics.
TL,DR: chocolate milk is cheaper because a cheaper lower grade of milk is used that is still OK to drink but the chocolate hides any off flavor.
|
[
"Some nutritionists have criticized chocolate milk for its high sugar content and its relationship to childhood obesity. In New York City, school food officials report that nearly 60 percent of the 100 million cartons served each year contain fat-free chocolate milk. Because chocolate milk can contain twice as much sugar as plain low-fat milk from added sugars, some school districts have stopped serving the product altogether, including some areas in California and Washington, D.C.\n",
"In a study conducted in 2006, researchers stated that the benefits of drinking chocolate milk were likely due to its ratio of carbohydrates to protein, among other nutritional properties. However, this study was small in scale as it was conducted on only nine athletes and was partially funded by the dairy industry. Furthermore, the study compared chocolate milk to two energy drinks and unflavored milk was not used as a comparison, so it is unknown if chocolate milk is superior to unflavored milk as a recovery drink.\n",
"Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others. Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonly obese in the U.S.\n",
"Hayley Peterson of \"Business Insider\" wrote, \"The chocolate milk was the crowd favorite. It's very sweet, but not overpowering, and the consistency is creamier and thicker than regular milk.\" Peterson adds that, \"most people agreed that the 2% milk tasted similar to whole milk. Many reviewers loved the milky taste, while others thought it was too overpowering.\" Sam Rega, a \"Business Insider\" video producer commented, \"Both skim and 2% had an after-taste, but otherwise I couldn't tell much of a difference from this and regular milk.\"\n",
"Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that also contains milk powder or condensed milk. In the UK and Ireland, milk chocolate must contain a minimum of 20% total dry cocoa solids; in the rest of the European Union, the minimum is 25%.\n",
"Chocolate milk is sweetened chocolate-flavored milk. It can be made by mixing chocolate syrup (or chocolate powder) with milk (from cows, goats, soy, rice, etc.). It can be purchased pre-mixed with milk or made at home by blending milk with cocoa powder and a sweetener (such as sugar or a sugar substitute), melted chocolate, chocolate syrup, or a pre-made powdered chocolate milk mix. Other ingredients, such as starch, salt, carrageenan, vanilla, or artificial flavoring are sometimes added. \n",
"Cadbury, one of the world's largest chocolate companies, has begun certifying its Dairy Milk bars as fair trade; according to Cadbury, , one quarter of global sales of chocolate bars will be fair trade. In 2007, the United States imported approximately 1.95 million pounds of fairly traded cocoa.\n"
] |
why have basements come to be considered "scary" places, such as in horror movies?
|
Basements are underground, poorly lit (in general), cold (in general), damp places that you do not generally go into all the time. Each of those things adds to it being uncomfortable and disconcerting, which in turn makes it "scary".
|
[
"The Basement is not a traditional linear walk through haunted attraction, rather it is an interactive and immersive experience that involves the actors speaking to and touching guests. The Basement is designed to provide boundary pushing, intense, thrilling, and emotional experiences in a safe environment. Scenes are developed based on psychological research and in a socially conscious/sensitive manner, with attention to avoiding themes which exploit vulnerable populations. The event is restricted to only one or two guests entering at a time. It is a more intense and thrilling experience with adult content and explicit language. The Basement has held off season events, during Christmas, Valentine's Day, and the summer. The Basement is marketed and geared towards those who seek a more extreme experience. Everyone must be 18 years old and sign a waiver before entry. Elijah Wood attended the attraction in 2014 and \"raved\" about ScareHouse and the Basement on the Seth Meyers show on November 5.\n",
"The Basement is a 2017 American horror film directed by Brian M. Conley and Nathan Ives. The film stars Mischa Barton, Jackson Davis, Cayleb Long and Tracie Thoms. The film premiered at Shriekfest in Los Angeles on October 7, 2017. It received a 10 market theatrical and digital release in the United States on 15 September 2018.\n",
"Basement is a 2014 horror film directed by Topel Lee. The film is a joint project by Coffee House Productions and Springboard Film Productions and will be distributed by GMA Films. The film was released on February 12, 2014, serving it as the Valentine offering movie of GMA Films.\n",
"\"The Basement\" is a completed series that featured teenagers tampering with supernatural forces. A group of teenagers in a basement jokes around with an ouija board and gets trapped by an evil spirit. They are then faced with the challenge of escaping their predicament alive. The series started in August 11, 2009 and ended in April 29, 2011.\n",
"The Basement Sublet of Horror is a self-produced Public-access television cable TV show by Joel Sanderson. The show uses a tongue-in-cheek approach to screen altered feature films intercut with cartoons, educational and instructional videos in such a way to create a new condensed feature that collages visual puns and humorous subplots. The host of the show is the fictional Gunther Dedmund, played by Joel Sanderson.\n",
"The People Under the Stairs is a 1991 American horror comedy film written and directed by Wes Craven and starring Brandon Adams, Everett McGill, Wendy Robie, A. J. Langer, Ving Rhames, and Sean Whalen. The plot follows a young boy and two adult robbers who become trapped in a house belonging to a strange couple after breaking in to steal their collection of rare coins.\n",
"\"The Basement Sublet of Horror\" follows a long history of horror hosts that play horror films on television that have had a nationwide cult following for decades. Several generations of fans have grown up watching late-night Horror Host programs, at once becoming erstwhile film students and cinema aficionados, and also networking with other fans around the country. With the development of the Internet and cable television, horror host shows have seen a revival likened to the drive-in resurgence of indoor theaters that present exploitation and novelty films such as \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\".\n"
] |
how to read this chart on google finance
|
[Here](_URL_0_) I provided a decently long explanation including how to read a similar chart. Read through my second comment and see if it makes sense.
Note: given that the market has been active for a week, the numbers and prices may be slightly off for the IBM options.
Let me know if that answers your questions.
|
[
"Google launched a revamped version of their finance site on December 12, 2006, featuring a new homepage design which lets users see currency information, sector performance for the United States market and a listing of top market movers along with the relevant and important news of the day. A top movers section was also added, based on popularity determined by Google Trends. The upgrade also featured charts containing up to 40 years of data for U.S. stocks, and richer portfolio options. Another update brought real-time ticker updates for stocks to the site, as both NASDAQ and the New York Stock Exchange partnered with Google in June 2008. Google added advertising to its finance page on November 18, 2008. However, since 2008, it has not undergone any major upgrades and the Google Finance Blog was closed in August 2012.\n",
"Google Finance was first launched by Google on March 21, 2006. The service featured business and enterprise headlines for many corporations including their financial decisions and major news events. Stock information was available, as were Adobe Flash-based stock price charts which contained marks for major news events and corporate actions. The site also aggregated Google News and Google Blog Search articles about each corporation, though links were not screened and often deemed untrustworthy.\n",
"Consider a simple spreadsheet being used to calculate the average value of all car sales in a month for a given year. The sheet might contain the month number or name in column A, the number of cars sold in column B, and the total income in column C. The user wishes to complete the task of \"calculate the average income per car sold by dividing the total income by the number of cars sold, and put the resulting average in column D\". From the user's perspective, the values in the cells have semantic content, they are \"cars sold\" and \"total income\", and they want to manipulate this to produce an output value, \"average price\".\n",
"The Journal of Computational Finance is a peer-reviewed academic journal, published five times per year, covering advances in numerical and computational techniques in pricing, hedging, and risk management of financial instruments. It was established in 1997 and is published by as part of their Risk Journals portfolio. The editor-in-chief is Christoph Reisinger (Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford). According to the \"Journal Citation Reports\", the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 0.758.\n",
"While most academic databases and search engines allow users to select one factor (e.g. relevance, citation counts, or publication date) to rank results, Google Scholar ranks results with a combined ranking algorithm in a \"way researchers do, weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the piece has been cited in other scholarly literature\". Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on citation counts and words included in a document's title. As a consequence, the first search results are often highly cited articles.\n",
"The Google AdWords Keyword Planner, formerly the Keyword Tool, is a free AdWords tool which gives estimated traffic-per-month for the mentioned keywords. It provides a list of related keywords expected to be equally successful for a specific website or keyword.\n",
"The graph to the right shows this simplified case for the credit market. The interest rate is denoted by \"r\", and \"S\" and \"I\" denote saving and investment respectively. This is a highly stylised example, where one abstracts from changes in output, and where the economy is in financial autarky (and, consequently, savings and investment express the supply and demand of loanable funds, respectively).\n"
] |
how does a breathalyzer detect blood alcohol content by blowing into them?
|
When you have alcohol in your blood there will be some in your exhaled breath as well. The breathalyzer converts the ethanol in your breath into acetic acid and water. The byproduct of this reaction is a small amount of electricity. The breathalyzer measures how much electricity is produced and uses that to calculate how much alcohol was present in your breath.
|
[
"The oldest breath analyzer models pass breath through a solution of potassium dichromate, which oxidizes ethanol into acetic acid, changing color in the process. A monochromatic light beam is passed through this sample, and a detector records the change in intensity and, hence, the change in color, which is used to calculate the percent alcohol in the breath. However, since potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizer, numerous alcohol groups can be oxidized by it, producing false positives. This source of false positives is unlikely as very few other substances found in exhaled air are oxidizable.\n",
"In 1954 Robert Frank Borkenstein (1912–2002) was a captain with the Indiana State Police and later a professor at Indiana University Bloomington. His Breathalyzer used chemical oxidation and photometry to determine alcohol concentrations. Subsequent breath analyzers have converted primarily to infrared spectroscopy, though this method is subject to invalid results depending on ambient air temperature, the temperature of the device, and the body temperature of the subject, depending on specificity of the readings and how they correlate with one's BAC measured via a voluntary blood draw. The invention of the Breathalyzer provided law enforcement with an orally-invasive test providing immediate results to determine an individual's breath alcohol concentration at the time of testing, based on, according to this article, consistently faulty samples.\n",
"With such an instrument the driver has to blow against a sampling area at the surface of the alcohol interlock. However, in doing so the (eventually alcohol containing) breath air is diluted by mixing with ambient air. To determine the actual breath alcohol concentration, techniques are necessary for compensation of the dilution. The dilution may be determined for example by simultaneous measurement of the carbon dioxide concentration.\n",
"Breath analyzers do not directly measure blood alcohol content or concentration, which requires the analysis of a blood sample. Instead, they estimate BAC indirectly by measuring the amount of alcohol in one's breath. In general, two types of breathalyzer are used. Small hand-held breathalyzers are not reliable enough to provide evidence in court but reliable enough to justify an arrest. Larger breathalyzer devices found in police stations can then be used to produce court evidence.\n",
"Breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments. More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.\n",
"A breathalyzer or breathalyser (a portmanteau of \"breath\" and \"analyzer/analyser\") is a device for estimating blood alcohol content (BAC) from a breath sample. Breathalyzer is the brand name (a genericized trademark) for the instrument that tests the alcohol level developed by inventor Robert Frank Borkenstein. It was registered as a trademark on May 13, 1954, but many people use the term to refer to any generic device for estimating blood alcohol content.\n",
"BULLET::::- Photovoltaic assay : The photovoltaic assay, used only in the dated Photo Electric Intoximeter (PEI), is a form of breath testing rarely encountered today. The process works by using photocells to analyze the color change of a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction. A breath sample is bubbled through an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate, and silver nitrate. The silver nitrate acts as a catalyst, allowing the alcohol to be oxidized at an appreciable rate. The requisite acidic condition needed for the reaction might also be provided by the sulfuric acid. In solution, ethanol reacts with the potassium dichromate, reducing the dichromate ion to the chromium (III) ion. This reduction results in a change of the solution's color from red-orange to green. The reacted solution is compared to a vial of non-reacted solution by a photocell, which creates an electric current proportional to the degree of the color change; this current moves the needle that indicates BAC. Like other methods, breath testing devices using chemical analysis are prone to false readings. Compounds that have compositions similar to ethanol, for example, could also act as reducing agents, creating the necessary color change to indicate increased BAC.\n"
] |
Along with rationing what strategies were used to address shortages of materials during wwI and wwII?
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Germany heavily tried to synthesize rare materials with varying success. Stuff like rubber for example.
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[
"In the summer of 1941, the British appealed to Americans to conserve food to provide more to go to Britain's fighting men in World War II. The Office of Price Administration warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum, and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December.\n",
"In summer 1941 the British appealed to Americans to conserve food to provide more to go to Britons fighting in the Second World War. The Office of Price Administration warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain.\n",
"During the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by official measures, which included rationing. The problem was worse in WWII, and the Ministry of Food was established to address the problems (see Rationing in the United Kingdom). Due to the economic problems following the war, rationing continued for some years, and in some aspects was more strict than during wartime. Rationing was not fully lifted until almost a decade after war ended in Europe, so that a whole generation was raised without access to many previously common ingredients. These policies, put in place by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are often blamed for the decline of British cuisine in the 20th century.\n",
"During World War II, rationing was imposed almost immediately. Restrictions were immediately more stringent than in the Great War as with effect from 8 January 1940, ration books were issued and most foods were subject to ration. By August 1940, legislation was passed that made the wasting of food a prisonable offence. Posters encouraged kitchen waste to be used for feeding animals, primarily swine but also poultry.\n",
"By 1941, Britain was two years into another global conflict. With the need to produce clothing and other war essentials for the expanding armed services during the Second World War, many items were once again rationed. Certain raw materials could no longer be imported, and those that could were directed towards the war effort. Food rationing had already been reintroduced in January 1940. Non-rationed items saw their price surge, and clothing saw large mark-ups in price, well above the cost of living.\n",
"Many infant industries were established during this \"economic war\". Almost complete import substitution was achieved in many sectors behind a protective tariff barrier. These industries proved valuable during the war years as they reduced the need for imports.\n",
"In 1940, rationing in the United Kingdom during and after World War II took place according to nutritional principles drawn up by Elsie Widdowson and others. In 1941, the first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.\n"
] |
why are intelligence agencies allowed to break the law in foreign countries by spying on their citizens?
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Black ops are, by definition, illegal. If they weren't, there'd be no need for them to be a secret.
Being a spook is basically being a criminal for the government.
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[
"Espionage laws are also used to prosecute non-spies. In the United States, the Espionage Act of 1917 was used against socialist politician Eugene V. Debs (at that time the Act had much stricter guidelines and amongst other things banned speech against military recruiting). The law was later used to suppress publication of periodicals, for example of Father Coughlin in World War II. In the early 21st century, the act was used to prosecute whistleblowers such as Thomas Andrews Drake, John Kiriakou, and Edward Snowden, as well as officials who communicated with journalists for innocuous reasons, such as Stephen Jin-Woo Kim.\n",
"Espionage is a crime under the legal code of many nations. In the United States, it is covered by the Espionage Act of 1917. The risks of espionage vary. A spy breaking the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed. A spy breaking their own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and treason (which in the US and some other jurisdictions can only occur if they take up arms or aids the enemy against their own country during wartime), or even executed, as the Rosenbergs were. For example, when Aldrich Ames handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agents in the Eastern Bloc to his KGB-officer \"handler\", the KGB \"rolled up\" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had diplomatic immunity, was declared \"persona non grata\" and taken to the airport. Ames' wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. Hugh Francis Redmond, a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.\n",
"The UN claims that acts of espionage on it are illegal under a number of international treaties, including the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the 1947 agreement between the United Nations and the United States, and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.\n",
"The \"Los Angeles Times\" felt \"the government was right to drop its espionage case ... not because we think spying for Israel should be subjected to a different standard than spying for other countries, and not because the political ramifications of a conviction were potentially unpleasant. But this was the first prosecution under the Espionage Act of suspects who weren't government employees. ... The fact that Rosen and Weissman are private citizens makes an important distinction. When the judge ruled that the government can punish those outside of the government for the unauthorized receipt and deliberate retransmission of information relating to the national defense,' we couldn't help but take notice.\"\n",
"An illegal resident spy operates under non-official cover. They cannot claim immunity from prosecution when arrested. They may operate under a false name and have documents purportedly establishing them as a national of the country, or from a different country than the one for which they are spying. Examples of such illegals include Rudolf Abel, who operated in the United States; and Gordon Lonsdale, who was born in Russia, claimed to be Canadian, and operated in Britain. Famous Soviet and Russian \"illegals\" include Richard Sorge, Walter Krivitsky, Alexander Ulanovsky, and Anna Chapman, who was also known as a sleeper agent.\n",
"Spying for other countries or groups is in many cases illegal and punishable by law. The following is a list of individuals that have either been imprisoned for spying, or individuals that have been arrested in connection to their spying activities.\n",
"A third independent report into surveillance in the UK published in July 2015 found the intelligence agencies are not knowingly carrying out illegal mass surveillance of British citizens. However, it did say the laws governing the agencies' powers to intercept private communications need a significant overhaul. This view is consistent with separate reports by the Interception of Communications Commissioner.\n"
] |
Was there much tension between Dixiecrats and the rest of the Democratic party before the Southern Strategy, LBJ, Nixon, etc.?
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There was a lot of tension between the Dixiecrats and the mainstream of the Democrat Party in the late 1940s. They walked out of the 1948 Democratic Party's National Convention and organized a third party. It is best known as the Dixiecrats today, but its official title was the States' Rights Democratic Party. Strom Thurmond was their presidential nominee and he won 39 electoral votes in the 1948 election, almost costing Harry Truman the election.
After 1948, the New Dealers and establishment members of the Democrat party scaled back their civil rights agenda in an attempt to mollify the Dixiecrats and prevent them from forming a more serious and long lasting third party. That changed after JFK and RFK began to show renewed interest in Civil Rights, after 1960.
Source:"1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year that Changed America" by David Pietrusza
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[
"Democratic President Harry S. Truman's support of the civil rights movement, combined with the adoption of a civil rights plank in the 1948 Democratic platform, prompted many Southerners to walk out of the Democratic National Convention and form the Dixiecrat Party. This splinter party played a significant role in the 1948 election; the Dixiecrat candidate, Strom Thurmond, carried Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. In the elections of 1952 and 1956, the popular Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, commander of the Allied armed forces during World War II, carried several Southern states, with especially strong showings in the new suburbs. In 1956, Eisenhower also carried Louisiana, becoming the first Republican to win the state since Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876. The rest of the Deep South voted for his Democratic opponent, Adlai Stevenson. The 1948 election also marked Maryland's permanent defection from the Solid South as the expansion of the federal government led to a population explosion in the state that changed Maryland politically into a Northeastern State.\n",
"In the 1948 election, after President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military, a group of conservative Southern Democrats known as Dixiecrats split from the Democratic Party in reaction to the inclusion of a civil rights plank in the party's platform. This followed a floor fight led by civil-rights activist, Minneapolis Mayor (and soon-to-be Senator) Hubert Humphrey. The disaffected conservative Democrats formed the States' Rights Democratic, or Dixiecrat Party and nominated Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for President. Thurmond carried four Deep South states in the general election: South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. The main plank of the States' Rights Democratic Party was maintaining segregation and Jim Crow in the South. The Dixiecrats, failing to deny the Democrats the presidency in 1948, soon dissolved, but the split lingered. In the fall of 1964, Thurmond was one of the first conservative Southern Democrats to switch to the Republican Party just a couple months after Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law.\n",
"The States' Rights Democratic Party dissolved after the 1948 election, as Truman, the Democratic National Committee, and the New Deal Southern Democrats acted to ensure that the Dixiecrat movement would not return in the 1952 presidential election. Some Southern diehards, such as Leander Perez of Louisiana, attempted to keep it in existence in their districts. Former Dixiecrats received some backlash at the 1952 Democratic National Convention, but all Southern delegations were seated after agreeing to a party loyalty pledge. Moderate Alabama Senator John Sparkman was selected as the Democratic vice presidential nominee in 1952, helping to boost party loyalty in the South. \n",
"After Harry Truman's platform gave strong support to civil rights and anti-segregation laws during the 1948 Democratic National Convention, many Southern Democratic delegates decided to split from the party and formed the \"Dixiecrats\", led by South Carolina governor Strom Thurmond (who as Senator would later join the Republican Party). Thurmond carried the Deep South in the election, but Johnson carried the rest of the South. Meanwhile, in the North far left elements were leaving the Democrats to join Henry A. Wallace in his new Progressive Party. They possibly cost Johnson New York, but he won reelection anyway.\n",
"During and after the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, conservative Southern Democrats were part of the coalition generally in support of Roosevelt's New Deal and Harry Truman's Fair Deal economic policies, but were opposed to desegregation and the American civil rights movement. On several occasions between 1948 and 1968, prominent conservative Southern Democrats broke from the Democrats to run a third party campaign for President on a platform of states' rights: Strom Thurmond in 1948, Harry F. Byrd in 1960, and George Wallace in 1968. In the 1964 presidential election, five states in the Deep South (then a Democratic stronghold) voted for Republican Barry Goldwater over Southern Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson, partly due to Johnson's support of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Goldwater's opposition to it. After 1968, with desegregation a settled issue, the Republican Party began a strategy of trying to win conservative Southerners away from the Democrats and into the Republican Party (see Southern strategy and silent majority).\n",
"The monopoly that the Democratic Party held over most of the South first showed major signs of breaking apart in 1948, when many Southern Democrats, dissatisfied with the policies of desegregation enacted during the administration of Democratic President Harry Truman, created the States Rights Democratic Party, which nominated South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond for president. The \"Dixiecrats\" won most of the deep South (where Truman was not on the ballot). The new party collapsed after the election, with a return to the Democratic Party. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, ultimately signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, a Democrat, was filibustered by Democratic Senator and former KKK member Robert Byrd which led many Southern Democrats to vote for Barry Goldwater at the national level. In the ensuing years, with the passing of the Civil Rights Act and the increasing conservatism of the Republican Party compared to the liberalism of the Democratic Party (especially on social and cultural issues) led many more southern Democrats in the South to vote Republican. However, many continued to vote for Democrats at the state and local levels, especially before 1994. After 2010, Republicans had gained a solid advantage over Democrats at all levels of politics in most Southern states.\n",
"Many Southern Democrats rejected the 1948 Democratic political platform over President Harry's Truman's civil rights platform. They met at Birmingham, Alabama, and formed a political party named the \"States' Rights\" Democratic Party, more commonly known as the \"Dixiecrats.\" Its main goal was to continue the policy of racial segregation in the South and the Jim Crow laws that sustained it. South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond, who had led the walkout, became the party's presidential nominee. Mississippi Governor Fielding L. Wright received the vice-presidential nomination. Thurmond had a moderate position in South Carolina politics, but with his allegiance with the Dixiecrats, he became the symbol of die-hard segregation. The Dixiecrats had no chance of winning the election since they failed to qualify for the ballots of enough states. Their strategy was to win enough Southern states to deny Truman an electoral college victory and force the election into the House of Representatives, where they could then extract concessions from either Truman or his opponent Thomas Dewey on racial issues in exchange for their support. Even if Dewey won the election outright, the Dixiecrats hoped that their defection would show that the Democratic Party needed Southern support to win national elections, and that this fact would weaken the Civil Rights Movement among Northern and Western Democrats. However, the Dixiecrats were weakened when most Southern Democratic leaders (such as Governor Herman Talmadge of Georgia and \"Boss\" E. H. Crump of Tennessee) refused to support the party. In the November election, Thurmond carried the states of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Outside of these four states, however, it was only listed as a third-party ticket. Thurmond received well over a million popular votes and 39 electoral votes.\n"
] |
why old phones had a rotating disk with holes in it, and you need to turn the disk to dial the numbers?
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Old phones used pulse dialing and each digit was represented by a number of pulses. You would move the disc in one direction with your finger, and then when letting it go, a spring would move it back at the correct speed to create pulses. Each number position created 1 pulse. So if you moved the disc to 8 and let it go, it would pass 8 numbers creating 8 pulses. 0 was 10 pulses.
If you wanted, you could also create the pulses manually by pressing the hang up button quickly.
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[
"Owing to the drive's non-use of the index hole, it was also possible to make \"flippy\" disks by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it was commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks.\n",
"Two holes at the bottom left and right indicate whether the disk is write-protected and whether it is high-density; these holes are spaced as far apart as the holes in punched A4 paper, allowing write-protected high-density floppies to be clipped into standard ring binders. The dimensions of the disk shell are not quite square: its width is slightly less than its depth, so that it is impossible to insert the disk into a drive slot sideways (i.e. rotated 90 degrees from the correct shutter-first orientation). A diagonal notch at top right ensures that the disk is inserted into the drive in the correct orientation—not upside down or label-end first—and an arrow at top left indicates direction of insertion. The drive usually has a button that when pressed ejects the disk with varying degrees of force, the discrepancy due to the ejection force provided by the spring of the shutter. In IBM PC compatibles, Commodores, Apple II/IIIs, and other non-Apple-Macintosh machines with standard floppy disk drives, a disk may be ejected manually at any time. The drive has a disk-change switch that detects when a disk is ejected or inserted. Failure of this mechanical switch is a common source of disk corruption if a disk is changed and the drive (and hence the operating system) fails to notice.\n",
"A flip or clamshell phone consists of two or more sections that are connected by hinges, allowing the phone to flip open then fold closed in order to become more compact. When flipped open, the phone's screen and keyboard are available. When flipped shut, the phone becomes much smaller and more portable than when it is opened for use.\n",
"The Shugart SA-400, from which the Disk II was adapted, was a single-sided, 35-track drive. However, it was common for users to manually flip the disk to utilize the opposite side, after cutting a second notch on the diskette's protective shell to allow write-access. Most commercial software using more than one disk side was shipped on such \"flippy\" disks as well. Only one side could be accessed at once, but it did essentially double the capacity of each floppy diskette, an important consideration especially in the early years when media was still quite expensive.\n",
"Writing at different densities than disks were intended for, sometimes by altering or drilling holes, was possible but not supported by manufacturers. A hole on one side of a ‑inch disk can be altered as to make some disk drives and operating systems treat the disk as one of higher or lower density, for bidirectional compatibility or economical reasons. Some computers, such as the PS/2 and Acorn Archimedes, ignored these holes altogether.\n",
"In the Disk II, the full-height drive mechanism shipped inside a beige-painted metal case and connected to the controller card via a 20-pin ribbon cable; the controller card was plugged into one of the bus slots on the Apple's mainboard. The connector is very easy to misalign on the controller card, which will short out a certain IC in the drive; if later connected correctly, a drive damaged this way will delete data from any disk inserted into it as soon as it starts spinning, even write-protected disks such as those used to distribute commercial software. This problem resulted in numerous customer complaints and repairs, which led to Apple printing warning messages in their user's manuals to explain how to properly install the connector. They used different connectors that could not be misaligned in later drives. DB-19 adapters for the original Disk II were eventually available for use with Apple's later connector standard.\n",
"These early drives read only one side of the disk, leading to the popular budget approach of cutting a second write-enable slot and index hole into the carrier envelope and flipping it over (thus, the “flippy disk”) to use the other side for additional storage. This was considered risky by some, for the reason that single sided disks would only be certified by the manufacturer for single sided use. The reasoning was that, when flipped, the disk would spin in the opposite direction inside its cover, so some of the dirt that had been collected by the fabric lining in the previous rotations would be picked up by the disk and dragged past the read/write head.\n"
] |
upon reading about sandra bland, i have to ask: what civil rights do i have as a citizen when a cop pulls me over? (ex. cigarette)
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You have the right to free speech. You have the right to be secure in your person and papers. You have the right to remain silent. These are given by the first, fourth, and fifth amendments to the constitution. In actuality you have a lot of rights beyond that, but it is going to depend on the jurisdiction you get pulled over in and how the courts apply the cop's responsibility to abridge your rights because of the probable cause. And how the courts apply those legal abridgments are dictated (ideally) by legislation drafted by your representatives. So be careful how you vote, it may ultimately determine if a cop is acquitted for shooting at you because of a lit cigarette.
2 notes:
1)A traffic stop is not a classroom. Nobody is going to learn anything. The cop won't learn to do things differently or not be a dick because you are able to rattle off case law and refuse to cooperate. That just makes him more upset because you are refusing to respect his authority (which he DOES have). Things go a lot smoother if you cooperate and sue the crap out of him later. Also, nobody gets shot.
2) Some cops are dicks to civilians as a defense. I would be too if my job REQUIRED me to go put my life on the line for strangers every day. However, MOST civilians are dicks to cops. So for every on person a cop is a dick to, he deals with a crapload more people being dicks to him. And he can't tell who is crazy enough to kill him over a traffic ticket.
TL;DR
Don't be a dick to people, exercise your rights in court instead of in traffic, and vote wisely (elections have consequences).
Edit: spelling
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[
"Protest organizer Charles Wade said about civil rights groups, \"We've all said that this is a horrible thing that shouldn't have happened. I say time and time again that I'm against police violence, and I'm not against police officers in general. I have an issue with improper policing, police violence and police impunity.\" Reverend Al Sharpton said, \"From the beginning, we have stressed that this is a pursuit of justice to make the system work fairly for everyone. This is not about trying to take things into our own hands. That does not solve the problem of police brutality.\"\n",
"The Civil Rights Act of 1968 enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who \"willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, initimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin\" or because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting.\n",
"The women have been under what advocates describe as house arrest. All their calls are monitored and they are told not to talk to other activists, with foreign media, and with human rights organizations.\n",
"The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who \"willingly injures, intimidates or interferes with another person, or attempts to do so, by force because of the other person's race, color, religion or national origin\" because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting.\n",
"Another woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negro, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to stop these arrests, they will continue. The next time it may be you, or your daughter, or mother. This woman's case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.\n",
"The Department of Justice (DOJ) discovers possible civil rights violations in a number of ways. These reports can range from a number of informal means such as news reports, family members, the prisoners or inhabitants themselves, and from former and current employees of the institution.\n",
"Alicia Garza (born January 4, 1981) is an American civil rights activist and editorial writer from Oakland, California. She has organized around the issues of health, student services and rights, rights for domestic workers, ending police brutality, anti-racism, and violence against trans and gender non-conforming people of color. Her editorial writing has been published by \"The Guardian\", \"The Nation\", The Feminist Wire, \"Rolling Stone\", \"HuffPost\" and Truthout. She currently directs Special Projects at the National Domestic Workers Alliance. Garza also co-founded the Black Lives Matter movement.\n"
] |
how both big mmo games & small online games are hosted
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OK, there's a few levels:
1) Peer to peer: no central servers at all, except maybe one matching people up into games (not even that on some old games: having to connect via typing in the IP address of whoever was hosting was common on a lot of older games). Games are hosted on one of the players' computers. See lots of old games - if you ever had to mess around with port forwarding, this was why.
2) Community servers: Release both a server and a client version of the game. Let other people host your servers for you, however they damned well like.
3) Dedicated servers: You get a server (or if you're a big game, a whole bunch of servers) and host the games directly on that.
|
[
"Depending on the number of players and the system architecture, an MMORPG might actually be run on multiple separate servers, each representing an independent world, where players from one server cannot interact with those from another; \"World of Warcraft\" is a prominent example, with each separate server housing several thousand players. In many MMORPGs the number of players in one world is often limited to around a few thousand, but a notable example of the opposite is \"EVE Online\", which accommodates several hundred thousand players on the same server, with over 60,000 playing simultaneously (June 2010) at certain times. Some games allow characters to appear on any world, but not simultaneously (such as \"Seal Online: Evolution\"), others limit each character to the world in which it was created. \"World of Warcraft\" has experimented with \"cross-realm\" (i.e. cross-server) interaction in player vs player \"battlegrounds\", using server clusters or \"battlegroups\" to co-ordinate players looking to participate in structured player vs player content such as the Warsong Gulch or Alterac Valley battlegrounds. Additionally, patch 3.3, released on December 8, 2009, introduced a cross-realm \"looking for group\" system to help players form groups for instanced content (though not for open-world questing) from a larger pool of characters than their home server can necessarily provide.\n",
"A large number of games are categorized as MMOBBGs, Massively Multiplayer Online Bulletin Board Games, also called MMOBBRPGs. These particular types of games are primarily made up of text and descriptions, although images are often used to enhance the game.\n",
"Most MMORPGs are deployed using a client–server system architecture. The server software generates a persistent instance of the virtual world that runs continuously, and players connect to it via a client software. The client software may provide access to the entire playing world, or further 'expansions' may be required to be purchased to allow access to certain areas of the game. \"EverQuest\" and \"Guild Wars\" are two examples of games that use such a format. Players generally must purchase the client software for a one-time fee, although an increasing trend is for MMORPGs to work using pre-existing \"thin\" clients, such as a web browser.\n",
"MMORPGs usually have sharded universes, as they provide the most flexible solution to the server load problem, but not always. For example, the space simulation \"Eve Online\" uses only one large cluster server peaking at over 60,000 simultaneous players.\n",
"Most MMOGs also share other characteristics that make them different from other multiplayer online games. MMOGs host a large number of players in a single game world, and all of those players can interact with each other at any given time. Popular MMOGs might have thousands of players online at any given time, usually on company owned servers. Non-MMOGs, such as \"Battlefield 1942\" or \"Half-Life\" usually have fewer than 50 players online (per server) and are usually played on private servers. Also, MMOGs usually do not have any significant mods since the game must work on company servers. There is some debate if a high head-count is a requirement to be an MMOG. Some say that it is the size of the game world and its capability to support a large number of players that should matter. For example, despite technology and content constraints, most MMOGs can fit up to a few thousand players on a single game server at a time.\n",
"As new online games and MMORPGs are created or announced, respective vaults and message boards are created if the game is popular enough to warrant the resources. As of December 2007, there are over 20 Vaults and forums exist for over 70 games. Vaults include those for games such as World of Warcraft, , Final Fantasy XI, EverQuest II, Lineage and Lineage II, Guild Wars, Star Wars Galaxies, Dark Age of Camelot and many more. In addition to the gaming message boards, there are community and off topic forums where users can discuss issues not related to any one game in particular.\n",
"There are currently 16 public game worlds available for play, down from 32 at the game's height, with approximately 15,000 to 20,000 players in each. A private Test Server was opened to eligible players to aid in feedback of updates in development for the game in mid-2011. The servers are named after summoned monsters from previous \"Final Fantasy\" titles, such as Ifrit and Diabolos. Players have the ability to move between servers, though Square-Enix charges a \"world transfer\" fee to do so. There are no region-specific or system-specific servers, and unlike most online games, players of different languages play in the same world and can interact through automatic language translation from a library of translated phrases. The game servers are run by Square-Enix as part of their PlayOnline network.\n"
] |
Who lived in Britain before the Celts?
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Although I'm not sure how far back you're looking, I'll start with the Bronze Age immigrants to Britain known as the Beaker People. Originally from Spain, these travelers ventured over in approximately 2500 BC, and flourished on the British Isles. They constructed elaborate gold and bronze jewelry, as well as detailed stone circles, the best known of which is Stonehenge. There were two waves of Celtic immigration to England. The first is popularly known as the Goidelic Migration, which occurred between 2000 and 1200. The next is known as the Brythonic migration, which most likely took place between 500 and 300
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[
"The Celts (, see pronunciation of \"Celt\" for different usages) are an Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of Europe identified by their use of Celtic languages and cultural similarities. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and the exact relationship between ethnic, linguistic and cultural factors in the Celtic world remains uncertain and controversial. The exact geographic spread of the ancient Celts is disputed; in particular, the ways in which the Iron Age inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland should be regarded as Celts have become a subject of controversy. According to one theory, the common root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe, which flourished from around 1200 BC. \n",
"Throughout classical antiquity the Celts spoke Celtic languages, and formed a series of tribes, cultures and identities, notably the Picts and Gaels in the north and the Britons in the south. The Britons were themselves a divided people; although they shared the Brythonic languages, they were tribal, and divided into regional societies, and within them sub-groups. Examples of these tribal societies were the Brigantes in the north, and the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli in the west. In the extreme southwest, what was to become Cornwall, were the Dumnonii and Cornovii, who lived in the Kingdom of Dumnonia. The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century introduced Romans to Britain, who upon their arrival initially recorded the Dumnonii, but later reported on the Cornovii, who were possibly a sub-group of the Dumnonii. Although the Romans colonised much of central and southern Britain, Dumnonia was \"virtually unaffected\" by the conquest; Roman rule had little or no impact on the region, meaning it could flourish as a semi- or fully independent kingdom which evidence shows was sometimes under the dominion of the kings of the Britons, and sometimes to have been governed by its own Dumnonian monarchy, either by the title of duke or king. This petty kingdom shared strong linguistic, political and cultural links with Brittany, a peninsula on continental Europe south of Cornwall inhabited by Britons; the Cornish and Breton languages were nearly indistinguishable in this period, and both Cornwall and Brittany remain dotted with dedications to the same Celtic saints.\n",
"The Celts (Ancient Greek Κέλτοι \"Keltoi\"; Latin \"Celtae\", \"Galli\", \"Galati\") were tribes and tribal confederations of ancient Europe, who resided in west central Europe in the Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age (the Hallstatt culture). In the La Tène period they expanded, through migration and cultural transmission, to the British Isles, northern Iberia, the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. The Greeks and Romans commonly referred to areas under Celtic rule as Κελτική or \"Celticum\". They had a relatively uniform material culture (especially in the La Tène period) and non-material culture (customs and norms), which differed from neighbouring peoples like the Italians, Etruscans, Illyrians, Greeks, Iberians, Germans, Thracians and Scythians.\n",
"A migration of Celts appeared in the 4th century in Armorica. They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.\n",
"By the time the modern concept of the Celts as a people had emerged, their fortunes had declined substantially, taken over by Germanic people. Firstly, the Celtic Britons of sub-Roman Britain were swamped by a tide of Anglo-Saxon settlement from the 5th century on and lost most of their territory to them. They were subsequently referred to as the Welsh people and the Cornish people. A group of these fled Britain altogether and settled in Continental Europe in Armorica, becoming the Breton people. The Gaels for a while actually expanded, pushing out of Ireland to conquer Pictland in Britain, establishing Alba by the 9th century. From the 11th century onward, the arrival of the Normans, caused problems not only for the English but also for the Celts. The Normans invaded the Welsh kingdoms (establishing the Principality of Wales), the Irish kingdoms (establishing the Lordship of Ireland) and took control of the Scottish monarchy through intermarrying. This advance was often done in conjunction with the Catholic Church's Gregorian Reform, which was centralising the religion in Europe.\n",
"Evidence for human (homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthal) occupation of Britain goes back to c.700,000 years ago. The presence in Britain of homo sapiens can be detected at around 27,000-26,000BC (at Paviland Cave, South Wales).\n",
"The modern Celts (, see pronunciation of \"Celt\") are a related group of ethnicities who share similar Celtic languages, cultures and artistic histories, and who live in or descend from one of the regions on the western extremities of Europe populated by the Celts.\n"
] |
How does human muscle fiber compare to that of other animals?
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I don't know of any specific studies to point you to, but I do remember that one group of scientists had done this study among primates. Turns out a female orangutan (in heat)is pound for pound the strongest primate. They tested using a one-arm pull test. Humans max out at around 200 lbs.-maybe 400 pounds if your a mutant. Female orangutan in heat 1800lbs pulled/dragged with one arm!!
I also remember reading once that dolphin and whale's muscle strength is about the same as a human's - they just have so much more muscle mass that it gives them the power to jump above the water line.
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[
"The muscles and nerves are much simpler than those of most other animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because they are not freely suspended in the body cavity as they are in more developed animals. Longitudinal fibres are found in the tentacles and oral disc, and also within the mesenteries, where they can contract the whole length of the body. Circular fibers are found in the body wall and, in some species, around the oral disc, allowing the animal to retract its tentacles into a protective sphincter.\n",
"Soleus muscles have a higher proportion of slow muscle fibers than many other muscles. In some animals, such as the guinea pig and cat, soleus consists of 100% slow muscle fibers. Human soleus fiber composition is quite variable, containing between 60 and 100% slow fibers.\n",
"Compared to our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, Homo sapiens' skeletal muscle is on average about 1.35 to 1.5 times weaker when normalized for size. As little biomechanical difference was found between individual muscle fibers from the different species, this strength difference is likely the result of different muscle fiber type composition. Humans' limb muscles tend to be more biased toward fatigue-resistant, slow twitch Type I muscle fibers. While there is no proof that modern humans have become physically weaker than past generations of humans, inferences from such things as bone robusticity and long bone cortical thickness can be made as a representation of physical strength. Taking such factors into account, there has been a rapid decrease in overall robusticity in those populations that take to sedentism. For instance, bone shaft thickness since the 17th and 18th centuries have decreased in the United States, indicating a less physically stressful life. This is not, however, the case for current hunter gatherer and foraging populations, such as the Andaman Islanders, who retain overall robusticity. In general, though, hunter gatherers tend to be robust in the legs and farmers tend to be robust in the arms, representing different physical load (i.e., walking many miles a day versus grinding wheat).\n",
"Extrafusal muscle fibers are the skeletal standard muscle fibers that are innervated by alpha motor neurons and generate tension by contracting, thereby allowing for skeletal movement. \"The Public Library of Science says that in most mammals, skeletal muscle comprises about 55% of individual body mass and plays vital roles in locomotion, heat production during periods of cold stress, and overall metabolism.\" They make up the large mass of skeletal muscle tissue and are attached to bone by fibrous tissue extensions (tendons).\n",
"Congenital fiber type disproportion affects skeletal muscle, typically causing weakness in the shoulders, upper arms, thighs, and hips. Skeletal muscle is made up of two kinds of fiber, type 1 and type 2. In congenital fiber type disproportion, type 1 fibers are not only smaller but often more abundant than type 2 fibers. This leads to affected individuals being able to maintain an active lifestyle, though they usually have lower levels of stamina.\n",
"Type I muscle fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise and rely on the presence of oxygen. They are slow-twitch fibers. They allow muscles to work for longer periods of time resulting in greater endurance.\n",
"Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.\n"
] |
Why do sound waves not affect each other?
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They do, in fact, interact with each other. In very much the same way that water does, actually.
A frequency (or pitch) of audio has a certain wavelength, or size. This is the distance it takes for the sound pressure in the air to complete a full cycle of compression and rarefaction. Square rooms often have what are known as 'room nodes'. When there are parallel surfaces for sound to bounce off, the audio wavelength that is equivalent to the distance between the two walls will be naturally amplified when the two waves come across each other.
This same method can be used for noise cancellation. A good set of noise cancellation headphones have a built in microphone that monitors the ambient sound of a room, and then plays back that same frequency in opposite polarity, and when the two waveforms combine, they cancel each other out.
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[
"Acoustic waves are longitudinal waves that exhibit phenomena like diffraction, reflection and interference. Sound waves however don't have any polarization since they oscillate along the same direction as they move.\n",
"Interference is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference occurs, causing a local sound pressure of zero pascals.\n",
"To the human ear, a sound that is made of more than one sine wave will have perceptible harmonics; addition of different sine waves results in a different waveform and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Presence of higher harmonics in addition to the fundamental causes variation in the timbre, which is the reason why the same musical note (the same frequency) played on different instruments sounds different. On the other hand, if the sound contains aperiodic waves along with sine waves (which are periodic), then the sound will be perceived to be noisy, as noise is characterized as being aperiodic or having a non-repetitive pattern.\n",
"Since sound waves are produced by a vibrating body, the vibrating object moves in one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The vibrating air molecules move back and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave, receiving energy from adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to adjacent molecules farther from the source.\n",
"Sensory dissonance and its two perceptual manifestations (beating and roughness) are both closely related to a sound signal's amplitude fluctuations. Amplitude fluctuations describe variations in the maximum value (amplitude) of sound signals relative to a reference point and are the result of wave interference. The interference principle states that the combined amplitude of two or more vibrations (waves) at any given time may be larger (constructive interference) or smaller (destructive interference) than the amplitude of the individual vibrations (waves), depending on their phase relationship. In the case of two or more waves with different frequencies, their periodically changing phase relationship results in periodic alterations between constructive and destructive interference, giving rise to the phenomenon of amplitude fluctuations.\n",
"Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. It consists of multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the medium that is being compressed. Sound is a longitudinal wave.\n",
"The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called \"destructive interference\". In other cases, such as in a line array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called \"constructive interference\".\n"
] |
why are feral children often incapable of adapting to civilization? are they permanently learning impaired?
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Areas of the brain that typically used for various social behaviours are pruned if inactive. This is why for instance if you don't learn to speak by age ~12 or so you will never really learn to speak.
We've evolved to have these traits in our brains but they only work if exercised in a community.
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[
"Feral children lack the basic social skills that are normally learned in the process of enculturation. For example, they may be unable to learn to use a toilet, have trouble learning to walk upright after walking on fours all their lives, or display a complete lack of interest in the human activity around them. They often seem mentally impaired and have almost insurmountable trouble learning a human language. The impaired ability to learn a natural language after having been isolated for so many years is often attributed to the existence of a critical period for language learning, and taken as evidence in favor of the critical period hypothesis.\n",
"Feral children are children who lack socially accepted communication skills. Reports of feral children, such as those cited by Kingsley Davis, have largely been shown to be exaggerations, or complete fabrications, with regards to the specific lack of particular skills; for example, bipedalism.\n",
"From his experience and observations Brown concluded that, contrary to the critical period hypothesis for second language acquisition, where adults have lost the ability that children have to learn languages to a native-like level without apparent effort, adults actually obstruct this ability when learning a new language through using abilities they have gained to consciously practice and think about language.\n",
"Feral children provide an example of the effects of severe social deprivation during critical developmental periods. There have been several recorded cases in history of children emerging from the wilderness in late childhood or early adolescence, having presumably been abandoned at an early age. These children had no language skills, limited social understanding, and could not be rehabilitated. Genie, a contemporary victim of social deprivation, had severely limited human contact from 20 months until 13.5 years of age. At the time of her discovery by social workers, Genie was unable to talk, chew solids foods, stand or walk properly, or control bodily functions and impulsive behaviours. Although Genie was able to learn individual words, she was never able to speak grammatical English. These children lacked important social and environmental conditions in childhood and were subsequently unable to develop into normal, functioning adults.\n",
"Feral children are children discovered by society to be living in the wild with the assumption that they were raised by animals. It is stated that such children are deprived of human associations and are too strongly conditioned with animal behaviours, such that the human development is permanently inhibited and the animal inhibitions are never lost throughout life. There are several known cases of feral children relearning language, the most well-known is Victor. Victor was found at the age of 13 and was given to Dr. Itard, who \"experimented\" on the child. Victor was also known as the \"wild boy of Aveyron\". He was characterized to be insensitive to temperature, uncivilized and to run on all fours. Dr. Jean Marc Gaspard Itard conducted training over a period of 5 years, during which time Victor was able to recover some speech.\n",
"Many Indigenous children in the Americas predominantly learn by observing and pitching in. There are several studies to support that the use of keen attention towards learning is much more common in Indigenous Communities of North and Central America than in a middle-class European-American setting. This is a direct result of the Learning by Observing and Pitching In model.\n",
"Assuming that children are exposed to language during the critical period, it is almost never missed by cognitively normal children—humans are so well prepared to learn language that it becomes almost impossible not to. Researchers are unable to experimentally test the effects of the sensitive period of development on language acquisition, because it would be unethical to deprive children of language until this period is over. However, case studies on abused, language deprived children show that they were extremely limited in their language skills, even after instruction.\n"
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How common was casual sex throughout history?
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Just ignore pretty much everything said in that thread. The idea that sex is a purely biological urge, and thus it occurs in the same frequency throughout time and space, is absurd. I can be sure of this because it [varies a great deal based on country today](_URL_0_). Sex is highly culturally specific, and I think the people in that thread don't realize just how much their reaction to it is influenced by their specific cultural surroundings.
Throughout history it is rather difficult to answer your question because it varies so much based on region, class, and time period. Looking at Ovid and Catullus, for example, we can see that sex certainly wasn't nonexistent in their lives, but looked at another way, the sexual relations they describe tend to be fairly personal. That is, they do not describe going to the local club, picking up a random girl, sleeping with her, and parting the next morning. Instead, there are fairly elaborate courtship rituals, with go betweens, wax tablets, secret messages, and the like. The big difference here, I would argue, is female freedom. For a pre-modern society Roman women were quite liberated, but that doesn't mean they could stay out all night and come home the next morning with nothing but an eye roll from their household. Of course, this applies to the upper class of the late Republican/early Imperial city of Rome. It would probably be very different for an innkeepers daughter in second century Autun, but in *what way* is impossible to know.
However, there is one other major factor: prostitution. The Romans didn't seem to think there was anything at all unseemly about going to a brothel, and prostitutes were a part of everyday life.
One other thing, because someone had to bring it up: **Roman orgies were NOT orgies**. They were lavish quasi-religious banquets involving elaborate food preparation, music, and dancing. Sex might be involved, but when might it not?
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[
"The rise of hookups, a form of casual sex, has been described by evolutionary biologist Justin Garcia and others as a \"cultural revolution\" that had its beginnings in the 1920s. Historians D'Emilio and Freedman put the beginning of casual sex, including college hookups, further back in history, to the early 1800s, and explain the phenomenon as shaped by historical and cultural forces. They give as examples planter class white men who had casual sex with enslaved African American women, and white male college students who had casual sex with both white and black women. Lisa Wade, a sociologist, documents that 19th-century white fraternity men often had what would be called hookup sex with prostitutes, poor women, and the women they had enslaved. Homosexual men also engaged in hookup sex during the 1800s, meeting in spaces that were transient in nature, such as wharves and boarding houses. Since the 1920s, there has been a transition from an age of courtship to an era of hookup culture. Technological advancements such as the automobile and movie theaters brought young couples out of their parents' homes, and out from their watchful eyes, giving them more freedom and more opportunity to engage in casual sexual activity.\n",
"In the United States, one-time sexual encounters among college-aged students are growing increasingly common; nearly 70% of people in this age group have partaken in casual sex at least once because of their newfound adult identities and freedom to explore their sexualities. Men and women are found to engage in very similar casual sex conducts, despite popular social beliefs. Most young adults in this age group believe that their peers are having a higher frequency of casual sex than they actually are, and this is due to vocabulary choice. For example, using the term \"hookup\" denotes that the sexual activity, whether it is vaginal sex, oral sex, or sexual touching, is casual and between unfamiliar partners. However, it is vague and does not detail what specific sexual activities occurred. This is especially distorting towards others' impressions because 98% of college hookups involve kissing, 81% of hookups involve more than kissing, and only 34% of hookups involve penetrative sex. Studies have also linked this common misperception of peer hookup activity to media and pop culture portrayals of casual sexual encounters. Television and movies project distorted depictions of casual sex because they also commonly portray people who have just hooked up as emotionally satisfied and physically pleasured while simultaneously emotionally detached, which is not always the case.\n",
"\"Casual Sex\" is a song by Canadian rock band My Darkest Days. It was released on January 13, 2012, as the lead single from the band's second studio album, \"Sick and Twisted Affair\". The song features John 5 on guitar.\n",
"Casual sex is sexual activity that takes places outside a romantic relationship and implies an absence of commitment, emotional attachment, or familiarity between sexual partners. Examples are sexual activity while casually dating, one-night stands, premarital sex, prostitution, or swinging.\n",
"The earliest known examples of the exchange of sex for material gain in New Zealand, outside of the context of slavery by Māori, occurred in the early period of contact between indigenous Māori and European and American sailors. Along with food, water and timber, sex was one of the major commodities exchanged for European goods. The Bay of Islands and in particular the town of Kororareka was notorious for this and brothels proliferated. It is not clear whether all of these exchanges necessarily constituted prostitution in the usual sense of the word. In some cases, the sex may have been part of a wider partnership between a tribe and a ship's crew, akin to a temporary marriage alliance. The amount of choice women had about their participation seems to have varied. Throughout this period there was a severe gender imbalance in the settler population and women were in short supply.\n",
"The term \"striptease\" was first recorded in 1938, though \"stripping\", in the sense of women removing clothing to sexually excite men, seems to go back at least 400 years. For example, in Thomas Otway's comedy \"The Soldier's Fortune\" (1681) a character says: \"Be sure they be lewd, drunken, \"stripping\" whores\". Its combination with music seems to be as old. A conclusive description and visualization can be found in the 1720 German translation of the French \"La Guerre D'Espagne\" (Cologne: Pierre Marteau, 1707), where a galant party of high aristocrats and opera singers has resorted to a small château where they entertain themselves with hunting, play and music in a three-day turn:\n",
"Sex work, in many different forms, has been practiced since ancient times. It is reported that even in the most primitive societies, there was transactional sex. Prostitution was widespread in ancient Egypt and Greece, where it was practiced at various socioeconomic levels. Hetaera in Greece and geisha in Japan were seen as prestigious members of society for their high level of training in companionship. Attitudes towards prostitution have shifted through history. \n"
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[META] AskScience open house!
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Thanks to all the mods as well, they help keep the discussions on topic and informative. With that said, I'm very satisfied with the subreddit. Here's to a goal of 1 million.
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[
"Open House London is an event which promotes appreciation of architecture by the general public. It is a part of the organisation Open-City and is best known for its annual Open House Weekend which is a two-day event held on one weekend each September throughout London since 1992. The event forms a London version of the European Heritage Days (\"Journées Européennes du Patrimoine\"), a Europe-wide event that started as \"Journées Portes ouvertes des monuments historiques\" (Historic Monument Open Door Days) in France in 1983. During the Open House Weekend many buildings considered to be of architectural significance open their doors for free public tours. Heritage Open Days is a similar event covering the rest of England, and takes place the previous weekend to Open House London.\n",
"Open Homes is a Canadian home improvement television show, unique in that it helps people prepare their homes for sale on the open market. The series airs in Canada on Prime on Friday evenings at 11 p.m. EST, and also on W through the weekend day. \n",
"Open House Chicago (OHC) is a free weekend festival held annually in Chicago that allows participants to visit dozens of buildings that are not typically open to the public. The next festival will be held October 19-20th, 2019.\n",
"An open house (also known as open day and at-home day) is an event held at an institution where its doors are open to the general public to allow people to look around the institution and learn about it. These are often held at schools and universities to attract prospective students, familiarize them (and their parents) with the facilities, allow new students to become familiar with facilities and meet others, or to open informal communication channels between school staff and the students and their parents.\n",
"Brisbane Open House is a Doors Open Days event held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia that showcases many of the city's buildings to the public. Among the buildings included are historical landmarks, galleries, office buildings, museums, places of worship and bridges. Well known buildings not usually open to the public are open for free public tours. The annual event is usually held on the first weekend in October.\n",
"Open House is an afternoon television show broadcast on RTÉ One between 1999 and 2004. The last episode was broadcast in 2004. It was presented by Mary Kennedy and Marty Whelan and focused on lifestyle, cookery and human interest issues. Presenters included Dermot O'Neill, the popular gardening expert. The show was broadcast five days a week (Monday to Friday), and was also transmitted to the United Kingdom via Tara Television.\n",
"The Open House event in London is usually held on the third weekend in September. The 2010 event featured over 700 buildings, neighbourhood walks, architects' talks, cycle tours, and more. Well-known buildings not usually open to the public which were open on Open House weekend in 2005, for example, included Marlborough House, Lancaster House, Mansion House, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and Horse Guards.\n"
] |
dogs and cats cry; why don't they perform a similar function to a human's laugh?
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Actually, research suggests that they do laugh but it is on frequencies that we can't hear or discern. I know I've had a few dogs that have been ticklish between their paws, or at least seem like they
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[
"In the 1999 documentary \"Why Dogs Smile and Chimpanzees Cry\", he is shown to comment on the research of joy in rats: the tickling of domesticated rats made them produce a high-pitch sound which was hypothetically identified as laughter.\n",
"Canines have been hypothesized to share empathic-like responding towards human species. Researchers Custance and Mayer put individual dogs in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger. When the participants were talking or humming, the dog showed no behavioral changes, however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. The dogs approached the participants when crying in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking and nuzzling the distressed person. The dogs did not approach the participants in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging or panting. Since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it is hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressing body behavior. Although this could insinuate that dogs have the cognitive capacity for empathy, this could also mean that domesticated dogs have learned to comfort distressed humans through generations of being rewarded for that specific behavior.\n",
"The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \"meow\" or \"miaow\" sound (pronounced ). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to \"The Purrington Post\", a chatty cat is likely happy too.\n",
"Cats have learned how to develop their vocals in order to converse with humans, in which they try to tell humans what they want. Cats vocalize to other cats. Hisses and spits warn other cats to keep their distance. It may be noted that a \"hiss\" is less about the sound and more about the showing of teeth along with their stance. Kittens also meow at their mothers for milk and attention, but this may go away once they have no need for milk as they become adults if they are not actively socialized. Another way that cats and humans interact is through what people call \"head bunting\" in which a cat rubs its head on a human in order to leave their scent, mark to claim territory, and create a bond.\n",
"Dogs sometimes pant in a manner that sounds like a human laugh. By analyzing the pant using a sonograph, this pant varies with bursts of frequencies. When this vocalization is played to dogs in a shelter setting, it can initiate play, promote pro-social behavior, and decrease stress levels. One study compared the behaviour of 120 dogs with and without exposure to a recorded \"dog-laugh\". Playback reduced stress-related behaviors, increased tail wagging, the display of a \"play-face\" when playing was initiated, and pro-social behavior such as approaching and lip licking.\n",
"A distinguishing characteristic of the breed is the so-called \"shiba scream\". When sufficiently provoked or unhappy, the dog will produce a loud, high-pitched scream. This can occur when attempting to handle the dog in a way that it deems unacceptable. The animal may also emit a very similar sound during periods of great joy, such as the return of the owner after an extended absence, or the arrival of a favored human guest.\n",
"Unlike dogs, panting is a rare occurrence in cats, except in warm weather environments. Some cats may pant in response to anxiety, fear or excitement. It can also be caused by play, exercise, or stress from things like car rides. However, if panting is excessive or the cat appears in distress, it may be a symptom of a more serious condition, such as a nasal blockage, heartworm disease, head trauma, or drug poisoning. In many cases, feline panting, especially if accompanied by other symptoms, such as coughing or shallow breathing (dyspnea), is considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency.\n"
] |
how is a blood clot not a death sentence?
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It's a question of where the blood is going. A blood clot is typically not big enough to block the central passage through the atrium and ventricle. It's when the blood clot passes through these central passages and is pumped into the artery that supplies oxygen to the heart muscle and gets lodged there that a heart attack occurs, as the heart muscle itself is starved of oxygen and stares to die further down stream.
This is the case with embolic clots (clots that are moving in the blood). Static blood clots (atherosclorosis) that are casued by cholesterol and other junk building up on the wall of an artery are also a thing, but they have to reach about 80% - 90% occlusion before you really start to notice it and they typically fragment.
Blood 'thinners' inhibit coagulalation and stop the stuff that forms clots from sticking.
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[
"Simultaneous death is a problem of inheritance which occurs when two people (sometimes referred to as commorientes) die at, or very near, the same time, and at least one of them is entitled to part or all of the other's estate on their death. This is usually the result of an un-natural death occurring from events such as an accident, a homicide, or a murder-suicide.\n",
"Currently in the United States, only state and federal governments or military courts can impose the death penalty. Justice under Blood Law would be considered revenge killing or summary murder, and also could be an additional aggravating circumstance requiring the death penalty for the crime.\n",
"In British courts, beginning in 1823, a sentence of death recorded meant that the judge was abstaining from voicing a sentence of capital punishment in cases where the judge foresaw that a royal pardon would be forthcoming if a proper death sentence were to be issued. It was, in other words, a death sentence in name only, with no actual effect in law.\n",
"When the death penalty was in force in France, all capital sentences resulted in a presidential review for a possible clemency. Executions were carried out if and only if the President rejected clemency, by signing a document on which it was written: \"decides to let justice take its course\".\n",
"The term \"blood law\" is sometimes used in a looser sense, to mean \"any\" form of capital punishment, or any form of collective revenge without a formal trial. In this broader sense, blood law was common in Western societies. It was called outlawing, and was practiced as a part of common law in England, Europe, and Iceland. A person could be declared an outlaw for refusing to submit to a legal system. Thereafter, such a person had no recourse to the legal system, and could legally be killed or robbed. The use of \"blood law\" to refer to outlawry may be considered ethnocentric.\n",
"The study also found that the death penalty was handed down in all cases of convicted murderers who killed again after being released on parole from life prison terms, and in all robbery-murder cases with three or more people slain.\n",
"A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without benefit of a full and fair trial. Executions as the result of summary justice (such as a drumhead court-martial) are sometimes included, but the term generally refers to capture, accusation, and execution all conducted simultaneously or within a very short period of time, and without any trial at all. Under international law, refusal to accept lawful surrender in combat and instead killing the person surrendering (no quarter) is also categorized as a summary execution (as well as murder). \n"
] |
Why do mammals give birth from their vaginas?
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Mammals give birth through their vaginas because a vagina is, by definition, the tube leading from the uterus to the outside of the body, and that's the tube that has to be used.
Other vertebrates aren't any different, save that their vaginas open into a cloaca before going outside the body. In either case, whatever is coming out of the uterus (be it an egg or a life-born offspring) has to pass through the vagina because that's the only tube that leads out of the uterus.
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[
"The vagina is a structure of animals in which the female is internally fertilized, rather than by traumatic insemination used by some invertebrates. The shape of the vagina varies among different animals. In placental mammals and marsupials, the vagina leads from the uterus to the exterior of the female body. Female marsupials have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice; a third canal, which is known as the median vagina, and can be transitory or permanent, is used for birth. The female spotted hyena does not have an external vaginal opening. Instead, the vagina exits through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris. The vagina of the female coyote contracts during copulation, forming a copulatory tie.\n",
"In most species of animals in which there is an organ that might reasonably be described as a penis, it has no major function other than intromission, or at least conveying the sperm to the female, but in the placental mammals the penis bears the distal part of the urethra, which discharges both urine during urination and semen during copulation.\n",
"In male placentals, the penis is used both for urination and copulation. Depending on the species, an erection may be fueled by blood flow into vascular, spongy tissue or by muscular action. A penis may be contained in a prepuce when not erect, and some placentals also have a penis bone (baculum). Marsupials typically have forked penises, while the echidna penis generally has four heads with only two functioning. The testes of most mammals descend into the scrotum which is typically posterior to the penis but is often anterior in marsupials. Female mammals generally have a clitoris, labia majora and labia minora on the outside, while the internal system contains paired oviducts, 1-2 uteri, 1-2 cervices and a vagina. Marsupials have two lateral vaginas and a medial vagina. The \"vagina\" of monotremes is better understood as a \"urogenital sinus\". The uterine systems of placental mammals can vary between a duplex, were there are two uteri and cervices which open into the vagina, a bipartite, were two uterine horns have a single cervix that connects to the vagina, a bicornuate, which consists where two uterine horns that are connected distally but separate medially creating a Y-shape, and a simplex, which has a single uterus.\n",
"Males do not usually have a functional digestive system, and are therefore short-lived, often being sexually fertile at birth. They have a single testicle and sperm duct, associated with a pair of glandular structures referred to as \"prostates\" (unrelated to the vertebrate prostate). The sperm duct opens into a gonopore at the posterior end of the animal, which is usually modified to form a penis. The gonopore is homologous to the cloaca of females, but in most species has no connection to the vestigial digestive system, which lacks an anus.\n",
"Although research on the vagina is especially lacking for different animals, its location, structure and size are documented as varying among species. Female mammals usually have two external openings in the vulva, the urethral opening for the urinary tract and the vaginal opening for the genital tract. This is different from male mammals, who usually have a single urethral opening for both urination and reproduction. The vaginal opening is much larger than the nearby urethral opening, and both are protected by the labia in humans. In amphibians, birds, reptiles and monotremes, the cloaca is the single external opening for the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary, and reproductive tracts.\n",
"In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulva to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and birth. It also channels menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related primates as part of the monthly menstrual cycle.\n",
"Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.\n"
] |
free trade and fair trade.
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They're two completely different things (I can see where it's confusing, though).
Free trade: trade between nations with very few or no restrictions at all.
Fair trade: a label given to certain products certifying that the people who made them (usually third-world farmers, etc.) were paid a fair price for the product and were not taken advantage of by predatory practices.
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[
"Fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers – especially in the South. Developing from political solidarity movements in the sixties, its main purpose is to replace the conventional international trading system. The World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), which operates in over 70 countries across 5 regions, is a global network of organizations representing the Fair Trade supply chain. \n",
"Fair trade is an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions. Members of the fair trade movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and environmental standards. The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to developed countries, but also consumed in domestic markets (e.g. Brazil, India and Bangladesh) most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, wine, sugar, fresh fruit, chocolate, flowers and gold. The movement seeks to promote greater equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency, and respect. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers in developing countries. Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs; first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the world trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a fair price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity and aid.\n",
"The \"fair trade\" movement, also known as the \"trade justice\" movement, promotes the use of labour, environmental and social standards for the production of commodities, particularly those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the First World. Such ideas have also sparked a debate on whether trade itself should be codified as a human right.\n",
"Fair Trade is a type of partnership based on communication and reverence that ensures fairness in international trade. Since the seventies, there have been several groups and conferences held that discussed the implementation of regulations regarding trade. However, The World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) was not established until the early nineties. The WFTO has several hundred partnerships across the globe with established practices and procedures meant to protect the groups and individuals associated with Fair Trade.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Fair\" instead of \"free\" trade, via democratic control of the World Trade Organization and international financial institutions such the International Monetary Fund, Worldbank, European Union, North American Free Trade Agreement, Free Trade Area of the Americas, and G8.\n",
"Fair trade is a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development, aiming at creating greater equity in the international trading system. Through trading partnerships with marginalised farmers and craftspeople in developing countries, social and economic opportunities are created for these producers in a way that more customers are accessible to their products and a better deal is issued. In return, the producers have to comply with all the standards laid down by Fairtrade International.\n",
"Trade as One was formed in 2006 and began operations from a garage in the San Francisco Bay Area of California. It now operates from a warehouse and office in Santa Cruz, CA. Trade as One is based on the premise that Fair Trade is a way to alleviate two major crises in our world - both the crisis of extreme poverty in many parts of the developing world, and the crisis of consumerism in the developed world by enabling people to connect their values and beliefs with the way their money is spent and thus enable positive change.\n"
] |
Who were the local law enforcers in Medieval Germany?
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Law enforcement was mostly organized on a local level, in towns or small villages. In the villages mostly by the "owners" of that villages, the lower nobility or the owners of the farms.
The Lower Law (niedere Gerichtsbarkeit, don't know if the translation is correct), also called *Thing* or patrimonial Law, was enforced by the local officers. They were called *Schultheiß* or similar in the local dialects, like *Schulze*, *Schulte* or *Schultes*. Schulze is still one of the most common names in Germany. The polish Sołectwo is derived from the German term, the English equivalent is bailiff or mayor.
The were not allowed to torture, maim or kill someone. The could only sentence lighter punishments, like monetary punisment, pranger, scold's bridle and such.
The Schultheiß office later evolved and turned into what is a mayor in modern days. The term was used in Württemberg until 1930.
Herebord von Bismarck died in 1280 in Stendal and was a Schultheiß there. He is also the oldest known ancestor of Otto von Bismarck.
Here is a pic of a Schultheiß from the 16th century: _URL_0_
The *Blutgerichtsbarkeit* (ius gladiim, law of the blade) was a criminal court that could inflict bodily punishment. These officers were usually noble and called *Vogt*, *Voigt* or *Voight*, which is also still a common name in Germany. The term itself is derived from advocatus and the English equivalent is the reeve.
The Vogt was also responsible to organize the defense of the county and he had to lead the feudal levy/array.
Carolus Magnus installed a lot of *Vögte* in 802, who later (11th/12th century) evolved into heritable fief offices. The *Vögte* became *Grafen* (counts) and were now high nobility.
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[
"Germanic codes appeared over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate the law in force for Germanic privileged classes versus their Roman subjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law, a number of private custumals were compiled, first under the Norman empire (\"Très ancien coutumier\", 1200–1245), then elsewhere, to record the manorial – and later regional – customs, court decisions, and the legal principles underpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay judges over manorial courts in order to inform themselves about the court process. The use of custumals from influential towns soon became commonplace over large areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs consolidated their kingdoms by attempting to compile custumals that would serve as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of France in1454 commissioned an official custumal of Crown law. Two prominent examples include the \"Coutume de Paris\" (written 1510; revised 1580), which served as the basis for the Napoleonic Code, and the \"Sachsenspiegel\" (c. 1220) of the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt which was used in northern Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.\n",
"Magdeburg rights (; also called Magdeburg Law) were a set of town privileges first developed by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (936–973) and based on the Flemish law, which regulated the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages, granted by the local ruler. Named after the German city of Magdeburg, these town charters were perhaps the most important set of medieval laws in Central Europe thus far. They became the basis for the German town laws developed during many centuries in the Holy Roman Empire. Even more importantly, adopted and modified by numerous monarchs including the rulers of Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, the laws were a milestone in urbanization of the entire region and prompted the development of thousands of villages and cities.\n",
"Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities. Thus, in addition to the \"Lex Gundobada\", Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the \"Lex Romana Burgundionum\" (\"The Roman Law of the Burgundians\").\n",
"The German town law () or German municipal concerns (\"Deutsches Städtewesen\") was a set of early town privileges based on the Magdeburg rights developed by Otto I. The Magdeburg Law became the inspiration for regional town charters not only in Germany, but also in Central and Eastern Europe who modified it during the Middle Ages. The German town law (based on Magdeburg rights) was used in the founding of many German cities, towns, and villages beginning in the 13th century.\n",
"Among the most advanced systems of old Germanic law of the time, in the 13th and 14th centuries, Magdeburg rights were granted to more than a hundred cities, in Central Europe apart from Germany, including Schleswig, Bohemia, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, especially in Pomerania, Prussia, Lithuania (following the Christianization of Lithuania), and probably Moldavia. In these lands they were mostly known as \"German\" or \"Teutonic\" law. Since the local tribunal of Magdeburg also became the superior court for these towns, Magdeburg, together with Lübeck, practically defined the law of northern Germany, Poland and Lithuania for centuries, being the heart of the most important \"family\" of city laws. This role remained until the old Germanic laws were successively replaced with Roman law under the influence of the \"Reichskammergericht,\" in the centuries after its establishment during the Imperial Reform of 1495.\n",
"The guild system reached a mature state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century, with some special privileges for certain occupations remaining today. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, and Lübeck 70. The latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the \"\" of Spain: e.g., Valencia (1332) or Toledo (1426).\n",
"Germanic law was codified in writing under the influence of Roman law; previously it was held in the memory of designated individuals who acted as judges in confrontations and meted out justice according to customary rote, based on careful memorization of precedent. Among the Franks they were called \"rachimburgs\". \"Living libraries, they were law incarnate, unpredictable and terrifying.\" Power, whose origins were at once said to be magical, divine, and military, was, according to Michel Rouche, exercised jointly by the \"throne-worthy\" elected king and his free warrior companions. Oral law sufficed as long as the warband was not settled in one place. Germanic law made no provisions for the public welfare, the \"res publica\" of Romans.\n"
] |
Can an adhesive stick to oxygen or other air molecules?
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The problem I see with this is that gases don't have a "surface". I could certainly see gases dissolving and equilibrating in an adhesive, and possibly being physically absorbed to the surface of the adhesive (also at equilibrium). However, if you apply your adhesive to a gas, and then move the other surface away, you won't suddenly pull all the gases in your space along with it.
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[
"Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles.\n",
"For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. It must be able to wet the substrate. It must increase in strength after application, and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being adhered.\n",
"Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs.\n",
"The source of adhesive forces, according to the dispersive adhesion mechanism, is the weak interactions that occur between molecules close together. These interactions include London dispersion forces, Keesom forces, Debye forces and hydrogen bonds. Taken on an individual basis, these attractions are not very strong, but when summed over the bulk of a material, can become significant.\n",
"Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non metallic substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word \"adhesive\" to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.\n",
"In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others, electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.\n",
"Pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA, self-adhesive, self-stick adhesive) is a type of non reactive adhesive which forms a bond when pressure is applied to bond the adhesive with the adherend. No solvent, water, or heat is needed to activate the adhesive.\n"
] |
Why and how do drugs get you "high"?
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As far as we can tell, mostly by acting like existing neurotransmitters, or by releasing those neurotransmitters, or by causing a buildup of those neurotransmitters.
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[
"It's about how people take drugs to connect to God or to a higher level of consciousness. I keep saying, 'Plugging into the matrix'. If you get high, you can do that, which is why a lot of people drop acid or do drugs, because they want to get closer to God. But there's going to be a short circuit, and that's the illusion of drugs, because they give you the illusion of getting closer to God, but ultimately they kill you. They destroy you. I mean, I tried everything once, but as soon as I was high, I spent my time drinking tons of water to get it out of my system. As soon as I was high, I was obsessed with flushing it out of me. I was like, 'OK, I'm done now'.\n",
"An example is often portrayed in drug addiction. When a person uses a substance for the first time and receives a positive outcome, they are likely to repeat the behavior due to the reinforcing consequence. Over time, the person's nervous system will also develop a tolerance to the drug. Thus only by increasing dosage of the drug will provide the same satisfaction, making it dangerous for the user.\n",
"The reason that this connection exists is because pleasure is a motivator that is central to learning. Dopamine can be artificially created by substances that carry a risk for addiction, like cocaine, heroin, nicotine and alcohol. People with risk-taking and obsessive personality traits, which are often found in addicts, can be useful in becoming a leader. For many leaders, it is not the case that they are able to do well in spite of their addiction; rather, the same brain wiring and chemistry that make them addicts serve them well in becoming a good leader.\n",
"A variety of addictive drugs produce an increase in reward-related dopamine activity. Stimulants such as nicotine, cocaine and methamphetamine promote increased levels of dopamine which appear to be the primary factor in causing addiction. For other addictive drugs such as the opioid heroin, the increased levels of dopamine in the reward system may only play a minor role in addiction. When people addicted to stimulants go through withdrawal, they do not experience the physical suffering associated with alcohol withdrawal or withdrawal from opiates; instead they experience craving, an intense desire for the drug characterized by irritability, restlessness, and other arousal symptoms, brought about by psychological dependence.\n",
"The most important contribution is Solomon's findings on work motivation and addictive behavior. According to opponent-process theory, drug addiction is the result of an emotional pairing of pleasure and the emotional symptoms associated with withdrawal. At the beginning of drug or any substance use, there are high levels of pleasure and low levels of withdrawal. Over time, however, as the levels of pleasure from using the drug decrease, the levels of withdrawal symptoms increase, thus providing motivation to keep using the drug despite a lack of pleasure from it.\n",
"Drugs (especially opioids and stimulants) can change the motivational patterns of a person and lead to desocialization and degradation of personality. Acquisition of the drugs some times involves black market activities and leads to criminal social circle.\n",
"These drugs include opiates and opioids, such as heroin and morphine, and psychostimulants, such as methamphetamine and cocaine. Studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. Intravenous injection is the fastest route of administration, causing blood concentrations to rise the most quickly, followed by smoking, suppository (anal or vaginal insertion), insufflation (snorting), and ingestion (swallowing). \n"
] |
minecraft
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You can kind of think of it as computerized legos.
Minecraft has two main forms of play: Survival and creative. Creative is the easiest to explain-- you have unlimited block materials of all sorts of colors and textures, as well as electrical components (Wire, levers, push blocks), interactive pieces (Doors, railroads), and transportation sets (Boats, railcars). You also have the ability to fly (As in, you can go wherever you want, place whatever you want). It's in this mode you see creations such as [a full 1-1 scale representation of Azeroth](_URL_2_), and all sorts of remakings of our favorite video games characters such as [Sonic](_URL_1_).
Survival is the exact same game, except you start out with nothing and everything you use, you have to mine or craft. I could delve into the mass, mass amount of things you can craft using the eleven or so simple, mineable materials, but I'll let [this](_URL_0_) do the talking for me. In survival, you also have life and hunger you have to worry about, as well as a slew of monsters. It's really hard to explain what Minecraft is *about* because there are SO many things you can do in it. My friends and I have a multiplayer server set to Survival, and we have this big great area where we build things and share materials, as well as go out on adventures to find monsters and Spawners (Think of them like... monster instances) and kill the spawners (Where the monsters come out of) to reap the loot from the cave. We have wheat farms and roller coasters, castles and underwater tunnels. It's just... fun. I guess the addictiveness comes into play with the fact that gathering materials in Survival takes a really long time. Not so long that you become annoyed and aggravated, but long enough that whenever you finish a build you can look at it and be really proud of yourself.
Yahtzee said it best-- "Minecraft is a good parent who knows that if it just gives you your golden cock and balls you will get bored of it. So it pays you five dollars a week to wash its car until you save up enough money to buy yourself the golden cock and balls and at the end of the trek you'll love it all the more."
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[
"\"Minecraft\" is a 3D sandbox game that has no specific goals to accomplish, allowing players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game. However, there is an achievement system. Gameplay is in the first-person perspective by default, but players have the option for third-person perspective. The game world is composed of rough 3D objects—mainly cubes and fluids, and commonly called \"blocks\"—representing various materials, such as dirt, stone, ores, tree trunks, water, and lava. The core gameplay revolves around picking up and placing these objects. These blocks are arranged in a 3D grid, while players can move freely around the world. Players can \"mine\" blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things.\n",
"Minecraft is a sandbox video game created by Swedish game developer Markus Persson and released by Mojang in 2011. The game allows players to build with a variety of different blocks in a 3D procedurally generated world, requiring creativity from players. Other activities in the game include exploration, resource gathering, crafting, and combat. Multiple game modes that change gameplay are available, including—but not limited to—a survival mode, in which players must acquire resources to build the world and maintain health, and a creative mode, where players have unlimited resources to build with. The \"Java Edition\" of the game allows players to modify the game with mods to create new gameplay mechanics, items, textures and assets. In September 2014, Microsoft announced a deal to buy Mojang and the \"Minecraft\" intellectual property for , with the acquisition completed two months later.\n",
"Minecraft is a sandbox video game which places players in a 3D procedurally generated world. As a player walks in any direction, the game generates terrain ahead of them, creating (in theory) a virtually infinite world for the player to explore. However, due to computational limits in earlier versions of the game, at a distance of roughly from the center of the world the terrain generation algorithm behaves unexpectedly, creating a sudden warped landscape. Markus Persson, the original developer of Minecraft, commented that \"\"Walking that far will take a very long time. Besides, the bugs add mystery and charisma to the Far Lands.\"\" The name \"Far Lands\" was adopted by the community to refer to this area. Persson also said it would be \"impossible to reach the Far Lands\" and Kurt took that as a challenge.\n",
"Similar to the original, \"Minecraft Earth\" is centered around building structures, gathering resources, crafting and exploration. Players could build augmented reality structures in collaboration with other players, gather resources through tapping on \"tappables\" in the in-game map, and access \"Adventures\" which may be a puzzle or a specific task, or a virtual location with hostile entities to defeat. The adventures reward players with in-game currency. Collaborative construction is done on \"build plates\", and players can share copies of their completed structures.\n",
"\"Minecraft: Story Mode\" takes place in an interpretation of the world of \"Minecraft,\" where the game is the extent of the characters' universe, and the characters are unaware that they are in a game. The main character, Jesse, is an inexperienced resident of said universe who sets out on a journey with his/her friends within the world of \"Minecraft\" to find The Order of the Stone (Gabriel the Warrior, Ellegaard the Redstone Engineer, Magnus the Rogue, Soren the Architect and Ivor the Potion Brewer and Enchanter), five legendary adventurers who saved the \"Minecraft\" world. The game includes settings that are normally difficult to access from within \"Minecraft\", including the Nether and The End.\n",
"Players can craft a wide variety of items in \"Minecraft\". Craftable items include armor, which mitigates damage from attacks; weapons (such as swords), which allows monsters and animals to be killed more easily; and tools, which break certain types of blocks more quickly. Some items have multiple tiers depending on the material used to craft them, with higher-tier items being more effective and durable. Players can construct furnaces, which can cook food, process ores, and convert materials into other materials. Players may also trade goods with villager NPCs through a bartering system, which involves trading emeralds for different goods and vice versa.\n",
"Video games such as \"Minecraft\" and \"Portal\" have been suggested as platforms for teachers to experiment with their educational abilities. \"Minecraft\" is a sandbox game in which the user can create objects using the crafting system, while \"Portal\" is a physics game: the player uses the laws of physics, such as gravity and inertia, to advance through the game's series of test chambers. Critical thinking and problem solving are inherent in the latter game's design. Both \"Minecraft\" and \"Portal\" are adaptable to some learning environments; for instance, \"Minecraft\" has been used for young children while \"Portal\" has been used by high school physics teachers. \"Portal 2\" has also been used to develop cognitive skills in older undergraduate students, however. A 2017 study found that games including \"Portal 2\", \"Borderlands 2\", \"Gone Home\" and \"Papers, Please\" may be used to develop a range of skills in undergraduate students, such as communication, resourcefulness and adaptability.\n"
] |
Bounties and sniper combat during the Vietnam War
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I think the fundamental question you need to ask yourself when considering the concept of bounties is the following: Was it actually a reality during the Vietnam War?
The truth of the matter is that there simply isn't much evidence supporting the existence of bounties beyond field reports and the testimonies of American soldiers. /u/Lich-Su [answered this question the best way possible a few months ago](_URL_0_) and the conclusion that Lich-Su reaches is one that I fully agree with.
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[
"During the Vietnam War, the United States Army found that they desperately needed snipers. They were losing troops to enemy snipers and had no capability of retaliating in kind. Their major problem was that the classic training of a sniper in range estimation, ballistics, compensation for weather or climate variables, and precision shooting is a lengthy process and they didn't have the time. About this time, Lieutenant Leatherwood, who already had the patents for his ART system, entered the Army and began working with U.S. Army Ordnance specialists. The combination of the Leatherwood ART with M14 National Match rifles to produce what became the M21 Sniper Rifle, allowed the Army to place competent snipers in the field with all line units.\n",
"During the Vietnam War, Hathcock had 93 confirmed kills of PAVN and Viet Cong personnel. In the Vietnam War, kills had to be confirmed by an acting third party, who had to be an officer, besides the sniper's spotter. Snipers often did not have an acting third party present, making confirmation difficult, especially if the target was behind enemy lines, as was usually the case.\n",
"Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. A common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue. In most recent combat operations occurring in large densely populated towns, such as Fallujah, Iraq, two teams would be deployed together to increase their security and effectiveness in an urban environment. A sniper team would be armed with its long-range weapon and a shorter-ranged weapon in case of close contact combat.\n",
"During the Vietnam War, respective division and brigades in-country trained their Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members (now known as the Long Range Surveillance units). However, the US Army's 5th Special Forces Group held an advanced course in the art of patrolling for potential Army and Marine team leaders at their Recondo School in Nha Trang, Vietnam, for the purpose of locating enemy guerrilla and main force North Vietnamese Army units, as well as artillery spotting, intelligence gathering, forward air control, and bomb damage assessment.\n",
"BULLET::::- June 15 - Vietnam War: Battle of Hill 488 - A small United States Marine Corps reconnaissance platoon inflicts large casualties on regular North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong fighters before withdrawing with fourteen dead.\n",
"Task Force Gimlet, Delta Company, 3rd Battalion, 21st Infantry undertook the last patrol by American troops in the Vietnam War to seek out communist forces shooting rockets at the city of Da Nang. Two U.S. soldiers were wounded by booby traps. The unit was relieved by ARVN soldiers. Task Force Gimlet departed Vietnam on 11 August.\n",
"In December 1966, while on patrol in the Republic of Vietnam with Company B of the 5th Battalion, his unit received heavy fire from concealed enemy positions. During an attempted encirclement of the platoon by the Vietnamese forces, Albanese fixed a bayonet to his weapon and charged the enemy positions. Upon arriving and momentarily silencing the enemy fire, Albanese discovered that the ditch he had charged was a well-entrenched position. He continued 100 metres through the position, killing at least eight enemy snipers despite running out of ammunition, being forced to fight hand to hand, and being mortally wounded.\n"
] |
why do some people black out from high levels of g-forces while other don't?
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Everyone will black out if exposed to sufficient G-forces. But pilots are (1) in peak physical condition, (2) trained in techniques for resisting the effects of G-forces, and (3) usually wearing flight suits with equipment designed to counteract the effects of G-forces. They work by putting pressure on the limbs, particularly the legs, in an attempt to keep blood from pooling down there.
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[
"A G-suit is worn by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G'). It is designed to prevent a black-out and g-LOC (gravity-induced Loss Of Consciousness), due to the blood pooling in the lower part of the body when under G, thus depriving the brain of blood.\n",
"High-G training is done by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G'). It is designed to prevent a g-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC), a situation when the action of \"g\"-forces move the blood away from the brain to the extent that consciousness is lost.\n",
"G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n",
"A g-suit, or the more accurately named anti-g suit, is a flight suit worn by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration force (g). It is designed to prevent a black-out and g-LOC (g-induced loss of consciousness) caused by the blood pooling in the lower part of the body when under acceleration, thus depriving the brain of blood. Black-out and g-LOC have caused a number of fatal aircraft accidents.\n",
"High-G training is done by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G') in large-radius centrifuges. It is designed to prevent a \"g-induced loss Of consciousness\" (abbreviated G-LOC), a situation when \"g\"-forces move the blood away from the brain to the extent that consciousness is lost. Incidents of acceleration-induced loss of consciousness have caused fatal accidents in aircraft capable of sustaining high-\"g\" for considerable periods.\n",
"The \"g\" thresholds at which these effects occur depend on the training, age and fitness of the individual. An un-trained individual not used to the \"G\"-straining manoeuvre can black out between 4 and 6 \"g\", particularly if this is pulled suddenly. A trained, fit individual wearing a \"g\" suit and practicing the straining manoeuvre can, with some difficulty, sustain up to 12-14\"g\" without loss of consciousness. The “Blue Angels” have to perform their maneuvers without the aid of flight-suits, and regularly sustain 3-5 second bursts of 10 ‘g’ thresholds. \n",
"The human body has different tolerances for g-forces depending on the acceleration direction. Humans can withstand a positive acceleration forward at higher g-forces than they can withstand a positive acceleration upwards. This is because when the body accelerates up at such high rates the blood rushes from the brain which causes loss of vision.\n"
] |
At r/TIL, there is a post trending with people in the comments section saying the FBI sent a letter telling Martin Luther King Jr. to kill himself and the FBI/CIA later killed him. Is this true?
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While the letter is anonymous (in the sense that it's not signed and it's not on any letterhead), [a complete copy was found in J. Edgar Hoover's files](_URL_0_) and a congressional investigation verified that it was sourced from the FBI. Whether Hoover himself wrote it is apparently unclear, but he almost certainly knew about it, given where the unredacted letter was found. The phrasing of the letter does not directly call for King to commit suicide, but it ends saying in part, "King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is." King believed that it called for his suicide, and many others have agreed.
His death is a different story. Blaming an assassination or even an attempt on the US government has a long and storied history. Some of these are accurate (Castro was long a target of the CIA), some are not (evidence strongly ties JFK's death to Oswald), and some are in between (Salvador Allende almost certainly committed suicide in the midst of a coup that was probably backed by the CIA).
But the evidence that it was carried out by the US government is basically nonexistent, and those comments don't provide any evidence besides the equivalent of a knowing nod. King had a lot of enemies, including a large portion of the white population but also some in the black population who disagreed with his nonviolent ways. James Earl Ray was convicted for King's death based on reasonably strong evidence, but over the years, various claims have been made that King was killed by others for various reasons, mostly having to do with racism or anti-communism, carried out by the Mafia, the KKK, or some other loner at least as often as the government is claimed to be involved. To my knowledge, the claims are backed by little or no physical evidence and mostly involve people long dead who cannot confirm or deny the claims.
There's probably more doubt about James Earl Ray than there is about Oswald, but not a lot more.
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[
"The FBI frequently investigated Martin Luther King, Jr. In the mid-1960s, King began publicly criticizing the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most \"notorious liar\" in the United States. In his 1991 memoir, \"Washington Post\" journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 \"suicide package\" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him \"You are done. There is only one way out for you...\" with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions.\n",
"The FBI–King suicide letter or blackmail package was an anonymous 1964 letter and package by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) meant to blackmail Martin Luther King Jr. The phrase \"You Are Done\" is a noted warning from the letter.\n",
"The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family. The bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work. The FBI–King suicide letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part:\n",
"BULLET::::- The FBI identified a suspect in the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, filing a request for an arrest warrant and releasing a photograph of fugitive \"Eric Starvo Galt\", which would turn out to be an alias for James Earl Ray. The warrant request, filed in Birmingham, Alabama, alleged a conspiracy between Galt \"and an individual whom he alleged to be his brother\". Following the granting of the warrant, police in Memphis, Tennessee, filed charges of murder against \"Galt\".\n",
"BULLET::::- J. Edgar Hoover Building, the national headquarters of the FBI, because he was a \"racist, anti-communist zealot who, in the name of God and the American flag, set out to destroy Martin Luther King Jr.\"\n",
"A special congressional committee investigating efforts by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to discredit Martin Luther King Jr. suggested that a March 30, 1968 \"Globe-Democrat\" editorial critical of Dr. King was inspired and ghostwritten by the FBI, which considered the newspaper’s publisher to be “especially cooperative to the bureau.” While recognizing that the \"Globe-Democrat\"’s editorial was protected by the First Amendment, the Committee was highly critical of “the ease with which the Bureau had been able to use the newspaper for its counterintelligence initiatives.” The Committee found that, not only did the FBI’s conduct “contribute to the hostile climate that surrounded Dr. King, it was morally reprehensible, illegal, felonious, and unconstitutional.”\n",
"In February 1962, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who was suspicious of civil-rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker, presented the Kennedy Administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned by these allegations, the FBI deployed agents to monitor King in the following months. Robert Kennedy and the president also both warned King to discontinue the suspect associations. After the associations continued, Robert Kennedy issued a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King's civil rights organization, in October 1963.\n"
] |
How did the Mongols achieve crazy speed from their multiple horses?
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There's a big difference between carrying a rider and following along unmounted; the steppe mares favored by the Mongols weigh in at about 600 lbs, so a 180 lb man with some basic provisions is going to be a third of their body weight. It's much more efficient to shift the weight between your string of horses; imagine going on a hike with four friends, but you need to carry a single 60 lb pack. Everyone's going to tire out over the day, but it'll be much faster for the person carrying the load, so it makes sense to share it among the group.
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[
"The main drawback to Mongol horses was their lack of speed. They would lose short-distance races under equal conditions with larger horses from other regions. However, since most other armies carried much heavier armor, the Mongols could still outrun most enemy horsemen in battle. In addition, Mongolian horses were extremely durable and sturdy, allowing the Mongols to move over large distances quickly, often surprising enemies that had expected them to arrive days or even weeks later.\n",
"Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the Battle of Mohi (April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.\n",
"The Mongol Empire utilized the swiftness and strength of the horses to their advantage. Despite being only 12 to 13 hands high, the Mongols respected these small animals. At a young age, boys trained with the horses by hunting and herding with them. Eventually they became experienced riders, which prepared them for the military life that awaited them when they turned fifteen years old. Once these boys became soldiers, four to seven horses were given to them to alternate between. This large number of horses ensured that some were always rested and ready to fight. Because of this, a soldier had little excuse to fall behind in his tasks. Overall, the Mongol society adored these animals because of their gentleness and loyalty to their masters. Anyone who abused or neglected to feed these horses properly was subjected to punishment by the government.\n",
"Each soldier had two to four horses—so when a horse tired they could change to one of the others. This made them one of the fastest armies in the world, but also made the Mongol army vulnerable to shortages of fodder. Campaigning in arid regions such as Central Asia or forested regions of Southern China were thus difficult and even in ideal steppe terrain, a Mongol force had to keep moving to ensure sufficient grazing for its massive horse herd.\n",
"Mongols under Genghis Khan practiced an equivalent of swarming, partially because their communications, which used flags, horns, and couriers, were advanced for the time. Also one of the standard tactics of Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from larger groups and defended positions for ambush and counterattack. Genghis Khan used the Yam system, which established a rear line of points for supplies and for remounts of fast-moving couriers. The remount system allowed horsemen to move much faster than the couriers of opponents without them. These couriers kept the Mongol senior and subordinate commanders informed, such that they could make fast decisions based on current information. In modern terms, the courier system provided the means of getting inside the opponent's OODA loop. With fast communications, the Mongols could make decisions not just on what they could see locally, but with that information oriented within the overall situation. They could then decide and act while the enemy were still waiting for information. Outnumbered Mongols could beat larger forces by faster communications, which allowed units to withdraw and regroup while other groups continually stung the enemy, withdrew in turn, while the earlier group again hit the enemy.\n",
"Each Mongol soldier typically maintained 3 or 4 horses. Changing horses often allowed them to travel at high speed for days without stopping or wearing out the animals. When one horse tired, the rider would dismount and rotate to another. Though the used mount would still have to travel, it would do so without the weight of the rider. Their ability to live off the land, and in extreme situations off their animals (mare's milk especially), made their armies far less dependent on the traditional logistical apparatus of agrarian armies. In some cases, as during the invasion of Hungary in early 1241, they covered up to per day, which was unheard of by other armies of the time.\n",
"BULLET::::- Medieval Mongols were famed for, among other things, their extensive use of feigned retreats during their conquests, as their fast, light cavalry made successful pursuit by an enemy almost impossible. In the heat and muddle of a battle, the Mongol army would pretend to be defeated, exhausted and confused, and would suddenly retreat from the battlefield. The opposing force, thinking they had routed the Mongols, would give chase. The Mongol cavalry would, while retreating, fire upon the pursuers, disheartening them (See Parthian shot). When the pursuing forces stopped chasing the (significantly faster) Mongol cavalry, the cavalry would then turn and charge the pursuers, generally succeeding. This was used partly as a defeat in detail tactic to allow the Mongols to defeat larger armies by breaking them into smaller groups.\n"
] |
why do people criticize findings from data in saying "it's just correlative/correlation does not mean causation"? isn't everything we know about everything just from correlation?
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So what you're saying is that, as we increase funding for NASA, we're dooming more and more people to die at their own hand by hanging?
_URL_0_
Simply put, variables are eliminated in a well-done study until causation is clear. It's not just that the people that got the drug got well; it's also that the people who did not get the drug were still sick; and that the study can be repeated with the same results.
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[
"Much of scientific evidence is based upon a correlation of variables – they are observed to occur together. Scientists are careful to point out that correlation does not necessarily mean causation. The assumption that A causes B simply because A correlates with B is often not accepted as a legitimate form of argument.\n",
"To establish cause and effect (i.e., causality) is notoriously difficult, as is expressed by the commonly heard statement that \"correlation does not imply causation.\" In statistics, it is generally accepted that observational studies can give hints but can never establish cause and effect. But, considering the probability paradox (see Koestler's quote above), it appears that the larger the set of coincidences, the more certainty increases and the more it appears that there is some cause behind a remarkable coincidence.\n",
"BULLET::::- Correlations (as many of the studies mentioned used) does not mean causation. Thus, just because two variables are related, this does not imply one causes another. Future research has yet to examine the causal role between nature connectedness and behavior (such as recycling) or between nature connectedness and well-being.\n",
"Other errors in judgment, therefore affecting reasoning, include errors in judgment about covariation – a relationship between two variables such that the presence and magnitude of one can predict the presence and magnitude of the other. One cause of covariation is confirmation bias, or the tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms your beliefs. But assessing covariation can be pulled off track by neglecting base-rate information – how frequently something occurs in general. However people often ignore base rates and tend to use other information presented.\n",
"Correlation is a valuable type of scientific evidence in fields such as medicine, psychology, and sociology. But first correlations must be confirmed as real, and then every possible causative relationship must be systematically explored. In the end correlation alone cannot be used as evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and benefit, a risk factor and a disease, or a social or economic factor and various outcomes. It is one of the most abused types of evidence, because it is easy and even tempting to come to premature conclusions based upon the preliminary appearance of a correlation.\n",
"In statistics, the phrase \"correlation does not imply causation\" refers to the inability to legitimately deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables solely on the basis of an observed association or correlation between them. The complementary idea that \"correlation implies causation\" is an example of a questionable-cause logical fallacy, in which two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause-and-effect relationship. This fallacy is also known by the Latin phrase cum hoc ergo propter hoc (\"with this, therefore because of this\"). This differs from the fallacy known as \"post hoc ergo propter hoc\" (\"after this, therefore because of this\"), in which an event following another is seen as a necessary consequence of the former event.\n",
"Further thinking in epidemiology was required to distinguish causation from association or statistical correlation. Events may occur together simply due to chance, bias or confounding, instead of one event being caused by the other. It is also important to know which event is the cause. Careful sampling and measurement are more important than sophisticated statistical analysis to determine causation. Experimental evidence involving interventions (providing or removing the supposed cause) gives the most compelling evidence of etiology.\n"
] |
Why do temperatures fluctuate more when it is cold but stay more consistent when it is warm?
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There's two main factors to this:
A) Humidity. In the winter, there's very low humidity (because it's cold and air holds less moisture the colder it gets)... so temperatures can rise and fall by a lot more than in the summer.
B) The temperature difference between the subarctic and subtropical air masses is much greater during the winter than the summer. Therefore, if the jet stream dips a bit south or north, you can have big temperature swings.
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[
"Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n",
"Researchers at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute and World Weather Attribution estimated that global warming more than doubled the overall likelihood of the heat wave, and in some places like Denmark made it up to five times as likely. The heat has built up for two months due to slow and weakened jet stream. One possible cause for the jet stream to be slow and weak relates to global warming. In the polar regions, the average surface temperature is rising more quickly than at mid latitudes in a phenomenon called polar amplification. Many researchers believe a strong polar amplification reduces the strength and changes the pattern of the jet stream, producing patterns like those occurring during the 2018 heat wave. Dr. Michael Mann opined that global warming may be making such heat waves even more likely than the researchers estimated, because at the time of the study the climate models could not fully account for how the jet stream is affected by global warming. \n",
"Thermals are caused by local differences in temperature, pressure, or impurity concentration in the vertical. Temperature differences can cause air currents because warmer air is less dense than cooler air, causing the warmer air to appear \"lighter.\" Thus, if the warm air is under the cool air, air currents will form as they exchange places. Air currents are caused because of the uneven heating of Earth's surface.\n",
"The weather will also have an impact on the results of a study. Having very high temperatures in the summer and very cold temperatures in the winter will lead to more cooling and heating in those months, requiring more energy. When comparing year to year data, if one year had extreme temperatures, while the following year had moderate temperatures, the savings may look drastic. In reality though, the savings are not from the thermostat, but rather from the change in weather. Studies will try to mitigate this problem through weather normalization procedures. \n",
"Because of this effect, the lowering of temperature in moist, cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate. The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes, and latent heat is released. This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen, at which point temperatures can continue to fall.\n",
"A short period of hot weather can increase temperatures in the surface layer of water, as the warmer water tends to stay near the surface and be further heated by the air. In this case, the top warmer layer may have more oxygen than the lower, cooler layers because it has constant access to atmospheric oxygen. If a heavy wind or cold rain then occurs (usually during the autumn but sometimes in summer), the layers can mix. If the volume of low oxygen water is much greater than the volume in the warm surface layer, this mixing can reduce oxygen levels throughout the water column and lead to fish kill.\n",
"Because of global warming, oceanographic and meteorological experts currently predict that increasingly warmer future ocean surface temperature is the \"new normal\", implying that extreme weather events like Hurricanes Sandy and Maria will become more intense and possibly more frequent during future hurricane seasons. The reality is that the world’s oceans are steadily becoming warmer; storms are getting stronger, larger, and correspondingly will cause more damage. For example, research suggests that hurricanes that have hit the New York City area since 1970 are more intense or have larger wind fields, producing higher storm surge and flood risk when added to sea level, to the extent that what was a 500-year flood event before the anthropogenic era (i.e pre-1800) is now a 24-year flood event and in 30 years will be a 5-year flood event.\n"
] |
why house of cards politics won't work in real life.
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Because in the show, Frank Underwood is some sort of super-persuasive Machiavellian. In real life, I doubt the president would even be able to convince his own party to go through with America Works.
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[
"The \"house of cards\" problem largely arises from the utility theory basis of the model specification. Broadly, utility theory assumes that (1) users and suppliers have perfect information about the market; (2) they have deterministic functions (faced with the same options, they will always make the same choices); and (3) switching between alternatives is costless. These assumptions don’t fit very well with what is known about behavior. Furthermore, the aggregation of utility across the population is impossible since there is no universal utility scale.\n",
"Each House card represents one of the main factions involved in the War of the Five Kings. Each House provides different strengths and weaknesses, allowing for various playstyles to interact within the same game. The House card selected will often restrict cards allowed in the remainder of the deck, by limiting cards that are marked as being allowed solely for another House.\n",
"Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.\n",
"\"House of Cards\" is an American political drama web television series created by Beau Willimon for Netflix. It is an adaptation of the BBC's miniseries of the same name and is based on the novel by Michael Dobbs. Below is a list consisting of the many characters who have appeared throughout the series' seasons. The only two actors to have main appearances in all six seasons of \"House of Cards\" are Robin Wright and Michael Kelly.\n",
"Reviews for season 3 of \"House of Cards\" were mostly positive. However, a few critics found the Underwood character was becoming repetitive: the critical consensus on the review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes held that, \"Season three introduces intriguing new political and personal elements to Frank Underwood's character, even if it feels like more of the same for some.\" Ed Power of \"The Daily Telegraph\" wrote, \"Everyone in House of Cards has an agenda—a secret twitching in the attic. The thrill, and the horror, may lie in the degree to which we catch reflections of real life in its dark, cool contours.\"\n",
"The use of how-to-vote cards has benefited minor parties in a number of ways including increasing their chances of winning, punishing opponents and receiving policy commitments. Sometimes \"preference deals\" are done between political parties so that they are favoured by each other's how-to-vote cards.\n",
"\"House of Cards\" is a song written and recorded by American folk and country music artist Mary Chapin Carpenter. it was released in March 1995 as the third single from the album \"Stones in the Road\". The song reached #21 on the \"Billboard\" Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.\n"
] |
why would people get coal in their stocking for being naughty?
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In the days when most people heated their homes using open coal fires, a lump of coal was considered a completely commonplace and worthless item. It's the sort of thing that a very naughty person might receive from Santa, so that they can see he's been and decided they're not worthy of any decent gifts.
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[
"Rolling coal is a form of conspicuous air pollution, for entertainment or for protest. Some drivers intentionally trigger coal rolling in the presence of hybrid vehicles (when it is nicknamed \"Prius repellent\") to cause their drivers to lose sight of the road and inhale harmful air pollution. Coal rolling may also be directed at bicyclists, protesters, and pedestrians. Practitioners cite \"American freedom\" and a stand against \"rampant environmentalism\" as reasons for coal rolling. \n",
"Coal scrip is \"tokens or paper with a monetary value issued to workers as an advance on wages by the coal company or its designated representative\". As such, coal scrip could only be used at the specific locality or coal town of the company named. Because coal scrip was used in the context of a coal town, where there are usually no other retail establishments in that specific remote location, employees who used this could only redeem their value at that specific location. As there were no other retail establishments, this constituted a monopoly.\n",
"In cities the domestic burning of coal is no longer permitted. In rural areas coal is still permitted to be used by Chinese households, commonly burned raw in unvented stoves. This fills houses with high levels of toxic metals leading to bad Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). In addition, people eat food cooked over coal fires which contains toxic substances. Toxic substances from coal burning include arsenic, fluorine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and mercury. Health issues are caused which include severe arsenic poisoning, skeletal fluorosis (over 10 million people afflicted in China), esophageal and lung cancers, and selenium poisoning.\n",
"Grinding coal to dust before combusting it improves the speed and efficiency of burning and makes the coal easier to handle. However, coal dust is hazardous to workers if it is suspended in air outside the controlled environment of grinding and combustion equipment. It poses the acute hazard of forming an explosive mixture in air and the chronic hazard of causing pulmonary illness in people who inhale excessive quantities of it.\n",
"Selling, carrying, bringing, or taking coal(s) to Newcastle is an idiom of British origin describing a pointless action. It refers to the fact that historically, the economy of Newcastle upon Tyne in north-eastern England was heavily dependent on the distribution and sale of coal—by the time of the first known recording of the phrase in 1538, 15,000 tonnes of coal were being exported annually from the area—and therefore any attempt to sell coal to Newcastle would be doomed to fail because of the economic principle of supply. \n",
"Coal scuttles are usually made of metal and shaped as a vertical cylinder or truncated cone, with the open top slanted for pouring coal on a fire. It may have one or two handles. Homes that do not use coal sometimes use a coal scuttle decoratively.\n",
"The industrialization of coal mining led to a sharp increase in the burning of coal in stoves for home heating and cooking. Coal burns with twice the Btu of wood or peat, creating greater heat. Coal's greatest drawback, aside from being non-renewable, is that it creates thick, toxic smoke. This creates dense smog in urban areas, for example, in London, England during the Victorian era.\n"
] |
When did the Arabs become known as "Arabs?"
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Arabs were first mentioned in both Biblical and Assyrian texts of the ninth to the fifth centuries BC where they appear as nomadic pastoralists inhabiting the Syrian desert. The fact that the name begins to be used by both cultures during the same period suggests that "Arab" was how these pastoralists designated themselves. What its original significance was we do not know, but it came to be synonymous with desert-dweller and a nomadic way of life in the texts of settled peoples.
Source: *Arabia and the Arabs. From the Bronze Age to the coming of Islam*, by Robert G. Hoyland.
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[
"The most popular Arab account holds that the word \"Arab\" came from an eponymous father called Ya'rub who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were called \"Gharab\" (\"West\") by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into \"Arab\".\n",
"Before the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 C.E.), \"Arab\" referred to any of the largely nomadic and settled Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula, Syrian Desert, and North and Lower Mesopotamia. Today, \"Arab\" refers to a large number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to the spread of Arabs and the Arabic language throughout the region during the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries and the subsequent Arabisation of indigenous populations. The Arabs forged the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517) and the Fatimid (901–1071) caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In the early 20th century, the First World War signalled the end of the Ottoman Empire; which had ruled much of the Arab world since conquering the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517. This resulted in the defeat and dissolution of the empire and the partition of its territories, forming the modern Arab states. Following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the individual sovereignty of its member states.\n",
"Before the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), \"Arab\" referred to any of the largely nomadic and settled Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula, Syrian Desert, North and Lower Mesopotamia. Today, \"Arab\" refers to a large number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to the spread of Arabs and the Arabic language throughout the region during the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750) and the Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In the early 20th century, the First World War signalled the end of the Ottoman Empire; which had ruled much of the Arab world since conquering the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517. This resulted in the defeat and dissolution of the empire and the partition of its territories, forming the modern Arab states. Following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the individual sovereignty of its member states.\n",
"The term \"Arab\", as well as the presence of Arabians in the Syrian Desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century BCE (Eph'al 1984). Southern Palestine had a large Edomite and Arab population by the 4th century BCE. Inscriptional evidence over a millennium from the peripheral areas of Palestine, such as the Golan and the Negev, show a prevalence of Arab names over Aramaic names from the Achaemenid period,550 -330 BCE onwards. Bedouins have drifted in waves into Palestine since at least the 7th century, after the Muslim conquest. Some of them, like the Arab al-Sakhr south of Lake Kinneret trace their origins to the Hejaz or Najd in the Arabian Peninsula, while the Ghazawiyya's ancestry is said to go back to the Hauran's Misl al-Jizel tribes. They speak distinct dialects of Arabic in the Galilee and the Negev.\n",
"The first mention of Arabs is from the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people in eastern and southern Syria and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–612 BCE), and the succeeding Neo-Babylonian (626–539 BCE), Achaemenid (539–332 BCE), Seleucid, and Parthian empires. Arab tribes, most notably the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, begin to appear in the southern Syrian Desert from the mid 3rd century CE onward, during the mid to later stages of the Roman and Sasanian empires.\n",
"Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word \"Arabs\" was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the \"Arabah\" valley. In Biblical etymology, \"Arab\" (in Hebrew \"Arvi\" ) comes both from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (\"Arava\" means wilderness).\n",
"The term \"arabber\" is believed to derive from the 19th century slang term \"street Arabs\". Arabbing began in the early 19th century, when access to ships and stables made it an accessible form of entrepreneurship. African American men entered the trade following the Civil War. Brightly painted and artfully arranged, arabber carts became a common sight on the streets of Baltimore. To alert city dwellers to their arrival, arabbers developed distinctive calls:\n"
] |
When a nuclear bomb goes off underwater. Does it create a giant air bubble?
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It creates a massive steam bubble, it doesn't last too long (not sure on actual time it is there for) but something interesting happens when the "bubble" is there. The gas makes the bubble expand until it reaches the maximum size it can as the pressure forcing the bubble to expand becomes weaker the water pressure causes the bubble to collapse on itself before expanding again (this can also result in a flash of light as the bubble collapses). This actually happens a few times, each time the "bubble" gets smaller in size until the energy is depleted. I will try to find a video explaining it as I may not have done a terribly good job of explaining it.
Edit: What I am talking about happens at the three min mark of this video: _URL_1_
Edit 2: a more in depth video of the bubble side of things, _URL_0_ starts explaining it at the 6 min mark.
I couldn't think of the word but the video reminded me, the bubble oscillates in the water. The size of the bubble would depend on the energy released by the explosion.
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[
"Blast bubbles from deep nuclear explosions become mere hot water in about six seconds and leave no \"regular\" bubbles to float up to the surface. This is sooner than blast bubbles from conventional explosives.\n",
"When a nuclear bomb is exploded near ground level, the dense atmosphere interacts with many of the subatomic particles being released. This normally takes place within a short distance, on the order of meters. This energy heats the air, promptly ionizing it to incandescence and causing a roughly spherical fireball to form within microseconds.\n",
"Unless it breaks the water surface while still a hot gas bubble, an underwater nuclear explosion leaves no trace at the surface but hot, radioactive water rising from below. This is always the case with explosions deeper than about .\n",
"When an explosion happens in an enclosed space, water hammer can cause the walls of the container to deform. However, it can also impart momentum to the enclosure if it is free to move. An underwater explosion in the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel caused the water to accelerate upwards through of air before it struck the vessel head at with a pressure of . This pressure wave caused the steel vessel to jump 9 feet 1 inch (2.77 m) into the air before it dropped into its prior location. It is imperative to perform ongoing preventative maintenance to avoid water hammer as the results of these powerful explosions have resulted in fatalities.\n",
"Despite being in direct contact with a nuclear explosion, the water of the expanding bubble wall does not boil. This is because the pressure inside the bubble exceeds (by far) the vapor pressure of ocean water. The water touching the blast can only boil during contraction. This boiling is like evaporation, cooling the bubble wall, and it is another reason that an oscillating blast bubble contains only 40% of the energy it had in the previous cycle.\n",
"The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air (a \"columnar plume\"). If conditions are right and the bubble collapses onto the ship's hull, the damage to the ship can be extremely serious; the collapsing bubble forms a high-energy jet that can break a metre-wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and is capable of breaking smaller ships apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited.\n",
"The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air (a \"columnar plume\"). If conditions are right and the bubble collapses onto the ship's hull, the damage to the ship can be extremely serious; the collapsing bubble forms a high-energy jet that can break a metre-wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and is capable of breaking smaller ships apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited.\n"
] |
What will happen to the planets that aren't destroyed when the sun supernovas?
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[Here you go :3](_URL_0_)
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[
"This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen, but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.\n",
"The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead it will exit the main sequence in approximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a red giant. As a red giant, the Sun will grow so large that it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth.\n",
"If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n",
"Supernovae can result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun. At the end of the life of this massive star, a non-fusible iron core is formed from fusion ashes. This iron core is pushed towards the Chandrasekhar limit till it surpasses it and therefore collapses.\n",
"When the Earth is not destroyed, Hayes theorizes that this is because the Sun is like a cadmium nucleus among the uranium nuclei of other stars—able to absorb the super-neutron without undergoing fission. \n",
"As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly 1 quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n",
"A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its biosphere. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3000 light-years away. Gamma rays from a supernova would induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful ultraviolet solar radiation. This has been proposed as the cause of the Ordovician–Silurian extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.\n"
] |
After Stalin died, were there any measures taken by the Soviet government to avoid someone amassing power on scale like his?
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Although it is difficult to say whether there were distinct policies in place to prevent the future build-up of power in such a tyrannical fashion, the tone of the government definitely changed. Instead of the government of personality that had prevailed previously, the Soviet government was replaced by a troika of Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, and Vyacheslav Molotov. Between the three of them, they came to more consensus decisions with the Presidium and Supreme Soviet. This post-Stalin government would initiate a campaign of "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and cut back on repressive measures. One exeption was the East German Uprising of 1953 after which Beria was charged with treason for his brutal treatment of East German protestors. Eventually, Nikita Khruschev would become Soviet Premier. He initiated a series of "de-Stalinization" measures. These measures as he explained in his "secret speech." Khruschev "condemned Stalin for irrationally deporting entire nationality groups (e.g., the Karachay, Kalmyk, Chechen, Ingush, and Balkar peoples) from their homelands during the war and, after the war, for purging major political leaders in Leningrad (1948–50; see Leningrad Affair) and in Georgia (1952). He also censured Stalin for attempting to launch a new purge (Doctors’ Plot, 1953) shortly before his death and for his policy toward Yugoslavia, which had resulted in a severance of relations between that nation and the Soviet Union (1948)." None of this sat well with Molotov, a close friend of Stalin and his foreign minister, but Khruschev's words seemed to ring true for the rest of the Presidium. Subsequently, when Khruschev's domestic popularity waned, he would be removed from office peacefully and Leonid Brezhnev would become First Secretary of the Central Committee.
Sources:
Stalin's Wars by Geoffrey Roberts
Molotov Remembers by Felix Chuev and Vyacheslav Molotov
Encyclopedia Britannica for the exact quote above _URL_0_
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[
"As this process unfolded, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power by destroying the potential opposition. In 1936-38 about three quarters of a million Soviets were executed, and more than a million others were sentenced to lengthy terms in very harsh labour camps. Stalin's Great Terror ravaged the ranks of factory directors and engineers, and removed most of the senior officers in the Army. The pretext was the 1934 assassination of Sergey Kirov (which many suspect Stalin of having planned, although there is no evidence for this). Nearly all the old pre-1918 Bolsheviks were purged. Trotsky was expelled from the party in 1927, exiled to Kazakhstan in 1928, expelled from the USSR in 1929, and assassinated in 1940. Stalin used the purges to politically and physically destroy his other formal rivals (and former allies) accusing Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev of being behind Kirov's assassination and planning to overthrow Stalin. Ultimately, the people arrested were tortured and forced to confess to being spies and saboteurs, and quickly convicted and executed.\n",
"While the Five-Year Plans were forging ahead, Stalin was establishing his personal power. The NKVD gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the Great Purges. Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.\n",
"Stalin's attempts to solidify his position as leader of the Soviet Union led to an escalation of detentions and executions, climaxing in 1937–1938 (a period sometimes referred to as the Yezhovshchina, or Yezhov era) and continuing until Stalin's death in 1953. Around 700,000 of these were executed by a gunshot to the back of the head. Others perished from beatings and torture while in \"investigative custody\" and in the Gulag due to starvation, disease, exposure and overwork.\n",
"Following Stalin's death in 1953 purges as systematic campaigns of expulsion from the party ended; thereafter, the center's political control was exerted instead mainly through loss of party membership and its attendant nomenklatura privileges, which effectively downgraded one's opportunities in societysee Trade unions in the Soviet Union#Role in the Soviet class system, chekism, and party rule. Recalcitrant cases could be reduced to nonpersons via involuntary commitment to a psychiatric institution.\n",
"The Bolsheviks promised the workers a government run by workers' councils to overthrow the bourgeoisie's main government body - the Provisional Government. In October 1917, the provisional government was overthrown, giving all power to the Soviets. John Reed, an American eyewitness to the October Revolution, wrote, \"Until February 1918 anybody could vote for delegates to the Soviets.\" Even had the bourgeoisie organised and demanded representation in the Soviets, they would have been given it. For example, during the regime of the Provisional Government there was bourgeois representation in the Petrograd Soviet – a delegate of the Union of Professional Men which comprised doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc. \n",
"The seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party in Petrograd in the Russian Revolution of November 1917 was followed by the dispersal of the Russian Constituent Assembly early in the morning of January 19, 1918 , a body which had been dominated by the elected representatives of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR), headed by Victor Chernov. This usurpation of authority by the Council of People's Commissars and the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets did not spell the end of opposition to the Bolshevik regime, however.\n",
"During the Russian Civil War, the Soviet government allowed a variety of small arms and bladed weapons. Afterwards, the government made immediate alternations for those to whom it did not rely. The government had made it a point to \"arm the working people\" in the Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People in January 1918. The December decree of the CPC of 1918, \"On the surrender of weapons\", ordered people to surrender any firearms, swords, bayonets and bombs, regardless of the degree of serviceability. The penalty for not doing so was ten years' imprisonment. Members of the Communist Party were allowed to have a single weapon (a pistol or a rifle) and possession of the weapon was recorded in the party membership book. The assassination of Stalin's ally Sergey Kirov by Leonid Nikolaev in 1934 was possible because of this, as Nikolaev was allowed to have a revolver.\n"
] |
If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?
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Apart from folklore and cultural bias, what evidence is there to suggest that childbirth is actually 'one of the most painful experiences one can go through'?
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[
"There is also a distinction between trauma induced by recent situations and long-term trauma which may have been buried in the unconscious from past situations such as childhood abuse. Trauma is sometimes overcome through healing; in some cases this can be achieved by recreating or revisiting the origin of the trauma under more psychologically safe circumstances, such as with a therapist.\n",
"Emotional difficulties in coping with the pain of childbirth can also cause psychological trauma. Lack of support, or insufficient coping strategies to deal with the pain are examples of situations that can cause psychological trauma. However, even normal birth can be traumatic, and thus PTSD is diagnosed based on symptoms of the mother and not whether or not there were complications.\n",
"Trauma is a form of damage to either the mind or body that results from a distressing event. Traumatic experiences can occur in utero, during birth, and/or after birth. Trauma experienced in utero includes maternal smoking, alcohol or drug use during pregnancy; exposure to toxins such as methylmercury; and even exposure to maternal psycho-social stress. Trauma in utero increases the risk of neurodevelopmental delays and disorders causing a long-term effect on limbic imprinting such as difficulty regulating and processing emotions. Trauma experienced during birth includes the use of interventions during labor such as obstetrical forceps or vacuum extraction, cesarean section, or exposure to medicines used to relieve maternal pain or induce labor. These experiences can cause both physical and psychological harm to the baby that also affects the limbic imprinting process. Finally, trauma experienced after birth can include malnutrition; neglect, physical, emotional, or sexual abuse; and lack of a safe or healthy environment. Traumatic experiences after birth also have long-term effects on limbic imprinting.\n",
"Abuse during childbirth (or obstetric violence) is the neglect, physical abuse and lack of respect during childbirth. This treatment is regarded as a violation of the woman's rights. It also has the effect of preventing women from seeking pre-natal care and using other health care services. Abuse during childbirth is one form of violence against women.\n",
"Preparation for childbirth can effect the amount of pain experienced during childbirth. It is possible to take a childbirth class, consult with those managing the pregnancy, and writing down questions can assist in getting the information that a woman needs to help manage pain. Simple interaction with friends and family can alleviate concerns.\n",
"Another possibility is that traumatic events are pushed out of consciousness until a later events elicits or triggers a psychological response. A high percentage of female psychiatric in-patients, and outpatients have reported experiencing histories of childhood sexual abuse. Other clinical studies have concluded that patients who experienced incestuous abuse reported higher suicide attempts and negative identity formation as well as more disturbances in interpersonal relationships.\n",
"lack of social support following childbirth, and others. Examples of symptoms include intrusive symptoms, flashbacks and nightmares, as well as symptoms of avoidance (including amnesia for the whole or parts of the event), problems in developing a mother-child attachment, and others similar to those commonly experienced in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many women who are experiencing symptoms of PTSD after childbirth are misdiagnosed with postpartum depression or adjustment disorders. These diagnoses can lead to inadequate treatment.\n"
] |
what does it mean for a language to be recursive?
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An example in English:
I rode the bus which almost ran out of gas with my friend who has never been to Europe which is a continent.
With brackets inserted to show recursive structure:
I rode the bus [ which almost ran out of gas ] with my friend [ who has never been to Europe [ which is a continent. ] ]
The recursive parts can be removed and it's still a valid sentence. Each recursive part too is a complete thought. The sentence is just a compilation of the following:
I rode the bus with my friend.
The bus almost ran out of gas.
My friend has never been to Europe.
Europe is a continent.
We could go into further detail about continents etc. ad infinitum. A sentence can be composed of other sentences. This is what is meant by recursion in natural languages. Formal languages are similar.
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[
"A recursive grammar is a grammar that contains production rules that are recursive. For example, a grammar for a context-free language is left-recursive if there exists a non-terminal symbol \"A\" that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with \"A\" as the leftmost symbol.\n",
"Recursion plays a crucial role not only in syntax, but also in natural language semantics. The word \"and\", for example, can be construed as a function that can apply to sentence meanings to create new sentences, and likewise for noun phrase meanings, verb phrase meanings, and others. It can also apply to intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, or ditransitive verbs. In order to provide a single denotation for it that is suitably flexible, \"and\" is typically defined so that it can take any of these different types of meanings as arguments. This can be done by defining it for a simple case in which it combines sentences, and then defining the other cases recursively in terms of the simple one. \n",
"In mathematics, logic and computer science, a formal language (a set of finite sequences of symbols taken from a fixed alphabet) is called recursive if it is a recursive subset of the set of all possible finite sequences over the alphabet of the language. Equivalently, a formal language is recursive if there exists a total Turing machine (a Turing machine that halts for every given input) that, when given a finite sequence of symbols as input, accepts it if it belongs to the language and rejects it otherwise. Recursive languages are also called decidable.\n",
"Recursion (adjective: \"recursive\") occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines an infinite number of instances (function values), it is often done in such a way that no loop or infinite chain of references can occur.\n",
"A recursive function definition has one or more \"base cases\", meaning input(s) for which the function produces a result trivially (without recurring), and one or more \"recursive cases\", meaning input(s) for which the program recurs (calls itself). For example, the factorial function can be defined recursively by the equations and, for all , . Neither equation by itself constitutes a complete definition; the first is the base case, and the second is the recursive case. Because the base case breaks the chain of recursion, it is sometimes also called the \"terminating case\".\n",
"BULLET::::2. A recursive language is a formal language for which there exists a Turing machine that, when presented with any finite input string, halts and accepts if the string is in the language, and halts and rejects otherwise. The Turing machine always halts: it is known as a decider and is said to \"decide\" the recursive language.\n",
"However, many languages (like English) have additional ways to express deontic modality, like modal verbs (\"I \"shall\" help you.\") and other verbs (\"I \"hope\" to come soon.\"), as well as adverbials (\"hopefully\") and other constructions.\n"
] |
How important was honour in Tokugawa Japan? Could it have possibly weakened rule e.g Ako incident and seppuku after the death on ones lord?
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There isn't a simple answer to this question. Tokugawa Japan was not a monolithic society. There were diverse people living in Japan in this long period, separated by wealth, location, social status, gender, occupation and so on. Honor was certainly an ideal of the small but powerful samurai status group. But it was not necessarily the guiding imperative of other parts of the population. It was often parodied in plays, questioned in fiction, mocked in poetry, and celebrated in moralistic writings.
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[
"Hideyoshi had on his deathbed appointed a group of the most powerful lords in Japan—Tokugawa, Maeda, Ukita, Uesugi, Mōri—to govern as the Council of Five Elders until his infant son, Hideyori, came of age. An uneasy peace lasted until the death of Maeda Toshiie in 1599. Thereafter, Ishida Mitsunari accused Ieyasu of disloyalty to the Toyotomi name, precipitating a crisis that led to the Battle of Sekigahara. Generally regarded as the last major conflict of the Azuchi–Momoyama period and \"sengoku-jidai\", Ieyasu's victory at Sekigahara marked the end of the Toyotomi reign. Three years later, Ieyasu received the title \"Sei-i Tai-shōgun\", and established the Edo \"bakufu\", which lasted until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.\n",
"In the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603), a succession of military leaders, such as Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, attempted to bring peace and political stability to Japan after an era of almost 100 years of warfare. Oda, a minor chieftain, acquired power sufficient to take de facto control of the government in 1568 and, five years later, to oust the last Ashikaga shōgun. Hideyoshi took command after Oda's death, but his plans to establish hereditary rule were foiled by Ieyasu, who established the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603.\n",
"Tokugawa's descendants further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the \"shōgun\". \"Fudai daimyō\" were hereditary vassals of Ieyasu, as well as of his descendants. \"Tozama\" (\"outsiders\") became vassals of Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara. \"Shinpan\" (\"relatives\") were collaterals of Tokugawa Hidetada. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the \"tozama\" as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the \"tozama\" less likely to rebel. In the end, it was the great \"tozama\" of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.\n",
"Despite finally uniting Japan, Ieyasu's health was failing. During the one-year campaign against the Toyotomi clan and its allies, he received wounds that significantly shortened his life. Roughly one year later on June 1, 1616, Tokugawa Ieyasu, the third and last of the great unifiers, died at the age of 75, leaving the shogunate to his descendants.\n",
"After his death, the other members of the Council of Five Regents were unable to keep the ambitions of Tokugawa Ieyasu in check. Two of Hideyoshi's top generals, Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori, had fought bravely during the war but returned to find the Toyotomi clan castellan Ishida Mitsunari in power. He held the generals in contempt, and they sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu. Hideyoshi's underage son and designated successor Hideyori lost the power his father once held, and Tokugawa Ieyasu was declared \"shōgun\" following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.\n",
"This period was one of relative peace under the authority of the Tokugawa shogunate, a forced peace that was maintained through a variety of measures that weakened the \"daimyōs\" and ensured their loyalty to the shogunate. The Tokugawa peace was ruptured only rarely and briefly prior to the violence that surrounded the Meiji Restoration of the 1860s.\n",
"The last remaining threat to Ieyasu's rule was Toyotomi Hideyori, the son and rightful heir to Hideyoshi. He was now a young \"daimyō\" living in Osaka Castle. Many samurai who opposed Ieyasu rallied around Hideyori, claiming that he was the rightful ruler of Japan. Ieyasu found fault with the opening ceremony of a temple built by Hideyori; it was as if he prayed for Ieyasu's death and the ruin of the Tokugawa clan. Ieyasu ordered Toyotomi to leave Osaka Castle, but those in the castle refused and summoned samurai to gather within the castle. Then the Tokugawa, with a huge army led by Ieyasu and \"shōgun\" Hidetada, laid siege to Osaka castle in what is now known as \"the Winter Siege of Osaka\". Eventually, Tokugawa was able to precipitate negotiations and an armistice after directed cannon fire threatened Hideyori's mother, Yodo-dono. However, once the treaty was agreed, Tokugawa filled the castle's outer moats with sand so his troops could walk across. Through this ploy, Tokugawa gained a huge tract of land through negotiation and deception that he could not through siege and combat. Ieyasu returned to Sunpu Castle once, but after Toyotomi refused another order to leave Osaka, he and his allied army of 155,000 soldiers attacked Osaka Castle again in \"the Summer Siege of Osaka\".\n"
] |
Is human labor and delivery more dangerous than other primates'? Why?
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Yes, mainly because of a narrow pelvis, combined with large heads. (Children have huge heads in proportion to bodysize and weight, as they are born with about 33% of adult brain volume)
Human pelvi are so narrow because of bipedality, which, as other comments already explained, seems to have been a bigger advantage than having easy childbirths.
[Interesting article about this topic](_URL_0_)
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[
"Infanticide in non-human primates occurs as a result of exploitation when the individuals enacting the infanticide directly benefit from consumption or use of their victim. The individual can become a resource: food (cannibalism), protective buffer against aggression, or a prop to obtain maternal experience.\n",
"Many human diseases can be transmitted to other primates, due to their extensive biological similarities. As a result, centers that hold, treat, or involve close proximity to primates and some other kinds of animals (for example zoos, researchers, and animal hospitals), often take steps to ensure animals are not exposed to human diseases they can catch. In some cases animals are routinely immunized with the same vaccines given to humans.\n",
"Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create opportunities for the transmission of zoonotic diseases, especially virus diseases, including herpes, measles, ebola, rabies, and hepatitis. Thousands of non-human primates are used in research around the world because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction. Common threats include deforestation, forest fragmentation, monkey drives, and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing for agriculture most threatens primates.\n",
"Non-human primates are optimal models for human biomedical research because humans and non-human primates share physiological characteristics as a result of evolution. While menstruation is heavily associated with human females, and they have the most pronounced menstruation, it is also typical of ape relatives and monkeys. Female macaques menstruate, with a cycle length over the course of a lifetime that is comparable to that of female humans. Estrogens and progestogens in the menstrual cycles and during premenarche and postmenopause are also similar in female humans and macaques; however, only in macaques does keratinization of the epithelium occur during the follicular phase. The vaginal pH of macaques also differs, with near-neutral to slightly alkaline median values and is widely variable, which may be due to its lack of lactobacilli in the vaginal flora. This is one reason why, although macaques are used for studying HIV transmission and testing microbicides, animal models are not often used in the study of sexually transmitted infections, such as trichomoniasis. Another is that such conditions' causes are inextricably bound to humans' genetic makeup, making results from other species difficult to apply to humans.\n",
"Humans are primarily infected by five species of \"Plasmodium\", with the overwhelming majority of severe disease and death caused by \"Plasmodium falciparum\". Some species that infect humans can also infect other primates, and zoonoses of certain species (e.g. \"P. knowlesi\") from other primates to humans are common. Non-human primates also contain a variety of \"Plasmodium\" species that do not generally infect humans. Some of these can cause severe disease in primates, while others can remain in the host for prolonged periods without causing disease. Many other mammals also carry \"Plasmodium\" species, such as a variety of rodents, ungulates, and bats. Again, some species of \"Plasmodium\" can cause severe disease in some of these hosts, while many appear not to.\n",
"University of Wisconsin–Madison bioethicist Alta Charo said that even in other ape-like mammals, the risk for miscarriage, birth defects, and life problems remains high. Arthur Caplan, the director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Pennsylvania, expressed concerns that many dead and sick children could result from the cloning of human beings.\n",
"Sentientism agrees with animalism that humans are animals so both warrant moral consideration. However, sentientism argues that non-animal sentient beings, such as potential artificial or alien intelligences, would also warrant moral consideration. \n"
] |
What is an example of two very similar chemical formulas behaving very differently?
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There are many examples of this. The chemical formula itself is often not a good indication of its properties, rather, a compound's structure is often important. Take for example the formula C4H8O2. Two ways that we can arrange those atoms is as [ethyl acetate](_URL_1_) or [butyric acid](_URL_0_). Those two compounds have the *same* formula, but entirely different properties: one being an ester and one a carboxylic acid.
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[
"In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is the simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound. A simple example of this concept is that the empirical formula of sulphur monoxide, or SO, would simply be SO, as is the empirical formula of disulphur dioxide, SO. This means that sulphur monoxide and disulphur dioxide, both compounds of sulphur and oxygen, will have the same empirical formula. However, their molecular formulas, which express the number of atoms in each molecule of a chemical compound, may not be the same. \n",
"A chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called a \"general formula\". It generates a homologous series of chemical formulas. For example, alcohols may be represented by the formula CHOH (\"n\" ≥ 1), giving the homologs methanol, ethanol, propanol for \"n\"=1–3.\n",
"Equation 9 is more commonly used due to the simplicity of only having to look up the standard chemical exergy for given substances. Using a standard table works well for most cases, even if the environment conditions vary slightly, the difference is most likely negligible.\n",
"The origins of the idea of chemical equivalents might be traced back to Jabir, in whose time it was recognized that \"a certain quantity of acid is necessary in order to neutralize a given amount of base.\"\n",
"Chemical formulas most often use integers for each element. However, there is a class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in FeO, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in FeO, where x is normally much less than 1.\n",
"A condensed chemical formula may represent the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in a simple chemical substance, though it does not necessarily specify isomers or complex structures. For example, ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, with each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as CHCH. In ethylene there is a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only has two hydrogens), therefore the chemical formula may be written: CHCH, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is implicit because carbon has a valence of four. However, a more explicit method is to write HC=CH or less commonly HC::CH. The two lines (or two pairs of dots) indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.\n",
"There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, which require the fixed ratios. Many solid chemical substances—for example many silicate minerals—are chemical substances, but do not have simple formulae reflecting chemically bonding of elements to one another in fixed ratios; even so, these crystalline substances are often called \"non-stoichiometric compounds\". It may be argued that they are related to, rather than being chemical compounds, insofar as the variability in their compositions is often due to either the presence of foreign elements trapped within the crystal structure of an otherwise known true \"chemical compound\", or due to perturbations in structure relative to the known compound that arise because of an excess of deficit of the constituent elements at places in its structure; such non-stoichiometric substances form most of the crust and mantle of the Earth. Other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly.\n"
] |
My friends are watching a documentary, and the host mentioned that "it is estimated that there are more stars than grains of sand on all the world's beaches." Does this have any basis, and is it really true?
|
They can estimate it, the numbers will be rough but even using rough numbers this isn't that difficult to determine since the difference is vast.
[I'm sure this isn't the only estimate but this is one done by the University of Hawaii](_URL_1_)
They come up with 7.5 x 10^18 or 7.5 billion billion grains of sand.
[Calculation for the number of stars](_URL_0_)
They come up with 9 × 10^21 stars (9 billion trillion stars).
But if you really want to blow your mind, this is only for the observable universe and the best minds around agree the universe is infinite.
|
[
"\"Stars in My Pocket like Grains of Sand\" is about the distant future but the ideas that Delany writes about are reflections of the contemporary world. Delany himself has said, \"Science fiction is not ‘about the future.’ Science fiction \"is in dialogue with the present\"…[the science fiction writer] indulge[s] in a significant distortion of the present that sets up a rich and complex dialogue with the reader’s here and now.\" While \"Stars in My Pocket like Grains of Sand\" provides an alternative and unconventional relationship between humanity and the natural world, Delany reminds the reader to be critical about the extent in which the social distortions in the novel are actually “distant” from the current social order. As a result, \"Stars in My Pocket like Grains of Sand\" critiques and disrupts contemporary understandings of the world. These ruptures occur in from Delany’s use of third-person gender pronouns, to the redefinition of family and kinship, to the concept of technicity (technologically driven modes of social differentiation and belonging). By forcing the reader to constantly go through these breaks and fissures in their social understandings, Delany reveals \"the arbitrariness of these signifiers, their contingency and openness to recontextualization…as they move across worlds, literally and figuratively.\"\n",
"The presenter once again appears with the glowing \"star\" and delivers an epilogue, summarizing that of all the things we have learned about the Universe, one of the most amazing discoveries is that Earth and everything on it, including its inhabitants, are made from the clouds of dust and gas that lace the Milky Way Galaxy; that we are, in fact, made of stardust, which would possibly explain humanity's fascination with the night sky.\n",
"Stars in My Pocket Like Grains of Sand (1984) is a science fiction novel by Samuel R. Delany. It was part of a planned duology (\"diptych\", in Delany's description) whose second half, \"The Splendor and Misery of Bodies, of Cities\", remains unfinished.\n",
"The Gran Desierto is best known for its magnificent star dunes, many in excess of high. More than two-thirds of the Gran Desierto is covered by sand sheets and sand streaks. The remaining area is split equally between a western population of star dunes and an eastern set of transverse or crescentic dunes. Some of the larger crescentic dunes in the northeastern sand sea exhibit reversing crests, a transitional morphological feature associated with star dunes.\n",
"Among the guest stars were Mary Stuart in the premiere presentation \"Beauty Is a Joy\", Raymond Burr, Cameron Mitchell (actor), Ann Rutherford, and Bruce Cabot. Otherwise, the program was described in one TV reference book as \"generally featuring lesser-known actors and actresses. In 1950, media critic John Crosby wrote: \"\"Stars Over Hollywood\" is the latest of the programs filmed especially for television in Hollywood and has all the conspicuous weaknesses of the others. ... All the TV productions emanating from Hollywood are slipshod. The actors seem insufficiently rehearsed; the quality of the writing is painfully bad; the casting seems to have been done out of card catalogues, and the direction, to put it mildly, is superficial.\" At the time, most of the network programming originated from New York City, with Hollywood-produced programs generally regarded as inferior to New York productions. This began to change around the time that series like well-received Hollywood series like \"Four Star Playhouse\" (1952-1956) came along. \n",
"In a 1977 interview on \"Desert Island Discs\" Travers remarked, \"I've seen it once or twice, and I've learned to live with it. It's glamorous and it's a good film on its own level, but I don't think it is very like my books.\"\n",
"\"30 Rock\" has received positive praise from critics. Chris Harnick, writing in the \"Huffington Post\", has ranked it along with I Love Lucy and Seinfeld as one of the great TV comedies. The Writers Guild of America West listed it as the 21st best written TV series. Its series finale has been rated highly by several publications. HitFix ranked it the 15th best series final, IndieWire included it in its list of 16 best series finals, and HuffPost named it the 5th best.\n"
] |
why do some governments see the need to have a tax on taxi fees?
|
> Why do some governments see the need to have a tax on taxi fees?
To make money.
> And why can't they tax Uber similarly?
They could pass a law to do so if they want to.
|
[
"In the taxi regulation report by U.S. FTC it was concluded that there are not grounds for limiting the number of taxi companies and cars. These limitations cause a disproportionate burden on low income people. It is better to increase the pay for unprofitable areas than to force the taxis to serve these areas.\n",
"Despite the fact that most shoppers are unaware of their use tax obligations, there are potentially severe penalties for willful tax evasion. Any online, telephone mail-order, or traveling shopper who makes \"tax free\" purchases could be successfully prosecuted for evading state use taxes if he or she willfully fails to file the necessary return and pay the required tax, or intentionally omits the information from a required annual return. When a taxing jurisdiction enforces use tax liability, it often also seeks additional penalties and interest accrued for failure to timely remit the necessary tax return and tax payments, as well as possible perjury for omissions on official forms filed. The statute of limitations on taxes due may not begin to run until and unless a required tax return is filed. Some states also provide a \"safe harbor\" scale of use tax that is most likely owed by every taxpayer, based upon the taxpayer's adjusted gross income. For example, someone with an income of over $100,000 could earmark 0.0005 of his or income as payment for \"use tax\", without having to account for any actual out-of-state purchases under $1,000 each.\n",
"Other methods have also been employed by government to combat tax evasion. For example, the introduction of a Taxi Regulator and subsequent regulations for the taxi industry has meant that the opportunities for taxi drivers to avoid declaring cash income have dwindled. By law, taxi drivers must now issue an electronic receipt for each fare, effectively recording their income.\n",
"Similarly, no business deduction is allowed \"for any payment made, directly or indirectly, to an official or employee of any government [ . . . ] if the payment constitutes an illegal bribe or kickback or, if the payment is to an official or employee of a foreign government, the payment is unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977.\" Similarly, tax deductions and credits are denied where for illegal bribes, illegal kickbacks, or other illegal payments under any Federal law, or under a State if such State law is generally enforced, if the law \"subjects the payor to a criminal penalty or the loss of license or privilege to engage in a trade or business.\" No deduction is allowed for kickbacks, rebates, or bribes made by those who furnish items or services for which payment may be made under the Social Security Act.\n",
"Various state and local taxing authorities in the US require an employer or the employee to withhold and remit a tax on the wages paid to an employee. Some states require both the employer and employee to remit a portion of the total occupational privilege tax (OPT), while others only require one or the other to do so. As such, it is a type of payroll tax. The genesis of this tax is the state’s claim in recovering accrued benefits provided to the taxpayer in enabling them to become employed and allowing for the state or municipality to further provide for taxpayers in the future.\n",
"It is claimed feebates are generally a more efficient way of promoting greater fuel efficiency and other socially-desirable outcomes than traditional taxes or quotas. Fuel taxes create important price signals that can make consumers aware of the non-internalized costs of fuel consumption (greenhouse gasses, other pollution)—and raise funds to offset this externality. But retail consumers have very high discount rates, meaning buyers do not take into account the additional cost high gasoline taxes or poor gas mileage when purchasing a car. A feebate internalizes that cost into the initial purchase price, thereby requiring the buyer to prepay for the taking of public and private environmental goods.\n",
"Taxing jurisdictions generally extend an exemption from use tax to commercial taxpayers that purchase business stock. This type of exemption applies to goods purchased tax-free for resale, but lapses if the goods are converted to use by the company itself (for example, a company car, office supplies, and cleaning supplies).\n"
] |
What is it psychologically that makes $9.99 so much better of a price than $10.00?
|
[Wikipedia has a whole article devoted to this idea, called *psychological pricing*](_URL_0_). In short, people seem to overestimate the difference between 99¢ and $1, which is why retailers price things in odd units.
|
[
"There are certain price points where people are willing to buy a product. If the price of a product is $100 and the company prices it at $99, then it is called psychological pricing. In most consumer's minds, $99 is psychologically 'less' than $100. A minor distinction in pricing can make a big difference in sales. The company that succeeds in finding psychological price points can improve sales and maximize revenue.\n",
"Psychological pricing (also price ending, charm pricing) is a pricing and marketing strategy based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact. Retail prices are often expressed as \"odd prices\": a little less than a round number, e.g. $19.99 or £2.98. There is evidence that consumers tend to perceive \"odd prices\" as being lower than they actually are, tending to round to the next lowest monetary unit. Thus, prices such as $1.99 are associated with spending $1 rather than $2. The theory that drives this is that lower pricing such as this institutes greater demand than if consumers were perfectly rational. Psychological pricing is one cause of price points.\n",
"Price has been said to have won over a million dollar wager on Super Bowl XLIX between the Seattle Seahawks and the New England Patriots. His most notable and verified wager was in 2015 when he placed a wager in Major League Baseball on the Kansas City Royals to win the World Series before the season began. This wager cost him $22,000 at the time, but ended up winning him $264,000.\n",
"Another phenomenon noted by economists is that a price point for a product (such as $4.99) remains stable for a long period of time, with companies slowly reducing the \"quantity\" of product in the package until consumers begin to notice. At this time, the price will increase marginally (to $5.05) and then within an exceptionally short time will increase to the next price point ($5.99, for example).\n",
"In economics, a threshold price point is the psychological fixing of prices to entice a buyer up to a certain threshold at which the buyer will be lost anyway. The most common example in the United States is the $??.99 phenomenon—e.g. setting the price for a good at $9.99. Though it is effectively ten dollars—especially when you add sales tax—it still appears to the potential buyer to be significantly cheaper than if the good was sold $10.00.\n",
"BULLET::::- Similar to the common Western practice of using \"9\" for price points, it is common to see \"8\" being used in its place to achieve the same psychological effect. So for example menu prices like $58, $88 are frequently seen.\n",
"Price refers to decisions surrounding \"list pricing, discount pricing, special offer pricing, credit payment or credit terms\". Price refers to the total cost to customer to acquire the product, and may involve both monetary and psychological costs such as the time and effort spent in acquisition.\n"
] |
how did the economy work during the middle-ages?
|
The early middle ages can be viewed as effectively the worst economic depression western civilization has ever faced. Coupled with - and contributing to - that downturn was a sudden and overwhelming lack of law and order because the political and economic system that had previously maintained it - the Roman Empire - lay in ruins.
For these reasons, Europe started over economically. Europe developed a system over a series of centuries where virtually all power and wealth had to be created locally. It was an agrarian society, and its basic unit was a man's labor. Specialization became inefficient; if a town could not produce enough food to feed itself, there was no point producing goods that required specialized labor, like wine or clothing, for export. A local lord could control as much land, and therefore as much wealth, as he could effectively protect. Over time, this system built itself into a pyramid where the wealth created locally in farms was handed upward to increasingly powerful lords promising to defend more and more territory until you came to a King who claimed to protect them all. In turn, all of the lower sections of the pyramid would swear to help the lord above them - up to the King - in his causes and wars. You can see how in this system, wealth and power were intimately linked, and furthermore, that wealth was more easily expressed in land than in any concept of money. A modern CEO can define his wealth and power in his company and its well-measured incomes and expenses. But a Medieval lord was defined by the country he ruled: obviously, the Duke of Provence was better off than the Duke of Northumberland because Provence would be larger, better positioned for trade and much easier to farm. Therefore, an up-and-coming member of the vast interwoven noble class of Europe would rather become Duke of Provence through whatever means were at his disposal.
Obviously, there was trade during the middle ages. However it was difficult, expensive and exceptionally dangerous. On the other hand, a fortunate merchant stood to gain vast amounts of money by transporting products from where they were produced to wherever people would pay more for them. Ultimately, this is what slowly broke down the feudal system. A new and growing merchant class began to compete with the noble class for local power, and ultimately won it. This also led to improved roads and other trade routes and incentivized greater specialization of labor, allowing some towns to specialize in products that were not necessarily food.
|
[
"During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe through the trading of luxury goods at trade fairs. Some wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries. Hand-to-hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities.\n",
"During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs. Wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries. Hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities.\n",
"In the Middle Ages the world economy slowly expanded with the increase of population and trade. The silk road was used for trading between Europe, Central Asia and China. During the early period of the Middle Ages, Europe was an economic backwater, however, by the later Medieval period rich trading cities in Italy emerged, creating the first modern accounting and finance systems.\n",
"Throughout the Middle Ages, the city remained a centre for trade and manufacturing principally of wool and leather but gradually economic decline set in. After a brief period of economic prosperity around 1500, the city's economy suffered during the wars of religion of the 16th and 17th centuries, and recovery did not happen until the industrial revolution in the early 19th century.\n",
"During the High Middle Ages in Europe, there was increased innovation in means of production, leading to economic growth. These innovations included the windmill, manufacturing of paper, the spinning wheel, the magnetic compass, eyeglasses, the astrolabe, and Hindu-Arabic numerals.\n",
"Agriculture in the Middle Ages describes the farming practices, crops, technology, and agricultural society and economy of Europe from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 to approximately 1500. The Middle Ages are sometimes called the Medieval Age or Period. The Middle Ages are also divided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. The early modern period followed the Middle Ages. \n",
"Economic policy in Europe during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance treated economic activity as a good which was to be taxed to raise revenues for the nobility and the church. Economic exchanges were regulated by feudal rights, such as the right to collect a toll or hold a faire, as well as guild restrictions and religious restrictions on lending. Economic policy, such as it was, was designed to encourage trade through a particular area. Because of the importance of social class, sumptuary laws were enacted, regulating dress and housing, including allowable styles, materials and frequency of purchase for different classes. Niccolò Machiavelli in his book \"The Prince\" was one of the first authors to theorize economic policy in the form of advice. He did so by stating that princes and republics should limit their expenditures and prevent either the wealthy or the populace from despoiling the other. In this way a state would be seen as \"generous\" because it was not a heavy burden on its citizens.\n"
] |
how the licence plate system is working in the usa ?
|
As far as I know, each state handles their own plates. So they are free to create as many custom plate styles as they see fit. Most of the custom plates are local government trying to get more money from you, as you have to pay more for these.
|
[
"Often, registration plates are called \"licence plates\" (drivers are licensed, vehicles are registered), but the term \"licence plate\" is common in informal usage. On most licence plates, there is a small sticker, which indicates the month and year of plate renewal, that the driver sticks to the licence plates. Prior to June 14, 2019, in New Brunswick registration were officially named licence plates. \n",
"An electronic license plate (also referred to as a digital display license plate) is an identification sign mounted on vehicles that emits a wireless signal used for tracking & digital monitoring services. Various patents including advanced features have been published intending to replace traditional metallic and plastic license plates. The electronic license plate has a complex design that works directly with the vehicular computer system and can communicate with outside sources that may remotely access it for the regulation of vehicle use.\n",
"All provinces offer specialized licence plates for licensed amateur radio operators, in many cases at no extra charge or at a discount compared to standard vanity plates. The owner's radio call sign is used instead of a standard-issue serial.\n",
"In the United States, the appearance of license plates is frequently chosen to contain symbols, colors, or slogans associated with the issuing jurisdiction, which are the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, the 5 inhabited U.S. territories, and Native American tribes, each of which independently registers motor vehicles. Regular-issue license plates for passenger vehicles typically have 5-7 characters, with specialty or vanity plates having up to 8 characters in some states. This article describes the designs and serial formats for regular-issue plates.\n",
"It is technically incorrect to say that licence plates are issued. The authorities issue a registration number and it is then the owner's responsibility to have the plates made up, either of plastic or metal, on production of the appropriate documentation. In the case of new car sales, this is done by the dealer.\n",
"In the United States, license plates are issued by a department of motor vehicles, an agency of the state or territorial government, or in the case of the District of Columbia, the district government. Some Native American tribes also issue plates. The U.S. federal government issues plates only for its own vehicle fleet and for vehicles owned by foreign diplomats. Until the 1980s, diplomatic plates were issued by the state in which the consulate or embassy was located.\n",
"At this early point in the history of license plates in the United States of America, none of the 45 states, territories, or the District of Columbia, was issuing its own plates. In this year New York became the first state to require vehicle owners to register their vehicles. The owners of these early New York vehicles had to provide their own license plates with only their initials on them. Plates were often made of metal letters on a thick leather background or on a steel base. This system of using the owners initials lasted until 1903 when a change to using a number provided by the state began.\n"
] |
Is there any doubt that the Colossus of Rhodes existed?
|
Strabo states with a degree of certainty that the ruins of the Colossus were visible when he wrote the *Geography* (English version [here](_URL_2_)) at around the turn of the 1st century AD, and Pliny the Elder's [Natural History](_URL_0_) goes into considerable detail about the construction of those ruins. We also have a fragmentary epigram dated prior to that appears to be [a dedication of the Colossus](_URL_1_), or at least of a giant statue of some kind at Rhodes.
As to its construction, I offer nothing beyond noting that there has been academic discussion that have reverse-engineered its construction (see [here](_URL_3_) if you have access). I do not know if Pliny (or Philo, who also attests to seeing its ruins) is accurate in regards to the estimate of its height - much of the time I mentally replace specific measurements in Classical texts with vague ones - but it could be plausible nonetheless.
|
[
"The Colossus of Rhodes ( ) was a statue of the Greek sun-god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was constructed to celebrate Rhodes' victory over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, whose son Demetrius I of Macedon unsuccessfully besieged Rhodes in 305 BC. According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70 cubits, or high—the approximate height of the modern Statue of Liberty from feet to crown—making it the tallest statue of the ancient world. It collapsed during the earthquake of 226 BC; although parts of it were preserved, it was never rebuilt.\n",
"\"The Travels of Sir John Mandeville\" incorrectly reports that Rhodes was formerly called \"Collosus\", through a conflation of the Colossus of Rhodes and Paul's \"Epistle to the Colossians\", which refers to Colossae.\n",
"The Colossus of Rhodes (Italian: \"Il Colosso di Rodi\") is a 1961 Italian sword and sandal film co-written and directed by Sergio Leone. Starring Rory Calhoun, it is a fictional account of the island of Rhodes during its Classical period in the late third century before coming under Roman control, using the Colossus of Rhodes as a backdrop for the story of a war hero who becomes involved in two different plots to overthrow a tyrannical king: one by Rhodian patriots and the other by Phoenician agents.\n",
"The Colossus of Rhodes was a monumental statue of the Greek sun god, Helios, that stood by the harbour of Rhodes for more than half a century in the third century BC. According to first-century BC historian Diodorus Siculus, it was constructed under the direction of Chares of Lindos to commemorate the city's victory over Demetrius Poliorcetes, who laid siege to Rhodes from 305 to 304 BC; Helios, patron saint of both the city and island of Rhodes, was chosen as the honoree. The statue stood until the 226 BC Rhodes earthquake, when, according to Pliny the Elder, three centuries later in his \"Naturalis Historia\", it buckled and fell. In his ninth-century AD \"Chronographia\", Theophanes the Confessor wrote that its ruins remained until 652–53, when Muawiyah I conquered Rhodes, and the Colossus was sold for scrap. Beginning with lists formed by Diodorus and other writers, the Colossus is recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.\n",
"The Colossus of Rhodes was considered to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. This giant bronze statue was documented as once standing at the harbour. It was completed in 280 BC and destroyed in an earthquake in 224 BC. No trace of the statue remains today.\n",
"The Colossus of Rhodes is a children's historical novel by Caroline Lawrence, published in 2005. The ninth book of the Roman Mysteries series, it is set in spring AD 80, partly aboard ship in the Mediterranean, partly on the Greek islands of Symi and Rhodes (in this, it is noteworthy for being the first of the series to be set outside Italy, and is the first of two volumes to be set in Greece).\n",
"Rhodes is shown in a visual pun as the ancient Greek statue the Colossus of Rhodes, following the traditional (and architecturally unlikely) depiction of the Colossus with wide-set legs across Rhodes harbour (above).\n"
] |
why does a deep scrape on elbows/knees/shins stay white for a period of time before bleeding?
|
This is because initially after an injury, blood vessels contract in order to minimise blood loss. They increase again in diameter later to facilitate healing and the movement of specialised cells and materials towards the site of injury. You can see this contraction and subsequent dilation of blood vessels anywhere; try scratching your arm with your nail (don't cut yourself!) and you'll see that your skin will become pale initially, then redden.
|
[
"Bleeding or flushing is shiny, black surface film of asphalt on the road surface caused by upward movement of asphalt in the pavement surface. Common causes of bleeding are too much asphalt in asphalt concrete, hot weather, low space air void content and quality of asphalt.\n",
"Whereas a bruise typically appears black or blue underneath the skin, a subconjunctival bleeding initially appears bright-red underneath the transparent conjunctiva. Later, the hemorrhage may spread and become green or yellow, like a bruise. Usually this disappears within 2 weeks.\n",
"Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, broken blood vessels will hemorrhage into the tissue that surrounds the joint, causing a visible bruise. White blood cells responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well. Along with this inflammation, swelling and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is pressure placed on the area. Warmth and redness are also seen as blood flow is increased. Also there is a decreased ability to move the joint.\n",
"Blood constitutes about eight percent of a person's weight (normally about five liters), and it circulates near the surface of the skin. Almost all trauma to the body, therefore, results in the shedding of blood. Its red color makes it readily apparent at crime scenes, and its residues are very difficult to completely remove. Blood residue has even been recovered from 100,000-year-old stone tools.\n",
"The bleeding comes from the (vascular) nail bed underlying the (avascular) nail plate. A laceration of the nail bed causes bleeding into the constricted area underneath the hard nail plate. Throbbing pain is common. The nail develops a black discoloration overlying the nail bed but under the nail plate.\n",
"BULLET::::- Suspected Deep Tissue Injury: A purple or maroon localized area of discolored intact skin or blood-filled blister due to damage of underlying soft tissue from pressure and/or shear. The area may be preceded by tissue that is painful, firm, mushy, boggy, warmer or cooler as compared to adjacent tissue. A deep tissue injury may be difficult to detect in individuals with dark skin tones. Evolution may include a thin blister over a dark wound bed. The wound may further evolve and become covered by thin eschar. Evolution may be rapid exposing additional layers of tissue even with optimal treatment.\n",
"When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n"
] |
what "latter" means in a sentence. i've heard it for a few years now and don't understand how to use it.
|
If I ask whether you have an apple or an orange and you reply that you have the latter, you mean that you have an orange. If you reply that you have the former, you have an apple.
|
[
"The phrase 'the three Rs' is used because each word in the phrase has a strong \"R\" phoneme (sound) at the beginning. The term is ironic, since someone with rudimentary language education would know that two of the original words do not actually begin with the letter \"R\". The third \"R\" was more probably Reckoning, not as is more usually stated 'Rithmetic. Reckoning was a Victorian term for mental arithmetic and had been in use as such since the 14th century. The educationalist Louis P. Bénézet preferred \"to read\", \"to reason\", \"to recite\", adding, \"by reciting I did not mean giving back, verbatim, the words of the teacher or of the textbook. I meant speaking the English language.\"\n",
"As a particle, it is used at the end of a sentence, equivalent to an English, \"right?\" or \"isn't it?\" It is also used as slang in Japan to get someone's attention, the English equivalent being \"hey\" or \"hey, you.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Like\" as a discourse marker. \"Like\" is used as a filler word, similar to \"um\" or \"er,\" as in, \"I'm, like, about to call my friend.\" It does not add content to the sentence, instead allowing time for the speaker to formulate what they will say next. The word is always unstressed when used in this way. This discourse marker is usually used to introduce quoted speech. For example, a person can start a conversation with stating, \"So, um, I'm like \"Where did he go? and she was um, like, 'I don't know, I haven't seen him.'\n",
"\"Like\" is sometimes used colloquially as a quotative to introduce a quotation or impersonation. This is also known as \"quotation through simile\". The word is often used to express that what follows is not an exact quotation but instead gives a general feel for what was said. In this usage, \"like\" functions in conjunction with a verb, generally \"be\" (but also \"say\", \"think\", etc.), as in the following examples:\n",
"BULLET::::- Some Americans use the word \"also\" at the end of a sentence (just as \"as well\" and \"too\" are used in both dialects) but not so commonly in BrE, although it is encountered in Northern Ireland. Additionally, the sentence-ending \"as well\" is more formal in AmE than in BrE.\n",
"An exception is when the second negative is stressed, as in \"I'm not doing ; I'm thinking.\" A sentence can otherwise usually only become positive through consecutive uses of negatives, such as those prescribed in the later examples, where a clause is void of a verb and lacks an adverb to intensify it. Two of them also use emphasis to make the meaning clearer. The last example is a popular example of a double negative that resolves to a positive. This is because the verb 'to doubt' has no intensifier which effectively resolves a sentence to a positive. Had we added an adverb thus:\n",
"BULLET::::- \"To be like\" as a colloquial quotative. \"Like\" (always unstressed) is used to indicate that what follows is not necessarily an exact quotation of what was said, but captures the meaning and intention of the quoted speech. As an example, in \"And I was like, 'don't ever speak to my boyfriend again,'\" the speaker is indicating that they may or may not have literally said those words, but they conveyed that idea. \"be like\" can introduce both a monologue or direct speech, allowing a speaker to express an attitude, reaction, or thought, or to use the phrase to signal quotation.\n"
] |
why do we still use roman numerals?
|
It looks cool.
|
[
"The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced in most contexts by the more convenient Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some minor applications to this day.\n",
"Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Modern usage employs seven symbols, each with a fixed integer value:\n",
"Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome, adapted from Etruscan numerals. The system used in classical antiquity was slightly modified in the Middle Ages to produce the system we use today. It is based on certain letters which are given values as numerals.\n",
"Roman numerals are often used for the numbered books of the Bible. For example, Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians may be written as \"I Corinthians\", using the Roman numeral \"I\" rather than the Arabic numeral \"1\". \"The Christian Writer's Manual of Style\", however, recommends using Arabic numerals for numbered books, as in \"2 Corinthians\" rather than \"II Corinthians\".\n",
"Roman numerals are essentially a decimal or \"base 10\" number system. Powers of ten – thousands, hundreds, tens and units – are written separately, from left to right, in that order. Different symbols are used for each power of ten, but a common pattern is used for each of them.\n",
"The most obvious similarity between the Roman numerals and those older number systems is the use of 10 as the base, instead of 60 (as had been in use in Mesopotamia for a millennium) or 20. That choice, however, seems to have been made through most of Eurasia, including in India and China.\n",
"Numbers are usually written in Arabic numerals. Roman numerals are only used in some special traditional cases, only to express ordinal numbers (e.g. to express the numbering of monarchs, popes, districts of a city, congresses, etc.). Their use is advisable if they have a distinctive role as opposed to Arabic numbers, e.g. to denote the month between the year and the day, or to mark the floor number in front of the door number.\n"
] |
how will the rising antimicrobial resistance affect us in the future?
|
Worst case scenario? We're back to the middle ages, when a cut could kill you if it got infected.
What's actually likely to happen, though, is that certain bacteria will become highly resistant to antibiotics, and if we can't develop new antibiotics to combat them then those particular diseases will become more deadly and require much more in the way of treatment. It wouldn't be totally back to the days before antibiotics, but it would make life more difficult. Eventually, people would catch on and start to become more careful about sources of these diseases, and doctors would stop prescribing so many antibiotics, but that's likely to occur only after there's an indisputable problem.
|
[
"The increasing interconnectedness of the world and the fact that new classes of antibiotics have not been developed and approved for more than 25 years highlight the extent to which antimicrobial resistance is a global health challenge. A global action plan to tackle the growing problem of resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines was endorsed at the Sixty-eighth World Health Assembly in May 2015. One of the key objectives of the plan is to improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training. This global action plan developed by the World Health Organization was created to combat the issue of antimicrobial resistance and was guided by the advice of countries and key stakeholders. The WHO's global action plan is composed of five key objectives that can be targeted through different means, and represents countries coming together to solve a major problem that can have future health consequences.\n",
"The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared antimicrobial resistance to be one of the greatest threats to human health. On World Health Day 2011, themed ‘combating antimicrobial resistance’, WHO issued an international call for concerted action to halt the spread of antimicrobial resistance, launching a six-point policy package, recommended for governments, which sets out the measures governments and their national partners need to combat drug resistance.\n",
"The World Health Organization has identified antimicrobial resistance as one of the three greatest threats to human health. IDSA has identified antimicrobial resistance as a priority for the organization.\n",
"Antimicrobial resistance is a critical global public health issue, and antimicrobial stewardship strategies are key to curtailing the problem. CIDRAP's Antimicrobial Stewardship Project provides current, accurate, and comprehensive information on the topic and works to build an online community to address leading issues.\n",
"If antimicrobial resistance continues to increase from current levels, it is estimated that by 2050 ten million people would die every year due to lack of available treatment and the world’s GDP would be 2 - 3.5% lower in 2050. If worldwide action is not taken to combat antibiotic misuse and the development of antimicrobial resistance, from 2014 - 2050 it is estimated that 300 million people could die prematurely due to drug resistance and $60 – 100 trillion of economic output would be lost. If the current worldwide development of antimicrobial resistance is delayed by just 10 years, $65 trillion of the world’s GDP output can be saved from 2014-2050.\n",
"In 1997, SHEA and the Infectious Diseases Society of America published guidelines to prevent antimicrobial resistance arguing that \"…appropriate antimicrobial stewardship, that includes optimal selection, dose, and duration of treatment, as well as control of antibiotic use, will prevent or slow the emergence of resistance among microorganisms.\" \n",
"Scientists are searching for more sustainable antimicrobials that maintain their effectiveness while being minimally toxic to the environment, humans, and wildlife. This entails low degrees of bioaccumulation and rapid, clean biodegradation in existing wastewater treatment facilities. A lowered potential or no potential for resistance is also preferable. These next generation chemicals should aim to act on a broad spectrum of microbes and pathogens while also being minimally toxic and bioaccumulating in non-target species.\n"
] |
Did the Ottomans refer to Istanbul as Konstantiniyye?
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The official name change was after the Ottomans. It took place in the 20th Century.
There is a nice discussion anchored by /u/spoonfeedme at [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)
& #x200B;
& #x200B;
|
[
"The name \"İstanbul\" (, colloquially ) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase (pronounced ), which means \"to the city\" and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its Ottoman name 'Der Saadet' meaning the 'gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name \"Constantinople\", with the first and third syllables dropped. A Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol \"plenty of Islam\" because the city was called \"Islambol\" (\"plenty of Islam\") or \"Islambul\" (\"find Islam\") as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself. Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word \"Islambol\" on coinage was in 1703 (1115 AH) during the reign of Sultan Ahmed III.\n",
"In the 12th century, the city changed its name to \"Skoutarion\" (), the name deriving from the Emperor's Skoutarion Palace nearby. In 1338 the Ottoman leader Orhan Gazi took Skoutarion, giving the Ottomans a base within sight of Constantinople for the first time.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1930 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially renamed Constantinople to Istanbul, which comes from the Greek expression \"eis-tin-polin\" (\"to the City\"), based on the common Greek usage of referring to Constantinople simply as \"The City;\" a Pan-Orthodox Consultation on Mount Athos concluded that the only possible relations on the part of the Orthodox toward the Roman Catholics was \"\"Relations of defense on the part of the Orthodox toward Roman Catholic Proselytism;\"\" Traditionalist Greeks (Old Calendarist communities) began publishing the monthly journal \"Orthodoxos Keryx\" (\"Orthodox Herald\") from 1930.\n",
"The word \"Ottoman\" is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name \"ʿUthmān\" (). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as \"Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye\" (), (literally \"The Supreme Ottoman State\") or alternatively \"ʿOsmānlı Devleti\" (). In Modern Turkish, it is known as \"Osmanlı İmparatorluğu\" (\"The Ottoman Empire\") or \"Osmanlı Devleti\" (\"The Ottoman State\").\n",
"The modern Turkish name \"İstanbul\" () () is attested (in a range of variants) since the 10th century, at first in Armenian and Arabic (without the initial \"İ-\") and then in Ottoman sources. It derives from the Greek phrase \"στην Πόλη\" \" , meaning \"in the city\" or \"to the city\", reinterpreted as a single word; a similar case is Stimboli, Crete. It is thus based on the common Greek usage of referring to Constantinople simply as \"The City\" (see above).\n",
"Although it is often stated in history books that on 8 February 1919, Franchet d'Espèrey entered Constantinople on a white horse, emulating Mehmed II's entrance in 1453 after the Fall of Constantinople and thus signifying that Ottoman sovereignty over the imperial city was over, this has recently been shown to be a myth.\n",
"The city, known alternatively in Ottoman Turkish as \"Ḳosṭanṭīnīye\" ( after the Arabic form ) or Istanbul (while its Christian minorities continued to name it Constantinople), was the capital of the Ottoman Empire from its conquest in 1453 until the empire's collapse in 1922.\n"
] |
If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat?
|
Here's a thought: If you put a carefully calibrated piece of dry ice (solid CO2) into the soda bottle before you closed it, you could raise the pressure in the bottle enough to re-fizz your soda.
Of course, if you put too much, the bottle will explode.
|
[
"The difference between the reduced pressure at the top of the tube and the higher atmospheric pressure inside the bottle pushes the liquid from the reservoir up the tube and into the moving stream of air where it is broken up into small droplets (not atoms as the name suggests) and carried away with the stream of air.\n",
"Although re-pressurizing the bottle with an ordinary atmospheric mixture of gases does not affect the equilibrium state, because it only slightly changes the CO partial pressure in the headspace, it does affect the kinetics of how that equilibrium state is reached. The increased overall pressure slows down the rate at which dissolved CO comes out of solution. For a few hours the bottle's contents are \"not\" in an equilibrium state. The application of the Fizz Keeper extends this period, but by hours not by days. Rohrig reports that this can be and has been easily confirmed by experiment.\n",
"The first time that the cap is removed from the bottle, the pressure inside the bottle equalizes with the ambient atmospheric pressure. More importantly, however, after the outside air is allowed to mix with the gas inside the bottle the headspace no longer contains pure CO. Thus the partial pressure of CO is substantially reduced, from 2 atmospheres to the partial pressure of CO in the Earth's atmosphere, which is approximately 0.0003 atmospheres. In accordance with Henry's Law, the excess CO dissolved in the drink comes out of solution. Eventually it reaches a new dynamic equilibrium state, with a much lower partial pressure of CO in the headspace and thus a much lower amount of CO held in solution.\n",
"If the pressure at the inlet nozzle (at the suction) goes below the pressure of vapor of the fluid, air bubbles created inside the casing. This situation is very dangerous for the pump because the fluid starts to boil and form the bubbles. Those bubbles will hit the impeller and it will spoil its material. This situation is known as the cavitation. To increase the pressure at the inlet nozzle (suction) we have to decrease the section head.\n",
"It doesn't hurt if A is closed and airtight, but it doesn't need to. B and C, however, need to be airtight, and resistant to atmospheric pressure. Plastic bottles will do, but glass container will do better; balloons will just not work. This is because the fountain works the following way: \n",
"According to Figure 1, the piston inside the tube is in equilibrium if the pressure \"P\" inside the glass bottle is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure \"P\" and the pressure increase due to the piston weight :\n",
"A persistent problem in the soft drinks industry was the lack of an effective sealing of the bottles. Carbonated drink bottles are under great pressure from the gas, so inventors tried to find the best way to prevent the carbon dioxide or bubbles from escaping. The bottles could also explode if the pressure was too great. Hiram Codd devised a patented bottling machine while working at a small mineral water works in the Caledonian Road, Islington, in London in 1870. His Codd-neck bottle was designed to enclose a marble and a rubber washer in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.\n"
] |
if websites like google take a double shot using the captcha (first makes sure you are not a bot, second using you as a worker to do a job for them by reading let's say a house number that is not legible for a machine), how do they know what is that so-called number?
|
One of the things in the captcha is known to the system already. This is the one they are using to make sure you're not a bot.
The other one is not currently known. It takes your answer, looks at it and a bunch of other people's answers for the same image, and takes the most common answer. Then this becomes a known picture that can be used for validating.
This strategy relies on the average person giving the right answer to both the pictures. It works pretty well, unless there is an organized effort to screw with it, like 4chan did that one time.
|
[
"There are a few approaches to defeating CAPTCHAs: using cheap human labor to recognize them, exploiting bugs in the implementation that allow the attacker to completely bypass the CAPTCHA, and finally using machine learning to build an automated solver. According to former Google \"click fraud czar\" Shuman Ghosemajumder, there are numerous services which solve CAPTCHAs automatically.\n",
"In 2014, reCAPTCHA began implementing behavioral analysis of the browser's interactions with the CAPTCHA to predict whether the user was a human or a bot before displaying the CAPTCHA, and presenting a \"considerably more difficult\" captcha in cases where it had reason to think the user might be a bot. By end of 2014, this mechanism started to be rolled out to most of the public Google services. \n",
"Static image-based CAPTCHAs are routinely used to prevent automated sign-ups to websites by using text or images of words disguised so that optical character recognition (OCR) software has trouble reading them. However, in common CAPTCHA systems, users often fail to correctly solve the CAPTCHA 7% - 25% of the time. NuCaptcha uses animated video technology that it claims make puzzles easier for humans to solve, but harder for bots and hackers to decipher.\n",
"CAPTCHA is a form of reverse Turing test. Before being allowed to perform some action on a website, the user is presented with alphanumerical characters in a distorted graphic image and asked to type them out. This is intended to prevent automated systems from being used to abuse the site. The rationale is that software sufficiently sophisticated to read and reproduce the distorted image accurately does not exist (or is not available to the average user), so any system able to do so is likely to be a human.\n",
"This user identification procedure has received many criticisms, especially from people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA.\n",
"Challenge-response protocols are also used to assert things other than knowledge of a secret value. CAPTCHAs, for example, are a sort of variant on the Turing test, meant to determine whether a viewer of a Web application is a real person. The challenge sent to the viewer is a distorted image of some text, and the viewer responds by typing in that text. The distortion is designed to make automated optical character recognition (OCR) difficult and preventing a computer program from passing as a human.\n",
"While used mostly for security reasons, CAPTCHAs also serve as a benchmark task for artificial intelligence technologies. According to an article by Ahn, Blum and Langford, \"any program that passes the tests generated by a CAPTCHA can be used to solve a hard unsolved AI problem.\"\n"
] |
What happens when one plant's pollen gets into another plants reproductive area? If the species are similar enough, will it produce offspring?
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Yes, in some cases hybrids can form by pollen fertilizing eggs of a different species. The likelihood of this happening is generally dependent on how different the two species are.
Researchers who study speciation (the process of how new species form) identify traits that are responsible for determining whether individuals from two different species (heterospecific) mate or not. They categorize these traits as "[isolating mechanisms](_URL_0_)" that generally fall into two broad categories, based on whether they have an affect before or after fertilization:
* pre-zygotic isolating barriers (e.g. geography, using different pollinators, having a different mating call)
* post-zygotic isolating barriers (e.g. hybrids are sterile or dead)
Sometimes, a third category (post-copulation, pre-zygotic) is used to describe factors that happen between (in animals) insemination and fertilization. This is a good analogy for pollen tube growth, as pollination has happened but a zygote has not yet formed.
This paper by Williams et al. ([PDF](_URL_1_)) shows an experiment done in birch, where pollen from two species was mixed in different proportions. Heterospecific pollen was associated with slower pollen tube growth rate and lower siring probability. When only heterospecific pollen was added, some hybrid seeds were formed. However, when heterospecific and conspecific pollen were mixed, the conspecific pollen "won" over 99% of the time.
Pollen tube competition may therefore be an effective isolating mechanism between two incipient species, assuming conspecifics are also present.
|
[
"It was found that the amount of fertilizing pollen can influence secondary sex ratio in dioecious plants. Increase in pollen amount leads to decrease in number of male plants in the progeny. This relationship was confirmed on four plant species from three families – \"Rumex acetosa\" (\"Polygonaceae\"), \"Melandrium album\" (\"Cariophyllaceae\"), \"Cannabis sativa\" and \"Humulus japonicus\" (\"Cannabinaceae\").\n",
"Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division producing clumps. Narcissus species hybridise readily, although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental relationship.\n",
"In flowering plants, pollen is transferred from a flower to another flower on the same plant, and in animal pollinated systems this is accomplished by a pollinator visiting multiple flowers on the same plant. Geitonogamy is also possible within species that are wind-pollinated, and may actually be a quite common source of self-fertilized seeds in self-compatible species. It also occurs in monoecious gymnosperms. Although geitonogamy is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent, genetically it is similar to autogamy since the pollen grains come from the same plant.\n",
"\"Filipendula rubra\" is known for its air-borne pollen, however pollination is only effective (can create a seed) when pollen is transferred to a different plant, due to the fact that \"F. rubra\" is self-incompatible. The vast majority of pollen will be derived from inflorescences within the same clone and thus incompatible. Pollination is aided by insects such as sweat bees spreading pollen.\n",
"For example, if a species of grass grows on both sides of a highway, pollen is likely to be transported from one side to the other and vice versa. If this pollen is able to fertilise the plant where it ends up and produce viable offspring, then the alleles in the pollen have effectively been able to move from the population on one side of the highway to the other.\n",
"The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (pistil in angiosperms) is called pollination. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and protein-rich, for dispersal by insect pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores.\n",
"In seed plants, after pollination, a pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a micropyle.The sperm are transferred from the pollen through the pollen tube to the ovule.\n"
] |
I have seen footage from World War I and there were two soldiers carrying big, round thing, what could it be?
|
It's a roll of Concertina Wire. Effective barrier against infantry and vehicles.
Basically it's barbed wire rolled in a circle to make it hard to ignore and easier to set up. 3 of them in a pyramid shape are the standard configuration.
Source: I've set up plenty of this
Additional Source: _URL_0_
|
[
"John \"Barney\" Hines (1878–1958) was a British-born Australian soldier of World War I, known for his prowess at taking items from German soldiers. Hines was the subject of a famous photo taken by Frank Hurley that depicted him surrounded by German military equipment and money he had looted during the Battle of Polygon Wood in September 1917. This image is among the best-known Australian photographs of the war.\n",
"These small-size devices were first intended for use by United States Army ground soldiers in battle and were in theory small enough to be delivered by a bazooka-style firing mechanism. Early known versions could destroy a two-block area, with an estimated yield comparable to approximately 10 tons TNT equivalent. Larger versions were later developed with a selectable yield of between 10 and 250 tons. \n",
"BULLET::::- In the movie it is possible to see in a scene the type of Brewster Body Shield, an armour used by U.S.Army in World War I and called in the movie \"Corazze Fasina\", which refers to the Corazze Farina, the armour actually in use by the Italian Royal Army in WWI.\n",
"They were most famously used by the British, French, and American armies in World War I for hauling heavy artillery; including the BL 9.2-inch howitzer and the BL 8-inch howitzer. Around 2000 Holt 75s along with 698 Holt 120s and 63 Holt 60s saw military use during the war.\n",
"The CLE Canister was a standardized cylindrical container used by the British during World War 2 to airdrop supplies to troops on the ground. The name initially derived from the Central Landing Establishment that developed them, although this was later backronymed to \"Container Light Equipment\".\n",
"BULLET::::- In the Pacific and European theatres during World War II, \"foo fighters\" (metallic spheres, balls of light and other shapes that followed aircraft) were reported and on occasion photographed by Allied and Axis pilots. Some proposed Allied explanations at the time included St. Elmo's fire, the planet Venus, hallucinations from oxygen deprivation, or German secret weapons.\n",
"Arthur Samuel Mole (January 7, 1889 in Lexden, Essex, England – 14 August 1983 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, US) was a British-born, naturalized American commercial photographer. He became famous for a series of \"living photographs\" made during World War I, in which tens of thousands of soldiers, reservists and other members of the military were arranged to form massive compositions. Although if viewed from the ground or from directly above, these masses of men would appear meaningless, when seen from the top of an 80-foot viewing tower, they clearly appeared to be various patriotic shapes (anamorphosis). The key was to photograph the people from the one place where the lines of perspective would resolve themselves into intelligible images. His partner in this endeavor was John D. Thomas.\n"
] |
Can anyone identify these microorganisms?
|
Number 1 is **likely** a [Rotifer](_URL_0_) from Phylum Rotifera. They are common in fresh water environments. Some are free floating while others anchor themselves to something (plants, soil, rocks etc...). They feed by having the cilia on their corona (these large flaps that protrude from their mouths, a bit like lips) sweep food into their mouths. They can blow through the water like a street cleaner, sweeping debris and food into their mouths for consumption.
Not sure on the second one, likely a larval form of an insect, not very good with those.
|
[
"Over 100 species have been included in the genus \"Mycoplasma\". Microbes of the class Mollicutes, to which Mycoplasma belongs, are parasites or commensals of humans, animals, and plants. The genus \"Mycoplasma\" uses vertebrate and arthropod hosts.\n",
"Carini was Professor of Microbiology at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Pavia and a prolific researcher in medical microbiology. He identified or studied over 150 new or little-known micro-organisms, including trypanosomes, Giardia, pneumocystis, plasmodia, toxoplasma, and Leptospira.\n",
"In order to identify \"Pythium irregulare\" it is necessary to isolate the organism and observe it microscopically. First, it is important to identify that the microbe is an oomycete by looking for characteristics that are specific to oomycetes, such as coenocytic hyphae, zoospores, and oospores. After that, one can identify the microbe as being in the genera \"Pythium\" by observing disease symptoms, host range, as well as the presence of a vesicle, where zoospores form, which is attached to the sporangia. In contrast, most other oomycetes do not have a vesicle and the zoospores form in the sporangia. Finally, once the genera has been identified, it is helpful to use a dichotomous key to identify the species. Some of the key identifiers for \"P. irregulare\" include oogonia with irregular shaped, cylindrical projections, sporangia that occur singly, sporangia that are not filamentous, and oogonia smaller than 30 μm. There are also many genomic tests that can be done to determine species based on specific DNA markers. It is also important to note that many diagnosticians do not identify to the species level because it can be difficult to find all necessary microscopic structures and many management techniques can be applied to all \"Pythium\" species.\n",
"The Microbotryomycetes are class of fungi in the Pucciniomycotina subdivision of the Basidiomycota. Until recently, the class contained four orders: the Heterogastridiales, the Leucosporidiales, the Microbotryales, and the Sporidiobolales, which contained a total of 4 families, 25 genera, and 208 species. The order Kriegeriales, containing two families, Kriegeriaceae and Camptobasidiaceae, was defined in 2012.\n",
"A microbody (or cytosome) is a type of organelle that is found in the cells of plants, protozoa, and animals. Organelles in the microbody family include peroxisomes, glyoxysomes, glycosomes and hydrogenosomes. In vertebrates, microbodies are especially prevalent in the liver and kidney.\n",
"Until recently, no biochemical or molecular markers were known that could distinguish the species from the phylum Thermotogae from all other bacteria. However, a recent comparative genomic study has identified large numbers of conserved signature indels (CSIs) in important proteins that are specific for either all Thermotogae species or a number of its subgroups. Many of these CSIs in important housekeeping proteins such as Pol1, RecA, and TrpRS, and ribosomal proteins L4, L7/L12, S8, S9, etc. are uniquely present in different sequenced Thermotogae species providing novel molecular markers for this phylum. These studies also identified CSIs specific for each order and each family. These indels are the premise for the current taxonomic organization of the Thermotogae, and are strongly supported by phylogenomic analyses. Additional CSIs have also been found that are specific for \"Thermotoga\", \"Pseudothermotoga\", \"Fervidobacterium\", and \"Thermosipho\". These CSIs are specific for all species within each respective genus, and absent in all other bacteria, thus are specific markers. A clade consisting of the deep-branching species \"Petrotoga mobilis\", \"Kosmotoga olearia\", and \"Thermotogales bacterium\" mesG1 was also supported by seven CSIs. Additionally, some CSIs that provided evidence of LGT among the Thermotogae and other prokaryotic groups were also reported. The newly discovered molecular markers provide novel means for identification and circumscription of species from the phylum in molecular terms and for future revisions to its taxonomy.\n",
"The Microascales are an order of fungi in the class Sordariomycetes, subclass Hypocreomycetidae. This is a relatively small order of mostly saprobic fungi that live in soil, rotting vegetation and dung. Some species are plant pathogens, such as \"Ceratocystis fimbriata\", transmitted by beetles to living trees and causing cacao wilt and many other economically important diseases. Species in the genus \"Pseudallescheria\" (family Microascaceae) are pathogenic to humans, for example, \"Pseudallescheria boydii\" can cause allergic bronchopulmonary disease. The order was circumscribed in 1980.\n"
] |
how can food be "smoked" or have a "smoky taste"?
|
I smoke and use a "green egg" type grill on almost a daily basis.
The "smoke" flavor is absorbed by the outermost part of the meat being cooked, when you cut into it, chicken being the easiest to tell with, a pink ring is created in the meat. this is the "smoke ring" where the flavor from whatever wood you have chosen resides.
Everything you cook with, leaves a flavor is the general gist of it. fruit tree wood tends to be a bit sweeter, some smoke chips are made from things like whiskey barrels, that you can get a "whisky" flavor imparted. but again, whatever you cook with, gas, charcoal briquettes with lighter fluid ( which is horrible tasting ) leaves some sort of flavor behind. Some good, some bad. Smoking normally occurs at lower temps, this allows the meat to absorb more of the "smoke" flavor. different woods, have different flavors. Mostly, its personal taste. I hate hickory, but love cherry, or apple wood.
Smoking meat mostly in earlier days was used to help preserve meat, there are compounds produced in the smoke, that kill, and restrict the growth of bacteria and germs.
|
[
"This is a list of smoked foods. Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Foods have been smoked by humans throughout history. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make beverages such as whisky, smoked beer, and \"lapsang souchong\" tea are also smoked. Smoked beverages are also included in this list.\n",
"Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat, fish, and \"lapsang souchong\" tea are often smoked.\n",
"BULLET::::- Smoking – the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. Hot smoking will cook and flavor the food, while cold smoking only flavors the food.\n",
"Hot smoking exposes the foods to smoke and heat in a controlled environment such as a smoker oven or smokehouse. Hot smoking requires the use of a smoker which generates heat either from a charcoal base, heated element within the smoker or from a stove-top or oven, food is hot smoked by cooking and flavoured with wood smoke simultaneously. Like cold smoking, the item may be hung first to develop a pellicle, it is then smoked from 1 hour to as long as 24 hours. Although foods that have been hot smoked are often reheated or further cooked, they are typically safe to eat without further cooking. Hams and ham hocks are fully cooked once they are properly smoked, and they can be eaten as is without any further preparation. Hot smoking usually occurs within the range of . When food is smoked within this temperature range, foods are fully cooked, moist, and flavorful. If the smoker is allowed to get hotter than , the foods will shrink excessively, buckle, or even split. Smoking at high temperatures also reduces yield, as both moisture and fat are cooked away.\n",
"Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, and/or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, nuts, and ingredients used to make beverages such as beer or smoked beer are also smoked.\n",
"One remarkable tradition is \"smoked food\", referring to the use of smoked red chilli to infuse a strong aroma in food. Smoked chilli is used in preparing \"chokhaa\", i.e. mashed brinjals / potatoes / tomatoes, either single or combined. Smoked chilli is also used in preparing kadam chutney (the kadam is a common fruit that is sweet-sour in taste).\n",
"Liquid smoke is a water-soluble yellow to red liquid used for flavoring. It is used as a substitute for cooking with wood smoke while retaining a similar flavor. It can be used to flavor any meat or vegetable. It is generally made by condensing the smoke from wood, but can contain any number of food additives.\n"
] |
why can't i relax my jaw to be able to freely move it with my hands?
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Well, you actually *can* move the jaw by external force. If you've ever been hit in the chin, or bumped your chin against something, and it made your teeth collide with each other, that's what happened.
The reason it doesn't happen much is that the muscles that move your jaw (the masseter is the one that closes it, and I'm blanking on the name of the one that opens it) are very strong, particularly for their size. Also, because opening and closing your mouth are such instinctive movements, the muscles almost act of their own accord, without you thinking about it. This is good because without the muscles working all the time, your jaw would just hang open constantly.
TLDR: Jaw muscles are very strong, and are basically "always on". While you can move your jaw with external force, it's surprisingly difficult.
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[
"As with most dislocated joints, a dislocated jaw can usually be successfully positioned into its normal position by a trained medical professional. Attempts to readjust the jaw without the assistance of a medical professional could result in worsening of the injury. The health care provider may be able to set it back into the correct position by manipulating the area back into its proper position. Numbing medications such as general anesthetics, muscle relaxants, or in some cases sedation, may be needed to relax the strong jaw muscle. In more severe cases, surgery may be needed to reposition the jaw, particularly if repeated jaw dislocations have occurred.\n",
"When a person has a dislocated jaw it is difficult to open and close the mouth. Dislocation can occur following a series of events if the jaw locks while open or unable to close. If the jaw is dislocated, it may cause an extreme headache or inability to concentrate. When the muscle's alignment is out of sync, a pain will occur due to unwanted rotation of the jaw.\n",
"It is generally considered that all aspects of the hand must be exercised to produce a healthy and strong hand. Only working on closing grip will cause an imbalance between closing and opening (antagonist) muscles, and can lead to problems such as tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.\n",
"The patient is asked to hold both arms fully extended at shoulder level in front of them, with the palms upwards, and hold the position. If they are unable to maintain the position the result is positive. Closing the eyes accentuates the effect, because the brain is deprived of visual information about the position of the body and must rely on proprioception. Tapping on the palm of the outstretched hands can accentuate the effect.\n",
"The jaw-thrust maneuver is an effective airway technique, particularly in the patient in whom cervical spine injury is a concern. It is easiest when the patient is positioned supine. The practitioner places their index and middle fingers behind the angle of the mandible to physically push the posterior aspects of the mandible upwards while their thumbs push down on the chin to open the mouth. When the mandible is displaced forward, it pulls the tongue forward and prevents it from occluding the entrance to the trachea.\n",
"According to Tiffany Field, the director of the Touch Research Institute, holding hands stimulates the vagus nerve, which decreases blood pressure and heart rate and puts people in a more relaxed state.\n",
"Individuals with extremely lax, or hypermobile joints, can be identified by their ability to bend their elbows, knees or hips past a position of neutrality. They may also be able to easily touch their hands flat to the floor while bending forward from the waist. The ability to touch the thumb to the forearm is also common.\n"
] |
Arsenic in food. What's the real story?
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The CDC's Chemical Profile page for [Arsenic](_URL_0_) is a really good place to start.
In the US the only exposure levels that have been set are for occupational exposure, by OSHA, and the EPA has set a standard for arsenic in drinking water (0.01 ppm).
In general, you probably won't ingest enough arsenic from food to give you cancer, but a chronic low level exposure to arsenic will cause other health effects (nausea, vomiting, skin discolouration, ...)
It also depends on the type of arsenic and type of exposure. Inorganic arsenic is more readily absorbed through the skin, and has been found to be more harmful than organic arsenic compounds. Organic arsenic is found in pesticides, so that's more likely the type you would ingest.
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[
"Lowe and McLaughlin state that the chemical analyses conducted at the time do not support the theory that the incident was accidental. Cheong's clan record reports that \"one day, through carelessness, a worker dropped some 'odd things' into the flour\". Yet the arsenic was found only in the bread itself, and in massive quantities—not in the flour, yeast, pastry, or in scrapings collected from the table, all of which were tested. If these results are correct, the poison must have been introduced shortly before baking. Moreover, despite its ultimate failure, Lowe and McLaughlin argue that the incident had certain characteristics of careful strategic planning: the decision to poison European-style bread, a food generally not eaten by Chinese at the time, would have served to separate the intended targets of the plot, while white arsenic (arsenic trioxide) was a fast-acting poison naturally available in China, well-suited to the task.\n",
"Arsenic is a metalloid (\"i.e.\", an element with some metallic properties) found in and on most naturally occurring substances on Earth. It can be found in the soil, ground water, air, and in small concentrations in food. Arsenic has many applications such as in the production of insecticides, herbicides, pesticides and electronic devices. The development of diabetes has been linked to arsenic exposure from drinking water and occupational contact.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1857, Hong Kong. Esing Bakery incident: 300–500 people consumed bread adulterated with large quantities of arsenic. Only three deaths were recorded, since the amount of arsenic was high enough to induce vomiting and prevent digestion. It is unknown whether the contamination was deliberate or accidental.\n",
"Arsenic for Tea is a children's mystery novel by American-English author Robin Stevens. The story is written in the style of a casebook and follows the fictional schoolgirl Detective Society detectives, the Honourable Daisy Wells and Hazel Wong, as they try to find the murderer of a guest at Daisy's birthday party, Mr. Curtis. \"Arsenic for Tea\" was nominated for the 2016 Carnegie Medal awards, but did not make the longlist. The book is a sequel to \"Murder Most Unladylike\".\n",
"Arsenic is a naturally occurring element and can be found in food, water, or air. There are also industrial sources of arsenic, including mining and smelting. \"People are exposed to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic through drinking contaminated water, using contaminated water in food preparation and irrigation of food crops, industrial processes, eating contaminated food and smoking tobacco. Long-term exposure to inorganic arsenic... can lead to chronic arsenic poisoning. Skin lesions and skin cancer are the most characteristic effects.\" \n",
"BULLET::::- 1812, July 22: Conspirators managed to place arsenic in bread flour supplies destined for the French garrison in the Citadel of Barcelona. Most of the French troops suffered the consequences of the poisoned bread in the form of painful vomiting. There were then attempts to poison the wine of the Valley of Llinars, the spirit of Tarragona, and the water of Hostalric and Mataró.\n",
"Arsenic, in the form of white arsenic trioxide , was a highly favored poison, being odourless, easily incorporated into food and drink, and before the advent of the Marsh test, untraceable in the body. In France, it came to be known as \"\" (\"inheritance powder\"). For the untrained, arsenic poisoning will have symptoms similar to cholera.\n"
] |
17 and need to know how taxes work?
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Ask them what you have to do to have the most amount withheld (probably have to use `0`).
How do taxes work? I'd say they don't. But to answer your question, an amount gets withheld from your salary each pay check and gets sent to the government every quarter. Then, at the end of the year you file your returns which tells whether you have paid too much already or not paid enough. In your situation, you have probably paid too much (which I'd say is a good thing) and you wait for a check in the mail (you can also have it directly deposited to your bank account).
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[
"Congress has enacted numerous laws dealing with taxes since adoption of the Constitution. Those laws are now codified as Title 19, Customs Duties, Title 26, Internal Revenue Code, and various other provisions. These laws specifically authorize the United States Secretary of the Treasury to delegate various powers related to levy, assessment and collection of taxes.\n",
"According to the U.S. Supreme Court, the power of administrative levy for federal taxes dates back to the year 1791. The Fifth Amendment of the Constitution forbids the government (whether state or federal) from taking an individual's property without due process of law. This rule applies to an IRS levy. To comply with the U.S. Constitution, the IRS must provide the taxpayer notice of the coming levy and an opportunity to be heard. Under §6330(a)(2), the IRS must send to the taxpayer a notice by either personal hand delivery, or through certified mail, or left at the taxpayer's usual place of business. The notice must arrive at least thirty days prior to the levy taking place.\n",
"Income taxes in the United States are self-assessed by taxpayers by filing required tax returns. Taxpayers, as well as certain non-tax-paying entities, like partnerships, must file annual tax returns at the federal and applicable state levels. These returns disclose a complete computation of taxable income under tax principles. Taxpayers compute all income, deductions, and credits themselves, and determine the amount of tax due after applying required prepayments and taxes withheld. Federal and state tax authorities provide preprinted forms that must be used to file tax returns. IRS Form 1040 series is required for individuals, Form 1120 series for corporations, Form 1065 for partnerships, and Form 990 series for tax exempt organizations.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"United States v. Butler\", The U.S. Congresss power to lay taxes is not limited only to the level necessary to carry out its other powers enumerated in Article I of the U.S. Constitution, but is a broad authority to tax and spend for the \"general welfare\" of the United States.\n",
"As it now stands, the U.S. Internal Revenue Code is over several million words long, and contains many loopholes, deductions, and exemptions which, advocates of flat taxes claim, render the collection of taxes and the enforcement of tax law complicated and inefficient.\n",
"The duty to pay taxes is affirmed by the Constitution of 2008 individually as well as in commerce. The Constitution also confirms the ability of local governments to raise taxes in accordance to laws passed by Parliament. Under the Constitution, taxation is specifically disqualified as the subject of national referenda, leaving tax laws within the exclusive purview of Parliament.\n",
"A tax levy, under United States Federal law, is an administrative action by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) under statutory authority, generally without going to court, to seize property to satisfy a tax liability. The levy \"includes the power of distraint and seizure by any means\". The general rule is that no court permission is required for the IRS to execute a tax levy. While the government relies mainly on voluntary payment of tax, it retains the power of levy to collect involuntarily from those who persistently refuse to pay. The IRS can levy upon wages, bank accounts, social security payments, accounts receivables, insurance proceeds, real property, and, in some cases, a personal residence. Under Internal Revenue Code section 6331, the Internal Revenue Service can \"levy upon all property and rights to property\" of a taxpayer who owes Federal tax. The IRS can levy upon assets that are in the possession of the taxpayer, called a seizure, or it can levy upon assets in the possession of a third party, a bank, a brokerage house, etc. All future statutory references will be to the Internal Revenue Code unless noted otherwise.\n"
] |
what is the benefit of having all these subreddits going private?
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_URL_0_
In short, Victoria, the AMA lady, was apparently fired today with no notice and no support for the mods and subs who depend on her, and subreddits are shutting down left, right, and center either because she was critical to their operations or as a show of solidarity for all the people who are being screwed over.
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[
"In May 2019, former Reddit CEO Ellen Pao told Mother Jones that the subreddit should be banned for not following the sites rules. However, she also acknowledged that \"it's hard to take down a subreddit which is driving a lot of traffic.\"\n",
"The subreddit r/DarkNetMarkets, a darknet market discussion forum, featured participation from their owners, causing US authorities to request personal information behind several accounts. This subreddit was banned on 21 March 2018.\n",
"\"Public Domain\" is a reality TV game show in which the producers infiltrate the contestants' homes without their knowledge and place them under surveillance for the world to see. In a Big Brother-style twist, viewers vote for who they think is the funniest and most dysfunctional contestant, and the top three based on these votes are chosen as the finalists.\n",
"The so-called \"bad\" leechers are those running specially modified clients which avoid uploading data. This has led to the development of a multitude of technologies to ban such misbehaving clients. For example, on BitTorrent, most private trackers do keep track of the amount of data a client uploads or downloads to avoid leeching, while on real P2P networks systems like DLP (Dynamic Leecher Protection) (eMule Xtreme Mod, eDonkey network) or uploader rewarding (Gnutella2) have been brought in place. Note that BitTorrent is not a P2P network, it is only a P2P file distribution system.\n",
"The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all does not filter topics. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages.\n",
"Activities by members and moderators of the subreddit have been controversial, and site-wide administrators have taken steps, including an overhaul of the Reddit software, to prevent the subreddit from having popular content displayed on Reddit's r/all forum, which the company's motto describes as \"the front page of the Internet.\" A quarantine of the subreddit was imposed in June 2019, requiring users to click an opt-in button to view the subreddit and preventing the subreddit from appearing in Reddit's and Google's search results and recommendations.\n",
"Private.me is a privacy platform designed to keep an individual's personal data private and secure. Using a patent pending system, Private.Me has built a forgetful web service that allows its users to control who can access their private data. When Private.Me is used for search all the data is encrypted and dispersed in geographical dispersed organisations.\n"
] |
how can matter outside of the observable universe travel faster than light?
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It can't. Nothing with mass can ever travel at or faster than the speed of light in a vacuum (c). It sounds like you may be confusing the observable universe with the Hubble volume. Beyond the Hubble volume, objects are receding from us at faster than c because of the expansion of the universe. The objects themselves are not moving faster than light, but rather space is expanding faster than light.
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[
"Light that travels through transparent matter does so at a lower speed than \"c\", the speed of light in a vacuum. For example, photons engage in so many collisions on the way from the core of the sun that radiant energy can take about a million years to reach the surface; however, once in open space, a photon takes only 8.3 minutes to reach Earth. The factor by which the speed is decreased is called the refractive index of the material. In a classical wave picture, the slowing can be explained by the light inducing electric polarization in the matter, the polarized matter radiating new light, and that new light interfering with the original light wave to form a delayed wave. In a particle picture, the slowing can instead be described as a blending of the photon with quantum excitations of the matter to produce quasi-particles known as polariton (other quasi-particles are phonons and excitons); this polariton has a nonzero effective mass, which means that it cannot travel at \"c\". Light of different frequencies may travel through matter at different speeds; this is called dispersion (not to be confused with scattering). In some cases, it can result in extremely slow speeds of light in matter. The effects of photon interactions with other quasi-particles may be observed directly in Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering.\n",
"Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble's law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a \"future visibility limit\" beyond which objects will \"never\" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n",
"He goes on to explain that in Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, the rule that nothing can go faster than the speed of light, does not apply to galaxies in an expanding universe. He further explains that while that rule may apply in a preexisting static space, it does \"not\" apply in an expanding universe. In an expanding cosmic universe galaxies can travel away from each other at speeds in excess of the speed of light. As a result of this there are galaxies so far away that the light from them have not reached earth yet and therefore we don't even know they exist. Ferris refers to this phenomenon as a boundless steadily increasing and changing universe with a changing density.\n",
"Einstein's theory of special relativity states that energy and mass are interchangeable, and speed of light travel is impossible for material objects that weigh more than photons. The problem of a material object exceeding light speed is that an infinite amount of kinetic energy would be required to travel at exactly the speed of light. This can theoretically be solved by warping space to move an object instead of increasing the kinetic energy of the object to do so. Such a solution to the faster than light travel problem leads to two directly opposite approaches to light-speed travel in science fiction: in the first, spaceships themselves are brought to light speed and beyond; in the second, not-yet-local space itself is made to come to the ship while the ship moves at sub-light speeds.\n",
"According to the current scientific theories, matter is required to travel at slower-than-light (also subluminal or STL) speed with respect to the locally distorted spacetime region. \"Apparent\" FTL is not excluded by general relativity; however, any apparent FTL physical plausibility is speculative. Examples of apparent FTL proposals are the Alcubierre drive and the traversable wormhole.\n",
"By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n",
"From the ship's frame, the acceleration would continue at the same rate. However, due to Lorentz contraction, the galaxy around the ship would appear to become squashed in the direction of travel, and a destination many light years away would appear to become much closer. Traveling to this destination at subluminal speeds would become practical for the onboard travellers. Ultimately, from the ship's frame, it would be possible to reach anywhere in the observable universe, without the ship ever accelerating to light speed.\n"
] |
What is the best way to become an astrogeologist?
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1. Get a bachelor's degree in astronomy or geology.
1A. Get research experience with a professor.
2. Get a PhD in whichever you didn't do your undergrad in.
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[
"While an undergraduate, Carlson carried out what is widely regarded to be the most comprehensive test of astrologer's abilities to extract information about their clients from the apparent positions of celestial objects as seen from the places and times of their clients' births.\n",
"The primary goal of astronomy is to understand the physics of the universe. Astrologers use astronomical calculations for the positions of celestial bodies along the ecliptic and attempt to correlate celestial events (astrological aspects, sign positions) with earthly events and human affairs. Astronomers consistently use the scientific method, naturalistic presuppositions and abstract mathematical reasoning to investigate or explain phenomena in the universe. Astrologers use mystical or religious reasoning as well as traditional folklore, symbolism and superstition blended with mathematical predictions to explain phenomena in the universe. The scientific method is not consistently used by astrologers.\n",
"ASTRO (the American Society for Radiation Oncology) is a professional association in radiation oncology that is dedicated to improving patient care through professional education and training, support for clinical practice and health policy standards, advancement of science and research, and advocacy. ASTRO has a membership of more than 10,000 members covering a range of professions including Radiation Oncologist, Radiation Therapists, Medical Dosimetrists Medical Physicists, Radiation Oncology Nurses and Radiation Biologists.\n",
"ASTRON's main mission is to make discoveries in radio astronomy happen, via the development of new and innovative technologies, the operation of world-class radio astronomy facilities, and the pursuit of fundamental astronomical research. Engineers and astronomers at ASTRON have an outstanding international reputation for novel technology development, and fundamental research in galactic and extra-galactic astronomy.\n",
"The Faculty of Astrological Studies runs training courses by distance learning or classes in London. Its syllabus is reputed to be \"rigorous\" and includes a study of \"history, astronomy, psychology, counselling methods, and every kind of astrological technique\". Holders of its diploma are required to sign its Code of Ethics. It also holds an annual Summer School in Oxford.\n",
"Using hands-on exhibits, digital interactives, videos and audio installations visitors can investigate all the scientific topics that make up modern astrophysics. At every single stations visitors can choose the depth at which they want to delve into the topic. All information is also explained at a special child-friendly level.\n",
"Amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions in doing citizen science, such as by monitoring variable stars, double stars sunspots, or occultations of stars by the Moon or asteroids, or by discovering transient astronomical events, such as comets, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies.\n"
] |
If I had a rod that was two lightsyears long and suspended in space, and I pushed one end, how long would it take the other end to react?
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You are right. The deformation of the material would propagate through at the speed of sound in the material, and so that would determine how long it would take till the other end moved.
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[
"It follows that if a rod is accelerated by some external force applied anywhere along its length, the elements of matter in various different places in the rod cannot all feel the same magnitude of acceleration if the rod is not to extend without bound and ultimately break. In other words, an accelerated rod which does not break must sustain stresses which vary along its length. Furthermore, in any thought experiment with time varying forces, whether we \"kick\" an object or try to accelerate it gradually, we cannot avoid the problem of avoiding mechanical models which are inconsistent with relativistic kinematics (because distant parts of the body respond too quickly to an applied force).\n",
"The rods interconnect to form a large X, and look like they recede into space. One end is smooth and cylindrical, while the other tapers at the end and is capped with a sphere. The spherical ends are connected to two more rods that run vertically down to yet another machine. It is a contraption similar to a waterwheel with spokes of a bicycle wheel. This is tilted away from the viewer, almost to the point that it is indistinguishable. This in turn is placed on two elongated ovals, which are almost like runners. These support the wheel, along with the framework of a metal box that encases it and intersects with the Bachelors' \"feet\".\n",
"The 6 rods float in parallel pairs, one pair lying in each of the three orthogonal planes. The pairs rest edge lengths apart from each other. The rod length must be twice this distance (about 2.45 edge lengths). \n",
"Then they discussed the objection, that there should be no difference between a) the distance between two ends of a connected rod, and b) the distance between two unconnected objects which move with the same velocity with respect to an inertial frame. Dewan and Beran removed those objections by arguing:\n",
"BULLET::::1. After release, the rod falls. Being constrained, it must rotate as it moves. When it gets to a vertical six o'clock position, it has lost potential energy and, because the motion is frictionless, will have gained kinetic energy. It therefore possesses angular momentum.\n",
"A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches.\n",
"From the perspective of the grate, the rod undergoes a length contraction and fits into the grate. However, from the perspective of the rod, it is the \"grate\" undergoing a length contraction, through which it seems the rod is then too long to fall.\n"
] |
Home experiment demonstrating particle nature of light?
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[here](_URL_0_)'s a good example of how you can demonstrate the photoelectric effect at home.
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[
"It is also possible that the illumination experiments can be explained by a longitudinal learning effect. Parsons has declined to analyse the illumination experiments, on the grounds that they have not been properly published and so he cannot get at details, whereas he had extensive personal communication with Roethlisberger and Dickson.\n",
"This was an important discovery during the 1920s when the particle (photon) nature of light suggested by the Photoelectric effect was still being debated, the Compton experiment gave clear and independent evidence of particle-like behavior.\n",
"In 1803, Young's interference experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. If white light is used in Young's experiment, the result is a white central band of constructive interference corresponding to equal path length from the two slits, surrounded by a symmetrical pattern of colored fringes of diminishing intensity. In addition to continuous electromagnetic radiation, Young's experiment has been performed with individual photons, with electrons, and with buckyball molecules large enough to be seen under an electron microscope.\n",
"In practice most actual experiments have used light, assumed to be emitted in the form of particle-like photons (produced by atomic cascade or spontaneous parametric down conversion), rather than the atoms that Bell originally had in mind. The property of interest is, in the best known experiments, the polarisation direction, though other properties can be used. Such experiments fall into two classes, depending on whether the analysers used have one or two output channels.\n",
"This was a pivotal result in the development of quantum mechanics. Just as the photoelectric effect demonstrated the particle nature of light, the Davisson–Germer experiment showed the wave-nature of matter, and completed the theory of wave–particle duality. For physicists this idea was important because it meant that not only could any particle exhibit wave characteristics, but that one could use wave equations to describe phenomena in matter if one used the de Broglie wavelength.\n",
"The experiment observed the light produced by relativistic electrons in the water created by neutrino interactions. As relativistic electrons travel through a medium, they lose energy producing a cone of blue light through the Cherenkov effect, and it is this light that is directly detected.\n",
"In quantum mechanics, this experiment is considered to demonstrate the inseparability of the wave and particle natures of light and other quantum particles (wave–particle duality). Richard Feynman was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment.\n"
] |
why do people say “he died for our sins”?
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if you don't sin he died for no reason, so sin whenever you are able to, make his death worth a thousend sins
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[
"In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing \"a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah.\" The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . \"Raised on the third day\" is derived from : \n",
"In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . (NRSV):\n",
"BULLET::::- \"I know that there is no one so righteous that they have not wronged another, financially or physically, through deed or speech. This pains my heart within me, because wrongs between humans and their fellow are not atoned by Yom Kippur, until the wronged one is appeased. Because of this, my heart breaks within me, and my bones tremble; for even the day of death does not atone for such sins. Therefore I prostrate and beg before You, to have mercy on me, and grant me grace, compassion, and mercy in Your eyes and in the eyes of all people. For behold, I forgive with a final and resolved forgiveness anyone who has wronged me, whether in person or property, even if they slandered me, or spread falsehoods against me. So I release anyone who has injured me either in person or in property, or has committed any manner of sin that one may commit against another [except for legally enforceable business obligations, and except for someone who has deliberately harmed me with the thought ‘I can harm him because he will forgive me']. Except for these two, I fully and finally forgive everyone; may no one be punished because of me. And just as I forgive everyone, so may You grant me grace in the eyes of others, that they too forgive me absolutely.\" [emphasis added]\n",
"In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . \"Raised on the third day\" is derived from : \n",
"Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt associates the taboo to a fear that the dead man's soul has become a demon. Moreover, many cases show a hostility toward the dead and their representation as malevolent figures. Edward Westermarck notes that \"Death is commonly regarded as the gravest of all misfortunes; hence the dead are believed to be exceedingly dissatisfied with their fate [...] such a death naturally tends to make the soul revengeful and ill-tempered. It is envious of the living and is longing for the company of its old friend.\"\n",
"Apparently those making the report were looking for Jesus to offer some explanation of why bad things happen to normal people—in this case even while they were worshiping. The \"sin and calamity\" issue involves a presumption that an extraordinary tragedy in some way must signify extraordinary guilt. It assumes that a victim must have done something terrible for God to allow something so tragic to happen to them.\n",
"The word \"perish\" in the New Testament very often refers to a terrible judgment following one's physical death. Since Jesus connects it directly to sin and says it can be escaped by repentance, \"perish\" here most logically refers to the final judgment. For example, in Jesus says, \"For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.\" Perishing is the biblical alternative to having everlasting life. Perishing is what happens to those who don't have eternal life. The same principle appears in where Jesus says, \"I give them eternal life, and they shall not \"perish\" for ever.\"\n"
] |
how were mitochondria allowed to survive in foreign cells without being treated as invaders and digested?
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Cells have pretty basic immune systems even now, with a lot of issues with bacteria crawling in and out of them and a lot of human disease involving types of bacteria that can enter cells and the body immune system having to deal with it because the cell immune system can't. Go back a hundred million years and the immune system was even more basic.
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[
"The ability to ingest other cells enabled ancestral eukaryotes to build a much more complex cell. Once the capacity for consuming other cells was in place, early eukaryotes began to acquire internal membrane-bound organelles that included organelles that were once free-living prokaryotes. Based on phylogenetic and structural evidence, it is generally accepted that mitochondria were originally derived from a free-living a-proteobacterium. The bacterium was engulfed by an ancient cell, likely an Archaea, and entered into the first endosymbiotic relationship with its new host.\n",
"The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis. The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm. The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage. This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1.7 to 2 billion years ago.\n",
"isolated mitochondria (from cell cultures, animals or plants); permeabilized cells (from cell cultures); and permeabilized fibers or tissues (from animals). In the latter two cases the cellular membrane is made permeable by the addition of chemicals leaving selectively the mitochondrial membrane intact. Therefore, chemicals that usually would not be able to cross the cell membrane can directly influence the mitochondria. By the permeabilization of the cellular membrane, the cell stops to exist as a living, defined organism, leaving only the mitochondria as still functional structures.\n",
"Because of the danger of having damaged mitochondria in the cell, the timely elimination of damaged and aged mitochondria is essential for maintaining the integrity of the cell. This turnover process consists of the sequestration and hydrolytic degradation by the lysosome, a process also known as mitophagy.\n",
"Mammalian erythrocytes do not possess a nucleus. Although it has been suggested that the nucleus was lost in the erythrocytes better to enable them to traverse capillaries evidence for this is lacking. It appears that this loss along with the mitochondria that the erythrocytes also lose may protect the erythrocytes against oxidative stress.\n",
"Mitochondria are small organelles that lie in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, such as those of humans. Their primary function is to provide energy to the cell. Mitochondria are thought to be reduced descendants of symbiotic bacteria that were once free living. One indication that mitochondria were once free living is that each contains a circular DNA, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), whose structure is more similar to bacteria than eukaryotic organisms (see endosymbiotic theory). The overwhelming majority of a human's DNA is contained in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell, but mtDNA is an exception.\n",
"The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double-membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. Some cells in some multicellular organisms may, however, lack them (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells). A number of unicellular organisms, such as microsporidia, parabasalids, and diplomonads, have also reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures. To date, only one eukaryote, \"Monocercomonoides\", is known to have completely lost its mitochondria. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek , , \"thread\", and , , \"granule\" or \"grain-like\". Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. A mitochondrion is thus termed the \"powerhouse\" of the cell. \n"
] |
how does entropy prove why time only goes forwards?
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Think about burning a piece of toast. Can you unburn the toast? No. Why not? Because we didn’t change the toast into a new thing called burnt toast, we just burned up part of the toast. The way our universe works, so far as we can tell, this only goes one way. Once you burnt the toast you can’t make it back the way it was. Even if you had a way or rebuilding it, it wouldn’t be the exact same toast. Even if you found a way to rebuild it with the exact same stuff and it was the same toast (impossible as far as we know) then you would have needed to spend lots and lots of energy to do that, which means we still lost something, right? Not quite.
We didn’t lose anything, really we didn’t even lose anything when we burn the toast. We just converted what was toast into other things. The universe didn’t lose anything, it still has the same amount of stuff it had before. We see it as loss because the heat and burnt crumbs aren’t as useful to us. The universe doesn’t care for toast, it’s not picky at all, it just wants to keep all its stuff. So it’s not that stuff disappears, it just gets turned into less complicated stuff by breaking it down into its most basic parts, including just plain old forms of energy like heat and light.
This may not seem like a big deal, but stretch it out of millions and billions and trillions of years and it starts adding up. Eventually everything get’s less complicated, which means eventually everything becomes the same thing. To put this in human terms, everything dies. When we see this happening we call it time passing.
Time and Entropy are twisted together, one has to be that way because other is. Break one and you break the other.
|
[
"Chapter 6, \"Chance and the Arrow\", asks, \"Does time have an arrow?\" The reader discovers that the laws of physics apply moving both forward in time and backward in time. Such a law is called time-reversal symmetry. One of the major subjects of this chapter is entropy. Various analogies are given to illustrate how entropy works and its apparent paradoxes. The climax of the chapter is the co-relation between entropy and gravity, and that the beginning of the Universe must be the state of minimum entropy.\n",
"The Second Law of Thermodynamics allows for the entropy to \"remain the same\" regardless of the direction of time. If the entropy is constant in either direction of time, there would be no preferred direction. However, the entropy can only be a constant if the system is in the highest possible state of disorder, such as a gas that always was, and always will be, uniformly spread out in its container. The existence of a thermodynamic arrow of time implies that the system is highly ordered in one time direction only, which would by definition be the \"past\". Thus this law is about the boundary conditions rather than the equations of motion of our world.\n",
"The second law of thermodynamics, which predicts that the entropy of an isolated system out of equilibrium should tend to increase rather than decrease or stay constant, stands in apparent contradiction with the time-reversible equations of motion for classical and quantum systems. The time reversal symmetry of the equations of motion show that if one films a given time dependent physical process, then playing the movie of that process backwards does not violate the laws of mechanics. It is often argued that for every forward trajectory in which entropy increases, there exists a time reversed anti trajectory where entropy decreases, thus if one picks an initial state randomly from the system's phase space and evolves it forward according to the laws governing the system, decreasing entropy should be just as likely as increasing entropy. It might seem that this is incompatible with the second law of thermodynamics which predicts that entropy tends to increase. The problem of deriving irreversible thermodynamics from time-symmetric fundamental laws is referred to as Loschmidt's paradox.\n",
"The arrow of time is the \"one-way direction\" or \"asymmetry\" of time. The thermodynamic arrow of time is provided by the second law of thermodynamics, which says that in an isolated system, entropy tends to increase with time. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of microscopic disorder; thus the second law implies that time is asymmetrical with respect to the amount of order in an isolated system: as a system advances through time, it becomes more statistically disordered. This asymmetry can be used empirically to distinguish between future and past, though measuring entropy does not accurately measure time. Also, in an open system, entropy can decrease with time.\n",
"In this context, the role of time in the Second Law of Thermodynamics is curious alone because the irreversible increase of entropy in the universe, as a principle that can be verified through daily observations, as something equivalent of the irreversibility of time, is enough proof of the big bang theory. That is to say, since the increase of entropy in time is continuous and irreversible, one would arrive at the prime oneness if one could travel backward in time.\n",
"Time's arrow is often associated with the broad definition of entropy. According to the second law of thermodynamics, entropy in a closed system increases with time, therefore establishing the irreversible direction of the latter. Entropy can be viewed, in general terms, as an expression of disorder or randomness in a system. The narrator often repeats his observation that creation is easy, whereas destruction is hard: that is probably the best definition of the reversal of time. Accordingly, the novel brings Odilo back from the state of a sinful, haunted war criminal, to that of an immaculate being.\n",
"BULLET::::- Arrow of time (e.g. entropy's arrow of time): Why does time have a direction? Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, and time correlates with the universal (but not local) increase in entropy, from the past and to the future, according to the second law of thermodynamics? Why are CP violations observed in certain weak force decays, but not elsewhere? Are CP violations somehow a product of the second law of thermodynamics, or are they a separate arrow of time? Are there exceptions to the principle of causality? Is there a single possible past? Is the present moment physically distinct from the past and future, or is it merely an emergent property of consciousness? What links the quantum arrow of time to the thermodynamic arrow?\n"
] |
My professor told me that one of the worst mistakes a historian can make is to engage in a teleological reading of history. What is that, and why is it so bad?
|
Going back to the philosophical debates of the ancient Greeks two of the most prominent competing overarching theories of the nature of the Universe in general were teleology vs. mechanism. Teleological beliefs are those that say that things exist or happen for a reason. For example, the idea that the reason clouds exist is to provide rain to water crops so that humans can grow food for themselves. It elevates "purpose" and indeed the concept of sentience or conscious thought to the level of fundamental force in the Universe. Competing against that is the theory that the underlying structure of the Universe is fundamentally mechanistic, based on simple rules and brainless processes without underlying final purpose. Things such as conscious thought and human life aren't planned for integral aspects to the Universe, rather they are emergent accidental phenomena. The process of science has over time settled on a decidedly mechanistic view of the Universe.
In other words, your professor is warning you against the idea that things happen in history purposefully to enable other things in the future that result. For example, it has been very common to elevate the early democracies in Greece by seeing them as intentional ancestors of modern westernized democracies. To see Charlemagne as the creator of France. Or view WWI through the lens of WWII. Especially since so much of history comes down to the actions of individuals acting on their own motivations it's very easy to cast new motivations on them based on what was happening elsewhere or what would happen later. A lot of history comes down to things happening by accident combined with very complex motivations by numerous individuals some of whom are acting together or at cross purposes. Even when you have a lot of detailed information on a historical event it takes a lot of work to understand exactly why some outcome was achieved vs. some other outcome, and it's very easy to ignore all of that and think of history as inevitable or happening within some constraint of a larger purpose or larger system.
|
[
"In modern science, explanations that rely on teleology are often, but not always, avoided, either because they are unnecessary or because whether they are true or false is thought to be beyond the ability of human perception and understanding to judge. But using teleology as an explanatory style, in particular within evolutionary biology, is still controversial.\n",
"Apparent teleology is a recurring issue in evolutionary biology, much to the consternation of some writers, and as an explanatory style it remains controversial. There are various reasons for discomfort with teleology among biologists.\n",
"Telepathy experiments have historically been criticized for lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no convincing evidence that telepathy exists, and the topic is generally considered by the scientific community to be pseudoscience.\n",
"Other psychologists believe that the telescoping errors that have been reported in studies are not due to a phenomenon of memory, but demand characteristics. Responses to questions about the frequency of behavior can be biased because of demand characteristics. Respondents may provide too much information, rather than too little, because they are trying to provide as much useful information as possible, and therefore over-report the frequency of events. Some researchers perceive this over reporting as telescoping because people are including events beyond the given period, but the over reporting could be due to the demand characteristics of the study. Demand characteristics can explain the appearance of forward telescoping, but cannot explain backwards telescoping and can not explain the inaccurate recall of dates when respondents are not led to believe that a certain answer is desirable.\n",
"Some psychologists suggest telescoping errors are due to the heuristics used to answer dating and frequency questions. When asked questions about frequency, people often answer using phrases like \"all the time\" and \"everyday\" and therefore don't account for exceptions. Depending on the events in question, this could lead to an over or under estimation of the occurrence of an event, and be perceived as telescoping. This over reporting is a result of telescoping because telescoping causes participants include events beyond the period. Therefore, heuristics may be responsible for some of the telescoping errors.\n",
"The whole system of Telesio shows gaps in his argument, and ignorance of essential facts, but at the same time it is a forerunner of all subsequent empiricism, scientific and philosophical, and marks clearly the period of transition from authority and reason to experiment and individual responsibility.\n",
"A teleological argument holds all things to be designed for, or directed toward, a specific final result. That specific result gives events and actions, even retrospectively, an inherent purpose. When applied to the historical process, an historical teleological argument posits the result as the inevitable trajectory of a specific set of events. These events lead \"inevitably,\" as Karl Marx or Friedrich Engels proposed, to a specific set of conditions or situations; the resolution of those lead to another, and so on. This goal-oriented, 'teleological' notion of the historical process as a whole is present in a variety of arguments about the past: the \"inevitability,\" for example, of the revolution of the proletariat and the \"Whiggish\" narrative of past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment that culminated in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy.\n"
] |
why are relays (electronics) used?
|
A relay allows a much smaller current to switch a very large current, or a DC signal to switch an AC signal, or for a single signal to switch multiple signals. They're very versatile.
To be turned on via relay contacts just means that power is supplied from the electrical contacts of the relay. A signal goes into the relay, telling it to supply power to output contacts, which then would supply power to the load (in this case, a PLC).
|
[
"Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays were first used in long-distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters: they refresh the signal coming in from one circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.\n",
"The traditional form of a relay uses an electromagnet to close or open the contacts, but other operating principles have been invented, such as in solid-state relays which use semiconductor properties for control without relying on moving parts. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called \"protective relays\".\n",
"Relays are used wherever it is necessary to control a high power or high voltage circuit with a low power circuit, especially when galvanic isolation is desirable. The first application of relays was in long telegraph lines, where the weak signal received at an intermediate station could control a contact, regenerating the signal for further transmission. High-voltage or high-current devices can be controlled with small, low voltage wiring and pilots switches. Operators can be isolated from the high voltage circuit. Low power devices such as microprocessors can drive relays to control electrical loads beyond their direct drive capability. In an automobile, a starter relay allows the high current of the cranking motor to be controlled with small wiring and contacts in the ignition key.\n",
"A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used in programmable logic controllers.\n",
"Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery. Electromechanical protective relays are used to detect overload and other faults on electrical lines by opening and closing circuit breakers.\n",
"In electrical systems, a static relay is a type of relay, an electrically operated switch, that has no moving parts. Static relays are contrasted with electromechanical relays, which use moving parts to create a switching action. Both types of relay control electrical circuits through a switch that is open or closed depending upon an electrical input. \n",
"Static relays have no or few moving parts, and became practical with the introduction of the transistor. Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically built up from diodes, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-n bipolar transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations. Static relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical relays, because power to operate output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from the signal circuits. Static relays eliminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast operation, long life and low maintenance.\n"
] |
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