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This form of marketing permits the operation to use scarce marketing resources effectively to reach those segments with the highest probability of purchasing the restaurant's products and services. Thus, it becomes important to understand ‘which’ customers are the heavy users of your products and services. At the same time, market segments that hold little potential for using an operation's products receive little or no attention so that marketing resources available are not wasted chasing after market segments with little revenue potential for the operation. For example, restaurants that cater to business traveler would usually be busy on Monday through Thursday nights, and if this is the restaurant's main revenue source, then the weekend is slower so the marketing approach would promote incentives for patrons to visit the operation on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. The approach could target lunch or dinner or any other day part, what is important is that sales increase on those days and the way to achieve that goal is to move customers to action - the message is not come to our restaurant, more specific, come on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday and you will receive something of value.
Segmentation Criteria
There are many methods for dividing a marketplace in to segments, but the most important consideration is to know when to segment and how far the segmentation efforts should go in targeting specific groups. There is a point where a market segmentation process can go too far, with the resulting subset being too small to be profitable. It could also not be efficient to develop several different marketing programs for the various trading area segments when in fact one or more could reach the entire market - considering narrow or broad segments.
Table 4.1 begins a deeper discussion on the important aspects of using segmentation as an appropriate strategy to assess the advantages and disadvantages a particular marketplace may present to the operation.
Table: 4.1 An ideal market segment meets all of the following criteria:
• Segments are possible to measure.
• Segments are large enough to earn profit.
• The segment is stable enough that it does not vanish after some time.
• It is possible to reach potential customers within the segment via the organization's promotion and distribution channel.
• The segment is internally homogeneous (potential customers in the same segment prefer the same product qualities).
• The segment is externally heterogeneous, (potential customers from different segments have different quality preferences).
• The segment responds consistently to a given market stimulus.
• The segment is reachable by market efforts in a cost-effective manner.
• An acceptable marketing mix is possible
• It identifies the target customer(s) and possibly a secondary market(s). (surrogate(s))
When any segmentation efforts are undertaken, Reid and Bojanic (2006), suggest four criteria that to evaluate the effectiveness of an operation's segmentation strategy. The criteria include:
1. Substantiality
2. Measurability
3. Accessibility
4. Actionability
Substantiality
Substantiality is concerned with whether the market segment is large enough. In market segmentation, the restaurant operation must adjustment the marketing mix (product, place, price, promotion, and so forth) to meet the needs of the individual segments and to achieve the marketing objectives of the operation. It is important that the size of each of these segments is large enough to warrant this form of special attention. A simple example would be to compare healthy eating to past trends. Twenty years ago, very few restaurants had sections of their menus dedicated to healthier foods because there were not enough customers justify the effort. When one considers current eating trends and the emphasis placed on healthy food, it is not surprising that even fast-food restaurants have added healthy menu items. Taking a step further, today many restaurants have items targeting segments of individuals following a particular popular diet currently trending.
Measurability
Each market segment must be able to pass the measurability test that assesses two perspectives: the overall size of the target segment and the projected total demand or purchasing power of the target market. A restaurant should initially establish and continuously maintain cutoff points relative to the size and projected demand of any target segments. If the number of consumers or the projected total demand within a given segment falls below these cutoff points, target market segments can more simply be combined.
Accessibility
The accessibility a market segment is another key criterion for establishing its feasibility. It must be possible to reach the target market segments through a variety of marketing communication efforts. Communicating with customers can vary from one marketplace to another, as such, a wide variety of approaches are appropriate including but not limited to advertising, promotion, direct marketing, telemarketing and personal selling. Without accessibility to your intended customers, there is little reason for segmenting a particular target market. For example, a common marketing problem for operations in suburban areas adjacent to large metropolitan cities is effective radio advertising. An operator many intend to reach a suburban market segment within a three mile area of the restaurant but to use radio marketing, commercial time on a radio station with large metropolitan coverage must be purchased - in essence, paying to reach people who are of little to no interest to your business. At the end of the day, the radio marketing may reach your intended audience, but the cost factor included the broad coverage of the surrounding metropolitan area with may not be cost effective to the operation. One of the major purposes of market segmentation is to isolate viable segments of potential business and to direct marketing efforts related to specific aspects of the product and service mix aimed at those segments. Without effective accessibility, this may not be possible to accomplish, and thus creating that segment can ultimately be of little value to the operation.
Actionability
The purpose of an operation's marketing effort is to cause consumers to take action. Companies must be able to create marketing schemes that are effective in attracting purchasers from the market segment. Stated differently, customers within a particular market segment should share similar characteristics, while those in different segments should vary in terms of their characteristics. For example, if a restaurant offers an 'early' dinner special it should appeal to certain target segments and not to others. Families and senior citizens might be willing to eat early to save money, and avoid crowds and traffic whereas consumers in other segments are not as price sensitive and are not willing to compromise on convenience for a discount. If all consumers reacted the same to a business's marketing strategy, then there would not be a need to segment the market.
Segmentation Variables
Market segmentation is typically centers on five basic types of variables for use when segmenting consumer markets: geographic, demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and another variable that does not always receive the attention it deserves, the benefits variable.
Geographic
The geographic variable, as the name implies, relates to the consumers’ geographic area of residence. Marketers can segment according to geographic criteria—nations, states, regions, countries, languages, cities, neighborhoods, or postal codes. The geo-cluster approach combines demographic data with geographic data to create a more accurate and or specific profile (Kotler and Keller, 2006). With respect to region, in rainy regions merchants tend to avoid outdoor seating. In hot regions, dress codes can be more relaxed with an emphasis on beverage sales. A small foodservice operation may target only customers from the local neighborhood, while a larger operation can target its marketing towards several neighborhoods in a larger city or area, while ignoring customers in other outer communities. Geographic segmentation is important and considered the first step to a national marketing effort, followed by demographic and psychographic segmentation. The use of national borders is the institutional use of geographic segmentation, although geographic segments classifications are also identifable by geological regions.
Markets can also occur by dividing the country into regions such as Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, North-Central, Southwest, Northwest, and so forth. Further, segmentation can also occur by examining the population of a given area. Several different terms are useful to describe cities and metropolitan areas, but the following designations are the most popular in marketing.
The term metropolitan statistical area (MSA) refers to the smallest urban area with an urban center population 50,000 and a total metropolitan population of more than 100,000 inhabitants. Metropolitan statistical areas are normally urban areas that are self-contained and surrounded by rural areas. The next category of urban area is the primary metropolitan statistical area (PMSA). A PMSA is an urbanized county or multicounty area with a population of more than one million individuals. Finally, the very largest cities such as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles are known as consolidated metropolitan statistical areas (CMSAs). A CMSA must include at least two PMSAs.
Even at the level of the region or city as a geographic variable, it is vital to know just where your business comes from. Segmenting a restaurant market based on the origin of the guests by using their zip codes is an effective way to identify those areas that merit the heaviest concentration of advertising and promotion.
Demographic
Markets often segment based on the demographics of a trading area such as age, gender, income and spending patterns, family size, state in the family life cycle, educational level attained, and occupational data. When utilizing these variables in defining consumers within the hospitality and tourism industry, certain trends begin to surface. For instance, as a family size increases, the number of times per week that a family tends to dine outside the home tends to decrease. When families do dine out, their choice of restaurant changes as the family makeup changes. This is an important consideration because the size of the average family has decreased over the years. In the United States, there is a trend toward smaller families and people living alone to later ages than before. This is important knowledge toward the segmentation efforts of operations in our industry.
Often demographic data must also combine in the process to construct an accurate picture of the trading areas specifics. Consider a newly constructed neighborhood. The homes are new, the families young, and there are new or relatively new automobiles in the driveways. What exactly are you observing? Is this a newly constructed affluent neighborhood with adequate disposable income or simply young family attempting to establish themselves with a large amount of debt to overcome and little disposable income? The visual observation will not truly indication the viability of these consumers. Thus combining information will typically produce a more accurate description of these consumers in terms of their capability to patronize your operation - as well as what type of operation would be most suitable.
Family life cycle
The family life cycle is a good example of how variables can combine to create categories that can be useful for segmentation purposes. The family life cycle uses age, marital status, and the number of children to create categories sharing common discretionary income levels and purchasing behaviors.
The traditional family life cycle proposes that as individuals become adults and enter the workforce, they tend to be single and have lower incomes, resulting in lower levels of discretionary income - income available after covering current expenses for necessity items such as food and housing. However, these young singles do not have many obligations or responsibilities and so are able to spend money on items that are not necessities. Individuals begin to increase their incomes as they age, and young married couples without children will have increasing amounts of discretionary income. However, once married couples have children, their discretionary incomes begin to decrease, until the children are older and move out. At this point, the couples assume the description of 'empty nesters' and discretionary income begins to increase again. Finally, as individuals reach their golden years, they retire and see their incomes start to decrease.
The traditional family life cycle has changed over time and now includes several extensions to the original model. First, many people are waiting longer to get married thus extending the single stage. In addition, more people are choosing not to marry, and some single adults adopt children. Second, the increased in the divorce rate has resulted in more single parents and second marriages that involve older parents and younger children. Third, there are more same-sex couples, and organizations are beginning to recognize this form of partnership for benefits and adoptions. Finally, people are living longer, resulting in a higher percentage of solitary survivors, many of whom form relationships later in life. Figure 3.1 indicates the more modern family life cycle.
The senior demographic for example, is growing faster than any other market in America. By the year 2050, it is expected that one in three Americans will be 55 years of age or older. The senor market has been expanding and is becoming more attractive because older Americans have a good deal of free time, there are healthier and live longer than past generations, and they have more discretionary income than ever before. For example, if a firm chooses to target the senior market, it should determine the attributes that are important to this market segment in purchasing its types of products and services. Then products and services are designable and marketable ‘specifically’ to seniors. For instance, restaurants should provide menus with larger print, meals that are healthy and have smaller portions, and adequate lighting so seniors can read the menus. They also like to travel in groups for safety concerns thus the four-top table or two-tops able to join would help with dining room arrangements. One should approach each segment from this perspective to accommodate the members of different segments.
Psychographic
Psychographic variables are also commonly both useful and applicable in market segmentation strategies. As discussed in a previous chapter, psychographics refers to segmentation based on lifestyle, attitudes, and personal traits. The development of psychographic segmentation is an extension of lifestyle profiles normally derived from survey responses to attitudes, interests, and opinions (AIO) statements from consumers. Psychographic has characteristics that differ from the numerical data associated with demographic data.
In general, one should consider psychographics to be the practical application of the behavioral and social sciences to marketing research. More specifically, psychographics makes use of research procedures that are indicative when demographic, socioeconomic, and user-nonuser analyses are not sufficient to explain and predict customer behavior. Thus, psychographics seeks to describe the human characteristics of consumers that may have a bearing on their response to products, packaging, advertising, promotion, and public relations efforts. Such efforts may range from self-concept and lifestyle to attitudes, interests, and opinions, as well as perceptions of product attributes.
Figure: 3.1 Modern Family Life Cycle
Psychographics considers how people spend their leisure, and which external influences they are most responsive to and positively respond. Psychographic is highly important to segmentation, because it identifies the personal activities and targeted lifestyle the target subject endures, or the image they are attempting to project. Mass Media has a predominant influence and effect on psychographic segmentation. Lifestyle products may pertain to high involvement products and purchase decisions, to specialty or luxury products and purchase decisions. Lifestyle segmentation reflects on how the target subject identifies themselves, or how they desire to identify themselves in society. By identifying and understanding consumer lifestyle, operations can develop promotional mixes and product lines, which tailor to their needs (Reid and Bojanic, 2009).
While psychographics is used primarily to segment markets, it can is also useful for other purposes as well. It is quite useful when selecting the most effective advertising vehicles, in that the vehicle(s) selected can match with the actual interests, attitudes, opinions, and personalities of the target market segment. They are also helpful when designing advertising and promotion messages. Illustrations, pictures, and the actual copy is easily designable with the needs of a specific segment in mind. By accurately pinpointing the target market in this manner, the advertising and promotional messages and images are more likely to be effective, resulting in increased sales and profits.
Behavioral Variables
Another type of variable often used in conjunction with others to segment markets is the behavioral variable. Behavioral segmentation focuses on the behaviors that consumer’s exhibit in the marketplace. For instance, are consumers loyal or are they easily persuaded by competitors' marketing messages and promotional efforts? How frequently do they dine out? Would you consider them light, medium, or heavy users of various types of hospitality products? What restaurant segment do they prefer - QSR, casual, or fin dining? When they travel for pleasure, what types of lodging facilities would they prefer?
One of the best uses of the behavioral variable is to identify those individuals who are heavy users, meaning that they dine out frequently than the average person, or account for a large percentage of hospitality use. If these individuals are identifiable, then one can consider a marketing plan formulation to increase loyalty and frequency of use. The key aspect of such programs is that 'rewards' are commensurate with 'use.' The real strength of the behavioral variable is that it represents an excellent segment tool because the data collected concerns the manner in which consumers actually behave in a marketplace - quite valuable knowledge when it comes to the construction of an operation's product and service mix.
Benefits to the Consumer
Market segmentation can center on the benefits that consumers are seeking when they purchase foodservice products and services. Once an operation has determined which benefits consumers prefer, it can utilize this information to design their products and services and to create promotional materials that focus on these benefits. Market research can be useful to identify not only the benefits customers prefer, but also which of those benefits are of the greatest importance to various types of consumers. This marketing information allows the foodservice operation to segment the market based on benefits sought, as well as by demographic, psychographic, and behavioral variables. Therefore, for example, which is more important to your customers. Is it the table with the view, or the price of major concern? Said differently, do they expect to a greeting by name, or does ‘value’ trump personal attention? With this type of scenario, the question is essentially: Do we market the customer's ego, or do we appeal to their pocket? As illustrated in Figure 3.2, the process should begin with the identification of the segmentation bases, the development of profiles for each segment, the market demand of each segment should receive evaluation, and then the best market segments complete the selection. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Segmentation_in_a_Marketplace/4.04%3A_Segmentation_in_More_Depth.txt |
Deciding on Market Segments
When deciding on what viable segments exist in a trading area, restaurant operators should use a systematic approach, careful thinking, and analysis. The initial step for the operation is to identify one or more characteristics that can accurately describe the potential target market segment. Any of the segmentation criteria previously discussed will be useful to accomplish this task. Viable segments usually present several or more viable characteristics. For example, a new restaurant might want to target the following individuals: 21 to 60 years of age, living within 10 miles of the city, and having an annual income greater than \$50,000 per year.
Figure: 3.2 Market Segments Decision Process
Identify segmentation similarities
The purpose of identifying segmentation similarities is to develop a relatively homogenous market segment made up of individual consumers who will respond in a similar manner to the marketing strategies and marketing communication efforts of the restaurant. It is also important that the members of the selected target segments place a high value on the combined attributes that the restaurant has used in its product and services mix. For example, the casual restaurant segment has experienced rapid growth over the recent years by offering good basic amenities at a relatively low price, resulting in a high level of perceived value to consumers. However, it would not make sense for these types of restaurants to target upper-level fine ding patrons. These individuals, for business or personal reasons, normally elect to eat and conduct business in upscale full-service restaurants.
Profile each Market Segment
The initial step in the segmentation process is to identify the actual target market you intend to serve. Once the target market surfaces, it is important to compile as much
information about the target market consumers as possible. The overall goal is to match the stated ‘wants’ and ‘needs’ of the targeted segment with the product-service mix offerings and marketing messages that the operation uses or will construct to use. The importance of matching consumers' wants and needs with the marketing offerings and advertising is a prime consideration. It is also important to identify the similarities and differences among and between various target markets. People within the same market segment usually share similar characteristics and react in a similar fashion to changes in marketing programs. When developing a profile of the target market, it is necessary to use the various segmentation variables described earlier.
Determining Market Demand
Forecasting the sales potential of a given market segment or for an entire market for any given product-service mix is an extremely difficult task. Although computer models and statistical approaches have facilitated the process somewhat, at the end of the day it is still extremely difficult to account for all of the variables that can influence consumer demand. Even the best forecasts contain margins of error in either direction. In any event, the restaurant operation has to make some determination of the level of demand a trading area has in order to make short or long-term contingencies as well as day-to-day operational decisions. Without reasonably accurate forecasts, restaurant management must cannot operate efficiently. Decisions become hit or miss. The competitive demands of the restaurant industry in general will not allow such a casual approach for long.
1. Market demand can best be definable as the potential consumers having both purchasing power and motivation to use the restaurant's products and services. Many different variables can affect the demand within any given segment. Variables such as consumer motivation are often difficult to quantify. Market demand for a product or service is the total volume that one comes to realize from a clearly specified customer group in a defined geographic area in a defined period. One can calculate market demand only when clear definitions are available for each of these variables. Determining total market demand is an important marketing function because so many other assumptions come into play because of its forecast. It is important for restaurant management training to include the examination of forecasts for market demand and an understanding of their uses and limitations. Primary demand for a restaurant would normally receive the classification of the demand for the entire line of product offerings. Secondary demand would be the demand for a particular brand the operation offers, beverages, or other service attributes.
2. Product demand for the product-service mix calculates based on the total market demand multiplied by the market share, or the percentage of the market that the operation's product and service mix will capture. Market share calculates by dividing the operation's sales by the total figure for industry sales – in our case, restaurant sales. Determining the projected market share is an imprecise science. It should, however, be based on the operation's thorough and objective assessment of the company's capabilities, the competitiveness of those also targeting the same consumers, and marketing strategies used by all foodservice operations in the trading area.
Once decisions become clear about the specific marketing strategies and tactics that will be useable, then resource needs can be determined to market the product-service mix to specific target market segments.
Broad Segmentation Strategies
Once specific target markets identification is complete, the marketing manager must begin to develop broad marketing strategies as depicted in Figure 3.3. There are three
segmentation strategies applicable a mass-market strategy, a differentiated strategy, and a concentrated strategy.
Figure: 3.3 Strategies for Reaching Target Markets
Mass-Marketing Strategy A market coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment
differences and go after the whole market with one offer. It is the type of
marketing (or attempting to sell through persuasion) of a product to a wide
audience. The idea is to broadcast a message that will reach the largest number
of people possible. Traditionally mass marketing has focused on radio,
television and newspapers as the medium used to reach this broad audience.
Differentiated Marketing Strategy One where the company decides to provide separate offerings to each different
market segment that it targets. It also refers to multi-segment marketing as it
clearly tries to appeal to multiple segments in the market. The company
provides unique benefits to different individual segments. It increases the total
sales but at the expense of increase in the cost of investing in the business.
Concentrated Marketing Strategy A strategy targeting very defined and specific segments of the consumer
population. It is particularly effective for small companies with limited
resources, as it does not believe in the use of mass production, mass
distribution and mass advertising. There is no increase in the total profits of the
sales as it targets just one segment of the market.
Direct Marketing Direct marketing involves buying consumer databases based on the defined
segmentation profiles. These databases usually comes with consumer contacts
(e-mail, mobile phone, home phone, and so forth).
Select the Best Market Segments
Once the previous steps reach completion, those responsible for developing the marketing plan must decide on the specific target market segments for the operation. While the use of data and all relevant information the operation has garnered over time is important, ultimately the judgment, insight, and experience the operation's marketing individuals bring to the decision process are also quite valuable. The overall goal is to limit the uncertainty surrounding market segmentation decisions. All decisions should form based on a careful analysis of the data and how the forecasts of projected demand and market share were determined.
At this point one must examine the projected return on investment (ROI) that the target market is expected to provide. The ROI calculation: Divide the return from the marketing effort, or the net profit by the amount of the marketing investment. Firms will normally have target ROI's for their invested dollars, but the higher the ROI, the better the investment - and the investment decisions.
Mass-market Strategy
A mass-marketing strategy requires the operation to develop one product-service mix that is relates to all potential consumers in the target markets. This approach considers the market to be one homogeneous market segment with similar wants and needs by its constituents. There is no reason to develop more than one marketing program, since consumers are alike and react in a similar fashion to the components of the marketing program.
When McDonald's first opened, the firm offered a very limited menu that was consistent across the entire organization. It featured only a couple of hamburger choices, milkshakes, soft drinks, and fries. No other choices were available, and as many restaurant organizations learned, the smaller the menu the less waste the operation experienced, and subsequently, with less money committed to inventory and the negative aspects of waste, the higher the resulting profit. Numerous companies and industries utilize this type of market strategy in the early stages of their life cycles.
However, in reality, few products or services appeal to all segments of the market. Since its inception, McDonald's has changed this strategy in response to trends in the demographic and social environments. From their original meager offerings, McDonald's has expanded into chicken sandwiches, salads, smoothies, coffee drinks, and other menu items that appeal to a more health-conscious market segment. The main problem associated with the expansion of products and services lies in the operations, and the customers', ability to identify what it is the operation does well. Consider a restaurant chain that only sells chicken strips. Where is there focus? Can you reduce or dilute the effectiveness of their efforts? The largest threat when using this strategy is that competitors will tailor their product-service mix and take away market share because they are better able to meet the needs of smaller target market segments of consumers. Beware trying to be too many things to too many consumers; ultimately, you become not wonderful at anything - to anyone.
Differentiated Strategy
When a restaurant operation decides to follow a differentiated strategy, it is adopting a strategy that calls for the operation to appeal to more than one market segment with a separate marketing program for each segment. The overall objective of this approach is to increase sales and market share by capturing sales from several smaller market segments. Each of the marketing programs, including the product-service mix, conforms to the specific needs of a market segment.
Many large foodservice organizations have followed the approach within the hospitality and tourism industry instituted by Choice Hotels International. The hotel chain has developed numerous product-service mixes or brands, each targeting a different market. Among the brands offered by Choice Hotels are Clarion Hotels and Suites, Quality Inns and Suites, Comfort Inns and Suites, Sleep Inns, Economy Lodge, and Travelodge. Each of the Choice brands offers a different array of amenities at various price levels in an attempt to have at least one brand that will appeal to any consumer in the economy or mid-priced market segments. A differentiated strategy could also be applicable at the unit or property level.
From the foodservice perspective, consider the large corporations that own multiple restaurant brands and have units specializing in casual to quick service operating offering everything from steak, chicken, and seafood to a variety of burgers and upscale sandwich items - all competing in the same marketplace and trading area. At the unit level, consider a small French Bistro that specializes in upscale crepe items in the \$9.00 to \$12.00 range but offer special entree items in the \$22.00 to \$26.00 price range. They offer interesting appetizers including an original onion soup, and flaming desserts such as Crepe Suzettes reasonable priced in the \$5.00 range. They open early for breakfast with an array of filled croissants and coffees, and stay open late to get the dessert and glass of wine crowd boasting one of the best 'wine by the glass' options in the area. They are interested in approaching everyone in the trading area - but they appeal to consumer differences in specific and concise ways. These are other example of differentiating a trading area and to a smaller scale, day parts.
Concentrated Strategy
A concentrated market segmentation strategy calls on the operation to develop modifications of one or more product-service mixes marketed to one or relatively few market segments with limited changes in the marketing program. This strategy is most useful to smaller firms that do not have substantial resources to compete in broad appeal forms of marketing to large segments. A concentrated marketing strategy for a small restaurant might include flyers and coupons in their neighborhood of the unit. The operation could target breakfast patrons with morning specials, or they could approach the late night crowd with drink or food discounts. A concentrated strategy does not move away from the primary marketing effort, but rather concentrates activity in specific areas to aid the overall marketing program. For example, a special to boost Tuesday night sales.
A principal concept in target marketing is that those who become the ‘targets’ show a strong affinity or brand loyalty to that particular brand. Target Marketing allows the marketer or sales team to customize their message to the targeted group of consumers in a focused manner. Research has shown that racial similarity, role congruence, labeling, shared knowledge and ethnic salience all promote positive effects on the target market. Research has generally shown that target marketing strategies are constructed from consumer inferences of similarities between some aspects of the advertisement (such as the source pictured, language used, lifestyle represented) and characteristics of the consumer (the reality of having, or desire of having the represented style). Consumer persuasion occurs by the characteristics in the advertisement and those of the consumer themselves. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Segmentation_in_a_Marketplace/4.05%3A_Deciding_on_Market_Segments.txt |
Segmentation Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Segmentation strategy
3. Broad or narrow segmentation
4. Age groups including psychographic ‘face’.
5. The total segment demand in the area
6. Your share of the segment demand – market share & business mix variance.
7. Provide examples where applicable
Example
Marketing Strategies Example
RESTAURANT OVERVIEW
THE AIM OF MY RESTAURANT IS TO CREATE A NEIGHBORHOOD INSTITUTION FOR ALL THE LOCALS OF THE NASHVILLE DISTRICT THE GULCH TO BE A GO-TO SPOT SERVING INEXPENSIVE MEALS WITH FRESH, LOCAL INGREDIENTS AND A VARIED MENU THAT KEEPS THE LOCALS COMING BACK TO SEE WHAT’S NEW.
However, no matter the envisioned menu of the restaurant concept, the success of the restaurant will depend on the marketing techniques used to gather this customer base of locals. I need to examine marketing techniques that will affect my target markets.
TARGET MARKETS
My target customers will primarily be locals of two generations: first, the young working class who are educated, currently in or just graduated from college, and have a lower income. Second, the older working class who may be old enough to receive Social Security benefits but have not yet retired yet. Additionally, this area receives a good bit of tourism from the hotels nearby and from the tour busses that pass through the neighborhood on their ways Downtown or to Music Row.
By analyzing these groups individually for marketing strategies that would best fit them, we will build a local name for our restaurant as the go-to spot in the neighborhood.
Younger Working Class
As explained in concept 1, a large percentage of locals in The Gulch live in the numerous apartment and condominium buildings in the district. This means, potentially, some of them will be living right above my restaurant. Most of these locals are of the young working class: those without families who are in their twenties and maybe early thirties, most have college degrees but who have not spent enough time in their respective industries to reach higher income status yet. This is one reason why it is crucial for our menu to be inexpensive. Our restaurant must be one where the locals keep coming back, not one where it is a special treat to go.
The younger working class I speak of is highly connected to the internet, so a social media following may be the best way to connect to them in the end. However, we must build up the social media following first, so perhaps we can offer something free, like a drink or a dessert, to anyone who shows us they have ‘liked’ our Facebook page or followed us on Twitter. However, in addition to this, we must ensure that our social media posts are quality, which our market will actually want to see our posts in their feed and not consider it “just another advertisement.” Besides our daily specials, maybe we can make posts about fun facts about our ingredients, or where they come from, or posts about events going on in the area.
Older Working Class
The older generation, however, is not as connected to the internet as their younger counterparts. I will need to rely on a different technique to gather this customer base. Perhaps once a month or so, we can send out flyers to all the locals with coupons offering tastings of perhaps our desserts or maybe \$2 off an entrée or something similar. We can also post these flyers on street poles near the bus stops in the area. Perhaps during certain hours of the day, like in the early afternoon, we can also offer one free cup of regular coffee with every meal, if it is financially sound to do so—sort of like a happy hour for the older generation who might want to eat earlier in the day. Finally, I would like to have a chalkboard or a whiteboard clearly visible on our storefront so that we can advertise one of our specials. The older generation in this area does not tend to drive, so perhaps we should let our store advertise itself when they walk by.
Out-of-Towners
Though our primary market is the locals, I do not want to pass up the possibility of getting business from non-locals and tourists as well. The Gulch is home to a couple of hotels, so I would like to talk with the owners of those businesses to include flyers or coupons for my restaurant in their Nashville guides or at their front desk. The Nashville Scene is also the go-to magazine that locals and tourists alike read to see what is going on in the city. As we’re gearing up to open, and periodically after that, I’d like to place ads in that magazine to garner some business from all over Nashville, not just in The Gulch.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What is market segmentation?
2. What are the steps in the segmentation process?
3. What is hyper-segmentation and what marketing advantages does it provide?
4. What is a differentiated strategy?
5. Five main factors affect a company’s segmentation strategy discuss the importance of each.
6. The ‘family life stage’, a demographic variable, would affect marketing decisions how?
7. What are the typical behavioral variables?
8. What are the major criteria to determine an ‘ideal market segment’?
9. Describe the market segments decision process. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Segmentation_in_a_Marketplace/4.06%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments.txt |
Glossary
Trading area elements. Elements of the trading area include: geographic area, the major descriptors of the target market such as demographics, psychographics, and behavioral characteristics, and the industry structure comprising existing competitors (primary and secondary), potential competitors and the market conditions that aid or hinder their entry, product substitutes in general that could hamper sales, and suppliers’ products and services needed for operation.
Market segmentation. The process of dividing a broad consumer or business market, normally consisting of existing and potential customers, into sub-groups of consumers’ (known as segments) based on some type of shared characteristics. Market segmentation assumes that different market ‘segments’ require different marketing programs – that is, different offers, different prices, different promotion, different distribution or some combination of marketing variables.
Shared characteristics. These characteristics comprise common needs, common interests, similar lifestyles, or even similar demographic profiles. The overall aim of segmentation is to identify high yield segments – that is, those segments that are likely to be the most profitable or that have growth potential.
Segmentation strategy factors. These factors include company resources, product variability, the products’ life cycle, market characteristics, and competitive activity.
Total marketplace segment demand. Once you have computed the total foodservice dollars spend in the marketplace, you then quantify the total amount of potential sales (\$\$\$) for foodservice products in your chosen business segment in your trading area. This type of information is typically obtainable from the city Chamber of Commerce, city sales tax records, commercial real estate agencies, and demographic information related to city revenue.
Method of delivery. Concern how customers will receive your products or services and would include dining space, carryout service, delivery service, or Internet activity and so forth.
Major bases used for segmenting a market. In reality, marketers can segment the market using any base or variable as long as it is identifiable, measurable, actionable, and stable. Marketers are looking for a means of achieving internal homogeneity (similarity within the segments), and external heterogeneity (differences between segments).
Demographic segmentation. Segmentation according to demography centers on consumer- demographic variables such as age, income, family size, socio-economic status, etc. Demographic segmentation assumes that consumers with similar demographic profiles will exhibit similar purchasing patterns, motivations, interests and lifestyles and that these characteristics will translate into similar product/brand preferences. In practice, demographic segmentation can potentially employ any variable used by the nation's census collectors.
Demographic segmentation. Segmentation according to demography centers on consumer- demographic variables such as age, income, family size, socio-economic status, etc. Demographic segmentation assumes that consumers with similar demographic profiles will exhibit similar purchasing patterns, motivations, interests and lifestyles and that these characteristics will translate into similar product/brand preferences. In practice, demographic segmentation can potentially employ any variable used by the nation's census collectors.
Geographic segmentation. Physical location or region (country, state, region, city, suburb, postcode).
Geo-demographic segmentation. A combination of geographic & demographic variables such as rural and urban.
Psychographic segmentation. Lifestyle, social or personality characteristics. (Typically includes basic demographic descriptors)
Behavioral segmentation. Purchasing, consumption or usage behavior. (Needs-based, benefit-sought, usage occasion, purchase frequency, customer loyalty, buyer readiness).
Cultural segmentation. A segmentation done according to state, region, suburb and neighborhood. This provides a geographical market view of population proportions and may be of benefit in selecting appropriately located premises, determining territory boundaries and local marketing activities.
Market targeting. The selection of market segments that will become the focus of special attention.
Primary market. The target market selected as the ‘main’ center of marketing activities.
Secondary target market. This is likely to be a segment that is not as large as the primary market, but has growth potential. Alternatively, the secondary target group might consist of a small number of purchasers that account for a relatively high proportion of sales volume perhaps due to purchase value or purchase frequency.
Product demand. The total market demand multiplied by the market share, or the percentage of the market that the operation's product and service mix will capture.
Mass-market Strategy. A mass-marketing strategy requires the operation to develop one product-service mix that is relates to all potential consumers in the target markets. This approach considers the market to be one homogeneous market segment with similar wants and needs by its constituents.
Differentiated Strategy. When a restaurant operation decides to follow a differentiated strategy, it is adopting a strategy that calls for the operation to appeal to more than one market segment with a separate marketing program for each segment. The overall objective of this approach is to increase sales and market share by capturing sales from several smaller market segments. Each of the marketing programs, including the product-service mix, conforms to the specific needs of a market segment.
Concentrated market segmentation strategy. This strategy calls on the operation to develop modifications of one or more product-service mixes marketed to one or relatively few market segments with limited changes in the marketing program.
Notes
Addison, T. and M. O' Donohue. 2001. Understanding the Customer’s Relationship With a Brand: The Role of Market Segmentation in Building Stronger Brands. Market Research Society Conference, London.
Ahmad, R. 2003. Benefit Segmentation: A potentially useful technique of segmenting and targeting older consumers. International Journal of Market Research, 45(3).
Ameristat, Population Reference Bureau. 2003. Traditional families account for only 7 percent of U.S. households. www.ameristat.org.
Applbaum, K. 2004. The Marketing Era: From Professional Practice to Global Provisioning, Routledge.
Bardakci, A. and Whitelock, L. 2003. Mass-customization in Marketing: The Consumer Perspective. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 20(5).
Beane, T.P., and D.M. Ennis. 2012. Market Segmentation: A Review. European Journal of Marketing, 21(5).
Blanchard, Kenneth, and Sheldon Bowles. 1993. Raving fans: A revolutionary approach to customer service. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.
Cano, C. 2003. "The Recent Evolution of Market Segmentation Concepts and Thoughts Primarily by Marketing Academics," in E. Shaw (ed.) The Romance of Marketing History, Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing (CHARM), Boca Raton, FL.
Constantin, C. 2012. Post-hoc Segmentation using Marketing Research. Economics, 12(3).
Courtwright, D.T. 2010. No Right Turn. Harvard University Press.
Dension, D. and Hogg, R., (Eds.). 2008. A History of the English Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gavett, G. 2014. What You Need to Know About Segmentation. Harvard Business Review, Online: July 09, 2014.
Gurley, B., "How to Miss by a Mile: An Alternative Look at Uber's Potential Market Size", Above the Crowd, July 11, 2014.
Hoek, J., P. Gendall, and D. Esslemont. 1996. Market segmentation: A search for the Holy Grail. Journal of Marketing Practice Applied Marketing Science, 2(1).
Hunt, S.D. and D.B. Arnett. 2004. "Market Segmentation Strategy, Competitive Advantage and Public Policy: Grounding Segmentation Strategy in Resource-Advantage Theory," Australasian Marketing Journal, 12(1).
Kara, A and E. Kaynak. 1997. "Markets of a Single Customer: Exploiting Conceptual Developments in Market Segmentation", European Journal of Marketing, 31, No. 11/12.
Kennedy, R. and Ehrenberg, A. 2000. What’s in a brand? Research, April.
Kotler, Philip, and Kevin Lane Keller. 2006. What is geographic segmentation? Prentice Hall.
Kotler, P. 2011. Marketing Management, Millennium edition, Upper Saddle River, N.J., Pearson.
Kotler, Philip and Gary Armstrong. 2012. Principles of Marketing. Pearson, 2014; 2012
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Marshall, Anthony. 1999. Common complaints often arise from ‘mature’ travelers. Hotel & Motel Management, 24.
Martin, James H. and James M. Daley. 1989. How to develop a customer-driven positioning strategy. Business, 39.
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Ries, Al, and Jack Trout. 1981. Positioning: The battle for your mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sarin, S. 2010. Market Segmentation and Targeting, Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing.
Simkin, L. 2016. "Segmentation," in Baker, M.J. and Hart, S., The Marketing Book, 7th ed., Routledge, Oxon, UK, pp. 271–294.
Tourism Australia, Global Marketing Strategy, http://www.tourism.australia.com/mar...-strategy.aspx; For those interested in learning about geo-demographic segmentation in practice might like to explore the Tourism Australia website which provides profiles and strategies on its site for the benefit of travel operators, hotels and tourist operators.
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Chapter 5 Learning Objectives
• Gain a working knowledge of positioning and the general consideration involved.
• Compare the traditional marketing mix to the hospitality mix.
• Understand the importance of ’packaging’ resources for customer appeal.
• Comprehend and evaluate the different market environments.
• Gain a working knowledge of the various sources of data collection and usefulness.
• Learn how to develop consumer interest.
• Understand the importance of advertising.
• Gain a working knowledge of how to develop a positioning strategy.
• Understand the distinction between different types of restaurants.
“Positioning the brand and regaining trust are all smart things for us to do and those are the litmus tests for any decisions we make.”
John McKinley
“Great marketers have immense empathy for their audience. They can put themselves in their shoes, live their lives, feel what they feel, go where they go, and respond how they'd respond. That empathy comes out in content that resonates with your audience.”
Rand Fishkin
“It's not about market share. If you have a successful company, you will get your market share. But to get a successful company, what do you have to have? The same metrics of success that your customer does.”
Gordon Bethune
Positioning the Product – Service Mix
Positioning is the marketing activity and process of identifying a market problem or opportunity, and developing a solution based on market research, segmentation, and supporting data. Positioning relates to strategy, in the specific or tactical development phases of carrying out an objective to achieve a business or organization's goals, such as increasing sales volume, brand recognition, or reach in advertising.
General Considerations Regarding Positioning
• Positioning starts by segmenting the target market based on the different benefits that each consumer group target seeks from your products or services.
• Positioning is often intuitive. Sophisticated analysis techniques help, but they are not substitutes for think through your marketplace.
• It helps to develop a mental map of where the competitor’s position is to determine factors like benefits and quality features.
• A positioning map is useful to identify opportunities and specify the current and desired positioning of your products and services.
• The goal is to develop a differentiated products or services that creates a unique mind share, particularly in the target market segments you intend to attract.
• You can best attack a competitor’s position by focusing resources and promotion on a ‘particular’ positioning element or quality feature.
• You can best defend your position from competitors by an aggressive, mobile counterattack of re-positioning existing products and introducing new ones.
• Set the price for the product position or service by estimating how much extra quality the product will possess over and above the competition and how much the target consumers are prepared to pay for this extra quality. The answer may be over and above the competition’s actual selling price, or the correct position may be below your competitor’s pricing
• Estimate the financial feasibility of the proposed positioning strategy. Will expected sales and share meet your targets?
After selecting market segments, the operation must develop a positioning strategy for its ‘products and services’ in each target market. Put simply, 'positioning' is the process of determining how to differentiate a firm's product offerings from those of its competitors in the minds of consumers. Positioning answers the question ‘What do we want consumers to think about our company when they see our restaurant, look at our sign, our logo, marketing literature, advertising, and so forth?’ and begins the positioning function. To accomplish this, the operation must know how important certain attributes are to consumers in purchasing the company's products, and the consumers' perceptions of how well the company, and competition, are doing with respect to these attributes (Martin and Daily, 1989). Marketers want to position their products so consumers purchase them instead of competing products.
Figure: 5.4 A Positioning Process
For example, operations could base their positioning on intangibles such as food or ambience. Applebee's uses the slogan 'eating good in the neighborhood' to create a personal atmosphere, and Subway uses the slogan 'eat fresh' to focus on food quality and health themes. It would also be possible to use more than one basis for positioning when targeting a specific market. For example, in Subway's case, the positioning extends beyond 'freshness' to 'low calorie' options to bring home the 'healthy’ eating theme. They could easily extend the message to 'lower cost' to move toward affordable healthy eating, and so on.
Several factors could affect an operation's decision regarding which positioning bases it should use. Figure: 5.4 provides a four-step process that considers the factors used to position the products of an operation. First, a company's current market position and the positions of its competitors’ are important. Second, a company should consider the compatibility of a desired position with the needs of consumers and the goals of the firm. Third, a firm must have the resources necessary to communicate and maintain the desired position.
The Ideal Mix for Consumers
At this point, the operation has developed a strategy to attract consumers. Now, the important concern is determining the ideal product and service mix for the trading area consumers. Stated differently: "What are consumers looking for when they purchase products and services?" Once the operation has established this ideal mix of attributes, it can begin to examine the ability of its product-service mix to meet the needs of consumers. There are always salient attributes that are important to consumers in evaluating the alternative products or service offerings. These attributes will differ by product or service, but some of the more important attributes would include price, value, quality of food, type of food, service quality, menu variety, employee friendliness, location, atmosphere, service speed, cleanliness, parking, and so forth.
When you examine the major attributes previously listed, it become obvious that many attributes are important for all products and services. Price is not always the most important attribute but is generally one of the top three. Service quality is another attribute that is important to consumers in choosing service providers, and commonly used to differentiate between brands. Other attributes are generally more specific by the type of restaurant segment.
It is an ongoing necessity for restaurants to obtain importance ratings from consumers on a frequent basis using some form of research. The most common method would be to conduct a survey. Normally, individuals are asked to rate a list of attributes using an importance scale. For example, a restaurant's comment card may ask a customer to rate the quality of food on a scale of 1 to 5, with ‘1’ being "not important at all" and ‘5’ being "very important." The answers to these ratings combine to provide an average rating for each desired target market. The construction of an ideal mix for the restaurant's products can result from the examination of the averages for all of the attributes - a product-service mix comprised of what consumers are looking for. This includes theme and logos, facility, ambience, menu, service style, affordability, methods of product delivery. Maybe at this point, it would be better just to say ‘almost everything’ having to do with what the customer can perceive.
Measure Consumer Perceptions
Once the ideal mix has been determined, the next step is to examine the current offerings of the operation - as well as its competitors - to evaluate their abilities to meet consumer needs. More important, it is necessary to obtain consumer perceptions of your service and your competitor's services. Even if your company believes that their product-service mix offers good value to consumers, this is only true if consumers believe it to be so. From the marketing perspective, perception is everything.
Figure 5.5 Competitive Benefits Analysis
Potential Benefits Our Operation Competitor A Competitor B
Value for price
Quality of food
Quality of service
Atmosphere
Location
Menu Variety
It would be a critical mistake for a company to assume that it knows what consumers want and that its products and services are meeting consumer’s wants and needs. Once again, it is imperative for a restaurant operation to evaluate consumer perceptions by consumer surveys and other research methods. Table 5.5 offers an example of a competitive benefit matrix that can be useful to restaurants in compiling consumer perceptions for the operation compared to its closest competitors.
At this point, it may be helpful to be able to visualize the information in the competitive benefit matrix by using a 'perceptual map.' Perceptual mapping is a technique used to construct graphic views or representations of how consumers in a market perceive a competing set of products relative to each other because of the difficulties associated with graphing and understanding multidimensional presentations, in evaluating comparisons between alternative brands. For example, consumers might be given the names of restaurants and asked to select the ones most similar or the one that are least similar. Preference data involve asking consumers to indicate their preferences for a list of alternative brands. For competing products, operators must determine which two or three dimensions consumers consider most important, and use these dimensions to construct the perceptual plot.
The points of comparison can vary based on what the restauranteur considers as important elements for comparison to be. For example, quality and price may be important as the example demonstrates, but service versus price, cleanliness versus value, speed of service versus price, type of delivery versus ease in customer acquisition, and so forth can be equally of important to an operation. Using box plots, many points of comparison can paint a clear picture of where the operation fits into the marketplace and how they intend to respond to established competition or deal with new entrants to the market.
This perceptual plot construction uses perceived ‘price’ and perceived ‘quality’ as the two dimensions. Assuming the ratings for each restaurant on these dimensions were collected using consumer research, the placement of the firms in the perceptual space depicts their relative positions in the market. The results of perceptual mapping can be useful for the following purposes:
• To learn how consumers perceive the strengths, weaknesses, and similarities of the alternative product-service mixes offerings;
• To learn about consumer's desires and how these are satisfied or not satisfied by the current products and services in the market; and
• To integrate these findings strategically to determine the greatest opportunities for new product-service mixes, and how a product or service image modification may help to produce the greatest sales increase.
Several methods are useful to construct a perceptual map. Similarity-dissimilarity data involve asking consumers to make direct example, consumers might be asked to rank-order a short list of restaurants or rate a specific restaurant on a 1 to 5 scale, with ‘1’ being "least preferred" and ‘5’ being "most preferred." Attribute data involve asking consumers to rate the alternative brands on a predetermined list of attributes. For example, consumers might be asked to rate a given restaurant based on a series of attributes. After the data are collected, quantitative statistical techniques are useful to reduce the list of attributes into two or three dimensions for easier presentation and interpretation. Then management can use these perceptual maps to fine-tune current product-service mixes and uncover any gaps in market coverage between the ideal mix and the alternative offerings of the operation's competitors.
Look for Gaps in Coverage
Once consumers' perceptions are gathered, measured, and plotted on a perceptual map, the third step in the process is to examine the map for gaps in coverage. Said differently, are there any areas on the map depicting ideal mixes not adequately served by the brands currently in the marketplace? Could there also be a difference between the position sought by management and the position perceived by consumers. For example, Taco Bell entered the market in response to a lack of variety in foods offered by quick service restaurants like McDonald's and Burger King. Further, the creation of extended stay hotels were in response to consumers who had to travel for extended periods and wanted the ability to cook, do laundry, avoid crowded lobbies, and stay in a more residential setting.
The result of the consumer mapping and perceptual mapping enable firms to develop a “positioning statement” which should differentiate the organization's product-service mix from that of their competitors. However, in the twenty-first century, the statement must be original. For many years, restaurants have advertised and promoted "fine food," "prompt, courteous service," elegant atmosphere,' and so forth. As one would expect, these promotional approaches are not as effective as they could be. Consumers usually do not believe such statements because they have heard them too many times before and have often been disappointed when they patronize the restaurants that had made these promotional claims. These statements do little to separate the organization's product-service mix from that of the competitors. If other hospitality organizations are promoting 'fine food' or similar benefits, then all the promotion and advertising appears to be the same in the eyes of the consumers.
In the QSR sector, how many television commercials show smiling well-spoken people working the drive-through painting the perfect picture of the operation? However, when you ‘visit’ the restaurant drive-through, you get the ‘peanuts parents’ (they go wah, wah, wah, – you don’t get Charlie Brown or Lucy) you cannot understand what they are saying - except for the ‘suggestive sell’ that sounds like they are beyond fed up with having to say it. The advertising conveys the right message, but the physical reality of what you can expect tells you the message is false. Advertising aims to benefit the operation – not the consumers’ need.
The key to success in positioning is to establish some unique element of the product-service mix and promote it. This allows the operation the opportunity to differentiate the product-service mix from that of the competition and thereby gain a competitive advantage. The common term for this approach is a unique selling proposition (USP). With a USP, the operator should use every effort to link the 'benefits' offered with tangible aspects of the product-service mix. Consumers should be able to see, feel, and touch the benefits of the operation as often as possible as opposed to simple hearing marketing messages and slogans.
Develop a Strategy to Obtain Your Position
The final step in the positioning process is to develop strategies for obtaining the desired position that results from the analyses performed in the first three steps. As with any other marketing strategy, the restaurant must use the components of the marketing mix to develop a 'marketing program' to create the total image that the operation can use to achieve the restaurant's objectives. This involves decisions regarding price, product-service mix, promotion, and distribution of information as well as products and services.
Al Ries and Jack Trout (1981) provide a useful set of guidelines to use in developing positioning strategies in their text: Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind. The authors formulated six questions that should be useful to guide your thinking towards the proper positioning scheme that offers the most benefit to your restaurant organization. Figure 5.7 present these six questions along with a detailed rationale for asking them to increase positioning accuracy.
Figure: 5.7 Six Important Positioning Questions to Ask
What position do you own? It is critical that you look at the marketplace and your image from the consumer's point of view. How do consumers view your product? What image does your product have in their minds? You must be objective - look at the product from the consumer's perspective.
What position do you want? Those who are most successful tend to carve out a niche of the broad market. Those who attempt to be all things to all people often are not successful. Do not think beyond your organization's capabilities. You must be able to 'own' the position, even if it means displacing a competitor's brand. Not every company can be the leader, but organizations can be successful with other strategies.
Whom must you overcome? No positioning statement exists in a vacuum. You must clearly visualize the positions held by the major competitors. Do they have a firm lock on their positions, or are they vulnerable? If they are strong to avoid a direct frontal, attack and instead go around them.
Do you have enough money? Establishing and maintaining an image in consumers' minds is no small task. Every day we face exposure to hundreds of advertising images. If a change in positioning strategy is the plan, necessary marketing resources must also exist for the change to be successful.
Can you continue to compete? A key to successful positioning is the ability to defend you position. The most successful companies do not change their position, only the short-term tactics they use to communicate their positions.
Do you equal your positioning claim? Critical: The exact positioning statement must form the communication in the advertising and promotions that follow. The desired position should be consistent with the image of the firm and the firm's other products and services.
One of the most effective ways to change customer perceptions of the product-service mix is through promotion and advertising. For example, Burger King's attempt to differentiate its product-service mix as superior to those of other hamburger restaurants. The focus of Burger King's advertising is centered on charbroiling, its method of cooking hamburgers. The objective of the advertising is to promote the unique process as providing a better-tasking burger of higher quality than its competitors provide.
Another example of using product-service mix positioning is through the approach in which Taco Bell used price and packaging to gain a competitive advantage. At a time when the typical meal at a quick service restaurant costs between \$375 and \$4.50, Tack Bell took a very different positioning strategy. It introduced a line of value-priced products and meals at price points between 59 and 99 cents. The focus of all promotions and point-of-purchase displays was on low price and value. Because of these promotions, Taco Bell was able to increase its market share, largely at the expense of other fast-food restaurants. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.01%3A_Positioning.txt |
Previous discussions refer to the product-service mix, or 'marketing mix' that a restaurant operation can bundle to position itself among competitors. A more detailed look into exactly what is involved in an operation's marketing mix now defines the current discussion.
The term 'marketing mix' has been universally accepted and used by marketing organizations for quite a long time. The discussion begins with the traditional marketing mix and then moves to the hospitality marketing mix components tailored more to this industry as a more appropriate alternative. A successful restaurant organization is one that focuses on the needs and wants of the consumers and markets the product-service mix that it brings together to attract consumers to its operation. Management of a restaurant operation must be able to integrate the components of the marketing mix into a marketing 'program' that will appeal to potential consumers and meet the goals and objectives of the restaurant.
The traditional marketing mix
The marketing mix consists of four individual elements that come together to form the marketing mix and are often referred to as the four P's of marketing: price, product, place, and promotion.
Price
The price component refers to the value placed by a company on its products and services. Some of the decisions involve pricing the product line, discounting strategies, and positioning against competitors.
Product
This component refers to the unique combination of goods and services offered by a company to consumers. The product includes both the tangible and intangible elements of the service offering. Product decisions involve product attributes such as quality, the breadth and mix of the product line (the number and type of products offered), and services such as warranties and guarantees.
Place
The place component refers to the manner in which the products and services make their way to consumers. Thus, the ‘place’ component can also reference 'distribution,' as it involves decisions related to the location of facilities and the use of intermediaries. In addition, the marketing of services includes the decision regarding customer involvement in the production process.
Promotion
This component refers to the methods used to communicate with consumer markets. The 'promotion mix' includes advertising, personal selling, sales promotions (coupons, rebates, contests, publicity, and so forth. These instruments can be useful to convey the operation's intended messages to consumers. The decisions for promotion involve the amount of spending to occur on each component of the promotion mix, the strategies for each of the components, and the overall message the operation wishes to convey to the consumer. To achieve marketing success, a restaurant operation must closely examine and understand all of the mix components because these components, collectively, must combine into well-conceived marketing programs, and managed properly. Failing to do so is one of the prime contributing factors to the high new restaurant failure rate.
The hospitality marketing mix
As researchers have demonstrated, distinct differences between good and services, some researchers believe that the traditional four P's approach to the marketing mix does not apply to the restaurant operation. Renaghan (1981) posit the necessity for a modified hospitality marketing mix consisting of five components.
Product-service mix
This is a combination of all the products and services offered by the restaurant operation, including both tangible and intangible elements. For example, it would include such things as the dining room, the amenities offered, and the broad array of elements that would also include the restaurant's 'ambience package.' One must remember that once a restaurant consumer leaves the facility, there is usually nothing tangible to show. Because the consumer has purchased and consumed the service, the largest part of the hospitality industry product-service mix is indeed the 'intangible' elements of service.
Presentation mix
This includes those elements that the marketing manager uses to increase the tangibility of the product-service mix that the consumer perceives. This mix includes physical location, atmosphere (lighting, sound, and color), food, and personnel.
Communication mix
This involves all of the communication that takes place between the restaurant operation and the consumer. It includes advertising, marketing research, and feedback about consumer perceptions. View the communication mix as a two-way communication link, rather than a simple one-way link with the restaurant operation communicating to the customer rather than 'with' the customer. This two-way link allows for the traditional advertising and promotion that flow from the seller to the buyer, but it also allows for marketing research and other data collection vehicles. In these cases, the seller is seeking information and data from the consumer, thereby establishing open communication through the various marketing elements at their disposal.
There are some similarities and differences between traditional marketing mix and the hospitality marketing mix. In the hospitality version, the product component undergoes expansion to include some aspects of distribution. People are part of the production process in services, and distribution occurs in the presence of the consumer. The communication mix is almost identical with the promotion component in the traditional marketing mix, although it does include some additional communications such as marketing research. Finally, the presentation mix represents the largest departure from the traditional marketing mix. It includes the price, and some of the aspects of the place component such as location, and it adds elements such as atmosphere and the personal contact between customers and employees.
Pricing mix
In addition to the actual price an operation charges, the pricing mix encompasses the consumer's perception of value. The pricing mix includes such variables as volume discounts and bundling multiple products together for an overall discounted price. Quick service restaurant chains use this bundling approach extensively as a method to increase customer spending.
Distribution mix
This includes all distribution channels available between the organization and the target market. Historically, distribution occurred at the point of production, such as restaurant food production. This has changed since newer distribution channels, such as the Internet, have developed; the importance of the distribution mix has increased.
External Factors
Several external factors can reduce the effectiveness of the operation's efforts to implement all the components of the hospitality marketing mix successfully. These factors, which may have either direct or indirect influence, are consumer perceptions, attitudes and behavior; industry practices and trends; local competition; broad national and international trends; and government policy and legislation. One additional factor that must be part of the overall planning scheme is the 'product life cycle. From a traditional marketing perspective, all products move through four stages of growth over time. The initial introductory stage, a growth stage, a maturity stage, and finally the interest in the products begins to decline. In each stage of the product growth cycle, proven strategic goals exist to maintain momentum and rejuvenate interest in the product offerings and the concept itself. Table 3.2 illustrates possible tactics given the different stages of growth of an operation. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.02%3A_The_Marketing_Mix.txt |
During the past decade, numerous changes have had an impact on the restaurant industry. The industry has confronted and adapted to such diverse situations as economic recession, overbuilding, increased competition, increased emphasis on technology, newer forms of distribution and sale using technology, increased foreign restaurant ownership, changes in dining habits, changes in food consumption patterns, and the ever-increasing globalization of the hospitality industry in general. Figure 3.8 illustrates areas of concern for our industry. Each of these external forces has brought with it changes that restaurant operations have had to make to remain competitive in a global marketplace.
When operations' consider changes in marketing strategy or tactics, they often examine the changes in five major marketing environments: competitive, economic, political and legal, social, and technological. Firms cannot directly influence their external environments, but they can monitor changes and be somewhat proactive. It is critical for organizations to engage in some form of 'environmental scanning' so they can take advantage of marketing opportunities while at the same time anticipating any treats to their business. Environmental scanning can be a formal mechanism within an organization, or merely the result of managers or salespeople consciously monitoring changes in the environment. The larger the operation, the more likely it will have a structured approach to scanning the environment and documenting trends (Lewis, Chambers, and Chacko, 1994).
Economic environment
Consumers' 'purchasing power' or ability to purchase ‘products and services’, is directly related to the economic health of the city, sate, and country. As marketers study the economic environment, they are concerned about such things as inflation, recession, unemployment, resource availability, interest rate trends, personal income growth, business growth and performance, and consumers' confidence in the economy. Other key economic terms include the consumer price index (CPI) is a measure of the relative level of prices for consumer goods in the economy. As this measure rises, there are more concerns about inflation and a poor economy. The term disposable income refers to the portion of an individual's income that available for spending after required deductions such as taxes. Discretionary income is probably a more important measure for most marketers because it refers to the income that is available for spending after deducting taxes and necessary expenditures on housing, food, and basic clothing.
Social environment
The social environment is under the effect of all of the other environments to come into play. Changes in the economy, advances in technology, competitive actions, and government regulations all shape the way consumers view the world. These changes may be sudden, or they may take place over a number of years or even decades. First, there have been changes in demographics’ or characteristics that describe the population, such as age, income, education, occupation, family size, marital status, and gender.
Second, there have been changes in consumers' attitudes, interests, and opinions that determine their lifestyles. Examples of social issues include the proportion of two-income families and the impact that the increased discretionary income and time pressures have on their lodging, dining and travel behaviors. The proportion of older Americans and their purchasing power are continually increasing. The dietary habits of the American people have also changed. In some ways they are bipolar in that the percentage of individuals characterized as overweight or obese is at an all-time high, yet many individuals are showing an increased concern for their health.
Competitive environment
Within all markets, competitors seek to win the business of consumers by offering what they believe to be the best combination of products and services designed to result in maximum consumer satisfaction. The competitive structure in an industry can range from a monopoly, with one seller and many buyers, to perfect competition, with many buyers and sellers of homogeneous products that are almost the same. In between there is the oligopoly, with a few sellers and many buyers, and the most common form of competitive structure, monopolistic competition, where there are many buyers and sellers with differentiated products. The price elasticity of demand is a measure of the percentage change in demand for a product resulting from a percentage change in price. The price elasticity of demand normally increases as the competitive structure changes from monopoly to oligopoly to monopolistic competition and ends with perfect competition.
As companies examine the competitive environment, three important questions need to center this discussion. Should we compete? If we compete, in what markets should we compete? What should our competitive strategy be? While the questions may seem straightforward, the answers are often difficult to determine, and many organizations do not make the correct decisions.
Political and legal environment
Understanding the political and legal environment means understanding the rules and regulations from which competitive actions stem. At all levels of government - local, state, national, or international - there are laws and regulations that businesses must follow. To compete successfully, an organization must understand not only the current laws and regulations, but also any new ones that might come into play in the future. Most professional restaurant operators belong to one or more professional associations. One of the goals of these associations is to help members not only understand developing laws and regulations but have influence in how they come about through lobbying efforts with politicians and government officials. An example of a nation-wide restaurant association would be the National Restaurant Association (NRA). Branches of this association exist at the state and local levels. Issues relating to the political and legal environment that might affect the restaurant industry would include changes in the federal tax codes in terms of investment feasibility by passive owners who are not active in the business operation on a daily basis. Increased taxes on restaurant meals and the reduction in tax credit for business meals are other examples of political and legal issues that have an impact on restaurants.
Technological environment
Society is constantly becoming more and more technology oriented and interconnected. Through the pervasive access to the Internet via both wired and wireless connections, our lives have changed in ways we perhaps could not have even dreamed about twenty years ago. The power of computers doubles roughly every 18 to 24 months, with prices constantly dropping. Computers are now available for more and more applications in business. Although the hospitality industry remains a highly labor-intensive and personal-contact-oriented industry, computers and technology have had and will continue to have an impact. The area in which technology will have the greatest impact in the next ten year is in direct marketing and mass customization, where a product-service provider can customize the experience for each individual customer. Using data base software, marketers have improved their ability to target their customers, track their behavior and preference, and then provide exactly what the customers desire when they want it. Through the careful use of technology, marketers can monitor guests' purchasing behavior and then tailor service offerings to meet their needs. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.03%3A_The_Marketing_Environment.txt |
Varieties of sources are at the disposal of most restaurant operations to begin and maintain a marketing information system. These information sources can group into two main categories: secondary data and primary data. Secondary data are past collections, usually for other purposes. Primary data come about for a specific purpose to gather information not available elsewhere. The information search should begin with secondary data to instituting a primary data collection process. In most cases, secondary data normally provides the information necessary to make a decision, and even if they do not, they are typically useful in developing research questions and moving the primary data collection process forward. Collecting primary data requires though and planning and thus - time to gather and process the findings. Figure 3.9 illustrates the possible sources of information for marketing purposes.
Secondary Data
Secondary data is already available from other sources and summarizes information about operations, marketing, human resources, financial performance, and other topics of interest to restaurant management. A perceptive manager will make a thorough check of all available secondary data sources before undertaking primary data collection. This will save the large amount of time involved with the primary data collection process, as well as the money spent to collect the information needed. Some of the major advantages of using secondary data include cost, and timeliness.
Cost
It is generally much less expensive to obtain information from existing sources than to develop entirely new data at your own expense. Some existing sources may charge a nominal fee for the information, bit it will be far cheaper than the cost of undertaking a primary collection process.
Timeliness
Secondary data are available almost instantaneously. A manager can have access to data very quickly and therefore does not have to wait weeks or months for primary data collection, analysis, and summary. Primary data collection is not time efficient is the sense that one must develop the research methodology, design the data collection instrument, pre-test the instrument, devise a sampling scheme, gather data, analyze the findings, and finally summarize and report the results. With secondary data, the manager need only locate the appropriate source and access the information desired. Thus, the information search reduces from weeks or months to hours or at the extreme, days. However, secondary data collection can have the following disadvantages: limited applicability, outdated information, and reliability.
Limited applicability
There is no assurance that information gathered by others will be applicable to a particular restaurant operation. For example, geographic differences can influence customer preferences and perceptions. Another example would be different restaurant segments, such as the varied characteristics of QSR, casual and fine dining operations. Thus, information that pertains to one operation may apply only to that operation and be of limited value to anyone else.
Information may be outdated
Restaurants need current and accurate information on which to base decisions. All too often, secondary data are not as useful as they might be merely because they are not current. Consider the results of a consumer attitude survey conducted by a restaurant two years ago. Depending on the market environment, that survey could be of limited value to the restaurant planning for today. During that time, a number of changes in consumer attitudes are likely to have taken place. These changes can render the original data outdated and useful only in a historical sense. Therefore, management's use of less than timely data could result in less than satisfactory outcomes.
Reliability
Reliability and accuracy are important concern when decisions center on the information. Utilize only sources with reliable reputations, and gathering methods in the operation's decision process. Management should always attempt to confirm who collected the data and the method of data collection protocol. Caution should always be the order of the day when secondary data drive decisions.
There are two main types of secondary data useful to a restaurant operation as Figure 3.9 indicates. Internal data exists within the firm and is obtainable with minimal time and effort. Advances in computer technology have made it easier to obtain pertinent information and provide to management in a useful form. External data are not readily available within the operation. This form of data acquisition occurs by spending more time and/or money contacting outside sources. The Internet has made this a much easier task, but there is still a fair amount of effort involved.
Internal Data
The component of a marketing information system that is the simplest to design and implement is an internal system, the collection of data from within the restaurant organization. When considering the organizational environment, management need to be concerned only with the wealth of information available from within the physical confines of the organization's restaurant units. Management has three main sources of internal marketing information: guest histories and sales data, employees and management staff, and customer feedback.
Guest histories and sales data
There are no hard and fast rules for management regarding exactly what records the operator should maintain. Those decisions must center on the intrinsic needs of the organizational. Within a restaurant operation, management should have knowledge of, and monitor, zip code origin of guests, day of the week and meal preferences, and pertinent customer data to name a few items for tracking. The records maintained should also include customer counts for each meal period and sales for each menu item over a specified period. Many larger organizations have elaborate management information systems in place. Many point of sale terminals interface with personal computers, making the transfer of data to off-the-shelf database management and accounting software relatively easy. Mangers can now use the collected customer information to increase the volume of business by targeting current customers via information gathered about them from within the confines of the restaurant. Figure 5.9 provides sources.
Employees and management staff
Too often, restaurant management overlooks the wealth of information for gathering informally from hourly employees such as restaurant back and front of the house workers. These individuals are in constant contact with guests, yet they rarely have the chance to supply information regarding customer comments and reactions to operational changes, such as new menu items or changes to the dining room. These employees represent an excellent source of information, although the information they provide may not be totally objective. It is a good idea for management to meet with employees on a regular basis to discuss problems and opportunities. Use the opportunity to gather information and provide recognition for the integral help employees provide in making the operation successful.
Customer feedback
The focus of any marketing effort centers on the restaurant operation's clientele. All aspects of the entire operation should aim at satisfying these individuals. The purpose of using an internal marketing information system is to solicit opinions and comments from the current clientele. This can occur in a number of ways, such as having the manager talk with a few customers or having service personnel check with their customers. One method frequently used is the customer comment card. The operator can place these cards on the table, or provide them to the guest upon checkout or possibly in some cases, on the customer bill itself. The questions for the comment card usually pertain to the quality of the meal and/or the operation itself.
All three sources of marketing information are valuable. When viewed as a collective tool they can provide a great deal of useful information for decision-making. Historically, restaurant managers have failed to use these sources to their maximum advantage, but the current competitive environment dictates that all sources of information may be useful to gain a competitive advantage and to earn maximum financial rewards.
External Data
Externally generated marketing information, though valuable, is normally not a priority on a daily basis, as is the case with internally generated information. This is due to the much larger investment of time, money, and other scare resources required in the gathering process. Still, management should consider using the wide variety of sources of this form of data. Literally thousands of sources are available, and thus any limitations regarding these sources occur from management’s own ineffective efforts to locate them. Some major sources with discussion follow.
Trade associations
Many industries form trade groups that provide data for their members. These trade associations collect information from their members and then provide industry average that can be useful to measure an operation's relative performance. Some of the popular trade associations for the hospitality industry are the National Restaurant Association, the American Hotel & Lodging Association, and the Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association International. Two of the more popular tourism associations are the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and the Travel and Tourism Research Association (TTRA). However, most of the data for the tourism industry are collections of information from government travel bureaus.
Travel bureaus
Cities, states, and countries usually form organizations that are responsible for promoting travel to the area. Most cities have a chamber of commerce that is responsible for promoting business in the city and, in some cases, tourism as well. Larger cities and regions form convention and visitors bureaus for the sole purpose of promoting business and leisure travel to the region. A chamber of commerce has member firms from all types of industries, whereas convention a visitor’s bureau tend to have member firms from travel-related industries such as lodging, restaurants, and tourist attractions. Finally, most states and countries have government travel and tourism bureaus that are responsible for promoting travel to that state or country.
Trade journals and periodicals
Many industry, or trade, journals are widely available to restaurant operators. Trade associations often publish their own journals, but many other organizations publish periodicals covering certain industries. Some of the more popular hospitality publications are Restaurants & Institutions, Nation's Restaurant News, Restaurant Hospitality, Restaurant Business, Lodging Hospitality, and Hotel & Motel Management. The articles in these publications provide information on new products and advertising campaigns, as well as current trends in the industry. These articles also provide a valuable resource for case studies involving success and failures of hospitality organizations.
Other periodicals
In addition to trade journals of a particular industry, other publications cover business in a variety of industries. Some of the more popular business publication s that cover the hospitality and tourism industries are Business Week, Wall Street Journal, Fortune, Barron's, and Forbes.
Internet
The growth in both the quantity and quality of information available on the Internet has occurred at a rapid pace. Using one or more of the available Internet search engines can produce highly valuable information for managers. A key consideration regarding the Internet, as with other secondary information sources, is the accuracy and usefulness of the information gathered.
University sources
Universities and colleges typically have well-stocked libraries that can be a valuable resource for foodservice operators. These institutions often have access to many other sources of external data. In addition, universities and colleges form centers to research specific areas such as hospitality. Most of the information available is free to the public.
Government sources
Local, state, and federal governments maintain detailed data on all aspects of the economy; the data are free or available for a nominal fee. The United States Census gathers detailed information about the population and retail business, and the Statistical Abstract of the United States contains similar information in abbreviated form. Census and statistical documents are now available in electronic form, enabling quicker searches and data retrieval. The federal government also collects information about foreign countries and provides specialists to answer specific questions and address inquiries.
Syndicated services
Firms such as Harris and Gallup pools, Target Group Index, Nielsen, and W.R. Simmons specialize in collecting and distributing marketing information for a fee. These syndicated services provide information about consumer profiles and shopping behaviors, consumer responses to sales promotions and advertising, and consumer attitudes and preferences. This form of information is useful in focusing on these services often advertise in trade publications and marketing periodicals.
Guides, indexes, and directories
These publications are other valuable sources of external information that are available at most university libraries and larger public libraries. Guides such as Business Periodicals Index provide references by subject matter for articles in major journals and trade publications. In addition, most of the major publications such as the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times have indexes that provide references by subject matter for articles that appeared in those particular sources. Finally, Lexis-Nexis is an excellent online resource for data about the performance of publically traded companies.
Guidelines should be followed when collecting external information and include listing the fact that are already known to avoid duplication of effort, listing specific goals and objectives to properly direct the information search, using valid and reliable collection methods to increase the accuracy of the information gathered, and summarizing and reporting the information found and its pertinence to the operation.
Primary Data
Primary data consists of original research done to answer current questions regarding a specific restaurant operation. For example, a foodservice manager may attempt to ascertain consumer attitudes towards new menu offerings or to solicit consumer perceptions of increased menu prices or different portion sizes. This type of data is very pertinent to an individual organization but my not be applicable to others. The advantages of using primary data include specificity, and practicality.
• Specificity. These data are customizable to one operation and can provide excellent information for decision-making purposes that is not available from other sources.
• Practicality. Primary data can provide solid, real-life information and a practical base foundation to be useful in the decision-making process.
The disadvantages include cost, time lag, and duplication.
• Cost. For an individual operator, gathering primary information is extremely expensive. To gather primary data even from a city of 100,000 people may prove to be a monumental task for an operator and may cost too much in time and money.
• Time lag. Marketing decisions often have to occur quickly, yet it requires a good deal of time to conduct a thorough information-gathering study. While the operation is collecting the data, the competition could hurt the operation to the point of bankruptcy.
• Duplication. While primary data focus toward a specific operation, other sources of existing data may closely duplicate the information collected and would therefore be appropriate for decision-making purposes. This duplication of effort is very expensive, and primary data collection should therefore be undertaken only after all secondary data sources become non-productive. Stated differently, it would probably be better to test the findings of other studies in different markets than to research the same questions again in your own market. Trying and monitoring is less costly and close observation is possible. However, if the results are positive, then the time lag, cost, and duplication have been worth the effort.
In general, the advantages of using secondary data ten to be the disadvantages of using primary data, and vice versa. As previously stated, before collecting primary data, it is advisable to perform a secondary-data search to determine the necessity and scope of a primary-data collection effort. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.04%3A_Sources_of_Marketing_Information.txt |
Appealing to consumers is not an easy process and considerable time and thought goes into developing consumer interest and appreciation for your products and services. Several guidelines exist for creating consumer interest.
Value
First customers will not be interested on your concept or products if they do not perceive some form of value in doing business with you. If you are advertising and promotions do not speak directly to the needs of the primary target market, the chances for success dilute greatly. A well-rounded marketing information system should provide appropriate data about the marketplace that allows management to be on the same page with the values of the consumers they want to attract.
Distinctive
The advertising must be distinctive in some way. It is important to remember that your advertising must compete not only with all other hospitality organizations but also with advertising for everything from automobiles to washing machines. For the advertising to be effective, your advertising must offer something that separates it from everything else. Distinctive and unusual appeals are often used. Although, depending on the marketplace, a straightforward approach initially that informs consumers about ‘who’ you are and ‘what’ you do should not be undervalued. In the beginning, a cute commercial makes people smile but you goal is to make them want to come to your facility.
Believable
Trust is a major issue with consumers. Why should they trust you? You have to address that question in your marketing scheme. Claims made for the product-service mix must be genuine and supported at all times to develop and maintain credibility with the public. Remember, in the initial phase of your restaurant operation, you immediate job is calm fears and dispel doubts. Some consumers are more skeptical than others are, therefore your marketing and follow through must be convincing to those consumers who may distrust you at first.
Simple
Each day Consumers confront hundreds of advertising commercials and slogans. If you want them to remember you, a simple and straightforward message and catch phrase is most useful. Simple and effective phrasing that has been used successfully include: eat fresh; we do it all for you; you, you're the one; it's a good time for a great taste; have it your way; broiling beats frying to name only a few. Using powerful words that inform and create the correct image of your operation are important, but obviously, you need to understand exactly what things you do that appeal to consumers and constantly remind them that you do it.
5.06: Systematic Advertising is Important
Systematic Advertising is Important
Time
Advertising requires patience. While the concentration often centers on the operation, sales are equally important and marketing requires time to generate positive results. In order to be effective, advertising must normally be repeated. Frequent exposure to targeted markets will increase the impact of advertising. Advertising specialists cannot tell you specifically 'why' consistent advertising works, but they can definitely document the poor results stemming from no advertising.
Budget
There are numerous stated percentages and national averages available to determine how much an operation should spend on marketing. In truth, all of these figures represent other operations in various stage of their product cycle. The best marketing budget scheme for a new operation should come about based on a 'needs' analysis of the operation in consideration of the marketplace and competitive environment it intends to enter. One has to have both the gumption and the money to spend enough to produce successful results.
Study
Managers and owners must constantly analyze the operation to determine the advantages it offers versus those of the competition. Disadvantages also need to surface so that they can be minimized or eliminated completely through internal adjustments - and advertising. Consistent evaluation should occur so that any changes in the competitive situation are noted and management can apply quick action. Table 3.3 - illustrates different types of media forms as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each media form.
Table: 5.3 Collateral Material - Advantages and Disadvantages
Collateral Material Advantages Disadvantages
Brochures
Informative
Ability to target
High production quality
Outdated easily
Specialty Items
Relatively inexpensive
High recall rate by consumers
Outdated easily
Outdoor media
Good reach
Good frequency
Relatively uncluttered
Brief message
High waste
Direct mail
Ability to target
Personalized mailing pieces
Excellent coupon distribution vehicle
Low minimum cost
High cost per mailing (CPM) Junk mail image
Analysis of market segments
Much changes in a marketplace during the course of a year. Many people change jobs and move, as they do their lifestyles change as well. No market segment remains constant because change is constant. For this reason, management must know the patrons of the operation. By knowing your customers, management can react more quickly, and intelligently, to changes consumer demands.
A plan
Advertising cannot be effective if it occurs in a haphazard manner. It is important to establish strong continuity among all forms of advertising so that it gains momentum. Continuity refers to the use of the restaurant operation's facilities, decor, menu, logos, distinctive type styles, and all creative touches to make the advertising stand out from other advertisements.
Media
Select Media very carefully to increase its overall effectiveness. Media used must match the intended targeted markets. Choosing the wrong media can be expensive and non-productive. Each type of media offers advantages and drawbacks.
For the purpose of discussion, types of media generally fall into three distinct areas beginning with internally generated marketing or collateral material, electronic media, and print media. Advertising programs come in all patterns and sizes, depending on the resources and needs of the individual restaurant organization. Generally, programs organize geographically on a national, regional, or local level. Each level will differ in sophistication and media - sometimes a combination of media forms.
Collateral media are excellent ways to tell the story and inform potential consumers in the initial stages of the restaurant's operation. Further, they are most useful in the later stages as a way to target current clientele, and equally to reinforce the electronic and print Collateral Material Advantages Disadvantages Brochures Specialty Items Outdoor media Direct mail Informative Ability to target High production quality Relatively inexpensive High recall rate by consumers Good reach Good frequency Relatively uncluttered Ability to target Personalized mailing pieces Excellent coupon distribution vehicle Low minimum cost Outdated easily Outdated easily Brief message High waste High cost per mailing (CPM) Junk mail image media efforts. Thus, a marketing planner might engage in more than one form of media effort in an attempt to secure recognition and acceptance in a marketplace.
Local media planners often feel that they are at a distinct disadvantage because they have smaller advertising budgets and less marketing expertise. This situation need not be a disadvantage; instead, it often quite the opposite. The use of local radio spots and local print and/or television advertising allows the advertiser to speak directly with the local clientele.
Table 5.4 Electronic Media - Advantages and Disadvantages
Electronic Media Advantages Disadvantages
Television
Excellent reach
Combined sight, motion, and sound
Ability to catch people's attention
Ability to target with cable and satellites
High total cost
Clutter
High waste
Channels can be switched
Radio
Ability to target
Less costly than television
Good reach of travelers
Sound only
Less attention getting than TV.
Clutter
Constant update required
Internet
Relatively low cost
Amount of information
Ability to provide sight, motion, and sound Interactivity
Flexibility
Buyer seeking seller
Constant update required
Other electronic media
Excellent visual and audio of CD-ROM
Ability to target
Amount of space for info transfer
Flexibility
Expensive to design
Often the local advertiser has a much clearer understanding of the target market and is able to achieve a competitive advantage over regional and national advertiser. However, one distinct disadvantage lies in the broad coverage larger market radio and television can create in terms of cost.
Said differently, if the goal is to reach your potential and current customers. What form(s) of marketing will best help you to accomplish those goals? As you read about and compare the different forms of advertising media at your disposal, begin to think about your marketplace and trading area. Where are your customers located? Do they exist in clusters, or dispersions through different neighborhoods or nearby towns or cities?
Table 5.5 Print Media - Advantages and Disadvantages
Print Media Advantages Disadvantages
Newspapers
Timeliness
Broad-based readership
Local audience
Poor production quality
Clutter
Inability to target
Newspaper inserts
Good campaign distribution vehicle
Higher coupon redemption rate
More costly than newspapers
Magazines
Ability to target
Prestige
High-quality reproduction
High secondary circulation
Long lead time
More costly than newspapers
A restaurant operating in a smaller community adjacent to larger communities or cities, will pay for the broad coverage of the radio or television advertising when the intent was to reach a smaller audience in the local community.
The larger the city, the higher the cost for electronic media such as radio and television. This is another reason why a combination of media forms are more cost efficient and effective in the end. What becomes important when multiple types of media are used is that the message has unity. Further, it is important to maintain visual similarity when using both visual and aural forms of media. Above all, portray a consistent attitude and positioning message for continuity. If your message is worth hearing - tell it often and in different ways.
An Internet Presence
The age of electronic commerce is at hand and those that follow the evolution of electronic commerce agree that companies who have an Internet presence and conduct business online (at least in part), experience numerous important benefits.
First, the Internet creates value largely or exclusively through the gathering, synthesizing, and distribution of information. Organizations that engage in e-commerce activities can collect significant data about their customers. They can more easily determine consumers' likes, dislikes, and responses to various marketing messages. This wealth of data that is readily analyzable, allows marketing managers to make better-informed decisions.
Second, electronic commerce helps companies formulate strategies in ways that result in a need for 'dual' management in the sense that the electronic business requires management itself, and various types of technology need overseeing as well. The management of technology is not a separate function, but an additional core business competency in the twenty-first century. Similarly, the development of e-commerce applications is not a parallel activity, but also a part of the core set of activities within the restaurant organization.
Third, use of the Internet allows firms to compete in real time. In the past, businesses made operational changes on an intermittent basis, resulting from data that took a considerable time to gather regarding financial performance or guest response studies. With the increasing use of technology, the lag time for information gathering has virtually become a non-issue. For example, a restaurant can e-mail their clientele special discount coupons and immediate begin to track buyer behavior via the usage of the coupons in the organization's restaurants.
Fourth, Hospitality operations such as restaurants have high cost structures for buildings, equipment, fixtures and so forth. The use of Internet helps the restaurant operation to conserve valuable financial resources to help reduce the cost of advertising and extend the marketing effort over time.
Fifth, the Internet has proven to be useful in organizing operational resources around the 'demand' side of the business (demand for the firm's products and services). The operator should constantly monitor ‘demand’ from potential customers to determine the occurrence of changes in consumer demand. This allows organizations the ability to encourage demand by changing marketing tactics and variables such as price and availability.
Sixth, electronic commerce allows organizations to examine customer relationships through interfaces using technology to manage and customize customers' experiences. In order to increase relationship-building interactions and reduce labor costs in the process, technology is useful to transfer customized information to the customers via customizable e-mail and Web site information to match the interests and past behavior of individual consumers.
Seventh, the Internet allows the restaurant organization to use technology- driven methods to measure and track customer behavior and interaction patterns. This data is then usable to customize future transactions among individual customers and customer groups with similar buying behavior.
Preparing the Organization for the Internet
An organizational decision to enter the e-commerce space is a critical one that should be receive thorough research beforehand. Managers should full consider broad perspectives before making the decision to move forward. Reedy and Schullo (2004) suggest that you address the following questions prior to engaging in commercial activities on the Internet.
• What is the firm's purpose for engaging in online commerce and communications?
• What are the firm's goals and specific objectives? What outcome is the firm seeking to achieve.
• Why should the firm want to go online? Is it to introduce new products and services? Is cost reduction one of the goals? Are enhanced relations with current customers an objective?
• What online expectations does the firm have? Are there different objectives for different divisions of the firm, such as marketing, human resources or finance?
• How will we integrate electronic commerce efforts with other forms of communication? How will we maintain our consistency of branding and identity?
• Who will be in charge of the Web site creation, maintenance, and evaluation?
These questions address the necessary elements for serious consideration to create functional online presence that accomplishes the goals of the organization and better service and awareness for consumers.
In summary, the size of the organization is not the driving factor when deciding what role the Internet and electronic commerce might play in the organization's overall program. Large firms use the Internet in a variety of way to meet marketing and other important objectives. On the other hand, small restaurant startups use it as well. A small restaurant operation in a small community that establishes an interesting Web site can extend their brand internationally. Which can be of great importance if the city is an international destination.
The most important objectives of an online ‘organizational presence’ include:
• Creating or improving your organizations 'brand' awareness;
• Helping the organization sell products and services;
• Creating interest in and sales related to promotions;
• Providing information about the many products and service that the firm offers;
• Building loyalty through frequent guest programs;
• Promoting human resource needs and employment opportunities for the operation; and
• Providing positive information about the community service work that the restaurant supports | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.05%3A_Developing_Consumer_Interest.txt |
Positioning Strategy
Positioning refers to what consumers think about your restaurant concept and how they value your products and services. Thus creating a position entails the construction of the operations image from facility, marketing, menu, and all other services and amenities you might offer to the public. Positioning begs the questions: What do consumers think about our business? In addition to, what do we want consumers to think about our operation?
Begin by segmenting
Establishing a market position for your restaurant concept starts by segmenting the market based on the different benefits that each consumer group that you select to target seeks from the product or services that you offer. As such, a narrow consumer segment would require your operation to resemble certain consistent characteristics. On the other hand, appealing to a broad group of consumer segments would require numerous physical and marketing approaches to speak to each consumer group in ways that attract them to your operation.
For example, attracting consumers from say 18 to 65 years of age is not as daunting as it might seem. Think of it this way, each age group would typically eat chicken, beef, pork, seafood, and various vegetables and starches. The differentiation would occur in the atmosphere of the location, the menu presentation, the pricing, and of great importance, just how you market (frame and present) your offerings to the public.
Positioning is an intuitive process
Positioning often comes down to intuitive decisions. Sophisticated analysis techniques and experience can be helpful, but at the end of the day, the decisions made will probably be subjective - mainly because you are dealing with people, who by nature have strong subjective tendencies. A positioning map can be useful to identify opportunities and specify the current and desired positioning of the operations' products and services.
Differentiation is the goal
The primary goal of positioning strategy is to develop a differentiated product or service that creates a unique mind share, particularly in the target market segment(s). Established positions currently maintained by competitors are best attackable by focusing the operation's resources and promotion efforts on only a small number of particular products, services, or quality features that make your company special. Pick one product at a time and promote that product and its features. Advertising occurs in short durations - have one clear message. Another decision that many operations fail to make involves ‘what’ will be a part of positioning strategy. Said differently, the operation must decide what promotions they will fund and what will not receive funding at all. Advertising equates to dollars spent. Operators must consider advertising from this perspective: if this product and service is worth promoting then really promote it do not dilute the message with other items or issues for consumers to consider. Stay 'billboard' clear at all times.
On the other hand, positions are best defendable with the use of an aggressive, mobile counterattack involving repositioning existing products and introducing new features. This is the reasoning for understanding the strengths and weakness of the competition. At some point you may need to quickly respond to competitors and the better your information regarding their positioning, the better your response will be.
Position by price
Value is one the most important determinations consumers use to justify purchasing decisions. Set the price for the positioned product or services by estimating how much extra quality the product will possess over and above the competition. How much are the target consumers prepared to pay for this extra quality, over and above the competition's actual selling prices? Of course, this value strategy is also applicable to pricing established slightly below the competition. However, pricing set too low can appear by consumers to be an indication of reduced product quality.
Positioning as financially productive
Pricing should always have a purposeful intent. Many operators lose sight of the fact that while the aim of positioning is attracting targeted consumers, the overall purpose is to establish, maintain, and increase the profitability of the operation. Thus, to that end, the operator should estimate the financial feasibility of the proposed positioning strategy. Is there a reasonable chance that the operation's positioning strategy will meet expected sales objectives and obtain the intended market share?
Many experienced operators enter a marketplace with an established restaurant concept. However, this is not always prudent based on the structure of the market. When evaluating a marketplace where no similar restaurant concept exists, the operator can make a decision regarding which type of restaurant would best fit the potential clientele of a proposed trading area. The following are major restaurant categories that bear exploration and utilization subject to the market conditions found in a trading area. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.07%3A_Positioning_Strategy.txt |
Types of Restaurants
Fast food - Quick Service (QSR)
Fast food restaurants emphasize speed of service. Operations range from small-scale street vendors with food carts to multi-billion dollar corporations like Mc Donald's and Burger King. If table seating is available, ordering does not occur from the table but from a front counter. Diners typically then carry their own food from the counter to a table of their choosing, and afterward dispose of any waste from their trays. Drive-through and take-out service are generally also available. The accurate name for fast food restaurants in the restaurant industry is ‘QSRs’ or quick-service restaurants.
Fast casual
‘Fast casual’ restaurants are primarily chain restaurants, such as Chipotles Mexican Grill, and Panera Bread. More of the food is prepared at the restaurant than is the case at fast food chains. Fast casual restaurants usually do not offer full table service, but may offer non-disposable plates and cutlery. The quality of food and prices tend to be higher than those of a conventional fast food restaurant are but may be lower than casual dining.
Casual dining
A casual dining restaurant is a restaurant that serves moderately priced food in a casual atmosphere. Except for buffet-style restaurants, casual dining restaurants typically provide table service. Chain examples include TGI Friday's and Applebee's in the U.S. and Harvester in the U.K. Casual dining comprises a market segment between fast food establishments and fine dining restaurants. Casual dining restaurants often have a full bar with separate bar staff, a larger beer menu, and a limited wine menu. They are frequently, but not necessarily, part of a wider chain, particularly in the United States.
Theme Restaurants
Theme restaurants offer a dining experience that evokes special times, places, or events, such as English pubs, restaurants owned by sports celebrities, and re-creations of diners from the 1950's.
Ethnic Restaurants
Ethnic restaurants tie closely to the cultures or food ways from which they originated. They include Mexican, French, German, Thai, and Japanese, Chinese, or Indian restaurants to name a few.
Fine dining
Fine dining restaurants are full service restaurants with specific dedicated meal courses. Décor of such restaurants features higher-quality materials, with an eye towards the "atmosphere" desired by the restaurateur. The wait staff is usually has higher skill levels and often wear attire that is more formal. Fine-dining restaurants are usually small businesses and are generally single-location operations or have just a few locations. Food portions are visually appealing. Fine dining restaurants have certain rules of dining which visitors must follow often including a dress code.
Similarly, location is crucial to quick-service restaurants because their clients depend on convenient access. Nevertheless, for some fine dining and theme restaurants, location is less critical than to other types of concepts. As such, there are a many factors involved in a positioning scheme. Additional themes or attributes are comparable in terms of your operation and that of the competition and appear in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11 Positioning Comparisons By Industry Attributes
Price vs. Quality Food Quality vs. Atmosphere
Service Quality vs. Food Quality Menu Diversity vs. Price Diversity
Price vs. Convenience Good Consistency vs. Price Value
Take Home Convenience vs. Atmosphere Cyclical Menu vs. Static Menu
Customized Catering Menu vs. Static Menu Price Value vs. Food Quality
The following establishments are subtypes of fast casual drinking restaurants or casual dining restaurants.
Each of these categories of foodservice concepts involves differences in menu, decor, mode of service, and price. However, not all of these factors are equally important within a given concept. Price is a critical factor in the success of quick service, family, and casual dining restaurants where customers are value conscious. However, price may not be as important in fine dining restaurants where customers expect to pay top dollar.
Brasserie or Bistro
A brasserie in the US has evolved from the original French idea to a type of restaurant serving moderately priced hearty meals - French-inspired "comfort foods"—in an unpretentious setting. Bistros in the US usually have more refined decor, fewer tables, finer foods and higher prices.
Buffet
Buffet restaurants offer patrons a selection of food at a fixed price. Food service occurs on trays around bars, from which customers with plates serve themselves. The selection can be modest or very extensive, with the more elaborate menus divided into categories such as salad, soup, appetizers, hot entrées, cold entrées, and dessert and fruit. Often the range of cuisine can be eclectic, while other restaurants focus on a specific type, such as home cooking, Chinese, Indian, or Swedish. The role of the waiter staff in this case relegates to removal of finished plates, and sometimes the ordering and refill of drinks.
Dress Code
Casual
Blue jeans and a T-shirt best describe the "casual uniform". With the popularity of 'spectator sports' in the late 20th century, a good deal of athletic gear has influenced casual wear. Clothing worn for manual labor also falls into casual wear although an exact determination of what is acceptable and what is not does not really exist.
Smart Casual
Personal judgment is required to interpret the ill-defined term smart casual based on its context, theme, people, location, weather and spirit. Many state that Smart casual is not an issue of inventory or classification but rather knowledge and good taste to understand the environment; Smart casual is the dress code most open to interpretation and the one least understood. Some suggest wearing fresher colors, lighter, softer materials, patterned, relaxed, thoughtful, less structured, clean and not confrontational apparel with fabrics like linen, cashmere, fine wool and cotton that launder easily. From a different perspective, an example of smart casual attire could include the use of: (a) a dress shirt, or a dress shirt with French cuffs and cufflinks (formal); (b) a herringbone or navy jacket (casual); (c) jeans (casual); and (d) dress/business shoes. The Smart casual scene assumes the position of ‘flexibility’.
An individual's personality and pleasure of clothing choice should define this dress code assuming that the attire is a multi-purpose outfit that is acceptable for formal occasions, dating, or casual gatherings. Typically, smart casual involves casual and formal clothing pieces mixed and matched. Thus, a smart casual outfit can include a mixture of jeans, blazers, sweaters, necktie, dress shirts, business shoes, or an appropriate pair of sports shoes.
Business Casual
There is no generally agreed definition of 'business casual'. One line of thinking about business casual states that it includes khaki pants, slacks and skirts, and as well as short-sleeved polo shirts and long-sleeved shirts, but excludes jeans, tennis shoes, tight or short skirts, t-shirts, and sweatshirts. To others, business casual consist of neutral colors more towards the dark shades of black, grey, navy, but can include white and off white, and the clothing should be pressed and have clean, crisp seams. Still, there are those who feel that business casual is a pair of chinos, a blazer and a good shirt with a collar but no tie.
5.09: Classroom Preparation Assignments
Positioning and Marketing Exercise \(1\)
1. Positioning statement and strategy
2. Utilizing the hospitality marketing mix
3. Sources of data
4. Type of restaurant you intend to construct
5. Type of advertising you intend to utilize
6. Electronic media usage
Example
BRIEF MARKET POSITIONING STATEMENT EXAMPLE
With all these advertising strategies in mind, as well as our goals for the restaurant, we need to decide what sort of eatery our restaurant will be, and I believe that “fast casual” is the answer to that question. Because I do not want our customers to feel obligated to tip, I would like to make it so that the primary feature of the dining room is a drinks bar that the customers can order from, receive drinks from, and then take their seat, where servers will bring their food to them. However, I don’t want our restaurant to feel like a McDonald’s, so I will have a couple of dining room attendants, one of which is a manager, to ensure the guests have everything they need to ensure their meal and to clean the dining room so that it is always pristine. Each customer service will include a carafe of ice water at the table, but we will also offer beer and cans of soda, the latter of which will be at a low price to keep costs down for the customer. Even though all meals will be ‘cook to order’ with local ingredients, by keeping these “extra” costs like the cost of drinks and tipping down for the customer, we will become a go-to eatery for our local neighborhood.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What is the positioning process?
2. What are the attributes to consider when compiling the ideal mix for consumers?
3. What factors are involved in a competitive benefits analysis?
4. There are six important positioning questions to ask. Which is the most important and why?
5. How does the hospitality marketing mix differ from the traditional marketing mix?
6. What are the components of ‘internal’ marketing data?
7. How do primary data and secondary data differ?
8. What advantage does the Internet provide in terms of reaching customers?
9. What are the most important objectives of an online ‘organizational presence’?
10. What is a ‘push’ promotion strategy?
11. What methods would be used to accomplish a ‘’pull’ promotion strategy? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.08%3A_Types_of_Restaurants.txt |
Glossary
Positioning. The process of determining how to differentiate a firm's product offerings from those of its competitors in the minds of consumers by answering the question ‘What do we want consumers to think about our company when they see our restaurant, look at our signage, our logo, marketing literature, advertising, and so forth?’. Positioning is the marketing activity and process of identifying a market problem or opportunity, and developing a solution based on market research, segmentation, and supporting data.
Consumer Mix. These attributes will differ by product or service, but some of the more important attributes would include price, value, quality of food, type of food, service quality, menu variety, employee friendliness, location, atmosphere, service speed, cleanliness, parking, and so forth.
Perceptual mapping. A technique used to construct graphic views or representations of how consumers in a market perceive a competing set of products relative to each other because of the difficulties associated with graphing and understanding multidimensional presentations, in evaluating comparisons between alternative brands.
Unique selling proposition (USP). The opportunity to differentiate the product-service mix from that of the competition and thereby gain a competitive advantage.
Traditional marketing mix. The traditional mix consists of four individual elements that come together to form the marketing mix and are often referred to as the four P's of marketing: price, product, place, and promotion.
Product-service mix. This is a combination of all the products and services offered by the restaurant operation, including both tangible and intangible elements. For example, it would include such things as the dining room, the amenities offered, and the broad array of elements that would also include the restaurant's 'ambience package.'
Presentation mix. This includes those elements that the marketing manager uses to increase the tangibility of the product-service mix that the consumer perceives. This mix includes physical location, atmosphere (lighting, sound, and color), food, and personnel.
Communication mix. This involves all of the communication that takes place between the restaurant operation and the consumer. It includes advertising, marketing research, and feedback about consumer perceptions. View the communication mix as a two-way communication link, rather than a simple one-way link with the restaurant operation communicating to the customer rather than 'with' the customer. This two-way link allows for the traditional advertising and promotion that flow from the seller to the buyer, but it also allows for marketing research and other data collection vehicles.
Pricing mix. In addition to the actual price an operation charges, the pricing mix encompasses the consumer's perception of value. The pricing mix includes such variables as volume discounts and bundling multiple products together for an overall discounted price. Quick service restaurant chains use this bundling approach extensively as a method to increase customer spending.
Distribution mix. This includes all distribution channels available between the organization and the target market. Historically, distribution occurred at the point of production, such as restaurant food production. This has changed since newer distribution channels, such as the Internet, have developed; the importance of the distribution mix has increased.
Discretionary income. This refers to the income that is available for spending after deducting taxes and necessary expenditures on housing, food, and basic clothing.
Economic environment. Consumers' 'purchasing power' or ability to purchase ‘products and services’, is directly related to the economic health of the city, sate, and country. As marketers study the economic environment, they are concerned about such things as inflation, recession, unemployment, resource availability, interest rate trends, personal income growth, business growth and performance, and consumers' confidence in the economy.
Social environment. The social environment is under the effect of all of the other environments to come into play. Changes in the economy, advances in technology, competitive actions, and government regulations all shape the way consumers view the world from both demographic and psychographic perspectives.
Competitive environment. Within all markets, competitors seek to win the business of consumers by offering what they believe to be the best combination of products and services designed to result in maximum consumer satisfaction. The competitive structure in an industry can range from a monopoly, with one seller and many buyers, to perfect competition, with many buyers and sellers of homogeneous products that are almost the same.
Political/Legal environment. Understanding the political and legal environment means understanding the rules and regulations from which competitive actions stem. At all levels of government - local, state, national, or international - there are laws and regulations that businesses must follow. To compete successfully, an organization must understand not only the current laws and regulations, but also any new ones that might come into play in the future.
Technological environment. Using data base software, marketers have improved their ability to target their customers, track their behavior and preference, and then provide exactly what the customers desire when they want it. Through the careful use of technology, marketers can monitor guests' purchasing behavior and then tailor service offerings to meet their needs.
Secondary data. Data that is already available from other sources and summarizes information about operations, marketing, human resources, financial performance, and other topics of interest to restaurant management.
Primary data. Primary data consists of original research done to answer current questions regarding a specific restaurant operation. For example, a foodservice manager may attempt to ascertain consumer attitudes towards new menu offerings or to solicit consumer perceptions of increased menu prices or different portion sizes. This type of data is very pertinent to an individual organization but my not be applicable to others. The advantages of using primary data include specificity, and practicality.
Fast food - Quick Service (QSR). Fast food restaurants emphasize speed of service. Operations range from small-scale street vendors with food carts to multi-billion dollar corporations. If table seating is available, ordering does not occur from the table but from a front counter. Diners typically then carry their own food from the counter to a table of their choosing, and afterward dispose of any waste from their trays. Drive-through and take-out service are generally also available. The accurate name for fast food restaurants in the restaurant industry is ‘QSRs’ or quick-service restaurants.
Fast casual. ‘Fast casual’ restaurants are primarily chain restaurants. More of the food is prepared at the restaurant than is the case at fast food chains. Fast casual restaurants usually do not offer full table service, but may offer non-disposable plates and cutlery. The quality of food and prices tend to be higher than those of a conventional fast food restaurant are but may be lower than casual dining.
Casual dining. A casual dining restaurant is a restaurant that serves moderately priced food in a casual atmosphere. Except for buffet-style restaurants, casual dining restaurants typically provide table service. Casual dining comprises a market segment between fast food establishments and fine dining restaurants often have a full bar with separate bar staff, a larger beer menu, and a limited wine menu. They are frequently, but not necessarily, part of a wider chain, particularly in the United States.
Theme Restaurants. Theme restaurants offer a dining experience that evokes special times, places, or events, such as English pubs, restaurants owned by sports celebrities, and re-creations of diners from the 1950's.
Ethnic Restaurants. Ethnic restaurants tie closely to the cultures or food ways from which they originated. They include Mexican, French, German, Thai, and Japanese, Chinese, or Indian restaurants to name a few.
Fine dining. Fine dining restaurants are full service restaurants with specific dedicated meal courses. Décor of such restaurants features higher-quality materials, with an eye towards the "atmosphere" desired by the restaurateur. The wait staff is usually has higher skill levels and often wear attire that is more formal. Fine-dining restaurants are usually small businesses and are generally single-location operations or have just a few locations. Food portions are visually appealing. Fine dining restaurants have certain rules of dining which visitors must follow often including a dress code.
The following establishments are subtypes of fast casual drinking restaurants or casual dining restaurants.
Brasserie or Bistro. A brasserie in the US has evolved from the original French idea to a type of restaurant serving moderately priced hearty meals - comfort foods—in an unpretentious setting. Bistros in the US usually have more refined decor, fewer tables, finer foods and higher prices.
Buffet. Buffet restaurants offer patrons a selection of food at a fixed price. Food service occurs on trays around bars, from which customers with plates serve themselves. The selection can be modest or very extensive, with the more elaborate menus divided into categories such as salad, soup, appetizers, hot entrées, cold entrées, and dessert and fruit. Often the range of cuisine can be eclectic, while other restaurants focus on a specific type, such as home cooking, Chinese, Indian, or Swedish. The role of the waiter staff in this case relegates to removal of finished plates, and sometimes the ordering and refill of drinks.
Push promotion strategy. Marketing managers uses the ‘push promotion strategy’ when they want to push the product-service mix through the service delivery system or channels of distribution. This approach encourages an increase in purchases and consumption by consumers. This method includes point-of-sale displays, cooperative advertising, traditional and electronic collateral material such as brochures.
Pull promotion strategy. This strategy aims at stimulating consumers’ interest and having them pull the product through the channels of distribution. This in turn puts additional pressure on the retail outlets to supply the products and services most in demand by consumers. These methods include sampling, price reductions, coupons, combination offers, and premiums.
Notes
Addison, T. and M. O' Donohue. 2001. Understanding the Customer’s Relationship With a Brand: The Role of Market Segmentation in Building Stronger Brands. Market Research Society Conference, London.
Bardakci, A. and Whitelock, L. 2003. Mass-customization in Marketing: The Consumer Perspective. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 20(5).
Kennedy, R. and Ehrenberg, A. 2000. What’s in a brand? Research, April.
Kotler, Philip and Gary Armstrong. 2012. Principles of Marketing. Pearson, 2014; 2012
Martin, James H. and James M. Daley. 1989. How to develop a customer-driven positioning strategy. Business, 39.
Ries, Al, and Jack Trout. 1981. Positioning: The battle for your mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Positioning_the_Product/5.10%3A_Chapter_Glossary_and_Notes.txt |
Chapter 6 Learning Objectives
• Comprehend the difference between ‘marketing’ and ‘selling’.
• Gain a working knowledge of what a marketing plan should include.
• Understand competitive methods.
• Comprehend and utilize different types of sales promotions.
• Gain a useful understand of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ sales promotions.
• Understand promotional themes and techniques.
• Gain a working knowledge of successful promotion management.
“Even when you are marketing to your entire audience or customer base, you are still simply speaking to a single human at any given time.”
Ann Handley
“Great marketers have immense empathy for their audience. They can put themselves in their shoes, live their lives, feel what they feel, go where they go, and respond how they'd respond. That empathy comes out in content that resonates with your audience.”
Rand Fishkin
The Marketing plan
Most restaurant operations engage in activities that they incorrectly refer to a marketing. Many people confuse advertising or personal selling with marketing. Although such activities are without question a part of the marketing function, alone and with no support they do not refer to marketing. Advertising and personal selling are merely forms of promotion, and promotion is just one component of the marketing mix. Operators engaging in activities of this type are merely attempting to sell their products and services. Marketing refers to the ‘entire’ process addressing the hospitality product and service mix.
The product-service mix is composed of all the tangible and intangible products and services that make up a hospitality operation. The product-service mix includes the food, beverages, dining room, meeting facilities, tabletop appointments, and personal attention by service personnel, and well as a host of other tangibles and intangibles. Advertising and selling, alone, focus only on the hospitality operation’s product-service mix, and the goal is to convince the consuming public to purchase and consume a portion of that mix. The ‘needs’ and ‘wants’ of the consuming public are given little consideration. Instead, the operation is hoping that a sufficient number of consumers will patronize the operation to allow the restaurant to achieve its financial objectives.
The hospitality and tourism industry, especially, food service, abounds with examples of operations that have failed because the owners created operations they ‘like’ or ‘always wanted to operate’, yet the owners and operators fail to consider fully the needs and wants of potential customers. The results are predictable: low volume, poor sales revenue, and frequent bankruptcy.
Marketing versus Selling
The difference between selling and marketing is very simple. Selling focuses mainly on the firm’s desire to sell products for revenue. Sales people, and other forms of promotion, come together to create demand for an operation’s current products. Clearly, the needs of the seller are very strong. Marketing, however, focuses on the needs of the consumer, ultimately benefiting the seller as well. When truly marketing a product or service, the needs of the consumer are a strong consideration from the very beginning of the product development process, and the product-service configuration aims at the unsatisfied needs of the consuming public. When a product or service arrives on the scene in the right mix, very little selling is necessary because the consumer need already exists and the product or service is merely in production to satisfy the need. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/06%3A_The_Marketing_Plan/6.01%3A_Marketing_versus_Selling.txt |
A marketing plan will normally accompany the business plan for the concept. A business plan sets a direction for the restaurant before beginning work on the actual development; provides a reality check on the feasibility of the undertaking; sets budgets; and determines capital needed and attracts investors. An effective marketing plan includes all information pertinent to locating, attracting, and retaining customers. The information contained in a marketing plan include:
• The target market and the market segments that will be the most advantageous to the operation
• A detailed description of the geographic market area
• The final building design
• The type of signage that will be used to carry the concept to the target market
• A description of the decor and atmosphere of the facility
• The selected name for the operation and the designed logo to hallmark the concept. Note that name, where possible should indicate what cuisine a potential customer could expect. A name that does not connote a specific type of menu fare will be confusing to the public and require marketing to attract a clientele.
• The final menu
• The level of quality customers can expect and how this standard will be maintained
• The amount and type of staffing and training -quality standards for employees
• A description of the intended price/value perception
• The sanitation and cleanliness standards
• The feedback loop for continuous product and service improvement the strategic business units (SBU's) within the organization and within the restaurant such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, catering, delivery, and retail
• An analysis of the competition and their strengths and weaknesses
• Any barriers to market entry now and in the future
• The intended promotion and advertising intended to attract and retain the concept's clientele
6.03: Competitive Methods
When entering a marketplace knowledge of the existing competition, and those other entities that might enter the marketplace are essential. What is the current restaurant environment? How will you gain a foothold? ‘Competitive methods’ is nothing more than a clear picture in your own mind regarding ‘what’ and ‘how’ you intend to compete. Matching the correct competitive method to the market is critical to both success and survival. Once success and growth begins to occur the appropriate adjustments can ensue to sustain and continue to increase profitability.
Restaurant Environment / Competitive Methods Match
Environmental Events Competitive Methods
Entering and Expanding within a Segment and Marketplace
• Multiple concepts
• Brand recognition
• Real estate holdings
• New concept development
• Unit facelift improved atmosphere
Address Consumer Expectations
• Changes in pricing strategy
• More upbeat, energetic music
• In-store execution of production
• Friendly and helpful employees
• Community involvement
• ‘Guest first’ philosophy
Technology
• Efficient cooking systems
• Website
• Management information system
• Simplify operational procedures
Competitive Methods Relating to Executing the Marketing Plan
Physical Human Organizational
• Convenience
• Packaging
• Technology
• Augmenting menus
• Variety of product offerings
• Downsizing units
• Limited menus
• Upgrade building, equipment
• Décor / ambiance
• Cleanliness
• Location
• MIS systems
• Landscaping
• Signage
• Maintenance systems
• Asset security systems
• Real estate holdings
• Management talent
• Team spirit – employees
• Cultivating diversity
• A motivated workforce
• Innovative personnel
• Employee loyalty
• Performance measurements
• Recruiting
• Appropriate attitudes
• Appearance
• Training programs
• Turnover ratio
• Development programs
• Product innovation
• Market research capability
• Brand identity
• Reputation
• Dual branding locations
• Synergy from several concepts
• Marketing frequency
• Control procedures
• Good planning
• Quality perception
• Simple operations
• Ability to adjust to change
• ‘Services’ marketing orientation
• Internal marketing orientation
• Effectiveness of functional units
• Appropriate standards
• Production methods
• Entertainment experience
Remember, the competition is generally unaware of your presence in the beginning. As your operations grows and becomes profitable. Your competitors will muster a response to your actions. This is why taking a deep look at your competitors is vital to your success. Understanding the possibilities of a competitive response allows you initiate a ‘counter’ from the beginning. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/06%3A_The_Marketing_Plan/6.02%3A_Marketing_Plan_Inclusions.txt |
When developing a sales promotion campaign, the marketer must consider several major aspects. First, it is necessary to determine the size of the incentive that will appeal to consumers and get them to participate. The larger the incentive, the more likely it is to attract attention. Second, the firm must establish the conditions for the participation. Restaurants often limit offers to certain times of day or days of the week. In addition, offers may require reservations in advance and depend on availability. Third, the marketer must determine the timing of the promotion, including its duration. Will the offer combine with other promotions, such as advertising? Will it be available during peak or non-peak hours? How long will the sales promotion be available? Finally, it is necessary to determine how consumers will learn of the promotion, and to estimate the total budget for the promotion. The disbursement of coupons usually occurs by mail, point of sale in the restaurant, or the Internet.
Hospitality trade journals are full of terrific ideas for promotions. There is never a need to reinvent the wheel. Rather, simply modify the ideas that others have used successfully before. Like anything else managers do, developing a promotion calls for careful planning, execution of the plan, and evaluation.
• Select the target market for the promotion. Analyze sales records to determine the most likely target markets for a special promotion, as these segments offer the greatest potential for increased sales.
• Establish specific objectives for the promotion. Objectives should be very specific, detailing exactly what the promotion should accomplish. Desired results should be numerical.
• Select the promotional technique. Examine the situation and the advantages and disadvantages of each of the techniques, select the one best suited to the situation.
• Brainstorm about the potential offer. There are hundreds of excellent ideas. Make a list of those deserving consideration and seek input from others. Consider all potential offers carefully from two perspectives: the potential appeal to the target market and the potential sales increase in light of the costs and expenses the operation will incur.
• Create the promotional theme. This is the area where you can be very creative. What will the promotional ‘tag line’ be? Does it capture the interest of potential guests? Can it be useful both internally and externally in the promotion? For a promotion to achieve the maximum potential, it needs to move forward both outside and inside the operation. Externally, its purpose is to build business. Internally, it should create excitement among the staff and build morale.
• Develop the promotional budget. A projection of the total costs you anticipate the promotion will costs, including both direct and indirect expense measurements. The wise operator projects the impact on both costs and revenue generation at several different levels of consumer participation.
• Select advertising media and vehicles to support the promotion. Secure advertising time space and the media platforms that will best reach your target audience.
• Develop an implementation timetable. Promotions require attention to detail so that all phases will integrate and implement properly. To accomplish this, a timetable is required. Plan the specific date selections for the promotion.
• Conduct internal training for the entire staff. Just prior to the implementation of the program, brief the entire staff so they are familiar with the details of the promotion. Items of interest are how long the promotion will last and ‘who’ is responsible for ‘what’ the details.
• Work the plan. Put the promotion plan into action and follow the timetable.
• Monitor the results. Feedback should receive careful consideration along with a timetable comparison. Are things progressed according to schedule? Is the level of consumer participation within the target range? Are the staff members working according to anticipation? Attention to detail is very important. You should collect and retain all information for future use in other promotions. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/06%3A_The_Marketing_Plan/6.04%3A_Managing_successful_promotions.txt |
Restaurant operations use two common strategies within the broad sphere of sales promotion: ‘push’ promotion and ‘pull’ promotion. Marketing managers uses the ‘push promotion strategy’ when they want to push the product-service mix through the service delivery system or channels of distribution. This approach encourages an increase in purchases and consumption by consumers. A ‘pull promotion strategy’, on the other hand, aims at stimulating consumers’ interest and having them pull the product through the channels of distribution. This in turn puts additional pressure on the retail outlets to supply the products and services most in demand by consumers. Some of the most commonly used push and pull techniques follow.
Techniques for push promotions
• Point-of-sale (POS) displays. The displays you usually see at the counter of fast-food restaurants or as table tents in other types of restaurants, called ‘point-of-sale (POS) displays. Their purpose is to stimulate an increase in sales. Similarly, signs, banners, and table tents are often useful displays in restaurants as well.
• Cooperative advertising. A national chain normally provides advertising at the national, regional, and local levels to support outlets. In addition, franchisees will often receive financial assistance with local advertising, in addition to chain’s national advertising, as part of the franchise agreement. This practice references ‘cooperative advertising’.
• Advertising materials. To encourage the local property to run advertising, the national chain will supply camera-ready advertising materials as well as radio commercials.
• Traditional and electronic collateral material. Many firms supplement their other promotional efforts with materials such as brochures, flyers, or directories of other outlets within the chain. Beyond the traditional print collateral materials, firms use Web-based promotion to communicate with current and prospective customers.
• Convention and owners’/managers’ meetings. National chains use these meetings as a method to introduce new products and services to those who will be working in the individual units. These meetings are useful for sales and service training.
Techniques for pull promotions
• Sampling. This technique is useful and effective for foodservice operators. Distribute samples of menu items at the table or in the lobby area of the restaurant. Thereby encouraging customers to try the product. The goal is to convert this trial into regular use and repeat purchase. This technique is common in banquet sales where operators allow patrons to ‘sample’ the products and services before they make a final decision about the host restaurant for an upcoming event.
• Price reduction promotion. Price reductions for a limited time can encourage trial and increase sales. Many restaurants use price reductions to increase volume during otherwise slow periods of the week, or daypart. As with all promotions, restrictions should apply and a definite time- period.
• Coupons. These are certificates entitle the consumer to receive a discount upon presentation at the restaurant. Distribution can occur in newspapers, magazines, face-to-face, direct mail, or through the Internet utilizing a customer e-mail bank or Web function.
• Combination offers or bundling. This involves combining two or more products or services and offering them for less than what they would cost if the purchases occur separately.
• Premiums. Extra merchandise or gifts that the restaurant gives away or sells at a very reasonable price to guests are ‘premiums’. Examples include items such as hats, tote bags, glassware, and T-shirts with the logo of the restaurant on them. If the restaurant is able to cover direct costs of the item, the premium refers to ‘self-liquidating’. Some operations sell a considerable volume of logo merchandise. Hard Rock Café T-shirts are virtually collector’s items from national restaurants and international locations as well.
Common Promotional Techniques
The most common sales promotion techniques in the hospitality and tourism industry are coupons, sampling, and premiums. A more in-depth discussion of these techniques follow.
Coupons
The primary objectives for coupons are to stimulate trial of your products and services by reducing the price, encouraging multiple purchases, and generate temporary sales increases. Coupons offer several advantages.
• The coupon represents a tangible inducement, offering a savings or benefit.
• The price reduction is for a limited time and will not affect profit margins in the long term.
• Coupons can be used to accomplish specific objectives, such as boosting business during non-peak periods or slower sales days
• The maximum cost of the promotion calculation occurs in advance. For example, previous experience allows you to estimate the coupon redemption rate.
• If codes are present on the coupon and a corresponding record indicates ‘where’ the coupon distribution occurs, the operator can gain an understanding of ‘where’ the new business is coming from.
Coupons have disadvantages as well:
• Some employees will be tempted to defraud the business. It is possible for them to take cash and substitute coupons. The higher the value of the coupon, the more supervision is necessary.
• Redemption rates are not an easy prediction. Among the environmental factors that can affect the redemption rate are the value of the coupon, timing, and the activities of direct competitors. This is most common with new promotions because there is no prior history on which to predict future coupon redemption rate
Sampling
Encouraging trial of new or existing products; is the primary objective of ‘sampling’. If consumers will at least try the product, there are more likely to purchase it in the future. Sampling is also an excellent way to persuade consumers to trade up to more expensive products and services. Sampling can tie in with other types of promotions. Sampling offers these advantages:
Getting consumers to try the product is superior to getting them to look at an advertisement - It provides the operator with instant feedback.
It represents value to the consumer. Many consumers like to think that they can get something free. For example, including small portions of entrée and appetizer items ‘complements of the chef’ or in the free offerings during ‘happy hour’ is an excellent way to stimulate dining room business.
Some disadvantages of sampling include:
• Giving away products can become a major expense if it occurs for an extended period.
• Samples of food products must reach the customers when they are fresh. If the operation intends to hold the products for a lengthy period, care is necessary to ensure that the product quality sustains until it reaches the customer.
Premiums
Premiums – items that you give away – are useful to bring in new guests, to encourage frequent visits by current customers, and to build positive word of mouth about the operation. Advantages include the following.
• Most consumers like to get something for nothing or for a good price. It helps to build goodwill for your business, especially if the customer places a high value on the premium.
• If the premium is clever or unique, it will build positive word of mouth as consumers tell others where they found it. When your logo is included on the premium, the message is always in front of the consumer.
Disadvantages of premiums include:
• Storing and handling the premium items can be a challenge if they are large or bulky.
• Employees and others may take the premiums for their own use or for their families and friends.
• The quality of the premium must be equal or superior to the image of the restaurant facility. If the premium does not work properly or breaks, it will diminish the image the consumer has of the facility or organization.
• Anticipating demand from premiums is difficult. If the operation’s advertising indicates that the premium is available, it is imperative that a sufficient inventory is available so that consumers will not walk away empty-handed. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/06%3A_The_Marketing_Plan/6.05%3A_Types_of_Sales_Promotions.txt |
The Marketing Plan Exercise \(1\)
1. Marketing approach and target markets
2. Electronic and traditional media
3. The methodical approach you intend to use
4. Incorporate position statement
Example
Table of Contents – A Standard Outline Marketing Plan
1. Vision
2. Goals
3. Purpose
4. Customer
5. Market Needs
6. Market Trends
7. Market Description
8. Demographics
9. Psychographics
10. Behaviors
11. Geographic Area
12. Growth Projections
13. Differentiators
14. Direct Competition
15. Indirect Competition Strategy
16. Core Message
17. Positioning Goal
18. Key Strategic Indicators
19. Core Branding Elements
20. Colors
21. Logo
22. Images
23. Product/Service Innovation
24. Price Rationale
25. Marketing Materials
26. Marketing Story Case Study Plan
27. Testimonial Plan
28. Multi Media Materials
29. Web Plan /Website Marketing +Strategy
30. Content Strategy
31. Search Engine Strategy
32. Social Media Plan
33. Social Networking
34. Lead Generation Plan
35. Advertising/Public Relations Referrals
36. Direct Mail
37. Mailing List Source & Follow-up
38. Community Building Plan
39. Loyalty Product/Service Offerings
40. Critical Numbers
41. Sales Forecast/Marketing Expense Budget
42. Measurement Plans
43. Key Marketing Metrics
44. Marketing Training
45. Marketing Organization
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. How does marketing differ from selling?
2. What does an effective marketing plan include and how does it differ from a business plan?
3. How could a restaurant operation enter and expand within a segment and marketplace?
4. What would be possible advantages offered by ‘technology’ to a foodservice operation?
5. What are the two main types of sales promotions and what is the method?
6. What techniques do ‘pull’ promotions utilize?
7. What are the primary objectives of coupons and what advantages do they offer.
6.07: Chapter Glossary and Notes
Glossary
Selling. Selling focuses mainly on the firm’s desire to sell products for revenue. Advertising and personal selling are merely forms of promotion, and promotion is just one component of the marketing mix. The goal is to convince the consuming public to purchase and consume a portion of that mix.
Marketing. Marketing focuses on the needs of the consumer, ultimately benefiting the seller as well. When truly marketing a product or service, the needs of the consumer are a strong consideration from the very beginning of the product development process, and the product-service configuration aims at the unsatisfied needs of the consuming public.
Business plan. A business plan sets a direction for the restaurant before beginning work on the actual development; provides a reality check on the feasibility of the undertaking; sets budgets; and determines capital needed and attracts investors.
Marketing plan. An effective marketing plan includes all information pertinent to locating, attracting, and retaining customers.
Competitive methods. A clear picture in your own mind regarding ‘what’ and ‘how’ you intend to compete. This includes your capabilities and knowledge as a competitor and includes physical, human, and organizational capabilities.
Push promotion strategy. Marketing managers uses the ‘push promotion strategy’ when they want to push the product-service mix through the service delivery system or channels of distribution. This approach encourages an increase in purchases and consumption by consumers. This method includes point-of-sale displays, cooperative advertising, traditional and electronic collateral material such as brochures.
Pull promotion strategy. This strategy aims at stimulating consumers’ interest and having them pull the product through the channels of distribution. This in turn puts additional pressure on the retail outlets to supply the products and services most in demand by consumers. These methods include sampling, price reductions, coupons, combination offers, and premiums.
Notes
Advertising Age, May 10, 1999, p. 4.
Roman, Kenneth, and Jane Maas. 1976. How to advertise. NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Grohmann, H. Victor. 2003. Ten Keys to Successful Advertising. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 17(2).
Sandge. C. H., V. Fryburger, and K. Rotzoll. 1979. Advertising Theory and Practice. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. 1993. Introduction to Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective, 2nd edition. Boston: Richard D. Irwin.
Crosby, Melanie A. 1998. Rewarding Regulars: Frequent-Diner Programs Keep Customers Coming Back for More. Restaurants USA.
Nykiel, Ronald A. 1983. Marketing in the Hospitality Industry. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Cosse, Jacques C. 1980. Ink and Air Time: A Public Relations Primer. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 21(1).
Mplans. 2017. Standard Marketing Plan. https://www.mplans.com/marketing-plan-outline.php. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/06%3A_The_Marketing_Plan/6.06%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments.txt |
Chapter 7 Learning Objectives
• Understand the importance of market evaluation to design a facility.
• Gain a working knowledge regarding how to think about facility inclusions.
• Understand the function of money in the facility design process.
• Know the elements of a poor location.
• Comprehend how to think about real estate worth.
• Gain the ability to perform a detailed analysis of a restaurant’s location.
• Utilize a facility checklist.
• Learn how to integrate concept and location.
• Understand how to equip a facility.
• Understand how to locate various components within a facility.
• Apply design state considerations to a facility.
• Gain a working knowledge of facility space considerations.
• Gain a working knowledge of the various licensing and permits necessary for restaurant operation.
“Nothing belongs to itself anymore. These trees are yours because you once looked at them. These streets are yours because you once traversed them. These coffee shops and bookshops, these cafés and bars, their sole owner is you. Nothing belongs to itself anymore."
Kamand Kojouri
“It’s hard to target a message to a generic 35-year-old middle-class working mother of two. It’s much easier to target a message to Jennifer, who has two children under four, works as a paralegal, and is always looking for quick but healthy dinners and ways to spend more time with her kids and less time on housework.”
Elizabeth Gardner
To begin to think about what the physical facility should represent to a potential clientele. The concept integrate into the building design to position the concept as well as the delivery of products and services in the minds of those patrons the operation intends to attract. The successful foodservice operation combines the following elements of concept development into the actual design of the physical facility: market, menu, money, management, and method of execution. Each will receive discussion in detail later in the chapter, but this initial grouping should help to center their importance to the restaurant's physical presence.
Market
Once an examination of the trading area occurs to gather the appropriate demographic, psychographic, and behavioral profile, an analysis of the data should render sufficient information to make segmentation choices and provide answers to the following relevant questions pertinent to the determination of what the physical facility should offer to the operation. Basic market questions include:
• To whom are you marketing the food operation? Before construction begins on the facility, the operation must have a clear idea about specifically 'who' the preferred clientele will be. Are they young, middle-aged, families, older couples? Each category of customer prefers certain amenities.
• Is the market large enough to generate sales and produce a profit? This question can reflect the city and trading area itself, or equally used to refer to different clientele brackets. If one intended segment of the market is not sufficient to cover the expenses of the operation and produce a profit, then additional segments must be included and the requirements of those additional patrons should receive consideration in the design process.
• How will you identify the market? What is the segmentation strategy? Based on the size of the city, and trading area, choose and describe each segment of patrons the facility must attract.
• What level of competition exists in the market? What quality standard and level of functionality do direct competitors offer your intended patrons? What could you do to enhance the customer's experience and sense of obtained value?
• What method(s) will be useable to communicate to this market? This question is important to consider when deciding on the facade, ground, lighting, signage, and logo design of the facility to name a few important items.
• Will the potential customer want or need the food product? This question speaks directing to the sunk costs of the facility and subsequent pricing because of expenses incurred. If customers feel a 'need' for the products and services of the restaurant, they will typically be willing to pay a bit more than customers who are will to more toward substitutes to obtain greater value should financial considerations come into play.
• Will a quality assurance plan be developed that will encourage the customer to return because of superior service and/or product quality? The operation and facility must always deliver what the concept marketing indicates patrons can expect. Too often operations fall short of advertised promises. The facility design must meet both the desired and pubically conveyed standards the operation must maintain the public trust and its perception of value.
• Will internal marketing successfully sell the customer additional services or products and maintain different avenues of product and service delivery? From the broad perspective, the facility design must display products and logo items of the concept. Additionally, how will you handle customer delivery orders if that form of service is available? Will you force customers placing take-out orders to mingle with seated patrons? Will the facility have a convenient walk-up design for those wishing to remain in casually dress? How will payment be made and food delivered to these customers. The devil is always in the design.
Most operations fail to plan the various ways customers are reachable by their concept. All areas of the operation should complement each other without impeding any other area. Each customer should receive a superior product and service experience no matter what manner of delivery is desirable. Stated differently, many operators consider delivery, or take-out, as just additional revenue. The prudent operator that it is also an expansion of the dining room and a decision to utilize the operation when the customer makes the decision to use the operation's services in a capacity other than 'seated' dining - as such, this is business that would be lost if avenues other than sit-down dining were not offered.
A classic mistake made by both large corporations and individual restaurant operators is to conduct the market analysis and then fail to act based on the information obtained.
Facility
The menu has a tremendous influence on the design and success of a food operation. An operator must constantly frame his or her thinking of the menu as the primary or sole source of revenue for the operation that will cover the expenditures of the operation on a monthly or yearly basis, and provide the profits sought by the organization. Will the menu be static, seasonal, broad, or narrow? Is there a balance among sautéed, gridded, and fried items - or will one station bear the burden of production? From a design and layout perspective, these are just some of the factors determined by the menu:
Amount of space required
A complex menu requires more space to prepare items than a limited, or simple, menu because separate workstations and additional equipment are necessary. Depending on the amount of space available in a prime location, 'make' or 'purchase' decisions may well become practical considerations. Will artisan breads, rolls, or desserts be prepared from scratch in house? Will these items be outsourceable? Do we actually need an ‘on premise’ bakery? Will you plate-up desserts with ice cream in the hot kitchen? How will you segregate and partition the kitchen? How will you stock preparation areas? Product control considerations? The list can be extensive.
Service area size and design
The greater the number of menu items, the more area required for service in the kitchen as well as staging and work stations necessary in the dining room (each different entrée requires a point of service and each form of beverage a dispenser). Stated a bit differently, how far do you expect your service staff to travel to obtain or prepare necessary amenities for the customer? How involved in the preparation of certain products would you expect the service staff to be engaged in? Table setting, bread, butter, drink and/or dessert service? These questions speaks to the spatial aspects of floor plans as well as the number of tables that a server can adequately handle in terms of movement and product/service delivery.
Dishwashing area, size, and machine capacity
Complex menus require multiple plates, dishes, and utensils, so the dishwashing area and machine capacity will need to be greater than in the case of simple menus. Based on the size of the operation, will one dishwashing area suffice to maintain smooth and efficient service? Should one dish area exist for the kitchen and one for the dining room items such as plates, glasses, and utensils? A well-planned ware-washing arrangement could reduce the amount of plates, glasses and flatware necessary to the flow of service.
Types of cooking equipment
Complex menus require multiple types of equipment, especially in the final preparation area, where it may be necessary to steam, fry, bake, and sauté. Which pieces of equipment are necessary to execute the menu? Which items utilize the same pieces of equipment? What about preparation for different day parts? Is the intended equipment sufficient to prep and prepare items for dinner while luck is in progress? Can we receive multiple food deliveries per week that would reduce the need for a freezer? Product procurement is an often-overlooked consideration regarding space allotment in the kitchen.
Equipment capacity – limited menus may require relatively few pieces of equipment but with large capacities. Complex menus may require many different types of equipment with relatively smaller capacities.
Size of dry and refrigerated storage areas
The size of the dry and refrigerated storage areas is central to the ingredients needed to execute the menu. What are the packaging dimensions for these necessary ingredients - both dry and those needing refrigeration or freezing? Plan these issues to accomplish a storage area and scheme that facilitated product safety, security, freshness, taking inventory, and product rotation.
While product specifications can be easily obtainable from the market suppliers, one important aspect of procurement often goes overlooked when space decisions are considered. How often will the supplier make a delivery to the operation? The projected volume of the restaurant should be a consideration along with the frequency of delivery when determining spacing needs. ‘Just in time’ ordering requires less space. For instance, products from a supplier that delivers three times a week as opposed to once a week would require less space for the products they provide to the operation. The operator, for example, does not have to project customer volume and a pad should that volume increase. You will be able to replenish products utilized for a larger Monday dinner crowd on Wednesday rather than having to take a chance on running out of ingredients before the following week's shipment.
Number of employees
When factoring in the menu and the amount of customer volume, how many employees will the operation need to run smoothly? During slower periods, will equipment capacity and placement allow for fewer employees in your kitchen and dining room? Will you section off portions of the dining area to allow for good customers service with them feeling alone in the dining room? This takes planning from the beginning of facility development.
Amount of investment required
The investment you require must center initially on the amount of money your target market can afford to spend on a meal. The facility must embody your marketing scheme and brand elements. Your menu selections and pricing must consider your cost and profit factors. Thus, the menu must be affordable to your consumers and cover your expenses and profit. Do not build a facility at odds with this fact. While an attractive facility is important, it cannot exceed in cost what your menu and target market can reasonably afford or you will see your customers once a month rather than once a week. The message is to not ‘over-build’ the facility to the detriment of the operation.
Money
Successful capitalization of a food facility includes funding for the following items.
• Planning costs
• Building construction or renovation
• Equipment (fixed)
• China, glassware, utensils
• Furniture and fixtures
• Décor
• Start-up and operating costs
Obtaining funds is a two-stage process – preliminary identify financial support, after concept development securing investors or lenders.
Management
The quality of the management of the operation will be the most important element in achieving success. Typical questions that owners must address include:
• Who will operate the facility?
• What kind of food experience and educational background must this person have?
• Who will assist this person in covering the long hours that are usually required to operate the facility?
• What level of pay will this person receive?
• Will this person receive compensation in some way for excellent sales and profit results?
• How will the owners set operational policies and communicate these to the management staff?
The answers to these questions will determine the organizational structure and the kind of management team that will efficiently operate the food facility. Investors or institutional administrations prefer traditional management principles of good communication, strong controls, and sound personnel relations. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.01%3A_Market_Facility_Money_and_Management.txt |
Poor Location
The prudent restauranteur considers the location of a restaurant as the ‘connection’ between your target customer and your operating concept. Regarding the actual site selection, some experts indicate that as long as the restaurant is located in the 'right' area of a city with a strong economic component, the actual 'site' is not a primary concern for success. They feel that unique food and beverage offerings, along with good service, will overcome most obstacles and attract customers, even to a location that is not so obvious to consumers. Others on the other hand are not so optimistic. To meet in the middle, regardless the methodology you inherently embrace, it would be safe to say that, at the very least, the restaurant's concept and location must "fit" each other and the restaurant site is an important part of that fit. Over time, it would equally be appropriate to state that as certain things about the trading area and location change, the concept must often change to adapt. A discussion of the important aspects of choosing a 'location' should begin with a look at how bad locations come about.
1. Choosing the most convenient location. Many operators insist on settling for a location that is the most convenient for them thus ignoring the demographics, psychographics, and behavior patterns, or site problems within the marketplace. Many forget that the intention is not to find a site for the restaurant you are looking for the best site available to bridge the consumer and the intended concept. This is what the site must accomplish.
2. Selecting a weak strategic location. Often the selected site offers little strategic advantage to the operation. For example, choosing a location not visible from a major thoroughfare would certainly decrease customer awareness of your operation. Further, you must now market your concept to consumers thereby increasing operating costs incurred from the lack of visibility that would enhance your chances. The problems of such a selection are higher if the trading area is highly competitive.
3. Overlooking the importance of drive-by features. A lack of easy access and visibility can be hard to overcome once the restaurant goes online. When considering the nature of foodservice, it is important to remember that customers need to think of you when hunger set in, additionally, your concept must come to mind when the consumer chooses a location to feel that need. Visibility constantly reinforces your name and operation in the consumers' mind. Easy access must the choice effortless for them. Should they eat here, or battle traffic to reach your out of the way location? Different customers make different decisions. Make it as easy as possible to choose your operation.
4. Choosing a site that can be out-positioned. If it is possible for a major competitor to acquire a location between your operation and the customer, think carefully before selecting that site. In the quick-service or casual segments as examples, location becomes key because there is little consumer loyalty in either segment. Thus if the consumer has trouble reaching your concept, another choice becomes equally viable.
5. Entering the market too late. In any trading area, there is a fine amount of disposable income. Even if consumers in a trading area decided to try your concept, not enough income is available to sustain your operation over time everyone will typically garner a smaller portion of the available 'pie,' Becoming a market niche in ‘sellers’ market’ is inherently far more profitable - and provides a better cushion for negative happenings.
6. No competition in the trading area. Sometimes operations will settle in areas with no competition with the assumption that such a move will instantly provide an advantage only to find out that this is not the case. Typically, a lack of competition in the trading area is an indication of poor market conditions or other consideration that make a site selection in that area a poor decision. An area devoid of foodservice facilities where operations once were is a prime indicator of a declining market. It is always best to explore 'why' no competition exist before one revels in the lack of it. In foodservice, a competitive environment will generally act as a traffic generator for the area pulling consumers toward the area rather than sending then to other parts of the market.
7. Locating in areas primarily occupied by offices. Such areas have large populations during 'business' days only to find the area empty after five o'clock in the evening. While these areas might possibly provide some breakfast or lunch business during the workweek, searching for potential customers on evenings and weekends can become a futile activity. Some organizations are satisfied with breakfast or lunch business but those day parts are not as profitable to a full-service restaurant. Consumers expect lower prices for meals during those day parts. An additional difficulty exists in the attempt to draw customers to the trading area after dark when the area is a ghost town with little drawing power from adjacent areas.
• Another prime example would be medical offices surrounding a large hospital facility. What appeared to be wonderful opportunities have cripple many a foodservice organization. Doctor's offices and the like generally close early and most hospitals offer foodservice on the premises not to mention time constraints for worker and the arduous task of leaving and returning. In sum, breakfast consumers consider themselves 'late' and lunch consumers are 'in a hurry.' The customer who is transitioning from the happenings of the day with the time to relax and enjoy a full meal is the 'evening' dinner customer. This area lack the consumer most apt to enjoy your offerings and service.
8. Overlooking demographic information. When determining whether, or not, a location connects with the targeted consumer in a trading area, overlooking the market's demographic information can be an insurmountable mistake. If the information suggests that the closest neighbors are not really the lifestyle types who would love to see your concept in their trading area, look to a different location. Those that fail to do so typically do not survive. Thus, before the location search, it is extremely important for foodservice operations to have a clear definition and understanding of who would be attracted to their concept and have the resources to act on that attraction.
9. Selecting quaint out of the way locations. An area with little vehicle or foot traffic is generally problematic if not initially, with certainty over time. Again, visibility reinforces consumer familiarity needed to remain at the forefront of restaurant selection process. Worded differently, the question about such a location that needs consideration from the start is “What will make consumers decide to leave the beaten path to come to our operation?” With the current importance of the two-family income stream limited time, and finite resources, a positive answer from the typical consumer might well be 'occasional' rather than consistent. The occasional choice limits your operation from becoming the 'habit' it needs to be to generate the consistent income need to fund a restaurant operation. At the practical level, how many good employees can you retain when sales are inconsistent or primarily on the weekends? It is not a good idea to situate your operation under such circumstances.
10. Overlooking vehicle patterns. Vehicle patterns can present formidable barriers to the success of your operation. Many a failed restaurant, seeking dinner business, made a location selection on the inbound side of the thoroughfare instead of the traffic flow exiting the area with the much higher customer probability. How would potential customers cross heavy traffic lanes to get to the facility? Traffic lanes where the speed limit is above 45 miles per hour hamper the consumers’ ability to make quick decisions regarding a restaurant selection, or the slowing process to turn into the establishment parking lot. Consumers generally follow the path of least resistance.
11. Failing to do a market study. When one examines the types of decisions made which lead to a restaurant failing, many of the aforementioned issues are a result of the organization failing to do a current and comprehensive market analysis prior to making site decisions. Consumers with the appropriate resources to make the restaurant successful are the highest priority in a market feasibility study. Their psychographic tendencies and behavioral nature are of equal importance in evaluating the restaurants chances for profitability if not its very survival.
• Over time, many restaurants get off track by failing to maintain 'current' consumer demographic information. In five years, a neighborhood can become unrecognizable. Other businesses will enter the marketplace and some will leave. Consumer preferences will change and a concept fresh and new that is only a few years old can become stale and uninteresting from the customers' perspective. Failing to stay current in terms of information about the marketplace and reacting to that information is one of the primary causes of restaurants failing to maintain consumer appeal. Consumers can have very short memories. An enjoyable visit to a competitor can wipe out almost any trace of your operations existence. After all, the other restaurant is new, fresh, current - more exciting than your concept. Consumers are not shallow. They seek to be enticed, excited, and entertained. If your operation forfeits the ability to accomplish that, another operation will graciously fill your shoes.
Considering the Location
Concept and Location - The Relationship
The proper question: Is it a concept looking for a location, or, a location in search of a concept? In any case, the meanings are similar. The restaurant and the location must complimentary to each other. The physical restaurant represents a concept that threads throughout the furnishings, atmosphere, menu price, seat arrangement and spacing, and the type of service scheme offered. As a location changes its character, parts or all of the conceptual elements in place at that location change as well. A simple foodservice concept such as a hot-dog stand may fit nicely in a shopping center at a given time. However, as other fast food concepts enter the market, the character of the location begins to change. The hot-dog operator may try to extend the menu to compete. As you draw more and more children to that location, an entertainment arcade arrives and now competes for the money children or their parents might have spent on food. In another instance, as sales in a particular casual restaurant fell off, the company changed the place into a more family friendly restaurant featuring hamburgers, peanuts, and entertainment. A Mexican restaurant in an affluent section of Dallas fails. The same location becomes successful as an expensive upscale restaurant. A seafood restaurant in Long Island loses ground and returns to prominence as a Mexican restaurant. This is the path for many operations - concept and location, two sides of the same coin.
What makes a good location for a restaurant?
The answer squarely lies on the desired concept, and the targeted clientele to which it appeals. Does the concept fit the site? Is the location convenient and accessible for the potential clientele in the trading area? A restaurant targeting white and pink-collar professionals for lunch, for example, must be relatively convenient. For other groups of consumers, ‘availability’ drives choice. Auto travelers’ favor roadside restaurants located near Interstate highways as an exemplar. Thus location within a community (rather than on the edge of a city) and near the major highway are plus-factors for tourists traveling through. Further, being a "branded" entity adds to the appeal when the consumers are strangers to the community and are looking for a standard of quality and price. Most travelers know the standards of an Olive Garden or a McDonald's. They are familiar with menu items and pricing, and of additional importance, the sanitation standards of the operations whether it is located in Dallas, Chicago, or New Orleans.
The size of the potential trading area must be large enough to support a particular type of restaurant. A quick service restaurant many need only a population of 10,000 to support it while an upscale gourmet restaurant may require 200,000 to have success. In most instances, a required population within a certain "mile' radius of the operation is considered adequate. In general, the price structure of the restaurant will be one of the major determinants in establishing a restaurant operation within a given market place. For example, the \$16.00 to \$25.00 menu prices of one type of operation may only appeal to 5 percent of the population while a \$8.00 meal for two at a nearby quick service restaurant my appeal to 40% or more of the potential clientele in the market. In reality, neither restaurant actually needs to be near a highway to be successful. The public is more apt to search them out according to tastes and available funds.
The Concept Creates the Location
Normally upscale dining, many forms of casual, and family-style restaurants need not place the same high priority on the convenience of location that, on the other hand, are vital to the success of a coffee shop and most quick service restaurants. In effect, with the right concept, the restaurant itself creates the location if the food service and atmosphere are desirable to consumers. The fact that undesirable locations that have failed as restaurants for as many as ten times in succession then taken over by another operator with a different concept and within a few weeks are again bustling with clientele reinforces this point.
In light of this, developers and community officials are often eager to entice a successful restaurant operator into a new shopping center, areas with stagnant growth, or even those areas that have fallen on hard times. Decaying communities may offer particularly attractive terms to an operator with a proven record of accomplishment. A productive restaurant attracts hundreds of people and can be part of the rejuvenating process for a shopping center, mall, or other area.
A successful restaurant scheme with a colorful personality may often do well in a relatively poor location with regards to its surroundings, its distance from the actual trading area, accessibility issues, and general convenience to the consumers it intends to attract. Of course, it would be equally fair to say that such a restaurant would probably be that much more successful situated in a prime location. Many established restaurateurs consider the usual location factors as being relatively unimportant. They feel, and experience has proven, that people will search out their restaurants. Consequently, they look toward buying failing restaurants located in relatively undesirable locations, remodel them, and utilize a strong marketing plan to build its clientele and bring back the location. Nonetheless, not every case is a success story and while many operators might subscribe to this way of thinking, and equal number or more would state that even with the best location it can be difficult to succeed in the hospitality arena. The restauranteur must understand that prime locations do cost a great deal more thus adding to the operations overhead.
What is the restaurant location worth?
What is the fair price to pay for a restaurant location? The answer to this question actually centers on a balance of two potential values. The first value is the worth placed on the location itself – the real estate value. This value derives from the worth of the surrounding properties or ‘comparable’ prices. Other factors that would add to the real estate worth of a property include improvements or upgrades to the building or grounds, ease of access, and so forth. The real estate value may be greater than the operational value. On the other hand, the lack of such amenities might reduce the worth of a location despite higher comparative prices.
A restaurant location has ‘two’ potential values:
1. Real estate value
2. Value as a profit generator
While a true real estate value calculation is justifiable, the true value of a location to you, the restauranteur, concerns its ability to be a profit generator. A good restaurant operator understands that the real estate value is of little consequence if the site’s ability to fulfill the needs of the operation do not exist. A site lacking profit generation viability truly has no worth to the restaurant operation in this case. Further, the building can detract from the restaurant value if the building has failed as restaurant before, or is unattractive.
The following are some of the important factors to help determine the worth of a location to you.
Real Estate Value
• A potential buyer is concerned with the real estate value; a potential lessee is less so.
• However, an entity wanting to lease a restaurant location must also be concerned with the real estate (or its potential value) because if the value increases, the owner will increase the rent (unless the lease agreement includes a clause to prevent such an increase).
How is the real estate value determined?
1. The value computation involves competitive values in the community.
2. The market value ties to the value set for similar properties in the area.
3. Question – Is the asking price above or below the “market value” for the area?
What affects market value?
• Potential changes in property zoning by local or state zoning boards.
• Will highways or other changes occur in the near future?
• Is the area getting better or worse for a particular kind of restaurant?
• Is the area going on the decline or undergoing revitalization?
As the area changes, the kind of restaurant that will be supported also changes.
• A declining area may need a lower check average restaurant, fast food, or coffee shop.
• As affluence grows, more dinner houses can enter the market.
Why did a restaurant fail in that location?
• Did they not see neighborhood ‘direction’ (growing or declining) correctly?
• Did the preceding firm have a strong well-conceived concept?
• How was their menu development?
• Was the location attractive to that clientele?
• Did they have qualified management and employee practices?
• Was it simply that the areas could not support the restaurant - or a particular concept?
A Detailed Analysis for the Restaurant Location
Seating
• 40 to 50% of all table-service restaurant customers arrive in pairs
• 30% come alone or in parties of 3
• 20% in groups of 4 or more
Space recommendation:
• Luxury or table service - 15 to 20 square feet
• Coffee shops and casual dining – 12 to 17 square feet
• Cafeterias – 10 to 12 square feet
• Counter service – 18 to 26 inches per stool
Site Specification:
• Population requirements
• Residential backup, motels, shopping centers, or office parks
• The area must demonstrate growth and stability
• Easy access and visibility
• Availability of all utilities to the property, including sewer
• Minimum dimensions for the location
• Zoning requirements are conducive to expansion
• Free-standing building
• Free-standing corner location
• Building limitations
• Building regulations applicable to the site
• Mall location
• Heavy vehicular/pedestrian traffic
• Home values and family income levels are average or above
• Minimum income level within 1 mile of the location
• Close to activity generators
• No less than 2 to 3 miles from other existing company locations
• Restaurant competition within 1 mile of the location
Insurance – consult your insurance agent and the fire marshal for all current requirements.
• If leasing or renting – who carries the insurance, the operator or the property owner?
• If it is the property owner – what specifically is covered? Is a copy of the insurance available for inspection? If you have not seen it – it does not exist.
• Does coverage include your inventory as well as the building? The coverage may not include the interior of the building or item contents – always ask about this.
• Is “business interruption insurance” feasible?
• Is current insurance coverage sufficient to replace losses? Inflation and new equipment make it necessary to update insurance coverage periodically to reflect replacement costs.
• Is a sprinkler system in the location? This helps to reduce insurance costs.
• What about construction materials? Are they flammable?
• Does the building have an alarm system, fire extinguishers, and proper exit signage? All of these reduce insurance premiums.
***Department of Health – walk through the property with the health inspector as codes may have changed.
If the build was functioning as a restaurant in the past, the operation may have not made the necessary changes to adhere to current requirements. The new tenant becomes liable for those changes to bring the build up to the current health code. The restauranteur should be aware of any additional expense they may face to make the building suitable in the present. Additional changes or upgrades to the facility are not necessarily unworkable – not knowing you will incur them ‘prior’ to securing the funds to renovate and operate the operation, on the other hand, is unacceptable and dangerous to the success of the business.
Triple Net Lease
This refers to a lease in which the property owner passes on the operator the responsibility for building leasehold improvements, increases in taxes, or increases in insurance. In general, it means that the property owner incurs no further expense beyond his investment after signing the lease. In simple terms: the operator assumes the burden of upkeep, taxes, improvements (replacing old necessary items are improvements) and insurance on the building.
Drawing Up A lease
Begin with a few questions that are important to the operator. Why is the building up for rent or lease? Who were the previous operators? Is it a high crime area? Will highway expansion disrupt the flow of business in the near future? Is there sufficient parking? Is the building in good repair? Is it a bad location? Pests? Are there fire hazards? You should consult with the fire department, police, and health department to confirm all property owner information or to obtain this information.
Clauses that should be included in a lease for a restaurant:
• Names and addresses of the parties – property owner and tenant.
• Period of time the lease is in effect
• Amount of lease payments
• How paid. Rent is payable on the last day of the month, unless there is a clause in the lease requiring advance payment. Negotiate this if necessary
• Occupancy (how many people can occupy the building)? The fire marshal is your confirmation source – not the property owner.
• Facility availability and a specific date.
• Parking (exact amount of space to be available to your operation)
• Equipment included as part of the lease
• Who is responsible for repair or replacement of existing equipment?
• Security deposit return
• An assignment/sublet clause
• Clause stating that the property owner agrees not to withhold unreasonably his consent for the tenant to assign or sublet.
• Condemnation clause – a right to interpose your own claim in condemnation.
• You have the right to operate a restaurant – and/or permission to alter the building.
• Permission to erect a sign (some landlords see this as higher insurance risks)
• Right to paint the building the color you wish
• Wine and liquor licenses, health permit, business permit, fire department permit – there should be a conditional clause stating that ‘the lease will have no effect if any of the above permits are denied. The lease is conditional on obtaining the necessary licenses and permits.’
• An option to renew the lease and the method of computing the rent at the time.
• The have the right to remove equipment and provisions for such movement
• A “no competition” clause in the lease (the property owner cannot rent to other foodservice establishments creating adjacent competition for you).
• A clause, which protects the tenant in case of death or insanity, such as “wife or partner may terminate the lease”.
• Unpleasant odors that cannot be eradicated easily will terminate the lease | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.02%3A_Location.txt |
The better the connection between customer and concept, the better the chances of success for the organization. With this in mind, remember that the location is the physical domain that allows the concept to come to life. Therefore, the building, concept, and customer elements must come together at the restaurant site. Some initial broad considerations begin this discussion.
• The type of customer the business will attract.
• The amount of construction or remodeling cost incurred to bring the facility online.
• Subsequently, the investment requirements from lending institutions or investors.
• The type of local ordinances and the state and federal laws that affect foodservice establishments
• The availability of workers in the trading area.
• The ease or difficulty in obtaining alcoholic beverage licenses.
• The parking availability for the operations customers as well as the ease of accessibility to your facility from roadways.
• Occupancy costs such as insurance, fire suppression, accessibility of restrooms, other handicap law requirements, and so forth.
• Zoning ordinances. One of the very first issues to investigate with regard to a location is the area zoning. Zoning ordinances for the location under consideration must allow your specific type of operation to do business at the location, and must permit adequate parking on or near the property.
To begin to think about what the physical facility should represent to a potential clientele. The operator must integrate the concept into the building design to position the concept as well as the delivery of products and services in the minds of those patrons the operation intends to attract. The successful foodservice operation combines the following elements of concept development into the actual design of the physical facility: market, menu, money, management, and method of execution. All will receive discussion in detail later in the chapter, but this initial grouping should help to center their importance to the restaurant's physical presence.
Market
You must properly examine the trading area to gather the appropriate demographic, psychographic, and behavioral profiles. An analysis of the data should render sufficient information to make segmentation choices and provide answers to the following relevant elements pertinent to the determination of what the physical facility should offer to the operation Before the facility can begin construction, the operation must have a clear idea about specifically 'who' the preferred clientele will be. Are they young, middle-aged, families, older couples? Each category of customer prefers certain amenities. Is the market large enough to generate sales and produce a profit? This question is reflective of the city, and trading area itself. It could equally to refer to different clientele brackets. If one intended segment of the market is not sufficient to cover the expenses of the operation and produce a profit, then additional segments must be included and the requirements of those additional patrons must receive consideration in the design process. Basic market elements would include:
Market Identification
What is the segmentation strategy? Based on the size of the city and trading area, choices are necessary to describe each segment of patrons the facility must attract.
Level of competition
What quality standard and level of functionality do direct competitors offer your intended patrons? What could you do to enhance the customer's experience and sense of obtained value?
Market Communication
How will we communicate with our target market? This question is important to consider when deciding on the facade, ground, lighting, signage, and logo design of the facility to name a few important items.
Customer wants or needs
This speaks directing to the sunk costs of the facility and subsequent menu pricing as an expenses incurred consequence. If customers feel a 'need' for the products and services of the restaurant, they will typically be willing to pay a bit more than customers who are will to more toward substitutes to obtain greater value should financial considerations come into play. Will a quality assurance plan be developed that will encourage the customer to return because of superior service and, or, product quality? The operation and facility must always deliver what the concept marketing indicates patrons can expect. Too often operations fall short of advertised promises. The design the facility to meet both the desired and publically conveyed standards. The operation must maintain the public trust and its perception of value. Will internal marketing successfully sell the customer additional services or products and maintain different avenues of product and service delivery?
From the broad perspective, the design the facility to display products and logo items of the concept. Additionally “How will delivery orders be handled if that form of service is offered? Will customers placing take-out orders have to dress up and mingle with seated patrons? Will the facility have a convenient walk-up design for those wishing to remain casually dressed? How will payment be made and food delivered to these customers. The devil is always in the design. However, the proper design is profitable.
Most operations fail to plan the various ways to reach customers with their concept. All areas of the operation should complement each other without impeding any other area. Each customer should receive a superior product and service experience no matter what manner of delivery customers ’prefer. Stated differently, many operators fail to consider delivery or take-out as an expansion of the dining room and a decision to utilize the operation when the customer makes the decision to use the operation's services in a capacity other than 'seated' dining - as such, this is business that would be lost if avenues other than sit-down dining were not offered. Understanding how customers wish to utilize your products and service is vital to your success. A classic mistake made by both large corporations and individual restaurant operators is to conduct the market analysis and then fail to act on the information obtained.
Menu
The menu has a tremendous influence on the design and success of a food operation. An operator must constantly frame his or her thinking of the menu as the primary or sole source of revenue for the operation that will also cover the expenditures of the operation on a monthly or yearly basis, and provide the profits sought by the organization. Will the menu be static, seasonal, broad, or narrow? Is there a balance among sautéed, gridded, and fried items - or will one station bear the burden of production? From a design and layout perspective, these are just some of the factors determined by the menu:
Space required
A complex menu requires more space to prepare items than a limited, or simple, menu because separate workstations and additional equipment are necessary. Depending on the amount of space available in a prime location, 'make' or 'purchase' decisions may well become practical considerations. Will we prepare artisan breads, rolls, or desserts in house? Is it more prudent to outsource these items? Do we actually need an on premise bakery? Will we have to plate-up desserts with ice cream in the hot kitchen? How will we segregate and partition the kitchen? How will we stock preparation areas? Product control considerations? The list can be extensive. The HACCP orientation required product to flow from the back of the restaurant to the front to minimize cross contamination. A normal restaurant kitchen flow follows. Notice that dishwashing and ware washing can occur at different locations within the facility. This type of configuration separates dirty pots and pans found in the kitchen from glassware, plates, and utensils in use in the dining area. Waste disposal is another area that can be located more conveniently to the outside trash bin.
Typical Kitchen Product/Traffic Flow
Equipping the Facility
Major Categories of Kitchen Equipment
1. Receiving and storage of food
2. Fabrication of food
3. Assemble, hold, and serve
4. Clean-up and sanitize the kitchen and kitchen ware
Storage
• Dry storage
• Cold storage
• Freezer Storage
Space Analysis
• Dock, receiving area
• office, locker room, toilets
• storage area, dry, cold, freezer, cleaning supplies, dishes, and utensils
• preparation area
• ware-washing
• production are
• bakery
• dining room
• service areas
• wait stations
Pre-prep - Fabrication - Preparation
The key thought about this area is that it is where raw (or processed) foods begin their journey to their final destination, the plate of the guest. This area is for breaking down different cuts of beef, seafood preparation, chicken, opening and prepping crates of fresh produce, and storing or not storing these items.
Preparation items needed
• worktables
• compartment sinks
• refrigerators
• freezers
• food and condiment wells
• cutting boards
• portion scales
• meat saws
• grinders
• mobile carts
• speed racks
• shelving
• knife and tool compartments
Garde Manger items
• Hand Held and small appliances
• Salad spinner
• Graters
• Portable mixers
• Blenders’
• Knives
• Scrub brushes
• Kitchen towels
• Color-coded bowls, cutting boards
• Cross-contamination controls
Production area
Dry Heat: sauté, broil, roast, fry, and bake
Moist heat: braise, boil, and steam
Dry and moist heat cooking equipment, refrigerated storage, tool storage, exhaust system, fire suppression system, refrigerated prep lines, steam holding tables, compartment sink, hand-washing sink(s). The following placement suggestions help to segregate equipment based on task and function. These groupings also increase the ease and maneuverability of the kitchen staff. For example, you do not want the grill person walking around a steam kettle or a tilt skillet to perform a sauté function during a slower period.
• Volume cooking to the back, to order cooking to the front.
• Group large-volume cooking together (deck ovens, steam-jacketed kettles, and tilt skillets).
• In a la carte kitchens, group together fryers, broilers, open-burner ranges, and steam equipment.
General equipment requirements
The following are the major types of equipment found in restaurant kitchens: broilers, grills, stoves, ovens, frying equipment, steamers, prep lines, holding equipment, convection ovens, tilt-skillet for breakfast items, sauté, braise, roast, steamer, poacher, or a hot-hold unit.
Bakery
On-site baking requires additional room and equipment. What baked goods will be prepared on site, and which, if any, will be purchased? Will baking occur from scratch? Will you use premixed or frozen items? Choice determines equipment needs. Depending on the type of baking done, the location of the bakery can be a crucial choice. Considerations include cold dessert preparation and holding, preparation area for from scratch bread or roll products, and access to dishwashing. While this production area requires some thought, products produced can achieve signature status for the restaurant.
Assembly, Holding, and Serving
• Beverage equipment
• Cold/ hot -serving equipment
• Infrared warmers
• Coffee brewers
• Condiment holding
• Mobile equipment
• Plates and saucers (hot or cold),
• Glasses, and so forth
Cleaning and Sanitation
• Cleaning and sanitizing supplies
• Cleaning sink(s)
• Three - compartment sink(s)
• Glassware storage
• Water heating equipment
• Dishwashing equipment
• Ware washing equipment
• Hand sink(s)
Service area size and design
The greater the number of menu items, the more area required for service in the kitchen as well as staging and work stations necessary in the dining room (each different entrée requires a point of service and each form of beverage a dispenser). Stated a bit differently, how far do you expect your service staff to travel to obtain or prepare necessary amenities for the customer? How involved in the preparation of certain products would you expect the service staff to be engaged in? Table setting, bread, butter, drink and/or dessert service? These questions speaks to the spatial aspects of floor plans as well as the number of tables that a server can adequately handle in terms of movement and product/service delivery.
General Considerations
Dishwashing
Complex menus require multiple plates, dishes, and utensils, so the dishwashing area and machine capacity will need to be greater than in the case of simple menus. Based on the size of the operation, will one dishwashing area suffice to maintain a smooth and efficient service operation? Should we construct one dish area for the kitchen and one for the dining room items such as plates, glasses, and utensils? A well-planned ware-washing arrangement could reduce the amount of plates, glasses and flatware necessary to the flow of service.
Types of cooking equipment
Complex menus require multiple types of equipment, especially in the final preparation area, where it may be necessary to steam, fry, bake, and sauté. Which pieces of equipment are necessary to execute the menu? Which items utilize the same pieces of equipment? What about preparation for different day parts? Is the intended equipment sufficient to prep and prepare items for dinner while luck is in progress? Can we receive multiple food deliveries per week that would reduce the need for a freezer? Product procurement is an often-overlooked consideration to space allotment in the kitchen.
Equipment capacity
Limited menus may require relatively few pieces of equipment but with large capacities. Complex menus may require many different types of equipment with relatively smaller capacities.
Size of dry and refrigerated storage areas
The size of the dry and refrigerated storage areas directly relates to the ingredients needed to execute the menu. What are the packaging dimensions for these necessary ingredients - both dry and those needing refrigeration or freezing? These issues deserve careful consideration during design to accomplish a storage area and scheme that facilitated product safety, security, freshness, taking inventory, and product rotation.
While product specifications are easily obtainable from the market suppliers, one important aspect of procurement often goes over looked when space decisions are considered. How often will the operation receive deliveries from suppliers? The projected volume of the restaurant should be a design factor along with the frequency of delivery when determining spacing needs. “Just in time” ordering requires less space. For instance, products from a supplier that delivers three times a week as opposed to once a week would require less space for the products they provide to the operation. The operator, for example, does not have to project customer volume with the addition of a pad should that volume increase. The products utilized for a “larger than expected” Monday dinner crowd could be easily replenished on Wednesday rather than having to take a chance on running out of ingredients before the following week's shipment.
Number of employees
Kitchen space must also consider the number of people working in the kitchen area. Factors that to consider would include the size and type of menu, the diversity of the menu, and the volume of the restaurant. Other considerations in terms of equipment is the necessity to turn tables requiring more ‘fire power’ in the kitchen, and placement of equipment to allow ease of operation by fewer staff members during slower periods – allowing kitchen staff to easily oversee more than production area during slower periods in the day.
The financial investment required
Again, this is a function of what you need to kitchen to produce. If your design requires a ‘show kitchen’ then the quality of the equipment will be visible to the guests and should be appropriate for viewing and the equipment arrangement should reflect that purpose. In such kitchens, cleanliness is paramount and thus an important consideration. This would equally extend to the type of menu offerings that will allow functionality and appearance.
A kitchen design ‘closed’ from customer view allows the operator to utilize second hand equipment to reduce startup costs. This is an important consideration if money is limited. As the restaurant becomes established, the income produced from sales revenue can be useful to purchase new equipment to replace the older equipment. Modern equipment requires less maintenance and comes with a warranty while second hand equipment comes ‘as is’ and the purchaser assumes all risk for repairs or replacement. It is important to note that many pieces of equipment have long life expectancies and should receive strong consideration in a new foodservice operation.
When considering the equipment purchases, the life span of the equipment you will need to operate the restaurant become important. Determining what equipment should be new and what second-hand equipment could help you to reduce your initial expenditure is a major financial consideration. Every dollar you can allocate toward marketing and promoting the operation is key to your success. The following table indicates the useful life span of many of the pieces of equipment your restaurant might utilize.
An additional benefit of second hand equipment will come in the approval of lender. A second hand equipment purchase is normally at ‘market value’ – the actual worth of the equipment. Thus, the purchase price closely resembles the amount the equipment would bring if put up for sales later. Further, you collateralizing market value cost with your lender as opposed to the inflated cost of new equipment what will depreciate in value – but not your monthly payments those pieces of equipment. Always consider the ‘durability’ and ‘technical’ aspects regarding maintenance of equipment when making this type of decision.
Restaurant Equipment Useful Lifespan
Item Expected Life (Years)
Convection ovens 8 to 10
Deck ovens 10 to 15
Rotary ovens 12 to 20
Mixers 15 to 25
Ranges 10 to 15
Steam-jacked kettles 15 to 25
Food Choppers 10 to 15
Vertical cutter-mixers 12 to 15
Tilt skillets 12 to 20
Grills 8 to 12
Fryers 8 to 12
Broilers 8 to 12
Steamers - high and medium pressure 10 to 15
Steamers - convection 8 to 12
Walk-in refrigerators/freezers 12 to 20
Reach-in refrigerators/freezers 8 to 12
Coffee urns 8 to 12
Ware-Washing machines 10 to 15
Shelving - stainless steel 25 to 40
Shelving - glavanized wire 25 to 40
Ice machines 8 to 12
Hoods/ventilation systems 5 to 8
Successful capitalization of a food facility includes funds to cover the following elements of the facility:
• Planning costs
• Building construction or renovation
• Equipment (fixed)
• China, glassware, utensils
• Furniture and fixtures
• Décor
• Start-up and operating costs
• Two stages – the preliminary identification of financial support, and after concept development securing investors or lenders.
Preliminary Planning
Development – refers to the size and complexity of a foodservice facility design project. You can divide ‘development’ into four levels of complexity, each of which requires the involvement of different individual and different amounts of planning time.
1. The development stage influences the design approach taken by the owner or manager depending on complexity.
2. It is an important ‘first step’ before planning begins.
Stage 1 - Simple Development
Involves no more than the selection of a major piece of equipment or the replacement of a small area of a foodservice facility. Typically, the completion of this stage comes to completion out under the direction of the owner, or a manager, with the help of an equipment dealer. Examples of stage one include:
• Replacement of a dish machine
• Installing or replacing a display refrigerator
• Designing or changing a service counter
• The purchase and installation of an outdoor walk-in freezer, etc.
Stage 2 - Significant Development
Involves the renovation of a significant portion of an existing foodservice facility. A full complement of professionals is necessary at stage 2 because such projects are complex and require expertise in construction, engineering, and foodservice equipment layout and design.
Professionals involved from Stage 2 development onward:
• An owner
• An architect
• Mechanical and electrical engineers
• Foodservice facility design consultant
• Construction company or general contractor
• Kitchen equipment contractor.
Stage 3 - Complete Development
Projects involve the complete renovation of an existing foodservice facility or the design and construction of a new foodservice facility.
• Renovating the dietary department of a hospital
• Construction of a new theme restaurant
• Renovation of the kitchen, service, and dining areas in a country club
• Development of foodservice for a new hotel
The planning process for renovation of a foodservice facility often is even more complex than designing a new facility because of the:
• Difficulty of dealing with existing walls, structural members, utilities, and space and the demolition of parts of the existing structure.
• Decisions must consider which pieces of existing equipment should or could be useful in the newly renovated facility.
• Time element that can take from one to three years from design to completion.
Stage 4 - Large Scale Development
Projects that involve the development of a chain or franchise prototype.
• Constructed in multiple locations
• Inefficiencies in design or inadequacies in equipment can occur hundreds of times and thus will be exceptionally expensive to correct.
• Involves the full complement design team and the following: a corporate strategy; a well-researched marketing plan; complex financial planning; strong management team.
The food facility design at stage 4 must fit the needs of the:
• Menu
• Market
• Strategy
• Financial package developed by the corporation.
Professionals involved:
• Design team
• Investors / owners of the corporation
• Marketing consultants
• Financial planners
• Bankers
• Corporate staff specialists
Once the scope has been determined and the budget approved, the project can move forward to the next step in the process. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.03%3A_Facility_Development.txt |
Concept Development
It is normal for a person to consider a new restaurant or, in fact, to open a new restaurant without knowing what type of food facility will have the best chance of succeeding. The “concept” of a foodservice operation is the overall plan for how it will meet the needs and expectations of its intended market.
A foodservice operation’s can express a concept in many ways, including:
• Menu
• Décor
• Form of service
• Pricing
• Location
Therefore, “concept development” means developing a plan for the success of the operation in its market in advance of actually designing – let alone building – the facility.
• It proceeds the actual design of a facility because the design team must know what the menu, demand, hours of operation, and mode of service will be.
Single-Unit Restaurant Concept Development
The individual restaurant owner will most frequently uses a food facilities design consultant for concept design. Typically, a restaurant owner organizes a small group of business people to aid in the process.
• They begin to develop the concept
• Success or failure depends on the strength of the concept
• Success depends on how well the plans are followed
Not all of these factors are equally important within a given concept.
• Price is critical for quick service, family and casual restaurants – their customers are value conscious.
• In fine dining restaurants – prices is not so important.
• Location – is crucial for quick service restaurants because their clients depend on convenient access. Fine dining and theme restaurants it is less so.
Multiunit casual dinner houses and theme restaurants (Chili’s, Olive Garden, and TGI Friday’s are exemplars) follow a similar pattern in concept development. Their emphasis is on identifying the key characteristics of their target markets and then locating restaurants where a high concentration of individuals’ who have those characteristics live or work.
Key characteristics would include:
• Income
• Age
• Education
• Home ownership
Multiunit restaurants have a competitive advantage over single-unit restaurants because they have the opportunity to learn from experience with multiple examples of the same concept for analysis and comparison. When a chain restaurant firm has 500 virtually identical restaurants, it can analyze the factors that differentiate its high performing restaurants from its low performing restaurants, and make changes as necessary before opening additional units.
Multi-theme Restaurant Concept Development
A particular form of multiunit restaurant for which concept development is critical to success is the restaurant organization that opens and operates restaurants whose concepts are not identical but different. They need:
• Excellent marketing
• Well-planned menus
• Good design
• Sophisticated management
Hotel Food and Beverage Concept Development
The modern idea of food and beverage service departments in hotels is that it is an important profit center, which can attract guests and locals alike. Hotel managers have known for many years that hotel restaurants must have certain desirable features if they are to be successful. These include:
• Availability of parking
• Unique theme or décor (differing from the hotel itself)
• Strong promotion to the community
• A menu and a method of service that are distinctive
Institutional (Non-commercial) Foodservice Concept development
Often clarity of thought regarding the “operational concept” does not develop fully and this is a serious mistake. The institution must accurately interpret its market and must “sell” its products, even when the food is indirectly paid for by the customer. Institutions have moved from dining hall to “food court” designs. For example, institutional foodservice operators generally have exclusive rights to food sales at universities – but people can leave campus to eat. Thus, many made the change to a “food court” design to move away from the ‘cafeteria’ feel of the dining facility and to fend off replacement by individual food operations sources.
The Elements of Concept Development
The successful foodservice operation combines these elements of concept development: menu market, menu, money, management, and method of execution.
Market
A study of basic market questions that every operator needs to clearly answer:
• To whom will we market the food operation?
• Is the market large enough to generate sales and produce a profit?
• How will the market be identified>
• What level of competition exists in the market?
• What method will we use to communicate to this market?
• Will the potential customer want or need the food product?
• Will a quality assurance plan be developed that will encourage the customer to return because of superior service and/ or product quality?
• Will internal marketing successfully sell the customer additional services or products after he or she arrives at the food facility?
A classic mistake made by both large corporations and individual restaurant operators is to conduct the market analysis and then fail to act based on the information obtained.
Menu
The menu has a tremendous influence on the design and success of a food operation. From a design and layout perspective, these are just as some of the factors determined by the menu:
• Amount of space required – A complex menu requires more space to prepare than a limited or simple menu because separate workstations and additional equipment are necessary.
• Service area size and design – the greater the number of menu items, the more area required for service. (each entrée a point of service and each beverage a dispenser)
• Dishwashing area, size, and machine capacity – complex menus require multiple plates, dishes, and utensils, so the dishwashing area and machine capacity will need to be greater than in the case of simple menus.
• Types of cooking equipment – Complex menus require multiple types of equipment, especially in the final preparation area, where it may be necessary to steam, fry, bake, and sauté.
• Equipment capacity – limited menus may require relatively few pieces of equipment but with large capacities. Complex menus may require many different types of equipment with relatively small capacities.
• Size of dry and refrigerated storage areas – remember that the times and number of purveyor deliveries can help you determine the amount of space necessary for storage.
• Number of employees – the menu complexity and size, as well as type of service, are prime determinants in people requirements.
• Amount of investment required – the target market, type of concept, location costs, are all factors that drive capital requirements to fund the operation.
Money
Successful capitalization of a food facility includes:
• Planning costs
• Building construction or renovation
• Equipment (fixed)
• China, glassware, utensils
• Furniture and fixtures
• Décor
• Start-up and operating costs
• Two stages – preliminary identify financial support after concept development, and securing investors or lenders.
Management
The quality of the management of the operation will be the most important element in achieving success. Typical questions must be address by the owners:
• Who will operate the facility
• What kind of food experience and educational background must this person have?
• Who will assist this person in covering the long ours that are usually required to operate the facility?
• What level of pay will this person receive?
• Will this person receive rewards in some way for excellent sales and profit results?
• How will the owners set operational policies and communicate these to the management staff?
The answers to these questions will determine the organizational structure and the kind of management team that will be appropriate to operate the food facility. Investors or institutional administrations prefer traditional management principles of good communication, strong controls, and sound personnel relations. The in-depth discussion of ‘ownership structures’ follow in the next chapter. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.04%3A_Concept_Development.txt |
There are two major considerations in deciding on an appropriate amount of space for a foodservice facility, which should be constant guides for decision-making:
• The exact purpose and use of the space.
• The cost of building and/or renting the space.
Upon surveying customers, Restaurants and Institutions found that most customers would prefer bigger dining areas so they would not have to wait for a table, or more restroom stalls so they would not have to wait there, either.
Where to start?
Decide what your end product will be: (1) the quantities of food you will turn out, (2) the number of meals, sizes of portions, amount of seat turnover, and type of service, (3) and to a lesser degree, the surroundings – kitchen and dining area – what do you have to work with?
Decide on your method of food preparation. Why is this important? You have to decide on which pieces of equipment your space must accommodate. Rule of thumb: 30% of the kitchen space goes to equipment.
• Equipment takes up a lot of space – you need to know (1) how many pieces will meet your volume needs as well as (2) what times of day each piece will be in service.
• Consider other space needs such as storage, serving areas, and general utility space available.
• For each piece of equipment you think is needed, draw a rough sketch of the work center (where a group of closely related tasks are done) where it will sit.
When it comes to space planning, it is not as simple as deciding on the number of guests you will serve and making certain there is enough room for them. Space planning initiates in examining all parts of the foodservice facility, including beyond the front and the back of the house. As such, the allocation of space begins with the 'customers view' from the front of the restaurant to the working space they do not see beyond the dining area, the space that must facilitates the food and service delivery and accomplish the goal of the operation in terms of guest expectation, cost control, and efficiency.
Exterior of the facility
This area included the parking lot, any public area that surrounds the business, patio seating, and sidewalk tables. The exterior of the facility is where initial customer experience impressions form. Restaurants located in malls or large office buildings will typically have to account for food-court-style seating will generally have to account for any seating or public area surrounding the facility.
Front of the house interior
This area includes the entryway into the facility, the dining area, wait stations, beverage service area, and restrooms. The customers' comfort should be very high on your list of space-priorities.
Back of the house interior
This space includes the hot-food preparation area, the cold-food preparation area, a serving and plating area, a bakery if one is included, and ware-washing area(s).
Kitchen auxiliary space
This space includes the receiving area, dry storage area(s), cold (refrigerated) storage, freezer, employee staging or break room, and office space.
American Disabilities Act
All spacing configurations and elevations must accommodate those patrons with disabilities. The act generally concerns, but is not limited to, the facility's entrance and exit areas and walkways, restroom accommodations, and aisle spacing for patrons with disabilities.
Planning Public Spaces
It is important to follow the thought process of the potential guest as they approach a restaurant. Many of the reasons for choosing a particular place may be spur of the moment but they require some serious judgments on the part of the potential guest. They are hungry - but they do not want to drive too far. These judgments might include:
Convenient location
Many of a restaurant's potential clientele prefer to dine close to work or home. The typical driving range is two to three miles in distance.
Outside signage
The restaurant's sign clearly indicates the type of cuisine the restaurant offers. The diner loves this type of food. An additional lunch special sign indicates a bargain or sale price. This form of outdoor signage also speaks to the customers’ spending ability. Customer friendly includes pricing among other things.
Parking
An empty space right up front; on the convenient side of the street; does not look too crowded – maybe this diner is looking for a quick meal. Lunch diners seldom want to spend time searching for a parking place. Carryout parking is becoming quite popular and answers the parking need.
Architecture
Resembles other types of restaurants that the diner already like; the building and grounds look clean and inviting. This must be a good place – I think we will try them! The facility must look inviting but not raise the ‘affordability’ issue for the customer.
The Importance of a First Impression
Both quick service and table-service chain restaurants rely heavily on exterior appearance as marketing tools. McDonald's golden arches provide instant recognition. Casual restaurants like Macaroni-grill and T.G.I. Friday's, although not all alike, have similar exteriors that make it impossible to confuse them with other chain operations.
For an independent restaurant, it is important to state that it is often difficult to inherit a once well-known location and mask its former identity without costly reconstruction. Simply repainting the distinctive, pointed roof of an International House of Pancakes, for example, and opening a Chinese restaurant there is probably not a wise decision.
The diner approaches the front door. Remember, he or she already has plenty of impressions from what they have seen in the parking lot, the other customers’ cars, the front signage, the landscaping, and whether the lot is clean or littered. The diner has not decided to eat here- just still checking it out. The next thing encountered is the door itself. Is it heavy wood with beveled glass insets? Clean, clear glass? A sleek colorful laminate? Even the doorknob or handle is a key to what awaits inside. Whatever the case, the door should be easy to open. Now the customer enters the restaurant. You should think through your customers' movements as design considerations.
Parking Areas
Consider the question of sufficient parking very early in the planning process for three critical reasons:
• Whether your operation is a freestanding restaurant or in the middle of a strip mall, ease of entry, exit, and of the greatest importance, availability are critical issues that can make or break a restaurant.
• The parking area may be both the first, and last, impression the guest has of your operation.
• Safety is a critical concern with many restaurant patrons. IF they do not feel safe in leaving their vehicles - they will frequent a competitor who provides a safe parking environment.
There are generally city laws that dictate public parking requirements. In most cases, local ordinances clearly indicate the space needs for restaurant parking. For freestanding buildings, the widely accepted standard is the need for one parking space for every 100 square feet of space covered by roof. This included patio dining covered by permanent awnings, for example, but excluded umbrellas used. The space 'under roof' includes all space: hallways, closets, kitchens, bathrooms, dining rooms, and so on. Thus, if you have a total of say 3000 square feet of space under a roof, you would need 30 parking spaces.
Cities generally spell out how much space to allocate per car. Most ordinances specify a single parking space must measure 7.5 to 10 feet in width, and 16 to 18 feet in length. The shorter dimensions are for compact cars, and a parking lot may generally allocate up to 35 percent of its space for compacts. Roughly, this means that you need a space 40 feet wide to park a car at a 90-degree angle to the building and to provide a traffic lane; you need slightly less space if the car is park at an angle. Because parking requirements are quite technical, consult your city zoning authorities to be sure there is adequate space for parking.
If there is not adequate parking space on the property, other options do exist. Most cities allow off-premise parking, but only with a signed parking agreement with owners of space adjacent to the restaurant. Valet parking is another option if the valet lot is located near the restaurant. If you are located in a historic district or a busy downtown area, there are often different, less stringent standards that require fewer spaces - as few as one parking space per 2000 square feet under roof.
The appearance of the parking lot should be consistent with the image you wish to create. The parking area may also serve as a buffer between your business and the neighbors. It is important to keep parking lots free of litter, and someone on your staff should be in charge of checking it on a daily basis. Large cities like businesses to landscape parking areas to reduce the heat that radiates from large, flat stretches of cement and asphalt.
A parking lot should also convey a sense of safety, keeping criminals out as it draws customers in. From a legal perspective, good security lighting is a positive attempt on the part of a business to provide a safe environment.
• Lighting in the lot should provide a specific intensity throughout the lot.
• The lighting should also provide good visibility (with minimal glare) for customers and employees
• The first two goals should be accomplished without annoying the neighbors
When making lighting decisions for exterior areas such as parking lots and garages, operators often find themselves dealing with two competing forces: local energy-use codes and the recommended lighting levels from the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA). Occasionally the two sets of recommendations differ significantly. There is, however, general agreement that, because of their light color temperature and a superior color rendition index, metal halide fixtures are the preferred sources of parking lot illumination. Efficiency is measureable on a Color Rendering Index (CRI) a measurement of how a light source makes the colors of objects appear to the eye. High-pressure sodium lamps have a CRI of 25, while metal halides have a CRI of 65 - 85.
Possibly the biggest challenge in lighting a parking area is the corridors created by the parked cars. To minimize these corridors, experts recommend locating illumination from at least two, and preferably four, light poles that are at least 20 feet tall. The optimum light level for an open parking lot is 3 or 4 foot-candles. To gain an idea of how much light that is, a supermarket parking lots average 3.5 to 5 foot candles of light. For the entrances and exits, the lanes within the lot, and any loading zones, the illumination level should be twice the level of either the lot itself or the adjacent street, whichever is greater.
While everyone wants a well-lit parking facility, too much lighting creates another problem. The intensely illuminated parking lots of quick service restaurants’ and the like have prompted some nasty neighborhood battles. Too much light, although meant to create a safe environment, may actually result in a hazard as drivers' eyes adjust from nighttime conditions to the intense glare. These are sufficient reasons to get bids from outdoor lighting specialists to handle the task correctly.
There is one final point regarding how to utilize a parking facility. Depending on your service style and clientele, one of today's parking tends is to reserve (and specially mark) several close-in spaces for specialty use such as to-go pickups, senior citizens, and for guests with small children.
For entrances and exits, the lanes within the lot, and any loading zones, the illumination level should be twice the level of either the lot itself or the adjacent street – whichever is greater.
The Restaurant Entrance
With reference to the positive psychological impact of a pleasant environment, design the entryway to show potential guests exactly what to expect when they arrive. Keep in mind that not everyone who enters the space has already committed to eating there, so the entryway is where the customers will decide whether they are comfortable enough to stay. If your concept includes a lively bar, or an open kitchen, make sure it is visible from the waiting area or the host/hostess station. Offer a view of some of the dining tables too, and seal those tables first so the restaurant looks busy.
Although some restaurants have eliminated reception areas and waiting rooms as a way to same space and money, others use them for a variety of purposes.
• Free local publications
• Cash register and/or host/hostess stand
• In quick-service restaurants, the front counter is here
• Menus and daily specials are displayed here
• Waiting diners sit or stand here
• Wines or prepared desserts are displayed here
• Raw foods and/or prepared items are displayed, perhaps in glass cases
• If a waiting or serving line is the norm, make it very clear where this line begins and ends, with signs, railings, and partitions.
Whether the entrance is the prelude to an elegant dining experience or the start of a fast-food line, the waiting area should be very clean, properly lit, and temperature-controlled for the guests' comfort - and there are the diners waiting (sometimes impatiently) for a table. They say they want the "best table in the house." Then again, is that not what every diner wants?
Entrance space
The space allocated to an entryway is a function of the type of restaurant and the owner's overall feeling about the need for this space. For fast food, the entrance space is large for guests lining up, placing and paying for orders, and picking up food. On the other hand, table service restaurants have entryways that vary widely. All reflect the concept of the facility and provide a small waiting area for overflow crowds. For a casual dining restaurant allow 3 square feet for each dining room seat, and scale upscale restaurant entranceways to provide 5 to 6 square feet per seat.
• Take out space. Design a restaurant's take out space to keep customers moving and busy. Customers should order, pay, wait a bit, and they receive their food and leave.
• Speed. The faster you service "in" and "out" customers the better. Drive thru service is now the norm to the majority and requires a different design altogether.
• Space. How many people will be lining up at one time? Do you have room for two ordering, payment, and pickup stations for busy times? What can you do to guide people into lines?
• Menu. Offer only those items on a "to-go" menu that can be easily packaged and transported. Consider ways the guest can help themselves, such as soft drink and condiment selection, or reach-in refrigerators of pre-wrapped salads and desserts.
Dining Area
In terms of basic environmental psychology, most people would rather sit with some type of architectural fixture on at least one side of them - a wall or window or column - which helps them to define the space. Another design rule is to mix tables of different shapes and sizes to create visual harmony. How ‘close’ is ‘too close’ when determining table positions? The following tables provides spacing guidelines by restaurant segment.
The quick service restaurant does a large portion of it business via carry out orders. Thus guests ordering space is important. Diners typically do not linger in the facility for long periods thus; the space for ding is generally smaller than a casual restaurant.
During a normal visit to a restaurant, customers spend 25 percent of the time waiting. They wait to order, they wait for food to arrive, and so forth. They do not feel comfortable if the space is too crowded, and customers are equally uncomfortable if the space is too empty. In addition to the customers' need for space, for the purpose of safety, provide a 3 feet corridor for travel and access to fire exits. In larger spaces, separate your dining areas into smaller spaces (or spaces that appear smaller when things are slow).
Quick Service Restaurant Dining Spacing
(Space Range 10 - 12 square feet (.93 - 1.12 square meters)
Number of Seats Space per Seat 10sq. ft. (square feet/meters) Space per Seat 12 sq. ft. (square feet/meters)
Under 50 100 (9.3) 600 (55.8)
50 - 100 1000 (92.9) 1200 (111.5)
100 -150 1500 (139.4) 1800 (167.3)
150 - 200 2000 (185.9) 2400 (223.1)
201 - 250 2500 (371.8) 3000 (278.8)
251 - 300 3000 (278.8) 3600 (334.6)
**All figures assume the highest number within the range.
Casual restaurants are generally a step up from the quick service restaurants with the addition of table service and other amenities. Because the diners expect to enjoy their meal within the facility, there is more space in the dining room area of the restaurant. The various casual restaurant concepts consider themselves a cut above quick service and a viable alternative to the more expensive luxury operations.
Casual Restaurant Dining Room Spacing
(Space Range 13 -15 square feet ((1.21 - 1.39 square meters)
Number of Seats Space per Seat 13 sq. ft. (square feet/meters) Space per Seat 15 sq. ft. (square feet/meters)
Under 50 650 (60.8) 750 (69.7)
50 - 100 1300 (120.8) 1500 (139.4)
100 -150 1950 (181.2) 2250 (209.1)
150 - 200 2600 (241.6) 3000 (278.8)
201 - 250 3250 (302.04) 3750 (348.5)
251 - 300 3900 (362.5) 4500 (418.2)
Restaurateurs like to think that every seat is the 'best' of course. When designing the dining area, a well-planned scheme carefully shapes the customers' perception with these components.
• Table shapes, sizes, and positions
• The number of seats at each table
• Multiple floors plans, steps, elevated areas of seating
• Paintings, posters, murals
• Type and intensity of lighting
• Planters, partitions, or screens
• Attention to sight lines, to block any undesirable view (restroom, kitchen, service way)
• Muffling distracting noises (clattering dishes, outside traffic, or construction)
• Placement of service areas (coffee stations, dirty dish bins, and so forth)
Each of the preceding considerations plays a role in creating the flow pattern of the restaurant, the process of delivering food and beverages to customers. These are the logistics, the methods and routes used to transfer items from the kitchen, to the dining tables, and finally to the dishwasher. How well can the waiters manage full trays of food? What is the distance from the kitchen to the dining room? Where are the guest checks prepared for delivery to tables, and where do customers pay for the food?
The dimensions of a luxury dining room are more spacious than a casual dining operation allowing guests more space, greater privacy, and more aisle space for service personnel and guests alike.
Luxury Restaurant Dining Room Spacing
(Space Range 16 -20 square feet ((1.49 - 1.86 square meters)
Number of Seats Space per Seat 16 sq. ft. (square feet/meters) Space per Seat 20 sq. ft. (square feet/meters)
Under 50 800 (74.4) 1000 (92.9)
50 - 100 1600 (148.7) 2000 (185.9)
100 - 150 2400 (223.1) 3000 (278.8)
150 - 200 3200 (297.4) 4000 (371.8)
201 - 250 4000 (371.8) 5000 (464.7)
251 - 300 4800 (446.1) 6000 (557.6)
**All figures assume the highest number within the range.
In a “see and be seen” restaurant, the best spots will be quite different from those in a small, romantic bistro or a busy family-friendly café.
1. Assign the “best” or most convenient area to tables and chairs. “Best” means different things in different settings: Proximity to the parking lot, the best views, the least noise, the most foot traffic
2. People usually eat at mealtimes.
3. Most restaurants are busy only 20 to 25% of the hours they are open.
4. Provide ample aisle space and a comfortable number of square feet per guest so, no matter how crowded it gets, you do not want to annoy guests by bumping into them or forcing them to bump into each other.
5. In planning your seating area, be aware that your guest have some predetermined dining-out habits that influence the efficiency of various table sizes and groupings.
6. Especially at lunch, half of your customers will arrive as twosomes, another 30% will be singles or parties of three, and the remaining 20% will be parties of 4 or more.
7. Make adequate provisions in your layout so a waiting line will not interfere with other guests or the wait staff. Also, make plans to control the waiting line, so customers cannot ignore it and wander into the dining area to seat themselves at a table that cleared of dirty dishes and properly cleaned.
Does anyone have to move up or down stairs? How hard is it for customers to negotiate a path to their table during a busy meal periods? Is the host seating guests, or functioning more as a traffic director? Remember the following basic space recommendations by restaurant segment to address space and service concerns:
• Luxury or table service - 15 to 20 square feet per guest
• Coffee shops and casual dining – 12 to 17 square feet per guest
• Cafeterias – 10 to 12 square feet per guest
• Counter service – 18 to 26 inches per stool
Even though other facets of design can be out of the ordinary, when it comes to flow patterns, the simpler the better. Customer and employee safety should be a top concern. Remember that most of us tend to walk to the right of other oncoming people. Think of the room as a neighborhood and the flow as the major streets in that neighborhood. If you avoid traffic congestion, everyone will like living there. Consider the maximum number of seats allowed in the space as well as the average time you want customers to spend at a table. Generally speaking, the faster the turnover, the greater the need for clear flow patterns that do not cross. Conversely, if dining is to be leisurely, design the flow to make the wait staff seem as unobtrusive as possible.
Turnover
When determining the amount of seats to have, consider the seat turnover, or seat turn, which is the number of times customers’ occupy a seat during a mealtime. The amount of turnover depends on the restaurants’ type of menu, atmosphere, and even the availability and type of alcoholic beverages you will serve. The menu must lend itself to quick preparation. With regard to atmosphere, you want the customer to relax but not sit for hours. Many European large city restaurants will specify the amount of time for your reservation. “Yes Mr. Jones, we have your reservation set from 7:30pm until 9:00pm and we look forward to seeing you then.” They, of course, will not ask you to leave, but now you understand how long the meal period should be.
A more practical approach to turning the table occurs with good service. As the appetizer is finished, the entrée arrives at the table. When the entrée is finished, the dessert arrives when the dinner plate leaves, and dessert is generally accompanied by the check unless after-dinner drinks are on order. In short, the restaurant sets the pace.
Slower Periods
Most of the planning goes into handling crowds, but in larger spaces, you might want to consider how to separate your dining area into smaller spaces (or spaces that appear smaller) when things are slow. A good guideline is to allow 15 square feet per seat. This figure includes aisles and wait stations – but not entryways and restrooms.
Seating and Tables
The successful layout of a dining area includes balancing multiple components: safety of guests, and employees, efficiency of service, aesthetics, and financial implications. The typical first thought of the operator would place the cost per square foot, and the potential revenue generated by each seat as the dominant considerations. In general, lower check averages require a greater density of seating, and higher check averages can translate into few seats, greater guest comfort, and slower turnover. However, the goal is not to fill an empty space with as many seats as possible. The true goal is to achieve balance between customer comfort and bottom-line profit, in a style that best suits the restaurant's concept and image. Create seating options for your guests, and give them a choice regarding seating preference.
Popular types of seating include chairs, stools, booths, and banquettes. Booths offer a certain feeling of privacy or intimacy, but tables and chairs are more adaptable since they can move around as needed. A banquette is an upholstered couch fixed to the wall, with a table placed in front of it. Banquettes are a hybrid of booth and table - more adaptable than a booth, but they still must hug a wall. Banquettes are fashionable, can be upholstered in any number of stylish fabrics, and maximize seating by filling up corners and allowing more guests to be seated than would fit at individual tables and chairs. Bar stools used for bars or at taller cocktail-style tables, are the most casual seating option.
Another important consideration when considering tables and seating for a restaurant involve financial implications. Can the restaurant be full with no available customer seating when, in fact, many of the seats in the dining area are empty? The answer is unfortunately 'yes.' Restaurateurs often fail to consider how guests arrive at the restaurant. The follow figures are restaurant industry averages of guest arrivals.
• 40 to 50% of all table-service restaurant customers arrive in pairs
• 30% of the customers come alone or in parties of 3
• 20% of the customers arrive in groups of 4 or more
When one considers such arrival patterns, the need to consider 'who' your customers are and how they will arrive at your facility becomes important not only in terms of dining area and table placement, but equally in terms of the number of customers a table can accommodate. From the data on ‘customer arrival’ it would be clear that most restaurants should provide an equal balance of two-top and 4- top tables, and appropriately configured booths or banquette areas to allow as many customers into the dining area at any given time. Operators must remember that customers typically patronize restaurants during lunch.
Banquet Space
To calculate banquet seating with standard rectangular tables, divide the square footage of the room by 8 to find out how many seats the area will accommodate. For example, a 500 square foot area will seat 62 to 63 people. When using round tables, divide by 10. You may decide it prudent to have an adjacent ‘finishing’ kitchen to the banquet dining area to ease the stress on your main kitchen. Banquets will generally occur when your restaurant patrons are dining.
Service Area
Small wait station (20 to 30 inches square or rectangle, for every 20 to 30 seats. Large wait station (8 to 10 feet long and 24 to 30 inches wide) for every 50 to 75 seats. One of the prime considerations for this space entails the type of service you intend to offer, as well as the kitchen functions such as plating dessert, drink service, or other functions of the wait staff that may require electricity or refrigeration, or simply tray space.
• The need for a large wait station depends mostly on how far away it is from the kitchen and food pickup area.
• Placement of wait stations also depends on the availability of utilities, since they need electricity and water
Service Space For Basic Table Service- Limited Menu
Number of Seats Meals per Day Service Area Square Feet Square Feet (Meters)
Under 50 300 75 (6.9)
50 - 100 500 100 (9.3)
100 - 175 750 140 (12.9)
176 - 250 1,000 160 (14.7)
251 - 500 1,600 175 (16.1)
More than 500 2,400 200 (18.4)
**Included pass-through window
Beverage and General Areas
The space allocated to the bar depends on the importance of beverage sales to the total restaurant income.
• A single bar may serve both the dining area and a separate bar or lounge.
• Separate bars – one for dining and one with lounge seating.
• A full-fledged lounge with tables and chairs will take up a little less than 5% of the total restaurant square footage. Each seat will require 10 square feet of lounge space. Another consideration is the service of food. An additional amount of space and table sizes may be required to extend the bar into potential restaurant seating. It is also a good idea to provide an external entrance away from the dining room for bars of this nature. Remember that keeping the bar separate from the dining room maintains the ambience of both, but dong so in a way that allows the ‘see and be seen’ factor to exist is generally a wise idea to incorporate.
Restrooms
From the customers' perspective, a clean restroom consists of clean toilets, no stick floors, a clean area around the toilet, and no trash. Although customers do not spend more than a few minutes in the restroom, this short amount of time impacts the rest of their dining experience - after all, a clean restroom means a clean kitchen as the saying goes. Your guests’ expectations are simple: cleanliness, privacy, and comfort. You should pay attention to restroom decor in a similar way as the dining area. You can utilize plants or attractive wallpaper or artwork, or music reflecting your theme. Temperature control and lighting are critical as well. Select warm incandescent lighting or color-corrected fluorescents that are bright without being too harsh.
The restaurant operator should pay attention to amenities such as exhaust fans when the toilets are occupied, soap and handwashing and drying materials, diaper-changing areas in family establishments with wipes, and so forth. These extra touches go a long way in establishing your position in the minds of consumers. Attention to details normally transfer to all areas of the operation from the consumer perspective.
The size of the restroom will depend on the seating capacity of the restaurant. Some experts feel that they should be located near the entrance so that guests can freshen up before dining. Others think they should be nestled discreetly at the back of the dining area. This is a judgment call on the part of the restaurant operator. Situating restrooms in both locations is always an option. The location of restrooms directly relates to the location of plumbing lines, and these are generally located near the bar and/or the kitchen.
Restroom Facilities
Fixture Male Guests Female Guests
Toliet 1 for every 100 2 for every 100
Urinal 1 for every 25
Wash basin 1 for every toilet or 1 for every 5 urinals 1 for every toilet
In the western United States, most local or state codes follow the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC); in the eastern United States, they are more likely to follow the International Plumbing Code (IPC). You can find a current list of codes adopted by the various states on the Web site of the American Restroom Association (www.americanrestroom.org). The following table is a guideline for the number of restroom facilities needed per guest.
Two additional legal requirements govern restroom space. One is that, in most cities, places that serve alcoholic beverages must provide separate restroom facilities for men and women; typically, there is generally no allowance for unisex toilets where alcohol sales exceed 30 percent of total sales. The other, which is the American with Disabilities Act of 1990, which mandates accessibility measures and space requirements to accommodate guests with physical limitations.
Two additional legal requirements govern restroom space. One is that, in most cities, places that serve alcoholic beverages must provide separate restroom facilities for men and women; typically, there is generally no allowance for unisex toilets where alcohol sales exceed 30 percent of total sales. The other, which is the American with Disabilities Act of 1990, which mandates accessibility measures and space requirements to accommodate guests with physical limitations.
Storage Space
Depending on the amount of space available at a prime location, space available for dry and refrigeration storage can be a vital issue for consideration from the beginning. The next table deals with dry storage space allocation. For refrigeration, consider the menu, case sizes and items to be stored to arrive at a proper storage size.
Dry Storage Space Requirements
Type of Operation Space in Square Feet (square meters)
Fast Food 50-125 (4.65-11.63)
Small Restaurant (75 seats) 100-150 (9.30-13.95)
Medium Restaurant (75-150 seats) 200-300 (18.60-27.90)
Large Restaurant (150-400 seats) 400-1000 (37.20-93.00)
Storage may have to occur on another floor or even at a different location if the prime location cost do not feasibly justify space usage in a way that does not contribute to bottom line profits. With regard to regard to coolers and freezers, one of the first steps involves your suppliers. How often will they deliver product to you? If the delivery schedule is once a week, then you must allow suitable space for product on hand for that period. However, if your suppliers deliver daily, or twice weekly, then you can reduce the amount of space allocated for storage because replenishment can occur at a faster rate. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.05%3A_Spatial_Aspects_of_Restaurant.txt |
Understand the complexity of adapting a facility into the restaurant you desire. The following checklist is useful in evaluating a prospective facility for all of basic elements needed to operate a foodservice establishment. The ‘building’ has to meet planned specifications of the operation or you must have the ability to make necessary changes to the structure. An additional way to assess the structure includes any ‘protection’ in place at the time of purchase or lease. This speaks directly to the insurance cost you will incur. A structure located in a marginal neighborhood will appear less safe to an insurance company and thus, your costs to insure will increase proportionately.
Most restaurants will require a combination of 110 volt and 220 volt three-phase connections. If three-phase power does not exist at the structure this is a difficulty. If this form of power were not available to the structure, this situation would be a ‘deal breaker’. Generally, the rule of thumb for restaurant power needs is as follows; if the piece of equipment sits on a table or stand, it probably uses the 110-volt outlet. If it stands alone, it will probably require 220-volt three-phase power to operate properly. Always consider the ‘type’ of business occupying the structure prior to you. If the business was not a restaurant, the structure will probably be lacking in utilities, air conditioning, plumbing, and fire suppression equipment. The location of restrooms may also be of concern.
If you are uncertain about the ‘permit’ or ‘operational’ condition of the building, it is always best to walk the facility with the Health Department or Fire Marshall to become aware of possible changes you may have to make to operate. Change in laws are a factor in both instances. It is better to be aware upfront than to borrow money to make the structure operational only to find that health codes or fire requirements will require additional changes and costs. Use the following items as a ‘checklist’ when inspecting a potential location for its suitability and adaptability.
Facility Checklist
Important elements for inclusion in any site checklist begin with the building and land itself. Further, what utility connections exist? If the building was not operational as a restaurant by previous tenants, utility connections, the HVAC system, and fire suppression need to be top of mind for consideration. These elements are typically not powerful enough to sustain the facility in operational mode as a restaurant. Look closely at all aspects of the structure and its amenities, consult with the fire marshal, the department of health, and utility company providing service to determine what you will need to do in terms of changes, adaptations, or inclusion to move forward. If a facility is lacking in certain areas it does not mean that you cannot pursue the location. It is important to know up front what changes you must make and the costs you will incur to do so before you finalize funding.
Buildings and Land
• Location of buildings.
• Indicate type of construction
• Age
• Condition
• Obtain site plans or plant area layouts and photographs, if available
• Ownership of buildings. (If leased, what are terms?)
• Ownership of land. (If leased, what are terms?) Mortgages or other liens on buildings and land. Give details.
• Utilization of each building by activity.
• Land included in site or sites. Indicate percent not currently utilized.
• Housekeeping outside and inside of buildings.
• Description of area surrounding site or sites.
• Availability of land and buildings for expansion.
• Plant maintenance expenditure for each of last 3 years at each site.
Utilities and Services
Evaluation of requirements for and availability of utilities and services such as:
• Power
• Gas
• Light
• Telephone
• Heat
• Air Conditioning
• Water
• Public Transportation
Facilities Protection
• Adequacy of fire-fighting facilities.
• Unusual fire hazards.
• Flood hazards.
• Explosion hazards.
• Theft or burglary problems.
• Security measures required.
Description and condition of site equipment and services
Such as:
• Elevators
• Vaults or safes
• Cranes
• Compressed air supplies
• Parking facilities
• Lavatories
• Shipping and Receiving facilities
• Employee locker rooms
• Employee Recreation facilities
• Special equipment or services
General Evaluation of Facilities
1. Appraisal of utilization of facilities.
2. Improvements needed.
3. Adequacy of facilities to meet local community requirements.
4. If Company acquired, facility relocations contemplated.
5. Degree to which company’s facilities meet our requirements.
6. Estimated value of facilities. Indicate basis of estimate.
Legal Regulations
There is no universal checklist for all of the necessary licenses, permits, inspections, postings, and signage for your new restaurant. These requirements vary greatly between states, cities, restaurant types, and even counties and neighborhoods. The experts that you hire to help you -- specifically your designer, architect, and contractor -- will help you get through everything, but you will need to be an active part of the process and take on responsibility as well. Here are nine best practices to ensure you obtain everything you need to open your restaurant legally from the beginning. It goes without say, review your lease in detail. Before you sit down with your team and put together a master list of action items, review your lease in detail so you have a clear understanding of what your property owner will be responsible for, as well as the duties that fall on you, the tenant. If your lease states that your property owner is responsible for trash removal, they may be required to post a decal showing which company they use and what the pick-up schedule is. Make this your first step to avoid confusion and help facilitate a healthy, productive, and accountable relationship between you and your property owner.
Draw on the experience of your team
Your contractor, designer, engineer, architect, and kitchen equipment vendor will be your most valuable allies in getting all of your licenses, permits, inspections, and postings completed properly. Gather this team and ask them to provide you with a list of everything that they know you will need, as well as areas of uncertainty so that you know where you will need to do focused research. You need to have a team established that has experience, otherwise you will experience a lot of surprises and unmet expectations throughout the process. For the person that’s just going through this for the first time, it’s going to feel like an infinite list and like there are so many people that have their hand out that need to get paid for some sort of application, license, or permit.”
Learn your city
Some municipalities are much more organized than others are when it comes to providing practical, accurate information and resources to help you better understand what is required for you to open and operate your business. Cities like San Francisco and New York have relatively advanced online resources, while others may have nothing at all. Still, even the most sophisticated online tools are only a starting point. If your city does not have a centralized Internet resource for new businesses, they likely have an office you can call or visit to get the same information. Track down the information up front to avoid delays and surprises. Remember, investing a day at your municipal office early in the process can save you weeks or months of costly setbacks down the road.
Research the requirements of each individual city agency
Do independent research online. Call or visit the major city and state agencies you will need to obtain permits from, and by asking peers with similar concepts in your market what they needed to get their doors open. It is important to understand that city agencies do not communicate with each other. In New York City, for example, you need a Certificate of Occupancy from the Department of Buildings and from the Fire Department and there is no link between the two. Once you visit central websites, make sure you are then researching the requirements of each individual agency. For example, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection but also the Department of Health, Department of Sanitation, and Department of Buildings monitor Grease traps. They all have different rules that can trigger violations, so you need to understand the requirements of each.
Make a master list, assign responsibilities & follow up
Once you have consulted every available resource and done as much research as you can, sit with your team and compile a master list of every permit, license, inspection, and posting you will need. Delegate each item to a member of your team and assign due dates as necessary. In your weekly construction meetings, update each other on relevant progress, ask questions, and work together to get through inevitable setbacks and complications.
Get comfortable with the health code in your municipality
Department of Health (DOH) requirements vary greatly from state to state and city to city, and many DOH specifications will dictate parts of your restaurant design. Once you know where you are going to open a property, contact the Department of Health for your municipality and read the entire health code so that you do not get in too deep without knowing the regulations. Once they start pouring concrete and putting pipes in, it can be very expensive to retract the work. Even though many standards are consistent across the country, there are some things drastically different, like outdoor seating regulations. The Department of Health really drives much of the construction for your kitchen, back of house, and outdoor seating areas. You need to be coordinated with whatever the regulations are in your specific location.
Keep all of your finalized documents in a centralized location
Some permits and licenses will need posting in a place where they are visible to guests and employees, and others will need to reside on site and presented to inspectors before and after you open. Jennifer recommends keeping copies of everything in one centralized binder that the General Manager of the property has access to so there is no confusion when inspectors arrive. This will also make it easier to replace expired permits and keep track of renewal dates.
Calendar renewal dates immediately
As soon as you receive any type of license or permit, put a reminder on your calendar for the appropriate renewal date, as well as a reminder a few weeks or months before the actual date. Clearly delegate and note on the reminders who is responsible for each renewal and assign one person (probably your General Manager) to follow up as important dates approach.
Include health code and food handling safety in employee training
Some states require every employee on staff to go through food safety training, while others only require certain individuals to go through it. Even if your municipality does not demand that every person carry a food safety card, Jennifer recommends ensuring that every employee has some level of food handling and safety training. This creates a safer environment for staff and guests and helps to maintain your equipment. Employees are better equipped to understand when something is failing if have knowledge about their workstation, how to set up, and how equipment needs to function to align with code. This helps us avoid huge violations for the restaurant, as well as damage to major equipment. Even if the law does not require it, having a staff that is knowledgeable and responsible about food safety will help shield you from the liability of an unfortunate mistake and help you sleep at night, knowing your team knows the basics.
Set up service contracts right away
Before your contractor and subcontractors disappear, bring in your equipment service vendors and set up maintenance contracts. Preventative maintenance measures make sure you do not incur massive emergency service bills when equipment breaks. It is very expensive to call for service at night and on weekends, which are most restaurants’ primary operating hours. In sum, negotiate service contracts, calendars the dates for their visits, and always follow up with them before and after they come in. Always keep in touch with them to make sure that they are holding up their end of the bargain. Too often contracts are in place, but no one really monitors work completion.
When it comes to licenses and permits necessary for operation, please heed the following takeaways to bring your facility on-line as quickly as possible.
• Do your research. Contact the people in your city and state and ask what you need based on your specific project. Get on top of scheduling critical inspections with long lead times right away.
• Take advantage of your team’s experience, but do not disengage from the process. Surround yourself with people that have done this before and take an active role yourself.
• Get (very) comfortable with Department of Health regulations in your municipality. The Department of Health (DOH) dictates many aspects of construction including kitchen design, and even extending to how your ‘service station’ set up. Educate yourself on the requirements of your specific area and ensure that your general contractor and designer are on top of it, too.
Federal Agency Department of Treasury – Alcohol permit
Internal Revenue Service – Employment ID
State Agency State Liquor Authority – On-premise alcohol
Department of State - DBA certificate, New business registration,
Department of Taxation – Certificate of authority
City Agency Department of sanitation – Food Service Establishment permit, Resuscitation equipment, Safety Data Sheets, Food Protection Certificate, Signage,
Fire Department - Open flame permit, Range Hood and Duct Inspection, Portable Fire Extinguisher Tags, Gas Authorization, Ansul Tags, Sprinkler System, Certificate of Occupancy/Place of Assembly, Fire Alarm Test.
Utility Company Electric / Gas Service , Gas Authorization
Contractor, Architect
(In most cases, installation and performance of these items require professionals.)
Certificate of Occupancy, Equipment Use Permits, Building Permit, Sign Permit, Emergency Lighting & Foot Candle Letter
As stated, licenses and permits necessary to open and operate a restaurant will vary from one city or state to another. The agencies and respective departments involved in the licensing and permit process appear below. Your state or municipality of choice may require more, or fewer, licenses and permits than the table contains.
Licenses and Permits
Whether opening a new business or taking over an existing business, restaurant owners are responsible for obtaining various licenses and permits to cover the local, state, or federal regulations regarding the renovation or construction of facilities, and general operation. The operator should contact local government agencies, architects, or contractors for any specific requirements. The following is a list of the typical licenses and permits required. Determining accessibility to licenses and permits must occur prior to signing a lease or buying the facility because the inability to acquire the appropriate licenses and permits could jeopardize your revenue potential. This may be a serious problem, even a deal breaker. You do not want to take control of the property only to discover you cannot operate at full potential.
Building permit/local permit
A building or local permit is normally needed for any new construction. You will need a permit to modify a building if a certain percentage of an existing building will change. A construction permit might require approval by the city planning and zoning commission. Building with historical value and those registered as historic buildings may be very limited as to what modifications are possible. Permits cover construction and additions, plumbing, electrical, and structural changes. Any local, reputable builder should be familiar with local codes and the requirements of the building.
Other building permits
Depending on the location of the building, a restaurant may need other permits to get started. New operators should always check with the local building code enforcement before starting any work. A sample listing of other permits that might be required as listed below.
• Demolition permit to remove structures
• Dumpster
• Building temporary or long-term scaffolding
• Elevators and dumbwaiter
• A tenant's change of use
• A sprinkler system
• Temporary walls or partitions
• Awnings
• Signs
• Patios/platforms
Certificate of Occupancy (CO)
The building inspector issues this certificate, which allows for public assembly in a building. After all inspections are completed, this certificate the overseeing agency issues the certificate. These inspection agencies re usually inclusive of electrical, plumbing, structural, fire, and health. In smaller communities, one person may inspect all of the building work.
Health permit
The overseeing health department at the local, regional, or state-level, depending on state regulations, issues a health permit. A thorough inspection of the facility usually occurs ‘prior’ to the issuance of this permit. A follow-up, working visit may also occur at some point after opening.
Liquor license
Laws and procedures for obtaining a liquor license vary from state to state. In some states, restaurant operators own the licenses as the licensing agency views them as business assets. In other states, the state issues the license and the restaurant must complete an application and send it to a state agency known as the state liquor authority, alcohol license control board, or a similarly name agency.
Requirements to obtain a these licenses vary and are sometimes controlled by local authorities. An additional consideration is the 'type' of alcohol the operator intends to offer their patrons. For example, the licensing agency may classify beer and wine as one category while the addition of hard liquor might change the license requirements. To obtain a liquor license, the restaurant owner must contact the controlling authority in the state or region. The license process may take several months.
Federal Employment Identification Number (FEIN)
You can obtain a FEIN from the federal Social Security administration. This number is mandatory, with few exceptions, to conduct business in the United States.
Sales and use tax license
Restaurant operators normally obtain the sales and use tax license from the state's department of taxation. The assignment of this license officially designates the owner as an agent of the state to collect and pay the appropriate agency the state and local sales tax on products sold.
Outdoor Seating
There are many ways to attract more customers to your restaurant, but during summer, spring and fall months, outdoor seating tops the list. No matter what kind of establishment you run, a simple deck or patio can increase revenue by up to 30 percent. Research shows that a modest investment can increase overall sales significantly — possibly more if your restaurant offers year-round outdoor seating.
What is it about outdoor seating that has such a large effect on your customer base? There are many factors involved, most of which revolve around comfort. Some guests say that an ‘alfresco’ dining experience makes the food taste fresher and better. Others simply enjoy gazing at the view as they share a meal with friends or family. There are many ways to go about it. The following highlights some of the most popular — and successful trends in outdoor seating today. In addition to increasing revenue, outdoor seating allows you to expand your dining area without having to increase the size of the dining room.
Sidewalk seating
One of the easiest ways to offer your customers the joys of an open-air dining experience is to add a sidewalk dining area with a few comfortable sets of tables and chairs that match your restaurant’s theme. Add some patio umbrellas and you will have a charming space that draws diners by the drove — not only your regulars, but also passers-by who are attracted by the sight of happy customers. Sidewalk seating gives you lots of flexibility as well. During lunchtime, diners will appreciate a casual dining experience as they watch pedestrians or sip a cold beverage while they enjoy the shade. At night, use candles or umbrella lighting to make the atmosphere more intimate and to create an attractive display for onlookers to enjoy. In addition, you can add your restaurant’s logo to your patio umbrellas, which is a great way to imprint your brand on both diners and bystanders.
Rooftop dining
If you lack the availability of outward space or wish to pursue additional seating there are additional options. Many restaurateurs choose to expand upwards. From London to Los Angeles, diners everywhere are talking about rooftop eateries. Why? Because the bird’s-eye view allows them to take in beautiful city skylines or wide-open landscapes as they dine.
Of course, there is more to rooftop dining than a few tables and an incredible view. In London, for instance, many of the most popular rooftop restaurants go the extra mile with beautifully manicured gardens and light displays that enliven the atmosphere at night. Pergolas and awnings are also popular features because they offer shade during the day and protect diners from rain.
Dining in the garden
One of the industry’s hottest trends is farm-to-table food - a trend combines easily with outdoor dining. To take advantage of this trend, it is less about the space - a sidewalk, deck, patio or rooftop - and more about what you grow in it. Some restaurants are landscaping their outdoor dining areas with the same fruits and vegetables that they are serving their customers. With the addition of a few raised beds, you can create a wonderfully relaxing environment for your guests while growing some of the lettuce, tomatoes, peppers and other fruits and vegetables that you will be serving.
Fire and water
This next trend is another that works well for just about any outdoor space. Diners love the atmosphere ‘fire and ‘water’ create. Among the more popular water features, you will find reflecting pools, fountains and even simple table settings with floating tea-light candles or flowers. When it comes to fire, fire pits top the list, followed closely by candle lighting, lanterns and torches. One of the reasons that this theme works so well is that these two elements convey everything that you want your guests to feel. Water adds a sense of cleanliness and freshness that enhances the environment and foods you serve. Fire, even in modest amounts conveys a warm, comfortable feeling that encourages guests to linger over drinks and dessert. Combine these elements, and you will have a recipe for an outstanding dining experience.
There is no doubt that an outdoor dining area will enrich your customer’s experience in addition to providing you with a high return on your investment. Your available space - whether a sidewalk, rooftop or private patio - is important, but what matters more is what you do with it. To maximize your investment, offer an attractive blend of the elements listed above. A little bit of shade, nice landscaping and a touch of atmosphere through the clever use of fire and water will ensure that your guests not only come back for more, but also bring their friends and family along, too. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.06%3A_The_Physical_Location.txt |
Facilty Planning Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Décor and architectural design.
3. Location
4. Equipment and resources available
5. Management plan
Example
Respite
INTRODUCTION
In the past three concepts, I’ve been working on the logistical planning of a Nashville-based fast-casual restaurant that I have finally named Respite, as I’d like the food and the atmosphere of my restaurant to be a respite or an oasis for my guests, even for just a half hour. I had some difficulties planning a restaurant that combined the elegance of a full-service, made-to-order establishment with the accessibility and lack of pretense that a fast-food or a casual restaurant has. Most importantly, I wanted to serve seasonal foods to my guests without expecting them to pay for all the atmosphere and pretense of your typical restaurant that serves seasonal foods. I do not want my guests to feel obligated to tip, driving the cost of their meal up even more.
Fusing all these elements is a challenge, but through research, I have found a Los Angeles-based restaurant that seems embrace goals similar to mine. While they offer a more expansive menu, guests order and pay at the counter, and waiters provide food service to the tables.
This is exactly how I would like my operation to be set up - high quality food in a decent atmosphere at a reasonable price. Guests will order from a counter, take their seats, and we will take care of the rest.
LOCATION
The proposed location for Respite is 1000 Division Street in Nashville, Tennessee. This unit is a rented space currently in construction on the ground level of a condominium building—potentially, our customers will live right above us. It is located on Division Street, one block from 12th Avenue South, one of Nashville’s integral stretches of road.
Division Street is a 4-lane road, and, while Respite will not provide a parking area for our guests, there are at least three parking garages and several parking lots in the vicinity. In fact, Respite is located next to a parking garage and across the street is a parking lot that offers free parking for one hour. In addition to these pay-to-park places, there is also street parking on some of the sub-streets a short walk from the restaurant. The nearby parking garages offer free secure parking for bicycles, so perhaps that would be a good point to advertise.
Logistics of Operation
Because the restaurant is a storefront style, deliveries will need to enter through the front door, meaning we will need to schedule deliveries only when the restaurant itself is not open. Because we are located in a storefront, we cannot use tall signposts, but we can just as easily make the exterior of our operation distinctive and noticeable to those who drive by, or those who walk by every day. Because Division Street is mostly for thru traffic, there should be limited noise coming from traffic; however, the neighborhood is still growing, and it is very possible there will be noise from construction until the area finishes developing. Because the unit is still in construction, we can have input on how the exterior of the building is landscaped and styled.
SIZE CONSIDERATIONS
I calculated the dining room size of my restaurant given that I would like 16 square feet per guest and that I would like to seat 70 guests at once at most, leaving me needing a dining room size of 1120 square feet. Our kitchen does not need to be luxurious, but we do need plenty of room to make sure everyone can work comfortably. I would like to allot 1000 square feet for the kitchen, and then round the whole facility off to a total of 2500 square feet, to leave some room for the entrance and restrooms.
The entire facility will be non-smoking. The dining room will feature a counter from which our guests will order; this counter will also function as the bar from which we serve local beers from Yazoo and Jackalope brewing companies, right down the street. Even if I do not want an open kitchen, where the line and the dining room are all one room, I would like to have a viewing window from the dining room into the kitchen. This creates a sense of transparency, and even a source of entertainment, for our guests, who can see exactly where their food is coming from.
DÉCOR AND ARCHITECTURE
Respite should be very clean and modern looking; I do not want it to look futuristic, but rather very open, clean, and comfortable. I would like to use a lot of natural lighting during the day, which should save on energy costs, at least marginally. I would like to use sealed wooden tabletops that clean easily. The order counter will be very natural looking too, with wood panels.
MANAGEMENT
I plan on taking the risk, and reaping the reward, of my restaurant being a sole proprietorship. For the time being, I plan on Respite being an independent unit with no plans on corporate ownership or franchising. In addition to the kitchen staff and dishwashers, I would like to hire a sous chef and a dining room manager.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED
Because our location is brand new, it does not come with any existing equipment. So, for the kitchen alone, I will need:
• Three compartment pot sink
• Autochlor dishwasher
• At least one convection oven
• Two 6-top gas ranges with ovens beneath
• A gas grill
• A two-compartment fryer
• Prep tables and surfaces
• A walk-in fridge
• A walk-in freezer
• A vacuum sealer
Layout Example and Thought Process
Equipment Layout and Justification
The easy and casual restaurant that I designed is a combination of two restaurants that I have personally worked at. I choose what I liked about both of them and formed them together.
One of the things that I liked the most about these restaurants is that they both have designated “in” and “out” doors. This makes it easy for the movement in and out of the kitchen to be fluid and prevent against people running into one another. When the wait staff enters the kitchen, the door leads them right into the dish room and the registers to ticket their orders. A waiter with dirty dishes can just walk in and drop it off, if not, then they are probably coming into the kitchen to record a sale and the registers are right there. I made sure that there was not only an AutoClor for the plates and silverware, but also a three-compartment sink for all of the pots, pans, and cooking equipment. I put a cabinet with all of the cleaning equipment in the same place so that everything for the dishes is available in the same place. Finally, in this section of the kitchen, I made room for drying areas and storage of all of the pots, pans, equipment, and utensils.
Along the back of the kitchen, I made room for a big walk in cooler, walk in Freezer, and Dry storage. I wanted to make sure that the freezer was separate from the cooler because I have been in a situation where someone did not close the freezer and it froze everything in the cooler. In the back, I also wanted to make room for a hotbox. We had one in the Bistro Kitchen and it was great to use for things that you can make in advance and held at a certain temperature throughout service. I also added an additional spice rack for all of the spices most commonly used in the kitchen since we make many things in house. The reason for putting all of this main stuff in the back was to make sure that is was all located in the same part of the kitchen and made it easy for any part of the kitchen to get to it. This way the staff can walk to the back to get all of the stuff they need in one trip whether it be in dry storage, the cooler, or even the freezer.
Below is my suggested floor plan for a smart, casual restaurant that serves 160 covers.
(You can construct a floor in Excel. Set the row width to 2.73, which will produce ‘square’ cells with each representing one square foot.)
Since this restaurant offers soups and salads for appetizers I wanted to make sure that, they had their own prep space. I included three different large prep spaces, along with smaller prep counters on top of all of the reach in coolers throughout the kitchen.
I included two soup kettles for the two different soups served and made in house. By the kettles, I placed tilt skillets for large batches of sautéed items or use of homemade stocks. The kitchen will utilize gas stoves and grills to help lower the expenses. I placed the grill, stove, top, and fryers all side by side in the kitchen and prep tables for ease to getting the entrees together. I put reach ins on both side of this counter to hold items that need to be kept cool until they are to be prepared at the time the ticket is called.
From experience, I wanted to make sure that the bakers had their own side of the kitchen. They will be baking breads and desserts fresh and in house so I wanted to make sure that they had their own prep table. I gave them their own food window, with a cooler attached for all cool items and garnishes. Since all bread and desserts will occur from scratch I needed to include a proof box, stand mixer, oven, and speed racks. Under the prep tables and along the walls will include all sorts of storage for all of the assorted tools and equipment they will need.
The hot food window will be right at the front of the kitchen and right next to the “out” door. This way the servers can enter through the “in” door to drop off dishes, and then walk by the hot window to get any food before they walk back out into the dining room. Right in front of the hot window will be a counter with storage underneath for dinner plates, B&B’s, and black serving trays. This makes it easy for whoever is the executive chef to grab a tray and have them lined up to go for the servers.
I placed hand sinks all over the kitchen in areas that I thought they would be most usable. I placed one by all of the exits and entrances, and one by all of the prepping tables. Large prepping sinks where also included in the design by the prepping tables. These are necessary in order to be able to thaw items or rinse off others.
In addition to all of the equipment that was provided in the layout, some other assorted small equipment will also be necessary. Large and small cutting boards of different colors for their different uses are also a necessity. Two different knife organizers will be appropriate in this kitchen. We will need butchering, chef, carving, and paring for most of the jobs needed done in the kitchen. A Robo Coupe or other type of food processor will be needed prep. For the soups, we already have the kettles, but an immersion blender could be useful for pureed soups. For the salad station, they will need of course a salad spinner and a blender for the in house made dressings. Lastly, all sorts of utensils will be necessary. For example, whisks, wooden spoons, medal spoons, tongs, etc. All of these items will house in the drawer attachments to the prepping tables.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What factors of facility design does the menu directly affect?
2. Does the facility come first, or the menu? How should a restauranteur think about both elements?
3. Name the six elements that affect the successful capitalization of a foodservice facility.
4. What factors typically result in the selection of a ‘bad’ foodservice location?
5. What potential values does a restaurant location have?
6. When should the Department of Health and Fire Marshall first view a proposed lease site?
7. A prudent restauranteur considers the ‘location’ of a restaurant as the ‘connection’ between your target customer and your operating concept. Why is this true?
8. Name and discuss the two major considerations in deciding on an appropriate amount of space for a foodservice facility, which should be constant guides for decision-making.
9. What types of electrical connection does a restaurant require? How can you determine these connections?
10. Licenses and permits necessary to open and operate a restaurant will vary from one city or state to another. What agencies and respective departments are involved in the licensing and permit process? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.07%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignment_-.txt |
Glossary
Menu and Facility. The menu has a tremendous influence on the design and success of a food operation. An operator must constantly frame his or her thinking of the menu as the primary or sole source of revenue for the operation that will cover the expenditures of the operation on a monthly or yearly basis, and provide the profits sought by the organization.
Concept development. The successful foodservice operation combines these elements of concept development: menu market, menu, money, management, and method of execution.
Space determinants. A complex menu requires more space to prepare items than a limited, or simple, menu because separate workstations and additional equipment are necessary. Depending on the amount of space available in a prime location, 'make' or 'purchase' decisions may well become practical considerations.
Space Accommodations. Remember the following basic space recommendations by restaurant segment to address space and service concerns: Luxury or table service - 15 to 20 square feet per guest; Coffee shops and casual dining – 12 to 17 square feet per guest Cafeterias – 10 to 12 square feet per guest, Counter service – 18 to 26 inches per stool.
Even though other facets of design can be out of the ordinary, when it comes to flow patterns, the simpler the better. Customer and employee safety should be a top concern. Remember that most of us tend to walk to the right of other oncoming people. Think of the room as a neighborhood and the flow as the major streets in that neighborhood. If you avoid traffic congestion, everyone will like living there. Consider the maximum number of seats allowed in the space as well as the average time you want customers to spend at a table. Generally speaking, the faster the turnover, the greater the need for clear flow patterns that do not cross. Conversely, if dining is to be leisurely, design the flow to make the wait staff seem as unobtrusive as possible.
Banquet Space. To calculate banquet seating with standard rectangular tables, divide the square footage of the room by 8 to find out how many seats the area will accommodate. For example, a 500 square foot area will seat 62 to 63 people. When using round tables, divide by 10. You may decide it prudent to have an adjacent ‘finishing’ kitchen to the banquet dining area to ease the stress on your main kitchen. Banquets will generally occur when your restaurant patrons are dining.
Service Area. Small wait station (20 to 30 inches square or rectangle, for every 20 to 30 seats. Large wait station (8 to 10 feet long and 24 to 30 inches wide) for every 50 to 75 seats.
Customer arrivals. Restaurateurs often fail to consider how guests arrive at the restaurant. The follow figures are restaurant industry averages of guest arrivals. Forty to 50% of all table-service restaurant customers arrive in pairs, 30% of the customers come alone or in parties of 3, and 20% of the customers arrive in groups of four or more.
When one considers such arrival patterns, the need to consider 'who' your customers are and how they will arrive at your facility becomes important not only in terms of dining area and table placement, but equally in terms of the number of customers a table can accommodate. From the data on ‘customer arrival’ it would be clear that most restaurants should provide an equal balance of two-top and 4- top tables, and appropriately configured booths or banquette areas to allow as many customers into the dining area at any given time. Operators must remember that customers typically patronize restaurants during lunch
Entrance space. The space allocated to an entryway is a function of the type of restaurant and the owner's overall feeling about the need for this space. For fast food, the entrance space is large for guests lining up, placing and paying for orders, and picking up food.
Exterior of the facility. This area included the parking lot, any public area that surrounds the business, patio seating, and sidewalk tables. The exterior of the facility is where initial customer experience impressions form. Restaurants located in malls or large office buildings will typically have to account for food-court-style seating will generally have to account for any seating or public area surrounding the facility.
Front of the house interior. This area includes the entryway into the facility, the dining area, wait stations, beverage service area, and restrooms. The customers' comfort should be very high on your list of space-priorities.
Back of the house interior. This space includes the hot-food preparation area, the cold-food preparation area, a serving and plating area, a bakery if one is included, and ware-washing area(s).
Kitchen auxiliary space. This space includes the receiving area, dry storage area(s), cold (refrigerated) storage, freezer, employee staging or break room, and office space.
American Disabilities Act. All spacing configurations and elevations must accommodate those patrons with disabilities. The act generally concerns, but is not limited to, the facility's entrance and exit areas and walkways, restroom accommodations, and aisle spacing for patrons with disabilities.
Dishwashing area. Complex menus require multiple plates, dishes, and utensils, so the dishwashing area and machine capacity will need to be greater than in the case of simple menus. A well-planned ware-washing arrangement could reduce the amount of plates, glasses and flatware necessary to the flow of service.
Location. The restaurant and the location must complimentary to each other. The physical restaurant represents a concept that threads throughout the furnishings, atmosphere, menu price, seat arrangement and spacing, and the type of service scheme offered. As a location changes its character, parts or all of the conceptual elements in place at that location change as well.
Location worth. This value derives from the worth of the surrounding properties or ‘comparable’ prices. Other factors that would add to the real estate worth of a property include improvements or upgrades to the building or grounds, ease of access, and so forth. The real estate value may be greater than the operational value. On the other hand, the lack of such amenities might reduce the worth of a location despite higher comparative prices.
Stage one Development. Involves no more than the selection of a major piece of equipment or the replacement of a small area of a foodservice facility. Typically, the completion of this stage comes to completion out under the direction of the owner, or a manager, with the help of an equipment dealer.
Stage two Development. Involves the renovation of a significant portion of an existing foodservice facility. A full complement of professionals is necessary at stage 2 because such projects are complex and require expertise in construction, engineering, and foodservice equipment layout and design.
Stage three Development. Projects involve the complete renovation of an existing foodservice facility or the design and construction of a new foodservice facility.
Stage four Development. Projects that involve the development of a chain or franchise prototype.
Building permit/local permit. A building or local permit is normally needed for any new construction. You will need a permit to modify a building if a certain percentage of an existing building will change. A construction permit might require approval by the city planning and zoning commission. Building with historical value and those registered as historic buildings may be very limited as to what modifications are possible. Permits cover construction and additions, plumbing, electrical, and structural changes. Any local, reputable builder should be familiar with local codes and the requirements of the building.
Certificate of Occupancy (CO). The building inspector issues this certificate, which allows for public assembly in a building. After all inspections are completed, this certificate the overseeing agency issues the certificate. These inspection agencies re usually inclusive of electrical, plumbing, structural, fire, and health. In smaller communities, one person may inspect all of the building work.
Health permit. The overseeing health department at the local, regional, or state-level, depending on state regulations, issues a health permit. A thorough inspection of the facility usually occurs ‘prior’ to the issuance of this permit. A follow-up, working visit may also occur at some point after opening.
Liquor license. Laws and procedures for obtaining a liquor license vary from state to state. In some states, restaurant operators own the licenses as the licensing agency views them as business assets. In other states, the state issues the license and the restaurant must complete an application and send it to a state agency known as the state liquor authority, alcohol license control board, or a similarly name agency.
Notes
Birchfield, John C. (2008). Design and layout of Foodservice facilities. Third Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
‘Delivering a Dining Experience” (2006). Hotels 40(4), 76-80.
Frable, Foster Jr. (2003). Well-executed Commercial Kitchen Design Requires Step-by-Step Planning, Patience. Nation’s Restaurant News 38(7), 18-60.
Catinella Orrell, Rita F. (2006). Tasteful Kitchen Design. Architectural Record 194(10), 61-64.
Clarke, John. (2006). Kitchen design. Grill, 1(6), 176-179.
Kooser, Ron. (2003). Design for the customers, not the designer. Food Management 38(9), 9-22.
McLaurin, Donald. (2004). Wise design. Foodservice & Hospitality 37(5), 22.
McPherson, John, Adrian Mitchell, and Andrew Ross. (2004). Every penny counts: Operators who design concepts for value get biggest bang for the buck. Nation’s Restaurant News, 38(33), 42-44.
Katsigris, Costas, and Chris Thomas. (2006). Design and equipment for restaurants and foodservice: A management view. Second Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Robson, Stephani K.A. (2004). Designing for dollars. Restaurant Hospitality, 88(10), 72-74 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Materializing_the_Concept_-_The_Facility/7.08%3A_Glossary_and_Notes.txt |
Chapter 8 Learning Objectives
• To gain an understanding of different forms of ownership.
• Sole Proprietorship
• Partnerships
• Corporations
• To understand the advantages of each form of ownership.
• To understand the disadvantages of each type of ownership.
• Able to understand job functions and job descriptions
• Understand how to assemble and train a restaurant staff.
“By putting the employee first, the customer effectively comes first by default, and in the end, the shareholder comes first by default as well.”
Richard Branson
Sole Proprietorship
In a sole proprietorship, one person owns and operates for their benefit. The owner may operate the business alone or with other people. All assets of the business belong to a sole proprietor, including, for example, computer infrastructure, any inventory, equipment and/or retail fixtures, as well as any real estate owned by the business. Subsequently, a sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, whether from operating costs or judgments against the business.
Partnership
General partnership
A general partnership is a partnership in which partners share equally in both responsibility and liability. In the commercial and legal sense, a general partnership (the basic form of partnership), refers to an association of persons or an unincorporated company with the following major features:
• Created by a legal agreement with proof of existence.
• Formed by two or more persons
• The owners are all personally liable for any legal actions and debts the company may face.
Partnerships have certain default characteristics relating to both (a) the relationship between the individual partners and (b) the relationship between the partnership and the outside world. The former can generally override the agreement between the partners, whereas the latter generally may not. The assets of the business are owned on behalf of the other partners, and they are each personally liable, collectively and individually, for business debts, taxes, or legal liability. For example, if a partnership defaults on a payment to a creditor, the partners' personal assets are subject to attachment and liquidation to pay the creditor.
By default, profits disperse equally among the partners. However, a partnership agreement will almost invariably provide for the manner in which partners share profits and losses. Each general partner is the agent of the partnership. Therefore, if that partner is apparently carrying on partnership business, all general partners are usually liable for his dealings with third persons.
By default, a partnership will terminate upon the death, disability, or even withdrawal of any one partner. However, most partnership agreements provide for these types of events, with the share of the departed partner usually purchased by the remaining partners in the partnership.
Each general partner has an equal right to participate in the management and control of the business. A majority of the partners, and disagreements of extraordinary matters decide disagreements, in the ordinary course of partnership business, and amendments to the partnership agreement require the consent of all partners. However, in a partnership of any size the partnership agreement will provide for elected individuals to manage the partnership along the lines of a company board.
Unless otherwise provided in the partnership agreement, no one can become a member of the partnership without the consent of all partners, though a partner may assign his share of the profits and losses and right to receive distributions and transferable interest (Smiddy and Cunningham, 2010).
Limited Partnership
A limited partnership is a form of partnership similar to a general partnership, except that in addition to one or more general partners (GPs), there are one, or more, limited partners (LPs). It is a partnership where only one partner is required to be a ‘general partner’.
The GPs are, in all major respects, in the same legal position as partners in a conventional firm, i.e. they have management control, share the right to use partnership property, share the profits of the firm in predefined proportions, and have joint and individual liability for the debts of the partnership.
As in a general partnership, the GPs have actual authority, as agents of the firm, to bind all the other partners in contracts with third parties that are in the ordinary course of the partnership's business. As with a general partnership, an act of a general partner, which is not apparently for carrying on the ordinary course of business, requires consent of all partners. The limited partnership's activities binds the limited partnership only if the act has the authorization of all the other partners.
Like shareholders in a corporation, limited partners have limited liability. This means they have no management authority and are only liable on debts incurred by the firm to the extent of their registered investment. The GPs pay the LPs a return on their investment (similar to a dividend), the nature and extent of which is evident in the partnership agreement. General Partners thus carry more liability, and in cases of financial loss, the GPs will be the ones, which are liable.
LP members are subject to the same alter-ego 'piercing' theories as corporate shareholders. However, it is more difficult to pierce the LP veil because LPs do not have a great many formalities to maintain. So long as the LP and the members do not co-mingle funds, it would be difficult to pierce its veil.
When the partnership comes together, or the composition of the firm is changing, LPs are generally required to file documents with the relevant state registration office. LPs must also explicitly disclose their LP status when dealing with other parties, so that such parties are on notice that the individual negotiating with them carries limited liability. It is customary that the notepaper, other documentation, and electronic materials issued to the public by the firm will carry a clear statement identifying the legal nature of the firm and listing the partners separately as general and limited. Hence, unlike the GPs, the LPs do not have inherent agency authority to bind the firm unless they are subsequently held out as agents (and so create an agency by estoppel); or acts of ratification by the firm create ostensible or questionable authority (Smiddy and Cunningham, 2010).
Limited partnerships are distinct from limited liability partnerships, in which all partners have limited liability. In some jurisdictions, the limited liability of the LPs is contingent on their not participating in management.
Corporation
A corporation is a separate legal entity that incorporate either directly through legislation or through a registration process established by law. Incorporated entities have legal rights and liabilities that are distinct from their employees, shareholders and members, and may conduct business as either a profit -seeking business or not-for-profit. Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Registered corporations have legal personality and shareholder ownership whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity (Courtney, 2002).
In the United States, corporations form under laws of a state or the District of Columbia. Procedures vary widely by state. Some states allow formation of corporations through electronic filing on the state's web site or very quickly. All states require payment of a fee (often under 200 dollars) upon incorporation. Corporations receive a "certificate of incorporation" by most states upon formation. Most state corporate laws require the basic governing instrument to be either: the ‘certificate of incorporation’, or formal ‘articles of incorporation’. Many corporations also adopt additional governing rules known as bylaws. Most state laws require at least one director and at least two officers, all of whom may be the same person. Generally, there are no residency requirements for officers or directors (Pettet, 2005). Two corporation forms that are applicable to the hospitality operation.
C’ Corporation
C corporation refers to any corporation that, under United States federal income tax law, is taxed separately from its owners. A class C corporation is distinguished from an S corporation, which generally does not pay a separate tax. Most major companies (and many smaller companies) are C corporations for U.S. federal income tax purposes.
‘S’ Corporation
S corporations are ordinary business corporations that elect to pass corporate income, losses, deductions, and credit through to their shareholders for federal tax purposes. The S corporation rules are contained in Subchapter S of Chapter 1 of the Internal Revenue Code (sections 1361 through 1379). S status combines the legal environment of C corporations with U.S. federal income taxation similar to that of partnerships.
Like a C corporation, an S corporation is generally a corporation under the law of the state in which the entity is organized. However, with modern incorporation statutes makes the establishment of a corporation relatively easy. Firms that traditionally run as partnerships, or sole proprietorships, often run as corporations with a small number of shareholders in order to take advantage of the beneficial features of the corporate form; this is particularly true of firms established prior to the advent of the modern limited liability company. Therefore, taxation of S corporations resembles that of partnerships (Pettet, 2005). S corporations are also useful to guard the rights of intellectual property and are often used within an LLC corporation.
Like partnerships, the income, deductions, and tax credits of an S corporation flow through to shareholders annually, regardless of whether distributions occur. Thus, income is taxable at the shareholder level and not at the corporate level. Payments to S shareholders by the corporation have tax-free distribution to the extent that the distributed earnings undergo previous taxation. In addition, certain corporate penalty taxes (e.g., accumulated earnings tax, personal holding company tax) and the alternative minimum tax do not apply to an S corporation. Unlike a C corporation, an S corporation is not eligible for a dividends received deduction and is not subject to the 10 percent of taxable income limitation applicable to charitable contribution deductions (Pettet, 2005).
In order to make an election for status as an S corporation, the corporation:
• Must be a liability entity (a domestic corporation which has elected to be taxed as a corporation).
• Must have only one class of stock.
• Must not have more than 100 shareholders.
• Must have shareholders that are U.S. citizens or residents, and must be natural persons, so corporate shareholders and partnerships are generally excluded. However, certain trusts, estates, and tax-exempt corporations, notably 501(c) (3) corporations, can be shareholders.
• Must have profits and losses allocated to shareholders in proportion to each one's interest in the business.
General Corporate Benefits
Protection of personal assets
One of the most important legal benefits is the safeguarding of personal assets against the claims of creditors and lawsuits. Sole proprietors and general partners in a partnership are personally and jointly responsible for all the liabilities of a business such as loans, accounts payable and legal judgments. In a corporation, however, stockholders, directors, and officers typically are not liable for the company's debts and obligations. They are limited in liability to the amount they have invested in the corporation. For example, if a shareholder purchased \$100 in stock, no more than \$100 can be lost. Corporations and limited liability corporations (LLCs) may hold assets such as real estate, cars or boats. If a shareholder of a corporation is personally involved in a lawsuit or bankruptcy, these assets should be under corporate protection. A creditor of a shareholder of a corporation or LLC cannot seize the assets of the company. However, the creditor can seize ownership shares in the corporation, as they are under personal asset consideration (Pettet, 2005).
Transferable ownership
Ownership in a corporation or LLC is easily transferable to others, either in whole, or in part. Some state laws are particularly corporate-friendly. For example, the transfer of ownership in a corporation incorporated in Delaware is not required to be filed or recorded (Courtney, 2002).
Retirement funds and taxation
Retirement funds and qualified retirements plans, such as a 401(k), are achievable more easily. In the United States, corporations are taxable at a lower rate than individuals are. In addition, they can own shares in other corporations and receive corporate dividends 80% tax-free. There are no limits on losses a corporation may carry forward to subsequent tax years. A sole proprietorship, on the other hand, cannot claim a capital loss greater than \$3,000 unless the owner has offsetting capital gains (Courtney, 2002).
Raising funds through sale of stock
A corporation can easily raise capital from investors through the sale of stock.
Durability
A corporation is capable of continuing indefinitely. The death of shareholders, directors, or officers of the corporation does not affect its existence.
Credit rating
Regardless of an owners' personal credit scores, a corporation can acquire its own credit rating, and build a separate credit history by applying for and using corporate credit.
Limited Liability Company
Limited Liability Company (LLC). A limited liability company (LLC) is a flexible form of enterprise that blends elements of partnership and corporate structures. An LLC is not a corporation; it is a legal form of ‘company’ that provides limited liability to its owners in the vast majority of United States jurisdictions. LLCs do not need to organize for profit. In certain states, businesses providing professional services that require a state professional license, such as legal or medical services, may not form an LLC but required to form a very similar entity called a Professional Limited Liability Company (PLLC).
A limited liability company (LLC) is a hybrid business entity having certain characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership or sole proprietorship (depending on how many owners there are). An LLC, although a business entity, is a type of unincorporated association and is not a corporation. The primary characteristic an LLC shares with a corporation is limited liability, and the primary characteristic it shares with a partnership is the availability of pass-through income taxation. It is often more flexible than a corporation, and it is well suited for companies with a single owner (Courtney, 2002).
LLC members are subject to the same alter ego piercing theories as corporate shareholders. However, it is more difficult to pierce the LLC veil because LLCs do not have many formalities to maintain. So long as the LLC and the members do not commingle funds, it would be difficult to pierce this veil. Limited Liability Company members may in certain circumstances, also incur a personal liability in cases where distributions to members render the LLC insolvent. The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of a limited liability company (Courtney, 2002):
LLC Advantages
• An LLC can elect to be taxed as a sole-proprietor, partnership, S corporation, or C corporation (as long as they would otherwise qualify for such tax treatment), providing for a great deal of flexibility.
• A limited liability company with multiple members that elects taxation as a partnership may specially allocate the members' distributive share of income, gain, loss, deduction, or credit via the company operating agreement on a basis other than the ownership percentage of each member so long as they meet certain Treasury regulations. S corporations may not specially allocate profits, losses and other tax items under U.S. tax law.
• Limited liability, meaning that the owners of the LLC, called "members", are not subject to some or all liability for acts and debts of the LLC depending on state shield laws.
• Much less administrative paperwork and record keeping than a corporation.
• Pass-through taxation (i.e., no double-taxation), unless the LLC elects to be taxed as a C corporation.
• Using default tax classification, profits undergo personal taxation at the member level, not at the LLC level.
• LLCs in most states are entities separate from their members.
• LLCs in some states can be set up with just one natural person involved.
LLC Disadvantages
Although there is no statutory requirement for an 'operating agreement' in most jurisdictions, members of a multiple member LLC who operate without one may run into problems. Unlike state laws regarding stock corporations, which provide for a variety of governance and protective provisions for the corporation and its shareholders, most states do not dictate detailed governance and protective provisions for the members of a limited liability company. Thus, in the absence of such statutory provisions, the members of an LLC must establish governance and protective provisions pursuant to an operating agreement or similar governing document.
• It may be more difficult to raise financial capital for an LLC as investors may be more comfortable investing funds in the better-understood corporate form with a view toward an eventual IPO (becoming a public company). One possible solution may be to form a new corporation and merge into it, dissolving the LLC and converting into a corporation.
• Many jurisdictions levy a franchise tax or capital values tax on LLCs. The franchise tax can be an amount based on revenue, an amount based on profits, or an amount based on the number of owners or the amount of capital employed in the state, or some combination of those factors, or simply a flat fee.
• Some jurisdictions consider LLCs to be taxable entities, thus eliminating the benefit of flow-through taxes by subjecting members to double taxation. Typically, LLCs will choose taxation as a partnership to avoid double taxation, which occurs in corporations. This allows companies to distribute their income among members who then report it on their personal tax returns.
• While start up expense is relatively similar to a corporation, renewal fees such as annual reports may be higher in certain jurisdictions.
• The management structure of an LLC may be unfamiliar to many. Unlike corporations, they are not required to have a board of directors or officers. (This may be an advantage to some.)
• Taxing jurisdictions outside the US are likely to treat a United States LLC as a corporation, regardless of its treatment for US tax purposes, for example, a US LLC
• doing business outside the US, or a resident of a foreign jurisdiction is a member of a United States LLC.
• The principals of LLCs use many different titles such as member, manager, managing member, managing director, chief executive officer, president, and partner. As such, it can be difficult to determine who actually has the authority to enter into a contract on the LLC's behalf (Courtney, 2002). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Ownership_and_Employees/8.01%3A_New_Page.txt |
How important is the employee hiring process? To begin, your restaurant is an organization. An ‘organization’ is indicative of many people coming together to achieve the vision and mission of the company. Said differently, it take more than one person to operate and grow the company. To define employees in a pragmatic way, they are generally the ‘sole contact’ the customer has with company. Given that role, they are in fact ‘the face of the company’ to the consumer. Back-of-the-house personnel produce the products they love. The service staff interaction creates the personal touch and ambience that makes customers feel at home and welcome. The management team gathers information about the consumer from the staff and keeps the operation on pace and growing. In all, every employee is important. You must hire individuals who can do what you need them to do. However, you first have to know what you need done, a ‘job description’, and the particular skills people need, a ‘job analysis’, to accomplish those tasks.
Job Description
A job description or JD is a list that a person might use:
• For general tasks, or functions
• Responsibilities of a position.
It may often include:
• To whom the position reports,
• Specifications such as the qualifications or skills needed by the person in the job, and
• A salary range.
Job descriptions are usually narrative, but some may instead comprise a simple list of competencies; for instance, 'strategic resource planning' methodologies may be used to develop a 'competency architecture' for an organization, from which job descriptions are built as a shortlist of competencies.
Human resources planning is a process that identifies current and future human resources needs for an organization to achieve its goals. Human resources planning should serve as a link between human resources management and the overall strategic plan of an organization. As defined by Bulla and Scott, human resource planning is ‘the process for ensuring that the human resource requirements of an organization are identified and plans are made for satisfying those requirements’. Reilly defined workforce planning as: ‘A process in which an organization attempts to estimate the demand for labor and evaluate the size, nature and sources of supply which will be required to meet the demand.’ Human resource planning includes creating an employer brand, retention strategy, absence management strategy, flexibility strategy, 'talent management ' strategy, recruitment, and selection strategy.
Talent Management
Talent management implies that companies are strategic and deliberate in how they source, attract, select, train, develop, retain, promote, and move employees through the organization.
Research done on the value of talent management consistently uncovers benefits in these critical economic areas: revenue, customer satisfaction, quality, productivity, cost, cycle time, and market capitalization. The mindset of this more ‘personal’ human resources approach seeks to hire the most qualified and valuable employees, with a strong emphasis on 'retention'.
Summary
A job description usually comes into focus by conducting a job analysis, which includes examining the tasks and sequences of tasks necessary to perform the job. The analysis considers the areas of 'knowledge' and 'skills' needed for the job. A job usually includes several roles. The job description can broaden to form a 'person specification'. The person/job specification can function as a stand-alone document, but in practice, it is usually included within the job description. A job description is often usable in recruitment by the firm's human resource department or hiring manager.
Roles and responsibilities
A job description may include 'relationships' with other people in the organization: supervisory level, managerial requirements, and relationships with other colleagues.
Goals
A job description need not be limited to explaining the current situation, or work that is currently expected; it may also set out goals for what might be achieved in the future.
Limitations
• Prescriptive job descriptions are a hindrance in certain circumstances:
• Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers, as they should have the freedom to take the initiative and find fruitful new directions.
• Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly changing organization, for instance in an area subject to rapid technological change; other changes in job content may lead to the job description being out of date. The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions may not be optimal.
Position/Job Description (work, task, or both)
Example: one
For the job of a snow-cat operator at a ski slope, a work or task-oriented job analysis might include this statement: Operates Bombardier Sno-cat, usually at night, to smooth out snow rutted by skiers and snowboard riders and new snow that has fallen.
On the other hand, a worker-oriented job analysis might include this statement: Evaluates terrain, snow depth, and snow condition and chooses the correct setting for the depth of the snow cat, as well as the number of passes necessary on a given ski slope.
Job analysis methods have evolved using both task-oriented and worker-oriented approaches. Since the result of both approaches is a statement of KSAOs, neither can be considered the "correct" way to conduct job analysis. Because worker-oriented job analyses tend to provide more generalized human behavior and behavior patterns and less association with the technological parts of a job, they produce data more useful for developing training programs and giving feedback to employees in the form of performance appraisal information. In addition, the volatility that exists in the typical workplace of today can make specific task statements less valuable in isolation. For these reasons, employers are significantly more likely to use worker-oriented approaches to job analysis today than they were in the past.
Example: two
Outfielders - must cover large distances - speed, instincts, and quickness in reacting to the ball are key. They must be able to catch fly balls above their head and on the run. They must be able to throw the ball accurately over a long distance to be effective; they must also learn to judge whether to attempt a difficult catch and risk letting the ball get past them, or to instead allow the ball to fall in order to guarantee a swift play and prevent the advance of runners. Left fielders must also familiarize themselves with the varying configurations of different ballparks' foul territory, and prevent balls hit down the foul lines from getting past them into the left field corner. Amateur players may find it difficult to concentrate on the game, since they are so far from the action. Emphasizing the correct position will give outfield players something to concentrate on at each pitch. Hits to left field tend to curve toward the left field foul line, and left fielders must learn to adjust to that.
Of all outfielders, the left fielder often will have the weakest arm, as they generally do not need to throw the ball as far to prevent the advance of any base runners. The left fielder still requires good fielding and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder because right-handed hitters tend to "pull" the ball into left field. The left fielder also backs up third base on pick-off attempts from the catcher or pitcher and bunts, when possible. In addition, if a runner is stealing third base the left fielder must back up the throw from the catcher. Left fielders must also back up third base when a ball is thrown from right field and backup center field when a pop fly is hit into the pocket.
Knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs)
Regardless of which approach to job analysis is taken, the next step in the process is to identify the attributes—the KSAOs that an incumbent needs for either performing (1) the tasks at hand or (2) executing the human behaviors described in the job analysis.
• Knowledge: "A collection of discrete but related facts and information about a particular domain...acquired through formal education or training, or accumulated through specific experiences."
• Skill: "A practiced act".
• Ability: "The stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior"
• Other characteristics: "Personality variables, interests, training, and experiences"
Job/Work Analysis
Job analysis (also known as work analysis) is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in terms of activities involved and attributes or job requirements needed to perform the activities. Job analysis provides information to organizations that helps to determine which employees are best fit for specific jobs.
Through job analysis, the analyst needs to understand:
• What the important tasks of the job are,
• How they are carried out, and
• The necessary human qualities needed to complete the job successfully.
The process of job analysis involves the analyst describing:
• The duties of the individual, then
• The nature and conditions of work, and finally
• Some basic qualifications.
• The mental requirements of the job.
The measure of a sound job analysis is a valid task list. This list contains:
1. The functional or duty areas of a position,
2. The related tasks
3. The basic training recommendations.
Subject matter experts (ownership) and supervisors for the position under analysis need to validate this final list in order to validate the job analysis. Job analysis is crucial for first, helping individuals develop their careers, and for helping organizations develop their employees in order to maximize talent. The outcomes of job analysis are key influences in:
• Designing learning for current and future positions,
• Developing performance interventions measures
• Improving processes as needs arise.
The application of job analysis techniques makes the implicit assumption that information about a job as it presently exists is usable to develop programs to recruit, select, train, and appraise people for the job, as it will exist in the future. Frederick Winslow Taylor and Lillian Moller Gilbreth began work analysis in the early 20th century. Since then, experts have presented many different systems to accomplish job analysis that have become increasingly complex over the decades. However, evidence shows that the root purpose of job analysis, understanding the behavioral requirements of work, has not changed in over 85 years.
Competency Compartments
Core Competencies
The Core competencies includes very general/generic competencies that all employees must possess to enable the organization to achieve its mandate and vision (e.g., Teamwork). These competencies describe in behavioral terms the key values of the organization and represent those competencies that are core to the organization’s principal mandate.
Job Family Competencies
Job Family competencies are those competencies that are common to a group of jobs. They often include 'General Job' competencies that tend to be required in a number of Job Families (e.g., Partnering), as well as 'Job Specific' competencies that apply to certain job families more than others. These tend to be related more to knowledge or skill required for certain types of jobs (such as accounting for jobs involving financial administration, or a background in food preparation or service techniques for back or front of the house).
Technical / Professional Competencies
The technical/professional competencies tend to be specific to roles or jobs within the Job Family, and include the specific skills and knowledge (know-how) to perform effectively (e.g. ability to use particular software; knowledge in particular professional areas such as finance, biochemistry; etc.). These competencies could be generic to a Job Family as a whole, or be specific to roles, levels or jobs within the family.
Leadership Competencies
These are the key competencies for roles in an organization that involve managing, supervising or influencing the work of others in some way. Some organizations view "leadership" to be a part of every job of the organization in that employees should contribute and offer new or better ways of working regardless of their level or role in the organization. Leadership is required in teams, project management, as well as at the managerial, executive and board levels. Consistent with the requirement for ease of use, organizations typically define a limit on the number of key / important competencies that are included in the profile for any job / role within the organization. As a rule of thumb, best practice organizations establish a limit on the total number of competencies included in any one profile in the range of 12 to 15.
Optimize labor efficiencies to cut costs
Between higher wages and new labor regulations, restaurants are facing a labor crisis — and their existing, outdated processes are doing anything but helping the problem. Outdated and inconsistent scheduling practices are running rampant in the majority of restaurants — and it is taking a toll on their bottom line.
According to Joshua Ostrega, 2015, co-founder and COO of Work Jam, more than 57 percent of restaurants rely on manual processes when scheduling hourly employees — leading to labor inefficiencies, schedule inconsistency and even worse, employee turnover. More than a third of restaurants report a quarterly turnover rate of at least 26 percent, and 33 percent claim that this rate has increased over the past two years. With the cost of replacing one minimum wage worker amounting up to \$4,000, restaurants cannot afford to have their employees regularly jumping ship.
As restaurants face increasing challenges presented by higher wage requirements and new scheduling regulations, offsetting costs and improving labor practices is more important now than ever before.
Ways restaurants can optimize labor efficiency
Prioritize Shift Management
Creating schedules that work for both employers and employees is a complex issue. Sixty-eight percent of employers said the most difficult part about scheduling is setting shifts that align staff availability and business needs. With scheduling being such a cumbersome process, many managers leave it to the last minute – and in result, the majority of employees (56 percent) receive their schedules a week or less in advance. Such a tight timeframe leaves workers struggling to accommodate personal obligations such as education, childcare, elder care and/or other jobs. Due to conflicts, you will not fill some of the employee’s shifts, which ends up having a direct impact a restaurant workers economic well-being. When this happens often, there is little incentive for the worker to stay.
Rather than fall victim to the current problematic situation, managers must start making shift management a priority and seek out new employee-centric processes that give employees more say in their schedules. By accommodating employees’ preferred shifts and availability, restaurant managers will reap the benefits of having happier, more engaged employees with lowered absenteeism and turnover.
Streamline Communication
From phone calls to emails to handwritten notes, restaurant managers juggle a myriad of channels when communicating with their staff about availability and shift changes. Based off the 84 percent of employers who have processes in place for employees to share availability before constructing schedules, 43 percent of workers submit written requests, 31 percent have a conversation with their shift manager, and 11 percent submit availability via email. When managing these varying forms of communication, matching employee shift requests and availability becomes less of a priority and simply getting a set schedule becomes the most important thing to do.
By opting for an integrated communication channel that all employees can access autonomously, employers can cultivate consistency and alleviate the superfluous stress accrued from communicating across multiple channels. In fact, 65 percent of workers say they would try harder to find shift replacements if they had an easier way to communicate with coworkers, while 53 percent would be more likely to pick up open shifts. When restaurants are willing to implement efficient systems that allow employees to communicate across the company, they enjoy simpler, faster management as a result.
Eliminate Manual Processes
According to the Work Jam study, 67 percent of employers still use paper schedules and spreadsheets to create hourly workers’ schedules, compared to the 31 percent that use online tools or shift management software. On top of this, 68 percent of employers still share staff schedules via physical charts posted in breakrooms or other communal areas.
With the majority of restaurant managers still using manual processes for scheduling, it is nearly impossible to meet every employee’s scheduling needs. Regretfully, employees end up suffering. The study found only 29 percent of workers rarely receive consistent schedules and – despite nationwide pushes to stop ‘clopenings’ (back-to-back closing and openings shifts) – 48 percent of employers report their employees are frequently or sometimes scheduled to work these shifts.
These unstable and inconsistent practices often lead to understaffing, with 46 percent of employers reporting frequently or sometimes understaffing. This not only disrupts morale, but also hinders operations. In fact, the majority of employers claim that being understaffed compromises the customer experience — which can easily discourage restaurant-goers from dining there again. To combat the consequences of manual processes, restaurant managers must seek out more-efficient processes. Though technology can optimize efficiencies, these solutions must pair with transparent communication between managers and workers in order to be a success.
Recruiting the Right People
When you become sure about what people you are looking for, start finding candidates. Earlier is better than later. Thoughtful written job ads and the channels you choose to circulate them through will also service as ‘filters’ to include or exclude people.
Timing
Start your search for managers before you look for hourly employees. Key positions such as chefs and general managers should be brought on two to four months before opening day, meaning you will need to start posting job ads, planting seed with your peers, and working your network four to six months in advance.
The point of paying your two most expensive people before your doors open comes back to ‘culture’. You need the opportunity to spend time together getting on the same page with the kind of restaurant you are are going to open and making sure the relationship is good and of importance – trustworthy. Hiring individuals at the top of your leadership structure is much more than just checking a box. Chefs and managers need to align with your brand, share your values, and believe in your vision. It is particularly important to find a chef early on so they have enough time to develop a menu you are both happy with, test that menu, and work with your design team on laying out the kitchen.
Hourly employees can come later in the game, but leave your new employees with time to give respectful notice to their current employer and be on board in time for pre-opening staff training. Bringing on a couple of servers or cooks to fill open positions is very from onboarding a new team from scratch. Starting early and being honest with candidates about the fact that your timeline may shift a bit is better than starting late and having to hire bodies rather than Individuals who are an ideal fit for your restaurant.
Job Advertisement
The ads that you post should include keywords describing your company culture as well as your restaurant’s concept, style of service, opening date projection, and any relevant specifics regarding job description and schedule requirements. Incorporate the legwork you have done to define your brand and the types of person you are looking for to build ads that look and sound unique to your project.
Ads should be professional and with sharing through multiple channels, such as online job boards, and social media. Getting the word out among your network is also one of the most important ways of recruiting great employees. Let your friends in the industry know you are on the hunt for an awesome opening team and extend your outreach beyond your immediate market. People in the restaurant industry are always on the move, and you want your entire rolodex to be aware that you are looking to meet great candidates. Once you start hiring your first team members, encourage them to invite their peers to apply – these introductions are great ways to find good people efficiently.
Putting a Team Together
Before you can identify the best candidates for your team, you first need to figure out what you are looking for. Organizational structure and the specific qualities that make a person a good “fit” will be different for every restaurant, but the best practices around the process are largely universal. Identify the soft skills that reflect your concept and brand, determine what skill sets you need to perform critical operational responsibilities, and define what your own role will entail. Then, develop a hiring strategy to find people that fit your criteria. Your employees are your biggest asset, and in our industry, they are often the scarcest resource. Developing and executing a hiring strategy will pay off in the long run by reducing turnover, ensuring great guest experiences, and promoting brand consistency.
Prioritize Soft Skills
What qualities must every member of your team possess to create the guest experience you have imagined? When you hire a team, you are not looking for bodies. You are looking for people that you can work with, that are like-minded, and that want to grow and develop. When you surround yourself with people that have the same mission as you, there is no limit to what you can do.
Every restaurant will have different priorities when it comes to soft skills. Keep in mind that some of the qualities you look for while selecting your opening team may be different from those you look for months or years down the road. Try to understand the type of environment that best suits the employee. If someone is open minded, has shown his or her ability to be a chameleon, and can take whatever curve balls are thrown at them, we know they’re going to thrive during an opening.” Candidates who need structure and consistency to do their best work are better hires when the restaurant becomes established.
Identify Roles & Responsibilities
Identify the roles and responsibilities you need your team to take on at a management level and an hourly level. If you are already familiar with the size, scope, and service style of the restaurant you are opening, you likely have a good idea of what your organizational chart will look like. If not, talk to peers who have concepts and hours of operation similar to yours about their organizational structures, do some market research, and make modifications based on the specifics of your restaurant to develop a working model.
One tool that can be helpful is a comprehensive list of the major responsibilities you expect each person to own. Then, factor in the time each person will need to spend on the floor or in the kitchen during service. Your goal is to strike a balance here: make sure your team has the bandwidth to meet your performance expectations without burning them out.
Specific tasks will vary greatly from restaurant to restaurant. This is a sample list of management responsibilities here to help spark your thought process:
• Scheduling
• Hiring
• New employee training
• Disciplinary action and termination
• POS maintenance
• Payroll
• Ordering (food, beverage, dry goods, dining room supplies)
• Private dining sales
• Private event execution
• Bar program
• Inventory
• Cash handling
Establishing responsibilities as well as the size, service style, and concept will help you understand what hourly positions you need to hire. For a fine-dining restaurant, you will likely have a more layered front-of-house structure, whereas a more casual, counter-service concept may require only a few people who all have similar job descriptions.
When thinking about team structure, map out a typical guest experience and take note of the individual touch points necessary to provide great service. For example, let us say your typical guests are a group of four joining you for drinks and dinner. They will enter the restaurant to check in for their reservation, head to the bar for a cocktail, and then sit down for a multi-course dinner.
In this scenario, it is clear you will need a host and floor manager to ensure guests are greeted and directed to the right place, as well as a fully staffed bar team. Additionally, multi-course dinner service means many touch points with each table, which require support staff for your servers (think runners, bussers, and sommeliers) and your culinary team (expediters, polishers, and dishwashers).
By contrast, a counter-service concept might find many of these positions unnecessary. In a typical experience, these diners might simply enter and be directed by signage to a cashier to place their order. Once they have paid, they may receive a number to pick up their food from a window when it is ready and have no further interaction with the restaurant staff. In this scenario, unlike the previous, there is no need for much service or support staff, only cashiers, cooks, dishwashers, and a floor manager to facilitate.
There is no “one size fits all” guide to how to staff your concept, as each one varies. As a best practice, simulate service and ensure that each touch point with a guest is covered by a particular staff member equipped to deliver a great experience.
Define ‘Your’ Position
Be clear and honest about your strengths, availability, and the role you plan to fill at your restaurant. This is one of the most important steps in figuring out who needs to surround you. Irrespective of who you are and how much experience you have, there are things that you are good at and there are things that you are not. You need to be able to plug those gaps straight away.”
If you’re a chef but you don’t know much about the front of the house or running a business, your first priority will be to find a General Manager who is dedicated to your vision, is experienced in running a front-of-house team, and has strong business sensibilities. Do not assume you will be able to perform major functions that you have no experience in accomplishing. Conversely, if your strengths are business and operations, but your knife skills are not particularly notable, you will want to find a chef very early in the process.
The Hiring Process
Once you are clear on what you are looking for, start finding candidates. Earlier is better than later. Thoughtfully written job ads and the channels you choose to circulate them through will also serve as filters.
Timing
Start your search for managers before you look for hourly employees. Key positions such as chefs and General Managers should be brought on two to four months before opening day, meaning you’ll need to start posting job ads, planting the seed with your peers, and working your network four to six months in advance. It all comes back to culture. You need that opportunity to spend time together getting on the same page with the kind of restaurant you’re going to open and making sure the relationship is good and that it’s trustworthy.”
Hiring individuals at the top of your leadership structure is much more than just checking a box. Chefs and General Managers need align with your brand, share your values, and believe in your vision. It is particularly important to find a chef early on so they have enough time to develop a menu you are both happy with, test that menu, and work with your design team on laying out the kitchen.
Hourly employees can come on-board later in the game, but leave your new employees with time to give respectful notice to their current employer and be on board in time for pre- opening staff training. Bringing on a couple of servers or cooks to fill open positions is very different from onboarding a new team from scratch. Starting early and being honest with candidates about the fact that your timeline may shift a bit is better than starting late and having to hire bodies rather than individuals who are an ideal fit for your restaurant.
Job Ads
The ads that you post should include keywords describing your company culture as well as your restaurant’s concept, style of service, projected opening date, and any relevant specifics regarding job description and schedule requirements. Incorporate the legwork you have done to define your brand and the type of person you are looking for to build ads that look and sound unique to your project.
Ads should be professional presentations and shared through multiple channels, such as online job boards and social media. Getting the word out among your network is also one of the most important ways of recruiting great employees. Let your friends in the industry know you are on the hunt for an awesome opening team and extend your outreach beyond your immediate market. People in the restaurant industry are always on the move, and you want your entire rolodex to be aware that you are looking to meet great candidates. Once you start hiring your first team members, encourage them to invite their peers to apply -- these introductions are great ways to find good people efficiently.
Interviewing
Effective interviewing is the key to finding top performers for your restaurant -- do not rely on first impressions or gut reactions. Here are a few tips to keep in mind.
Develop a Core Set of Interview Questions
Assemble a thoughtful list of questions designed to determine whether a candidate shares your values and uncover details of their professional experiences. Often, the best way to do this is to work backwards. Figure out the five most important qualities you want a candidate to possess, then design questions that will allow them to demonstrate each one. For example, look for front-of-house employees who are passionate about food and drink. This may seem like an obvious quality to require, but for many restaurants, it actually is not a top priority for front-of-house employees.
Asking candidates questions about the role that food plays in their lives or having them describe favorite dishes and pairings is a great way to gauge interest. The content of their answer is much less important indicator than the emotion with which they deliver it.
If teamwork is a value that ranks high on your list, think of everyday situations that demonstrate teamwork and then come up with questions that provide candidates the opportunity to talk about those things. A good question to ask interviewees is what makes a shift feel fun and rewarding versus a shift that feels disappointing or frustrating. Usually, candidates who have a natural tendency towards teamwork will demonstrate that by telling you about busy nights in which everyone has to support each other to get through. Always ask candidates to give you specific examples so that you are more likely to get a real answer.
Ask candidates situational questions based on past-experiences as opposed to asking how they would deal with a hypothetical problem. People are way less inclined to try and work out what you want them to say when you’re asking about the past and they are more likely to give you an answer that’s representative of how you can expect them to behave.
Coming up with unique questions will help to determine ‘fit’ and increasing the likelihood that you are getting genuine answers from the people you’re interviewing. An efficient interviewing process also demonstrates your level of professionalism to applicants and gives you more objective-criteria for evaluating them. If someone is a total ‘rock star’ when it comes to knowledge but comes across as selfish and not a team player, it is best that you pass and look for someone who more closely aligns with your mission and values.
Make Interviewing a Two-Way Street
Never forget that candidates are also evaluating you. Show up on time, read their resume beforehand, and dress appropriately -- it will go a long way in creating a strong impression of what they can expect if they come on-board. Always put your best foot forward so that when you come across great candidates, you are able to hire them. Giving every candidate the opportunity to interview his team first is one of the most important steps in their hiring process.
You want people to analyze your culture, your philosophy, the environment, the people that they’ll be working next to, their superiors, so that you can ask them - is this an environment that you want to be in? Hiring someone for any position is a commitment and it is an understanding on both sides of what collective goals are.
Get More Than One Opinion
Passing over a great candidate can be as big of a loss as hiring a bad one, so consider more than one person’s opinion. Managers should synchronize up between interviews to highlight any areas of concern for others to investigate further. That way you know hiring managers all buy- in. Everyone who conducts interviews should take notes -- especially for an opening team, because you will be meeting with applicants constantly. It is easy to forget how you felt about someone or confuse him or her with a different person when you are in the throes of pre-opening onboarding.
Assembling Your Team
When it comes to assembling a team, diversity is your friend; this applies to knowledge, skill set, past experience, and personality. Pay attention to balance as you bring people on board, as a diverse and dynamic staff helps everyone to learn from one another. Be wary of hiring too many people from the same restaurant or company.
Create Balance
Having a team of great people will not do you any good if they are all great in the exact same way. You want to build a band, not a bunch of people that play the clarinet. Everybody has to be able to play in the sandbox together and that is key because there is a lot of intensity in an opening. Employees are not just adapting to their surroundings, they are adapting to each other, and you need to have people that can link arms going into it with a real sense of camaraderie.
Check References
Ask every candidate you under serious consideration to provide you with three professional references. Let the applicant know up front that you will need to hear back from at least two of them in order to move forward with the hiring process. No matter how great someone seems or how strongly you connected with him or her, do not skip this step. Hiring someone is a commitment to a relationship. Know what you are looking for and be clear with that person about your goals. Give them an opportunity to figure out if you have what they need to grow as an individual.
Each employee is a relationship, and relationships are hard. They can be tricky and they can be messy and they can be time consuming and they can be rewarding and they can be fulfilling and they can be rejuvenating and restorative, but they always take a lot of work. The process of building your team is all about ensuring that you are selecting people whom you are excited to work with.
Key Takeaways
1. Invest time in identifying what exactly you are looking for in prospective employees before you begin the hiring process. Know what values, character traits, and skills your team will need to have in order to make your vision a reality.
2. Prioritize soft skills when hiring. Teaching someone how to clear a table is easy, but teaching them to have a different attitude is usually impossible.
3. Define your role. Be honest about your areas of expertise and create realistic expectations around what you will be contributing to the restaurant on a day-to-day basis, then hire your leadership team based on the gaps you cannot reasonably fill.
4. Create a hiring strategy. Make sure that the recruiting, interviewing, and onboarding strategy is intentional, universally understood, and thorough.
5. Understand that employment is a relationship. It has to be a good fit for everyone involved, and both sides need to be working towards the same goal to be successful. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Ownership_and_Employees/8.02%3A_New_Page.txt |
If the cost of labor, product, and lost revenue associated with pre-opening training makes you uncomfortable, think about how much money you will spend because of high turnover, botched guest experiences, and bad press -- all of which are the direct result of an underprepared staff.
Start Early
Begin planning staff training when you are building the pro-forma for your business plan. The costs of labor, food, beverage, printed materials, and other expenses associated with classroom training and soft opening events should be a part of your pre-opening budget so you do not find yourself three weeks away from opening with dwindling funds.
Designing an effective pre-opening training program is extremely time consuming, especially if you have never done it before, so make sure you start early and delegate projects appropriately. Gathering all of your employees before you even start generating revenue is a big financial investment, and you cannot afford to squander that by procrastinating on the planning front. Make this a priority ‘months’ in advance of bringing on staff, not ‘weeks’ (and certainly not days).
Classroom Training
Pre-opening training generally divides into two major sections: theory and practice. Classroom training generally takes five to eight days and teaches employees what they need to know about the restaurant, how to perform their specific job, in-depth product knowledge, details of the physical space, and team building.
Start by making a training schedule, which will be your road map through the process. It will help with your training plan organization, setting expectations for your management team, and determining what written materials you need to assemble for your staff. Most restaurant should include ten important topics:
Start with Why
On the very first day of training, discuss your restaurant’s “why” and lay the framework for the culture you hope to grow. Use anecdotes and include the staff in the conversation. Questions like, “What is good service?” and “What are we trying to achieve with this restaurant?” are often part of a focused discussion very early on. Use the same in order in each training session to ensure that ‘everyone’ is on the same page and pushing in the same direction right off the bat.
Stress the importance of starting with “why” and incorporating the company’s values and philosophy into training at every possible moment. That way, each employee is better prepared to make good decisions in unrehearsed situations. If an employee faces a new challenge, they can tie it back to a similar scenario or train of thought and feel comfortable handling it on their own because they understand our overall vision. The only way to build culture is to constantly talk about it and constantly work at it. If you don’t talk about it, it will never exist.”
Introduce Leaders
It seems obvious, but often forgotten: Introduce each member of your leadership team and allow them to speak briefly about themselves – and why they are proud to be a part of your restaurant. Prioritizing engagement, especially early in the game, is critical. Presence is everything. Depending on the size of your staff, giving the rest of your employees the opportunity to do the same sends a positive message and reinforces how much you value what each team member brings to the table.
Clean & Set Up
It is unlikely that your space will look like an operational restaurant on the first day of staff training. That is ok, and depending on how far off you are it can actually be a good thing. Stacks of unwashed plates, glassware, and silverware, storage areas unorganized, , the service stations that are barren with the exception of that box of cereal that you’ve been living off of for a week are all opportunities for your new team to dive in and make your restaurant their functional, beautiful home. Not only does allowing your staff to take on cleaning and organization remove some heavy lifting from your plate, it also creates a strong sense of buy-in and ensures that the location of equipment and service items makes sense to the people who will be using them the most.
Employee Handbook Review
Employees who have a clear understanding of what they should expect to give and to receive from their employer are more comfortable and confident, allowing them to do a better job. Even though it may not be the most stimulating material, an employee handbook is necessary - and simply handing it out and asking staff to read it and sign it isn’t enough to be sure that they are absorbing its contents. This portion of training is not exciting. It is fair to say that almost nobody likes it, but it is important and so I try to do it in the middle of training. My goal is to get them excited, get them eating some food, get them through the dull compliance stuff and then get them excited again before they open a restaurant.”
Product Knowledge
What you cover and how much time you devote to each subject will depend on your restaurant’s concept. All of these topics provide a good opportunity to include the vendors, farmers, and distributors you have been working with; they will appreciate the chance to share their passion for their products, and staff will benefit from learning from different people. It is a good idea to bring in industry experts to train because staff education is at the core of a good operation.
These are the major categories to consider:
• Menu (ingredients, cooking techniques, presentation, allergens, substitutions)
• Cheese
• Wine
• House cocktails
• Classic cocktails
• Spirits
• Beer
• Coffee and tea
Tasting
Academic knowledge is important, but tasting is a key component of training for the entire team. Cooks need to understand how every component of every dish should taste, and your front-of-house team needs to feel excited about the menu and be able to guide guests through their dining experience confidently. Bring your kitchen staff in a week before your front of house because we want to get everyone tasting the food early, have plenty of time to explain it, and get them excited about it. There is no point in doing that if the food coming out of the kitchen is no good.
Service Standards
Pre-opening training is your best opportunity to define what is right and wrong when it comes to technical service. How do you want tables cleared? What is the proper way to transfer a bar check? It may feel tedious, but on your first busy night, you will be grateful that you are not wasting time explaining the same thing to 20 different people and being frustrated that they do not already know the “right” way of doing things. Your managers and employees will also be more comfortable if they have a clear understanding of your expectations.
POS Training
Sure, most of us have used every POS system under the sun, but none of these experiences has been in your restaurant. You do not want servers searching for a tomato salad button for five minutes in the middle of the first night of service, only to find that it was never initially included in the menu selections. Give your team time to familiarize themselves with the locations of functions and menu items in your POS. Make sure every menu item is in the computer in the right place at the correct price and printing where it’s supposed to.
Staff-on-Staff Service
Before you dive into preview events, do some dress rehearsals just with your staff to work out some of the bigger kinks. Would you rather find out your expediting printer does not work before you have guests of any variety in your house? Organizing some “staff-on-staff” exercises in which one group serves while the other dines is a great way to make some early improvements and discoveries. What is the best place for trays to go in the service stations? How should the service bartender organize their tickets? These exercises should include the whole team — a well-practiced service team is useless without a well-practiced kitchen team.
Additional Considerations
Prioritize training around elements of your restaurant that are uniquely yours or that may be new to your team. To prepare his team for the opening, one restauranteur hired a tutor. Given the restaurant’s focuses on French concepts, he wanted to be sure that his team was completely confident with French cooking techniques and pronunciation. Another restauranteur installed a number of large, eye- catching pieces of artwork throughout the restaurant dining room that each had an engaging story. She shared details of each piece in the restaurant’s service manual and brought one of the artists on site during training to speak to the staff directly about his installation. She also trained her team to explain the restaurant’s artwork confidently to guests who might want to know more.
Prepare Written Materials
Having a vision of what service should ‘look’ and ‘feel’ like is one thing, but being able to put that vision on paper and teach it to others is something else entirely. Creating written standards for your team implements one solid point of reference that can serve as a ‘North Star’ for all. By taking the time to write documents like a comprehensive service manual, you will give yourself an opportunity to edit your thoughts before teaching them to others and make sure they are cohesive. This exercise will also make new hire training dramatically more consistent and efficient before and after you open.
Training materials that you will want to consider putting in writing include:
Employee handbook
Regardless of your concept, you need one. An attorney with experience in labor law and restaurant operations should build this with you and review it before you give it to employees.
Service manual
This document should outline the restaurant’s concept and the story behind it, bios of key players such as pertinent information about important partners like your designer or major vendors, and a detailed outline of steps of service. It is also helpful to include a quick summary of how to deal with guest complaints and a dedicated section for hosts and front door policies.
Menu descriptions
These should include menu item ingredients, allergens (and feasible modifications), preparation techniques, and a photo.
Beverage descriptions
These will vary depending on your concept and teaching style. Consider building templates that include the name of a cocktail or wine by the glass and then leaving specific fields (like ingredients or tasting notes) blank for your team to fill in during training classes.
Floorplan
Your front-of-house team will need to commit table and seat numbers to memory immediately. Give them a tool to start practicing on day one.
Build in Performance Measurement
Pre-opening training is a big investment, so it is critical that you are holding your team accountable for learning and retaining everything you are teaching them throughout the process. Daily written quizzes will ensure that employees are committing important information to memory and send a clear message about the level of dedication you expect. Incorporate verbal testing into daily training exercises and get everyone involved in hands-on training. It is incredibly important to weed people out. You have a responsibility to create the best team possible, so when you know that someone does not fit with your culture, be quick to fire.
Preview Events
Pre-opening events serve three essential functions: they are dress rehearsals for your entire team, they provide an exclusive first look of your restaurant to key players in your community, and they give you an opportunity to receive critical feedback and make changes before you open your doors to paying customers.
Your first few weeks of service are the most important ones you’ll ever have, and losing the trust of your “early adopters,” receiving negative reviews on social media, lacking support from the press, and discouraging your staff early in the game are all surefire ways of damaging your short- and long-term success. Giving your team as many practical opportunities to interact, learn the voice of the restaurant, retain menu items and steps of service prevents your first paying guests from being your guinea pigs. You want to be your own ‘guinea pig’.
Friends & Family Meals
This type of pre-opening event should happen as close to opening day as possible and serve as a comprehensive dry run. Invite friends and family of the restaurant to dine in exchange for critical feedback and the right to make mistakes sans judgement. Typically, all or most of the food served at these meals is complimentary. This is the most important opportunity your staff will have to practice cooking your menu, mixing your cocktails, talking about your wine list, and going through steps of service before opening day, so structure it exactly the way you would a normal service.
Typically, invitations to these meals are pretty coveted, and you will have no shortage of volunteers. Above all, invite people you trust to be honest and whose opinions you respect. Another thing to keep in mind: If you have a few big hiccups on your first night, will the people you have invited understand and forgive or send a snide tweet to their 5,000 followers? Make sure it is the former.
Tips for getting the most out of it
Host at least two days of friends and family meals, but three or four days is ideal. You want the opportunity to receive critical feedback, make mistakes, and correct them before you open.
Control your cover counts. It is surprising how many friends and family members you have all of the sudden when you give away free meals at a hot new restaurant. Decide how many people you want to serve each night based on your budget and your operational capabilities, then stick to those numbers.
Involve your entire staff. This may mean giving servers smaller sections or having more cooks in the kitchen than you normally would, but the primary purpose is for everyone on your team to get some hands-on, real-time experience so they’re comfortable and confident going into day one.
Make feedback cards for your guests. Honest, critical feedback is a significant portion of your ROI for this type of event so getting your guests’ thoughts on paper and reviewing comments with your team every night is an absolute must.
Press Preview
Generate buzz by hosting a small event to give the press a first look at the restaurant when it is still a few weeks away from opening day. You can do ‘hard hat’ nights to allow the press to see the venue before it is fully completed. This gets them excited and gives them the chance to leak the story before anyone else knows details.” Going ‘above and beyond’ to show that they are important to you will help keep your restaurant’s name top of mind as others continue to open. Invite all of the major food writers in your community— magazines, newspapers, websites, and widely followed bloggers. For press events, focus on quality, not quantity. If you have too many people in your space, you will lose the feeling of exclusivity and lessen the likelihood of making a personal connection with everyone in attendance.
Tips for getting the most out of it
Make the invite personal. Depending on how many people you have on your list, sending a well-branded, thoughtful paper invite or making individual phone calls are the most appropriate ways of getting your press preview on their busy calendars.
Don’t mind the dust. An unfinished interior makes the experience feel a bit more exclusive. In addition, there will still be an element of surprise the next time they come in.
Provide some tastes of your menu and cocktails during the event. Taking a tour of the space is an essential part of the experience, but getting your future supporters and critics excited about the product you will be serving is just as important. Keep it simple — three perfect bites are better than 10 imperfect ones.
Work the room. Having a group of media heavy hitters in the same place at the same time is a tremendous opportunity. Embrace it! Your entire management team should be on the floor getting to know each person - and enter his or her information into your reservation system. That way you will know to take extra-special care of them when they come in to eat.
Send them home with something unique. A sweet treat with a branded recipe card or a bottled cocktail are examples of items that will make a lasting impression. Skip things like printed menus that are liable to continue to change as opening day approaches.
Other Pre-Opening Events to Consider
Opening Party. The best opening parties have a greater purpose than solely celebrating your restaurant’s opening. Host a fundraiser for your favorite local charity, or turn your opening event into an appreciation party for the many people who helped build your restaurant.
Offer a Discount. After hosting friends and family meals, Will plans a period where regular guests (i.e. the public) dine at the restaurant with a 50% discount in order to give his team one last grace period to work out kinks before normal operations begin.
Guest Previews. Offer your future guests an exclusive preview of the restaurant. Sell tickets to VIPs, giving them a first peek at the restaurant, the opportunity to have a drink with you and members of his team, and a chance to book a table before reservations opened to the public. The outcome? Guests love it and bookings will begin before you even open the phone lines.
Key Takeaways
1. Start planning staff training and pre-opening events early. These big investments are critical to your restaurant’s success, so build the expense into your capital requirements budget and plan them early to get the most out of them.
2. Create a comprehensive training schedule that starts with company culture. Other topics to include are product knowledge, steps of service, POS training, and tasting.
3. Prepare written materials like an employee handbook, a service manual, food and beverage descriptions, and a floorplan to provide your team with the tools they need to be successful.
4. Plan pre-opening events like friends and family dinners to give your entire team the opportunity to get comfortable, work through kinks, and practice what they have learned so that they go into opening day with confidence.
5. Host a pre-opening event exclusively for key members of the press to help build buzz before you open to the public. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Ownership_and_Employees/8.03%3A_How_to_Train_Your_Team.txt |
Ownership and Employee Exercise \(1\)
1. Determine the type of ownership best for you.
2. Conduct a ‘job’ analysis.
3. Develop ‘job’ descriptions.
4. Develop your training requirements – and determine the ‘what and how’ training will occur.
5. Consider your pre-opening. This is also a part of training and bringing a staff together.
Discussion Question \(2\)
1. List the advantages of a sole proprietorship.
2. How do partnerships share profits?
3. Who controls the business in a partnership?
4. What is a limited partnership?
5. What are the advantages of a corporation?
6. How do “C” and “S” corporations differ?
7. What is a limited liability corporation? What advantages does it provide members? What are the liability?
8. What is a job description?
9. Why is a job analysis important?
10. What is the importance of establishing competency layer?
11. How can restaurants optimize labor efficiency?
8.05: Chapter Glossary and Notes
Glossary
Sole Proprietorship. One person owns and operates for their benefit. The owner may operate the business alone or with other people. All assets of the business belong to a sole proprietor. Subsequently, a sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, whether from operating costs or judgments against the business.
General partnership. A general partnership is a partnership in which partners share equally in both responsibility and liability. The owners are all personally liable for any legal actions and debts the company may face.
Limited Partnership. A limited partnership is a form of partnership similar to a general partnership, except that in addition to one or more general partners (GPs), there are one, or more, limited partners (LPs). It is a partnership where only one partner is required to be a ‘general partner’. As in a general partnership, the GPs have actual authority, as agents of the firm, to bind all the other partners in contracts with third parties that are in the ordinary course of the partnership's business. Like shareholders in a corporation, limited partners have limited liability.
Job Description. Lists the responsibilities and functions of the job.
Job analysis. (Also known as a work analysis.) is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in terms of activities involved and attributes or job requirements needed to perform the activities. Job analysis provides information to organizations that helps to determine which employees are best fit for specific jobs.
Core Competencies. These competencies describe in behavioral terms the key values of the organization and represent those competencies that are core to the organization’s principal mandate.
Job Family Competencies. These tend to be related more to knowledge or skill required for certain types of jobs (such as accounting for jobs involving financial administration, or a background in food preparation or service techniques for back or front of the house).
Technical / Professional Competencies. The technical/professional competencies tend to be specific to roles or jobs within the Job Family, and include the specific skills and knowledge (know how) to perform effectively.
Leadership Competencies. These are the key competencies for roles in an organization that involve managing, supervising or influencing the work of others in some way. Some organizations view "leadership" to be a part of every job of the organization in that employees should contribute and offer new or better ways of working regardless of their level or role in the organization.
Job Advertisement. The ads that you post should include keywords describing your company culture as well as your restaurant’s concept, style of service, opening date projection, and any relevant specifics regarding job description and schedule requirements. Incorporate the legwork you have done to define your brand and the types of person you are looking for to build ads that look and sound unique to your project.
Notes
Pettet, B. G. (2005). Company Law. Pearson Education. p. 151.
Courtney, Thomas B. (2002). The Law of Private Companies (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Professional. 4.001. As a corporation, or body corporate, a private company is regarded in law as having a separate legal personality from its shareholders (owners) and directors (managers).
CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved December 07, 2012.
Blumberg, Philip I. 1993. The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, discusses the controversial nature of additional rights being granted to corporations.
Business Corporations Act (B.C.) [SBC 2002] CHAPTER 57, Part 10.
Harold Joseph Berman, Law and Revolution (vol. 1): The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983, pp. 215–16.
Smiddy, Linda O.; Cunningham, Lawrence A. (2010). Corporations and Other Business Organizations: Cases, Materials, Problems (Seventh ed.). LexisNexis, pp. 228–231, 241.
Arth, Alison. 2017. How to open a restaurant. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Ownership_and_Employees/8.04%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments.txt |
Chapter 9 Learning Objectives
• Understanding the psychology of Menu Engineering
• Gain a working knowledge of menu engineering worksheet construction.
• Gain a working knowledge of menu engineering evaluation.
• Understand the importance of contribution margin.
• Understand ‘menu engineering’ usage for profitability.
• Learn to re-think menu costing based on consumer acceptance.
• Gain the ability to apply different classes of ratios to evaluate different elements of the operation.
“As much as you need to know your operations, if you do not understand the finance side and how to do the business, you're never going to be successful. So you might be the best operator or visionary, but if you do not understand the finance side... I'm successful because I know the finance side, but I also know operations; it's not an accident. “
Tilman J. Fertitta
“You can make a lot of mistakes and still recover if you run an efficient operation. You can be brilliant and still go out of business if you're too inefficient.”
Sam Walton
The most important portion of your business model is your ‘pro-forma’ or projected profit or loss statement (P & L statement) and a balance sheet. The income statement indicates what you expect sales and expenses to be and subsequently your profitability. The income statement indicates weekly, monthly and yearly profitability from operation. However, it does not indicate overall profitability. If you indicate to the lender that you are making \$11,000 per week, in essence that tells them nothing because your debt structure could be more than that figure. This is why you will need to submit a balance sheet to display your assets, debt, and owner’s equity (financial investment into the business).
Lenders or funders will want information from you and will have many questions about the operation. Both of these elements are for answering one particular question. If your entire presentation fails to answer that question sufficiently, you will not receive the money you need to fund the operation. The concept alone will not excite the lender. What seals the deal is a clear description of the main thing they want to know: how will you pay back the loan, and what will be source of the payments?
This chapter begins with by detailing some of the information different lenders or management would want to know and management would want to ponder prior to meeting with a lender or investor. The chapter also present a typical loan package, common to banking institutions. How to prepare profit or loss statements with an example, and the components of a balance sheet follow. Finally, a section on different types of ‘ratios’ useful to evaluating your business presents helpful information in this area of analysis.
What Lenders Want to Know
Creditors
Creditors are ultimately concerned with a borrower's ability to make interest and principle payments. The types of questions they might raise include:
• What is the reason or cause for borrowing?
• What is the firm's capital structure?
• How much debt is currently outstanding?
• How well has debt been serviced in the past?
• How liquid is the firm?
• What will be the source of debt repayment?
Investors
Investors will usually attempt to arrive at an estimation of a company's future earnings stream. Typical concerns might be:
• How well has the company performed in the past?
• What are future expectations?
• What is its record with regard to growth and stability of earnings?
• How much risk is inherent in the firm's existing capital structure?
• What returns can an investor expect?
• How successfully does the firm compete in its industry?
• How well positioned is the company to hold or improve its competitive position?
Management
Management must consider financial statement analysis as it relates to a 'variety' of user groups including creditors, investors, employees, general public, regulators, financial press, and so forth. Management must always demonstrate an understanding of the company in terms of profitability and competitive advantage. Ongoing concerns of management would include:
• How well has the firm performed and why?
• What operating areas have contributed to success and which have not?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of a company's financial position?
• What changes should we consider in order to improve in the future?
Management data for analysis would include:
• Auditor's report (unqualified or qualified)
• Management's discussion and analysis
• Supplementary schedules (i.e. segmental data)
Loan Package Outline
General Narrative
• The nature of the business
• The amount and purpose of the loan
• Repayment terms
• Equity share of borrower (equity/debt ratio after loan) (your share and loan need)
• Security or collateral (listed with market value estimates and quotes on cost of equipment to be purchased with the loan proceeds)
Personal information
On individuals owning more than 20% of the business
• Education and work history
• Credit references
• Income tax statements (last three years)
• Financial statement ( no older than 60 days)
Business information
Whichever is applicable below:
1. New business
• Business Plan
• Life and Casualty insurance coverage
• Lease agreement
1. Business acquisition (buyout)
• Information on the acquisition
• Business history (including seller’s name, reasons for sale)
• Current balance sheet (not older than 60 days)
• Current profit and loss statement (past three to five years)
• Business federal income tax statements (past three to five years)
• Cash flow statements for last year
• Copy of sales agreement with breakdown of investors, fixtures, equipment, licenses, goodwill, and other costs
• Description and dates of permits already acquired
• Business Plan
• Life and Casualty Insurance
1. Existing business expansion
• Information on the existing business
• Business history
• Current balance sheet (not more than 60 days old)
• Current profit and loss statement (within 60 days)
• Cash flow statements from last year
• Federal income tax returns for past three to five years
• Lease agreement and permit data
• Business Plan
• Life and Casualty Insurance
Projections
• Profit and loss projection (monthly, for one year, and explanation of projections)
• Cash flow projection (monthly, for one year) and explanation of projections)
• Projected balance sheet (one year after loan) and explanation of projections | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Revenue_Costs_and_Profit_Analysis/9.01%3A_Lenders.txt |
Income Statement
An income statement or profit and loss account (also referred to as a profit and loss statement (P&L), statement of profit or loss, revenue statement, statement of financial performance, earnings statement, operating statement, or statement of operations) is one of the financial statements of a company and shows the company’s revenue and expenses during a particular period. It indicates how the revenues (money received from the sale of products and services before removing expenses, also known as the “top line”) are transformed into the net income (the result after all revenues and expenses have been accounted for, also known as “net profit” or the “bottom line”). It displays the revenues recognized for a specific period, and the cost and expenses charged against these revenues, including write offs (e.g., depreciation and amortization of various assets) and taxes. In sum, the oncome state is measure of revenue and expenses to arrive at a profit or loss figure. It is nothing more than:
Revenue – Expenses = Net Profit/Loss
The purpose of the income statement is to show managers and investors whether the company made or lost money during the period of the report. One important thing to remember about an income statement is that it represents a ‘period of time’. This contrasts with the balance sheet, which represents a ‘single moment in time’.
The income statement can be prepared in one of two methods.
1. The Single Step income statement takes the simpler approach, totaling revenues (income) and subtracting expenses (expenses) to find the bottom line (profit).
2. The more complex Multi-Step income statement (as the name implies) takes several steps to find the bottom line, starting with the gross profit. It then calculates operating expenses and, when deducted from the gross profit, yields income from operations. Adding to income from operations is the difference of other revenues and other expenses. When combined with income from operations, this yields income before taxes. The final step is to deduct taxes, which finally produces the net income for the period measured.
Usefulness and limitations of income statement
Income statements should help investors and creditors determine the past financial performance of the enterprise, predict future performance, and assess the capability of generating future cash flows through report of the income and expenses.
However, information on an income statement has several limitations:
• They do not report items that might be relevant but not reliably measured (e.g., brand recognition and loyalty)
• They do not report some numbers depending on accounting methods used (e.g., using FIFO or LIFO accounting to measure inventory level).
• They do not report some numbers that depend on judgments and estimates (e.g., depreciation expense depends on estimated useful life and salvage value).
Guidelines for statements of ‘comprehensive income’ and ‘income statements of business entities’ are formulated by the International Accounting Standards Board (FASB). Names and usage of different accounts in the income statement depend on the type of organization, industry practices and the requirements of different jurisdictions. If applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the income statement:
Operating section
Revenue
Cash inflows or other enhancements of assets (including accounts receivable) of an entity during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute the entity's ongoing major operations. Every time a business sells a product or performs a service, it obtains revenue referred to as gross revenue or sales revenue. An operation would generally equate revenue to be sales minus sales discounts, returns, and allowances. This is an important calculation because revenue is taxable by federal state, and local governments. An operation should pay tax on the revenue it actually receives.
Revenue = sales minus discounts, returns, and allowances
Expenses
Cash outflows or other using-up of assets or incurrence of liabilities including accounts payable during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or carrying out other activities that constitute the entity's ongoing major operations.
Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) / Cost of Sales - represents the direct costs attributable to goods produced and sold by a business (manufacturing or merchandizing). It includes:
• material costs,
• direct labor
• overhead costs
• excludes operating costs (period costs) such as selling, administrative, advertising or R&D, etc.
• Selling, General and Administrative expenses (SG&A or SGA) - consist of the combined payroll costs. SGA is a major portion of non-production related costs, in contrast to production costs such as direct labor.
• Selling expenses - represent expenses needed to sell products (e.g., salaries of sales people, commissions and travel expenses, advertising, freight, shipping, depreciation of sales store buildings and equipment, etc.).
• General and Administrative (G&A) expenses - represent expenses to manage the business (salaries of officers / executives, legal and professional fees, utilities, insurance, depreciation of office building and equipment, office rents, office supplies, etc.).
• Depreciation / Amortization - the charge with respect to fixed assets / intangible assets capitalized on the balance sheet for a specific (accounting) period. It is a systematic and rational allocation of cost rather than the recognition of market value decrement.
• Research & Development (R&D) expenses - represent expenses included in research and development.
Expenses recognized in the income statement should undergo analysis either by nature (raw materials, transport costs, staffing costs, depreciation, employee benefit etc.) or by function (cost of sales, selling, administrative, etc.). If an entity categorizes by function, then additional information on the nature of expenses, at least, – depreciation, amortization and employee benefits expense – need disclosure. The major exclusive of costs of goods sold, are ‘operating expenses’ by classification. These represent the resources expended, except for inventory purchases, in generating the revenue for the period. Expenses generally fall into two broad sub classifications selling expenses and administrative expenses.
Non-operating section
• Other revenues or gains - revenues and gains from other than primary business activities such as: rent, income from patents, goodwill). It also includes unusual gains that are either unusual or infrequent, but not both (gain from sale of securities or gain from disposal of fixed assets)
• Other expenses or losses - expenses or losses not related to primary business operations, (e.g., foreign exchange loss).
• Finance costs - costs of borrowing from various creditors (interest expenses, bank charges).
• Income tax expense - sum of the amount of tax payable to tax authorities in the current reporting period (current tax liabilities/ tax payable) and the amount of deferred tax liabilities or assets.
Example
The following is a basic profit and loss projection for a three-year period. The purpose of the three-year projection is to allow a visualization of where sales and profits may be - given a small percentage change in revenue. A change in revenue will not affect fixed charges and will generally only affect ‘prime’ costs such as food and beverages. Thus, a ten percent increase in sales will influence profit substantially. The percentages to the right of the numbers indicate the percentage of gross profit the expense item represents. For example, an inventory expense of \$75,000 represents a 39.3% cost based on gross sales. Thus, it is important to know not only your costs but also the percentage of gross revenue they represent. This knowledge helps you to adjust costs appropriately to increase profitability. Marketing represents 26.2% of gross revenue in the example. While this may seem high, if you are new and unknown, this figure may be low in comparison to your marketing need. The location of the restaurant will greatly affect marketing costs. Therefore, the numbers are relevant to your operation and are generally ‘location’ specific.
Allon's Manger
Three Year Profit Projection
Sensitivity Analysis
Projected Sales 110% of Sales 120% of Sales
Food Sales 2,000,000 2,200,000 2,400,000
Beverage Sales 200,000 220,000 240,000
Gross Profit 2,200,000 2,420,000 2,640,000
Sales Tax 176,000
Gross Profit After Tax 2,040,000
Operating Expenses
Accounting and Legal 5,000 0.2% 5,000 0.2% 5,000 0.2%
Advertising 50,000 2.3% 50,000 2.1% 50,000 1.9%
Depreciation 10,146 0.5% 10,146 0.4% 10,146 0.4%
Employee Benefits 15,000 0.7% 16,500 0.7% 18,000 0.7%
Insurance 25,000 1.1% 25,000 1.0% 25,000 0.9%
Interest 132,000 6.0% 145,200 6.0% 158,400 6.0%
Inventory (food) 607,200 30.0% 774,400 32.0% 844,800 32.0%
Inventory (Beverage) 364,320 18.0% 435,600 18.0% 475,200 18.0%
Labor (Variable) 647,680 32.0% 647,680 26.8% 647,680 24.5%
Music and Entertainment 2,400 0.1% 5,400 0.2% 5,400 0.2%
Rent 24,000 1.1% 24,000 1.0% 24,000 0.9%
Repairs & Maintenance 8,000 0.4% 9,000 0.4% 9,000 0.3%
Replacement (china & glass) 3,000 0.1% 3,000 0.1% 3,000 0.1%
Supplies 36,000 1.6% 39,600 1.6% 43,200 1.6%
Utilities 13,800 0.6% 15,180 0.6% 16,560 0.6%
Taxes (Sales and Use) 176,000 8.0% 193,600 8.0% 211,200 8.0%
Other Expenses
Total Expenses 2,119,546 2,344,306 2,491,586
Net Profit Before Tax 120,311 153,611 186,911
Income Taxes
Net Profit After Tax
This is another example of a profit and loss statement in a move expansive form. This example indicates a clearer picture of ‘where’ revenue is occurring. Note that food sales could also be indicative of the ‘source’ of the sales such as dining, takeout, catering, delivery, proprietary food products for sale, and so forth. In and of itself, the profit and loss statement, to refresh, is nothing more than revenue minus expenses to arrive at a profit or a loss. The restauranteur has the freedom to expand the inclusions in any category to better explore a revenue or expense element. The depth of the income statement speaks to ‘decision power’ the statement can afford to the operator.
Sample P & L
Category Annual Budget \$ % of Sales
Income
Food Sales \$975,000 65.00%
Beverage Sales
Liquor Sales \$183,750 35.00%
Wine Sales \$262,500 50.00%
Beer Sales \$52,500 10.00%
NA Bev Sales \$26,250 5.00%
Total Beverage \$525,000 35.00%
Sales Adjustment \$1,050 0.07%
TOTAL SALES \$1,500,000 100.00%
TOTAL INCOME \$1,498,950 99.93%
Cost of Goods Sold
Food Cost \$292,500 30.00%
Beverage Cost
Liquor Sales \$27,563 15.00%
Wine Sales \$78,750 30.00%
Beer Sales \$8,925 17.00%
NA Bev Sales \$5,250 20.00%
Total Beverage Sales \$120,488 23.00%
Labor Cost
FOH \$209,853 14.00%
BOH \$254,822 17.00%
Other Costs
Health Insurance \$10,500 0.70%
Worker's Compensation \$12,741 0.85%
Payroll Taxes \$82,442 5.50%
Payroll Fees \$17,987 1.20%
Total Other Costs \$123,671 8.00%
Total Labor Cost \$614,570 41.00%
TOTAL COST OF GOODS SOLD \$1,027,557 69.00%
GROSS PROFIT \$471,393 31.00%
Expenses
Operating Expenses
Restaurant Supplies \$9,743.18 0.65%
Kitchen Supplies \$11,991.60 0.80%
Decor \$3,747.38 0.25%
Tabletop \$8,993.70 0.60%
Uniforms \$2,248.43 0.15%
Laundry and Linen \$8,993.70 0.60%
Cleaning Supplies \$5,995.80 0.40%
Credit Card Fees \$52,463.25 3.50%
Gift Card Expenses \$899.37 0.06%
Reservation System \$5,246.33 0.35%
Music \$749.48 0.05%
Security - 0.00%
Printing \$4,496.85 0.30%
Sales Tax \$2,248.43 0.15%
Total Operating Expenses \$117,817 8.00%
Occupancy Expense
Rent \$37,474 2.05%
Insurance \$2,548 0.17%
Utilities \$19,486 1.30%
Repairs and Maintenance \$4,497 0.30%
Total Occupancy Expense \$64,005 4.27%
General and Administrative
Marketing and Advertising \$37,474 2.50%
Research and Development \$1,049 0.07%
Legal Fees \$8,244 0.55%
IT Fees \$4,497 0.30%
Bookkeeping \$17,987 1.20%
Accounting \$11,992 0.80%
Licenses and Permits \$5,996 0.40%
Office Supplies \$3,747 0.25%
POS System \$2,248 0.15%
Computer Supplies \$2,248 0.15%
Bank Fees \$1,499 0.10%
Employee Appreciation \$749 0.05%
Total General/Administrative \$97,732 7.00%
TOTAL EXPENSE \$279,554 19.00%
NEW OPERATING INCOME \$191,839 13.00%
The following table represents restaurant industry ‘dollar’ percentages for sales and expenses one may incur in a restaurant operation. You can apply these percentages for each item to arrive at a reasonable amount of expense for that item based on the gross revenue you project for your initial year’s sales. These percentages will help you to calculate your ‘projected income statement’ for a lender.
The Restaurant Industry Dollar
Full Service Restaurants (Average check per person under \$10) Full Service Restaurants (Average check per person \$10 and over) Limited Service Fast Food Restaurants
Where it came from As a Percentage of Total Sales
Food Sales 89.6 78 95.7
Beverage Sales (alcoholic) 10.4 24 4.3
Where It Went As a Percentage of Total Sales
Cost of Goods Sold 32.2 30.0 28.4
Cost of Beverage Sold 3.2 7.8 1.2
Salaries and Wages 28.0 28.9 24.2
Employee Benefits 3.9 4.2 3.7
Direct Operating Expenses 7.0 6.5 6.7
Music and Entertainment 0.2 0.9 0.1
Marketing 2.3 2.5 5.7
Utility Services 3.2 2.3 2.8
Restaurant Occupancy Cost 5.2 5.3 7.4
Repairs and Maintenance 1.7 1.6 2.0
Depreciation 2.3 1.8 3.1
Other Operating Expenses (income) 0.3 0.2 0.4
General and Administrative 3.2 4.2 3.7
Corporate Overhead 2.7 1.4 8.8
Interest Payments 0.8 0.8 0.8
Other Expenses 0.2 0.3 0.3
Income before Income Tax 3.8 3.5 9.5
* All figures are weighted averages
* All amounts are reflected as a percentage of total sales | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Revenue_Costs_and_Profit_Analysis/9.02%3A_Income_Statement.txt |
In financial accounting, a balance sheet or statement of financial position is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity list as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is a "snapshot of a company's financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement that applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year.
A standard company balance sheet has two sides: assets, on the left and financing, which itself has two parts, liabilities and ownership equity, on the right. The main categories of assets usually list first and typically in order of liquidity. Liabilities follow assets. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is ‘equity’, or the net assets or the net worth or capital of the company and according to the accounting equation, net worth must equal assets minus liabilities.
Another way to look at the balance sheet equation is that total assets equals liabilities plus owner's equity. Looking at the equation in this way shows how assets were financed: either by borrowing money (liability) or by using the owner's money (owner's or shareholders' equity). Balance sheets are usually presented with assets in one section and liabilities and net worth in the other section with the two sections "balancing".
Types of Balance Sheets
A balance sheet summarizes an organization or individual's assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Two forms of balance sheet exist. They are the report form and the account form. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets. Larger businesses tend to have complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organization's annual report. Large businesses also may prepare balance sheets for segments of their businesses. A balance sheet is often presented alongside one for a different point in time (typically the previous year) for comparison.
Personal
A personal balance sheet lists current assets such as cash in checking accounts and savings accounts, long-term assets such as common stock and real estate, current liabilities such as loan debt and mortgage debt due, or overdue, long-term liabilities such as mortgage and other loan debt. Securities and real estate values list at market value rather than at historical cost or cost basis. Personal net worth is the difference between an individual's total assets and total liabilities.
A small business balance sheet lists current assets such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory, fixed assets such as land, buildings, and equipment, intangible assets such as patents, and liabilities such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, and long-term debt. Contingent liabilities such as warranties enter in the footnotes to the balance sheet. The small business's equity is the difference between total assets and total liabilities.
Public business entities structure
Guidelines for constructing balance sheets of public business entities are available from the International Accounting Standards Board and numerous other country-specific organizations and companies. The standard used by companies in the USA adhere to U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). The Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) is a United States federal advisory committee whose mission is to develop generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for federal financial reporting entities.
Balance sheet account names and usage depend on the organization's country and the type of organization. Government organizations do not generally follow standards established for individuals or businesses. If applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the balance sheet: Assets are all the things the business owns. This will include property, tools, vehicles, furniture, machinery, and so on.
Assets
Fixed assets
1. Property, plant and equipment (cannot easily be converted into cash)
2. Investment property, such as real estate held for investment purposes
3. Intangible assets such as (patents, copyrights and goodwill)
4. Financial assets (excluding investments accounted for using the equity method, accounts receivables, and cash and cash equivalents), such as notes receivables
5. Investments accounted for using the equity method
6. Biological assets, which are living plants or animals. Bearer biological assets are plants or animals that bear agricultural produce for harvest, such as apple trees grown to produce apples and sheep raised to produce wool.
7. Loan To (More than one financial period)
Current assets
1. Prepaid expenses for future services that will be used within a year
2. Accounts receivable
3. Cash and cash equivalents (Cash equivalents are short-term commitments "with temporarily idle cash and easily convertible into a known cash amount")
4. Cash at bank, Petty Cash, Cash On Hand
5. Revenue Earned In Arrears (Accrued Revenue) for services done but not yet received for the year
6. Loan To (Less than one financial period)
Liabilities
1. Accounts payable
2. Provisions for warranties or court decisions (contingent liabilities that are both probable and measurable)
3. Financial liabilities (excluding provisions and accounts payables), such as promissory notes and corporate bonds
4. Liabilities and assets for current tax
5. Deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets
6. Unearned revenue for services paid for by customers but not yet provided
7. Interests on loan stock
Equity / capital
The net assets shown by the balance sheet equals the third part of the balance sheet known as the shareholders' equity. It comprises:
1. Issued capital and reserves attributable to equity holders of the parent company (controlling interest)
2. Non-controlling interest in equity
Formally, shareholders' equity is part of the company's liabilities: they are funds "owing" to shareholders (after payment of all other liabilities); usually, however, "liabilities" is useful in the more restrictive sense of liabilities excluding shareholders' equity. The balance of assets and liabilities (including shareholders' equity) is not a coincidence. Records of the values of each account in the balance sheet are maintained using a system of accounting known as double entry bookkeeping. In this sense, shareholders' equity by construction must equal assets minus liabilities, and thus the shareholders' equity is a residual. Regarding the items in equity section, the following disclosures are required:
• Numbers of shares authorized, issued and fully paid, and issued but not fully paid
• Par value (market value) of shares
• Reconciliation of shares outstanding at the beginning and the end of the period
• Description of rights, preferences, and restrictions of shares
• Treasury shares, including shares held by subsidiaries and associates
• Shares reserved for issuance under options and contracts
• A description of the nature and purpose of each reserve within owners' equity
Pro-Forma Balance Sheet Example
The Porker - Annual Forecast
ASSETS 2016 2017 2018 2019
CURRENT ASSETS
Cash \$25,085 \$31,639 \$86,323 \$149,933
Net accounts receivable \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Inventory \$0 \$58,064 \$28,745 \$32,440
Temporary investment \$45,150 \$40,150 \$45,000 \$50,000
Prepaid expenses \$950 \$1,100 \$1,200 \$1,250
Total Current Assets \$71,185 \$130,953 \$161,268 \$233,623
FIXED ASSETS
Long-term investments \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Land \$45,000 \$45,000 \$45,000 \$45,000
Buildings (net depreciation) \$90,000 \$87,000 \$84,000 \$81,000
PLant & equipment (net) \$25,608 \$23,047 \$20,486 \$17,925
Furniture & fixture (net) \$7,575 \$7,575 \$7,575 \$7,575
Total Net Fixed Assets \$168,183 \$162,622 \$157,061 \$151,500
TOTAL ASSETS \$239,368 \$301,150 \$318,329 \$385,123
LIABILITIES
Current Liabilities
Accounts payable \$12,246 \$14,587 \$16,258 \$17,277
Short-term notes \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Current long-term notes \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Accruals/other payables \$14,150 \$15,140 \$16,950 \$17,546
Total Current Liabilities \$26,396 \$29,727 \$33,208 \$34,823
Long-term Liabilities
Mortgage \$108,000 \$102,650 \$99,780 \$94,121
Other long-term liabilities \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Total Long-term Liabilities \$108,000 \$102,650 \$99,780 \$94,121
SHAREHOLDERS' EQUITY
Capitol Stock \$0 \$0 \$0 \$0
Retained earnings \$104,972 \$168,773 \$185,341 \$128,944
Total Shareholders' Equity \$104,972 \$168,773 \$185,341 \$128,944
TOTAL LIABILITIES & EQUITY \$239,368 \$301,150 \$318,329 \$318,329 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Revenue_Costs_and_Profit_Analysis/9.03%3A_Balance_Sheet.txt |
A financial ratio or accounting ratio is a relative magnitude of two selected numerical values taken from an enterprise's financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other organization. Financial ratios are useful to managers within a firm, to current and potential shareholders (owners) of a firm, and to a firm's creditors. Financial analysts use financial ratios to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies. If shares in a company trade in a financial market, the market price of the shares is useful in certain financial ratios.
Ratios are useful to examine and display the ‘liquidity’ or amount of cash, accounts receivable, or other forms of assets that can be converted to cash quickly if the need arises. In the restaurant industry, how quickly or slowly the perishable food, paper, and other items we stock is used are replenished is always of major concern to the operation. The ‘turnover’ rate calculation occurring weekly, monthly, or quarterly, is indicative of how well we are projecting the restaurant’s product demand, and how well we are controlling storage costs and physical space allocations. Solvency ratios examine the status assets and liabilities, and profitability ratios give us a way to discuss and display how well the operation is conducting business. The basic ‘four’ different classes of ratios we will discuss are:
1. Liquidity
2. Turnover
3. Solvency
4. Profitability
We should first define the term ‘ratio’. In mathematics, a ratio is a relationship between two numbers indicating how many times the first number contains the second. For example, if a bowl of fruit contains ‘eight’ oranges and ‘six’ lemons, then the ratio of oranges to lemons is eight to six (that is, 8:6, which is equivalent to the ratio 4:3). Thus, a ratio can also be a fraction as opposed to a whole number. In addition, in this example the ratio of lemons to oranges is 6:8 (or 3:4), and the ratio of oranges to the total amount of fruit is 8:14 (or 4:7). The numbers compared in a ratio can be any quantities of a comparable kind, such as objects, persons, lengths, or spoonful amounts. A ratio is written "a to b" or ‘a : b’ or sometimes expressed arithmetically as a ‘quotient’ of the two.
Liquidity Ratios
The current ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures whether or not a firm has enough resources to meet its short-term obligations. It compares a firm's current assets to its current liabilities. The current ratio is an indication of a firm's liquidity. Acceptable current ratios vary from industry to industry. In many cases, a creditor would consider a high current ratio to be better than a low current ratio, because a high current ratio indicates that the company is more likely to pay the creditor back. Large current ratios are not always a good sign for investors. If the company's current ratio calculates too high it may indicate that, the company is not efficiently using its current assets or its short-term financing facilities.
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 / \$2,500,000 = 1.04
If current liabilities exceed current assets, the ‘current ratio’ will be less than one. A current ratio of less than ‘1’ indicates that the company may have problems meeting its short-term obligations. Some types of businesses can operate with a current ratio of less than one however. If inventory turns into cash much more rapidly than the accounts payable become due, then the firm's current ratio can comfortably remain less than one. Inventory is valued at the cost of acquiring it and the firm intends to sell the inventory for more than this cost. The sale will therefore generate substantially more cash than the value of inventory on the balance sheet. Low current ratios can also be justified for businesses that can collect cash from customers long before they need to pay their suppliers.
The ‘acid test’ or ‘quick ratio’ or ‘liquidity ratio’ measures the ability of a company to use its near cash or quick assets to extinguish or retire its current liabilities immediately. Quick assets include those current assets that presumably can quickly convert to cash at close to their book values. A company with a quick ratio of less than ‘one’ cannot currently fully pay back its current liabilities. It is the ratio between quick or liquid assets and current liabilities. The normal liquid ratio is 1:1. It has a better and more reliable ranking as a tool for assessment of liquidity position of firms.
Quick Ratio = (Current Assets – Inventory) / Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 - \$150,000 -\$50,000 = .96
Working capital (abbreviated WC) is a financial metric, which represents operating liquidity available to a business, organization or other entity, including governmental entity. Working capital is the difference between the current assets and the current liabilities. Along with fixed assets such as plant and equipment, working capital is a part of operating capital. Gross working capital equals to current assets. Working capital calculation is ‘current assets’ minus ‘current liabilities’. If current assets are less than current liabilities, an entity has a working capital deficiency, also called a working capital deficit.
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 -\$2,500,000 = \$100,000
A company can be possess with ‘assets’ and ‘profitability’ but be short of ‘liquidity’ if its assets cannot readily be converted into cash. Positive working capital is required to ensure that a firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient funds to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. The management of working capital involves managing inventories, accounts receivable and payable, and cash. The basic calculation of the working capital utilizes the ‘gross current assets’ of the firm.
Current assets and current liabilities include three accounts that are of special importance. These accounts represent the areas of the business where managers have the most direct impact:
1. Accounts receivables (current asset)
2. Inventory (current assets), and
3. Accounts payable (current liability)
The current portion of ‘debt’ (payable within 12 months) is critical, because it represents a short-term claim to current assets and often uses long-term assets as security. Common types of short-term debt are bank loans and lines of credit. An increase in net working capital indicates that the business has either increased current assets (that it has increased its receivables or other current assets) or has decreased current liabilities - for example has paid off some short-term creditors, or a combination of both.
A positive working capital cycle balances incoming and outgoing payments to minimize net working capital and maximize ‘free cash flow’. For example, a company that pays its suppliers in 30 days but takes 60 days to collect its receivables has a working capital cycle of 30 days. This 30-day cycle usually needs funding through a bank operating line, and the interest on this financing is a carrying cost that reduces the company's profitability. Growing businesses require cash, and being able to free up cash by shortening the working capital cycle is the most inexpensive way to grow. Sophisticated buyers review closely a target's working capital cycle because it provides them with an idea of the management's effectiveness at managing their balance sheet and generating free cash flows.
As an absolute rule of funders, each of them wants to see a positive working capital. Such situation gives them the possibility to think that your company has more than enough current assets to cover financial obligations. The same is not always true about negative working capital. A large number of funders believe that businesses cannot be sustainable with a negative working capital, which is a wrong way of thinking. In order to run a sustainable business with a negative working capital it is essential to understand some key components.
Approach your suppliers and persuade them to let you purchase the inventory on 1-2 month credit terms, but keep in mind that you must sell the purchased goods, to consumers for money. Effectively monitor your inventory management, make sure that refilling occurs on a consistent and timely basis to maintain fresh product with the help of your supplier, and to adequately stock and utilize your warehouse spacing.
In addition, big companies like McDonald’s, Amazon, Dell, General Electric and Wal-Mart are using negative working capital.
Activity Ratios
Inventory Turnover = Cost of Goods Sold / Inventories
Example: \$500,000 / \$110,000 = 4.55 times
Average Inventory = beginning inventory + Ending inventory
2
The average days to sell the inventory calculation is:
Average days to sell the inventory = ________365_________
Inventory Turnover Ratio
In accounting, the Inventory turnover is a measure of the number of times the restaurant’s sells or uses its inventory using a week, month or year calculation. The equation for inventory turnover equals the cost of goods sold or net sales divided by the average inventory. Inventory turnover is also known as: inventory turns; merchandise turnover; stock turn; turns, and stock turnover.
A low turnover rate may point to overstocking, obsolescence, or deficiencies in the product line or marketing effort. However, in some instances a low rate may be appropriate, such as where higher inventory levels occur in anticipation of rapidly rising prices or expected market shortages.
Conversely, a high turnover rate may indicate inadequate inventory levels, which may lead to a loss in business, as the inventory is too low. This often can result in stock shortages. Some compilers of industry data (e.g., Dun & Bradstreet) use sales as the numerator instead of cost of sales. ‘Cost of sales’ yields a more realistic turnover ratio, but it is often necessary to use sales for purposes of comparative analysis. Cost of sales is more realistic because of the difference in which one records sales and the cost of sales. Record sales at market value, i.e. the value at which the marketplace paid for the good or service provided by the firm. In the event that the firm had an exceptional year and the market paid a premium for the firm's goods and services then the numerator may be an inaccurate measure. However, the firm should record cost of sales at what the firm actually paid for the materials available for sale.
Additionally, firms may reduce prices to generate sales in an effort to cycle inventory. Generally, the terms "cost of sales" and "cost of goods sold" are synonymous. An item whose inventory is sold (turns over) once a year has higher holding cost than one that turns over twice, or three times, or more in that time. Stock turnover also indicates the briskness of the business. The purpose of increasing inventory turns is to reduce inventory for three reasons.
1. Increasing inventory turns reduces holding cost. The organization spends less money on rent, utilities, insurance, theft and other costs of maintaining a stock of good for sale. Reducing holding cost increases net income and profitability as long as the revenue from selling the item remains constant.
2. Items that turn over more quickly increase responsiveness to changes in customer requirements while allowing the replacement of perishable items. This is a major concern in the restaurant industry.
3. When making comparison between firms, it is important to take note of the industry, or distortion in the comparison will occur. Making comparison between a supermarket or restaurant and a car dealer will not be appropriate, as supermarkets and restaurants sell fast-moving goods such as meals, sweets, chocolates, soft drinks therefore the stock turnover will be higher. However, a car dealer will have a low turnover due to the item being a slow moving item.
Asset turnover is a financial ratio that measures the efficiency of a company's use of its assets in generating sales revenue or sales income to the company. Companies with low profit margins tend to have high asset turnover, while those with high profit margins have low asset turnover. Companies in the retail industry tend to have a very high turnover ratio due mainly to cutthroat and competitive pricing.
‘Sales’ is the value of ‘Net Sales’ or ‘Sales’ from the company's income statement ‘Average Total Assets’ is the average of the values of ‘Total assets’ from the company's balance sheet in the beginning and the end of the fiscal period. The calculation adds up the assets at the beginning of the period and the assets at the end of the period, then dividing that number by two. Alternatively, "Average Total Assets" can be ending total assets.
Asset Turnover = Sales / Total Assets
Example: \$4,805,000 / \$9,225,000 = .52 times (generating .52 cents per dollar)
Fixed-asset turnover is the ratio of ‘sales’ (on the profit and loss account) to the value of ‘fixed assets’ (on the balance sheet). It indicates how well the business is using its fixed assets to generate sales. In general, the higher the ratio, the better, because a high ratio indicates the business has less money tied up in fixed assets for each unit of currency of sales revenue. A declining ratio may indicate that the business is over-invested in plant, equipment, or other fixed assets.
Fixed Asset turnover = Sales / Fixed assets
Example: \$4,805,000 / \$6,500,000 = .74 times (generating .74 cents per dollar)
This calculation allows the operator to know what the total revenue per hour would be will a ‘full’ dining room at a given average ticket price. It is the ‘optimum’ calculation. Example: If the restaurant has 150 seats, an average ticket price for lunch of \$15.00, and a one- hour turnover, the total revenue potential would be \$2,250.00 per hour. The total revenue potential for lunch then centers on the number of hours the restaurant serves lunch.
REV Pash (revenue per avg. seating hour) = Total Occupancy x Average ticket price per hour.
This calculation is the point of comparison to the ‘REVPash’ total occupancy calculation. The dining room may not be full which would reduce the revenue for the meal period. In essence, you are calculating real income and comparing that figure to ‘optimum’ income to assess your current potential.
REV Posh (revenue per occupied seating hour) = Occupancy rate x Average ticket price per hour.
Average food check = Food Revenue / Number of customers
Solvency Ratios
For example, a company with \$2 million in total assets and \$500,000 in total liabilities would have a debt ratio of 25% (percentage of assets financed). Total liabilities divided by total assets or the debt/asset ratio shows the proportion of a company's assets which are financed through debt. If the ratio is less than 0.5, most of the company's assets are using equity financing. If the ratio is greater than 0.5, most of the company's assets are using debt to finance. Companies with high debt/asset ratios are ‘highly leveraged’ by description. The higher the ratio, the greater risk will be associated with the firm's operation. In addition, high debt to assets ratio may indicate low borrowing capacity of a firm, which in turn will lower the firm's financial flexibility. Like all financial ratios, a company's ‘debt ratio’ should use industry average or other competing firms as their points of comparison.
Debt to Assets Ratio = Total liabilities / Total assets
In a general sense, the ratio is simply debt divided by equity. However, what receives a ‘debt’ classification can differ depending on the interpretation used. Thus, the ratio can take on a number of forms including:
• Debt / Equity
• Long-term Debt / Equity
• Total Liabilities / Equity
In a basic sense, ‘Total debt to Equity’ is a measure of all of a company's future obligations on the balance sheet relative to equity. However, the ratio can be more discerning as to what is actually a borrowing, as opposed to other types of obligations that might exist on the balance sheet under the liabilities section. For example, often only the liabilities accounts that the operation labels as actually labeled as "debt" on the balance sheet appear in the numerator, instead of the broader category of "total liabilities". In other words, actual borrowings uses bank loans and interest-bearing debt securities, as opposed to the broadly inclusive category of total liabilities that, in addition to ‘debt-labelled’ accounts, can include accrual accounts like unearned revenue.
Debt to Equity Ratio = Total liabilities / Stockholders’ equity (Total Equity)
Example: \$5,500,000 / \$3,725,000 = 1.48 or 148%
Profitability Ratios
Profit margin is calculated with selling price (or revenue) taken as base times 100. It is the percentage of selling price that becomes profit, whereas, "profit percentage" or "markup" is the percentage of cost price that one gets as profit on top of cost price. When selling something one should know what profit percentage one will get on a particular investment, so companies calculate profit percentage to find the ratio of profit to cost.
Net Profit Margin = Net profit / Total Revenue
Example: \$1,092,000 / \$4,805,000 = .227 or 22.7% (of every dollar in the form of earnings)
The profit margin is useful mostly for internal comparison. It is difficult to compare with accuracy the net profit ratio for different entities. Individual businesses' operating and financing arrangements vary so much that different entities are bound to have different levels of expenditure, so that comparison of one with another can have little meaning. A low profit margin indicates a low margin of safety: higher risk that a decline in sales will erase profits and result in a net loss, or a negative margin. Profit margin is an indicator of both a company's pricing strategies and how well it controls costs. Differences in competitive strategy and product mix cause the profit margin to vary among different companies. Examples follow:
1. If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs, \$1 to earn it, when he or she take costs away he or she has a 90% margin. A 900% profit on a \$1 investment.
2. If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs, \$5 to earn it, when he or she take costs away he or she has a 50% margin. A 100% profit on a \$5 investment.
3. If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs \$9 to earn it, when you take the cost away, the investor is left with 10% margin, an 11.11% profit on a \$9 investment.
4. On the other hand, profit percentage calculates as follows: Suppose that you buy something for \$50.00 and then sell it for \$100.00.
Cost price = \$50
Selling price (revenue) = \$100
Profit = \$100 − \$50 = \$50
Profit percentage (profit divided by cost) = \$50/\$50 = 100%
Return on investment multiple = \$50 / \$50 (profit divided by cost)
If the revenue is the same as the cost, profit percentage is 0%. The result above or below 100% can be calculated as the percentage of return on investment. In this example, the return on investment is a multiple of 0.5 of the investment, resulting in a 50% gain.
Return on Investment (ROI) is the benefit to an investor resulting from an investment of some resource. A high ROI means the investment gains compare favorably to investment cost. As a performance measure, ROI is useful to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. In purely economic terms, it is one way of considering profits in relation to ‘capital’ invested.
ROI (return on investments) (assets) = Total Revenue (Net income) / Total assets
Example: \$1,092,000 / \$9,225,000 = .118 or 11.8%
Purpose
In business, the purpose of the "return on investment" (ROI) metric is to measure, per period, rates of return on money invested in an economic entity in order to decide whether, or not, to undertake an investment. It is also useful as an indicator to compare different project investments within a project portfolio. The project with best ROI assumes priority. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Revenue_Costs_and_Profit_Analysis/9.04%3A_Classes_of_Ratios.txt |
Cost Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Pro-forma Income Statement
3. Analysis of fixed and variable costs
4. Investment requirements
5. Financing plans
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What is the prime concern for creditors?
2. Investors see an operation from a different point of view. What is important to them?
3. Management must consider financial statement analysis as it relates to a variety of user groups. Name six potential users.
4. What four ways might management use financial statements internally?
5. What does an income state show?
6. What does a balance sheet contain?
9.06: Chapter Glossary and Notes
Glossary
Income statement. This financial statement indicates what you expect sales and expenses to be and subsequently your profitability. The income statement indicates weekly, monthly and yearly profitability from operation.
Financial statements and Creditors. Creditors are ultimately concerned with a borrower's ability to make interest and principle payments.
Financial statements and Investors. Investors will usually attempt to arrive at an estimation of a company's future earnings stream.
Financial statements and Management. Management must consider financial statement analysis as it relates to a 'variety' of user groups including creditors, investors, employees, general public, regulators, financial press, and so forth. Management must always demonstrate an understanding of the company in terms of profitability and competitive advantage.
Income statement or profit and loss account (P&L), statement of profit or loss, pro-forma, revenue statement, statement of financial performance, earnings statement, operating statement, or statement of operations) is one of the financial statements of a company and shows the company’s revenue and expenses during a particular period. It indicates how the revenues (money received from the sale of products and services before removing expenses, also known as the “top line”) are transformed into the net income (the result after all revenues and expenses have been accounted for, also known as “net profit” or the “bottom line”). It displays the revenues recognized for a specific period, and the cost and expenses charged against these revenues, including write offs (e.g., depreciation and amortization of various assets) and taxes. In sum, the oncome state is measure of revenue and expenses to arrive at a profit or loss figure. It is nothing more than:
Revenue – Expenses = Net Profit/Loss
The purpose of the income statement is to show managers and investors whether the company made or lost money during the period of the report. One important thing to remember about an income statement is that it represents a ‘period of time’.
Single Step income statement. Takes the simpler approach, totaling revenues (income) and subtracting expenses (expenses) to find the bottom line (profit).
Multi-Step income statement. Takes several steps to find the bottom line, starting with the gross profit. It then calculates operating expenses and, when deducted from the gross profit, yields income from operations. Adding to income from operations is the difference of other revenues and other expenses. When combined with income from operations, this yields income before taxes. The final step is to deduct taxes, which finally produces the net income for the period measured.
Revenue. Cash inflows or other enhancements of assets (including accounts receivable) of an entity during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities that constitute the entity's ongoing major operations. Every time a business sells a product or performs a service, it obtains revenue referred to as gross revenue or sales revenue. An operation would generally equate revenue to be sales minus sales discounts, returns, and allowances. This is an important calculation because revenue is taxable by federal state, and local governments. An operation should pay tax on the revenue it actually receives.
Revenue = sales minus discounts, returns, and allowances
Expenses. Cash outflows or other using-up of assets or incurrence of liabilities including accounts payable during a period from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or carrying out other activities that constitute the entity's ongoing major operations.
Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) or Cost of Sales. Cost of sales represents the direct costs attributable to goods produced and sold by a business (manufacturing or merchandizing).
Balance sheet or statement of financial position. A summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity list as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is a "snapshot of a company's financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement that applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year.
Standard company balance sheet. This sheet has two sides: assets, on the left and financing, which itself has two parts, liabilities and ownership equity, on the right. The main categories of assets usually list first and typically in order of liquidity. Liabilities follow assets. The difference between the assets and the liabilities is equity, or the net assets or the net worth or capital of the company and according to the accounting equation, net worth must equal assets minus liabilities.
Personal balance sheet. lists current assets such as cash in checking accounts and savings accounts, long-term assets such as common stock and real estate, current liabilities such as loan debt and mortgage debt due, or overdue, long-term liabilities such as mortgage and other loan debt. Securities and real estate values list at market value rather than at historical cost or cost basis. Personal net worth is the difference between an individual's total assets and total liabilities.
Small business balance sheet. Lists current assets such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory, fixed assets such as land, buildings, and equipment, intangible assets such as patents, and liabilities such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, and long-term debt. Contingent liabilities such as warranties enter in the footnotes to the balance sheet. The small business's equity is the difference between total assets and total liabilities.
Financial ratio or accounting ratio. A relative magnitude of two selected numerical values taken from an enterprise's financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other organization. Financial ratios are useful to managers within a firm, to current and potential shareholders (owners) of a firm, and to a firm's creditors. Financial analysts use financial ratios to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies.
Ratio. A relationship between two numbers indicating how many times the first number contains the second. For example, if a bowl of fruit contains ‘eight’ oranges and ‘six’ lemons, then the ratio of oranges to lemons is eight to six (that is, 8:6, which is equivalent to the ratio 4:3). A ratio is written "a to b" or ‘a: b’ or sometimes expressed arithmetically as a ‘quotient’ of the two.
Current ratio. A liquidity ratio that measures whether or not a firm has enough resources to meet its short-term obligations. It compares a firm's current assets to its current liabilities.
Acid test’ or quick ratio. Measures the ability of a company to use its near cash or quick assets to extinguish or retire its current liabilities immediately. Quick assets include those current assets that presumably can quickly convert to cash at close to their book values.
Working capital. A financial metric, which represents operating liquidity available to a business, organization or other entity, including governmental entity. Working capital is the difference between the current assets and the current liabilities. Along with fixed assets such as plant and equipment, working capital is a part of operating capital. Gross working capital equals to current assets. Working capital calculation is ‘current assets’ minus ‘current liabilities’.
Notes
Helfert, Erich A. (2001). "The Nature of Financial Statements: The Income Statement". Financial Analysis - Tools and Techniques - A Guide for Managers. McGraw-Hill. p. 40.
Warren, Carl (2008). Survey of Accounting. Cincinnati: South-Western College Pub. pp. 128–132.
"Presentation of Financial Statements" International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 17 July 2010.
http://www.economywatch.info/2011/06...statement.html
Harry I. Wolk, James L. Dodd, Michael G. Tearney. Accounting Theory: Conceptual Issues in a Political and Economic Environment (2004).
Angelico A. Groppelli, Ehsan Nikbakht. Finance (2000).
Barry J. Epstein, Eva K. Jermakowicz. Interpretation and Application of International Financial Reporting Standards (2007).
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Chapter 10 Learning Objectives
1. Gain a working knowledge of the different forms of menus.
2. Gain a working knowledge of menu layout.
3. Gain a working knowledge of menu wording.
4. Understand the importance of menu illustrations and graphics.
5. Understand appropriate menu typefaces.
6. Understand the importance of menu covers, paper, and colors and their importance to concept.
7. The ability to apply menu-writing strategies.
8. Comprehend the physical components of a menu.
“You know, for 300 years it's been kind of the same. There are restaurants in New Orleans that the menu hasn't changed in 125 years, so how is one going to change or evolve the food?”
Emeril Lagasse
“I like a restaurant called Bruci, and there's some really nice people who work there and good food. They change their menu a lot, so maybe that's what keeps me coming back. I never know what I'm going to get.”
Paul Dano
The Restaurant Menu
The menu is one area of concept development that seldom receives the attention it deserves. The menu is indicative of the food the operation will serve – but the thought process behind the menu goes much deeper. In essence, the menu is actually a major portion of your marketing process and assumes the chief role of ‘bill payer’ and ‘profit generator’ for the operation. The menu must be able to provide funds to cover the cost structure the operation and provide an adequate profit as well – while appearing attractive to the consumer in terms of food and value.
Types of Menus
Based on a restaurant theme or concept, there are various ways of presenting a menu that is inviting to customers and best accomplishes your marketing and positioning goals.
Day part menus
This menu pricing method focuses on a particular meal period. For example, a restaurant might consider separate menus for each day part: breakfast, lunch, dinner, high tea, snack, late night, and so forth. This is also a very effective way of addressing or targeting different demographic profiles or market needs.
Cycle menus
These menus repeat themselves according to some predetermined pattern. Broad cycles could be used to change and invigorate a menu on a seasonal basic to take advantage of season items and, or, lower price points based on product availability. Another example for consideration would be to offer specific specials each day, so that, say, each Wednesday pasta is served, every Thursday salads are highlighted, and so on. Cycle menus can be very important if your target market is a captive audience. For example, if a restaurant is located near a school, industry, business center, or shopping district, in many cases, customers look forward to a particular entree on each day of the week. An added advantage of cycle menus lie in the repetition that creates familiarity and the expectation for that same food on a particular day - diners form habits regarding what and when they purchase food, a behavioral trait.
Another possibility is to create different day part menus running on different cycles weekly. If the restaurant marketplace is tight, this provides a restaurant the opportunity to attract the same customer for a different experience during a different day part. Creativity can be profitable.
Daily menus
Given the ease and efficiency of desktop publishing, a restaurant can conceivably print a different menu each day. This can also be a sizable marketing tool for single unit operations that could print menus that contain mostly the same items every day, but offer their customers change in the form of highlighted specials - similar to the way many fresh seafood houses merchandise their daily catches or wine bars merchandise the wines of the day or week. This form of menu creation provides a single unit foodservice operation an effective way of competing with major well-known restaurants that cannot change menu items without corporate approval. Additionally, this menu method allow a small restaurant to be proactive in terms of product freshness and availability while keeping the menu new and exciting.
A`la carte menus
This term references a menu of items priced and ordered separately, a menu form common in the operation of restaurants. These menus list a price for every menu item, so that the guest pays a separate price for each dish ordered. There are no "combo" meals or "value" meals. Menu items traditionally bundled together are separated out, putatively giving the consumer greater choice at lower cost.
'Prix fixe' menus
These are sometimes referred to as "bundled," fixed price," "all-inclusive," or "table d'hôte" menu. These menus are the opposite of a` la carte menus because there is one price for a set meal or a set combination of items. Many restaurants in the United States convert their menus to prix fixe only certain holidays such as Thanksgiving. Generally, this practice is limited to holidays where entire families dine together, such as Easter and Thanksgiving, Christmas, or on couple-centric holidays like Valentine's Day. Customers often associate these menus with value. Such menu structuring is also very effective when guests are cost conscious.
In France, table d'hôte refers to the shared dining (sometimes breakfast and lunch) offered in a vacation named chambre d'hôte (similar to "bed and breakfast"). Every guest of a chambre d'hôte can join this meal, cooked by the hosting family. It is not a restaurant, there is only one service, and the price is fixed and usually included in the vacation. Everyone sits around a large table and makes small talk about the house, the country, and so on.
What is closer in French to the meaning of table d'hôte in English is a menu ("lunch special" or "fixed menu"). It usually includes several dishes to pick in a fixed list: an entree (introductory course), a main course (a choice between up to four dishes), a choice between cheese or dessert, bread, and sometimes beverage, typically wine, and coffee, all for a set price fixed for the year (typically between 15 and 50 euro). The menu du jour, a cheaper version with less choice, and only a side dish and with a set main course, the plat du jour ("dish of the day") changed every day, is usually ranges from nine to 15 euro.
Downtime menus
These menus were created to bring in guests during the slower restaurant day periods. These are usually limited menus with lower prices, offered during normally slow periods of the day with the intention of boosting sales revenue. Examples of downtime menu would include the 'early-bird' special menus, late night menus, and mid-morning break menus offered by restaurants that are open 12 to 14 hours a day.
Casual Menus
These are sometimes referred to as 'limited ' menus. They are similar to the downtime menus, however, they are not priced as low, and they typically offer a slightly larger item selection scheme. A limited menu is useful if you have a small kitchen, but a large dining room and lounge, where speed is essential. Having fewer menu items helps to remove much of the stress on the back of the house, which allows you to turn tables more quickly.
Cafe menus
These are menus used by high-end restaurants wanting to offer patrons a choice between the regular (higher-priced) menu offerings in the main dining room, and a more limited (lower-priced) selection in a separate area of the restaurant. These are similar to the type of menu offered in a country club or hotel grillroom as compared to its offerings in the formal dining room. The idea is to broaden your market, gain more exposure for your operation, and perhaps convert some cafe` customers to main dining room customers at some point in the future. With technology, the only limits to the look and changeability of the modern menu is the originator’s imagination.
Interactive menus
Some operations allow guests to mix and match their orders. For instance, Macaroni Grill allows guests to create their own pasta dishes. The guest does this by checking off different options on a card and then handing the card to the food server. Some caters have several lists of food and beverage items, each of which is individually priced. The client picks menu items from the caterer's lists and eventually arrives at a personalized menu for the event.
This concept also works for the beverage menu. An emerging trend find the operator inserting the sine list into a computer program that then allows the guest to pair food order with the wine order. When a guest at Aureole restaurant in Las Vegas asks for the wine list, the sommelier brings an IPad computer to the table and instructs the guest on how to use it. The guest can sort wines by color, price, dryness, and so on. The guest can also ask the program to recommend appropriate wine and food pairings. The integration of technology into the selection process has proven to be a winner with guests who enjoy the choice interaction as well as the manager of the operation who can make wine menu revisions instantaneously. Another advantage for the operator is the eliminated printing and related costs of keeping menus current. One drawback: guests tend to play around a lot with the technology thereby slowing table turns (the amount of time the guest remains in the restaurant). Consequently, based on the cost of this technology and the necessity for more rapid customer table turnover, this option may not be feasible unless you run a high-priced operation.
Tabletop displays
These can be used effectively to promote your profitable menu items or specials, but only if you minimize the amount of copy. Customers typically do not usually read them in depth. You have to let pictures tell the story in most cases or larger font size if you use table displays to supplement your menus.
Catering menus
Those restaurants that offer catering, whether on or off-premise, usually have some version of a separate catering menu. Some operations do not want to use a separate menu, preferring to build each party from scratch - that is, they develop a custom menu for guests who would like to incorporate their personal preferences in to the menu. If printed menus are used, keep in mind that customers may review them in their homes or offices, where you will not be present to guide their choices and sell the event. By the time you meet with the customer, their initial choices may have already been made. Therefore, the menu itself, and other related materials you dispense to the public must inform and convince customers that your property is a good choice for their event. Proper packaging is vital in such cases. These materials must contain enough information to sell the even without you around. To do this, make sure that you highlight any awards, testimonials, favorable reviews, chef's credentials, and the like. Tandem marketing is equally a good idea. Include your catering department on your other restaurant menus and any supplemental promotional materials.
Drink lists
In some cases, it might be a good idea to have a separate wine list, drink list, waters list, and so on. These have great merchandising appeal, and they can free up space on the food menus, making them more attractive to view and easier for guests to handle. They also afford servers the opportunity to interact with guests, thereby giving them the opportunity to up-sell and increase the average check. Another practical consideration is the need for change. Separate menus allow for easy replacement more rapidly and inexpensively. An additional advantage is increased sales resulting from item placement. A separate un-cluttered menu allow for more descriptive and enticing wording. A menu is a sales tool that often must act on its own. Always give your menu the opportunity to help sell the restaurant's products.
Beverages are a significant portion of a restaurant's profitability in most cases. Most alcoholic beverages represent 18% food cost items. You can pair wine ‘suggestively’ with menu items and other alcoholic beverages can be offered before or after dinner. Soft drinks and tea are extremely profitable beverage items. For many years, water traditionally was served free to each guest upon seating. In the twenty-first century, water is a suggestive sell item that come with a cost. "Did you want artesian, spring - or tap?" is the typical question a guest must field from their waiter in the current marketplace. Why a cost for water? First, a charge for all water items is a profit center that can increase profit, or offset costs for other menu items, or simple defray the expense of water service. Said differently, the cost of water service is not the water but rather the expense of the chemicals and electricity to clean the glass. In a full service high volume restaurant these cost can ultimately be extensive. The need for viewing water service as a profit center or as an expense brings home the importance of cost controls and an eye toward profitability needed in today’s marketplace.
Dessert menus
In addition to wonderful selling tools with space for pictures and descriptions, these menus also offer great up-selling opportunities. They work better, when, instead of a printed menu, you have a dessert cart or tray that can be useful to display the products. Desserts are a good example of customers eating with their eye first.
Which is the best menu form for me?
There are numerous type of menus to choose from - so which is best? This is not really the best question to ask as it traps one into thinking that a single choice must me made - that is not the case. Think of your menu as a vital instrument that informs your existing, and potential customers, of what you are offering. In most cases, it is the initial sales contact with the guest, it suggests, it guides, it does not apply pressure that customers resist - it should entice their desire to try something new, and appeal to their wants. Why should any operation be limited to one type of menu? As the aforementioned information suggests, different menu types accomplish different needs. This is why it is important to understand your customer.
A practical look at menu use: a restaurant might use an extensive menu with descriptive elements to inform and entice the guest, including an a1 la carte section. For the more cost conscious customer, a prix fixe separate menu could be place at the table as well offering an appetizer, entree and dessert selection at a special set price. A nicely appointed beverage list of alcoholic drinks, wine by the glass, coffee drinks, and so forth could help guests with drink choices and act as a reference for the waiter to inform or up-sell. At the end of the meal, the customer can review the dessert menu pre-placed at the table to quietly suggestive sell the customer as the meal progresses. Remember, the items on the menu are primarily what you have to offer your clientele. Use them in varied way to present your products and services in the best light possible and in ways where each profit center gets the most attention.
Menu Layout
When designing a menu, one should avoid a cluttered look. There should be roughly 40 to 50 percent blank space on any type of menu of menu board, so that it does not appear crowded. In addition to the blank space, one should utilize wide margins and sufficient space between menu items. A crowded menu is difficult to read, which could confuse or frustrate your guest. From a more practical standpoint, a crowded menu design also makes it more difficult to highlight the more profitable items you want to promote - the menu is one of your best marketing tools.
Course headings
The menu should follow the customers' logical or ordering sequence. Course headings should divide the menu into various categories, such as appetizers, salads, entrees, desserts, and drinks. These headings should be in a larger and/or bolder type than the rest of the menu.
Categories
A category should fit on one page. It should not carry over to the next page or overlap another category. Guests will usually review a category only down to the bottom of the page or to the next course heading if the category is less than a page long.
Menu items
Menu items should stand out. They should be bigger than the descriptive wording that accompanies them, but smaller than the course headings. If you use descriptive wording (food ingredients, preparation methods, and so forth) for each menu item, be certain that it is clear and to the point. Avoid rambling descriptions; let the servers fill in any additional comments should the guests ask for more information about a selection.
Center menus symmetrically for aesthetic appeal. Symmetry is pleasing to the eye and tends to allow enough blank space to be attractive, as opposed to filling the page with print and illustrations.
Restaurant name
Your name should always be clearly visible on your menu. Be sure to include, in a prominent position on your menu, the name of the restaurant, address, phone number, e-mail address, and other appropriate contact information.
Menu boards
If the restaurant utilizes a menu board, it should be both visually attractive and succinct. You must keep it up-to-date and maintain it properly. Missing letters, outdated photographs, or taped-over prices will make people think twice about patronizing your operation. A menu board must capture the guests’ attention quickly. Most customers will not read the entire board until after they place their order. It is important to use as much visual stimulation as can be afforded to direct the customers' attention. One of the best menu boards is the digital, moving display. Any movement is better than no movement. However, this might be too costly for the typical restaurant operator. On the other hand, an attractively lit marker or chalkboard can be very effective to inform and entice your clientele.
Menu Copy
It is extremely important to remember that the menu is an extension of the 'positioning' scheme that helps create and maintain the restaurant's image in the customers' minds.
Item descriptions
Descriptions of the menu items should generate interest and sales. The copy mist speak to guests in their own language. Be concise regarding the menu's verbiage, but make your points. Said more concisely: get your message out as efficiently in terms of wording as possible. This might seem to fly in the face of visualizing a 'theme ' in the minds of customers, but you could for example created a short passage about "the beauty of Spring" if the items represent a seasonal offering. Create the springtime visualization, say, in the item name - but the efficient wording of the item description.
Copy
The copy should be enticing through the use of written imagery such as "hot," "fresh," "crispy," "succulent," or flaky," as exemplars. Use descriptive wording carefully. For example, the phrase "cooked to perfection" is becoming quite redundant in addition to waste of wording to state what should be the obvious - the item should always be ‘cooked’ perfectly. Avoid overused phrases, but do tend toward the use of descriptive language to avoid blandness. Instead of listing "assorted cheeses," utilize more creative wording such as: "an array of creamy Brie, tangy Muenster, and sharp Cheddar cheeses."
Clarity
Avoid clichés, such as 'the best-kept secret.' 'Chef’s special,' and 'as you like it.' Also, avoid words such as 'rich,' 'heavy,' and 'think,' which unnecessarily worry weight-conscious customers. Additionally, it goes without says that one should always use words that actually describe the menu item; for example, what is a "surprise omelet?" It is human nature for people to avoid what is not clear so if they are unsure, the lack of clarity equals "no." Another important reason for using clear descriptions is the need to create clear understandings in the minds of customers regarding what the item will be and how it will taste. There is not much worse than a situation where the customers receives something they did not envision or expect.
Descriptions are important
Good description and clarity is paramount for successful copy. A study published in the Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly found that menu descriptions evoking favorable feelings could boost restaurant sales by close to 30 percent. Furthermore, study participants considered these menu items to be of higher quality and value in comparison to the perceptions of persons who consumed the same items without benefit of the descriptive wording. Thus, the message is to be consistent in your writing style. Avoid using casual phrases with dignified statements that tend to confuse guests. Re-read your wording. Does it comply with the image and positioning you are attempting to create in the minds of your customers?
Well-written copy can assist guests in making the proper choices. It can also steer them toward ordering the more profitable menu items. It can prevent confusion about dishes, and it will be especially helpful to guests who may not devote too much time to reading the menu because they are involved in conversation with others at the table.
Copy as opportunity
If the menu does not include copy that touts on premise, or off-premise, catering offerings, party platters, take-out options, deliver, and so on, you are missing a stellar opportunity make additional sales and profits. You might consider printing separate menus for these products and services, one that addresses guest inquiries. It is important to remember that menus are absolutely accurate and thorough because guests usually put more deliberation into catering decisions. Additionally, decisions of this usually involve than one person whereas decisions made on the spot at the restaurant tend to be much more impulsive.
Compliment customer knowledge
The copy should not overestimate the customer's knowledge. It may be necessary to explain menu items, ingredients, preparation methods, and so forth, which are not clearly understandable or easily to remember. For instance, young customers today may not be familiar with Veal Oscar. Further, if you use foreign terms, French for example, provide an American translation as well, or, the ingredients and method described in a way that allows the customer to understand what the item is and how it will be prepared.
It is a matter of opinion whether an operation should include menu copy that describes the operation, its history, and other details. Although this may do little to drive sales and profits, it certainly can help create an identity for the restaurant. The big issue with this type of copy occurs when revision does not occur regularly. The operation should always keep such information current and contemporary.
Illustrations/Graphics
Menus should incorporate at least some graphics and illustrations that add a great deal of visual appeal and can stretch the customers' imagination. They are also very effective in highlighting the most profitable menu items. While it is possible to minimize the use of illustrations and graphics on a restaurant menu where server interaction can overcome a lack of visual imagery, in contrast, a catering menu needs such inclusions to aid in customer sales and selection decisions.
Free, high-quality clip art is available on many Web sites, or inexpensive CD's or special software programs that contain a wide variety of art for menu use are also available. The ultimate graphic element is the professionally done photograph, but this can be an expensive option. Pictures of activities are more effective than pictures of inert objects, such as a photograph of your facility, and they work especially well on catering menus. Prospective catering clients can project themselves into the setting depicted in the photo, which might persuade them to select your operation for their events.
If you plan to use food in the photographs, it would be best to use close-ups of finished products, rather than simply raw ingredients. Avoid overdone, common photos, such as a shot of a smiling chef standing next to a buffet table or working an open kitchen. Strive for a fresh approach. Be unique. There is no point in spending a great deal of money for generic photographs that customers will ignore. Bad photographs are worse than no photographs. The best quality and most expensive is the four-color (full-color) photo. When you are looking at a four-color picture, you are actually seeing an assemblage of colored dots. The dots are thicker where the colors are darker. The color separation done during the printing process determines the final quality of the photograph.
Menu Typeface
There are hundreds of different typeface styles and sizes from which to choose. Use those that make the menu easy to read and conform to your restaurant's overall theme. Typically Times New Roman is the standard font used on Window-based PC's and is part of the Times family of fonts. There are extended families, such as Goudy, Century, Swiss, Gill, and Garamond. Use extended font families because they work well together - not only for menus, but also for other things you may want to print, such as nameplates, place cards, and party announcements. As such, based on consistency, its best to stay with the same family using the following variations:
Plain lowercase
PLAIN CAPITALS
Bold lowercase
Italic lowercase
ITALIC CAPITALS
Bold italic lowercase
BOLD ITALIC CAPITALS
A font size smaller than 12 point is not suitable for restaurants. If your target market is senior citizens, you should use a larger font. Avoid the Courtier font, which looks like the old-fashioned typewriter font. It does not have a modern, professional appearance. Fonts are useful to draw attention to your most profitable menu items. For instance, consider using a unique font to highlight menu specials or an unusual font to describe the non-food products you sell, such as logo merchandise and other kinds of souvenirs.
Menus must be user-friendly and easy to read, for example, ALLCAPITALS CAN BE DIFFICULT TO READ. Menus that are difficult to read can irritate customers. Customers tend
to scan quickly and discard catering menus that are difficult to read. Desktop publishing can offer the flexibility needed to incorporate several fonts. It also offers the ability to change menus quickly, easily, and inexpensively. Although desktop publishing is a useful process when done by someone who has sufficient knowledge to do it attractively and professionally, menu software is also available.
Menu Covers and Paper
You can print menus separately for insertion into a reusable cover or holder. The two-panel 9-inch by 12-inch cover is a popular format. It is convenient for guests to handle, and it will easily accommodate the standard eight and a half by eleven-inch stationary, which allows for frequent change and updating. This size will also fit snugly into a standard business-mailing envelope, which is a plus for catering menus.
If you stray too far from this standard-sized bi-fold menu cover, you will have to pay more for the finished product. Having stated the most obvious cost consideration, there are marketing opportunities available with a unique size and/or shape can be a highly recognizable signature that can enhance customer awareness and drive sales revenue.
Paper stock
As the menu is a continuation of your theme or concept, use a good quality paper stock, consistent with the type of restaurant you have and the image you want to project. With professionally printed materials, about 40 percent of the cost is for paper. The two basic choices are cartridge paper, which has a matte finish, or coated paper, which has a shiny finish. The one you choose is typically considers the initial cost as well as the appearance of the color you have selected on each type of paper. The paper's shelf life may also factor into your decision. Coated paper is very attractive but it tends to crack when folded.
The heavier the paper, the better the impression you will make. Parchment has a lush texture and conveys elegance. However, while you may want your menus to have a classical look, you may unintentionally signal to guests that your operation is overly expensive because you are spending too much money on fancy menus. There is a fine line between elegance and wastefulness. Create a balance, do not use paper that is too cheap or of poor quality. For example, computer paper would be unacceptable for most restaurant operations. To the other extreme, even something like coated paper could be inappropriate because, unless a professional printer handles it, it does not absorb ink well. Bear in mind that the menu is one of your primary marketing tools - create and construct your menu for effectiveness in this regard.
Menu Color
The purpose of color is to add interest and variety to the menu. It can also be effective to highlight course headings as well as the operation's most profitable menu items. However, production costs tend to increase in proportion to the colors added to the printing process. The most cost effective method is to print with two colors: the paper color and one additional ink color. Dark ink on white or light-colored paper makes the best contrast and is easier to read.
Faxing menus
If the operation intends to fax the menu, dark ink on white paper is the best choice to insure that the recipient will be able to read the menu easily. It would be a good idea to check with your printer to be certain that an appropriate color combination is in use. As a test, fax a copy of the menu to your own operation before ordering a big printing job.
Test color and paper
Before committing to a large printing order, look at a sample of the color choice on the paper stock selected because the type of ink chosen will usually look different on various types of paper. Provide the printing company with a sample of the color you want, they can determine the best types of ink to use with your preferred paper stock.
Color equals concept
As with the paper stock, select colors that reflect the type of restaurant and any theme. For a fine-dining establishment, select classic colors for the menu covers, such as deep royal purples, rich dusky blues, dark greens, and chocolate to mahogany browns. These colors convey elegance, reliability, and a sense of permanence. Frivolous colors, such as lime green or hot pink, create a faddish appearance. For the paper, a rich cream color will impart a more cultured look than a stark white finish. It is important that the print color ‘jumps off the page’. It is impossible for a color-blink customer to read red print on a dark background. Likewise, older guests may have special vision problems. Consider the customer when choosing the color scheme.
Truth in menu laws
Dating back to their 1977 report, Accuracy in Menus, the National Restaurant Association noted eleven categories of menu misrepresentations that to avoid.
Quantity
Portion size must accurate in addition to product specifics. For example, if your menu states that large eggs are a part of menu item, then you must include that product. ("Large" is one of six federal government sizes used in the grading of fresh eggs.) The largest problem with quantity is the typically the misleading terminology that sometimes finds its way onto the menu. If the operation offers a "large" bowl of soup, or a "supersized" soda as exemplars, it might be wise to add descriptors that note the actual serving weights of the each item.
Quality
A restaurant cannot advertise a level of quality that it does not provide to the customer. For example, the menu cannot state that an item contains crabmeat when the item contains imitation crab. The federal government has established quality grades for many of the foods and beverages restaurants use. Check that the proper grade is included on the menu. For instance, the word "prime" to describe beef offerings is not suitable on the menu unless the operation is actually purchasing and serving this quality-grade of meat.
Price
The restaurant must disclose all relevant charges. If there is a charge for, say, all white-meat chicken or for beverage refills, clearly identify this on the menu. A restaurant has freedom to select an appropriate price for the items it serves however, the consumer has the right to accurate pricing information and where charges will occur. Most customers will not revisit an operation that "baits and switches" prices (advertising one price but charging the customer a different or higher price).
Brand name
Similar to the 'quality' rule, a restaurant cannot imply that it serves a brand-name product if, in fact, it is using a substitute item. For example, a food service establishment cannot serve a customer Pepsi if the customer specifically asks for Coke. The main problem with brand names is that many of them are just not so obvious - like the name Jell-O. Many operations casually refer to any type of gelatin product; however, Jell-O is a brand name and suitable only if you serve that product.
Product identification
The federal government has established several "standards of identity." These standards define what a food product must be in order for you to call it by its standard name. For instance, orange juice is not the same as orange-flavored drink, maple syrup differs from maple-flavored syrup, and pure vanilla extract is not the same as vanilla flavoring. These would be simple mistakes to make and, as such, they often occur on foodservice menus. The stand of identity also applied to the ingredients included in a particular item. Sodium can be an issue for some customers, shellfish allergies, peanut allergies, to name a few. A clear description of the item can avoid a potential health issue for a customer.
Point of origin
This is another area of concern - operations tend to toss terms around without giving them a second thought. The term "Maine" lobster sounds quite appealing and denotes quality but can only be usable if the lobster harvest comes from the state of Maine. The "Idaho" potato is another example of a more generally utilized term as opposed to the actual point of origin of the potatoes purchased by the restaurant.
Merchandising terms
Sometimes an operation can create problems by using too much trade hype to describe menu items. It would not be appropriate to use the term "made from scratch" if, in fact, the preparation uses some canned ingredients. Equally, the term "center-cut" filet mignon would be inappropriate if the whole tenderloin was usable for that particular item.
Preservation
A foodservice operation much be careful with the term "fresh." This term implies that the food ingredients you use have never been frozen, canned, bottled, or dried. It might be possible to skirt the law saying that a menu item is "freshly prepared" or "prepared to order," but it is advisable not to push such a point. There will be days when you just cannot get a fresh ingredient and have to settle for a frozen one. There will also be times when you have to prepare items ahead of time, even though you prefer preparing them to order. Be as honest as possible with your customers because if they trap the operation in a lie, irreparable damage to the company's reputation can occur.
Means of preparation
Guests often make item selection decisions based on the preparation method used. Health conscious customers might prefer broiled chicken to fried chicken, or steamed vegetables rather than those prepared with a butter sauce. Whether or not an item was roasted, braised, fried, grilled, stewed or steamed can be an important point of choice or concern for customers these days.
Illustrations/graphics
Restaurateurs often place photos of finished food products on the menu, and especially like to show these on menu boards, or in common via the use a dessert cart. This is an appropriate practice but one must be careful to insure that the finished products from the menu resemble these photographs. Guest develop expectations on these pictorial representations and what they envision is what they expect with the menu item arrives at the table.
Nutrition
Dating back to 1994, restaurants in the United States are required to verify any health, nutrition, or dietary claims made on menus and in other forms of advertising. A restaurant must also follow appropriate guidelines when using standardized terminology such as "light" or "lite" which denotes food servings that are at least one-third fewer calories and less fat by at least fifty-percent. Proper nutrition is a forefront concern in the twenty-first century. An associated concern is childhood obesity with parents and healthcare professionals taking greater interest in portion sizes, calories included, and balanced nutrition in general. Customers are generally in search for healthier menu choices and this provides an opportunity for foodservice operators to inform their clientele about healthy menus. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Designing_the_Restaurant_Menu/10.01%3A_Designing_the_Menu.txt |
Menu Writing Strategies Checklist
What technique(s) are usable to meet and overcome the competition, to be profitable, and to expand or grow?
All of these involve marketing decisions to create the appropriate ‘bundle’ of resources:
1. Product,
2. Price,
3. Promotion, and
4. Place (placement?)
The menu is (not only) a major ‘communications and selling’ tool, and control mechanism but also a potential research and experimentation device that are usable to increase restaurant profits. Information on popularity and profitability of items can give a restaurateur important information on future menu decisions.
Menu Location and Sequence
Menu organization makes a difference.
1. Eye motion patterns – example single-fold menu the area just above and to the right is the best place for profitable items.
2. Menu should follow the meal sequence (both food and beverages)
1. Appetizers, soups, salads, entrees and desserts
2. Cocktails, wines & beers, after-dinner drinks
3. The top item on any entrée listing has the best chance of selection (as well as top group – i.e. steaks, seafood, poultry, etc.)
4. Multiple menus or one?
1. Specials: house specialties or limited time offers
2. Larger, bolder type
3. Longer description
4. Place in special boxes or panels
5. Color or illustrations
Additional information is provided in the ‘data analysis’ chapter.
Menu Content
Think of your menu as an extension of your marketing efforts which should be ‘seamless’ in approach. The menu content has to be clear and concise, appealing to the customers tastes, indicate value and affordability for the customer. Studies show that if for example, pricing for appetizers and desserts seem ‘conspicuously higher’ in relation to the main courses, customers feel a lack of value and will not return. In sum, pricing for either appetizers or desserts that does not make sense to the customer is a deal breaker no matter the value your main courses create. Some restauranteurs try to edge out more profit in these areas to disastrous ends. Important considerations and elements follow.
1. Menu type – A la carte, Table d’hote, Prix fixe
2. Listings
3. Variety
1. Temperature
2. Cooking methods
3. Texture
4. Shapes and sizes
5. Color
6. Balance
7. Price
4. Composition – make-up of the plate or meal itself
Writing the Menu
Writing the actual menu is an important step in the menu creation process. The terminology you use and accurate description of your menu inclusions are very important elements. Customers read the menu item and form an impression of what it will look like and how it will taste. Pay attention to the following aspects of description and accuracy.
1. Descriptive terminology
1. Explaining
2. Signaling quality or value
3. Selling
• Do descriptive labels increase sales?
• Do descriptive labels make customers believe the food tastes better?
• Do descriptive labels influence customers’ attitudes toward a restaurant and their intent to return?
4. Basic findings when given descriptive labels (Wansink, Painter & van Ittersum, 2001):
• Sales increased by one-fourth
• Food consistently rated higher in quality and better value by customers
• Customers formed more positive attitudes about the restaurant
• Believed the restaurant was keeping up with trends
• Increased likelihood that customers would purchase those items again on return visits
• Did not influence willingness to pay more money for these items
• Descriptive menu labels can stimulate first-time consumption and encourage repeat sales
• Words of caution – if food is of only average or below-average quality – descriptions may have little or negative effect. Descriptions may raise customer expectations about the quality of menu items (Findings in Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Quarterly, December 2001).
5. Types of descriptive labels:
• Geographic labels (e.g., Cajun or Italian)
• Affective labels (e.g., home-style or grandma’s)
• Sensory labels (e.g., tender or silky)
• Methodology (e.g., broiled, smoked, etc.)
• Quality or branding (e.g., Certified Angus Beef, USDA Prime, etc.)
6. Negative Terminology – refrain from using it
2. Accuracy in Menus
1. Be certain you can substantiate your written and spoken words with product, invoice, or label.
2. Representation of quantity – double martinis = 2 times normal size, jumbo eggs are recognized egg size, etc.
3. Representation of quality – federal and state standards are used and stated, exception prime rib – meaning: primal ribs rather than USDA Prime grade.
4. Representation of price – any additional charges are brought to the immediate attention of the customer (e.g., bottled water charge, service charge, extra charge of white meat only, etc.)
5. Representation of brand names – Coca-Cola, Tabasco, etc.
6. Representation of product identification – e.g., maple syrup vs. maple-flavored syrup
7. Representation of points of origin – e.g., Louisiana Crawfish Etouffee using Chinese crawfish
8. Representation of merchandising terms – “World’s Best Jambalaya”, Mile-high Ice Cream Pie”, vs. “we use only the finest beef” or “homemade”
9. Representation of preservation –frozen vs. fresh
10. Representation of food preparation – baked, broiled, etc.
11. Representation of verbal or visual presentation – should portray actual contents with accuracy
12. Representation of dietary or nutritional claims – “heart healthy” (specific guidelines by AHA), salt-free or sugar-free, low calorie must be supportable. Restaurants are generally exempt from providing nutritional information on menus but are currently under attack by a segment of the population.
• Absolute claim – low-fat or calorie-free
• Relative of comparative claim – light or reduced (reference can be made to the restaurant’s regular product, another restaurant’s product, a value obtained from a reliable data source, a national/regional average, or market-based norm.
• Implied claim – implies that a nutrient is present or absent (this area is gray one decided on a case-by-case basis)
Additional examples and ideas are available at: <https://designschool.canva.com/blog/...hology-design/>
Physical Components of the Menu
1. Menu Cover
• Padded, custom designed, insert-type, laminated, paper
2. Menu Layout
• Categories, subheadings, using prime space, clip-on
• Using leftover space – stories, history, etc.
3. Desktop publishing or outsourcing
4. Type of paper – this depends on the theme or the restaurant and length of use.
5. Color – lighting, image, theme, contrast between type and paper colors.
6. Type – old style, modern, etc.
7. Artwork – some parallel the restaurant theme and positioning also with sparking interest.
8. Menu Aesthetics Checklist – follows theme, branding, pricing. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Designing_the_Restaurant_Menu/10.02%3A_Menu_Strategies.txt |
The Menu Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Menu information
1. Layout
2. Printing considerations
3. Descriptions
4. Nutrition considerations
5. Truth-in-menu considerations
6. Artwork
7. Beverage menu – listing and pricing (method?)
8. Narrative of considerations
Example of menu and thought process
352Basilico
The Menu
Introduction
In the following pages, I have provided a sample menu for Basilico. Our menu will consist of an a la carte menu that will have set items as well as “specials of the day”. The “specials of the day” will be determined based upon what is in season at the time. The specials of the day can also be determined by if a good enough deal has been made on an entrée. A good deal means that a good price has been established without sacrificing the wanted quality. As any restaurant, any of the set menu items are susceptible to change depending on how well each item is selling.
Lunch vs. Dinner
Our lunch menu will be a lite version of our dinner menu. Our main focus will be our dinner menu. The lunch menu will consist of items like our margherita and prosciutto pizzas, bruschettas, carbonaras, risottos, etc. Our lunch menu will consist of simple but flavorful dishes that can be produced with little to no issue. Our dinner menu will carryover most if not all of our lunch items. It will include our signature dinner menu items like Osso Bucco, Mussel Linguine, Chicken alla Mattone, etc.
Style
The menu will be a la carte. “A la carte” means that guests are not limited by a set menu and can choose from a wide array of menu choices. We will offer set menus for reserved dinners as requested. The a la carte menu will consist of everything offered that night from the antipasto to the dolce. A separate menu will list all the beverages, wines, and spirits that we offer.
Servers will be able to describe in detail all of the dishes to guests if requested. If someone wants to order the Osso Bucco, but still have questions about the menu description, then the server will be able to describe the Osso Bucco as if the entrée were right in front of them. This skill amongst our servers is necessary because the names that will appear on our menu can be foreign to most.
Basilico
Antipasto
Basil and Watermelon Salad ~ 12
Watermelon that has been vacuum packed with basil and simple syrup for 24 hours. Served with arugula, crumbled feta cheese, sliced beets, and a lime ginger dressing.
Bruschetta ~ 8
Heirloom tomatoes tossed in balsamic dressing paired with fresh mozzarella and basil on top of toasted slices of French bread.
Roasted Cauliflower ~ 10
An entire head of cauliflower that has been roasted, topped with sea salt, and paired with whipped feta, olive oil, and spice mixture
Primi
Gulf Shrimp Carbonara ~ 18
Sauteed pancetta and gulf shrimp, combined with eggs to make a creamy sauce, and tossed with spaghetti noodles and parmesan cheese.
Wild Mushroom Risotto ~ 14
Risotto with porcini, button, and crimini mushrooms
Ravioli ~ 12
Ricotta cheese ravioli topped with house-made marinara sauce
Secondi
Osso Bucco ~ 28
Braised pork shanks with a honey mustard glaze that is dusted with a juniper and sugar mixture on top of a sweet potato and toasted barley risotto
Chicken alla Mattone ~ 26
Chicken roasted with thyme and paired with asparagus, Meyer preserved lemons, and new potatoes
Mussels & Calamari Linguine ~ 30
Seafood pasta made with locally caught mussels and calamari and made with our home-made marinara sauce
Dolci
Crème Brulee ~ 14
Rich custard topped with a caramelized sugar crust, powdered sugar, and berries
Tiramisu ~ 10
Popular Italian coffee flavored layered dessert with ladyfingers, whipped cream, and mascarpone cheese
White Almond Gelato Sundae ~ 16
House-made white almond gelato topped with whipped cream, vanilla syrup, and an almond macaron
Pricing Objectives
Our pricing choices reflect not only how much it costs to produce the item, but the overall experience as well. The beautiful architecture of the restaurant is just one factor of the overall experience of Basilico. Another factor is our staff training to be able to treat our patrons with the utmost respect. Our prices also reflect how high-scale of a restaurant that we aim to become.
Labor Requirements
Our goal of high quality standards requires a greater labor cost than most. This means that all staff have to go the extra mile to make sure that their service exceeds all expectations. The bright side is that most of the prep work for these dishes is doable before service. There will be sous vide, low boys, and steam tables provided.
Other Factors
Our restaurant is sure to stand out in the community because of its upscale nature. From the inside to the out, it will feel like a ‘5 star’ dining experience. Our motto is that we always try to achieve perfection even though perfection is impossible.
Standardized Recipes
Basilico prides itself in consistency. Standardized recipes are just one way that we serve our best quality product at the standard our patrons have for us. Standardized recipes are also a great way to lower food costs. It is a way for us to know for certain that this many ingredients can produce this many servings without a doubt.
Projected Menu Mix
The following table shows the presumed number of plates of each the Antipasto, Primi, Secondi, and Dolci options based upon an average Friday night. The menu mix will assume that we served 150 people. Included is the projected food cost, menu mix, and profit per plate. The average amount of gross profit predicted is \$4,735.65.
Antipasto Price Food Cost per Plate FC% Profit per Plate #Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Basil and Watermelon \$12.00 \$6.45 53% \$5.55 50 \$277.50 33.33%
Bruschetta \$8.00 \$4.25 53% \$3.75 65 \$243.75 43.33%
Roasted Cauliflower \$10.00 \$5.30 53% \$4.70 35 \$164.50 23.33%
Average: \$10.00 \$5.33 53% \$4.67 150 \$685.75 100%
Primi Price Food Cost per Plate FC% Profit per Plate #Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Carbonara \$18.00 \$8.00 44% \$10.00 75 \$750.00 50.00%
Risotto \$14.00 \$6.25 45% \$7.75 30 \$232.50 20.00%
Ravioli \$12.00 \$5.45 45% \$6.55 45 \$294.75 30.00%
Average: \$14.47 \$6.57 44.67% \$8.10 150 \$1,277.25 100%
Secondi Price Food Cost per Plate FC% Profit per Plate #Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Osso Bucco \$28.00 \$14.75 53% \$13.25 68 \$901.00 45.33%
Chicken \$26.00 \$12.50 48% \$13.50 53 \$715.50 35.33%
Linguine \$30.00 \$16.85 56% \$13.15 29 \$381.35 19.33%
Average: \$28.00 \$14.70 52.33% \$13.30 150 1,997.85 100%
Dolci Price Food Cost per Plate FC% Profit per Plate #Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Crème Brulee \$14.00 \$5.85 42% \$8.15 40 \$326.00 40%
Tiramisu \$10.00 \$4.50 45% \$5.50 20 \$110.00 20%
Gelato Sundae \$16.00 \$7.53 47% \$8.47 40 \$338.80 40%
Average: \$13.33 \$5.96 44.67% \$7.37 100 \$774.80 100%
Conclusion
This concept gives you a good idea of my vision for the menu aspect of Basilico. Any tips are welcome so that the people of the River Ranch region have a great experience.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What is the major advantage for the use of a ‘day part’ menu?
2. What is a ‘cycle’ menu?
3. Explain the flexibility of a ‘daily menu’.
4. How do a’ la carte and ‘prix fixe’ menus differ?
5. What is the difference between a ‘casual’ menu and a ‘café’ menu?
6. Should a ‘dessert’ menu be separate from the main menu? What are the pros and cons?
7. What would be the most practical use of menus for a foodservice establishment?
8. What are the physical components of a menu? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Designing_the_Restaurant_Menu/10.03%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments.txt |
Glossary
Day part menus. This menu pricing method focuses on a particular meal period. For example, a restaurant might consider separate menus for each day part: breakfast, lunch, dinner, high tea, snack, late night, and so forth. This is also a very effective way of addressing or targeting different demographic profiles or market needs.
Cycle menus. These menus repeat themselves according to some predetermined pattern. Broad cycles could be used to change and invigorate a menu on a seasonal basic to take advantage of season items and, or, lower price points based on product availability.
Daily menus. Given the ease and efficiency of desktop publishing, a restaurant can conceivably print a different menu each day. This is also a marketing tool for single units that could print menus that contain the same items every day, but offer customers change in the form of highlighted specials - similar to the way many fresh seafood houses merchandise their daily catches or wine bars merchandise the wines of the day or week. This form of menu creation provides a single unit foodservice operation an effective way of competing with major well-known restaurants that cannot change menu items without corporate approval. Additionally, this menu method allow a small restaurant to be proactive in terms of product freshness and availability while keeping the menu new and exciting.
A` la carte menus. This term references a menu of items priced and ordered separately, a menu form common in the operation of restaurants. These menus list a price for every menu item, so that the guest pays a separate price for each dish ordered. There are no "combo" meals or "value" meals. Menu items traditionally bundled together are separated out, putatively giving the consumer greater choice at lower cost.
'Prix fixe' menus. These are sometimes referred to as "bundled," fixed price," "all-inclusive," or "table d'hôte" menu. These menus are the opposite of a` la carte menus because there is one price for a set meal or a set combination of items. Many restaurants in the United States convert their menus to prix fixe only certain holidays such as Thanksgiving.
Downtime menus. These menus were created to bring in guests during the slower restaurant day periods. These are usually limited menus with lower prices, offered during normally slow periods of the day with the intention of boosting sales revenue. Examples of downtime menu would include the 'early-bird' special menus, late night menus, and mid-morning break menus offered by restaurants that are open 12 to 14 hours a day.
Casual Menus. These are sometimes referred to as 'limited ' menus. They are similar to the downtime menus, however, they are not priced as low, and they typically offer a slightly larger item selection scheme. A limited menu is useful if you have a small kitchen, but a large dining room and lounge, where speed is essential. Having fewer menu items helps to remove much of the stress on the back of the house, which allows you to turn tables more quickly.
Cafe menus. These are menus used by high-end restaurants wanting to offer patrons a choice between the regular (higher-priced) menu offerings in the main dining room, and a more limited (lower-priced) selection in a separate area of the restaurant. These are similar to the type of menu offered in a country club or hotel grillroom as compared to its offerings in the formal dining room. The idea is to broaden your market, gain more exposure for your operation, and perhaps convert some cafe` customers to main dining room customers at some point in the future.
Interactive menus. Some operations allow guests to mix and match their orders. For instance, Macaroni Grill allows guests to create their own pasta dishes. The guest does this by checking off different options on a card and then handing the card to the food server. Some caters have several lists of food and beverage items, each of which is individually priced. The client picks menu items from the caterer's lists and eventually arrives at a personalized menu for the event.
Tabletop displays. These can be used effectively to promote your profitable menu items or specials, but only if you minimize the amount of copy. Customers typically do not usually read them in depth. You have to let pictures tell the story in most cases or larger font size if you use table displays to supplement your menus.
Catering menus. Those restaurants that offer catering, whether on or off-premise, usually have some version of a separate catering menu. Some operations do not want to use a separate menu, preferring to build each party from scratch - that is, they develop a custom menu for guests who would like to incorporate their personal preferences in to the menu. If printed menus are used, keep in mind that customers may review them in their homes or offices, where you will not be present to guide their choices and sell the event.
Dessert menus. In addition to wonderful selling tools with space for pictures and descriptions, these menus also offer great up-selling opportunities. They work better, when, instead of a printed menu, you have a dessert cart or tray that can be useful to display the products. Desserts are a good example of customers eating with their eye first.
Notes
Rebecca L. Spang. 2000. The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture (Harvard, 2000)
Paradowski, Michał B. (2017). "What's cooking in English culinary texts? Insights from genre corpora for cookbook and menu writers and translators.
Dickerman, Sara. 2003. Eat Your Words: A Guide to Menu English. slate.com, byline April 29, 2003, accessed Nov. 27, 2007) | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Designing_the_Restaurant_Menu/10.04%3A_Chapter_Glossary_and_Notes.txt |
Chapter 11 Learning Objectives
• Understand the factors that affect pricing decisions.
• Understand how consumers react to pricing.
• How to consider the consumer’s environmental influences.
• Understand the aspect of price as perceived value.
• Understand the various strategies for item markup.
• Comprehend demand-based pricing.
• How to determine the appropriate price based on cost factors.
• Understand price difference, duration control and price fences.
• Understand the importance of the ‘purchasing’ function.
“Everyone has a price,” she said. But clearly not everyone has a soul,”
Ruta Sepetys
“Don't tell me what you value, show me your budget, and I'll tell you what you value.”
Joe Biden
“There can be no value in the whole unless there is value in the parts.”
Bertrand Russell
“Price is what you pay and value is what you get.”
Warren Buffett
Restauranteurs need to be adept at various pricing methods but first, and foremost; they need to be aware of the new factors that come into play when determining how to price items for sale. First, the good news. Food prices, with few exceptions, have stabilized over the past few years. Now for the bad news. The price of pretty much everything else has gone up. Food cost was the highest cost in the past. Now, the current order is occupancy cost, followed by labor cost, followed by food cost. That makes managing the cost of what goes on the plate even more crucial to turning a profit.
There are various methods available to determine the pricing strategy organizations will use to attract a clientele. Pricing is one of the most important functions of the restaurant operation. Pricing has direct links to both value and profitability. It is also a tool to direct and channel customer patterns and usage. To consider the pricing function as simply 'what the operation charges for the products we sell' is to miss interpret the 'value' function of what pricing accomplishes and thus, as a result of such narrow thinking, the profitability mark of the operation's offerings would usually be missed as well.
Price is an important component of the four major components of the marketing mix. While the other three components of the mix – promotion, product, and distribution - create value and are recognized on the operations income statement as expenses, pricing is the organization's tool to create value, and it directly affects the revenue section of the income statement. Pricing is actually the easiest of the marketing mix components to change or adjust and again, has that direct link to revenue. In the twenty-first century marketplace, a great deal of effort must go into the formulation of pricing strategies. The restaurant operation must always remember that every product and service has two valuations - the one created by the organization and the value placed on the operations offerings by the actual consumers. If the respective definitions of value differs to some extreme based on cost, or some other circumstance that adjusts the consumers opinion of worth, then the customers view and support for the operation, and thus profitability, can become problematic.
Factors That Affect Pricing Decisions
The pricing decision has historically been a critical component of the marketing mix and the positioning of a product or service. Pricing is a continual process that requires a firm understanding of the market and its environments. In the twenty-first century, the dynamic nature of any marketplace has heightened rather than subsided which creates formidable challenges for even the most experienced managers. Therefore, the best tactic is to pursue a systematic approach to pricing that includes establishing pricing objectives consistent with the overall objectives of the firm, assessing consumer price sensitivity, and monitoring the external environment. The days of economic consistency are past.
Pricing Objectives
While the possible pricing objectives are numerous, they usually fall into four overarching categories based on an organization's goals related to: financial performance, amount of volume, competition, and desired image. All pricing objectives should closely relate to the company's organizational objectives. Thus, pricing, in many ways, is a large part of the means to the end.
Financial performance objectives
These objectives focus on financial areas of the restaurant operation such as the company's level of profitability, desired rates of return on sales and equity, and cash flow. Most large companies continually monitor these performance measures and, over time, find it prudent to use these measures as benchmarks or objectives. The closer one observes performance measures, the more clearly they can see the impact of price on financial performance outcomes.
Volume objectives
These objectives focus on sales and market share. These measures can be based either on the number of units sold or on the dollar amount of the units sold. The sales measure looks at the firm in term s of individual accountability, while the market share views the company relative to the competition. Volume objectives are particularly common in the early stages of the product life cycle, when companies are willing to forgo profits in exchange for building long-term sales and market share. It would also be wise to see that price competition stays strong in the maturity stage in an attempt to hold market share.
Competition objectives
Competition objectives focus on the nature of the competitive environment. A firm may want to maintain competitive similarity with the market leader, widen the gap between itself and market followers, or simply survive. If strong competitive forces or economies of scale are at play. There is typically a great deal of head-to-head competition in the hospitality and tourism industry. A change in price by one organization in the market generally sees reciprocation by other organizations in the marketplace.
Achieving image objectives
These objectives focus on the organization's overall positioning strategy. Often, a restaurant operation's position in the market is a direct result of its 'price-quality' relationship as perceived by consumers. Price is the main segmentation factor useful to the restaurant to distinguish quick service (QSR), casual, upscale, and luxury categories.
Consumer Reaction to Price
An important moderating factor in setting prices is ‘consumer price sensitivity’, or how consumers react to changes in price. There are numerous ‘situation’ factors affecting consumer price sensitivity, and these factors can actually vary from one purchase decision to another. For example, a married couple with children may be less price-sensitive when choosing a restaurant for a special occasion than they would be if they were having a normal meal after work. Some of the more common perceptions affecting consumer price sensitivity follow.
The price-quality connection
In many situations, consumers use price as an indicator of a product's quality, especially when they do not have much experience with the product category. In such cases, consumers be less sensitive to a product's price to the extent that they believe higher prices signify higher quality. An example would be travelers who often use price as a gauge of quality because they lack familiarity with the travel products in a different city. This pertains to all components of the travel product, such as hotels, restaurants, car rentals, and tourist attractions. This lack of information is one of the main reasons that consumers would use price as a signal of quality, along with the perceived risk of making a bad choice and the belief that quality differences exist between brands. Pricing perceptions related to the trading area is an important consideration.
Unique- value relationship
Consumers will be less price-sensitive when a product stays unique and does not have close substitutes. If a firm successfully differentiates its products and services from those of its competition, it can charge a higher price. Consumers must remain aware of the differentiation and convinced of its value in order to pay the higher price. In essence, the organization's strategy is to reduce the presence of substitutes in the mind of consumers, thereby eliminating the consumer's reference value for the product. Many fine-dining restaurants use this approach and differentiate themselves on attributes such as the chef, the atmosphere, and menu.
How customers see substitutes
Customers will become more price sensitive when comparing a product's higher price with the lower prices of substitutes for that product. The prices for substitutes help consumers’ forma reference price, or a reasonable price range for the product. The restaurant operator should always be aware of the number of substitutes that consumers are aware of for different dining options. Substitutes tend to put downward pressure on price resulting in a relatively narrow acceptable range of prices for each different type of restaurant category. As such, price differentials were instrumental in creating the different restaurant categories so it is not surprising that there is little significant price difference between products in quick=service, casual and fine-dining categories.
When comparisons are difficult
While consumers may be aware of competitive substitutes, at times, the differences between competitors can become difficult to discern. At this point, consumers tend to be less concerned with price differentials. Thus, when it becomes harder for consumers to compare different brands price sensitivity goes down. Therefore, many organizations try to differentiate themselves from their competition on those attributes that are historically difficult for customer comparisons. As an example, restaurants may serve food and drink in different quantities and packaged configurations from their competition, to make direct comparisons more difficult. In general, the competitive winner will typically be the strongest brand. Rather than spend the time and effort t make comparisons, many consumers are content simply choosing a brand that they perceive as satisfactory. Franchise operations are strong beneficiaries of this consumer action because they focus on providing consistent products and services under a recognizable brand name. Even though consumers have avoided direct comparisons and not familiarized themselves with all of the alternatives, consumers still feel safe in choosing one of these well-known brands.
Shared cost
Consumers are generally less concerned with price if another organization or individual is sharing in the cost of a product. Typically, the smaller the portion of the price paid by the consumer, the less concerned the consumer will be about price. This sharing could be in the form of a tax deduction, a business reimbursement, or some type of sales promotion such as a coupon or a rebate. When business travelers eat at restaurants, they tend to be less concerned about price because their organizations' pay for most of their travel expenses. A usual tactic for hospitality organizations is to charge higher relative prices for their products that target business companies. The exception would be an organization that targets business travelers with lower prices to obtain a larger portion of that potential revenue segment.
Income and price concern
As a rule of thumb, consumers tend to be more concerned with price in direct relation to the amount of the total expenditure. This amount is measurable in terms of the individual purchase, or as a percentage of income. For instance, a consumer purchasing a vacation package for \$5,000 will be more sensitive to the cost of the package that the price of a meal in a restaurant. The cost of the vacation is a relatively large travel expenditure, whereas the cost of a meal in small in comparison. However, a consumer with an income of \$500,000 a year will be less concerned about the cost of the vacation that the consumer who earns \$50,000 per year. Further, consumers with higher incomes tend to place a greater value on their time and may decide to accept higher prices without evaluating alternative products.
The value of meal components
A product may represent only one portion of the total desired benefit. Consumers tend to evaluate the desired end benefit of their purchase and their price concerns for something that contributes to that end benefit. Specifically, in the restaurant industry, consumers are more price conscious when the cost of component (say an appetizer or dessert), represents a larger portion of the total cost than they perceive is fair. For example, while \$20 might be acceptable for a pasta entree, \$7.95 for onion rings and \$9 for a slice of chocolate cake may appear high given the cost of an onion and cake mix. Said differently, although the restaurant operator has justification for charging certain prices, the consumer is under no obligation to agree with a restaurant's pricing structure. Income is an important consideration regarding price and end benefits from the consumers' perspective. The use of packages, or bundles, by resorts and restaurants in tourist destinations is an attempt to pair the end benefits desired by consumers with a high perception of value.
The Consumers' Environment
Environmental factors drive many consumer-pricing decisions over which they, or the restaurant, have little control. Restaurant operators' must stay abreast of existing and developing events and situations pertinent to the consumers in their marketplace. While these events generally uncontrollable by either consumer or restaurant operator, such events can nonetheless affect pricing decisions because they affect an organization's costs, the demand for its products, and the competition. The components of the external environment would include the economy environment, the social changes, the governmental issues, technological advances, and the competition.
Economic factors
Constant changes occur in the state of the economy and it is measurable by indicators such as business growth, inflation, consumer spending, unemployment rates, and interest rates. If the organization is to compete and earn an acceptable profit, their pricing strategies should reflect changes in the economy. Organizations that compete in international markets must consider the state of the economy in the foreign markets as well as the domestic markets. On the local level, many items sold as part of the product mix are international in origin. Food products from various nations find their way into even local restaurants and wine from different parts of the world are now common. In each case, exchange rates and economic climates come into play. Foreign exchange rates can affect an organization's income statement drastically and influence the future of the firm. Prices change in accordance with changes in consumer income, resulting spending patterns, as well as with variations in the organizations product costs resulting from changes in the domestic environment (possibly a drought), or in foreign markets (warring factions, religious ideology, transportation costs, and so forth).
Consumer preferences - social change
Consumers’ tastes often change over time and organizations that do not adapt find it hard to survive in the marketplace. On a broad scale, changes in cultures and sub-cultures throughout the world are affecting many societies. The natural tendencies of consumers are not the same. Different cultures have different spending patterns and saving practices. For instance, many Asians tend t same more of their incomes than other nationalities do, but they also tend to purchase name brands that are associated with high quality. As such, Asians are more concerned with quality than price. Further, as cultures, come together, they influence the eating habits of others. Consumers in the United States are eating more sushi and drinking more tea than in the past. Culture now fuse in many more ways than before.
Political aspects - local to global
Each level of government can have a highly significant impact on the operations of hospitality and tourism organizations throughout the country and beyond. The effects of a change in the minimum wage could touch the cost structure in virtually all areas of a restaurant operation due to the labor-intense nature of the industry - and its suppliers. Changes in tax laws related to business expenses could negatively affect the demand in restaurants. Restaurant management must consider the political environment and possible changes that may result from new and changing laws when menu pricing is under consideration.
In tourist locales such as New Orleans and Las Vegas, an increase in city amusement taxes could easily have a detrimental effect on the restaurant environment as cost become too severe for travelers - and locals cannot afford to purchase in that trading area. A government's taxing authority is by no means the limit in terms of potential harms that could occur as the result of political decision-making. In addition, governments impose many fees on businesses, and organizations operation in international markets must contend with still additional fees, tariffs, and operation costs. On the other hand, some cities are quite sensitive to the needs of the hospitality industry and attempt to ameliorate market conditions where possible. Pricing must absorb and move beyond such costs and expenses.
Advancing technology
While the pace of changes appears to move faster and faster each day, restaurant operations must constantly be concerned with keeping up not only with advances in technology, but also with how such advances could be utilized in the operation to improve products and services, as well as an operation's competitive edge. Many new technologies designed for the hospitality and tourism field intend to improve operational efficiency and thereby reduce cost factors. For example, with the advent of the new hand-held terminals to place orders, servers no longer need to enter the kitchen or move to a stationary terminal in another location. These new point-of-sale (POS) systems also enable organizations' to track costs and demand for particular food items. This type of information can be invaluable in both setting prices and in gauging the customer reactions and resulting purchase decisions.
Competitive reactions
Organizations must stay abreast of their competitions' impressions, anticipated changes, and moves toward innovation. New organizations entering the market will naturally change the overall supply of the trading area, thereby changing the market structure and enacting downward pressure on market prices. Competitors will also engage in promotional consumers' perceptions of value. Campaigns offering price discounts or free merchandise that will affect consumers' perceptions of value. Short-term price wars in the quest for additional market share are normal in the restaurant industry at all business segment levels.
Price as Perceived value
What customers can afford
Before setting prices for individual menu items, catering events, or other merchandise, gather as much information as possible to determine how much your typical customer is most likely to spend when visiting your restaurant. Said differently, what is the most likely average check you can expect to obtain, given the type of business you have and the customers you service? This type of information comes about from past sales records if the restaurant is part of an existing operation, or, if opening a new business, you can get a good idea of this dollar amount by reviewing your initial competitor analysis of the trading area. Keep in mind that your menu is generally your only means to cover your expenses and produce a profit. Of course, you would like for pricing to be as high as possible but the need for revenue must always maintain a balance with the consumers’ ability to spend. This is one of the reasons we begin any project by scrutinizing the city. If consumer income is low, their ability to spend is equally low and thus decisions to spend become based on 'need' to buy versus 'nice' to buy. Table 1 above provides pricing options to consider.
If you determine that the average lunch check is \$10; that is, you anticipate that each guest will spend \$10 per lunch visit. If that is the case, you need to determine the best way to arrive at a \$10 lunch meal. For instance, if you develop and price entrees at about \$9.95, your typical guest would be unlikely to order anything else, such as a beverage, appetizer, or dessert. At that point, in the mind of the consumer, you are 'too expensive.' Always remember that consumers tend to use phrasing that can be too extreme - and worse, their friends trust their opinion. But, if you price entrees at \$6.95 to \$7.95, the guest will more than likely order a beverage, a dessert 9 possibly shared with someone), or some other item. Consumers naturally perceive a greater value when they can purchase several products for that \$10 rather than only one. It is important to know and understand your customers as much as possible because, as this scenario would tend to indicate, the process of developing prices, as in other areas of your business, requires that you think like your typical guest.
Some operators prefer ˋa la carte’ pricing while others prefer to use a bundling approach as usually price everything. Fine-dining operations and cafeterias usually price everything ˋa la carte. On the other hand, restaurant categories such as quick -service, family-style, and casual-dining restaurants typically offer some sort of bundling. As a rule of thumb, businesses with lower average checks and more value-conscious customers should offer guests some bundling opportunities.
Table 1: Pricing Objectives & Typical Actions to Achieve Them
Objective Possible Action
Survival Adjust price levels so that the operation can increase sales volume to match organizational expenses both fixed and variable.
Profit Identify price and cost levels that enable the operation to maximize profit.
Return On Investment Identify price levels that enable the operation to yield a determined return on the money invested (ROI) in the operation.
Market Share Adjust price levels so that the operation can maintain or increase sales relative to competitors' sales.
Cash Flow Set price levels to encourage rapid sales.
Status Quo Identify price levels that help stabilize product demand and sales.
Product Quality Set prices to recover research and development expenditures and establish high-quality image.
In a fine-dining restaurant, consumers are accustomed to paying individually for every little thing they order, even for such items as bread and water. Cafeteria patrons are also accustomed to this form of pricing structure. ˋA la carte’ pricing tends to work well in these situations. In quick-service operations, however, offerings such as 'value meals' are very important; consumers who frequent these operations expect them. Quick service, family-style, and casual-dining restaurants typically offer a combination of ˋa la carte and bundling pricing methods. They also may have a few all-you-can eat, or free soft drink, specials.
Value is often in the eye of the beholder. You need to maintain a firm handle on your clientele's value perceptions, although it is not always easy and requires constant vigilance. Although you feel that you do understand the needs and concerns or your guests, everything can easily change tomorrow; you need to focus on this issue constantly.
While ‘value’ is a theme that spans all areas of marketing, it closely relates to quality, price, and service. There is a direct relationship between quality and price; guests expect higher quality to accompany a higher price. The same relationship exists between service and price; more service and better service costs more. The trick is to find out how far guests are willing to go. What appeals to them? How much will they pay for added benefits? What are their priorities? Although the list seems endless, eventually the operation will develop a feel for what its guests want. Then it is up to the operator to monitor their needs and modify the restaurant's pricing strategy accordingly.
Pricing Daily Specials
Many restaurants consider it wise to offer one or two specials for each part of the day. This is a good way to provide variety to guests without moving to a complete menu revision. Ordinarily, you would price these menu items the same way you would any other regular menu item. Typically, you do not want to price them any lower. An operator may get a good deal on a food product, have leftovers to utilize, or attempt to test future menu products at an inviting price to obtain feedback. In these cases, a restaurant operator may choose to run a special with a bargain price. However, be careful with this strategy because it can reduce your bottom line. If customers who normally purchase more expensive menu item suddenly take the bargain special, the gross profit (in the way of contribution margin) for those guests plunge.
On the other hand, if , say, you have very costly leftovers such as an expensive protein that is on the verge of losing its quality, cannibalization of the more expensive item may be acceptable on occasion - preferably not on a consistent basis which would tend to indicate other difficulties. Although you may reduce your contribution margin if a guest is distracted from an expensive menu item to the daily special, you might make up the difference by avoiding the need to toss out some expensive food.
Pricing All-you-can-eat Menu Items
Should you offer one or two all-you-can-eat (or drink) options on the menu, they should be priced in the same way as any other item on your regular menu. The primary difference is that, when costing out these menu items, 'average' cost figures are more effective in lieu of exact cost figures. With the initial offered of the item, the operator will have to estimate the average cost. Since this can be a bit tricky, it is best to offer only a few of these many items and only those that are inexpensive (such as soft drinks) and have the potential to draw customers who are likely to buy other things from your operation.
Once you have introduced one of these items as part of your regular menu, keep close track of how much of the food or beverage you use in the first week or two. This will help an operator to gather enough cost and usage information to adjust the menu prices, if necessary, to bring them into line with your pricing requirements. Take a beginning inventory, add in your purchases of the relevant ingredients during this initial period, and then subtract the ending inventory from this amount. This will give you the actual amount of food and beverage used during this timeframe. Cost this out and divide the total cost by the number of guests who ordered this many item, which will give you the average cost per guest. While this cost figure is not as accurate as you might like it to be, it is better than guessing.
Should you prefer a less formal approach, contact the purveyor of the particular food or beverage item and asked for a best guesstimate on cost factors. For instance, the soft drink vendor who services many restaurant outlets probably knows of a few restaurants that offer similar menu items and might be willing to share product cost and/or product usage information with your operation.
If you offer an all-you-can-eat buffet, salad bar, and/or breakfast bar option along with a regular menu, use the same approach to calculate the average cost per guest. This can be a little trickier when doing calculations for several such items, because, typically, there is considerably more waste. Options such as free soft-drink refills, or all-you-can-eat pasta or fried foods would allow you more control. Food bars require special handling; you have to keep up their appearance, you have to rotate the items, and you usually discard things now and then that might still be edible but have passed their peak of quality or food safety limits.
Merchandise Pricing
Logo merchandise can generate extra revenue, most of which is pure profit. If you are a unique or well-known restaurant such as the Hard Rock Cafe, you may actually generate more sales and revenue selling T-shirts than by selling menu items.
Risks involved
Selling merchandise is not risk free. Two of the main drawbacks are the up-front charges the operation must pay to develop the products and the large minimum quantity purchase requirements and storage costs to get the best possible deals. For example, the logo-imprinted bottled waters you see for \$2.95 each may cost you less than 30 cents per bottle. However, you have to pay several hundred to several thousand dollars up front to develop the proprietary label. In addition, you are usually required to purchase several pallets, each one containing several cases, to get the 30-cent-per-bottle purchase price.
If your operation can absorb the up-front charges and the large amount and variety of inventories you must have on hand, consider buying and selling various kinds of merchandise. Guests love logo products – but it is not unusual for them to get upset if you run out of a particular item that they made a special trip to obtain. Further, other potential customers may see the logo are decide to try your concept. Continuous sight leads to familiarity in the eye of the consumer.
There are two typical ways to price these items. One is to include the product's cost when costing out a food or beverage menu item. For instance, use a very high multiple price for specialty drinks if you let guests keep the glasses or cups. The other way is to price them separately, after seeking the vendor's guidance. Vendors often have a sixth sense when it comes to pricing such merchandise. Over time, they have learned what customers are willing to pay. Oddly enough, they also seem to know instinctively when an operator is becoming too greedy.
Sales Promotion Pricing
Many restaurants prefer to offer pricing specials in order to generate more customer traffic. The idea is to get people to visit during normally slow periods or draw customers who will buy other, more profitable things. It can also be an effective strategy to help spread out your fixed costs over a wider customer base.
Discount pricing
Two-for-one sales, early-bird specials, happy hours, and other forms of discount pricing are usually attempts to bolster business during times when you are open but have few customers (such as Monday evenings or from 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. on weekdays). If you can get guests interested in one of these deals, then you have a chance to sell them something else. As such, discount pricing is an additional tool for value creation.
The popularity of discount pricing among restaurant operators is controversial. In some competitive environments, it may be the preferred pricing method. However, even though it may generate customer traffic, what type of custo0mer are you getting? This become an important question in direct relation to overall profitability. Are you getting the customers with limited financial resources who are looking just for the deal and nothing else? Are these customers more problematic than the amount they spend in your operation? Do they irritate your service staff, by tipping only on the discounted dollar amount instead of the full value? Do they irritate your steady customer base? Ultimately, the deal-breaking question surfaces: Do they harm your reputation in any way?
In many instances, customers who are continuously attracted to your operation solely for the special deal are generally of the mindset that they are paying what the product is worth and that all the other guests are overpaying. Furthermore, these customers are not loyal to your operation, nor can you expect to build loyalty among them. They are price-sensitive and therefore loyal only to special deals - and thus to whomever offers it.
Discount pricing can have many ramifications - one good, and the rest less so. If your restaurant starts down that road do it with your eyes wide open and be ready to commit to this strategy for the long haul. Once a patron becomes accustomed to the discount price, from a psychological standpoint, this guest will never pay any more than that. The guest will visit you only when you are offering discounts. If you try to reverse the discount strategy, your business will drop. Once you get involved with discounting, the basic human nature of consumers makes it hard to turn back guests using coupons or visiting only during off-price times can also create security problems. If their coupons have expired or if the happy hour ends just as they come in the door, they will not be happy. They can become aggressive, want to argue, and put you on the defensive. Since it is never appropriate to argue with a guest, you might be force to cave in and give them the discounted prices. Sooner, or later, a coupon's expiration date and the happy-hour timeframe may become meaningless.
Marginal pricing
If you feel the need to offer pricing promotions, you need to decide first on the items to promote, as well as the times during which the promotion prices are valid. You could then use the 'marginal' pricing method allowing you to earn a small profit based on the cost of the product and other related variables expenses, plus a small profit markup.
This technique requires the operator to determine the cost the food or beverage product plus the cost of any other variable expense associated with selling that menu item. These other variable costs can take some thought and are not always easy to compute since not many of the associated costs, like the labor or utility cost per item, are readily available. Still, these costs are manageable with a little thought, for example, if you already have staff in place; the labor cost would be ‘fixed’ rather than ‘variable’ for the purposes of the calculation.
To arrive at this calculation, a good rule of thumb to use is to cost out the menu item and add a small markup to cover other variable costs needed to prepare and serve it. For instance, if you cost out a pasta dish at \$3, add at least ten percent, giving you a total variable cost of \$3.30. This out-of-pocket cost is the lowest price you should charge if you expect to break even on that menu item. The price to charge the customer should be somewhere between \$3.30 and what the price would be if you used the normal price structure. If the normal selling price for the menu item is \$12 then the discounted price to your customers should be somewhere between \$3.30 and \$12, say \$9. The customer receives a discount and your operation remains profitable. You could also occasionally utilize a two-for-one deal and effectively price the item at \$6.
The idea is to price the promotions in such a way that you never go below your variable costs. It is one thing to offer a discounted price, on which you make a small profit; it is something else to offer discounts for which you actually have an out-of-pocket expense. If the operation makes a small profit, there should also be something built in to the operational scheme that can be used to help defray the large amount of fixed costs all restaurants will typically experience.
If everything works to plan, the operation's overall income statement will show a bit more profit. The fact that you are creating extra business even though it is not as profitable as one would like it to be, nevertheless give the operator an additional modest income stream. The key word is extra business. If your pricing promotions merely reward existing customers who would normally pay the full price, your operation could be heading for trouble. Should you suspect this to be happening, the promotions should be stopped (if you can), go back to the drawing board, and research other possibilities that do not result encourage existing customers to engage in lower spending patterns. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/11%3A_Pricing_Decisions/11.01%3A_Arriving_at_the_Correct_Menu_Price.txt |
As previously stated, pricing should create value in the minds of consumers. It should also be complimentary to other aspects of the restaurant operation. Pricing of one form of product or service should not result in a competitive environment for all products and services. Pricing should channel consumers and aid their decision process in a fruitful way for the restaurant. A few other concerns need attention.
Daily specials
If you offer daily specials that servers recite at tableside, make sure to present them in an enthusiastic way and tell guests the prices. You do not want them to be surprised when the check arrives at the table. Another important reason for making the customer clear about cost is the fact that many customers budget their disposable income. If they are uncertain regarding the cost of the special, they may shy away from it when in fact they could have afforded that meal. Always give customers the best chances to make a purchase.
Side Items
If your operation offers a menu item that in most restaurants customarily included a side dish (such as a hamburger and a side of fries), but you want to price the side dish separately, make sure that the servers bring this to the guests' attention. For example, train servers to suggestive sell the side item in a way that helps the customer understand that the dish is not free but it is still a reasonable purchase. For example, 'can I bring a basket of fries for the table to share? It would only cost \$2.50’.
Menu price spread
For every menu item category listed on your menu, attempt to keep a reasonable spread between the highest and the lowest prices. Maintain a spread of no more than 100 percent. If, for example, the lowest-priced appetizer is \$4.95, the highest-priced one should be no more than \$9.95. If the operator wanted to sell an appetizer that has to have pricing a great deal higher than \$9.95, try to reduce its cost so that you can add it to the menu without throwing the category off balance and possibly scaring away customers. If that is not possible, list it on the menu at 'market price.' This would allow the restaurant to serve it, but without advertising the price.
Items for take-out
If some of the operation's regular items are popular with take-out customers, it might be necessary to raise the prices a bit on these items. If you operate a quick-service operation, where take-out and drive-through business is standard, then the regular menu prices already consider this. However, if you have a table service restaurant, it can be more costly to offer take-out, especially for items requiring expensive packaging. The expense of a phone ordering system may also need to factor into the cost, and there may be extra labor involved.
On the other hand, take-out customers do not occupy tables in your restaurant, thereby allowing you to increase your guest count without substantial change in your operating costs and procedures. The key is to have a good idea of all costs involved to calculate appropriate prices. If necessary, a simple action would be to print separate take-out menus to avoid confusion and to inform customers of any take-out item limitations.
Offering delivery service
Delivery service is another way of increasing guest counts, but unless it is traditional for your operation to offer this amenity, you should approach this decision with caution. Delivery can be a very unpredictable business. Staffing can be arduous, insurance costs can be exorbitant, the operation must usually establish a minimum dollar figure per order, and it may well be necessary to restrict the delivery area (larger delivery area - greater number of delivery personnel needed).
Another important issue affected by delivery is quality. It can be very difficult to maintain product quality. This might put restrictions on the number and types of items you deliver. Quality control is even more troublesome if you outsource the delivery function to an independent 'waiter on wheels' type of operation. If the operator can control such risks, there are ample rewards, as these types of guests are willing to pay a premium for the service, in addition to tipping the delivery personnel. Your rewards will increase even more if you offer guaranteed delivery time or else the cost receives a discount. Consumers love this amenity, however, any form of 'guaranteed' delivery will most certainly drastically increase your delivery insurance expenses - if not completely eliminate insurance protection. Nonetheless, speed of delivery is a primary consideration in the consumer's decision process. The operator would best benefit from by tighter delivery configurations and impact delivery times using shorter distances. To be beneficial to all interests, manageability is key.
Live Entertainment
If your restaurant operation offers entertainment on occasion, there may a need to institute a cover charge. This is not necessary if all you offer is prerecorded background music. But if live music is featured on certain nights of the week, it is necessary to earn enough in cover charges to pay for the band, defray related expenses 9 such as extra security and complimentary food and drinks), and generate a profit.
The easiest way to calculate a cover charge is to add up all relevant expenses and divide by the expected number of guests. In conjunction with this, you could capture this cover charge by establishing a minimum purchase per guest to five you the dollars you need to generate a sufficient profit. If, for instance, the entertainment expense for one night is \$1000, and you expect to serve 250 guests. A straight cover charge would be \$4 per guest just to break even, and more than that amount per guest to generate a modest profit for the operation. This is another possible option. In lieu of a cover charge, you might require guests to purchase a minimum of two drinks at slightly higher prices per drink. This strategy has higher profit potential because some guests will order more than the minimum number of drinks.
An appropriate corkage fee
Some guests enjoy bringing their own beverages (usually wines) with them when they visit a restaurant. If the commission in your trading area grants patrons this option, you need to decide whether you will allow your customers this privilege. If you do, you must determine the fee you would charge guests for handling the product, providing the drink setups, and generating a profit.
This can be a sensitive issue with patrons. On the one hand, guests know that they will have to pay something. On the other hand, guests who bring their own alcoholic beverages tend to be quite sophisticated and so are very aware of what a standard corkage fee should be. Thus, if you charge a corkage fee, research what other restaurants charge. If you are in that range, you run the risk of alienating these guests.
Realistically, corkage fees should be reasonable. The operator must hope that by allowing guests to show off their personal wine cellars, they will reciprocate and purchase highly profitable dishes from your restaurant. With that in mind, if many of your guests bring their own wines, another option is to completely eliminate the corkage fee and increase the multiples you use to price the food menu items. A slightly higher food menu price is more palatable to such guests than a corkage fee. This is one of those situations where 'it's the principle' that rules the day. Consumers will pay for food, but prefer not to pay for wine glasses when they provide the wine - so make your restaurant a value in terms of convenience as well as preference options for alcoholic beverages.
Demand-based Pricing in Restaurants
Restaurants use differing price structures over different meal periods. The most common price differentiation is lunch and dinner pricing. Special events and holidays can also utilize different pricing structures. Another important factor is ‘duration control’. How long does the operation want customers to remain in the restaurant? This is an important issue if it is necessary to ‘turn tables’ based on space or volume considerations. Kimes (2000) discussed demand based pricing, or fences, and customer perception in a study published in the Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Quarterly. While demand-based pricing is still new to the restaurant industry, this pricing strategy bares mention of the various ways to consider this form of pricing.
Price fencing
Price fences are a mechanism used to maximize profit potential based on demand factors and the aspect of controlling the duration of the customers’ restaurant experience. ‘Fences’ are designed to allow customers to segment themselves based on their willingness to pay, their behavior, and their needs.
Price fences offer consumers discounted prices but impose rules and regulations at every level of discount to balance the perceived value for different market segments, and to avoid automatically offering discounts to customers who are willing to pay a higher price. Fences may include requirements for advance purchase, cancellation and change restrictions, refund penalties, time-of-use restrictions, and the requirements for minimum purchase. Fences need to be logical, transparent, upfront, and fixed so that customers cannot circumvent them thus maintaining the perception of fairness.
Duration control
Some restaurant managers try to manage duration by changing their service delivery e.g., speeding up the delivery process. For example, the ability to enact a certain amount of duration control is important to a popular operation with limited dining capability. It can also be an important element to use in staying off growing pains – growing in an initial location rather than having to expand to another site prematurely.
Demand-based Pricing
Most restaurants use demand based pricing such as happy hours, and early bird specials but they are reluctant to vary prices by time of day, day of week, or table location. The main reason – customers refuse to patronize companies that they perceive as unfair. Several demand-based approaches are possible:
• Differential lunch vs. dinner pricing,
• Differential weekday vs. weekend pricing
• Coupon pricing (including restrictions)
• Table-location pricing (e.g., charging extra for a table with a view).
Some important points to consider:
• Fair behavior on the part of operators is instrumental to the maximization of their long-term profits.
• Consumers may perceive “new” higher regular prices as less fair during high demand periods.
• Consumers normally adhere to the concept of dual entitlement – they are entitled to reasonable prices and firms are entitled to a reasonable profit.
There are two types of rate fences available to the restauranteur: physical and nonphysical. Physical rate fences include the restaurant location; furnishings; the presence of amenities, or a spectacular view to name a few. Examples in a restaurant setting are table location, tables with a scenic view, or tables in a private room with fresh cut flowers as exemplars.
Non-physical rate fences include the day of the week (weekend dinners might cost more or meals consumed before 6pm might cost less). Another involves ‘transaction characteristics’ (customers who make a reservation over a month in advance might pay less). Buyer characteristics provide another example - frequent customers might pay less or get free extras) and ‘controlled availability’ (customers with coupons will pay less).
Framing of price differences
Presentations that emphasize customer gains are preferable to frames that emphasize customer losses (a discount vs. a surcharge – reduced prices have a more favorable perception). Recent study results:
• Lunch - vs. - Dinner pricing viewed as reasonable and fair
• Weekend -vs. - Weekday price differences viewed acceptable if framed correctly.
• Time-of-day pricing viewed as fair if framed as a discount during lower demand hours.
• Two-for-one coupons viewed as very fair and no significant difference with or without restrictions.
• Table location pricing viewed as moderately acceptable.
Overall, the operator must always take to utilize demand-based pricing effectively with the following suggestions. Create a revenue management team to predict changes in demand for upcoming periods. Any special events? Weather implications? Other changes in traffic patterns? Reservation build-up compared to similar periods. Feature menu items based on predicted demand. Frame price fences as discounts rather than surcharges. Frame price surcharges as addition value provided to the customer.
Menu Pricing
Determining appropriate menu prices centers on the targeted customer, our competitors, demand-based considerations, psychological considerations, product quality, product quantity, labor requirements and the menu mix.
Procedures:
Standardized Recipes
1. Quality of ingredients
2. Preparation methods
3. Portions/size
4. Yield
5. Prep time
6. Cook time
7. Presentation of final product (plate, hotel pan, or nontraditional presentation platform).
8. Batch recipes
9. Number of items needed on inventory based on variety of menu item selection (typical 1,500 items to execute a menu).
10. Overall menu size: How many choices? Typical dinner menu 4-7 appetizers and 15-18 entrees.
11. What about condiments? Average plate costs (i.e. vegetable, starch, soup or salad)?
Menu Pricing Methods of mark-up and rationale
Mark-up methods
Food Cost Driven (Sales Price X Food Cost %) = Cost of Food (Most common)
• Food cost percentage varies by meal period, course type, business segment, etc.
• Some firms use this method to create an advantage regarding bottle wine sales.
• It can also be useable for food sales as a quasi-demand based sales method.
Prime Costs Method - an estimate of all direct variable costs.
• Food and Labor associated with the item. What labor is included?
Contribution Margin - A general policy of a minimum contribution in \$ per menu item sold on the menu to cover fixed costs, variable costs, and profit.
Many chain restaurants have adopted this approach for pricing appetizers.
Assumes menu item courses take up valuable seat hours and each course should contribute an acceptable contribution margin.
This method is similar to a contribution margin except it is also usable as a way to provide a higher value for the customer, increase total sales and still provide an acceptable contribution. Usually a percentage times the food cost.
Labor requirements
Make or buy decisions: Should this item be prepared from scratch or purchased partially, or wholly prefabricated? Will you use sous vide packaging? Will you serve prepared vegetables, sauces, soups, baked goods, etc.? When pricing food items, was ‘preparation time’ taken into account for the final pricing?
Are there additional service requirements associated with this item?
• Tableside cooking
• Demonstration cooking
• Overall service levels
• Training of staff - front and back-of-the-house on preparation and service of this item.
Product availability
• Is the item regularly obtainable?
• How much does the price fluctuate?
• Any additional expenses associated with it (shipping, minimum orders, purchasing staff time, waste or utilization of by-products, etc.)?
• How often will we change the menu (seasonally, weekly, daily, annually, etc.)?
Product mix or menu mix
• Percentage of sales in each category (appetizers, entrees, desserts, beverages, etc.)?
• Within each menu item category, how many of each item do we anticipate selling (popularity index)?
Menu Pre-cost
• The cost of each item based on the standardized recipe.
• Percentage of sales for each item or a calculation of the number of each item sold for a given level of sales volume.
Other pricing considerations
• Price elasticity or inelasticity (product affordability)
• Psychological pricing strategies: odd number pricing, even number pricing, cultural differences, value v. quality indicators, unlucky numbers, etc.
• Pricing when the customer has control over portions: buffets, salad bars, “all you can eat” items, condiments, etc. Generally, the pricing of these items uses an average inventory method.
• Pricing related to competitors: positioning strategy
• Differentiation premium pricing
• Demand-based pricing
• Fences – restrictions or additional requirements to receive special pricing
• Differential pricing based on demand during day of the week, meal period or physical location (i.e. “chef’s table”, etc.). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/11%3A_Pricing_Decisions/11.02%3A_Other_pricing_concerns.txt |
The old school menu pricing strategy was simple: you divided the cost of the ingredients by .33 and presto, you had your selling price. Times have changed and menu pricing can no longer be calculated using food cost alone. Numerous restaurants with low food cost percentages have gone out of business because the owners never considered their other expenses. There are no “guaranteed” ways to price your menu and assure profits, but there are formulas and strategies that you can use that will assist you. The method discussed here, takes into consideration not only your cost of food, but also your other variable and fixed expenses.
Quick Review - Income Statement
The more comfortable and knowledgeable you are with the makeup of your business’ sales and expense figures, the easier it will be to develop a menu pricing strategy and calculate your prices. Review a few definitions and terms associated with a typical income statement – and where you can obtain the information.
Income Statement definitions and terms
Income Statement. Shows your sales, cost of goods, gross profit, expenses and profit for a given period of time.
Revenue. (also known as Sales) Money earned from sale of food, beverages and other merchandise.
Cost of Goods Sold. The price paid for the food, beverages and other merchandise.
Gross Profit. The difference between the revenue received from your sales and the cost paid for the products sold.
Expenses. The cost of products or services used in operating a business – variable or fixed.
Variable Expenses. Change based on the number of guests that visit your operation or the amount of your sales these costs.
Fixed Expenses. These are the costs that do NOT change based on the number of guests or the amount of sales.
Occupancy Cost. Costs associated with the actual occupation of your physical structure, including rent, real estate taxes, interest on mortgage, and depreciation of a purchased building or structure.
Operating Expenses. The expenses incurred in running your business. Does NOT include your cost of goods. Lines 13 through 23 represent examples of operating expenses.
Operating Income. The Total Gross Profit minus the Total Operating Expense. This is your income or revenue before interest and income tax, and before paying any return or dividend to investors.
Income Statement (example)
Year Ending 20__
Revenue Sales % of TR Source
1 Food Sales \$1,000,000 74.07% From POS
2 Beverage Sales \$300,000 22.22% From POS
3 Other Sales \$50,000 3.70% From POS
4 Total Revenue (Sales) \$1,350,000 100.00% Total of lines
1 to 3
Costs of Goods Sold
5 Food Cost \$330,000 33.00% From Invoices
6 Beverage. Cost \$75,000 25.00% From Invoices
7 Other Costs \$25,000 50.00% From Invoices
8 Total Cost of Goods \$430,000 31.85% Total of lines 5 - 8
Gross Profit
9 Food \$670,000 67.00% Subtract line 5 from line 1
10 Beverages \$225,000 75.00% Subtract line 6 from line 2
11 Other \$25,000 50.00% Subtract line 7 from line 3
12 Total Gross Profit \$920,000 68.15% Subtract line 8 from line 4
Operating Expenses
13 Salaries & Wages \$364,500 27.00% From Payroll
14 Employee Benefits \$80,190 5.94% From Invoices
15 Occupancy Cost \$180,000 13.33% From Invoices
16 Music & Entertainment \$20,000 1.48% From Invoices
17 Advertising & marketing \$25,000 1.85% From Invoices
18 Utilities \$50,000 3.70% From Invoices
19 Depreciation \$25,000 1.85% From Invoices
20 General & Administrative \$12,000 0.89% From Invoices
21 Repairs & Maintenance \$25,000 1.85% From Invoices
22 Other expenses \$10,000 0.74% From Invoices
23 Total Operating Expense \$791,690 58.64% Total of lined 13 – 22
\$128,310 9.50% Subtract line 23 from line 12
Developing a Pricing Strategy
You need to start with a few basic pieces of information. Foremost, you need to know the cost of goods for each of your menu items. Standardized recipes as the best means of knowing your food cost. If you have standardized recipes, you will have all your food costs available already. If your standardized recipe file is not up to date with your current product costs, you will need to update your recipes. Include all of the items that are a part of the menu item’s service. These might include bread and butter, side dishes, condiments and a salad. Keep in mind that it is better to over-estimate your costs rather than under estimate them.
Operating expenses Total Exp. Variable % Fixed %
Salaries & Wages \$364,500 \$175,000 48.01% \$189,500 51.99%
Employee Benefits & Taxes \$80,190 \$50,000 62.35% \$30,190 37.65%
Occupancy Cost \$180,000 \$25,000 13.89% \$155,000 86.11%
Music & Entertainment \$20,000 0.00% \$20,000 100.00%
Advertising & Marketing \$25,000 0.00% \$25,000 100.00%
Utilities \$50,000 \$10,000 20.00% \$40,000 80.00%
Depreciation \$25,000 0.00% \$25,000 100.00%
General & Administrative \$12,000 \$2,000 16.67% \$10,000 83.33%
Repairs & Maintenance \$25,000 \$10,000 40.00% \$15,000 60.00%
Total Expenses \$781,690 \$272,00 34.80% \$509,690 65.20%
Example Formula
Variable Expense % 35% For every dollar in revenue, this expense goes to variable expenses
Fixed Expense % 65% For every dollar in revenue, this expense goes to fixed expenses and profit
Many operations have computerized their inventory and linked them with their recipes to provide up to date cost information. If you have not done this, consider it. There are several good commercially available software products on the market, which, after the initial setup, make this task a breeze.
You will need to do an analysis of your sales and the current selling price of each menu item. Your POS system should be able to provide this easily. A simple income statement, like the one shown will provide you with the rest of the numbers you will need.
Calculations
You can do the math by hand or on a computer spread sheet such as Excel or Lotus 123 to make it easier.
Step 1: From your income statement, make a list of your Fixed Expenses and your Variable Expenses. This usually requires some “estimation.” An expense item frequently fall into both categories
Step 2: Create a chart or spreadsheet similar to the one below. Begin the process by listing your menu items in column A. In column C, fill in your actual cost of the menu item from your recipe files. Columns D, E and F are formulas. Column D is calculates by dividing your item (recipe) cost by the selling price. Variable Expenses, column E, calculates by multiplying the selling price (column B) by the variable expense percentage calculated in Step 1. You calculate the Contribution to Fixed Expenses and Profit (column F) by first adding together your item cost (column C) and your variable cost (column E) and then subtracting these costs from (column B) the selling price.
A B C D E F
Menu Item Name Selling Price Item Cost Food Cost % Variable Expenses Contribution to Fixed Expenses & Profit
Your Choice From Recipe File B/C Variable Expenses % X B B-(C+E)
Pub Burger \$6.95 \$1.47 21.15% \$2.43 \$3.05
Taco Salad \$7.50 \$1.95 26.00% \$2.63 \$2.93
Grilled Salmon \$10.95 \$2.85 26.03% \$3.83 \$4.27
Chicken Sandwich \$7.95 \$2.07 26.04% \$2.78 \$3.10
Fajitas, Chicken \$9.95 \$2.59 26.03% \$3.48 \$3.88
Fajitas, Beef \$9.95 \$2.59 26.03% \$3.48 \$3.88
Fajitas, Vegetable \$9.95 \$2.59 26.03% \$3.48 \$3.88
Sirloin, 12 oz. \$16.95 \$6.80 40.12% \$5.93
Step 3: Now you are ready to assume some “what ifs?” with our menu prices. Start by entering your current menu prices in column ‘B’. Look at the results. Column ‘D’ shows the Food Cost Percentage of the item. Column ‘E’ represents the amount necessary to pay for all of the other variable expenses. The last column, ‘F’, shows the amount the menu price left to put towards your fixed expenses and profit.
By analyzing the effect of raising or lowering your selling price of items, you can get a good idea of where your prices need to be. Remember, this may or may not be the amount that your guests are willing to pay. The fact that you have justification for the price does not mean that your customers will feel the same.
As recent as ten or fifteen years ago changing your menu was a major undertaking for most operations, and cost a lot of money to accomplish. With today’s desktop publishing technology and some forethought, you can update your menu quickly and easily with a trip to your neighborhood copy center. You may even be able to do the job in-house. Now, the restauranteur can address seasonal availability, changes in wholesale pricing or transportation costs, or simply item updating efficiently.
Consider choosing a menu format that allows flexibility. A nice cover with a printed insert or a design that allows you to make changes by substituting single pages will allow you to change and “tweak” your menu pricing and items gradually. Instead of making dramatic price changes once or twice a year, your menu can be adjustable to reflect your actual costs. You can make price adjustments subtly, take advantage of fluctuating commodity prices by featuring high profit items and turn your menu into a sales and profit-making tool.
Purchasing Functions
Regardless of restaurant operation size, someone must perform a certain number of purchasing functions. Purchasing functions are the tasks buyers must perform in order to obtain the right products and services, at the right price and time, from the right vendors. The owner or manager usually does the best they can under the circumstances. In some cases, owners and managers delegate a portion of their responsibilities by letting a supplier or a salesperson perform some activities for them. However, owner-managers should determine their own requirements and not allow others to do this. I am not implying that something unfortunate will occur if they enlist the help of a friendly salesperson, but, realistically, they must understand that the salesperson will be prone to enhancing his or her self-interest. In addition, the sales person may not have the owner or manager’s intimate knowledge of the operation, its goals, and standards.
Buyers usually perform a number of functions common to all hospitality operations. One survey of purchasing agents uncovered the following key purchasing responsibilities: (1) determine when to order, (2) control inventory levels, (3) establish quality standards, (4) determine specifications, (5) obtain competitive bids, (6) investigate vendors, (7) arrange financial terms, (8) oversee delivery, (9) negotiate refunds, (10) handle adjustments, (11) arrange for storage.
A study of large foodservice operations indicate that the important purchasing functions center on elements that are not so different from a small restaurant operation. Small operations typically perform: (1) recipe development, (2) menu development, (3) specification writing, (4) approval of buying sources, (5) designation of approved brands, (6) supplier evaluation, (7) negotiation with suppliers, (8) change of suppliers, (9) change of brands, (10) substitution of approved items, (11) approval of new products, (12) invoice approval, (13) invoice payment, and (14) order placement with suppliers.
The follow charts indicate the most common purchasing functions performed by the restaurant owner or manager, or, the person they designate to accomplish these tasks. Generally, the operation will perform more efficiently if one person has the task of following purchasing issues especially in the areas of costing, approving suppliers, and searching for new or equivalent products at affordable prices, and inspecting and maintaining product quality and obtainability.
PREPURCHASE FUNCTIONS
1. Plan menus
2. Determine specifications of product quantities needed
3. Determine appropriate inventory levels
4. Determine appropriate order sizes
5. Prepare ordering documents
FORMAL PURCHASING
1. Contact vendors
2. Establish formal competitive bid process
3. Solicit competitive bids
4. Evaluate bids
5. Award contract to vendor
6. Receive shipment
7. Issue products to production and service departments
8. Monitor future contract performance
9. Evaluate and follow up on all purchasing functions
INFORMAL PURCHASING
1. Contact vendors
2. Obtain price quotes
3. Select vendor
4. Place order
5. Receive shipment
6. Issue products to production and service
7. Departments
Adapted from Food Purchasing Pointers for School Service
The restaurant operation has the choice of a ‘formal’ or ‘informal’ method of addressing the purchasing function. Remember that proper purchasing helps to eliminate waste, improve efficiency, and insure a quality product reaches the consumer. In addition, care and scrutiny regarding the purchasing function goes a long way in maintaining profitability. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/11%3A_Pricing_Decisions/11.03%3A_Arriving_at_an_item_price.txt |
Pricing the Menu Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Standardized recipes
3. Method(s) of menu pricing’
4. Product mix
5. Product availability
6. Menu pre-cost
Pricing Example
Pricing Objectives
Our menu requires specialized research and equipment to execute. Therefore, while we want to make a profit, we have to try and recouping the costs first. We also want to be seen as high class, so we have to raise our prices a little. Overall, the menu is priced with a “Status Quo” objective in mind. On the other hand, some of our dishes are priced a little low. This is to encourage their sale. For example, our clarified gazpacho is only 10 dollars. Of the small plates, it has the smallest active time, and can be made well in advance. While we will not be losing money on a bowl, net profit per bowl will only be about 4 dollars.
Standardized Recipes
For our restaurant, consistency will be one of our biggest concerns. For this reason, we will be using standardized recipes, formatted in the same way, using the same units throughout. This way, we can have minimal confusion. The recipes will also have a standard yield in both volume and projected number of orders. All of our food on the menu will be single serving plates. This way, cooks can gauge how much of a recipe they need to make based on the number of reservations. Recipes will have 1x, 2x, and 3x batch ingredient lists in a table format in order of use, this way scaling will not be an issue. Properly trained cooks working with tested recipes will reduce our food costs. Another reason that we will need standardized recipes is that most of the complex pieces of the menu require very fine technique and attention to detail.
Food costs become predictable through standardized recipes. From there we can determine profit per plate. This number does not take labor and other factors into account. However, we can use them to estimate how much money we will make from food sales on this hypothetical night, \$5289.00.
Labor Requirements
Our goal is to be highly specialized, which will require greater labor costs. Molecular gastronomy is a time consuming and highly detailed art. Our line cooks, prep cooks, and even our servers have to be educated on each dish. On top of the scientific processes involved, we also need to fabricate items like grouper, swordfish, and ribeye. On a lighter note, much of the prep involved with our menu must be done before service, and then it can be held, through sous vide, steam tables, or lowboys. During the summer, we will not do tableside service; that is one of the goals for the winter menu, though.
Projected Menu Mix
The following table shows the presumed number of small plates, entrees, and desserts sold on an average Friday night, assuming we serve 170 people. Included is the projected food cost and profit per plate. The menu mix will calculate by price, personal experience, buying habits, etc.
Small Plate Price Food Cost per Plate FC% Profit per Plate # Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Gnocchi \$16.00 \$6.08 38% \$9.92 21 \$208.32 11%
Halloumi \$13.00 \$4.81 37% \$8.19 17 \$139.23 9%
Bone Marrow \$18.00 \$9.36 52% \$8.64 13 \$112.32 7%
Pork Belly \$15.00 \$6.15 41% \$8.85 34 \$300.90 17%
Gumbo \$12.00 \$5.88 49% \$6.12 11 \$67.32 6%
Gazpacho \$10.00 \$5.70 57% \$4.30 26 \$111.80 13%
Watermelon \$13.00 \$3.77 29% \$9.23 30 \$276.90 15%
Chopped \$15.00 \$4.05 27% \$10.95 27 \$295.65 14%
Strawberry \$16.00 \$5.28 33% \$10.72 16 \$171.52 8%
Average: \$14.22 \$5.68 40% Total: 195 \$1,683.96 100%
Entrée Price Food Cost
per Plate
FC% Profit per
Plate
# Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Scallops \$39.00 \$14.82 38% \$24.18 11 \$265.98 7%
Grouper \$31.00 \$13.33 43% \$17.67 23 \$406.41 15%
Swordfish \$33.00 \$16.50 50% \$16.50 19 \$313.50 12%
Ribeye \$28.00 \$6.72 24% \$21.28 32 \$680.96 20%
Lamb \$26.00 \$7.02 27% \$18.98 20 \$379.60 13%
Porkchop \$31.00 \$11.16 36% \$19.84 14 \$277.76 9%
Duck \$27.00 \$12.69 47% \$14.31 29 \$414.99 18%
Chicken \$24.00 \$10.32 43% \$13.68 9 \$123.12 6%
Average: \$29.88 11.57 39% Total: 157 \$2,862.32 100%
Desserts Price Food Cost
per Plate
FC% Profit per
Plate
# Sold Gross Profit Menu Mix
Confections \$ 14.00 \$2.10 15% \$11.90 12 \$142.80 18%
Milk & Honey \$ 10.00 \$3.00 30% \$7.00 16 \$112.00 24%
Sundae \$ 13.00 \$1.56 12% \$11.44 21 \$240.24 31%
Gin Alexander \$ 16.00 \$2.24 14% \$13.76 18 \$247.68 27%
Average: \$ 13.25 \$2.23 18% Total: 67 \$742.72 100%
Ingredient Availability
As this menu centers on the summer season, we know that we can get most of the product on a regular basis. We may have to change the fish from week to week, depending on what is available. The supply of lamb, scallops, ribeye, and pork are reliable. From there, the only thing to worry about is
the “chef selection” based menu items. Of most importance is the market salad, which will require split second creativity. We may use it to test product from a potential supplier, or perhaps to push some product on the edge of salability. We will prepare all of our desserts are made in-house and rely on
simple ingredients always available.
Other Factors
There are other pricing possibilities. Private parties and the Chef’s Table pricing will occur on a flat rate per person. The drink sales for the bar will offer a wide variety to the overall revenue. On specialty order items like allergies, special accommodations, etc. we will have to price it separately from off of the menu. This will require cooperation from FOH and the chefs. We will price slightly above our competitors in some areas, and below in others. Priced competitively, this should give us at least a foot in the market. If we can use price alterations and our patrons will accept an increase, or if our bottom
line can take the decrease, then we will.
Conclusion
With a limited summertime menu, we still intend to sell good food. We are offering our menu with food and equipment costs behind the pricing. This menu is set to take advantage of modern food preparation techniques and the season products available in New Orleans. Through proper training and
careful execution, we can make some dining memories.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What are the five main factors that affect pricing decisions?
2. Meal components have value. A product may represent only one portion of the total desired benefit. Explain how this works.
3. How do economic factors affect customer reaction to pricing?
4. If you were pricing for ‘cash flow’ what action, would you take?
5. What is ‘status quo’ pricing attempting to achieve?
6. What is pricing for ‘survival’?
7. How could you utilize ‘price fences’?
8. What would be the importance of ‘duration control’?
9. What is contribution margin? Why is it important | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/11%3A_Pricing_Decisions/11.04%3A_Classroom_preparation_assignments.txt |
Glossary
Pricing Objectives. While the possible pricing objectives are numerous, they usually fall into four overarching categories based on an organization's goals related to: financial performance, amount of volume, competition, and desired image. All pricing objectives should closely relate to the company's organizational objectives. Thus, pricing, in many ways, is a large part of the means to the end.
Financial performance objectives. These objectives focus on financial areas of the restaurant operation such as the company's level of profitability, desired rates of return on sales and equity, and cash flow. Most large companies continually monitor these performance measures and, over time, find it prudent to use these measures as benchmarks or objectives. The closer one observes performance measures, the more clearly they can see the impact of price on financial performance outcomes.
Volume objectives. These objectives focus on sales and market share. These measures can be based either on the number of units sold or on the dollar amount of the units sold. The sales measure looks at the firm in term s of individual accountability, while the market share views the company relative to the competition. Volume objectives are particularly common in the early stages of the product life cycle, when companies are willing to forgo profits in exchange for building long-term sales and market share. It would also be wise to see that price competition stays strong in the maturity stage in an attempt to hold market share.
Competition objectives. Competition objectives focus on the nature of the competitive environment. A firm may want to maintain competitive similarity with the market leader, widen the gap between itself and market followers, or simply survive. If strong competitive forces or economies of scale are at play. There is typically a great deal of head-to-head competition in the hospitality and tourism industry. A change in price by one organization in the market generally sees reciprocation by other organizations in the marketplace.
Image objectives. These objectives focus on the organization's overall positioning strategy. Often, a restaurant operation's position in the market is a direct result of its 'price-quality' relationship as perceived by consumers. Price is the main segmentation factor useful to the restaurant to distinguish quick service (QSR), casual, upscale, and luxury categories.
Price-quality connection. Consumers use price as an indicator of a product's quality, especially when they do not have much experience with the product category. In such cases, consumers be less sensitive to a product's price to the extent that they believe higher prices signify higher quality. An example would be travelers who often use price as a gauge of quality because they lack familiarity with the travel products in a different city. This lack of information is one of the main reasons that consumers would use price as a signal of quality, along with the perceived risk of making a bad choice and the belief that quality differences exist between brands. Pricing perceptions related to the trading area is an important consideration.
Unique- value relationship. Consumers will be less price-sensitive when a product stays unique and does not have close substitutes. If a firm successfully differentiates its products and services from those of its competition, it can charge a higher price. Consumers must remain aware of the differentiation and convinced of its value in order to pay the higher price. In essence, the organization's strategy is to reduce the presence of substitutes in the mind of consumers, thereby eliminating the consumer's reference value for the product. Many fine-dining restaurants use this approach and differentiate themselves on attributes such as the chef, the atmosphere, and menu.
Customer substitutes. Customers will become more price sensitive when comparing a product's higher price with the lower prices of substitutes for that product. The prices for substitutes help consumers’ forma reference price, or a reasonable price range for the product. The restaurant operator should always be aware of the number of substitutes that consumers are aware of for different dining options. Substitutes tend to put downward pressure on price resulting in a relatively narrow acceptable range of prices for each different type of restaurant category. As such, price differentials were instrumental in creating the different restaurant categories so it is not surprising that there is little significant price difference between products in quick=service, casual and fine-dining categories.
Value of meal components. A product may represent only one portion of the total desired benefit. Consumers tend to evaluate the desired end benefit of their purchase and their price concerns for something that contributes to that end benefit. Specifically, in the restaurant industry, consumers are more price conscious when the cost of component (say an appetizer or dessert), represents a larger portion of the total cost than they perceive is fair. For example, while \$20 might be acceptable for a pasta entree, \$7.95 for onion rings and \$9 for a slice of chocolate cake may appear high given the cost of an onion and cake mix. Said differently, although the restaurant operator has justification for charging certain prices, the consumer is under no obligation to agree with a restaurant's pricing structure. Income is an important consideration regarding price and end benefits from the consumers' perspective.
Price fencing. Price fences are a mechanism used to maximize profit potential based on demand factors and the aspect of controlling the duration of the customers’ restaurant experience. ‘Fences’ are designed to allow customers to segment themselves based on their willingness to pay, their behavior, and their needs.
Physical rate fences. Include the restaurant location; furnishings; the presence of amenities, or a spectacular view to name a few. Examples in a restaurant setting are table location, tables with a scenic view, or tables in a private room with fresh cut flowers as exemplars.
Non-physical rate fences. Include the day of the week (weekend dinners might cost more or meals consumed before 6pm might cost less). Another involves ‘transaction characteristics’ (customers who make a reservation over a month in advance might pay less). Buyer characteristics provide another example - frequent customers might pay less or get free extras) and ‘controlled availability’ (customers with coupons will pay less).
Duration control. Some restaurant managers try to manage duration by changing their service delivery e.g., speeding up the delivery process. For example, the ability to enact a certain amount of duration control is important to a popular operation with limited dining capability. It can also be an important element to use in staying off growing pains – growing in an initial location rather than having to expand to another site prematurely.
Demand-based Pricing. Most restaurants use demand based pricing such as happy hours, and early bird specials but they are reluctant to vary prices by time of day, day of week, or table location. The main reason – customers refuse to patronize companies that they perceive as unfair. Several demand-based approaches are possible:
• Differential lunch vs. dinner pricing,
• Differential weekday vs. weekend pricing
• Coupon pricing (including restrictions)
• Table-location pricing (e.g., charging extra for a table with a view).
Notes
Robert Phillips .2005. Pricing and Revenue Optimization. Stanford University Press.
Frank, Robert H. 2010. Microeconomics and Behavior, Eighth Edition, McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Chamberlin, Edward. The Theory of Monopolistic Competition: A Re-orientation of the Theory of Value. Harvard University Press.
Barney, J. 1991. "Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage". Journal of Management. 17(1): 99–120.
Sharp, Byron; Dawes, John .2001. "What is Differentiation and How Does it Work? Journal of Marketing Management, 17, 739-59. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/11%3A_Pricing_Decisions/11.05%3A_Chapter_Glossary_and_Notes.txt |
Chapter 12 Learning Objectives
• Understanding the psychology of Menu Engineering
• Gain a working knowledge of menu engineering worksheet construction.
• Gain a working knowledge of menu engineering evaluation.
• Understand the importance of contribution margin.
• Understand ‘menu engineering’ usage for profitability.
• Learn to re-think menu costing based on consumer acceptance.
• Gain the ability to apply different classes of ratios to evaluate different elements of the operation.
“The price of light is less than the cost of darkness.”
Arthur C. Nielsen
“The goal is to turn data into information, and information into insight.”
Carly Fiorina
“I never guess. It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts.”
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
“If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough.”
Albert Einstein
Menu engineering is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to the deliberate and strategic construction of menus. It is references Menu Psychology. In general, the term menu engineering is used within the hospitality industry (specifically in the context of restaurants), but can be applied to any industry that displays a list of product or service offerings for consumer choice. Typically, the goal with menu engineering is to maximize a firm's profitability by subconsciously encouraging customers to buy what you want them to buy, and discouraging purchase of items you do not want them to buy. The fields of study, which contribute most to menu engineering, include:
• Psychology (perception, attention, emotion/effect)
• Managerial Accounting (contribution margin and unit cost analysis)
• Marketing and Strategy (pricing, promotion)
• Graphic Design (layout, typography)
Psychology of menu engineering
Perception and Attention. Visual perception is inextricable to how customers read a menu. Most menus are presented visually (though many restaurants verbally list daily specials), and the majority of menu engineering recommendations focus on how to increase attention by strategically arranging menu categories within the pages of the menu, and item placement within a menu category. This strategic placement of categories and items refers to the theory of ‘sweet spot’.
The reasoning being ‘sweet spots’ stems from the classical effect in psychology known as the ‘Serial Position Effect’ (aka. the rules of regency and primacy). The thought is that customers are most likely to remember the first and last things they see on a menu—hence, ‘sweet spots’ on a menu should be where the customers look first and last. To date, there is no empirical evidence on the efficacy of the sweet spots on menus.
Customer perception of items offered on a menu also centers on subtle textual manipulations. For example, descriptive labeling of item names may produce positive effects, leading to higher customer satisfaction, and higher perceived product value. Similarly, the presence of dollar signs or other potential monetary cues may cause guests to spend less.
Managerial accounting
The primary goal of menu engineering is to encourage purchase of targeted items, presumably the most profitable items, and to discourage purchase of the least profitable items. To that end, firms must first calculate the cost of each item listed on the menu. This costing exercise should extend to all items listed on the menu, and should reflect all costs incurred to produce and serve. Optimally the cost of items should include food cost (including wasted product and product loss), incremental labor (e.g., cost in in-house butchering, pastry production, or prep), condiments and packaging. Only incremental costs and efforts should be included in the item cost.
The two criteria for determining which menu items deserve inclusion on a menu have been food cost percentage and gross profit. Food cost percentage is calculated by dividing the cost of the menu item ingredients, including surrounding dish items, e.g., salad, bread and butter, condiments, etc. by the menu price. Gross profit calculates by subtracting the menu cost as previously defined, from the menu price. Advocates of Menu Engineering believe that gross profit trumps food cost so they tend to identify menu items with the highest gross profit, items like steaks and seafood, as the items to promote. The downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white tablecloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, do not ignore food cost completely. If food cost increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under \$15.
Those who believe that a low food cost percentage is more important than gross profit will promote the items with the lowest food cost percentage. Unfortunately, these items are typically the lowest priced items on the menu, e.g., chicken, pasta, soups. Promoting only low food cost items will likely result in lowering your average check. Unless the restaurant attracts more customers, overall sales will not be optimal.
Low food cost and high gross profit are not mutually exclusive attributes of a menu item. A second approach called Cost-Margin Analysis identifies items that are both low in food cost and return a higher average gross profit. This analysis works well for restaurants in highly competitive markets where customers are price-sensitive.
There is no one-analysis method that is useful on all menu items. If a menu item is a "commodity" like hamburgers, chicken tenders, fajitas, and other items found on many restaurant menus, prices tend to be more moderate. If a menu item is a "specialty" in high demand and unique to a particular restaurant, prices can be higher than average. Technically the restaurant has a "monopoly" on that item until competitors copy them and put it on their menus. Thus, higher prices are appropriate. However, no restaurant can sustain a competitive uniqueness or price advantage over their competition in the end.
Using Menu Engineering in restaurants and menu items where price inelasticity is present deserves recommendation. ‘Cost-Margin’ better suits casual neighborhood restaurants and on menu-items where price points are critical in building and keeping customers. Remember, the customer determines the best price to charge, not the restaurant operator. Customers do not care about your costs; they care about what you charge.
After the cost and price of an item have been determined (see pricing in the Marketing section), evaluation of an item's profitability is based on the item's ‘contribution margin’. The contribution margin calculates as the menu price minus the cost. Menu engineering then focuses on maximizing the contribution margin of each guest's order. Recipe costing should be updated (at least the ingredient cost portion) whenever the menu is reprinted or whenever items are re-engineered. Some simplified calculations of contribution margin include only food costs. The menu engineering worksheet is useful to explore how the menu is performing in the dining room. Calculations can adjust accordingly. An example of the sheet layout and calculations in Microsoft Excel follows. The worksheet is useful to evaluate:
• Menu items by category (appetizer, entrée, dessert, drinks, etc.)
• Number of items sold
• Menu mix, the percentage of sales each item represents in relation to total sales
• Item food cost
• Item selling price
• Item contribution margin
• Total menu cost and sales revenue
• Total contribution margin generated from total sales
Menu Engineering Worksheet
Menu Item No. Sold MM% Item F.C Item S.P Item C.M Menu Cost Menu Rev. Menu C.M
Salads
House Pastrami 7 3.80% \$3.00 \$10.00 \$7.00 \$21.00 \$70.00 \$49.00
House Prosciutto 10 5.43% \$3.00 \$10.00 \$7.00 \$30.00 \$100.00 \$70.00
House Lardo 5 2.72% \$3.00 \$10.00 \$7.00 \$15.00 \$50.00 \$35.00
Salad Caprese 10 5.43% \$2.24 \$8.00 \$5.76 \$22.40 \$80.00 \$57.60
Mediterranean Olives 4 2.17% \$1.50 \$8.00 \$6.50 \$6.00 \$32.00 \$26.00
Fried Calamari 9 4.89% \$2.63 \$8.00 \$5.37 \$23.67 \$72.00 \$48.33
Bagna Cauda 5 2.72% \$4.75 \$8.00 \$3.25 \$23.75 \$40.00 \$16.25
Entrees
Catch of the Day 4 2.17% Market Price
Sicilian Swordfish 3 1.63% \$8.00 \$20.00 \$12.00 \$24.00 \$60.00 \$36.00
Mussels Di Amore 4 2.17% \$6.00 \$17.00 \$11.00 \$24.00 \$68.00 \$44.00
Sole Filets and Lemon 4 2.17% \$6.00 \$20.00 \$14.00 \$24.00 \$80.00 \$56.00
Sea Bass Pomodoro 1 0.54% \$7.00 \$20.00 \$13.00 \$7.00 \$20.00 \$13.00
Tuscan Salmon 2 1.09% \$4.34 \$20.00 \$15.66 \$8.68 \$40.00 \$31.32
Osso Bucco 6 3.26% \$4.75 \$30.00 \$25.25 \$28.50 \$180.00 \$151.50
Veal Marsala 4 2.17% \$4.75 \$22.00 \$17.25 \$19.00 \$88.00 \$69.00
Veal Marengo 2 1.09% \$4.75 \$22.00 \$17.25 \$9.50 \$44.00 \$34.50
Veal Lamponi 2 1.09% \$2.31 \$22.00 \$19.69 \$4.62 \$44.00 \$39.38
Rosa di Parma 2 1.09% \$3.54 \$25.00 \$21.46 \$7.08 \$50.00 \$42.92
Lamb Stew 5 2.72% \$2.33 \$25.00 \$22.67 \$11.65 \$125.00 \$113.35
Seared Lamb Chops 9 4.89% \$5.33 \$30.00 \$24.67 \$47.97 \$270.00 \$222.03
Fettucini al Pesto 7 3.80% \$5.00 \$18.00 \$13.00 \$35.00 \$126.00 \$91.00
White Truffle Risotto 6 3.26% \$8.97 \$20.00 \$11.03 \$53.82 \$120.00 \$66.18
Cheese and Basil Agnolotti 7 3.80% \$2.23 \$18.00 \$15.77 \$15.61 \$126.00 \$110.39
Scallops and Angel Hair 8 4.35% \$3.75 \$22.00 \$18.25 \$30.00 \$176.00 \$146.00
Pizza Magherita 5 2.72% \$5.00 \$15.00 \$10.00 \$25.00 \$75.00 \$50.00
Smoked Scamorza Pizza 3 1.63% \$6.00 \$15.00 \$9.00 \$18.00 \$45.00 \$27.00
Desserts
Sorbets 7 3.80% \$3.00 \$5.00 \$2.00 \$21.00 \$35.00 \$14.00
Gelato 9 4.89% \$5.00 \$8.00 \$3.00 \$45.00 \$72.00 \$27.00
Fruit and Cheese Tray 3 1.63% \$5.00 \$8.00 \$3.00 \$15.00 \$24.00 \$9.00
Cannoli 3 1.63% \$3.00 \$7.00 \$4.00 \$9.00 \$21.00 \$12.00
Panna Cotta 4 2.17% \$3.00 \$7.00 \$4.00 \$12.00 \$28.00 \$16.00
Moscato Soaked Genoise 7 3.80% \$3.00 \$8.00 \$5.00 \$21.00 \$56.00 \$35.00
Tiramisu 8 4.35% \$5.00 \$8.00 \$3.00 \$40.00 \$64.00 \$24.00
Angel Wings 6 3.26% \$0.10 \$5.00 \$4.90 \$0.60 \$30.00 \$29.40
Pandoro 3 1.63% \$0.25 \$5.00 \$4.75 \$0.75 \$15.00 \$14.25
Total items 184 100.00% \$2,526.00 \$1,826.40
Averages \$4.04 \$14.97 \$10.89 \$20.56
Menu Engineering Worksheet Calculations
• Number Sold: (1) A total of all menu items sold. (2) A total by menu category (appetizers, entrées, desserts, etc.).
• Menu Mix (MM%): (1) a percentage of the total number of all menu item sales, (2) a percentage of the total number of sales by specific category, (2) both category and total number of all sales.
• Item Food Cost (Item F.C.): (1) the food cost of the recipe – with no additional costs added.
• Item Selling Price (Item S.P.): the calculated price (possibly a combination of mark-up methods) for an item as stated on the menu.
• Item Contribution Margin (Item C.M.): (1) The selling price minus the food cost, (2) various other cost could be subtracted to arrive at the contribution margin figure such as labor and utilities.
• Menu Cost: the ‘food cost’ multiplied by the ‘number of items sold’.
• Menu Revenue: The item’s ‘selling price’ multiplied by the ‘number of items sold’.
• Menu Contribution Margin: (1) the item contribution item multiplied by the number of items sold, (2) the ‘menu revenue’ minus ‘menu cost’.
• Food Cost: ‘menu cost’ divided by ‘menu revenue’.
• Average Contribution Margin: (1) contribution margin divided by number of item sales. (2) contribution can be calculated by item, menu category, or total menu items.
• Revenue Per Average Seating Hour (REV PASH): total menu revenue divided by the total number of covers served.
• Revenue Per Occupied Seating Hour (REV POSH): the total sales per hour divided by the number of covers served per hour.
Marketing (price and promotion)
By using ‘menu mix’ (also called the guest demand) and ‘gross profit’ margins, the relative performance of each menu item is determined, and assigned one of the following terms (based on the BCG Matrix):
Stars. A ‘Star’ is extremely popular and has a high contribution margin. Ideally, Stars should be your flagship or signature menu items.
Plow Horse or Workhorse. A ‘Plow Horse’ is high in popularity but low in contribution margin. Plow horse menu items sell well, but do not significantly increase revenue.
Puzzles. A ‘Puzzle’ is generally low in popularity and high in contribution margin. Puzzle dishes are difficult to sell but have a high profit margin.
Dogs. A ‘Dog’ is low in popularity and low in contribution margin. They are difficult to sell and produce little profit when they do sell.
In general, items within a relevant comparable set (for example, entrees, or chicken entrees) should be priced to have similar contribution margins—this way, the restaurant would make the same amount of money, no matter what item the guest chooses to order.
Contribution Margin
The concept of break-even analysis deals with the ‘contribution margin’ of a product. The contribution margin is the excess between the selling price of the good and total variable costs. For example, if a product sells for \$100, total fixed costs are \$25 per product and total variable costs are \$60 per product, the product has a contribution margin of the product is \$40 (\$100 - \$60). This \$40 reflects the amount of revenue collected to cover fixed costs and retention as net profit. Fixed costs are not a part of calculating the contribution margin.
The concept of break-even analysis deals with the ‘contribution margin’ of a product. The contribution margin is the excess between the selling price of the good and total variable costs. For example, if a product sells for \$100, total fixed costs are \$25 per product and total variable costs are \$60 per product, the product has a contribution margin of the product is \$40 (\$100 - \$60). This \$40 reflects the amount of revenue collected to cover fixed costs and retention as net profit. Fixed costs are not a part of calculating the contribution margin.
Formulas for Break-Even Analysis
Calculating Breakeven Point Using Fixed Costs
1. Total Fixed Costs / by unit (average) = contribution margin
2. Contribution Margin = Selling price – Item food cost
The calculation of break-even analysis using fixed cost uses two formulas. First, the ‘total fixed costs’ are divided the ‘unit contribution margin’. In the example above, assume total company fixed costs are \$20,000. With a contribution margin of \$40, the break-even point is 500 units (\$20,000 divided by \$40). Upon the sale of 500 units, you can pay all fixed costs, and the company will report a net profit or loss of ‘0’ dollars.
Calculating Breakeven Point Using Sales Dollars
1. Breakeven = Total fixed costs/ by contribution margin ratio
2. Contribution Margin Ratio = Contribution margin/by sales price
Alternatively, the break-even point in sales dollars calculates by dividing ‘total fixed costs’ by the ‘contribution margin ratio’. The contribution margin ratio is the contribution margin per unit divided by the sale price. Using the example above, the contribution margin ratio is 40% (\$40 contribution margin per unit divided by \$100 sale price per unit). Therefore, the break-even point in sales dollars is \$50,000 (\$20,000 total fixed costs divided by 40%). This figured may be confirmed as the break-even in ‘units’ (500) multiplied by the sale price (\$100) equals \$50,000.
Menu Engineering Usage for profitability
While menu engineering is most often occurs in the context of traditional paper restaurant menus, the concepts are equally applicable to menus posted online, drink menus, specials written on table tents, and items written on menu boards. Simply put, if you sell items that have varying levels of profitability and popularity, menu engineering may help you increase your bottom line. The difference between the more and less successful attempts at menu engineering does not hinge on an establishment’s type or size. Instead, the determining factors are the restaurant owner/manager’s knowledge of the menu and willingness to put in the time and effort needed to understand the process and execute changes.
The Menu Engineering process:
1. Cost your menu. (You cannot skip this step!)
2. Categorize menu items according to profit and popularity levels.
3. Design your menu.
4. Test your new menu design.
5. Review your engineering worksheet over time
Costing the Menu
‘Costing a menu’ refers to the process of breaking down every item on your menu to its individual ingredients and determining exactly how much it costs to create each of these items. Establishments absolutely must cost their menu to the penny for food (not labor) costs because the engineering process depends heavily on the profitability level of each menu item. It is important to note that the person who performs the menu costing is generally the best person to be in charge of the menu-engineering process, as that person will be highly knowledgeable about the food costs of each menu item. For this reason, I always suggest that someone in charge at the restaurant perform the costing process.
Unfortunately, one of the biggest problems in the restaurant industry is that roughly 80% of restaurants don’t cost their menu, and another 5% cost their menus incorrectly (“correct” menu costing means that everything is costed consistently by a single person, as different people will cost items differently). The reason behind the 80% figure is simple: costing a menu is very time consuming. Unfortunately, there is no way around that fact, and you have to put in the work if you want to reap the benefits of a more profitable menu.
The process of categorizing each of your menu items will allow you to determine how to apply your menu-engineering efforts. This process can be broken into three parts:
1. Split your menu into “categories” and “sections”
The term ‘category’ refers to the way you break your menu out at the broadest level. The list of what a category entails is not set in stone, but for some guidance, the following are the names of some common categories: Appetizers, Entrees, Desserts, and Drinks. The key is that there is no overlap between the menu items in the various categories and that the list makes sense for your particular menu.
Break out your categories into sections. You can define ‘section’ in different ways according to your menu’s content, but to give you some guidance, here are some common sections that fit into the ‘Entrée’ category: Vegetarian Entrees, Seafood Entrees, Meat Entrees; and here are some for the ‘Drinks’ category: alcoholic Drinks and non-alcoholic Drinks. However you define your sections, be sure to keep distinct types of menu items separate from each other (that is, do not include a collection of vegetarian entrees and meat entrees in the same section).
1. Place each of your menu items into one of four quadrants
Go through each of your menu items, and using data for a recent time-period (perhaps the most recent month) then place each menu item into one of four quadrants:
• Stars—high profitability and high popularity
• Plow-horses—low profitability and high popularity
• Puzzles—high profitability and low popularity
• Dogs—low profitability and low popularity
1. Determine the fate of menu items in each of the four quadrants
Use the profit/popularity information from part (b) to help determine how you want to deal with each of your menu items. You will need to look at the menu items ranked by profitability and popularity at the category level first and then at the section level. Viewing your data at the category level can help you decide where to place the various sections of your menu (for example, if steak items are your Stars, you may want to work hardest to promote the Meat Entrees section). Viewing the data at the section level will then enable you to determine how to place and promote menu items within each section of your menu. The decisions you make will result from a combination of art (not science) and common sense. While every situation is different, here is some guidance for how to act on the data you have generated:
• Stars—your menu should highlight your Stars.
• Plow-horses—you may want to create more profitability in these versions of items. For instance, soup-and-salad specials often fall into this category and you might try turning such a special into a more profitable three-salad sampler.
• Puzzles—make sure your servers are promoting these items and investigate whether customers like the taste of the items in question. Sometimes simply lowering prices will increase sales volume enough to produce higher overall profits, and you may want to consider reinventing items in this category.
• Dogs—essentially, this can be a ‘liver and onions’ dilemma. Some people love the dish. While omitting such items may be an option, you cannot necessarily omit everything in this category (just think of a grilled cheese sandwich that is a staple among your youngest customers). Your best option may sometimes be to deemphasize these items by simply listing their title and prices on your menu and not putting any further effort into their promotion.
Once you have worked through this step, your menu-engineering goals are in place and you are ready to begin the menu design phase.
Re-design your menu
Part of the design process involves highlighting the items you want to sell the most (your Stars), but it goes beyond this and can’t be accomplished with a simple checklist. When designing your menu it pays to consider your customer base: what types of customers order which items, what drives them to your establishment (a certain dish, cheap drinks, and atmosphere), do your customers read your menu thoroughly, and other factors. Menu design does not exist in a vacuum, and having such information informs how and when you should apply certain menu design techniques. That said, when it comes to menu-engineering techniques, there are certainly best practices. The following guidelines include enough of them to turn your menu into a profit center:
1. Use visual cues to highlight the items you want to sell most
You can use various types of graphics to highlight an item, such as putting a box around it, placing a photograph or drawing near it, or placing an asterisk next to it.
Here are some things to keep in mind when using this technique:
• Space requirements. Highlighting items often takes up additional menu space, so please do not make the mistake I have seen many times when restaurant operators choose a menu cover that does not provide enough room to promote their items effectively.
• Frequency. As you increase the number of items highlighted with visual cues, the impact that these cues have on your bottom line will decline and your menu may begin to look cluttered. Limit myself to one highlighted item per category.
• Photographs. Using a photograph can increase sales of an item by as much as 30% when there is just one photograph on the page (again, the more you use visual cues, the lower their impact). That said, photographs on a menu also tend to cheapen the entire menu concept, so do not use this technique at a high-end eatery.
1. Do not list your prices in a column down the right side of your menu
This is the number-one problem seen with restaurant menus. Placing your prices in a column causes customers to focus on price, not your food. This could lead them to choose the cheapest item in the column. Instead, place prices just two spaces after the end of the item description, using the same type font size and style. Also, do not use a dollar sign or the word “dollar” next to the price, as that causes customers to think about money.
1. Use menu item descriptions to your advantage
Another common problem is a menu’s failure to have an item’s description reflect its importance. Do not list your \$40 lobster without a description and then write an entire paragraph about your \$10 hamburger. It should be the other way around. When writing descriptions, keep these two tips in mind:
• Use descriptions to set an item apart—Do not just list the ingredients; use evocative text that can pique a guest’s interest in a dish. In addition, you may want to tell customers why the item is on your menu: Did your grandmother use this recipe? Was it your favorite dessert as a child? Humanizing a dish takes it out of the realm of being a commodity.
• Mention brand names—if your ingredients include items (such as sauces, spices) made by ‘well-known’ and respected brand names, include these brand names in your description; they enhance the perception of the item’s quality.
1. Recognize that there is a science to listing each menu section’s items
• List order matters. Although you may list your appetizer and entree menu items in a vertical list, one through six, the level of customer focus on each of these six positions does not follow the same order. The first few spots enjoy levels of importance that correspond to their position in the list, but after that, it is the last item in the list that gets the most attention. The items just above the last item in the list are the most ignored.
• Lists should be short. My goal is to put five or fewer items into each section, with a maximum of seven. More than seven items in a list constitutes information overload for the customer, and when this happens customers often default to ordering the most common item (such as burgers). Unfortunately, the most common menu items tend not to be the most profitable ones. On the other hand, smaller lists are easier to navigate and lead to higher profitability due to the purchasing of higher-profit entrees and a higher number of add-on items.
1. Use your menu cover’s configuration to your advantage
Not all menu cover configurations (one panel, two panels, etc.) are equal creations. They differ in the way customers react to them and in the extent to which they allow menu engineering to affect your profits. Choose carefully. Below is a list of some common menu cover configurations and their impact on your engineering efforts:
• One-panel menu. People make decisions faster with these menus, but they will not order as much, thus leading to lower profitability per customer. The reason for this phenomenon is that this menu cover configuration does not evoke a full dining experience; it indicates something more light and casual.
• Two-panel menu. Whenever possible, this is the best configuration to use. It is easy to read and induces the strong feeling of a full dining experience.
• Three-panel menu. This is a valid choice if you have many items to sell and need the space, but the two-panel version is easier to read.
• Many-panel menu. The more panels you have in your menu cover the less control you have over the menu. Larger menus hinder your ability to influence customers’ actions.
1. Take advantage of customers’ eye-movement patterns
The eyes of your customers tend to focus on certain areas of your menu depending on your menu cover’s configuration. You can use knowledge of these patterns to place chosen menu items in spots where they are likely to receive the most—or least—attention.
Unless otherwise stated, the information below refers to hardcover menu covers with solid cover material, not views of a menu page, on the outer sides of the front and back panels:
Menu Configuration Area of Most Attention Area of Least Attention
One-Panel Top of the page Just below the bottom of the page (if your one-panel menu cover displays menu items on both sides of the cover, all entrees should appear on the front side, as those on the back will not receive as much attention.)
Two-Panel Top of the right-side panel Just above the bottom of the left-side panel
Three-Panel Book-Style Top of the third panel gets the most respect. Just above the bottom of the first panel
Many-Panel Top of each page Just above the bottom of each page
If the dish you want to promote is very expensive, you may want to keep it out of the menu’s highest focal point, as this may make your restaurant appear too expensive. Pricing is an integral part of your ‘positioning strategy’.
1. Think outside the menu
While the term “menu engineering” implies that the menu is responsible for your profit increase, some of your engineering profits can stem from teaching your staff which items are priorities. They are the ones who interact with your customers, and they can be instrumental in guiding customers to your most profitable or signature dishes.
1. Test your new menu design
Whatever method you choose, remember that when it comes to designing the one piece of free advertising that all of your customers will see—your menu—there is always room for profit improvement. Continually test new menu designs | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/12%3A_Restaurant_Analysis/12.01%3A_Menu_Engineering.txt |
A financial ratio or accounting ratio is a relative magnitude of two selected numerical values taken from an enterprise's financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other organization. Financial ratios are useful to managers within a firm, to current and potential shareholders (owners) of a firm, and to a firm's creditors. Financial analysts use financial ratios to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies. If shares in a company trade in a financial market, the market price of the shares is useful in certain financial ratios.
Ratios are useful to examine and display the ‘liquidity’ or amount of cash, accounts receivable, or other forms of assets that can be converted to cash quickly if the need arises. In the restaurant industry, how quickly or slowly the perishable food, paper, and other items we stock is used are replenished is always of major concern to the operation. The ‘turnover’ rate calculation occurring weekly, monthly, or quarterly, is indicative of how well we are projecting the restaurant’s product demand, and how well we are controlling storage costs and physical space allocations. Solvency ratios examine the status assets and liabilities, and profitability ratios give us a way to discuss and display how well the operation is conducting business.
The basic ‘four’ different classes of ratios we will discuss are:
1. Liquidity
2. Turnover
3. Solvency
4. Profitability
We should first define the term ‘ratio’. In mathematics, a ratio is a relationship between two numbers indicating how many times the first number contains the second. For example, if a bowl of fruit contains ‘eight’ oranges and ‘six’ lemons, then the ratio of oranges to lemons is eight to six (that is, 8:6, which is equivalent to the ratio 4:3). Thus, a ratio can also be a fraction as opposed to a whole number. In addition, in this example the ratio of lemons to oranges is 6:8 (or 3:4), and the ratio of oranges to the total amount of fruit is 8:14 (or 4:7). The numbers compared in a ratio can be any quantities of a comparable kind, such as objects, persons, lengths, or spoonful amounts. A ratio is written "a to b" or ‘a: b’ or sometimes expressed arithmetically as a ‘quotient’ of the two.
Liquidity Ratios
The current ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures whether or not a firm has enough resources to meet its short-term obligations. It compares a firm's current assets to its current liabilities. The current ratio is an indication of a firm's liquidity. Acceptable current ratios vary from industry to industry. In many cases, a creditor would consider a high current ratio to be better than a low current ratio, because a high current ratio indicates that the company is more likely to pay the creditor back. Large current ratios are not always a good sign for investors. If the company's current ratio is too high it may indicate that, the company is not efficiently using its current assets or its short-term financing facilities.
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 / \$2,500,000 = 1.04
If current liabilities exceed current assets, the ‘current ratio’ will be less than one. A current ratio of less than ‘1’ indicates that the company may have problems meeting its short-term obligations. Some types of businesses can operate with a current ratio of less than one however. If inventory turns into cash much more rapidly than the accounts payable become due, then the firm's current ratio can comfortably remain less than one. Inventory is valued at the cost of acquiring it and the firm intends to sell the inventory for more than this cost. The sale will therefore generate substantially more cash than the value of inventory on the balance sheet. Low current ratios can also be justified for businesses that can collect cash from customers long before they need to pay their suppliers.
The ‘acid test’ or ‘quick ratio’ or ‘liquidity ratio’ measures the ability of a company to use its near cash or quick assets to extinguish or retire its current liabilities immediately. Quick assets include those current assets that presumably can quickly convert to cash at close to their book values. A company with a quick ratio of less than ‘one’ cannot currently fully pay back its current liabilities. It is the ratio between quick or liquid assets and current liabilities. The normal liquid ratio is 1:1. It has a better and more reliable ranking as a tool for assessment of liquidity position of firms.
Quick Ratio = (Current Assets – Inventory) / Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 - \$150,000 -\$50,000 = .96
Working capital (abbreviated WC) is a financial metric, which represents operating liquidity available to a business, organization or other entity, including governmental entity. Working capital is the difference between the current assets and the current liabilities. Along with fixed assets such as plant and equipment, working capital is a part of operating capital. Gross working capital equals to current assets. Working capital calculation is ‘current assets’ minus ‘current liabilities’. If current assets are less than current liabilities, an entity has a working capital deficiency, also called a working capital deficit.
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Example: \$2,600,000 -\$2,500,000 = \$100,000
A company can be possess with ‘assets’ and ‘profitability’ but be short of ‘liquidity’ if its assets cannot readily be converted into cash. Positive working capital is required to ensure that a firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient funds to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. The management of working capital involves managing inventories, accounts receivable and payable, and cash. The basic calculation of the working capital utilizes the ‘gross current assets’ of the firm.
Current assets and current liabilities include three accounts that are of special importance. These accounts represent the areas of the business where managers have the most direct impact:
• Accounts receivables (current asset)
• Inventory (current assets), and
• Accounts payable (current liability)
The current portion of ‘debt’ (payable within 12 months) is critical, because it represents a short-term claim to current assets and often uses long-term assets as security. Common types of short-term debt are bank loans and lines of credit. An increase in net working capital indicates that the business has either increased current assets (that it has increased its receivables or other current assets) or has decreased current liabilities - for example has paid off some short-term creditors, or a combination of both.
A positive working capital cycle balances incoming and outgoing payments to minimize net working capital and maximize ‘free cash flow’. For example, a company that pays its suppliers in 30 days but takes 60 days to collect its receivables has a working capital cycle of 30 days. This 30-day cycle usually needs funding through a bank operating line, and the interest on this financing is a carrying cost that reduces the company's profitability. Growing businesses require cash, and being able to free up cash by shortening the working capital cycle is the most inexpensive way to grow. Sophisticated buyers review closely a target's working capital cycle because it provides them with an idea of the management's effectiveness at managing their balance sheet and generating free cash flows.
As an absolute rule of funders, each of them wants to see a positive working capital. Such situation gives them the possibility to think that your company has more than enough current assets to cover financial obligations. The same is not always true about negative working capital. A large number of funders believe that businesses cannot be sustainable with a negative working capital, which is a wrong way of thinking. In order to run a sustainable business with a negative working capital it is essential to understand some key components.
Approach your suppliers and persuade them to let you purchase the inventory on 1-2 month credit terms, but keep in mind that you must sell the purchased goods, to consumers for money. Effectively monitor your inventory management, make sure that refilling occurs on a consistent and timely basis to maintain fresh product with the help of your supplier, and to adequately stock and utilize your warehouse spacing.
Turnover (Activity) Ratios
In accounting, the Inventory turnover is a measure of the number of times the restaurant’s sells or uses its inventory using a week, month or year calculation. The equation for inventory turnover equals the cost of goods sold or net sales divided by the average inventory. Inventory turnover is also known as: inventory turns; merchandise turnover; stock turn; turns, and stock turnover.
A low turnover rate may point to overstocking, obsolescence, or deficiencies in the product line or marketing effort. However, in some instances a low rate may be appropriate, such as where higher inventory levels occur in anticipation of rapidly rising prices or expected market shortages.
Conversely, a high turnover rate may indicate inadequate inventory levels, which may lead to a loss in business, as the inventory is too low. This often can result in stock shortages. Some compilers of industry data (e.g., Dun & Bradstreet) use sales as the numerator instead of cost of sales. ‘Cost of sales’ yields a more realistic turnover ratio, but it is often necessary to use sales for purposes of comparative analysis. Cost of sales is more realistic because of the difference in which one records sales and the cost of sales. Record sales at market value, i.e. the value at which the marketplace paid for the good or service provided by the firm. In the event that the firm had an exceptional year and the market paid a premium for the firm's goods and services then the numerator may be an inaccurate measure. However, the firm should record cost of sales at what the firm actually paid for the materials available for sale.
Additionally, firms may reduce prices to generate sales in an effort to cycle inventory. Generally, the terms "cost of sales" and "cost of goods sold" are synonymous. An item whose inventory is sold (turns over) once a year has higher holding cost than one that turns over twice, or three times, or more in that time. Stock turnover also indicates the briskness of the business. The purpose of increasing inventory turns is to reduce inventory for three reasons.
Increasing inventory turns reduces holding cost. The organization spends less money on rent, utilities, insurance, theft and other costs of maintaining a stock of good for sale. Reducing holding cost increases net income and profitability as long as the revenue from selling the item remains constant. Items that turn over more quickly increase responsiveness to changes in customer requirements while allowing the replacement of perishable items. This is a major concern in the restaurant industry.
When making comparison between firms, it is important to take note of the industry, or distortion in the comparison will occur. Making comparison between a supermarket or restaurant and a car dealer will not be appropriate, as supermarkets and restaurants sell fast-moving goods such as meals, sweets, chocolates, soft drinks therefore the stock turnover will be higher. However, a car dealer will have a low turnover due to the item being a slow moving item.
Inventory Turnover = Cost of Goods Sold / Inventories
Example: \$500,000 / \$110,000 = 4.55 times
Average Inventory = beginning inventory + Ending inventory
2
The average days to sell the inventory calculation is:
Average days to sell the inventory = ________365_________
Inventory Turnover Ratio
Asset turnover is a financial ratio that measures the efficiency of a company's use of its assets in generating sales revenue or sales income to the company. Companies with low profit margins tend to have high asset turnover, while those with high profit margins have low asset turnover. Companies in the retail industry tend to have a very high turnover ratio due mainly to cutthroat and competitive pricing.
‘Sales’ is the value of ‘Net Sales’ or ‘Sales’ from the company's income statement ‘Average Total Assets’ is the average of the values of ‘Total assets’ from the company's balance sheet in the beginning and the end of the fiscal period. The calculation adds up the assets at the beginning of the period and the assets at the end of the period, then dividing that number by two. Alternatively, "Average Total Assets" can be ending total assets.
This calculation allows the operator to know what the total revenue per hour would be will a ‘full’ dining room at a given average ticket price. It is the ‘optimum’ calculation. Example: If the restaurant has 150 seats, an average ticket price for lunch of \$15.00, and a one- hour turnover, the total revenue potential would be \$2,250.00 per hour. The total revenue potential for lunch then centers on the number of hours the restaurant serves lunch.
REV Pash (revenue per avg. seating hour) = Total Occupancy x Average ticket price per hour.
This calculation is the point of comparison to the ‘REVPash’ total occupancy calculation. The dining room may not be full which would reduce the revenue for the meal period. In essence, you are calculating real income and comparing that figure to ‘optimum’ income to assess your current potential.
REV Posh (revenue per occupied seating hour) = Occupancy rate x Average ticket price per hour.
Average Food Check = Food Revenue / Number of customers
Profitability Ratios
Profit margin is calculated with selling price (or revenue) taken as base times 100. It is the percentage of selling price that becomes profit, whereas, "profit percentage" or "markup" is the percentage of cost price that one gets as profit on top of cost price. When selling something, one should know what profit percentage one will get on a particular investment, so companies calculate profit percentage to find the ratio of profit to cost.
Net Profit Margin = Net profit / Total Revenue
Example: \$1,092,000 / \$4,805,000 = .227 or 22.7% (of every dollar in the form of earnings)
The profit margin is useful mostly for internal comparison. It is difficult to compare with accuracy the net profit ratio for different entities. Individual businesses' operating and financing arrangements vary so much that different entities are bound to have different levels of expenditure, so that comparison of one with another can have little meaning. A low profit margin indicates a low margin of safety: higher risk that a decline in sales will erase profits and result in a net loss, or a negative margin. Profit margin is an indicator of both a company's pricing strategies and how well it controls costs. Differences in competitive strategy and product mix cause the profit margin to vary among different companies. Examples follow:
• If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs, \$1 to earn it, when he or she take costs away he or she has a 90% margin. A 900% profit on a \$1 investment.
• If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs, \$5 to earn it, when he or she take costs away he or she has a 50% margin. A 100% profit on a \$5 investment.
• If an investor makes \$10 in revenue and it costs \$9 to earn it, when you take cost away he or she has 10% margin, an 11.11% profit on a \$9 investment.
On the other hand, profit percentage calculates as follows: Suppose that you buy something for \$50.00 and then sell it for \$100.00.
Cost price = \$50
Selling price (revenue) = \$100
Profit = \$100 − \$50 = \$50
Profit percentage (profit divided by cost) = \$50/\$50 = 100%
Return on investment multiple = \$50 / \$50 (profit divided by cost)
If the revenue is the same as the cost, profit percentage is 0%. The result above or below 100% can be calculated as the percentage of return on investment. In this example, the return on investment is a multiple of 0.5 of the investment, resulting in a 50% gain.
Return on Investment (ROI) is the benefit to an investor resulting from an investment of some resource. A high ROI means the investment gains compare favorably to investment cost. As a performance measure, ROI is useful to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments. In purely economic terms, it is one way of considering profits in relation to ‘capital’ invested.
ROI (return on investments) (assets) = Total Revenue (Net income) / Total assets
Example: \$1,092,000 / \$9,225,000 = .118 or 11.8%
Purpose: In business, the purpose of the "return on investment" (ROI) metric is to measure, per period, rates of return on money invested in an economic entity in order to decide whether, or not, to undertake an investment. It is also useful as indicator to compare different project investments within a project portfolio. The project with best ROI assumes priority. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/12%3A_Restaurant_Analysis/12.02%3A_Classes_of_Ratio.txt |
Resturant Analysis Exercise \(1\)
1. Introductory paragraph
2. Menu engineering analysis and menu scoring
3. Break-even analysis and sensitivity analysis
4. Performance measures. Which measures you use and why? Do they relate to each other?
1. ‘RevPash’ and ‘RevPosh’,
2. Average Check,
3. Turnover,
4. Food cost percentage,
5. Yield management,
6. Profit contribution
7. Others.
8. Appendix – Label charts, graphs or tables clearly.
Discussion Questions \(2\)
1. What are the five steps in the menu engineering process?
2. What is the formula to calculate breakeven using sales dollars?
3. What is the formula to calculate breakeven using fixed costs?
4. What is a menu engineering worksheet useful to evaluate?
5. Name the four different classes of financial ratios.
6. What is REV Pash and what does it indicate?
7. What is REV Posh and what is its purpose?
12.04: Chapter Glossary and Notes
Glossary
Menu engineering. An interdisciplinary field of study devoted to the deliberate and strategic construction of menus. It is references Menu Psychology. In general, the term menu engineering is used within the hospitality industry (specifically in the context of restaurants), but can be applied to any industry that displays a list of product or service offerings for consumer choice. Typically, the goal with menu engineering is to maximize a firm's profitability by subconsciously encouraging customers to buy what you want them to buy, and discouraging purchase of items you do not want them to buy.
Number Sold. (1) A total of all menu items sold. (2) A total by menu category (appetizers, entrées, desserts, etc.).
Menu Mix (M.M. %). (1) a percentage of the total number of all menu item sales, (2) a percentage of the total number of sales by specific category, (2) both category and total number of all sales.
Item Food Cost (Item F.C.). The food cost of the recipe – with no additional costs added.
Item Selling Price (Item S.P.). The calculated price (possibly a combination of mark-up methods) for an item as stated on the menu.
Item Contribution Margin (Item C.M.). The selling price minus the food cost, (2) various other cost could be subtracted to arrive at the contribution margin figure such as labor and utilities.
Menu Cost. The ‘food cost’ multiplied by the ‘number of items sold’.
Menu Revenue. The item’s ‘selling price’ multiplied by the ‘number of items sold’.
Menu Contribution Margin. The item contribution item multiplied by the number of items sold, (2) the ‘menu revenue’ minus ‘menu cost’.
Food Cost. The ‘menu cost’ divided by ‘menu revenue’.
Average Contribution Margin. Contribution margin divided by number of item sales. (2) ‘Contribution’ calculates by item, menu category, or total menu items.
Revenue per Average Seating Hour (REV PASH). Total menu revenue divided by the total number of covers served. Computing total possible revenue if all seats are in occupancy.
Revenue per Occupied Seating Hour (REV POSH). The total sales per hour divided by the number of covers served per hour. Your actual revenue.
Stars. A ‘Star’ is extremely popular and has a high contribution margin. Ideally, Stars should be your flagship or signature menu items.
Plow Horse or Workhorse. A ‘Plow Horse’ is high in popularity but low in contribution margin. Plow horse menu items sell well, but do not significantly increase revenue.
Puzzles. A ‘Puzzle’ is generally low in popularity and high in contribution margin. Puzzle dishes are difficult to sell but have a high profit margin.
Dogs. A ‘Dog’ is low in popularity and low in contribution margin. They are difficult to sell and produce little profit when they do sell.
Contribution margin. The excess between the selling price of the good and total variable costs. For example, if a product sells for \$100, total fixed costs are \$25 per product and total variable costs are \$60 per product, the product has a contribution margin of the product is \$40 (\$100 - \$60). This \$40 reflects the amount of revenue collected to cover fixed costs and retention as net profit. Fixed costs are not a part of calculating the contribution margin.
Break-even point. In sales dollars, breakeven calculates by dividing ‘total fixed costs’ by the ‘contribution margin ratio’. The contribution margin ratio is the contribution margin per unit divided by the sale price. Using the example above, the contribution margin ratio is 40% (\$40 contribution margin per unit divided by \$100 sale price per unit). Therefore, the break-even point in sales dollars is \$50,000 (\$20,000 total fixed costs divided by 40%). This figured may be confirmed as the break-even in ‘units’ (500) multiplied by the sale price (\$100) equals \$50,000.
Costing a menu. Refers to the process of breaking down every item on your menu to its individual ingredients and determining exactly how much it costs to create each of these items. Establishments absolutely must cost their menu to the penny for food (not labor) costs because the engineering process depends heavily on the profitability level of each menu item.
One-panel menu. People make decisions faster with these menus, but they will not order as much, thus leading to lower profitability per customer. The reason for this phenomenon is that this menu cover configuration does not evoke a full dining experience; it indicates something more light and casual.
Two-panel menu. Whenever possible, this is the best configuration to use. It is easy to read and induces the strong feeling of a full dining experience.
Three-panel menu. This is a valid choice if you have many items to sell and need the space, but the two-panel version is easier to read.
Many-panel menu. The more panels you have in your menu cover the less control you have over the menu. Larger menus hinder your ability to influence customers’ actions.
Notes
Accounting-simplified.com. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Bodie, Zane, Alex Kane, and Alan J. Marcus. 2004. Essentials of Investments, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill Irwin. p. 459.
Farris, Paul W., Neil T. Bendle, Phillip E. Pfeifer, and David J. Reibstein. 2010. Marketing Metrics: The Definitive Guide to Measuring Marketing Performance. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Hargreaves, Rupert. 2016. Does Walmart have a liquidity problem? www.fool.com. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Hillier, D., S. Ross, R. Westerfield, J. Jaffe, and B. Jordan. 2010. Corporate Finance: European Edition. McGraw-Hill.
The term menu engineering refers to the specific restaurant menu analysis methodology developed by Kasavana, Michael L., Ph.D. and Donald J. Smith at the Michigan State University School of Hospitality Business in 1982.
Kelson, A. H. (1994) "The ten commandments for menu success". Restaurant Hospitality, 78(7), 103.
Kershaw, Sarah (23 December 2009). "Using Menu Psychology to Entice Diners". The New York Times. p. D1. Retrieved 2010-08-21.
Kincaid, Clark S., Corsun, David L. 2003. "Are Consultants blowing Smoke? An Empirical Test of the Impact of Menu Layout on Item Sales". International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12 (4/5), 226–231.
Kotschevar, L. H. (208). In Withrow D. (ed.), Management by Menu (4th ed.), Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley.
Miller, J. E., 1930–. 1992. Menu Pricing & Strategy. (Third Ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gallup Report (1987). Through the Eyes of the Customer. The Gallup Monthly Report on Eating Out, 7(3), 1–9.
Pavesic, David and Paul Magnant. 2005. The Fundamental Principles of Restaurant Cost Controls, Pearson-Prentice Hall.
Pearce, Joshua M. 2015. "Return on Investment – ROI", Investopedia as accessed 8 January 2013. Return on Investment for Open Source Hardware Development. Science and Public Policy. DOI :10.1093/scipol/scv034 open access
Pirok, Kenneth P. Commercial Loan Analysis: principles and techniques for credit analysts and lenders.
Reynolds, D., E. A. Merritt, and S. Pinckney. 2005. "Understanding Menu Psychology: An Empirical Investigation of Menu Design and Consumer Response." International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 6(1), 1–10.
The quotient of two numbers (or quantities); the relative sizes of two numbers (or quantities). The Mathematics Dictionary.
Wansink, B., J. Painter, and K. Van Ittersum. 2001. "Descriptive menu labels' effect on sales". Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 42(6), 68.
Weygandt, J. J., D. E. Kieso, & W.G. Kell. 1996. Accounting Principles (fourth Ed.). New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 802.
"Why do all airlines have 'crrent ratio' less than 1? - Quora". www.quora.com. Retrieved 2016-10-11.
Yang, S., S. E. Kimes, and M. M. Sessarego. 2009. "\$ or Dollars? Effects of Menu Price Formats on Customer Price Purchases. Cornell Hospitality Report, 9(8). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/12%3A_Restaurant_Analysis/12.03%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments.txt |
A strong business model combines the elements/parts of the applicable information to form a whole idea. Larger industry issues and necessary capabilities surface to convey a competitive advantage. All information in the model is sufficiently evaluated, analyzed, and synthesized. It is important to reflect sound reasoning and judgment, which includes analysis of information, recognition of unstated assumptions, and distinguishes between fact and conjecture. Thus, the model must be well written, with properly documented references containing no typographical errors. Your business model is also a ‘visual aid’ available for referencing key points when you discuss your vision with a lender. Use it to your advantage – impression management.
Business Model Format
Cover sheet and Contents Page
Introduction:
A through summary of findings and analysis (approximately 3 pages)
Section 1: The City
Introductory paragraph
City/suburban appeal
City industrial/service sector appeal
Discuss why the city is a ‘good fit’ for your business
Provide example where applicable
Section 2: The Customer
Introductory paragraph
Complete demographic information on the population in the area.
Based on this information, an estimate of overall market demand.
Direct and indirect competitor information: prices, hours of operation, size, menu type, other characteristics of the competitor.
Potential of new entrants in the area.
Section 3: Competitive Analysis
Introductory paragraph
Direct competition
Indirect competition
Types of food
Price, quality, service, hours of operation, etc.
Rank your competitors
Discuss strengths and weaknesses – theirs and yours
Discuss opportunities and consider threats
Section 4: Segmentation
Introductory paragraph
Segmentation strategy
Broad or narrow segmentation
Age groups including psychographic ‘face’.
The total segment demand in the area
Your share of the segment demand – market share & business mix variance.
Section 5: Positioning
Positioning statement and strategy
Utilizing the hospitality marketing mix
Sources of data
Type of restaurant you intend to construct
Type of advertising you intend to utilize
Electronic media usage
Section 6: The Marketing Plan
Marketing approach and target markets
Electronic and traditional media
The methodical approach you intend to use
Incorporate position statement
Section 7: Facility and Operation
Introductory paragraph
Décor and architectural design.
Location
Equipment and resources available
Management plan
Section 8: Costs
Introductory paragraph
Pro-forma Income Statement
Analysis of fixed and variable costs
Investment requirements
Financing plans
Section 9: Menu Pricing
Introductory paragraph
Standardized recipes
Method(s) of menu pricing’
Product mix
Product availability
Menu pre-cost
Section 10: The Menu
Introductory paragraph
Menu information
Layout
Printing considerations
Descriptions
Nutrition considerations
Truth-in-menu considerations
Artwork
Beverage menu – listing and pricing (method?)
Narrative of considerations
Section 11: Menu Analysis and Revenue Management
Introductory paragraph
Menu engineering analysis and menu scoring
Break-even analysis and sensitivity analysis
Performance measures (Which should we use and why? Are they relatable to each other?)
Revenue per operating seat hour), revenue per average seat hour (RevPOSH), average check, turnover (RevPASH), food cost percentage, yield management, profit contribution, or others.
Appendix
Tables, charts, data, and so forth that strengthen your proposal. Include picture for your competition and facility section – visuals are powerful and explanatory.
13.02: Legal Regulations
There is no universal checklist for all of the necessary licenses, permits, inspections, postings, and signage for your new restaurant. These requirements vary greatly between states, cities, restaurant types, and even counties and neighborhoods. The experts that you hire to help you -- specifically your designer, architect, and contractor -- will help you get through everything, but you will need to be an active part of the process and take on responsibility as well. Here are 10 best practices to ensure you obtain everything you need to open your restaurant legally from the beginning.
Review your lease in detail Before you sit down with your team and put together a master list of action items, review your lease in detail so you have a clear understanding of what your property owner will be responsible for, as well as the duties that fall on you, the tenant. If your lease states that your property owner is responsible for trash removal, they may be required to post a decal showing which company they use and what the pick-up schedule is. Make this your first step to avoid confusion and help facilitate a healthy, productive, and accountable relationship between you and your property owner.
Draw on the experience of your team Your contractor, designer, engineer, architect, and kitchen equipment vendor will be your most valuable allies in getting all of your licenses, permits, inspections, and postings completed properly. Gather this team and ask them to provide you with a list of everything that they know you will need, as well as areas of uncertainty so that you know where you will need to do focused research. You need to have a team established that has experience, otherwise you will experience a lot of surprises and unmet expectations throughout the process. For the person that’s just going through this for the first time, it’s going to feel like an infinite list and like there are so many people that have their hand out that need to get paid for some sort of application, license, or permit.”
Learn your city Some municipalities are much more organized than others are when it comes to providing practical, accurate information and resources to help you better understand what is required for you to open and operate your business. Cities like San Francisco and New York have relatively advanced online resources, while others may have nothing at all. Still, even the most sophisticated online tools are only a starting point. If your city does not have a centralized Internet resource for new businesses, they likely have an office you can call or visit to get the same information. Track down the information up front to avoid delays and surprises. Remember, investing a day at your municipal office early in the process can save you weeks or months of costly setbacks down the road.
Research the requirements of each individual city agency Do independent research online. Call or visit the major city and state agencies you will need to obtain permits from, and by asking peers with similar concepts in your market what they needed to get their doors open. It is important to understand that city agencies do not communicate with each other. In New York City, for example, you need a Certificate of Occupancy from the Department of Buildings and from the Fire Department and there is no link between the two. Once you visit central websites, make sure you are then researching the requirements of each individual agency. For example, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection but also the Department of Health, Department of Sanitation, and Department of Buildings monitor Grease traps. They all have different rules that can trigger violations, so you need to understand the requirements of each.
Make a master list, assign responsibilities & follow up Once you have consulted every available resource and done as much research as you can, sit with your team and compile a master list of every permit, license, inspection, and posting you will need. Delegate each item to a member of your team and assign due dates as necessary. In your weekly construction meetings, update each other on relevant progress, ask questions, and work together to get through inevitable setbacks and complications.
Get comfortable with the health code in your municipality Department of Health (DOH) requirements vary greatly from state to state and city to city, and many DOH specifications will dictate parts of your restaurant design. Once you know where you are going to open a property, contact the Department of Health for your municipality and read the entire health code so that you do not get in too deep without knowing the regulations. Once they start pouring concrete and putting pipes in, it can be very expensive to retract the work. Even though many standards are consistent across the country, there are some things drastically different, like outdoor seating regulations. The Department of Health really drives much of the construction for your kitchen, back of house, and outdoor seating areas. You need to be coordinated with whatever the regulations are in your specific location.
Keep all of your finalized documents in a centralized location Some permits and licenses will need posting in a place where they are visible to guests and employees, and others will need to reside on site and presented to inspectors before and after you open. Jennifer recommends keeping copies of everything in one centralized binder that the General Manager of the property has access to so there is no confusion when inspectors arrive. This will also make it easier to replace expired permits and keep track of renewal dates.
Calendar renewal dates immediately As soon as you receive any type of license or permit, put a reminder on your calendar for the appropriate renewal date, as well as a reminder a few weeks or months before the actual date. Clearly delegate and note on the reminders who is responsible for each renewal and assign one person (probably your General Manager) to follow up as important dates approach.
Include health code and food handling safety in employee training
Some states require every employee on staff to go through food safety training, while others only require certain individuals to go through it. Even if your municipality does not demand that every person carry a food safety card, Jennifer recommends ensuring that every employee has some level of food handling and safety training. This creates a safer environment for staff and guests and helps to maintain your equipment. Employees are better equipped to understand when something is failing if have knowledge about their workstation, how to set up, and how equipment needs to function to align with code. This helps us avoid huge violations for the restaurant, as well as damage to major equipment.
Even if the law does not require it, having a staff that is knowledgeable and responsible about food safety will help shield you from the liability of an unfortunate mistake and help you sleep at night, knowing your team knows the basics.
Set up service contracts right away Before your contractor and subcontractors disappear, bring in your equipment service vendors and set up maintenance contracts. Preventative maintenance measures make sure you do not incur massive emergency service bills when equipment breaks. It is very expensive to call for service at night and on weekends, which are most restaurants’ primary operating hours. In sum, negotiate service contracts, calendars the dates for their visits, and always follow up with them before and after they come in. Always keep in touch with them to make sure that they are holding up their end of the bargain. Too often contracts are in place, but no one really monitors work completion.
When it comes to licenses and permits necessary for operation, please heed the following takeaways to bring your facility on-line as quickly as possible.
Do your research Contact the people in your city and state and ask what you need based on your specific project. Get on top of scheduling critical inspections with long lead times right away.
Take advantage of your team’s experience, but do not disengage from the process Surround yourself with people that have done this before and take an active role yourself.
Get (very) comfortable with Department of Health regulations in your municipality The Department of Health (DOH) dictates many aspects of construction including kitchen design, and even extending to how your ‘service station’ set up. Educate yourself on the requirements of your specific area and ensure that your general contractor and designer are on top of it, too.
As stated, licenses and permits necessary to open and operate a restaurant will vary from one city or state to another. The agencies and respective departments involved in the licensing and permit process appear below. Your state or municipality of choice may require more, or fewer, licenses and permits than the table contains.
Permit Sources
Federal Agency
Department of Treasury – Alcohol permit
Internal Revenue Service – Employment ID
State Agency
State Liquor Authority – On-premise alcohol
Department of State - DBA certificate, New business registration,
Department of Taxation – Certificate of authority
City Agency
Department of sanitation – Food Service Establishment permit, Resuscitation equipment, Safety Data Sheets, Food Protection Certificate, Signage,
Fire Department - Open flame permit, Range Hood and Duct Inspection, Portable Fire Extinguisher Tags, Gas Authorization, Ansul Tags, Sprinkler System, Certificate of Occupancy / Place of Assembly, Fire Alarm Test.
Utility Company Electric / Gas Service , Gas Authorization
Contractor, Architect
(In most cases, installation and performance of these items require professionals.)
Certificate of Occupancy, Equipment Use Permits, Building Permit, Sign Permit, Emergency Lighting & Foot Candle Letter | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/13%3A_Appendices/13.01%3A_Structuring_Your_Business_Model.txt |
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
13.04: Industry Resources
Meat
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Associationwww.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soy Foods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co.
www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Restaurant_Design%3A_Concept_to_Customer_(Thibodeaux)/13%3A_Appendices/13.03%3A_Professional_Associations.txt |
Introduction
Today most hospitality programs emphasize the importance of experiential learning, or practical training and internships for students. Experiential learning is a broad term referring to multiple programs such as the externship, internship, practicum, or educational assignment that provide students with work-based applied learning opportunities (Lee, 2007). The development of vocational skills through industry work experience in conjunction with an academic program has been a popular way of meeting the needs of both the educational institution and the employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslie & Richardson, 2000). However, Cooper and Shepherd (1997), claim that “who” wants “what” can create educational disparities as employers seek practical and general transferable skills, while educators emphasize the conceptualization of theories and materials specific to the discipline.
The burden of learning shift. Gardner (1964) asserts that the ultimate goal of the education system is to shift to the individual the burden of pursuing his or her own learning as education most certainly extends beyond the university setting. Educators in the critical tradition know that the task of critical reflection, especially questioning fundamental premises and assumptions, is one that students frequently resist (Barnett, 1997; Hatton & smith, 1995). Shining a questioning and inquiring light on their work and lives is demanding and can take an emotional toll and leave people disoriented and confused (Reynolds, 1998). The process demands more than the usual intellectual tasks of analysis and synthesis required in academic work. It is a skill that requires higher order functioning, often associated with adulthood (Mezirow, 1991), so it is unrealistic to expect that all students enter the learning environment with similar capacities.
Educators still grapple over how educational design can combine the structured teacher-centered learning strategy (passive learning) used in university classrooms with the learner-centered, constructivist active learning approach students typically utilize in for-profit culinary workplaces. Thus the pedagogical challenge involving all internship stakeholders is the fact that experiential internship programs, are developed with academic purpose but are designed for non-academic implementation (Petrillose & Montgomery, 1997/1998) requiring a delicate balance between classroom theory and the reality of real world culinary operations. The static and reflective nature of the traditional liberal arts institutional philosophy and the constantly evolving atmosphere of the twenty-first century culinary workplace can resemble educational “quicksand” for students attempting to acclimate to the realities of the working world (e.g. Titz & Wollin, 2002; Eyler, 1993; Varty, 2000). The differences in these two environments can present formidable obstacles to students on internships seeking practical knowledge but required to associate classroom endeavors and ways of thinking to the functional orientation of a real world operation. Under such conditions, the ability of the student and cooperation from the internship site is important to achieving student outcomes that meet higher education standards. However, not all students and internship providers understand their role in achieving outcomes, or what the outcomes should be for that matter. The system works, but not for all in consistent ways and this is the notion that drives this book.
The goals of the internship. Kiser and Partlow (1999) indicate that the preferred application of experiential learning in hospitality education is the industry work-study experience known by the term ‘internship’. They state that regardless of the term used, the objective is still the same - to enhance student learning by integrating practical work experience and classroom instruction. Experiential learning programs can be traced back to Herman Schnieder at the University of Cincinnati who started an experiential learning program to provide work-based experience to engineering students (Ryder, 1987). The internship is rooted in cooperative education conceived by John Dewey proposed bringing together the reality of the workplace and the theory of the classroom for vocational training shortly after World War II (Herrick, 1997). This connection to vocational training is evident in Varty’s (2000) posit that cooperative education, properly practiced, is an excellent strategy for future employees to develop the reflective behavior that will help them become contextual learners. The cooperative perspective reasons that programs (external conditions), what is inherent in the student (internal conditions), and what has been learned prior to or during the cooperative education experience (learning outcomes) may all interact to affect each other and/or may separately contribute to more of the variance in educational outcomes (Ricks, Van Gyn, Branton, Cut, Loken, & Ney, 1990).
Internships – not always an easy stakeholder process
Internships are educational bridges from classroom to the working world. Experiential learning is the most popular way to bridge the disparities between and needs of both educational institution and employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslie & Richardson, 2000). Ball (1995) and Becket (1996) posit that all students in higher education need to acquire extensive technical skills along with the associated skills needed to apply their knowledge within a profession or academic discipline, as well as the skills that required for the world of work and the to be attractive to employers. Moscardo and Norris (2003) claim that this challenge is particularly acute for tourism and hospitality as it is a relative new area of study within academic institutions and is primarily applied in orientation highlighting the need for devising new ways to improve the education of students in this field. Barron and Henderson (2000) also identify a need to utilize teaching and learning methods that encourage and facilitate deeper learning in tourism and hospitality education.
Internships produce different student reactions. Moscardo & Norris (2003) found that many students reported feelings of satisfaction and pride associated with completing complex and challenging experiential activity. However, students experience variable outcomes as argued by McDonald and McDonald (2000) who state that while there were a number of beneficial learning outcomes for students, the exercise was risky and not all students were prepared for it. They found that student’s responses to experiential activities ranged from “excitement, involvement and appreciation, to apathy, withdrawal and confusion.” Barron and Henderson ((2000) posit that there is a need to improve the education of students and develop new teaching methods to enhance knowledge retention.
Internships as a difficult process. With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students.
Teaching methods are currently not refined. Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Specht & Sandlin, 1991), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) and Carson and Fisher (2006) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties. Values, beliefs, assumptions, and critical thinking and reflection are important elements for students consideration in experiential learning as expressed by the theory, but research is lacking into how externships may or do move beyond program goals, by failing to ask how should program goals be strategized to achieve what the literature posits is important knowledge for students’ to acquire (Casado, 2000)
We will help you learn during this process
Mentoring. This has been a large part of the structure of the CJFCI internship program. Organizational trends such as downsizing, restructuring, teamwork, increased diversity, and individual responsibility for career development are contributing to an interest in mentoring. A traditional mentoring model is the apprentice learning from a master (Kerda, 1998). We are currently in an economic environment created by the Information Age, which demands heightened cognitive, interpersonal, technical, and managerial skills. Mentors represent continuity (The Mentoring Institute, 1998) and mentoring as a supplement can address new forms and kinds of critical thinking-based learning salient to the purposes of the liberal arts educational ideal. This suggests that the overall educational effectiveness of any student internship could improve or become a more consistent learning experience across students by blending cooperative education and mentoring through the utilization of an approach aimed at narrowing the gap between the classroom and the workplace. This additional component in the internship process creates a third element (a triadic approach) to the internship as opposed to the duality of student and site. Over time, the results of the additional element prove mentoring to be the most helpful approach to successful internship outcomes.
For a true understanding of the internship process, one needs to understand the roles of each participating stakeholder involved in the process. This book focuses on three primary stakeholders – students working at an internship site, the educational facilitators who oversee the internship, and internship site facilitators – Those restaurant and other locations that agree to accept the intern into their professional operation.
Questions this reading will answer
What are the factorial elements that contribute to success on internships?
To address that question, we need to look at how each stakeholder defines and thus manages their role in the internship process. What do interns, educators, and internship providers do to facilitate students’ learning on internships? What is not done by participants that hampers learning? Which participants exemplify the use of some educational strategy to increase the chances for gaining knowledge that lasts beyond the work experience? Are all participants actually aware of their role and investment, in creating worthwhile internship experiences?
Are the underlying themes, contexts and contributions for the participants of each internship equal?
Do all students, course instructors, and participating internship site care about the intern equally? Do some contribute more and others less? Do all participants strive for the same goal?
Do all interns attain some durable knowledge or do some simply become exposed to a work experience that produces no learning that results in lasting usability or the expansion of students’ capabilities.
One of the goals of any internship is increase one’s knowledge of the field, improve physical skills, and begin to understand how what they learned situates within their classroom studies. Does this occur in all cases or does it vary from one site to another. What contributes to differences?
Should students bear the sole weight of evaluation or should the actions of all stakeholders: students, site providers, and education undergo scrutiny in judging outcomes?
There is no one correct answer to this question. Students must uphold their end of the bargain but is that always possible? What stakeholder actions hamper or contribute to successful outcomes.
• Did all stakeholders have performance objectives?
• What social science theories provide appropriate theoretical explanations to describe the world of the intern?
• How does human tendencies and feelings affect internship outcomes?
To begin, it is important to note that learning in a classroom is different from learning on your own.
Nature of passive learning versus active learning on internships
Passive learning (in the classroom) is a method of learning or instruction where students receive information from the instructor and internalize it. Passive learners may quietly absorb information and knowledge without typically engaging with the information received or the learning experience. They may not interact with others, share insights, or contribute to a dialogue. An estimated 60 percent of people are passive learners.
Passive Learning is Useful
1. Exposure to new material,
2. Greater control by the instructor over the classroom, audience, or students;
3. Opportunity for a structured and engaging format; ensuring a complement to the subject matter outside of the learning environment;
4. The ability to clarify course material;
5. Presentation of a large amount of information in a short time; instructional materials (lecture notes, handouts, audiovisual media, etc.) can be prepared in advance;
6. Important concepts and content can be identified and presented in an organized, structured, and meaningful manner;
7. The potential to facilitate large-class communication.
8. This format can also permit dissemination of materials not yet published or readily available.
Passive learning has drawbacks: Disadvantages of passive learning include
1. The required assumption that for learning to be successful, the students will receive the subject matter with "open minds";
2. The instructor will fill the minds of the students with knowledge in order to obtain better examination results.
3. Passive learning allows limited opportunity to assess how well students are learning content and for questions, clarification, or discussion.
4. Students may be reticent about letting instructors know they do not understand key information and they may be reluctant to ask questions in class.
5. With no opportunity for application, it does not consistently engage students' use of higher-level cognitive skills.
6. A standard model is lecture-format with one-way communication, which does not engage the listener.
7. It also requires the instructor to have effective speaking and presentation skills.
8. Students are expected to wait for information to be provided and then to follow directions on what to do with that information.
9. Emphasis is placed on repeating information without reflecting or demonstrating an understanding. This can result in surface processing instead of ‘deeper learning’.
10. Students have less ability to use what is learned.
Active learning is the opposite of passive learning; it is learner-centered, not teacher-centered, and requires more than just listening; the active participation of every student is a necessary aspect in active learning. There are a wide range of alternatives for the term "active learning" like learning through play, technology-based learning, activity-based learning, group work, project method, etc. the underlying factor behind these are some significant qualities and characteristics of active learning.
Think about What You are Doing
Students must be doing things and simultaneously think about the work done and the purpose behind it so that they can enhance their higher order thinking capabilities. Many research studies have proven that active learning as a strategy has promoted achievement levels and some others say that content mastery is possible through active learning strategies. However, some students as well as teachers find it difficult to adapt to the new learning technique. Active learning should transform students from passive listeners to active participants and helps students understand the subject through inquiry, gathering and analyzing data to solving higher order cognitive problems. There is intensive use of scientific and quantitative literacy across the curriculum and technology-based learning is also in high demand in concern with active learning.
Barnes and Keenan (1989) suggested principles of active learning:
• Purposive: the relevance of the task to the students' concerns.
• Reflective: students' reflection on the meaning of what is learned.
• Negotiated: negotiation of goals and methods of learning between students and the site.
• Critical: students appreciate different ways and means of learning the content.
• Complex: students compare learning tasks with complexities existing in real life and making reflective analysis.
• Situation-driven: the need of the situation is considered in order to establish learning tasks.
• Engaged: real life tasks are reflected in the activities conducted for learning.
Senior Internship – Analyzing – Evaluating - Creating
This internship requires you to be ‘your own leader’ in terms of learning. Look beyond actions, rules, and so forth – to ‘why’ any and all exist. What is your opinion about what you see and experience. How can you utilize your experience to take what you learn further in your own career?
Task Orientation
Task-focused ‘personal’ leadership is a behavioral approach in which the person focuses on the ‘tasks’ that need to be performed in order to meet certain goals, or to achieve a certain performance standard. Of course, as an intern, you need to meet the standards of the internship site – but you also need to meet your own personal expectations – what you want to achieve for ‘you’ from the experience.
What it accomplishes
Being task oriented allows you to focus on getting the necessary task, or series of tasks, in hand in order to achieve a goal. Your overarching focus should be more concerned with finding the ‘step-by-step’ solution required to meet specific goals. Actively define the work you will be doing, your role in the operation, put structures (how things work) in place, and plan, organize, and monitor your progress within the team as you work and progress.
Advantages
The advantages of a task orientation to you are that it ensures that you meet deadlines, your work is completed, and it is especially useful to help you learn to manage your time well. Interns who learn to do this well tend to exemplify a strong understanding of how to get the job done, focusing on necessary workplace procedures, and how work delegation occurs to ensure that everything gets done in a timely and productive manner – all of these elements will serve you well on your senior internship.
So what does this require you to do?
Task-Oriented Focus
• Emphasis on work facilitation
• Focus on structure (basic methods), roles (your position in the organization) and tasks (what you are required to do)
• Produce desired results is a priority
• Emphasis on goal-setting and a clear plan to achieve goals
• Strict use of schedules and step-by-step plans,
Relationship-Orientation
A common finding is that a relationship focus generates greater cohesion within groups, as well as greater team learning. It also has stronger individual impact, and a positive effect on self-efficacy. Think of it this way. To become a part of the team, you need to build a relationship with the team. In turn, when you have that relationship, you feel better about yourself because – you are a part of the team. They trust you, help you and support you – as you support them.
• Emphasis on interaction facilitation,
• Focus on relationships, well-being and motivation,
• Foster positive relationships is a priority,
• Emphasis on team members and communication within,
• Communication facilitation, casual interactions and frequent team meetings
Task efforts relate more to getting the job done while relationship efforts help you feel good about your environment, and building networks.
Employability
Graduate employability is a key issue for Higher Education. There are various definitions of ‘employability’, the one adopted here is that of Knight and Yorke (2004): “a set of achievements — skills, understandings and personal attributes — that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy.”
One of the key reasons why many students invest in university education is to improve their employment prospects. However, while the achievement of good academic qualifications is highly valued, alone, it no longer appears sufficient to secure employment (Knight and Yorke, 2004). Additionally, employers in the hospitality industry expect students to have well developed employability skills, so that they can make an immediate contribution to the workplace when recruited.
To face rapid changes in the economic environment, market pressures, and leaner organizations, organizations have had to become more flexible to maintain their competitive advantage, and this has had implications for individuals’ present-day career development. Employability can only be enhanced by absorbing up-to-date professional knowledge, planning professional development, and acquiring transferrable skills in this fast-growing and -changing economy.
In other words, employability requires not only the competencies demanded by the job market but also effective career planning and advancement. Only with strong employability can one realize goals, secure a job, or start a business. Since the 1990s, one of the goals of higher education has been to enhance the development of employability skills and/or ensure that the acquisition of such skills is made more explicit. Therefore, a major concern of colleges is facilitating college graduates in enhancing their employability by ensuring that they acquire the competencies needed in the job market and the competencies needed for career development.
Higher education should prepare students for future employment
Employability skills are important for students, organizations, employers, and educational institutions. Culinary programs in higher education focus on supplying hotels, restaurants, and related businesses with a source of professionally trained employees and potential managers. Therefore, increasing student employability is crucial for businesses, for education institutes, and for students themselves. However, what school education offers may differ substantially from actual business needs. Generic competencies are relevant for most organizations and that tourism graduates generally meet the expectations of the employer, although at a lower level than desired. For culinary graduates to fulfill their roles in the job market successfully and to advance their careers, job competencies, which can serve as indicators of student employability, must be identified during curricular design in order to bridge the gap between school education and business requirements.
Researchers have categorized competencies as personal competencies and job competencies and argued that the two should always be appropriately balanced. Other studies have divided employability into core items and advancing items, in which the former refers to core skills that meet general and various job requirements whereas the latter refers to the specific skills needed for certain industries and jobs. Parallels can be drawn between core skills and personal competencies and between specific skills and job competencies. Numerous studies have discussed the relationship between core skills and a successful career. However, career success requires both personal and job competencies.
Moreover, many studies have analyzed the nature of employability or competency from the perspectives of various stakeholders, such as businesses, teachers, students, and employees. From the perspective of the employers in hospitality and tourism industries, employers need cheap and flexible labor in order to remain viable); however, from the perspective of the students, work is often an introduction to the world of work, and their experiences assist with both personal and career development. However, some research indicates that the world of work should be more closely linked with higher education both through formal periods of supervised work experience and more informally through students’ work experiences.
Hospitality education comprises a complex system with programs on hospitality offered by universities, vocational colleges, junior colleges, and graduate schools. Therefore, in order to meet hospitality industry demand, students have to consider their career planning in the competitive hospitality related job environment. Although culinary educators also have begun to focus on bridging the gap between the skills of hospitality graduates and the expectations of hospitality businesses.
Employability of Hospitality Graduates
Researchers expect core competency to be an indispensable requirement in the future workforce; in other words, core competency is a key ability that must be acquired by employees in certain work environments or organizations. Moreover, employees must develop level-specific competencies and professional competencies for their positions (Schoonover, 1998). Some other researchers have classified competencies as personal and job competencies (Guthrie, 2009). Gangani and McLean (2006) further divided competency-based human resource development into three categories: fundamental competency, functional competency, and personal competency.
Fundamental competency, such as integrity, is aligned with organizational values, objectives, purposes, and vision and is a competency that all employees must achieve.
Functional competency, such as technical literacy and financial sensitivity, is based on department goals and objectives and is helpful in improving one’s job performance.
Finally, personal competency, such as adaptability, is fostered by achieving personal goals and is critical for preparing an individual to achieve a personal vision and developmental tasks. Comparison of these studies shows that the fundamental competency concept proposed by Gangani and McLean is similar to the core competency concept developed by Schoonover, and the concept of functional competency is similar to that of level-specific and professional competency.
Job competency includes core/fundamental competency and functional competency. Personal competency resembles the conception of career development competency presented by Wang and Tsai (2012), which includes career planning and development and core skills.
In conclusion, competency is the ability of an employee to perform a job and is often perceived from the business perspective. Employability, as perceived from the perspective of educators, refers to the skills that a student must acquire to qualify for a job. As a result, competency and employability are two overlapping and related concepts.
Personal competency is more than core employability; it also includes career planning and development ability. Job competency, which includes core competency, level-specific competency, and professional competency, overlaps with specific employability.
Therefore, ‘employability’ from the competency perspective depends on:
1. Personal competency, which includes core skills, career planning, and development skills.
2. Job competency referring to specific employability such as
1. Fundamental competency which includes work attitude and personal attributes, considered an essential attribute for all employees,
2. Level-specific competency, the leadership competency of a manager, and
3. Professional competency referring to professional management and technical skills needed to complete a task.
Employability has become a core part of the so-called new deal between employer and employee, in which the promise of employment security is said to be replaced by employability (e.g., Fugate & Kinicki, 2008; Hallier, 2009). This evolution is accompanied by a major shift in responsibility for career development from employers to employees.
Harvey, Locke, and Morey (2002) defined employability as the ability to acquire, keep, and excel at a job. The Center for Employability of the University of Central Lancashire in the United Kingdom defines employability as having the skill set, knowledge, understanding, and personal attributes needed to increase the likelihood of choosing a satisfying and successful occupation (Pool & Sewell, 2007). According to Knight and Yorke (2004), the attributes of employability include knowledge and skills, capacity for learning (e.g., Bagshaw, 1996; Lane et al., 2000), mastery of career management and job search (e.g., Hillage & Pollard, 1998), and professional knowledge (e.g., Van der Heijden, 2002). Other research has indicated that the attributes of employability should include resilience (Iles, 1997; Rajan, 1997; Rajan et al., 2000) and personal efficacy (Eades & Iles, 1998).
During the past decade, employability was defined as the continuous fulfilling, acquiring, or creating of work through the optimal use of competences. These competences referred to the knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual needed to adequately perform various tasks and carry out responsibilities within a job and to that individual’s adaptability to changes in the internal and external labor market (De Cuyper, Bernhard-Oettel, Berntson, De Witte, & Alarco, 2008; De Vos et al., 2011; Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004; Van Dam, 2004; Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006). The present study combined these attributes into a definition of employability as a set of knowledge, skills, and attributes that allow one to choose a career, to be employed, to transfer freely in the job market, to grow, to fulfill job duties, to show commitment to work, to feel satisfied or succeed, and to realize personal potential.
Stewart and Knowles (2000) proposed that graduates must offer two aspects of employability to a potential employer: (a) transferable skills, which are applicable throughout the working life; and (b) subject skills, which are relevant to a specific career. Raybould and Wilkins proposed employability skill models with nine generic skill groups: oral communication, written communication, problem solving, conceptual and analytical thinking, information management, team work and leadership, social networking skills, adaptability and learning, and self-management (Raybould &Wilkins, 2005).
Wang and Tsai (2012) reported that career development competencies of full-time include career development and planning and core employability. The former includes career recognition (e.g., self-exploration, career exploration, career selection), career action (e.g., career decision-making, career reflection, and planning action), and career attitude (e.g., career confidence). The latter includes career adjustment and control (e.g., self-management, job seeking and mobility, lifelong learning, and problem solving), workplace attitude (e.g., basic work attitude, work ethic and safety, and teamwork), and communication and networking (e.g., communication skills and social networking).
Competency
Spencer and Spencer (1993) proposed that job performance is closely related to professional knowledge and personal motives and attributes. Therefore, competency can forecast job performance by providing a measure of endogenous factors (such as personal motives, traits, and self-concept) and exogenous factors (such as knowledge and skills). Mirable (1997) held that competency is useful for forecasting good job performance and objectively assessing knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics.
Hayes (1979) considered competency a skill that allows one to integrate knowledge, personal strength, motive, social role, and social networking skills in order to deliver outstanding job performance. In sum, competency can be defined as a combination of exogenous abilities (e.g., professional knowledge or skills), personal attributes (e.g., personality, motive, or values), and capabilities that are indispensable to completing a task and delivering good performance.
Off-campus internship programs, subjects of professional skills, subjects of management theory, license exams, on-campus internship programs, and on campus volunteer services were the six most important courses in terms of employability development according to the students; specifically, off-campus internship programs and professional skills were considered much more relevant and effective compared to other variables.
In terms of competencies for kitchen management, the following required the most improvement: human resource management, administrative management, team building, cost and financial management, product positioning and marketing, persuasion and influence, crisis management, food material management, and product innovation.
Finally, the following competencies needed the most improvement for restaurant management: human resource management, administrative management, team building, persuasion and influence, customer relationship management, product positioning and marketing, cost and financial management, crisis management, and quality control.
Competence Development
Gursoy and Swanger (2012) found that industry professionals do not expect a culinary arts curriculum to teach students specific applications because of the varying segments in the industry, company cultures, and operational procedures. Therefore, a curriculum should focus on developing higher-order concepts so that students will be well-rounded graduates. These authors proposed that content areas such as communication skills, customer service skills, and work ethics need to be embedded in the majority of courses in a curriculum to allow students develop those skills continuously throughout their college education.
According to Gregson & Bettis, (1991), technical skills unlike soft skills, do not easily lead to recognition, promotion and other opportunities. Termination in employment and failure in promotion among employees were always caused by human behaviors that usually reflected from inadequate work value or poor attitude rather than because of deficiencies in job skills or technical knowledge In other words, lack of soft skills is more likely to get an individual’s employment terminated than lack of cognitive or technological skills. Bennett et al. (2000) defined ‘soft skills’ as those skills which can support study in any discipline and also skills that have the potential to be transferred to a range of contexts, education and workplace. Hence, it could be set that soft skills consist of how individual managed himself/herself and how he/she managed the interaction among others.
In a 2004 study conducted by Dopson and Tas entitled A practical approach to curriculum development: A case study noted “that in developing curriculum, educators must consider three major components of hospitality education: substantive knowledge, skills and values” (Gursoy & Swanger, 2012).
The questions concerning to kind of competencies that were required by hospitality and tourism industry have attracted many researchers to study. Christou (2002) suggested the tourism and hospitality curriculum should equip students with important management knowledge and skills. Christou (2002) carried out a study to find competencies in hospitality industry by asking managers and graduates to rank for management trainees. The results shows that the top three competencies of hospitality and tourism are managing guest problems with understanding and sensitivity, demonstrating professional appearance and poise, and developing positive relations. He continued the study to different countries, U.S. and Europe. The comparison shows that, the most imperative competency is the ability to manage customer service problems.
This finding was confirmed by Annaraud (2006) who studied skills necessary for successful careers for American and Russian hospitality graduates. Her findings indicated that human relations were listed by students and faculty in both countries as one of the top three skills. In a Dopson and Nelson (2004) found the most important skills and abilities for hospitality related positions were leadership, cost control, positive customer relations, identifying and solving operational problems, crisis management, and solving customer problems.
Additionally, Gursoy and Swanger (2012) investigated what course content areas are perceived as required by hospitality professionals. They collected 328 surveyed completed by professionals working in various segments of the hospitality industry. The results show that the five highest ranked course content areas are oral communication skills, leadership skills, a clear understanding of profit and loss statements, good work habits, and customer service skills.
Sandwith (1993) suggested that a competency domain model could be used to determine job performance requirements, with the resulting job profiles then guiding the design and development of training programs. He identified five areas of managerial competencies:
• Conceptual/creative — cognitive skills associated with comprehending important elements of the job and generating ideas for action
• Leadership — skills in turning ideas into action
• Interpersonal — skills necessary to interact effectively with others for communication and related skills, including oral presentation, telephone, conflict management, and negotiating skills
• Administrative — skills in the personnel and financial management of the business
• Technical — knowledge and skills associated with the actual work that the organization does
The conceptual domain “refers to cognitive skills associated with comprehending important elements of the job” (Sandwith, 1993, p. 46). Cognitive skills require being aware of one’s role in an organization, others role in the organization, company mission, and vision of the future of the organization. While the conceptual/creative domain relates to the organization, its current ideas, and new ideas. The leadership domain encompasses the skills to communicate and execute those ideas. Leadership is an important aspect to any industry. The leader of an organization must have the support of all employees if the company is to success. If the leader does not have the skills to “get everyone on board,” he/she will have a difficult time moving the organization forward.
The interpersonal domain relates to how well an individual interacts with other employees in the organization, as well as with customers. This domain includes oral, written, and telephone communication skills, as well as conflict management and negotiation skills (Sandwith, 1993). The administrative domain encompasses the rules and regulations that an organization must follow. It also involves knowing about them, educating others about them, and enforcing them. The requirements for the administrative domain are typically the same across all departments of an organization. The last domain, the technical one, involves those skills necessary to perform a specific job. Unlike the administrative domain, this domain will incorporate skills that do vary across job types.
In 1996, Tas, LaBrecque, and Clayton were using a refined version of Sandwith’s (1993) five competency domains. These competencies are, in order of importance:
• Interpersonal (skills for effective interaction with others)
• Leadership (the ability to turn ideas into productive action)
• Conceptual-creative (the cognitive skills needed for the job)
• Administrative (personnel and financial management of the business)
• Technical (the knowledge and skills essential to producing the product or service).
In 1999, Cho and Connolly found an increasing need to provide information technology education to hospitality students and it could enhance problem-solving skills and their ability to satisfy guests. Management of employees and interpersonal competencies such as enhancing socialization and interpersonal relationships with employees were most important for career success, whereas technical skills such as operational management, marketing, and finance were of lesser importance (Sisson & Adams, 2013).
According to Sisson et al (2013), most but not all studies found that competencies in listening, communication, human relations, leadership, and management of others were most important for success. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS, 1991a) identified five competencies important for students to enter the workplace which are 1) identifying, organizing, planning, and allocating resources, 2) working with others, 3) acquiring and using information, 4) understanding complex interrelationships, and 5) working with a variety of technologies. SCANS also categories foundational skills into three group that is basic skills, thinking skills and interpersonal qualities. It is predicted that jobs in the future will need people that can apply knowledge into their work. These workers must have creative and problem-solving skills which employers can build on (Rasul, Abd Rauf, Mansor, & Puvanasvaran, 2012)
There are three competences that are developed in the internship program:
1. Core Competence - the major competence for students and graduates to have strong marketing skills, adaptive, professional, and have a good attitude in tourism industry.
2. Supporting Competence - the soft skills competence that makes students and graduates having better interpersonal skills as well as intrapersonal skills.
1. Interpersonal skills - the ability for students to manage themselves, such as time management, self-motivation, self-learning, etc.
2. Intrapersonal skills - the ability of the students to communicate and to build relationship with their working partners.
3. Other Related Competence – the competence of specific hard skills that required by the hospitality and tourism industry, such customer competences along with food and beverage occupation competence.
Experiential Learning – learning in the workplace
Kolb's experiential learning model
Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. One example of experiential learning is going to the zoo and learning through observation and interaction with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences. Secondly, in culinary school, internships, and job-shadowing opportunities in a student’s field of interest can provide valuable experiential learning which contributes significantly to the student’s overall understanding of the real-world environment.
A third example of experiential learning involves learning how to ride a bike, a process which can illustrate the four-step experiential learning model (ELM) as set forth by Kolb and outlined in Figure 1 below. Following this example, in the "concrete experience" stage, the learner physically experiences the bike in the "here-and-now". This experience forms "the basis for observation and reflection" and the learner has the opportunity to consider what is working or failing (reflective observation), and to think about ways to improve on the next attempt made at riding (abstract conceptualization). Every new attempt to ride is informed by a cyclical pattern of previous experience, thought and reflection (active experimentation).
Figure 1 – David Kolb's Experiential Learning Model (ELM)
1. Concrete Experience
2. Reflective Observation
3. Active Experimentation
4. Abstract Conceptualization
Elements
Experiential learning can exist without a teacher and relates solely to the meaning-making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, a genuine learning experience requires certain elements. According to Kolb, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. Kolb states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, the learner must have four abilities:
1. The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience;
2. The learner must be able to reflect on the experience;
3. The learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and
4. The learner must possess decision-making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
Implementation
Experiential learning requires self-initiative, an "intention to learn" and an "active phase of learning". Kolb's cycle of experiential learning can be used as a framework for considering the different stages involved. Jennifer A. Moon has elaborated on this cycle to argue that experiential learning is most effective when it involves: 1) a "reflective learning phase" 2) a phase of learning resulting from the actions inherent to experiential learning, and 3) "a further phase of learning from feedback". This process of learning can result in "changes in judgment, feeling or skills" for the individual and can provide direction for the "making of judgments as a guide to choice and action".
Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. The role of emotion and feelings in learning from experience has been recognized as an important part of experiential learning. While those factors may improve the likelihood of experiential learning occurring, it can occur without them. Rather, what is vital in experiential learning is that the individual is encouraged to directly involve themselves in the experience, and then to reflect on their experiences using analytic skills, in order that they gain a better understanding of the new knowledge and retain the information for a longer time.
Reflection
Reflection is a crucial part of the experiential learning process, and like experiential learning itself, it can be facilitated or independent. Dewey wrote that "successive portions of reflective thought grow out of one another and support one another", creating a scaffold for further learning, and allowing for further experiences and reflection. This reinforces the fact that experiential learning and reflective learning are iterative processes, and the learning builds and develops with further reflection and experience. Facilitation of experiential learning and reflection is challenging, but "a skilled facilitator, asking the right questions and guiding reflective conversation before, during, and after an experience, can help open a gateway to powerful new thinking and learning". Jacobson and Ruddy, building on Kolb's four-stage Experiential Learning Model and Pfeiffer and Jones's five stage Experiential Learning Cycle, took these theoretical frameworks and created a simple, practical questioning model for facilitators to use in promoting critical reflection in experiential learning.
Their "5 Questions" model is as follows:
1. Did you notice?
2. Why did that happen?
3. Does that happen in life?
4. Why does that happen?
5. How can you use that?
These questions are posed by the facilitator after an experience, and gradually lead the group towards a critical reflection on their experience, and an understanding of how they can apply the learning to their own life. Although the questions are simple, they allow a relatively inexperienced facilitator to apply the theories of Kolb, Pfeiffer, and Jones, and deepen the learning of the group.
While it is the learner's experience that is most important to the learning process, it is also important not to forget the wealth of experience a good facilitator also brings to the situation. However, while a facilitator, or "teacher", may improve the likelihood of experiential learning occurring, a facilitator is not essential to experiential learning. Rather, the mechanism of experiential learning is the learner's reflection on experiences using analytic skills. This can occur without the presence of a facilitator, meaning that experiential learning is not defined by the presence of a facilitator. Yet, by considering experiential learning in developing course or program content, it provides an opportunity to develop a framework for adapting varying teaching/learning techniques into the classroom. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Our review of the literature considers the externship and internship literature as both terms are used to describe experiential learning experiences. The term internship is also used to define more structured forms of experiential learning which occur in a facility adjacent to the university such as medical internships, and so forth. The externship is, in contrast, an unstructured experiential experience typically with no pre-determined agenda. Nonetheless, the terms externship and internship are interchangeable within the culinary field therefore in conducting a thorough examination of the literature both genres of appropriate theory are included. The externship, experiential, and internship literature represent the primary theoretical underpinning in the culinary arts discipline. Additional relevant theory pertaining to the urban environment as setting of the learning experience the socialization literature to explain how people interact with others and learn things as well as how organizations convey norms.
The review of the literature is organized around the focus of the study. My dissertation is about culinary externships and thus begins with the relevant literature to the culinary field. However, other literatures not part of Culinary Arts are equally germane as externships involve critical thinking on the part of the student as mandated by Higher Education which compels the student assess situations, and make judgments about their surroundings. Socialization thought is also included because of its pertinence to the students’ ability to effectively interact and be assertive to some extent in the workplace. Socialization skills are equally important to the externship site itself. Their ability to acclimate student externs into the operation and to convey norms and unacceptable actions is an important of organizational entry. The focus of all of these literatures is occurring in various urban environments which make urban literature another equally important inclusion in the review of the literature.
Externship Literature
Enhancing programs and finding employment for students
Kiser and Partlow (1999) indicate that the preferred application of experiential learning in hospitality education is the industry work-study experience known by the terms externship or internship. They state that regardless of the term used, the objective is still the same - to enhance student learning by integrating practical work experience and classroom instruction. The externship is rooted in cooperative education conceived by John Dewey who first proposed bringing together the reality of the workplace and the theory of the classroom for vocational training shortly after World War II (Herrick, 1997). This connection to vocational training is evident in Varty’s (2000) argument that cooperative education, properly practiced, is an excellent strategy for future employees to develop the reflective behavior that will help them become contextual learners. The cooperative perspective reasons that programs (external conditions), what is inherent in the student (internal conditions), and what has been learned prior to or during the cooperative education experience (learning outcomes) may all interact to affect each other and/or may separately contribute to more of the variance in educational outcomes (Ricks, Van Gyn, Branton, Cut, Loken, and Ney, 1990).
The balance between theory and practical experience in the various curricula of programs in hospitality studies is a continuing subject of debate in both academia and in practice. Some academicians believe that a hands-on course of study is not appropriate or necessary in program curriculum that culminates in a bachelor’s degree from a liberal arts institution (DiMicelli, 1998). However others state that externships, as a form of experiential education, can also enhance stakeholder competency development through active learning as a cursory benefit (Wildes & Mount, 1997). Reich & De Franco (1994: 34) state that “people learn in three ways- by hearing, seeing, and doing.” Ross (1989) adds and defines reflection as a way of thinking about professional matters that involve the ability to make rational choices and to have ownership in those choices. However, constructing progressive learning experiences by matching practice with preaching [lecturing] is an ongoing struggle (Titz and Wollin, 2002).
Many employers and cooperative education centers report that externships can provide entry to employment in many organizations. To the degree that their externships are relevant to their professional education, students gain practical knowledge about their field of study and this added experience makes students more employable and enhances program reputations for student placement (Inkster & Ross, 1995).
Experiential Literature
The development of critical thinking skills – still a new process
Feinstein, Mann and Corson (2002) describe experiential learning (real-world learning) as a participatory method of learning that involves a variety of a person’s mental capabilities and exists when a learner processes information in an active and immersive learning environment. Experiential learning has been advocated as a powerful tool in education (Daily, 2001; Kennedy, Lawton, & Walker, 2001), used in a variety of disciplines such as medicine, social studies, and management which require a high degree of skill application. This approach focuses on “doing” in addition to the “hearing” and “seeing” that occurs in traditional classroom learning formats where students must rely heavily on laboratory activities, role playing activities, gaming, and computer simulation scenarios, as modes of instruction (Feinstein et al., 2002; and Specht & Sandlin, 1991). The educational benefits of experiential learning approaches have been found to include: the development of creative and critical thinking skills, practical experience for career development, the integration of various coursework elements and improved interpersonal skills and self-confidence (Papamarcos, 2002). Additionally, experiential learning has been credited with increasing a learners’ capacity to evoke higher-order cognitive abilities in terms of problem-solving skills and judgment (Feinstein et al., 2002).
Culinary Arts degree programs with experiential learning courses are now offered at a number of universities around the world, and both undergraduates and postgraduates in ever- increasing numbers are studying in these areas to fill the needs of a growing industry (Busby & Fiedel, 2001; Tribe, 2002). Cooper and Shepherd (1997) claim that employers seek practical and generally transferable kitchen skills, however, educators emphasize the conceptualization of restaurant operations theories and materials specific to the discipline resulting in disparities. Yet despite such disparities, they further indicate that the employment trend shows an increase in university graduates required in this sector. The restaurant operation of old consistently continues to give way to technological advances in restaurant equipment; the customer order pad has been replaced with powerful point-of-sale technology; the Internet is now available for purchasing food and other services and is also an integral part of a restaurant’s social media marketing efforts. Thus despite its traditional associations with a predominantly low-skilled, service-based labor force, Culinary Arts, as a field, continues to advance technically and competitively requiring greater thinking skills in addition to cooking ability. Experiential learning is the most popular way to bridge the disparities between and needs of both educational institution and employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslies & Richardson, 2000).
The literature also supports the notion that such learning approaches do encourage students to engage in deeper learning behaviors. Hamer (2000) states that students become involved with their learning by applying theory to real-life situations and rather than passively listening and taking notes, students’ are encouraged to engage in higher-order thinking as they personalize the subject matter to develop a deeper understanding.
The concepts of synthesis, concentrating on what the topic is about, grasping main points, and drawing conclusions, and surface learning, simply concentrating on the topic have been discussed and documented at length in the educational literature (Biggs, 1999; Cannon & Newble, 2000; Ramsden, 1988; Schon, 1983; and Brockbank and McGill (1998). A shift towards deep learning can be seen with the increasing popularity and application of incorporating experiential learning with classroom theory to further meaningful education (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, & Mayo, 2000). Ball (1995) and Becket (1996) argue that all students in higher education need to acquire extensive technical skills along with the associated skills needed to apply their knowledge within a profession or academic discipline, as well as the skills that required for the world of work and the to be attractive to employers. Moscardo and Norris (2003) claim that this challenge is particularly acute for tourism and hospitality as it is a relative new area of study within academic institutions and is primarily applied in orientation highlighting the need for devising new ways to improve the education of students in this field. Barron and Henderson (2000) also identify a need to utilize teaching and learning methods that encourage and facilitate deeper learning in tourism and hospitality education.
Moscardo & Norris (2003) found that many students reported feelings of satisfaction and pride associated with completing complex and challenging experiential activity. However, students experience variable outcomes as argued by McDonald and McDonald (2000) who state that while there were a number of beneficial learning outcomes for students, the exercise was risky and not all students were prepared for it. They found that student’s responses to experiential activities ranged from “excitement, involvement and appreciation, to apathy, withdrawal and confusion.” Barron and Henderson (2000) posit that there is a need to improve the education of students and develop new teaching methods to enhance knowledge retention.
Internship Literature
Focus on higher education – the student becomes the teacher
Gardner (1964) asserts that the ultimate goal of the education system is to shift to the individual the burden of pursuing his or her own learning as education most certainly extends beyond the university setting. Learning theorists claim that internships contribute to students’ intellectual growth by providing a sustained opportunity to apply classroom knowledge in a complex, challenging setting. Internships are a natural setting in which students can integrate thinking and doing (Ruhanen, 2005). They also provide students with the opportunity to make an intellectual leap between what Smith (1999) calls dualism [a view of the world in terms of black and white, right and wrong] and commitment [the ability to see tensions and oppositions in oneself and the world and still maintain one’s integrity].
Inkster and Ross (1995) devised a learning approach to ensure that the pragmatic benefits of the internships do not reduce their educational value; first, students’ employers must write a letter formally acknowledging that the student is working to learn more about his or her major and report that the assigned job duties encourage such learning. Second, a faculty member is assigned to advise student interns, verify the quality of the working experience, verify the number of hours students will spend in the internship during the semester or term they are seeking credit, mentor students as necessary, and determine whether academic assignments completed in tandem with the internship are of passing quality. They state specific internship objectives as follows: (1) understanding one’s self, job, colleagues, and working environment in order to build professional skills demonstrated via journalized dialogue between theory and practice, and (2) increase employability after graduation by gathering concrete evidence of experience gained.
Critical Reflection
Developing a capacity for critical reflection has been recognized as essential for students in higher education (Barnett, 1997), and adult education in general, especially where “transformative learning” is the explicit goal (Brookfield, 1998; Mezirow, 1990). Reynolds (1998) argued that critical reflection promotes the questioning of assumptions, the “taken-for-granteds,” the rendering visible of otherwise invisible power relations, and the promotion of emancipation, democracy, and social and individual transformation.
Writers such as Cope (2003) and Reynolds (1998) have pointed out that an issue arises with the use of the term ‘critical reflection’ by those in the adult education tradition such as Bound, Keogh, and Walker (1987), and Mezirow (1990, 1991) whose focus lies more with personal rather than social transformation. For these theorists, critical reflection should acknowledge the historical, social, and political aspects of experience. Reynolds, (1998) agreed that the socially situated nature of experience must be taken into account for reflection to have any meaning. Mezirow(1991) recognized that learning occurs when one reviews and changes misconstrued meanings arising from uncritical acceptance of the status quo.
Carson and Fisher (2006) explored explicit strategies to support the critically reflective internship grading process: Students were required to keep personal journals (McNiff, 1990; Bound, 2001; Hiemstra, 2001; and Cunliffe, 2004); students were encouraged to form critical- friend partnerships (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, Hatton & Smith, 1995; and Smith, 1999); examples of critical reflection from students in other courses were used as the basis of a group activity and were freely available outside of the class. Further, Carson and Fisher offered guiding questions for students’ reflection, before and after their placement. The authors posit that the main features that should be present in student reflective writing to demonstrate that genuine critical reflection and transformative learning had occurred are: identifying values, beliefs, and assumptions; changing and/or reassessing values, beliefs, and assumptions; making connections with cultural, social, and political realities; and acting differently from habituated responses and /or taking on new behaviors.
Educators in the critical tradition know that the task of critical reflection, especially questioning fundamental premises and assumptions, is one that students frequently resist (Barnett, 1997; Hatton & smith, 1995). Shining a questioning and inquiring light on their work and lives is demanding and can take an emotional toll and leave people disoriented and confused (Reynolds, 1998). The process demands more than the usual intellectual tasks of analysis and synthesis required in academic work. It is a skill that requires higher order functioning, often associated with adulthood (Mezirow, 1991), so it is unrealistic to expect that all students enter the learning environment with similar capacities.
With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students. Carson and Fisher (2006) assisted students through a process of reasoning out the differences between values, beliefs, and assumptions, with key questions encapsulating the constructs such as: “what is important to me in this situation?” to determine what values the students’ held: “what do I think is true about this situation?” to derive beliefs; and “what do I take for granted about this situation?” to expose assumptions and presuppositions that we take for granted that are the basis for how we act in the world.
Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1989; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Sentner, and Forlenza-Bailey, 2000), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties.
Summary of the Experiential Literature
In viewing the literature collectively, it becomes clear that the ways of thinking about students working in industry have been evolutionary with overlapping occurring between theoretical camps. The externship literature closely associates with its historical roots in cooperative education as vocational training. This theoretical literature links: seeing, hearing, and doing, collectively as a necessity for employment. True to its vocational roots, this literature appears to value experiential learning as surface learning [simply learning tasks] useful for providing work experience, obtaining employment for students, and enhancing its program reputation for doing so. The experiential theory is more learner-centered and associated with medicine, social studies, and disciplines that require a high degree of skill, such as culinary arts. The experiential literature discusses “doing” as an addition to “seeing and hearing” then coupled with reflection.
The collective overarching values expressed in experiential scholarly writings were the student’s critical thinking, course integration, and improved interpersonal skills. The internship literature extends the experiential work with more extensive discussion of critical thinking and analysis, and the distinguishing of values and beliefs. Further this literature centers objectives in critical reflection. Learning approaches and objectives are suggested and the acknowledgment of the historical, social, and political aspects of learning experiences expands the critical thinking theme of the experiential work.
The field of Culinary Arts is relatively new as a higher education discipline, and the primary literature, as a collective, displays a progression in ways of thinking and valorizing experiential learning. The externship literature highlights the struggle within the theoretical community to bridge the more critical aspects of higher education with the practical aspects of getting experience to enter the work force. The experiential literature has made the jump, indicating a theoretical perspective embracing critical thinking although it still attempts to deal with the university’s need for critical learning from the vocational point of view. The internship literature show a shift toward deeper thinking, and critical reflection, elements valued in higher educational settings and represents the current theoretical position from which experiential learning in culinary arts is grappled. Culinary Arts is a young discipline which remains under-theorized in relation to other established fields such as the social sciences, business, and medicine as exemplars. Obvious gaps central to my study emerge clearly. When viewed collectively, the literature is not void of elements that should be valued. A gap lies in the discipline’s ability to construct methodology that teaches externs how to frame and consider what should be valued as a synthesis of knowledge.
Pedagogical instruction strategies to drive learning objectives and outcome evaluation aligned with the student’s background knowledge, experience, and environment are not evident. The environment as urban setting, or work setting, equally receives no consideration thus physical, social, and cultural settings where externships occur receives no acknowledgement.
The largest gap is the discipline’s failure to view the externship process beyond program goals as evidenced by the lack of discuss of how to construct critical learning into an experiential endeavor. Values, beliefs, assumptions, and critical thinking and reflection are important elements for students consideration in experiential learning as expressed by the theory, but research is lacking into how externships may or do move beyond program goals, by failing to ask how should program goals be strategized to achieve what the literature posits is important knowledge for students’ to acquire. The literature states that critical learning does occur, but by providing no posited methodology for its construction, one must conclude that the student bears the burden of method.
Further, the literature fails to acknowledge that students, externship sites in distinct urban environments, and educators may view these elements differently. Students cannot consistently reflect critically on these elements because they remain unexplored and are not framed in a contextual sense by educators. My study seeks to bridge this gap by exploring what each stakeholder in the externship process considers to be valuable and important to educational ownership.
A common thread in the literature is the need for improved experiential teaching and learning method. How can educators make sense of the externship process to students without first understanding, in definable ways, how all elements of the externship process interrelate among the various stakeholders with different ways of thinking and valuing - each existing in their own unique context? This is the gap and lacking essential theme not expressed in the literature that my study will attempt to fill.
Critical Reflection
Critical reflection leads to personal transformation, which presents a challenge to the individual's accepted beliefs. It is a process wherein an individual's cultural sensibilities as well as life, professional, and social skills are in the process of continual expansion and growth.
Developing a capacity for critical reflection has been recognized as essential for students in higher education (Barnett, 1997), and adult education in general, especially where “transformative learning” is the explicit goal (Brookfield, 1998; Mezirow, 1990). Reynolds (1998) argued that critical reflection promotes the questioning of assumptions, the “taken-for-granteds,” the rendering visible of otherwise invisible power relations, and the promotion of emancipation, democracy, and social and individual transformation.
Writers such as Cope (2003) and Reynolds (1998) have pointed out that an issue arises with the use of the term ‘critical reflection’ by those in the adult education tradition such as Bound, Keogh, and Walker (1987), and Mezirow (1990, 1991) whose focus lies more with personal rather than social transformation. For these theorists, critical reflection should acknowledge the historical, social, and political aspects of experience. Reynolds, (1998) agreed that the socially situated nature of experience must be taken into account for reflection to have any meaning. Mezirow (1991) recognized that learning occurs when one reviews and changes misconstrued meanings arising from uncritical acceptance of the status quo.
Remember, your historical perspective, your life as you know it to be, will be different from the ‘historical context’ of the work place – the way they have come to know and do things. To become a part of their context – listen, ask, and learn how things are done there.
Carson and Fisher (2006) explored explicit strategies to support the critically reflective internship grading process: Students were required to keep personal journals (McNiff, 1990; Bound, 2001; Hiemstra, 2001; and Cunliffe, 2004); students were encouraged to form critical- friend partnerships (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, Hatton & Smith, 1995; and Smith, 1999); examples of critical reflection from students in other courses were used as the basis of a group activity and were freely available outside of the class. Further, Carson and Fisher offered guiding questions for students’ reflection, before and after their placement. The authors posit that the main features that should be present in student reflective writing to demonstrate that genuine critical reflection and transformative learning had occurred are: identifying values, beliefs, and assumptions; changing and/or reassessing values, beliefs, and assumptions; making connections with cultural, social, and political realities; and acting differently from habituated responses and /or taking on new behaviors.
Educators in the critical tradition know that the task of critical reflection, especially questioning fundamental premises and assumptions, is one that students frequently resist (Barnett, 1997; Hatton & smith, 1995). Shining a questioning and inquiring light on their work and lives is demanding and can take an emotional toll and leave people disoriented and confused (Reynolds, 1998). The process demands more than the usual intellectual tasks of analysis and synthesis required in academic work. It is a skill that requires higher order functioning, often associated with adulthood (Mezirow, 1991), so it is unrealistic to expect that all students enter the learning environment with similar capacities.
With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students. Carson and Fisher (2006) assisted students through a process of reasoning out the differences between values, beliefs, and assumptions, with key questions encapsulating the constructs such as: “what is important to me in this situation?” to determine what values the students’ held: “what do I think is true about this situation?” to derive beliefs; and “what do I take for granted about this situation?” to expose assumptions and presuppositions that we take for granted that are the basis for how we act in the world.
Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1989; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Sentner, and Forlenza-Bailey, 2000), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.02%3A_History.txt |
Forms of Capital - a store of useful key assets or advantages
The term ‘capital’ is used by analogy with other forms of ‘economic’ capital – such as ‘money’, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. However, the analogy with capital is misleading to the extent that, unlike traditional forms of capital, social capital is not depleted by use; in fact it is depleted by non-use (use it or lose it). In this respect, it is similar to the now well-established economic concept of human capital.
The theory is simple and quite similar to using ‘money’ you have to buy the things you want or need. You will enter the organization with a certain amount of social capital, your social ability, and symbolic capital, your work experience and knowledge, and your goal is to utilize that personal capital to gain ‘capitals’ that the organization possesses for later use. Obviously, the goals of a sophomore would not be as refined as the goals of a senior. There is an old saying: from those who have more - more is expected.
Using Personal Capital to Gain Organizational Capital
Intellectual Capital
Intellectual capital is the intangible value of a business, covering its people (human capital), the value relating to its relationships (relational capital), and everything that is left when the employees go home, (structural capital), of which intellectual property (IP) is but one component. It is the ‘sum total’ of everything everyone in a company knows that gives it a competitive edge.
Intellectual capital has the following general classification:
Human capital
Human capital is the stock of habits, knowledge, social and personality attributes (including creativity) embodied in a person’s ability to perform labor producing economic value. Human capital is unique and differs from any other capital. It is an important asset to possess for companies to achieve goals, develop products, and remain innovative. Companies can invest in human capital for example, through education and training enabling improved levels of quality and production.
Human capital then, is the value that the employees of a business provide through the application of skills, knowledge and expertise. Human capital is an organization’s combined human capability for solving business problems and exploiting its intellectual property. Human capital is inherent in people and cannot be owned by an organization. Therefore, human capital can leave an organization when people leave, and if the management has failed to provide a setting where others can pick up their know-how. Human capital also encompasses how effectively an organization uses its people resources as measured by creativity and innovation.
Structural Capital
Structural capital, the supportive non-physical infrastructure, processes and databases of the organization that enable human capital to function. Structural capital includes processes, patents, and trademarks, as well as the organization’s image, organization, information system, and proprietary software and databases. Because of its diverse components, structural capital can be classified further into ‘organization’, ‘process’, and ‘innovation’ capital.
• Organizational capital includes the organization philosophy and systems for leveraging the organization’s capability.
• Process capital includes the techniques, procedures, and programs that implement and enhance the delivery of goods and services.
• Innovation capital includes intellectual property such as patents, trademarks and copyrights, and intangible assets.
• Intellectual properties are protected commercial rights such as patents, trade secrets, copyrights and trademarks. Intangible assets are all of the other talents and theory by which run an organization.
Structural capital is one of the three primary components of intellectual capital, and consists of the supportive infrastructure, processes, and databases of the organization that enable human capital to function. Structural capital is owned by an organization and remains with an organization even when people leave. It includes: capabilities, routines, methods, procedures and methodologies embedded in organization. Structural capital is the supportive non-physical infrastructure that enables human capital to function.
Relational capital, consisting of such elements as customer relationships, supplier relationships, trademarks and trade names (which have value only by virtue of customer relationships) licenses, and franchises. The notion that customer capital is separate from human and structural capital indicates its central importance to an organization’s worth. The value of the relationships a business maintains with its customers and suppliers is also referred as goodwill, but often poorly booked in corporate accounts, because of accounting rules.
Social Capital Theory – your ability to develop human relationships
Woolcock (2001) defined social capital as the stocks of social trust, norms and networks that people access to solve joint problems. Interrelationships and connectivity between humans are central to the formation of social capital, hence why it is often described as the glue that holds society together (Murphy, 200 source 4). In recent years, driven by fears over fragmentation of communities and a generalized decline in civic engagement (Foley et al., 2011) social capital has moved up the political agenda in democratic societies. It is, however, a complicated and contested concept with differing interpretations of its meaning and usefulness (Quinn, 2013).
Coleman (1998) defines social capital by its functions and views it as a resource that can be drawn upon collectively. Its presence encourages certain actions, which facilitate the accomplishment of mutually beneficial ends. Moreover,'' social capital in the family and community play a crucial role in creating human capital (defined as individual skills and abilities in the next generation). Like Coleman, Bourdieu (1985) presents a sociological view of social capital, but he views it primarily as a resource for individuals. He defined social capital as 'the aggregate of the actual or potential resources, which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition' (Bourdieu, 1985 p248).
Like Coleman (1998), Putnam (1995) underlines the collective dimensions of social capital, defining it as 'features of social organization such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate co-ordination and cooperation for mutual benefit'. Putnam (1993) argued that the quality of life in societies and their economic sustainability was directly attributable to the features of social organization. He suggested that the hallmarks of a successful society depended upon core attributes of human relationships, the presence or absence of trust, the expectation of reciprocity and the existence of networks. A basic premise underpinning the work of these three theorists, and indeed social capital theory in general, is that investment in social relations is expected to yield a whole series of returns in the marketplace and beyond.
Bonding and Bridging Capital – internal & external relationships
A distinction between bonding (exclusive) and bridging (inclusive) forms of social capital is widely made in the literature. Putnam {1993) explains that bonding social capital is inward looking and characterized by strong ties that reinforce exclusive identities, promote homogeneity and create strong in-group loyalty; whereas bridging social capital is outward looking, involves weaker ties and promotes links between diverse individuals and groups. Putnam suggests that many groups simultaneously bond across some social dimensions and bridge across others. In general, the dominant sense is that social capital is a force for good. However, Leonard (2004) has problematized the fact that policy-makers, seeing how social capital can potentially be converted into other forms of capital, often consider it as a quick-fix solution to complex, long-term structural problems. Indeed, viewing social capital as a 'quick-fix' and a panacea for all social ills is a noted criticism levelled at social capital theorists. Putnam's work in particular has been criticized for romanticizing 'the world we have lost' and ignoring the downside of community life.
Overtime, the growing social capital literature has developed a more critical lens, which acknowledge the inadequacies of the basic framework without abandoning the concept altogether (Muir 20 source 10}. For example, in their critique of Putnam's work, Portes and Landolt (1996) discuss how in, some cases, social capital can constrain individuals' actions and choices. This is because while social capital can promote access to resources, it can equally deny or limit such access.
A number of researchers have taken up this theme. Pickering (2006), writing about ethnically diverse societies transitioning away from conflict, discusses how social capital can threaten democracy. While strong ties foster high levels of trust and connect groups of people together through bonding capital, they can simultaneously serve to deepen the divisions, differences and lack of trust that separate groups from other cohorts. Leonard {2004) makes a very similar case in respect of politically contentious societies, arguing that trust within tightly bonded communities at local level may engender distrust of wider institutions, reinforcing 'them versus us' mentalities, as it were.
Given that the acknowledged value of social capital lies in the access it can afford to networks, resources and information that help advance the life chances of the actors and community groups involved, the value of having open, diverse and inclusive relationships that link outwards to other resources is critical. Thus for Dale and Newman {2008) the value of what is referred to as bridging capital cannot be over-emphasized. They conceive of bridging capital as relationship building which leads to accessing external resources, and links with others who move in different circles (Wilks, 2011). Although Blackshaw and Long, (2005) were criticized for being over simplistic thinking of social capital in terms of bonding and bridging, they present a useful theoretical framework upon which to base this study which empirically considers the workings of social capital in event contexts.
Social capital is a concept that is widely used across disciplines and within political discourse to theorize the processes that operate within communities from the local to the global. It relates to the social relations between humans and in particular, how the interrelationships between humans lead to the accumulation of certain benefits that are of value both to them individually and to the communities to which they belong (Quinn, 2013). Over the last ten years or so policy makers and politicians across the world have shown increasing interest in how the components of social capital - networks, shared values and trust - can be enhanced at a local, regional and national level (Muir, 2011). One area that has been targeted because of its potential to build social capital is the events industry. Smith {2012), for instance, discusses how the idea of building social capital and achieving greater community cohesion are now noted objectives of many restaurant event strategies.
Symbolic Capital – education and physical abilities
Symbolic capital might best be described as ‘status attained’ with regard to education and practical work experience within and external to the culinary program. Practical experience proves most helpful to internship outcomes because such experience allow the student to accurately judge his or her capability to apply practical experience to classroom and laboratory learning and also in determining strengths and weaknesses in their ability to physically perform to the standards of a selected site. In essence, they have the experience to better prepare themselves and more accurately judge ‘goodness of fit’ issues as they relate of site selection as opposed to those students with little to no practical experience.
A History of Work Experience. Deciding what information would or could be learned should be carefully thought out well in advance and is often the result of years of thinking for most of the student interns who excelled prior to, during, and after an internship experience. They accurately assessed their ability by seeking unbiased assessment from others in their cohort, from their teachers, and, of importance, from the professional culinary mentors for whom they worked. These students either possessed or developed an innate sense of “Who am I? What is my skill set? Where am I now? Where do I want to be? Moreover, what steps do I need to take to achieve my goals?
The Five people you need to make friends with at work
Because it’s what you know ‘and’ who you know.
If you work at least 40 hours a week, you spend more time with your co-workers than your friends and family so it’s worthwhile to have good work relationships. In fact, a recent survey found that people with work friends are nearly three times more likely to say they love their companies.
“You don't have to be best friends [with your co-workers], but being polite, respectful, engaging, and on the ball is critical to your ongoing success. Your demeanor and relationships often count at least as much, if not more at times, than the work product itself. If people enjoy working with you, you are more likely to get additional opportunities.
It can seem transactional or opportunistic to create a strategy for forging work friendships, but there are some people that should be at the top of your ‘work friends’ wish list.
Your boss
Get to know more about your boss than the fact that they always assigns time-sensitive projects at 5 p.m. that are expected to be completed by 9 a.m. the next day, or that they has very strong feelings about punctuation in written reports. Your boss is, after all, a person.
So how do you become work friends with your boss without overstepping? Start by getting to know your boss’s professional goals and outlook. Ask what they are working on and showing interest in the business as a whole—not just your own role and career trajectory. They will appreciate that you are curious about the bigger picture, and you might get some helpful ‘hints’ about their priorities and business objectives. If you can get along with and actually like your boss, you are more likely to enjoy work, thrive, and find additional opportunities.
When it comes time for reviews, raises, and promotions, your boss’s feedback matters the most because she's the person who works closest with you—so it’s crucial that she likes the work you do and working with you.
If you regularly interact with your boss’s boss, become friendly with him too. You never know when your immediate manager might leave or be promoted, so keeping the person above them aware of the impact you are having will help when it comes to decisions being made if your boss were to leave.
The power brokers
Instead of viewing peers as direct competitors, focus on collaboration because that way you’ll do better work, faster. In addition, try not to be jealous or extra-competitive with your peers who seem to be on the “fast track.”
A natural inclination at work may be to feel threatened by someone with high talent who is already viewed as an up-and-comer. In fact, sometimes we project our own insecurities onto them and tag them with unfair judgments. That ‘scarcity mentality’ will not bring out your best. Be abundant instead and befriend the most talented, effective, high-performing colleagues in your midst.
Ask your co-workers how they are doing, learning more about their work, going to lunch instead of eating a sad desk salad and scrolling mindlessly through your Facebook newsfeed, and checking in to simply say hello. Be helpful when you work together. Be known for doing a good job. Do not complain. Be a good listener. Share insight to build trust.
The office rock star
Find someone above you whom people really respect and, ideally, whose values are similar to your own. Once you have worked anywhere for a short period, it is easy to identify the internal stars whom others listen to and follow.
Try this strategy for becoming friendly with office influencers. First, find someone you would like to learn from and emulate. Next, learn what the person is working on. Then at an upcoming company or department event, introduce yourself and ask him/her about the topic.
In the beginning, it is best to keep your communications ‘work-related’. Since the project is important to him or her, he/she will think you are someone who ‘gets it.’ You may just become an insider on her radar as new opportunities and projects open up. Having an opinion leader speak well of you is essentially a high-level testimonial. In essence, their lending you their good name.
A mentor
You might already have a mentor outside of the office, like someone who is in your industry at another company, a favorite professor, or even a family member who has great advice. But it's also beneficial to have a mentor who works at the same company as you because they’ve been there and done that.
Mentors can help with how you should be seeing the organization and how you should be thinking about the organization in order to get ahead. Your mentor could be your boss, an influencer, a peer, or someone who has the position you hope to have in a few years. Get to know them the same way you did with everyone else, but do not make it weird and ask ‘will you be my mentor?’ It does not have to be a formal, Facebook-official relationship. It just has to be helpful.
Your staff
As you start climbing the proverbial corporate ladder, you will get your very own team to manage. The people who work for you will do a better job if they respect and like you. When you are seen as helpful, and focused on your teams' development, they will want to do better work for you.
Find out each person’s goals and help them achieve them, ask for their advice, say “thank you,” and give feedback regularly. Little gestures like saying good morning or asking how their weekend was before you go into all of the ‘to-dos’ for the week will also help. These things may sound small, but they are most definitely not. People want to feel as if the people they are working for actually care about them.
Soft Skill – Key Competencies in Culinary Education
Overall, the implication of the Wilks and Hemsworth’s findings is that hospitality educators should attend to those competencies perceived as essential for the field by practicing professionals, and provide programs to develop them. Since what is perceived as most important has greatly to do with personality disposition, ultimately it is important to select students who have an adequate profile. Flexibility and adaptability, for instance, are difficult to develop unless students possess certain personality traits. This is a controversial point because there is competition for students and the sector may not feel able to afford precise discrimination. It nevertheless remains an important point to be addressed.
Moreover, as Redman & Wilkinson (2006) points out, focusing on some competencies can legitimize prejudice, since what is perceived as most desirable may often correspond to a demeanor associated with a white middle-class profile. In addition, these competencies tend not to be highly rewarded when unaccompanied by technical competencies. There are also risks in developing interpersonal competencies, for instance, and neglecting the acquisition of technical competencies and the knowledge essential to managing an organization.
Furthermore, higher education is not only a means of getting a job. It is about getting an education‟. As Lashley (2004) points out, it is necessary to escape the tyranny of relevance and develop analytical and critical thinking essential to creating reflective practitioners.
Soft skills are best taught though role modeling rather than formal academic instruction. According to Bandura‟s (1986) Social Learning Theory, people learn from one another through observation and imitation (modeling), reproducing given behaviors. The process involves close contact, imitation of seniors, understanding the concepts and role model behavior. Following this line of thought, we propose important themes for students in the hospitality industry.
Competencies Highest Means (average scores on a 5-point scale)
• Being able to work in a team 4.71
• Leadership 4.67
• Problem solving capacity 4.65
• Sensitivity to customer needs 4.65
• To present a professional behavior 4.65
• To motivate others 4.61
• Empathy 4.56
• To act calmly 4.59
• Creativity 4.55
• Handling guest complaints 4.53
• To communicate 4.49
• Adaptability 4.47
• Self-control 4.47
• Mastering foreign languages 4.47
• Ethics and Social responsibility 4.45
• Capacity to negotiate 4.44
• E-commerce skills 4.20
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Social Development Theory was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) who argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.
Key Concepts
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of ‘constructivism’. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.
Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological)”.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.
Situated Learning Theory (Jean Lave)
Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context, and culture.
In contrast with most classroom learning activities that involve abstract knowledge which is and out of context, Lave argues that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and Wenger call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation”.
Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert.
Other researchers have further developed Situated Learning theory. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship: “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge.” Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s notion of learning through social development.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Key Concepts
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence (relative capacity to unite, react, or interact), prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior, Bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social learning. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.03%3A_Social_and_Symbolic_Capital.txt |
The Socialization Literature
There have been a number of different theories applicable to culinary arts as an applied discipline, which has tried to explain how people learn things from others. Reinforcement theory, growing out of the tradition of behaviorism, sought to explain human social learning as the product of conditioning. Social learning theory stands in contrast to reinforcement theory. Social learning theory attempts to explain human socialization as a product of observation and mimicry (Volkart, 1951). However, socialization theory has not been considered germane within the culinary arts literature in the past. The hospitality field is nonetheless a people oriented profession that requires teamwork, and strong communication skills. Hospitality organizations have increasingly become aware of the value for having strong organizational socialization tactics to improve newcomer entry and increase retention. Organizations now understand that losing good employees is a significant expense. Employee retention and proper newcomer socialization tactics are now on the front burner.
Elemental goals of socialization – conscience, performance, and values
Arnett (1995), in presenting a new theoretical understanding of socialization, outlined what he believes to be the three goals of socialization (1) impulse control and the development of a conscience; (2) role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions; (3) the cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for.
• In essence, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It is important for the intern to understand that socialization is culturally relative - people in different cultures socialize differently.
• This distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative judgment. Often, when you enter a new culture (like a restaurant) what’s going on may not seem to make sense until you become a part of that culture. Determine what is ‘normal’ in that environment – do not judge it, just listen learn, ease into it. We all form initial opinions – do not immediately act on those opinions. They tend to change, or they will confirm what you thought from the beginning. In either case, give it time.
• Socialization, because it is the adoption of culture, is going to be different in every culture.
• Socialization, as both process – what people do at work, or outcome – what the organization expects from the intern, cannot be judged as ‘better or worse’ in any particular culture (Decety, Michalska, and Akitsuki, 2008).
Theoretical understandings of socialization. Socialization, as a concept in social scientific research, has evolved over time. While the basic idea outlined above has been a component of most understandings of socialization, there has been quite a variety of definitions and theories of socialization. Some of these approaches are presented to provide definitional variety and include (Holland, 1970; Mortimer and Simmons 1978; Long and Hadden, 1985):
• Symbolic Interactionism - the student develops because of social interactions; as a result, socialization is highly dependent on the situations in which the intern finds him/herself; this approach also argues that socialization is a continuous, lifelong process as situations change.
Building relationships is an important part of the sophomore internship. Present yourself to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable light. Remember, all they know about you is what you say and show through your actions. Be respectful, be attentive, be interested, be modest, and be willing to lend a helping hand.
At the senior level, good relationships are instrumental in helping you analyze and evaluate situations and ideas. They will also aid in the creative process – ask for input to move things forward. Develop relationships toward those ends.
• Role Theory - socialization is seen as a ‘process of acquisition of appropriate norms’, attitudes, self-images, values, and role behaviors that enable acceptance in the group and effective performance of new roles. In this framework, socialization is seen as a conservative force, permitting the perpetuation of the social organization in spite of the turnover of individual members through time.
At the sophomore level, determine who are the best and most effective workers – and emulate them. Maximize your effort to achieve at their level. You do not have to be perfect – you only need to be moving in that direction. Achieve growth in your abilities.
At the senior level, your role is to gain the skills to progress in your field at a high level. Your food skills are important, but also your ability to analyze, evaluate and create. Those discussions should be many. Every area of the restaurant and all of the things that make it successful are fair game. You are looking for employment. You are looking for a resume builder that lift you to the next level.
• Reinforcement Theory - the self develops as a result of cognitive evaluations of costs and benefits; this understanding assumes that the ‘socializee’, in approaching new roles, is an independent and active negotiator for advantages in relationships with role partners and membership groups.
Use positive reinforcement with your peers. A couple of examples of a positive response to a desired behavior would be praise, public recognition. When used correctly, positive reinforcement can be one of the most effective strategies by an employee, or employer, in the workplace.
• Internalization Theory - socialization is a series of stages in which the individual learns to participate in various levels of organization in society; this theory contends that the child internalizes a cognitive frame of reference for interpersonal relations and a common system of expressive symbolism in addition to a moral conscience. You become a part of your surroundings. As the environment changes – you change with it.
Remember that your first internship should also prepare you for your second. Become a part of the ‘positives’ at your internship site. Develop good skills and traits. Also, note behavior that you will not take with you when you leave.
Remember that your senior internship should also prepare you for your career position. Become a part of the ‘positives’ at your internship site. Be a part of the analysis and creative side of the operation. Develop good skills and traits. Also, note behavior that you will not take with you when you leave. If you have done your homework correctly, this internship may well be your first after-college employment. Plan well to start at the highest level.
Socialization theories per se are not at the heart of the internship but they do thread through the internship experience in applicable ways. Applicable theories follow.
Socialization and social class
What is normal in your own personal environment may be quite different from the environment and way others think about things. We all grow up differently – including the ways we view life - conforming versus creating. Find a mentor and develop contacts capable of moving your career forward. Develop your professional network.
You should now be approaching ‘conformity’ in terms of technique and skills improvement. Further, your interests should also be directed toward innovation – and ways to think about innovating. You do not want to return with a copy of the site’s menu. For example, you should return with the thought process utilized to create that menu.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson (1978), developed a research agenda begun by Melvin L. Kohn (1969), to explore differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class. Kohn found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their children whereas middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance. Ellis et. al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance in children to the extent that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success in their own endeavors. In other words, the authors verified that the reason lower-class parents emphasize conformity in their children is because they experience conformity in their day-to-day activities. For example, factory work is far more about conforming than innovation (Ellis, Lee, and Peterson, 1978).
College preparation classes and difference
You will be moving to a more challenging environment. Embrace the positive culture of the worksite - the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that successful organizations possess. Turn these elements into habits that stay with you when you return to the university. Being competent when you think about a task is one thing – unconsciously doing ‘right’ things is another – that is where you want to be. What do I want to learn? What do I need to improve? Learn and confirm.
We all tend to rise to the challenge when pushed. The key is to create a challenging environment. Always challenge yourself. We tend to become product of our environment – make your environment productive and inventive. Embrace and incorporate positive norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors – make them a ‘habit’. Choose a site that challenges you to be bold and takes you further down the path. This internship should be the catalyst leading to your first high quality professional endeavor.
Rosenbaum (1975), in his article The Stratification of Socialization Processes tested the effects of high school tracks on Intelligence Quotient (IQ). High school tracks are the different levels or types of courses students can take; for instance, many high schools now include college preparation tracks and general education tracks. Rosenbaum's hypothesis was that students who followed the lower tracks (non-college-preparation) would score lower on IQ tests over time than would students who followed the higher tracks (college-preparation). Considering that school is one of the primary contributors to socialization, it makes sense that participation in a given track can also result in the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that correspond to that track.
In other words, tracks can turn into a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: you may start out at the same level as someone in a higher track, but by the time you have completed the lower track you will have become like the other students in your track. To reduce confounding variables and ensure notable test effects, Rosenbaum selected a homogeneous, white, working class public school with five different, highly stratified classes. Rosenbaum then compared IQ scores for individuals in the different tracks at two time points. As it turns out, tracking does have a significant effect on IQ. People in lower tracks can actually see a decline in IQ compared to a possible increase among those in the upper track. In other words, tracks socialize their students into their corresponding roles which are especially applicable in the applied sciences (Rosenbaum, 1975).
Organizational Socialization
We all enter a workplace with certain expectations – some based on optimism, some based on fear. Sometimes we overvalue what we actually know, and sometimes we lack confidence in our knowledge. You will experience change. You will be blindsided. You will make mistakes. However, in all cases, if you take it in stride, you will learn and become stronger. Learning can be twofold – what to do, and what not to do moving forward. You will experience both. Learn to discern between the two.
Use the results of your first internship to refine your ways of thinking and doing. The things that went well – look to improve and refine. The things that went not so well – look to change, modify, and use to improve your learning situation. Anticipate but verify – maintain more control over your own personal outcome.
Anticipatory socialization. An initial theoretical perspective, as a prelude to the discussion of organizational socialization, is “anticipatory socialization,” the process of “preparing to accept new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors” (Shepard and Greene, 2003: 22) that occur when an individual develops expectations and knowledge about possible jobs and positions. It is usually the first step that occurs in the search and acceptance of an individual into an organization.
• Porter and Steers (1975) postulate that, because of this process, individuals never enter an organization with a completely blank opinion and that they carry with them “cultural baggage.”
• While this sounds as if it causes bias within participants, Arnold (1985) found that graduate students who know more about working life before they enter into an organization are better able to find work that fits their personalities and skill sets.
Several other positive effects of anticipatory socialization have been found as well.
• For example, anticipatory socialization helps in the formation of the overall set of expectations that an individual holds in relation to their contributions to an organization and the response by the organization to their contribution.
• An organization expects things such as time, energy, skills, and loyalty and an employee expects to be compensated as such. Based on what the employee perceives to be fair and just (from what they have come to expect based on their anticipatory socialization) this contract of sorts can be renegotiated or changed (Rousseau, 1991).
• Anticipatory socialization comes from a variety of sources including family, peers, school and the media. This cultivation of ideas is often seen from the standpoint of adolescents while the actual socialization occurs at the adult level. Each of these groups can add a different level to the socialization some providing broad information about organizations in general, and some providing specific task information for specific roles within an organization. (Taylor, Flanagin, and Seibold, 2000).
Apprehension. Apprehension is our fear of what ‘might’ happen as opposed to actual stress, dealing with something that has happened. Apprehension subsides as a person begins to realize that they can work through the perceived difficulty they face. It is normal to be apprehensive of things to come, but do not stress over it – you are not at that point. For example, keeps things in the proper context. If you have a problem – think only about the solution. Nothing else deserved your consideration. Worrying will accomplish nothing. Your actual ‘problem’ is simply what you will do about it.
The focus of a large portion of “organizational communication” research is concerned with the anticipatory socialization of college graduates during their initial job search. However, this linear approach does not account for a lot of the socialization occurring during role and organization switches in a person's lifetime. Jablin (1985) sees anticipatory socialization to occur on two different levels; one as a vocational socialization which would occur only once or twice, and ‘choice’ socialization as roles and specific jobs change.
Theoretical foundations of organizational socialization
The natural tendency for workers is to be compliant – just do their work. For your first internship, compliance is important to develop necessary skills. You are there to also question and learn beyond cooking, but cooking is your first priority – your primary skill for development. Thus, questions and learning should focus initially on preparing and executing the menu – and learn why it’s doing that way. Do things their way because that is what their customers expect and what they will expect from you. Focus on the kitchen – then everything about that area of the restaurant. The people working, the management attitude, the culture of the site – how they do things, and what do they value.
The natural tendency for workers is to be compliant – just do their work. The ‘inspired’ worker is committed to the organization - this is always what the company wants you to be. That does not mean you always succeed – it means you always strive to be better. At this level, ‘inspired’ is the minimum acceptable standard. Time to look well beyond the kitchen aspects of your site.
Organizational socialization is the process through which organizational culture is perpetuated, and by which newcomers learn the appropriate roles and behaviors to become effective and participating members (Louis, 1990). The topic has been discussed from various perspectives including socialization stages (Wanous, 1992), socialization tactics (Volkart, 1951), person-situation interactionism, newcomer sense making (Louis, 1990), symbolic interactionism - the interpretation process that occurs between interactions that help people create and recreate meaning. It is the shared understanding and interpretations of meaning that affect the interaction between individuals, especially those working together. Individuals act on the premise of a shared understanding of meaning within their social/professional context. Thus, interaction and behavior is framed through the shared meaning that objects and concepts have attached to them. From this view, people live in both natural (family, social, school) and symbolic environments (work). (Reichers, 1987), and stress (Nelson, 1987).
Effective Socialization. Effective socialization has been discussed in the literature (Feldman, 1980, 1981; Schein, 1978) and it has been used interchangeably with other related constructs, such as effective adaptation (Louis, 1980). Other researchers view it more narrowly as a change in basic attitudes and beliefs that suggest an internal commitment to the organization, rather than just compliance with organization practices. Wanous (1992) considers effective socialization to be synonymous with organizational commitment. He focuses on the internal processes of the individual, not on the socialization process.
Every organization wants committed employees. Your focus should be on working hard and understanding what ‘commitment‘ looks like in the workplace. Find the best employees and learn from them - skills, attitude, and ‘ways of thinking’ about what they do.
Be more open to learning, innovating, helping, and above all, be committed – you win and the organization as a whole wins because the organization consists of other people ‘just like you’. A winning team consists of winning team members.
Effective socialization is defined as the criteria through which the success of the organization's socialization programs and the newcomer's success through the entire socialization process are evaluated. It is conceptualized as the primary "outcome" of the socialization process that will enhance the achievement of individual and organizational outcomes. The organization teaches the newcomer the skills of the new job, and the norms and values or organizational culture that guide behavior and enhance the newcomer's performance. The information that is transmitted through different socialization programs and informal processes is the socialization content, and how successful newcomers are in acquiring it determines socialization effectiveness (Greenhaus, 1999).
Socialization content. Socialization content refers to what is learned during socialization or what is being imparted to the newcomer in the organization (Louis, 1990).
Begin to concentrate on the four content categories: (1) organizational values, goals, and culture – the way their do things, (2) work group values, norms, and friendships, (3) how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge, and (4) personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motives. The fourth content area requires you to think about the other three areas.
The four content categories: (1) organizational values, goals, and culture, (2) work group values, norms, and friendships, (3) how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge, and (4) personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motives. Assess where you are personally – strive for improvement in all areas. We can always be better and more well-rounded – have a goal to bolster those accomplishments in each of the four areas. Lead others to do the same when you return.
Four content categories have been identified in the literature: task, group, organizational, and personal. Although commonalities exist among the authors in their discussion of socialization content, they differ in their emphasis or focus on specific content categories. For instance, consistent with Louis (1980), and similar to Feldman (1981) and Schein (1980), Fisher (1986) specified four content categories:
1. Organizational values – what the organization considers to be important to its success, goals, and culture- the accepted ways of doing things,
2. Work group values, norms, and friendships,
3. Operational processes - how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge, and
4. Personal growth - personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motives. Within the socialization literature, measures of socialization content were developed in only one empirical study where the content categories identified were performance proficiency, people, politics, organizational goals, values, and history.
A general typology of the information that newcomers must acquire upon entry into the organization is nonexistent (Morrison, 1995). Building on previous studies in socialization and related areas (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Louis, 1990; Morrison, 1995; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1993; Schein, 1980), the content categories utilized to evaluate socialization effectiveness include: (1) task mastery, (2) functioning within the work group, (3) knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture, (4) personal learning, and (5) role clarity. These categories represent indicators of socialization effectiveness and they reflect salient aspects of information newcomers are expected to acquire in any organization. Indicators of Socialization Effectiveness include:
A general typology of the information that newcomers must acquire upon entry into the organization is nonexistent (Morrison, 1995). Building on previous studies in socialization and related areas (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Louis, 1990; Morrison, 1995; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1993; Schein, 1980), the content categories utilized to evaluate socialization effectiveness include:
1. task mastery,
2. functioning within the work group,
3. knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture,
4. personal learning, and
5. role clarity.
These categories represent indicators of socialization effectiveness and they reflect salient aspects of information newcomers are expected to acquire in any organization.
Indicators of Socialization Effectiveness
Task mastery
Your goal is always to master the things and areas assigned to you. Begin by learning to do things correctly then build proficiency and speed. Determine what is ‘normal’ then do, and excel. Normal works in each particular environment. “Normal’ can vary from one environment to another.
It’s time to take your skills to the next level. Set goals ahead of time. What elements of your internship will you master? Discuss this with the chef. Have a list when you arrive. Expand that list as you go. Evaluate your proficiency along the way. Each day – something improves.
Task mastery involves learning the tasks of the new job, gaining self-confidence, and attaining a favorable level of job performance (Feldman, 1981). Fisher (1985, 1986) noted the importance of task mastery to successful newcomer adjustment. Newcomers upon entry seem to focus most of their attention on task relevant information, critical to their adjustment and continued membership in the organization (Morrison, 1995).
Functioning within the work group
Determine the ‘local rules of the road’ in your new environment and do that. Fit in to the flow of things. Observe, embrace, and think about why ‘normal’ at the site works in that particular context.
Determine what is ‘normal’ in your new environment and do that. Fit in to the flow of things. Observe, embrace, and think about why ‘normal’ at the site works in that context. Further, think innovatively–what could be done better or more efficiently? Why are they doing or not doing something? If a problem arises, think about how you might solve it – how do they solve it>. What will I utilize later? What will I leave behind – because I now know better?
When employees join the organization, they need to learn and understand the way things are done within their work units/groups that is consistent with that of other relevant employees. Indicators of successful functioning within the work group include getting along with coworkers and superiors, coming to feel liked and trusted by peers, understanding the group norms and values, and making a satisfactory adjustment to group culture (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986). As such, learning how to function within the work unit is necessary for effective socialization.
Knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture
Knowledge reflects employees' understanding of the organization's culture. Acceptance relates to how fully the employees have internalized the culture of the organization. Every new employee has to be familiar with the organizational culture. The adjustment to organizational norms and values is beneficial when it leads to the internalization of pivotal norms and development of a new self-identity (Schein, 1988; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979). Learning the culture enables newcomers to develop a definition of the situation, and a scheme for interpreting everyday events (Louis, 1980).
Personal learning
This entails the newcomer learning about him or herself (Fisher, 1986). Personal learning has been identified by Fisher (1986) and Schein (1980) as an important component of the socialization process. Schein (1964) emphasized the importance of personal learning to new college graduates. According to Schein (1964), college graduates enter the work place with personal doubts about their competence in job performance and ability to cope with the anxieties and tensions of the work world. As such, the newcomer needs to learn the type of person he or she is and how he or she will function within the organization.
Roles
The absence of role ambiguity or role clarity has been studied as one of the outcomes of newcomer adjustment in the organization (Fisher, 1985, 1986; Jones, 1986). Achieving role clarity suggests that the newcomer is clear or certain about the expectations of members of his or her role set as well as the scope and responsibilities of his or her new job (Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman, 1970).
Role conflict in organizations
In the classroom, you are the learner. However, in the workplace, you become both learner and teacher. This can be confusing. Have goals about what you want to learn from the experience then exceed those expectations. You have to determine what is important to know. The following sections of the book will help you with that.
In the classroom, you are the learner. However, in the workplace, you become both learner and teacher. This is not your first experience. Have goals about what you want to learn ready - then exceed those expectations. You have to determine ‘what’ and ‘how much’ is important to know. Leave no area unexplored. Think about what is working or not working – and why regarding either.
Role conflict is a special form of social conflict that takes place when one is forced to take on two different and incompatible roles, or statuses, at the same time. While at times such conflict can motivate the individual to do more and better work, it can equally lead to frustration, anxiety, and reduced efficiency (Knowles and Saxberg, 1971). Another facet of personal conflict has to do with the multiple roles people play in organizations. Behavioral scientists sometimes describe an organization as a system of position roles. Each member of the organization belongs to a role set, which is an association of individuals who share interdependent tasks and thus perform formally defined roles, which are further influenced both by the expectations of others in the role set and by one's own personality and expectations. For example, in a common form of classroom organization, students are expected to learn from the instructor by listening to him, following his directions for study, taking exams, and maintaining appropriate standards of conduct. The instructor is expected to bring students high-quality learning materials, give lectures, write and conduct tests, and set a scholarly example. The system of roles to which an individual belongs extends outside the organization as well, and influences his functioning within it. As an example, a man's roles as husband, father, son, and church member are all intertwine with each other and with his set of organizational roles (Katz and Kahn, 1966).
Organizational man or protean career?
Your internship is about acquiring knowledge to build upon. You are not at the site to become a product of that environment alone. Your goal is to learn knowledge that will carry forward taking you to the next level, and then the next, and so on. How to do something is important to know – ‘why’ it works and ‘how to think about that’ is the greater takeaway.
Your internship is about acquiring knowledge to build upon. You are not at the site to become a product of that environment alone. Your goal is to learn knowledge that will carry forward taking to the next level, and then the next, and so on. Where do the new things you are learning fit within the total knowledge scheme of things?
In their review of the development of the idea of a psychological contract, Hall and Moss (1998) found that the very nature of the contract has changed as organizations have less of an effect on career management than employees have on determining the directions of their own careers. Consequently, the image of the organization man, the long-term, loyal employee has faded in favor of the protean career, a process that the person, not the organization, is managing. There are profound implications of a shorter-term, transactional relationship between employees and organizations at the point of organizational entry. As Edgar Schein (1988) has noted in a discussion of the impact of change versus stability in the socialization of professional managers, so long as we have a pluralistic society that itself values some degree of diversity, more individuals may be better able to operate in industries that thrive on innovation. Organizations that are more conformist may have a hard time finding people willing to make the necessary psychological contract. In other words, the capacity of an organization to be successful in the process of socialization of new employees especially those who bring new professional expertise that is critical to the desire of the organization to change may be contingent upon the extent to which the culture of the organization affects its psychological contract with new employees. By extension, success in socialization may also be affected by the capacity of new employees to make sense of the new organization, what is expected of them and what they can contribute in return, and how they will build their careers within the organization (Schein, 1988).
Two prominent perspectives on organizational entry: socialization and turnover.
Your job is to become part of the fabric of the organization, learn what you can, then move on to learn more. Think of your internship site as a different form of classroom. Take the time to confirm what you think is correct or adjust your thinking as necessary. When your ‘class’ in the workplace has concluded, and you have learned your lessons – how will you transfer back to the university classroom what you learn in industry? What will make be a better student and professional in my field of study?
Your job is to become part of the fabric of the organization, learn what you can, then move on to learn more. Think of your internship site as a different form of classroom. Take the time to confirm what you think is correct or adjust your thinking as necessary. You will form opinions – never act on an opinion until you confirm it. Engage in personal and professional discovery. When class has concluded and you have learned your lessons – time to move to your next workplace classroom. Think about what you like, want, and where you should be in the future.
According to Louis, (1980), new employees will leave an organization prematurely because of either unmet or unrealistic expectations. Organizational entry is a major phase of organizational socialization, in which a new employee defines his or her relationship to the organization. Sense making has generally been applied in library and information science to study information need and use in its broadest sense, and in particular, in the information search process of library users. Yet, sense making is also significant to the study of organizational life and organizational identity. Weick (2001) argues that organizations resemble puzzling terrain because they lend themselves to multiple, conflicting interpretations, all of which are plausible (Louis, 1980).
Summary – Important Socialization Theory
There have been a number of different theories, which have tried to explain how people learn things from others. Reinforcement theory, growing out of the tradition of behaviorism, sought to explain human social learning as the product of conditioning. Social learning theory stands in contrast to reinforcement theory. Social learning theory attempts to explain human socialization as a product of observation and mimicry (Volkart, 1951).
The self and socialization.
• The formation of the “self” - the set of concepts we use in defining who we are - is a central part of the socialization process.
• The self emerges in the course of interaction with other people and represents the ideas we have regarding our attributes, capacities, and behavior. It typically includes an egocentric bias as expressed by Cooley, Mead, and Goffman (Michener, DeLamater, and Myers. 2004).
Charles Horton Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self.
Charles Horton Cooley's notion that our consciousness arises in a social context is exemplified by his concept of the looking-glass self—
• a process by which we imaginatively assume the stance of other people and view ourselves as we believe they see us.
• Self-image is differentiated from self-conception.
• Self-esteem is governed by reflected appraisals, social comparisons, and self-attribution. Personal efficacy is another aspect of self-evaluation (Michener, DeLamater, and Myers. 2004).
George Herbert Mead: The Generalized Other.
George Herbert Mead (1934) contended that we gain a sense of selfhood by acting toward ourselves in much the same fashion that we act toward others. According to Mead, children typically pass through three stages in developing a full sense of selfhood: the play stage, in which the child plays roles modeled on a significant other; the game stage; and the generalized other stage (Hughes, Kroehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002).
Erving Goffman: Impression Management.
Erving Goffman pointed out that only by influencing other people's ideas of us can we hope to predict or control what happens to us.
• Consequently, we have a stake in presenting ourselves to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable light, a process Goffman calls impression management (Hughes, Kroehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002).
Social Learning Theory. Social learning theory is derived from the work of Cornell Montgomery (1843-1904) which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of limitation:
• close contact,
• imitation of superiors,
• understanding of concepts,
• role model behavior.
• It consists of three parts observing, imitating, and reinforcements (Miller and Dollard, 1941).
Julian Rotter developed a learning theory. In Social Learning and Clinical Psychology (1954),
• Rotter suggests that the effect of behavior has an impact on the motivation of people to engage in that specific behavior.
• People wish to avoid negative consequences, while desiring positive results or effects. If one expects a positive outcome from a behavior, or thinks there is a high probability of a positive outcome, then they will be more likely to engage in that behavior.
• The behavior is reinforced, with positive outcomes, leading a person to repeat the behavior.
• This social learning theory suggests that behavior is influenced by these environmental factors or stimulus, and not psychological factors alone.
Albert Bandura’s (1977) book Social Learning Theory expanded on Rotter's idea, as well as earlier work by Miller and Dollard (1941), and is related to social learning theories of Vygotsky and Lave. This theory incorporates aspects of behavioral and cognitive learning.
• Behavioral learning assumes that people's environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways.
• Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important for influencing how one behaves.
• Social learning suggests a combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors influence behavior.
• Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behavior include attention: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behavior), and motivation (good reason) to want to adopt the behavior (Bandura, 1977).
Thomas Theorem. The “Thomas theorem” is a theory of sociology which was formulated by W. I. Thomas (1863–1947) in the year 1928 by which Thomas states:
• “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” (Thomas and Thomas, 1928: 571).
• In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action. This interpretation is not objective.
• Actions are affected by subjective perceptions of situations. Whether there even is an objectively correct interpretation is not important for the purposes of helping guide individuals' behavior.
• In 1923, Thomas stated more precisely that—particularly within common social worlds, any definition of the situation will influence the present. Not only that, but—following a series of definitions in which an individual is involved—such a definition also "gradually [influences] a whole life-policy and the personality of the individual himself" (Thomas, 1967: 42).
• Consequently, Thomas stressed societal problems such as intimacy, family, or education as fundamental to the role of the situation when detecting a social world "in which subjective impressions can be projected on to life and thereby become real to projectors" (Volkart, 1951: 14). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.04%3A_Human_Social_Theory.txt |
As a culinary educator, we tend to see life through the ‘eyes’ of educators. Educational discourse tends to gather human activity, relations, and sense making into the educator’s gaze. However much we resist, as the literature recounts, we are still, and always attempting to configure ourselves in cognition processes as active agents who ultimately manage the ‘processes’ we call learning from various positions. Often we strive to enhance, direct, resist, observe, or analyze for students. If the category of ‘internships’ as experiential learning signifies experiential learning as ‘non-school’ learning then our control and comments as educators would reify the classifying dimension which would subvert the purpose of the book. These findings represent the words and meaning attached by those who will be, or were engaged in internship learning environments.
How internship sites become part of the process
Forward thinking sites. Sites located in urban settings become part of the internship process in various ways. Forward thinking restaurant entities see students’ enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs of study as ‘capable potentials’ to replenish their work force and further the growth of their operations. They actively seek associations with educational institutions to accomplish that aim. Some desirable restaurant operations are approached by the educational institution, or its students, because such entities are seen as ‘up and coming’ foodservice operations within the industry.
Giving back. Some desirable operations seek involvement as a way of giving back to educational programs that help to further their careers or in some cases, they gained their operational knowledge through apprenticeships as culinary programs were not available when they were entering the field and the contact with students who are involve in formal culinary education provides a connection with formal study they desired but was unavailable for participation.
Operational need and seasonality. Other reasons restaurants participate in internships center on operational needs such as seasonality for example. Some well-known entities need additional help during the summer months but require individuals with the higher skill levels that interns possess. As such, they have evolved into training facilities that create win-win situations. They receive the necessary help during their busy season, and in turn, teach interns higher-level skills.
Lowering labor costs. Still other restaurant entities are willing to provide student interns with real world experience but their organizational reasoning for involvement centers on lowering labor costs through the use of individuals with adequate skills to meet their needs but they receive lower wages than the permanent staff as the internship is a transient learning endeavor.
While different selection strategies exist from one educational institution to another, the most commons tactics employed by educational institutions are essentially similar. Educational internship facilitators spend must time maintaining site relationships and on many occasions will speak with the site on behalf of the student in an introductory capacity. It is typically the responsibility of the student to contact the site, arrange for an interview, formalize the internship contract and convey institutional expectations, which will be confirmed by the facilitator. Many programs require the internship facilitator to convey program expectations to site facilitators verbally. However, while verbal overviews are preferred, pamphlets containing educational requirements for assessment and evaluation are normally mailed to the site, or given to the intern who provides them to the site upon arrival to begin the internship.
In most instances, students’ research pertinent sites that offer the skills they desire based on their particular interests. Students initiate the internship selection process personally by contacting the site and arranging the internship. Typically, the only substantive contact between site and the educational facilitator involves confirming the acceptance of the intern, discussing the necessary hours of work the intern must complete, and receiving the assurance from the site that those needs can be fulfilled. For some students the internship is an after-thought and much reliance is placed on the educational facilitator to find a site for them thus suitability for these students becomes a secondary concern. Further, the selection policy of some institutions requires the intern to handle all aspects of site selection and negotiations themselves. They consider this approach as experience and practice for students to engage in productive job searches on their own after graduation thus the educational facilitator function in a follow up capacity alone.
Focus. The first focus of the book presents the lived experiences and events of student interns and their perceptions of whether they were able to acquire durable knowledge useful to future endeavors and equally what personally constructed meanings those students attached to the internship experience.
Six consistent overarching themes that directly affected the success of any internship emerged from the responses of each participant student group: involvement, environment, evaluation, higher education mandates, the ability of the student to effectively socialize, and symbolic capital (practical work experience gained under the auspices of the educational institution and in for profit restaurants), and, as the findings indicate, these factors were not mutually exclusive to students. The utilization and interaction of all six of these themes, or their lack of, by the participating students were apparent outcome determinants.
Participants. The participants in the study consisted of three student groups stratified by virtue of their culinary program course progression. The first respondent group comprised twenty male and female incoming freshmen enrolled in an introductory culinary survey class with no prior exposure to the culinary arts program. The second student group had completed their first internship and entering their junior year of study engaged in advanced coursework leading to their final internship prior to graduation from the program. The final group consisted of students with some small amount of remaining course work but had completed their second capstone internship. The responses of the freshmen students are treated separately from the sophomore and senior student responses for the purposes of clarity in understanding the themes that surfaced from the lived experiences of all internship completers. The decision was to combine both sophomore and senior responses was made at the end of my data analysis because the positive and negatives themes of their responses followed consistent patterns and perspectives of what worked and what did not, which, if presented separately, would have been redundant to readers. Thus the combined responses of these groups provide a seamless yet accurate representation of what the book seeks to explore.
Chapter organization. The participants in the study were students consisting of freshmen in a culinary survey class with no other program participation to that point, sophomores who had completed internships, an senior students who were internship completers; and as such, this section follows the progression of responses situated in that order. The chapter sections begins with the novice freshmen then proceed to the responses of interns themselves.
The headings of each section represent the themes that emerged from deductive and inductive codes used to group the data provided by the respondents. At times, extant socialization theory is presented within areas of discussion to corroborate and connect responses to pertinent extant socialization theory that serves to inform that section of the findings and to provide further clarity to the conclusions.
Students
First Year Students
Unity spurs hope. First year student respondents were predominately freshmen participating in an introductory survey course on national and international food cultures prior to actual involvement in classroom study and the practice of culinary methods and execution skills in the laboratory setting. As such, they were particularly entwined as a student group through their engagements, activities, interaction, commiserations, and the avoidance of permanent labeling by others. Equally, knowing was interminably bound with the positive environment with knowledge not emphasized as a substance to be ingested and then transferred to new power-laden social and systemic processes where experience and knowledge are often mutually determined. The participative environment invoked togetherness, solidarity, and commonality, which could provoke more positive risk-taking and inquiry. Therefore, a sense of normalcy prevailed. Their responses were calm, and sheltered; in this context, all options are always open even if he or she carried some history of failure. Agency was plausible and viable because that view carried a future orientation.
The first-year student responses were well-reasoned and quite broad in scope. Surprisingly, the depth, clarity, and focus of their responses, and the importance of what was, and was not discussed, to some extent, overshadowed many of the sophomore and seniors responses which will become somewhat noticeable points of comparison as the discussion of all students ensues.
Themes
Evaluation
Internships as practical experience. Many of the first-year students recognized that a working environment is different from the classroom and acknowledged the value of combining classroom theory with practical experience to gain knowledge. “Practical experience is important – what works and what doesn’t – it’s reality versus theory.” Further, they felt that the working environment would probably drive additional questions to consider. Many saw the first internship as an opportunity to hone their social skills through interacting with kitchen staff, dining room staff, and the actual customer. “It’s an opportunity to learn and demonstrate professionalism in different situations.” Some students intended to utilize the experience to test “likes and dislikes” realistically. The majority of students, though stating it in different ways, expressed awareness that classroom and laboratory learning was obviously different from a professional operation and that maximizing both components would lead to better preparation for entering the culinary field. “I may use a cooking method a time or two in the laboratory, but using that method day after day in a restaurant will help me perfect it.”
The purpose of an internship was seen by most as a form of evaluation. “My first internship will be, in many ways, for me a career test.” Others felt that actually working in industry could “help me to decide what area I would want to specialize in.” Some student saw hard work as closely linked with respect and self-confidence. Some students indicated that: “motivation on my part will lead to the site being motivated to teach me.” Others offered that: “Experience is important to success and feeling able.” Thus, the overarching theme expressed by these students, situates the internship as “an important determining factor” which could aid in the crystallization of long tern career decisions.
Environment
Future sense-making as a practical advantage. Regarding the general expectations of what could or should be learned on a first internship, the predominant perspective centered on the positive practical implications of learning in a real work environment. The acquisition of broad knowledge, the big picture, was an important concern for a majority of students. The work should be basic jobs at first, learning to understand the setting and situations they might confront, and getting a general feel of the entire operation. Most wanted to learn the scope of involvement of people and place and “How do I feel about that?” The driver was adaptive learning of skills and knowledge which could be transferred to their future studies - what should be retained and brought to bear on future studies and the elements they considered unproductive and left behind. Understanding the importance of future class work and making sense of what they would be learning by applying their time spent in industry was seen as a considerable benefit.
Learning new techniques through interaction with others from different culinary backgrounds was considered a potential positive as well as developing ways to address those from different backgrounds and possibly different work ethics was also seen as a positive byproduct of such interaction. Some students would rather focus on more specific areas, improving their ability to multitask, or deeper into the social mechanics of the operation such as time management, and the pace of the operation, “who” is actually taking charge, and attention to honing, socialization skills. Personal learning themes addressed agency, seen as essential, tempered with humility which they felt would be more indicative of their willingness to learn and do whatever was necessary. Further, they could begin to explore their “style” of cooking, and test interest in specific areas of specialization. In sum, the majority saw the internship’s potential for building and confirming confidence and ability which would provide momentum to both future class work and career.
Involvement
Personal involvement in site selection. Most of these students were quite adamant regarding their primary involvement in all phases of the internship process and site selection. “I would like to talk with the site myself because I could ask important questions and get to know what I will be looking forward to, and how to prepare myself for the experience.” Most of these students saw personal involvement as indicative of responsibility. “The site will be investing money and time on me – I want them to know that I’m worth it.” Many of these students had personal agendas regarding the knowledge they wanted to attain in addition to a general learning experience in a working environment. They believed that hands on involvement would help to address “who” would they working with, and confirm “what” would be available to learn? As such, their responses were generally proactive seeing the internship as both a course requirement and an opportunity that could benefit their future studies and beyond. “I want to take control of both school and life” was the response of one student. Another noted “Culinary Arts is an applied science – so a good place to start would be to ‘apply’ myself to each task at hand.” Still other students felt that “personal attention to details could raise additional questions that I may not have considered.”
It is important to note that these students were aware of the program’s internship facilitators and their availability to help guide them through the process and they were quite willing to utilize their expertise in securing a site, general guidance, and advice. They indicated a sincere appreciation for any wisdom the program facilitator’s might render, which could also include: negotiating the terms of the internship, the quality of their choice, and goodness of fit, but the leg work and actual site discussions were their responsibility. Of note, the one key element that a majority of these students expected their instructors and the facilitator to provide was an honest appraisal of their ability which should be driven by their demonstration of a constant high level of involvement in both class and laboratory learning. Thus these student enter the program with a rudimentary understanding of “symbolic capital" [practical work experience gained by the student under the auspices of the educational institution and practical work experience obtained in for-profit restaurants]. Additionally, the importance of input from previous students who might have completed an internship at a site under consideration, or in general, was also considered a ‘high priority conversation’ towards securing a good learning environment.
Wanting personal control. Clearly, the overarching theme of the first-year students was personal control with regard to contacting a site, or following up on a program facilitator’s initial contact with a site. The majority of these students felt that, to whatever extent possible, major learning experiences should be pre-determined and negotiated with the site prior to the internship. The response of one first-year student might best collectively summarize the feelings of most of the students’ reasoning that: “I have to attack my first internship as the ‘only chance’ being provided to me to learn in a real life environment. If I stand out on the job, I can get a good recommendation that will help me later. If I get a good recommendation from the site, my professors will see that I’m a serious student.” Other students viewed the internship as a potential long-term “networking” opportunity. In sum, an overwhelming majority felt that engaging in personal negotiations with a site would demonstrate agency, interest, responsibility, and willingness to make key decisions - coupled with a high degree of faith in the program and those who have gone before them. A majority also felt the primary responsibility of selecting a site that best fit their personal schemes and agendas should be researched personally then interaction with the facilitator and others who could provide insight should follow.
The linkage of site and city. These students noted the importance of personally researching different urban internship sites and cities of interest paramount to the selection process. Additionally, the significance of culture was apparent as many considered learning the culture of the people of the site city to be an important aspect of the experience. There was the clear recognition that community and site constitute an inseparable linkage. Most were looking to achieve a complete experience and clearly stated their belief that “research aids preparation.” The best decision would culminate from viewing all aspects of the experience from an ontological way of thinking: What is there to know? Several students suggested that while speaking with the site would help to get a feel for the location, visiting the site and city could help to confirm which would be the best choice as every learning environment is unique.
Socialization
Inexperience created apprehension. Many of these students expressed a degree of fear and anxiousness due to their inexperience but the stronger feeling was excitement to begin. This might better be expressed as simple apprehension, the fear of the unknown. Some were concerned with fear of acceptance by the site. As first year students, they have not engaged in many of the classroom and laboratory elements that would greatly enhance their ability to perform. Further, having not encountered these elements, there are no successful experiences and confidence builders that would instill a more confident response. Thus, these responses were reasonable given their freshman status. However, other students pushed past any personal insecurities suggesting that the intern should: “just jump in and do it – figure it out as you go!” The confidence levels exhibited were predominantly in the normal range of what could be expected given the absence of practical knowledge and experience that more advanced students would have encountered before reaching the decision process of selecting a site. However, they can and often do surface later as embedded social constructs that can in various ways, drive or hinder a student’s ability to actualize their success as the discussion of sophomores and seniors demonstrated.
Managing impressions and anticipating expectations. Two important socialization connections emerged during the first-year student interviews. The first was an obvious connection to Erving Goffman’s ‘impression management’ (Hughes, Krehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002). Goffman pointed out that only by influencing other people’s ideas of us can we hope to predict or control what happens to us. These students, as a collective, believed that it was important to present themselves to others in ways that would lead them to be viewed in a favorable light. In line with the tenets of Cooley, Mead, and Goffman (Michner, DeLamater, and Myers, 2004), the formation of ‘self’ for these students began with the way they viewed and were willing to test their attributes, capacities, and behavior.
Secondly, as a prelude to organizational socialization, they engaged in "anticipatory socialization" (Shepard and Green, 2003), by developing expectations and knowledge about possible jobs and positions. Their positions were in line with Arnold’s (1985) argument that students who know more about working life before they enter into an organization are better able to find the type of employment that fits their personalities and skill sets and thus produce more accurate overall expectations.
Sophomores and Seniors
It is crucial to note that all student recounts and subsequent outcomes of these experiences were regarded by the internship program facilitators from all of the institutions involved in the study as ‘successful.’ The minimum criteria necessary for a satisfactory grade for the interns’ experiential coursework essentially turns on the following factors:
1. The completion of the institution’s required number of hours of work at the internship site;
2. The submission, in most cases, of a journalized representation the experience and/or the compilation of the experience in the form of a final portfolio; and
3. A satisfactory evaluation submitted by the site’s internship coordinator.
At the end of all student discussions, aspirations, and tribulations, the minimum criteria for site inclusion in the institutions internship program, and the evaluation process mirrors these minimum requirements.
Symbolic Capital and Involvement – Practical Experience
For those students who amassed sufficient "symbolic capital" (practical work experience) and displayed academic excellence, their demeanor conveyed ‘enlightenment’ regarding their possibilities with each step providing greater empowerment towards self-actualization and entrepreneurship evidenced by their actions and self-confidence. They further maintained the ‘hope’ elements expressed by the freshmen entering the program. Having established themselves, they exerted agency, believed in their ability to find answers to the things they questioned, and they felt calm and sheltered in their ability to perform within the institutional environment and equally in the real world. Others who did not reach such levels of success by lacking symbolic capital and institutional recognition were to some, or greater extent, in chaos. Their lack of self-confidence, surfaced in the form of fear or confusion exemplified by their lack of organization, and at times students experienced anger focused inwardly when they failed to initiate action. It also surfaced externally, when they waited for direction that did not materialize.
Approximately thirty percent of sophomore and senior students, both male and female, interns interviewed reported stellar internships. I discuss sophomores and senior interns together because the purpose of the study was to note successful tendencies and progressions rather than class levels and as such, to discuss the success aspects of either student level separately would be redundant. The following student recollections chart the course through a successful internship from its initiation to conclusion highlighting the productive tactics of both sophomore and senior interns. Of note, many of the astute tactics utilized by sophomore respondents were obtained through discussions with successful senior interns regarding their approaches to accomplish their personal goals for the internship.
What constitutes good preparation. For successful sophomore and senior students the preparation process for their internships began in their freshman year of study. The required investment was pre-calculated. Common factors among these students were their persistence and hard work in the culinary classroom. Additionally, they also excelled in the courses pertaining to other areas of university study maintaining high overall grade point averages. In the laboratory they spent additional hours perfecting the methods they were taught. All worked in the culinary field during the school term and summers to gain more experience. While many already possessed the social capital required, others identified such deficiencies and improved those skills, and of great importance, the ‘symbolic capital’ necessary for success in an applied field had been systematically amassed over time. Three minor themes became obvious during these student interviews: It is important to have ‘agency’, the ability to advocate for one’s self, to be inquisitive, and above all, to have confidence in your ability.
It is important for students to contact the site. One sophomore student indicated, “I think it’s important to prepare for the interview to understand what that is like. So, I started there. I went in for my interview with the chef and I explained to him that I was willing to do anything he asked me to do, but I also told him that I was interested in getting a well-rounded experience. I want to see the kitchen from both sides: front of the house [dining area], and back of the house [kitchen]. The student was asked to return for a second interview and the chef agreed to provide a complete look at the operation. “We talked a little and he said: I’m going to give you exactly what you are asking me for. We talked a bit more and set up a schedule for him and me that covered fifteen weeks to give me a full picture of the business. We decided nine weeks back of the house (kitchen) and six weeks in the front of the house(dining room). In a week I started just doing the basic jobs then moved to the other positions."
Another sophomore student indicated that at a proper site, the chef would allow students to acclimate to the new work environment by observing the operation in action for a while. "The chef made me do one thing for each station. First, he made me watch the station being operated. When I worked service, there was one spot that no one could stand, well, he made me stand there and watch my whole first night. That night I learned all the waiter calls. In this restaurant, the kitchen terminology was different from the last place I worked. Understanding those calls [when specific customer orders should be started] are really important to keeping the kitchen in sync. It keeps you from fumbling around if you understand when to begin preparing food.” This sophomore student was allowed to become not only familiar with the recipes he would have to prepare, but also the terminology of the kitchen for beginning and finishing customer orders. Being able to observe a station prior to working it was important to him. “Watching was incredible - I wish I had done that before. I could look at the station [area for preparing specific dishes on the menu]; see which items were busy, where everything was located, and how the person working the station did the work.”
Did the chef have an agenda for teaching or were decisions regarding what students learn left to their own construction? A common student response indicated that in general, most chefs do not have an agenda for teaching interns: “No, the chef really didn’t have anything in particular to tell me, but if I asked a question, he was more than happy to tell me anything I want to know. If I didn’t ask any questions, he didn’t bother telling me anything. But if I said, “I have a question for you,” He would say all right let me hear it. If he didn’t have the time at that point, or if he wasn’t sure of the answer at the moment, he would tell me that he would get back to me – and he always did. What I found worked really well was at the end of the night I would pull him aside and ask him - how did I do tonight? He would always say ok let's talk about your weaknesses and then we’ll talk about your strengths.”
A History of Work Experience. Deciding what information would or could be learned was carefully thought out well in advance and was often the result of years of thinking for most of the student interns who excelled prior to, during, and after an internship experience. They accurately assessed their ability by seeking unbiased assessment from others in their cohort, from their teachers, and, of importance, from the professional culinary mentors for whom they worked. These students either possessed or developed an innate sense of “Who am I? What is my skill set? Where am I now? And where do I want to be and what steps do I need to take to achieve my goals?” They were attentive in the classroom. The laboratory was their training ground for honing their abilities. They did not simply cook the recipe, they centered their concentration on learning and executing the cooking method – the rules that would apply to cooking any similar dish in which only the ingredients would be changed. As explained by one senior student: “If I were asked to make a cream of broccoli soup, in reality, I don’t need a recipe to do that. It’s a “cream” soup so I apply the method for making cream soups – I don’t need a recipe because I know the method cold. If you know the method you can make ‘any’ cream soup. My only question for the Chef would be about what spices, if any, he wanted me to include, or the intensity of the seasoning. If I have to ask the Chef for a recipe, I haven’t mastered the basics – why would he take me seriously?” The essential mindset was to first prepare yourself - be positioned to seize an opportunity to advance what you know. These students understood the value of learning from some of the best professionals in the culinary field and the need for a certain level of competency to acquire the site.
Another sophomore provided a summary view of what exemplary effort could accomplish: I did my first internship with a Master Chef in Chicago because I was prepared and as ready as I could be. I went in to the restaurant and ‘staged’ [work for no compensation, similar to an audition] for two days so the Chef could see my skills and attitude – that got me the internship. I worked hard, studied after my shift. I came in early and stayed late to ask questions – I did everything I could do every day I was there. I can’t begin to tell you how much I learned because I showed the interest and willingness to take away everything I could. I networked. I received a great evaluation and letter of recommendation. Now I have a much stronger resume and the personal recommendation from a nationally known Chef if I need it, to get me into an even better situation for my second. I look at some of the other student and I don’t get it. No real motivation or direction. I mean, just how loud does opportunity have to knock? I think some of my classmates are passing up some really good chances.”
Pre-negotiation of the work schedule leads to success. The most successful outcomes came from students that engaged in some form of pre-negotiation process with the site prior to arrival. From their perspective, this allowed time for reviewing basic skills that would be utilized during the internship, research the location for interesting things to try to experience and to prepare questions that would help drive their inquiry. “I took the time to research the Chef to get a better feel for his background. Since I was doing my internship in Maine and knew little about that State, I also researched the food and a bit of history about that area of the country which helped me learn quite a bit about the lobster industry and New England cuisine in general.” However, not all pre-negotiations panned out exactly as discussed. “I got there and was dealt a different card that I hadn’t planned for but regrouped, put in extra work to show I wanted it, could be trusted, and deserved to be there and by the end of the first week the plan was back on track. Thinking back, they were testing me to see if I could do what I said I would do.” I didn’t plan for that.”
Many student respondents took less formal and more candid approaches to preparing and planning their internships and the tactics utilized, or the lack of some form of preparatory method and depth of personal commitment when factoring in the different levels of engagement and willingness of the site to invest in the intern yielded varying results. Many students’ confronted ‘role conflict’ as they moved from the systematic teaching they experienced in the classroom to the working world where they were forced to become their own teachers. A common intern theme was the acknowledgement that the classroom and working world would be different but many failed to consider how such differences would affect their ability to learn – and who would have to be the initiator. “No there really was no learning agenda. I learned whatever I set out to learn. Had I not gone to the line during service to see what was being done I couldn’t have even begun to tell someone how anything on the menu was made. I had to put myself out there to gather information. I was an extra hand to them. Sometimes the guys would call me over to watch something or to show me something but not too often.” Some students made the transition by understanding what adjustments were required to learn. “They will teach you whatever you want to learn but will not come and find you. You have to step up and show interest. You have to control what happens next.” However, some students considered the challenge of taking on a personal leadership role to be untenable. “I did make a list of the things I wanted to learn, but, needless to say once I got there they just had me doing busy work that anyone could have done. I resigned myself to just finish what I started but I didn’t learn very much at all.”
Site selection planned in haste. “The site was chosen on short notice” was a frequent response for many of the students. Some decisions were made by collaborating with the institution’s intern facilitator – and such suggestions went unquestioned. Many of the students selected a site of their own choosing – which went unquestioned by the institution facilitator. In one way or another, a common theme “I selected this site because it was close to home.” also largely influenced the site decision. Most of these students did little to match their skill levels with the site or to inquire about what skill level the site expected them to possess. One intern responded: “I set up an interview with the owner of the site. In the interview, the owner seemed uninterested in my resume as if the information it contained was not important. I think he read all of two pages in mere seconds.” Nonetheless, the student decided to intern at this site even though there was no discussion of what he would learn during the internship. The site did him a favor by allowing him to intern there was the general inference.
Still others went through a formal interview process and performed a cursory inspection of the operation prior to accepting an internship. Some were certain during the selection process that the site would afford an appropriate learning experience. However, many responded “I was so nervous during the interview that I forgot to ask some important questions.” In most cases, those questions pertained to what they would be doing and learning during their time at the site.
What do students invest in internships? The depth in which student respondents addressed what they invested in their internship varied as might be expected. “I put a lot of effort into this internship. It was my first kitchen job, and I was looking to learn a lot from it. Time was heavily invested too; I worked overtime most weeks. I put a lot into this, and got a lot out.” This response represents the encapsulated ‘bullet’ form of summation I encountered from students who felt their internship experiences were productive.
Time. Other responses were equally reflective of the ‘moment’ of the experience and more focused from an ‘actions at the time’ perspective. "Time - I worked well over 360 hours. I averaged fifty-five to sixty hours per week. I was there from June fourteenth to August fifteenth. I always gave a good effort.” Another response: “My investment - I worked when I was scheduled, and sometimes stayed later.” Still another: “My entire summer. I usually went the day after finals and returned the day before school started back. I work a considerable of time on and off the clock about 70 to 80 hrs a week. I learned so much more than I expected I would and it didn’t cost me anything more than a plane ticket there. ”
Some students failed to grasp the purpose of the internship as it pertains to a field where useful application is both requisite and designed into the educational process. As encapsulated by one student: “I invested a summer of my life. I literally did nothing but sleep, eat, and work. I was exhausted every day and I had no social life outside of work. In terms of effort, I worked my ass off for minimum wage. I think it’s ridiculous that we have to pay for the internship class. Why should we ‘pay’ to’ work’ our asses off? That summer was the hardest I have ever worked and the hardest I ever want to work. It was miserable. The hours were horrible and the pay was crap.” From the perspective of this student, the response made perfect sense. If the internship is viewed as a true learning experience, then the amount of time worked was not the important factor, however, if the internship was considered to be just another course requirement to graduate, then the investment was seen as too extensive in comparison to more traditional institutional offerings.
Many of the student respondents calculated their investment in terms of ‘time’ but how their time was construed and utilized formed a noticeable separation that spoke to what the intern wanted to accomplish; planned goals, if any; self-evaluation, if any; and meeting prescribed standards that different types of venues required for successful inclusion. For students who achieved superior results, the word ‘time’ was more aptly envisioned as ‘timeline’ which conveyed a far different way of thinking about the purpose of an internship, what it disclosed, measured, afforded, and the positive impact on their future it potentially provided the student. For many of the students who embarked on internships, time was marked from the beginning of the experience. For those most successful interns, the beginning of the timeline began years prior to that first day working in a real world operation – time was relative and continual.
When the collective responses of successful students are considered, aspects such as gauging one’s ability, building one’s skills and resume, honing one’s attributes – or acquiring attributes seen as lacking were important student considerations. Additionally, involvement in school and work to build strengths that would allow them to be seen as “competent,” along with detailed preparation strategies such as the contemplation of personal goals and the acquisition of skills and knowledge through the careful selection of sites that would further their purposes were viewed as vital to their future. Thus these students engaged in careful negotiation with the site to gain the assurance that things agreed upon would occur. All of these elements involved time. However, time from their perspective appeared, in and of itself, not to be the overriding factor but rather a marker to gauge, to reflect, to be, or stay, on schedule – it was limited, valuable, and to be used wisely.
What advice would these interns give to a student preparing for their first internship? The sophomore and senior responses were varied but all equally insightful. Most sophomores indicated that a new intern should: “Talk to everyone around you – I mean everyone. You learn things from people you would never think you can learn from. People who have been there forever know a lot. Find out about the topics they like and begin talking to them about that. Eventually, they will open up. Find the storyteller. Find out who is in charge. There is the boss and then there is the person who really calls the shots. I actually saw that! I thought the chef controlled everything. It wasn’t the chef at all. It was the general manager who made the final decisions on everything. He knew the most about the customer. Decisions were about the customer first. Under the general manager, the kitchen had the final authority because they knew more about the food."
All interns suggested that new interns should "get out of your comfort zone. Throw yourself to the wolves every chance you get. If your station is not busy, go to the station that is and try to help. It’s the best way to learn something else. Do not just stay in one spot. They won’t get unset if you are trying to help. It shows initiative. Make the first moves and show interest and work as fast as you can, most importantly – always show interest. You have to want to learn. When they see that, it’s easy from that point on.
Many interns responded that being candid with their site facilitators contributed heavily to their improvement during the internship. “Sit with your boss and tell him that you don’t want fluff; you want to know, really, how you are doing. Tell them not to hold anything back from you. It won’t make you better if you settle for the fluff. I said that several times to be sure I got the truth.
All senior interns and most of the sophomores indicated that: "It’s important that interns ask questions because those questions lead to other questions. You could just look it up, but the scope of everything starts to widen when you have conversations about what you don’t know. So, think about the questions you develop in school, but use them as guides to develop other questions, and then more questions. It’s amazing how much you can learn if you do that.
Interns should begin to immediately become assertive and take action on their own behalf. One senior intern succinctly stated that, "the best thing to do is attack the situation from the beginning. Show them that you don’t have an attitude and you are there to learn and you don’t care who you learn from. Be relentless because they won’t just tell you things, but if you keep asking, the answers get longer and the conversation moves on to other things you want and need to know to be successful in this business." Students felt that it was important to be particular about the internship site choice and the specifics regarding learning opportunities. It was equally important to feel comfortable in the surroundings; being at ease affected learning in their opinion. Humility was seen as a plus when dealing with co-workers. “Nobody likes a know-it-all so even if you know how to do something, ask for directions and look like you got it right the first time you tried – that’s better than appearing arrogant and then messing up. Oh, learn to laugh at your mistakes.” Planning the experience to insure that outcomes were a high priority was also heavily stressed. The planning function also included a thorough investigation of the urban environment of the site city. “Know as much as you can about the city and how to navigate it, where do you want to go and what you want to see and experience. There were so many different cultures and cuisines I could have tried.” Many advised playing to your strengths while concentrating on your weaknesses - and to give extra time without pay if necessary. One senior intern provided this perspective: “I pay for school, I pay for books to learn more about the profession, so if I go in early or stay later and learn something important, so what if I didn’t get paid. It was an opportunity to learn - and for a change, it didn’t cost me anything.” Performance as a key component to success was heavily stressed. Overwhelming, keeping an open mind, and having clarity about your expectations, and theirs [the site] were stressed repeatedly.
Environment
The ultimate goal of the internship. Sophomore interns indicated that, from their perspective, their initial internship was success because it provided them with advanced insight and improved skill levels that would aid them in their future university studies and further propel their career advancement on a future more advanced internship. Their internship site had been selected for career building and their resumes were now more substantive. The first internship was a well thought out learning opportunity that would provide them with additional symbolic capital in the form of work experience to open the doors to more advanced levels of practical experience during their next internship, and result in more favorable employment upon graduation. The goal of most senior internships was the selection of a site that could directly further their career path and their intention was to select a restaurant operation for their final internship that would act as a prelude to employment. Thus, the senior internship site was intended to be their first employment upon graduation.
Internships are messy. Student intern responses from the interviews varied broadly in the reasoning, actions, and perceptions held and disclosed by interns who lived the experience which, as such, do not fit neatly into a collective representation of their total experience that emerged from their disclosures. Some responses represent the positive responses of interns who did achieve success while other responses necessarily turn the discussion toward elements at the crux of less desirable outcomes.
The following intern experiences, as comparison responses to the more successful student interns previously discussed differ in a variety of ways that turn on the interns intended internship goals; preparation tactics; their socialization abilities; and the amount of symbolic capital in the form of practical experience they were able to amass prior to the internship. The most successful sophomores saw their first internship as an opportunity to evaluate their abilities, work on weaknesses, and acquire high quality practical experience that would increase their desirability to top tier restaurant operations when applying for senior internships. Senior interns who subscribed to this way of thinking and planning on their first internships engaged in quality networking in the aftermath and focused all attention on their senior internship as the first permanent work position they would hold upon graduation. Most Culinary Arts graduates can obtain a job in the field after graduation but only a few begin their careers with top tier restaurant operations. Thus for the senior interns who thoughtfully prepared for graduation, this goal was quite attainable. They were known to their top tier restaurant internship sites as individuals with proven abilities and as such they were desirable hires. As the following experiences will expose, the combination of planning, agency, social ability and symbolic capital (practical experience) surfaced as profound factors leading to successful internship outcomes while the lack of any one of these elements tended to hinder internship outcomes.
Workplace versus classroom instruction. Several senior respondents echoed that: “The workplace is more high speed. You’re working fast, and thinking faster. You don’t realize how much you take with you from the classroom until you’re in a situation and you say “hey” I know what to do about this. I know how to make this sauce. I know a good way to handle this problem. It just hits you. An overwhelming number of successful senior respondents indicated that good chefs do engage student interns in critical think exercises. Extending the student's capabilities should always be one of the site facilitator’s goals. As recalled by one senior intern: Every day he [the chef] would make me come up with a special for the day. He would say: ‘Ok, today you’re got chicken, come up with something we can sell.” He just constantly made me think.”
Many sophomore and senior interns alike indicated a gap in educational terminology versus industry terminology reflecting on the predominate holding of an Associate degree by most industry professionals currently in supervisory roles within the culinary industry. An overwhelming number of interns at both the sophomore and senior levels of study indicated that: “I would ask the chef questions, but he didn’t understand them very well. So I would have to go home and re-phrase them so he would understand what I was asking. Getting questions formulated and answered amidst the busy work schedules of most restaurant operations was innovatively overcome by one senior intern with an interest in management but working in the kitchen. Another thing I did was to make up some management questions I wanted to know about and I gave a copy of those questions to the different managers and ask them to go over them, and when they had the time, to answer them for me so I could learn about those areas. Anything they could possibly give me. I also highlighted some of the questions that I thought were really important so if they were pushed for time, they would concentrate on the important ones. I gave each manager questions that pertained to their area of the operation.” This proved to be a favorable approach to overcoming time constraints and generate more thoughtful responses. An additional positive byproduct of this approach was an appreciation of the depth of what was being questioned and the creation a productive dialog that that further enhanced the student's inquiry. “My general manager loved my questions. He thought they were really knowledgeable things to want to know. He told me that he was happy to see that I was asking those kinds of questions to learn about. So when he had to time to talk with me I would tell him that I also wanted to know about this or that – I would add additional questions so I would get more out of it. My goal was to get the most out of the internship.”
First day realizations. A common response, and equally a normal one, was “My first few days were a little awkward but after the first week, I felt part of the team.” Some responses were more intense. “I felt horrible!!! I was so nervous that I was shaking and afraid to do anything wrong. I hate not knowing where everything is and having to ask people for help with everything.” Some interns had a rude awakening regarding the site’s organizational culture discovering that “the staff consisted of an experienced ‘family’ and others who filled spaces on the schedule sheet. My heart sank when I realized that I wasn’t part of the family so that meant I was just filling space.”
Some students who were out of their element took a more proactive approach to getting off to a good start. One student with good upscale work experience who travelled to New York by car indicated that: “I arrived, settled in, took a nap and then went in to help with a few banquets I knew they had that night. I figured why waste time. I was rested and it was only for a few hours of work. I didn’t think about it at the time, but I gained an upper hand and impressed my superiors by deciding to work on my own.” Other students went to the site to watch the operation in action, study the layout of the kitchen, and speak with some of the workers to break the ice prior to the day they were scheduled to begin work. These students believed that confronting the pressure of the ‘first day’ before scheduled to begin work would make their initial day of work easier, more productive, convey interest, and of importance to them, possibly eliminate some of the inevitable ‘first day’ mistakes that might question their competency among new peers.
Organizational cultures can and do support gender bias. An alarming theme emerged during two of the interviews I conducted during the study relating to the organizational culture of sites – an imposed limitation of what would be available to learn based on gender. One female intern was given limited duties in the kitchen and another was informed that she would be working in the front of the house [dining room]. These decisions were not based on knowledge, skills, or competency but rather on the a priori determination that the tasks involved were essentially ‘men’s work.’ The second case was taken to the extreme of not allowing the female intern to train in the kitchen during her internship. Gender bias thus exists in the culinary workplace. Though unsettled with these responses, what I found to be more alarming was the nonchalant manner in which they were recounted. I did not confront these interns regarding the issue of bias initially thus allowing them to continue recalling their individual experiences to the appropriate conclusions. The sum of their descriptions told a story in both cases of what they considered to be successful experiences with some regret wishing they had been allowed to delve more deeply into the experience.
Organizational cultures toward females. While most organizational cultures were nurturing, some presented quite different challenges for a few female interns. “I was treated well for the most part. I was the only girl, so at times it was a little uncomfortable. I worked my butt off so they respected me as an employee. However, there was a fair share of sexist comments and things that would definitely be considered sexual harassment. I was referred to as “the girl” by some of the guys. This was ok with me because I have a good sense of humor but it would have been very uncomfortable for some people. Over all I was treated well but there was some days that I hated being referred to as the only "girl.” I asked if the intern had mentioned this situation to the university or site facilitator, or commented on those incidents in her internship journal or final report. The reply was “Why?” What I found to be more alarming than the actual incidents was the students resignation that a discussion of what had occurred with her educational facilitator would be an unproductive waste of time. It also indicated that these recent incidents were clearly not the first time her talents were minimized because she was female. I discussed such incidents with the individual in charge of internships at my institution indicating the need for us to more closely monitor our female interns. As an educational facility, we were indirectly supporting gender bias and it should be made clear that such action on the part of any site would not be condoned or tolerated.
Socialization
Socialization tactics are vital to success. I asked the interns I interviewed if a personal control-orientation was indeed the backbone of their learning approach. The majority of sophomores and seniors indicated that this was so. An additional personal touch of impression management was added by many interns to convey humility and the genuine want to learn by showing respect for the knowledge possessed by their site facilitators. "One thing that really helped me was something really simple. Every time the chef spoke to me I would say: “yes chef”. Finally, he said: “don’t call me chef.” I told him that I was taught from the beginning to show respect to those higher than me, and he was higher than me. He said he had never thought about it that way. But now he understood how I felt about working for him. I didn’t think I was better. It’s always good to be humble I think. Even if I thought I knew how to do something, I would ask somebody to show me the first time so I was sure I would do it the way they wanted it done."
Assertiveness. Somewhere between those students who were able to overcome site-encountered obstacles and those working at sites unreceptive to the student’s goals by their accounts, were those students who were capable of learning, possessed agency to some degree, but were hindered by their lack of assertiveness to advance their cause. “I was disappointed in that I wasn’t more assertive, because that’s just not the type of person I am, I wish I had been more forceful in pushing what I wanted to learn and be involved in more things going on. They were willing to show me, but I was afraid to ask.” Another student echoed this sentiment: “I wish that I had been more open. I should have pushed harder for them to show me more and let me do more.”
Remorse. Numerous versions of remorse for not taking personal action emerged during the study. Many sat at home and planned the questions they wanted to ask, thought about the areas they wanted to gain experience working in, but, upon arrival at the site, amidst the hustle and bustle, the sights and noise, and the general chaotic atmosphere that defines what a restaurant kitchen is, these questions and thoughts remained nothing more than secret aspirations kept safe and secure on notes in their pockets.
Communication barriers. For others, another roadblock occurred. The questions they complied utilized textbook terminology and the chef or supervisor, who ascended the ranks without the benefit of formal institutional coursework, was unfamiliar with terms such as ‘organizational culture’ or ‘menu engineering analysis’ and the student was ill prepared to transcribe classroom idioms into more understandable inquiries although some form of each of these terms exists in virtually all restaurants – places have particular ways of thinking and acting that are acceptable or unacceptable, and all restaurants evaluate sales from their menu to assess profitability. The knowledge existed but the communication failed to convey discernible questions.
Social agency. Another prevalent recollection expressed by interns centered on a common interest in food and different cuisines. This was always, even for those not as comfortable with starting a conversation as others, an obvious focal point to begin an initial dialog that could extend to more meaningful interaction though in some cases; it proved to be the only existing commonality. “I did fit in with my co-workers but the only thing we really have in common was food and the restaurant. During the time that I was working there, they were the only people I hung out with. It was funny to me because I literally spent all my time with these people. I got very close with a few of the employees and I liked them very much but after the internship, we lost contact.”
Others applied their social abilities: “I performed my greetings every shift, made jokes with everyone and generally became friends. I couldn’t imagine working long hours at a place where I didn’t talk to any other employees. Everyone talked with everyone.” Social ability was a definite ‘plus’ when coworkers were more distant. “I initiated most of the conversations because they had people who did things and were hesitant to show me how to do things. I always tried to be positive and ask questions. I guess you could say that I was pleasantly persistent.” Still others applied the basic power of observation. “You have to learn to do things the way the site wants them done. If you watch and listen, you just pick it up as you go along, figuring out who does what and who you can go to for a specific problem or question.”
Louis (1980) provides guidance for the adaptation of sense making in the context of newcomers and organizational when she defined sense making as attributing meaning to surprise in order to assess the special needs of newcomers through the comparison in general with that of insiders. The experience of newcomers differs from insiders in three important ways:
1. Insiders normally know what to expect in and of a given situation;
2. When surprises do arise, the insider usually has sufficient history in the setting to interpret them more accurately; and
3. When surprises arise and sense making is necessary, the insider usually has other insiders with whom to compare perceptions and interpretation.
In essence, the interaction between intern and site serve to promote or hinder the ease of organizational entry because whether focusing on formal or informal support for socializing the newcomer to the organization, its processes, procedures, and culture, all point to the needs of newcomers to attribute meaning to experiences.
Interaction with coworkers was generally regarded as peaceful coexistence. Some coworkers were thought to be most helpful while some interns experienced both initial and, in some cases, ongoing defensive postures from the existing restaurant staff. Nonetheless, for a majority of the interns interviewed, such interaction was not viewed as a hindrance. As coworker interaction applied to gender, females felt generally accepted and most considered their innate ability to socialize most helpful to learning what they intended to learn. Most experienced receptive organizational norms and felt equality. “Other than the pastry chef, I was the only female in the kitchen and the guys that worked with me treated me equally. The only time I was treated badly was by the Maitre’d [head of the dining area]. The Sous Chef had a talk with him right after the incident occurred and I felt as if the kitchen always had my back.” Some organizational cultures did not live up to that standard.
Weak organizational socialization schemes. Still other organizations lacked what might best be described as a supporting or productive culture for interns, if such a culture existed at all for that matter. Thus what also emerged were deficient organization norms that were, in fact, not suitable for internships. “It was easy to see the relationships throughout the staff. Everyone hated the bartender. There were actually fights during service between the bartender and the executive chef. The whole staff was like a family. Everyone hung out together after work. I began to think they couldn’t have relationships outside of the restaurant. I did adapt easily because I made myself. I drink but I’m not an alcoholic and a lot of the people that I worked with were. Yes the site did facilitate socialization but it was between the staff. On Sunday nights after closing the whole staff would stay and drink late in to the night. I had a short relationship with the Sous Chef so that made things a bit awkward at times. It’s true that you should not mix business with pleasure. If I was the owner I would not allow this. There were a lot of things that went on there that were extremely inappropriate.” This was not the first story relating to improprieties that emerged during the interview process. Again, did the intern bring this situation to the attention of the internship facilitator, the answer was consistently and unfortunately – no. The purpose of an internship did not include the formation of personal relationships with site supervisors. One could construe that the intern acted improperly in this instance but if such discussion turns toward the aspect of ‘responsibility’ for the safety, security, and wholesomeness of the internship experience, then the organizational norms of the site come into question, and equally the controls and guidelines imposed on both interns and sites by institutions should not escape scrutiny – sites should adhere to suitability standards and approval of the site as suitable for experiential learning is an institutional decision.
Anticipatory socialization. Thus, most of the students had some vision of what the internship process would be, how they would perform, and what the subsequent outcomes and effects would result. Some were apprehensive, while some too reassured with initially created hindrances and wrong impressions. Some worked hard and overcame obstacles, some worked hard to no avail. Expectations were created and equally dashed. Some students returned home with ‘what if’s’ having faced the realization that they learned, but could have accomplished more had they engaged in more preparation and practice of skills. But for roughly forty percent of the student respondents, their reply to the question: Was the internship what they expected? the response was “It ‘became’ a whole lot more.” This was a sum statement for those who found the internship to be an ‘evolutionary’ process they felt empowered to heighten and did so.
Fear of the unknown. For most interns expectations were initially, and for some period of time if not continuously, clouded by apprehension, even stronger students fell prey to questioning their ability to perform adequately. One student who received a glowing report from a master chef who subsequently requested more interns from the program recalled: “I was told my skills were up to par with the site, but looking back, I really needed some reassurance. I feel a little silly now because I never anticipated how I would feel if I were out of my comfort zone, but it did happen and I wasn’t sure what to do. It all worked out fine, but I had some questions about myself and not a lot of answers for a while.” The ameliorating factors in such cases became the internal condition of the student and receptiveness of the site to help the student acclimate.
As one student recalled his initial tension breaker laughing softly because he could still hear the chef’s voice in his head: “When I arrived, the Chef told me to look him in the eyes and listen carefully! Mistakes are nothing more than opportunities to learn and I won’t judge you by mistakes because I expect you to make them. If you learn from your mistakes, that’s called growth and that’s what we’re looking for because growth means progress - but if you fail to seize the opportunities presented to you, we’re going to clash.” The student had to repeat the statement back to the chef until the response was verbatim. The student recalled that the Chef was stern, but smiling during that conversation and by the end, the student felt relieved and strangely less tense. “I’m not sure how he did it because he was a pretty fierce guy, but he could get your attention, get his point across, and make you feel relaxed at the same time.” Not all students were quite as fortunate when it came to relieving tension. Some supervisors were better than others while a few appeared disinterested in what students might be feeling or fearing and did little to inquire about either.
Acclimating to coworkers and social norms. Student interns in larger facilities expressed ease in socially acclimating with coworkers. This, I learned, was a significant advantage of a large established venue that accepts a number of interns on an ongoing basis. “You can watch and listen and pick up on social norms pretty fast. I think I did adapt quite easily. Everyone was friendly there and helpful in showing you the ropes and you do wait around a lot sometimes which gives you a chance to get to know a little about the people there, not to mention teaching and learning from each other, so yes the site did facilitate socialization with peers in a lot of ways.” Interns working at sites utilizing numerous interns cited the benefits of going through the internship with others who collectively felt similar pressure to perform well. They would often compare notes, discuss future plans, and help each other overcome obstacles. Thus, support and motivational mechanisms existed among peers. An additional advantage for interns working in facilities who adopted an organizational culture that emphasized the value of teaching was their constant interaction with a staff acclimated to bringing new constituents into the fold and who, over time, became experienced in assessing and addressing the intern’s particular condition. “My Executive Chef and Sous Chef took an active lead with helping all of the interns socialize. To get things started, they showed us all around the city, and also threw a party for us at the Exec’s house.” Other large venue interns had similar experiences. “I was made to feel at home. The Executive Chef and Sous Chef, as well as the kitchen staff, took an active lead with helping all of the interns get to know each other and the staff.”
Culinary Arts programs lack socialization tactics. When one compares the responses of first-year students to the responses of those who have done internships, and the advice they would give to those entering the internship process which correlates to themes that first-year students have already identified as important successful functions, numerous tenets of the socialization literature appear to hold true. First-year students stressed the need for personal involvement, agency and the control of one’s destiny. Students who achieved successful internships did not stray from those beliefs yet some students, to a greater degree, failed to ascribe to that perspective or achieve their goal expectations. The question becomes: what limitations do students’ face that form inhibitions toward achieving stated ends? This might best be explored through the analysis of the students’ trajectory through a culinary program. First-year student responses present a consistent collective of what should be. However, at that point, they have not engaged in the actual ‘applied’ culinary courses of study. They come from different social settings; some have actual culinary experience prior to entry; and each have different social skill sets, levels of motivation, and confidence. As the actual coursework begins all of these elements converge in the classroom and laboratory. Rotter’s (1954) learning theory posited that the expectation of positive outcomes from behavior and maintaining the belief that a high probability exists for positive outcomes, will be more likely engaged in that behavior.
Bandura (1977) developed a social learning theory that incorporated aspects of behavior and cognitive learning. Behavioral learning assumes that people’s environment causes people to behave in certain ways and cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors such as belief in one’s ability are important for influencing how one behaves. Thus for Bandura, social learning suggests a combination of environmental and psychological factors combine to influence behavior. Students do not equally possess the same motor skills such as eye-hand coordination, a sense of urgency, or outgoing personalities. While the purposes of laboratory assignments are designed to address such inconsistencies, nonetheless they become points of personal comparison for students, and equally noticeable separators by the instructors which go un-ameliorated.
The Thomas Theorem (Thomas and Thomas, 1928) states that if men and women define situations as real, they are real in their consequences – the interpretation of a situation causes the actions of the present. Should students judge their performance to be below their fellow classmates, they begin to question their chances to succeed. They see other classmates begin to pull away from them in their work. The different ‘tracking’ of students is proverbial in the educational literature beginning in elementary and secondary education. Higher education, as an extension of that system, subsequently places no barriers to different ‘tracking’ as segregation according to attributes and abilities of those in its charge- especially in applied fields. Students exhibiting greater degrees of skill are placed in more important roles in school and community functions to encourage their ability thus sometimes reinforcing the weaker student’s view of his or her inability as stated by Rotter, as well as their chances to demonstrate improvement.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson (1978) developed a research agenda to explore differences in social class finding that lower class parents emphasized conformity in their children because they experienced conformity in their day-to-day activities while middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance. Rosenbaum (1975) on college preparation classes and difference hypothesized that participation in a given higher or lower tracts [levels or types of courses] would result in the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that correspond to that tract. Thus, tracks socialize these students into their corresponding roles which are especially applicable in the applied sciences. The work of these authors extends to the university setting as well. The quantities of time culinary students spend working together generally create strong personal supportive bonds between classmates. Separations, however, occur internally among students’ based on ability, drive and success achieved in the classroom and laboratory setting and beyond. As such, while the personal connection usually remains constant, tracts do form grouping the more proficient students and those who have not as yet reached their full potential. As such, norms, values, beliefs, skills and behaviors become adopted by those with different skill sets and collectively drive how the student’s view of ‘self,’ over time, becomes fashioned.
It should be noted that, these factors do not necessarily forecast ultimate outcomes for students. Equalization over time is another factor that quite often comes into play. Weaker students upon graduation have gone on to perfect their skills and improve social abilities. As exemplars, several students considered not of the highest caliber have gone on to become high profile personal chefs for internationally known personalities. Others have gone on to successful careers including restaurant ownership. The point is simply that those students placed on the higher tract receive greater near-term opportunities and equally demonstrate the ability to be successful now.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson’s (1978) argument regarding conformity between classes can be viewed from a different perspective that is in line with Fisher’s (1985) position on role clarity. Interns have been conditioned to conform to their classroom and laboratory regimentation. Teachers teach and students learn according to prescribed tenants – none of which applies to a working culinary operation, which can result in role conflict – the student as teacher and learner. The students who pre-negotiate their experiences reduce such conflict and their adjustment into the organization for the most part occurs without major conflict. The students who fail to negotiate the definable and measurable courses of action, which would occur on their internships, or sites that agree to student learning goals but fail to comply, place students in such conflict as their responses indicate. Thus, the student’s internal condition in more difficult circumstances can serve to ameliorate such conflict, or fail to overcome it. The interaction between student and site thus becomes a prime determinant of how clear or ambiguous the student’s role is defined.
Evaluation
Student and site facilitator partner to frame what should be valued. For these sophomore and senior student interns, agency began with the initial interview conducted for their acceptance as an intern. They asserted control over the situation by inquiring into what the site expected from them, and equally voicing what they expected in return. Verbal agreement was not an acceptable end for these students. The necessary deliverable from the restaurant was an agreed upon schedule of what would occur and an appropriate time frame which accomplished two things: they were responsible for learning at the agreed upon pace to prepare themselves for the next step, and the occurrence of that next step was planned. They asserted themselves and maintained control at every opportunity yet remained humble as they executed their tasks. They indicated interest in learning by questioning, and by requiring that their work be evaluated accurately. These interns played to their strengths but placed heavy concentration on perceived areas of weakness. The scope of knowledge they expected to learn was large, but that attainment was planned in advance. All was willing to expend extra time and effort towards their internship. They were not afraid to try something new, and asserted themselves into situations beyond their knowledge to extend the educational benefits.
It should be noted that these interns had strong partnerships with the restaurant sites where they did their internship. The students excelled through effort, but they also prospered because the internship site was engaged in the learning process. These restaurant facilitators made education a part of the company mission. The assertiveness of these students from the onset was an important factor, but the site exerted equal effort to teach. Agency was evidenced by both intern and site facilitator. Further, while these students negotiated a planned schedule of internship experiences, they repeatedly extended those experiences to further impact the internship outcome.
Not all internships follow the previous pattern. It should be additionally considered that a reversal in site conditions and attitudes could probably have resulted in different outcomes. Many sites do not invest equally in the internship experience, but clearly a more adventurous and inquisitive attitude on the part of the intern could to some extent, ameliorate outcomes in less than stellar learning situations. Thus in good situations these qualities could extend outcomes. In formidable situations, they could equally be helpful to learning, and possible change the contextual nature of the situation at hand. However, not all interns possess this level of social and symbolic capital and equally numerous sites lack organizational socialization schemes that allow them to reciprocate the level of interest expressed by students eager to learn.
Educational program imposed guidelines for interns. The collective response of students to what program guidelines they followed included the overarching requirement that students’ must complete and document 360 hours of work at the site and present a final evaluation by the site supervisor. Other required deliverables included pictures taken to convey the cuisine and presentation aspects utilized by the site, menus executed, and journaling their experiences for reflection and comparison over time which would aid in a critically-reflected internship ‘portfolio’ providing a synthesis of the experience.
Some students indicated that creative projects were also a part of their requirement such as the creation of menus, or designing items for inclusion on the site’s menu from products available or underutilized. The responses varied among respondents and the general theme that emerged during the interviews indicated a connection between the intern’s ability and the involvement of the site. Stated differently, the level of competence and willingness to be involved the intern displayed related directly to the receptiveness and involvement of the site to engage in advancing the student creatively.
Though this pattern appeared to predominate, there were also instances where these same student evaluation factors were of little consequence. “The only guidelines I followed were that I worked 360 hours. We were supposed to keep a journal four days a week and after the first two weeks of work, I was too tired to keep up with the journal. After working somewhere and standing on your feet for twelve hours a day the last thing you want to do is go home and write about that place. I got to the point where I was worthless by the end of a day.” I encountered various versions of this theme to a greater and lesser extent. Some students organized ways of coping and conquering heavy workloads and program requirements and persisted while others became simply engulfed by what seems unmanageable and unexpected. Somehow, “I was told to act professional and perform to the best of my abilities” failed to provide sufficient insight to those with little or no previous work experience in the field. The gap quickly became insurmountable. The advice to “tough it out” as some recalled also failed to provide ameliorative insight about how to address problems occurring in real time that the inexperienced intern could not clearly define let alone begin to control.
Educational programs found lacking in student-site connections. Some students felt that the list of previously approved sites compiled by the program helped with the student’s selection process. However, others felt that the list should be kept more current especially in terms of the site’s personnel which would directly address who the intern’s mentor might be. Another student added “What good is a restaurant name and address on a page? I needed to know more particulars about the sites.” Other students were not aware that a potential site list had been compiled. “I didn’t know about nearly any of the internship sites before having to choose one and the site I selected did not provide a good experience for me. Now, I feel behind and I’m having a difficult time getting into a good site for my second internship because my resume doesn’t list a place with strong credentials.” Numerous students cited the potential importance of the institution compiling the impressions of interns who had previously worked at sites new interns were considering to provide more breadth about what might be expected from the site. The opinions of previous interns in general were held in high regard as a ‘peer to peer’ trustworthy informational resource.
Student perceptions on what the site invested. The ability of a site to impart the knowledge the student sought or to advance their skills and abilities was viewed differently depending on student and site correlation and at times, where less desirable outcomes occurred, inequality of intentions was an emerging issue. I received positive responses such as “I felt the site helped my education, definitely. There was one worker in particular who was always teaching me, but every other cook there taught me something. It wasn’t a forced situation, it was natural. Everyone wanted to show me a better way if I needed to improve.” and “When I came back from my internship, I was totally a different person. My culinary knowledge changed dramatically. I had more confidence in the kitchen and knew a lot more.” Another student echoed: “Absolutely. It’s a great internship site. They reviewed my work daily to be sure I was accomplishing my goals.” From a slightly broader view: “I did mature because of the work and I did gain some useful knowledge about how to deal with people.” Another student reflected: “I gained confidence for sure. I guess I could say that I came away with a little from a lot of areas. I was able to perform well which made me happy with myself. Success is contagious in a way, the more you get, the more you want so it definitely helped me to commit and try harder. It showed me there is more than what I know and I have to keep pushing to get better.”
Student and site facilitator partner to frame what should be valued. For these sophomore and senior student interns, agency began with the initial interview conducted for their acceptance as an intern. They asserted control over the situation by inquiring into what the site expected from them, and equally voicing what they expected in return. Verbal agreement was not an acceptable end for these students. The necessary deliverable from the restaurant was an agreed upon schedule of what would occur and an appropriate timeframe which accomplished two things: they were responsible for learning at the agreed upon pace to prepare themselves for the next step, and the occurrence of that next step was planned. They asserted themselves and maintained control at every opportunity yet remained humble as they executed their tasks. They indicated interest in learning by questioning, and by requiring that their work be evaluated accurately. These interns played to their strengths but placed heavy concentration on perceived areas of weakness. The scope of knowledge they expected to learn was large, but that attainment was planned in advance. All was willing to expend extra time and effort towards their internship. They were not afraid to try something new, and asserted themselves into situations beyond their knowledge to extend the educational benefits.
It should be noted that these interns had strong partnerships with the restaurant sites where they did their internship. The students excelled through effort, but they also prospered because the internship site was engaged in the learning process. These restaurant facilitators made education a part of the company mission. The assertiveness of these students from the onset was an important factor, but the site exerted equal effort to teach. Agency was evidenced by both intern and site facilitator. Further, while these students negotiated a planned schedule of internship experiences, they repeatedly extended those experiences to further impact the internship outcome.
Not all internships follow the previous pattern. It should be additionally considered that a reversal in site conditions and attitudes could probably have resulted in different outcomes. Many sites do not invest equally in the internship experience, but clearly a more adventurous and inquisitive attitude on the part of the intern could, to some extent, ameliorate outcomes in less than stellar learning situations. Thus in good situations these qualities could extend outcomes. In formidable situations, they could equally be helpful to learning, and possible change the contextual nature of the situation at hand. However, not all interns possess this level of social and symbolic capital and equally numerous sites lack organizational socialization schemes that allow them to reciprocate the level of interest expressed by students eager to learn. Again, the aforementioned is representational of what thirty percent of the interns’ experience which is comfortably less than half of the internship population interviewed. Thus, not all interns share the motivation and exhibit the experience indicated by the aforementioned students, and not all sites value the sharing of knowledge to the extent recanted by the previous intern recollections as the study will now begin to present.
Maybe this is wrong for me. Other experiences produced outcomes that could be construed as positive or insightful in a different but no less important vein: “Maybe it’s important to understand what you don’t want to be able to define what makes you happy. I was able to see what areas excited me and the things I sure now that I don’t want to pursue.” For a few, the internship signaled the need to consider a different professional trajectory: “No. I learned more about what I don’t want to do and what kind of people I don’t want to work with than I did about a restaurant. It’s all politics. I will never own a restaurant and I never want to work for someone else as long as I live. I don’t think I progressed much in the field but I grew as a person.” What also emerged from several student respondents indicated that not all internship sites intend to invest in meaningful ways to better the intern. “They didn’t. They benefited from having me there to work hundreds of hours at minimum wage to help cut their labor.” Another student response summed the point succinctly: “I knew enough to fill employee gaps at a lower labor cost. I was there for the site’s benefit. It was never about educating me. If I learned something - good - but that wasn’t what was important to them.”
The internship was a valuable experience. For most of the interns, the internship experience was considered a worthwhile enterprise. For students who persevered over time, it brought them to new heights of awareness about their field, the opportunities that laid open to them and, of importance, about themselves. They added work experience in strong hospitality venues to their resumes, garnered recommendations from chefs highly respected in the industry, and created networks to advance the careers and knowledge. The rhyme and reason of the classroom generally made more sense to them – they had seen the correlation of strong organizational cultures to success, how knowledge and creativity were prized, and most of all, from their perspectives, they had been measured and not found lacking. What resonated from these students during the interview process was not arrogance in any form, not cockiness, but rather a quiet reassurance, a grateful humility they seemed to feel about what they had successfully experienced – they never saw the outcome as foregone conclusions. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.05%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others-_Students.txt |
What internship sites value and invest. How should students prepare for high quality internship sites? What part does agency – advocating for oneself, the ability to socialize, and perform competently play in achieving a durable knowledge on a high quality internship? Various impressions and themes emerged from interviews with internship site supervisors that illuminated why they seek or agree to participate in the internship process; the reasons some place caveats on which interns they are willing to accept; and how interns can position themselves for success. Different levels of fine dining restaurants exist from the elite restaurants on one end of the spectrum to quality dining facilities with more moderate attitudes towards what incoming employees should be able to do and know on the other. After a review of all interviews conducted, the internship facilitator’s willingness to share knowledge with the student, what site facilitators valued, the sum total of their intended investment in the intern, and ultimately whether or not expectations of personal gain for the site itself drove participation in internship programs create necessary partitions for the purpose of this book.
These elements tended to classify these different internship sites into four distinct categories: those sites requiring skills and experience with entrance caveats; those operations that accept interns because involvement in the process serves the best interest of the site itself; sites that need seasonal help but acquire quality interns because they have evolved into teaching foodservice operations; and those internship sites that maintain a student-centered focus and accept responsibility for student outcomes. The emergent site in themes are chronicled within these site designations beginning with elite restaurants and then moving to upscale fine dining restaurants with more moderate attitudes regarding what knowledge and experience is acceptable for a potential intern.
As such, the themes that emerged from the codes developed for site facilitators include: involvement, symbolic capital, and environment. These themes are not treated separately because of their interaction in each site designation. For example, a site that is responsive to the intern creates a different level of involvement while a site that emphasizes skills requires a different level of experience or symbolic capital. Though not treated separately, each themes plays an important role in the mindset and expectations of each site designation discussed.
Involvement/Commitment, Symbolic Capital, and Environment
Formal culinary education as the new standard. To accurately describe the chefs interviewed in the proper perspective, the discussion must transcend the topic of standards which loom large on the daily horizons of all interviewed. The majority of the chefs who participated in the study are the products of culinary schools themselves, not to mention those with degrees in other professions as well. They are aware of, and acknowledged that times are changing and accommodations for student interns from culinary institutions were important to the industry itself. “More and more people are taking the culinary field as a serious career alternative.” Another extended that thought: “When I entered the field, my focus was on superior cooking. It still is, but now, I own my restaurant and each day also involves management, accounting, integrated technology and social network marketing. In this field, you progress or you fall behind. We have to bring culinary graduates along because they are the most viable candidates for understanding how a modern facility operates. What they are learning and bringing to the industry is important to its survival. As industry professionals, we all need to adjust our thinking to address the changes and groom the talent that will take us into the future.” All interviewed indicated that culinary programs should constantly adjust program content to match changes and innovations in industry.
Sites that Emphasize Skills and Experience
Entrance Standards for upscale restaurants. Some urban restaurants require interns to possess minimum skill and experience levels, which serve as important considerations that ultimately drive the site’s decision to accept or reject an internship applicant. To understand why such requirement exist, one must understand that these food service entities operate in dense metropolitan areas with stiff competition, they serve well-informed publics, and have built their reputations as eclectic and innovative destinations by achieving extremely high levels of quality and consistency – adherence to expected norms. The executive chefs who run these operations are, in essence, perfectionists in some form or another, who constantly strive for, and achieve success by, consistently surrounding themselves with co-workers who possess the talent to adhere to this mentality. These sites are willing to share their knowledge but, their organizational culture requires, and their patrons demand, superior performance levels. Quality urban foodservice operations that do not seek to be classified as elite destinations, in most instances, tend to apply less perfectionist ways of thinking to interns who have little experience in such venues. High standards are maintained and valued, but the operation is not centered in perfectionism although a high level of performance defines the operation and remains a clientele requisite. In essence, the perspective from which the site sees the restaurant in relation to the competitive terrain strongly correlated to the degree of flexibility the site could or would extend to interns when skill level and working knowledge were the primary factors driving the intern’s acceptance into the facility. These considerations resonated throughout the site themes that emerged during the study.
What do elite restaurants want from interns? Restaurants at the pinnacle of their profession were quite discerning about who would be allowed into their operation. One Chicago Chef, emphasized where deep commitment, from his view, begins. “First and foremost, I think it’s important for anyone working in my kitchen to realize that whether we’re talking about the center of the plate protein [meats, fish, etc.], vegetables, or a starch [potatoes, rice], these were once living organisms and they should be treated with respect.” When asked how the decision to accept an intern was determined, consistently, the chefs with national and international recognition indicated “the face to face interview is when I begin to decide. If I can detect a deep commitment for food, a humble attitude, and the ability to self-start then I feel inclined to continue discussions, but if I detect a lack of any of these qualities, departure is immediate.” This initial process was concurrent with other sites who expressed similar inclusions that critically informed the decision process.
Should the intern successfully navigate the initial interview the next step in the hiring process was to be more intense and to the chef, the tell-tale maker or breaker for acceptance into the operation – the ‘stage’ [audition]. “I also require that a potential employee spend a minimum of two days working with my kitchen brigade [with coworkers] for several reasons: First, we can ‘size up’ a person in the first ten minutes of their arrival. In the first task a candidate performs, we are able to observe basic essential behaviors required to excel in my kitchen. They have to be conscious and focused on the task before them. This is easier said than done because you have to analyze the situation constantly, be able to make decisions on that analysis, and act accordingly. Secondly, a good candidate is aware of their surroundings at all times. How does one walk down a busy hot line without running into cooks - they can read the play. Third, I evaluate the candidate’s demeanor toward their co-workers; is there a sense of respect and teamwork? This, in my opinion, has to be evident. The fourth behavior I need to see, as I said before, is passion. The candidate must be passionate about every task they perform. If mopping the floor, polishing copper, or filleting an exotic fish, every task must have the same passion and focus as any other. If the candidate has these behaviors, we know we can work with the individual to help him or her realize their full potential during the internship, or beyond.” Most of the chefs interviewed indicated that these minimum criteria were indicative of positive outcomes in this venue level.
Most indicated that a strong balanced team was an important essential characteristic. “Without a strong team to carry out the “plays” nothing of great importance can ever be accomplished.” Pride in workmanship in every endeavor consistently emerged as another required quality. “The magic that is fine dining occurs by striving to create cuisine that transcends and exceeds. Putting everything into each and every step in the process from receiving a product to bringing it to the table is about pride.” However, these were considered norms.
Transcending and exceeding expectations was always a work in progress which began with students having the courage to constantly assess their strengths and recognizing their weaknesses. They should, of course, play to the former, but a deep commitment to resolving the later was the crux of what needed to be observed. Personal evaluation, from their perspective, while not always easy, was seen as the precursor to growth in the culinary profession. “I don’t think it’s abnormal to wake up on occasion and feel a little overwhelmed by the responsibility of performing better on that day. True professionals have the courage to consistently aspire to greater heights and it always comes down to mental toughness and focus.”
New interns should never forget respect, humility, and the courage to progress. Additionally, a highly successful kitchen is based not only in respect for the food served, but for everyone involved in the process from beginning to end.
Elite restaurants prefer interns with experience. Chefs cited the importance of symbolic capital in the form of previous experience in a restaurant. “I expect one to two years of experience to insure that the intern has knowledge of the stress, the hours of work required in this profession, and the ability to confront the pressure of a busy kitchen.” Besides understanding work, pressure, and stress, a majority of these Chefs cited an additional advantage afforded by previous work: “It’s important for interns to have exposure to multitasking and a ‘third gear’ [additional speed] for turning up the pace at any given time with proficiency. This all comes with time.” Still others indicated that while they were looking for professionalism characterized by consistency, agency, and an attitude toward constant improvement, students should begin slow and move up as their ability allowed.
The student’s willingness to learn was seen as an imperative and their commitment to work and taking direction were seen as utmost student deliverables. They also believed that the student’s progression should be in the hands of the student and gauged by their performance, ability and willingness to learn and execute. Agency was always a predominant and reoccurring stated requirement. They further cited the importance of a ‘quality first’ attitude toward work, a ‘sponge’ attitude toward learning, and a willingness to say ‘I don’t know – but I can find out,’ and admitting to faults when things go wrong, all done with humility. In their general opinion, the path to failure was paved with “a lack of respect for others, calling in sick for minor ailments, car problems, and so forth.” These types of incidents lead to an abrupt departure of the employee. Not listening to directions and constructive criticism, or not providing constructive input, and not being honest were equally major concerns that moved the intern closer to the exit door if not entirely through it.
Moderate upscale dining. Chefs with more moderate attitudes toward what interns should know stressed the importance of basic skills: the proper care of their kitchen tools, how to understand recipes, how to set up a kitchen station, and above all cleanliness. An important aspect was the ability to do production work in volume. “One thing at a time is messy and inefficient. Moving with a sense of urgency is important. If they can’t multitask they won’t be around long.” Ultimately, all chefs in the upper strata of the fine dining segment stressed the need for critical thinking under pressure and having the ability to prioritize. “Everyone has to think and react quickly. Asking good questions is good – too many is problematic. I expect them to check with me to determine if the procedure is correct. What they have been taught is culinary school may not be what I’m looking for – advanced techniques apply here.” While the novice intern might view many of the stated requirements as stringent to the point of overwhelming, one Chef supplied the sum statement for why such standards exist. “I do understand that the intern is learning, I remember being in that position and I do empathize, but a lack of these tendencies and abilities has to be a deal-breaker because average performance is just not enough. Fine dining customers don’t pay for average. This leaves ‘good’ as the minimum entry-level standard I can accept, but good is only a place to begin.
Preparation should extend beyond program goals. The predominant theme, both expressed and emphasized, by all chefs was that school and class work should always be the number one priority which should never be jeopardized by outside endeavors. The student should never sacrifice their foundation for learning. However, all were quick to equally emphasize that interns need to understand that school was only the beginning. Exposure to a working culinary operation contributes to experience that broadened and routinized skills. “Work is the biggest preparation aid. Each experience, whether it be working as a line cook at a small restaurant to working in a large country club makes the concepts learned in school take on a reality that you need outside of school to be successful.” The most obvious reason cited for working outside the classroom environment was to become familiar with the kitchen routines of working restaurants which are much different from the classroom kitchen or the school restaurant. “The classroom and real world kitchen have differences in terms of demands and stress levels. The stress is real because the demands come from the guests and the Chef. Performance does not equate to grades any more – it’s about contributing to a working business.” Another chef comparison of learning in the culinary industry to institutional instruction cited that “there is more pressure in the industry than there is in school. You have to get the food out and it has to be good. They [interns] learn how to deal with pressure, stress, heat, the kitchen environment, and other people’s stress. People around them also need to get their work done. It is a real test for them.”
Why symbolic capital is important. For all chefs interviewed, symbolic capital in the form of practical experience and other culinary related activities outside of class were seen as important indicators of passion and commitment that go beyond the classroom. “Most culinary schools offer a variety of opportunities for student enrichment including clubs, catering work, pro bono work for charitable events, chances to assist for visiting guest chefs, volunteer work and a host of other activities. We want the student who avail themselves of the most possible opportunities.” Another responded: “I think all chefs look toward individuals who have the wherewithal to get started in the industry while in school. If you’re afraid to jump into the industry early, you probably won’t succeed.” Most professionals saw experience as vital, but was there another underlying reason for its importance that hit closer to home for industry professionals? “A student who gets involved in outside activities shows us that they care enough to go beyond the expected and chances are they will do the same when they come to work for us.” Another Chef expressed his reasoning regarding why involvement was important to both student and site: “Involvement is a precursor for confidence in one’s ability. Commitment takes sacrifice and hard work strengthens character. I also feel that volunteer work indicates responsibility to various communities. I love people who show that kind of enthusiasm! They get my attention – which typically leads to employment because these are the people I’m looking for.”
Self-centered Sites
Evaluation
Sites using interns for personal gain. Some internship sites see the value of participating in internships from a more limited and self-serving perspective than higher echelon sites. Sites operating at the more moderate to lower level of the fine dining segment see the importance of accommodating the student’s work-study priority and equally cite that classroom learning is limited, work provides practice for students, and practice leads to perfection. The pragmatic question becomes practice leading to perfection at what cost to the intern? Some site will accept a student, but the intern will receive minimum to no pay – a throwback to the apprentice system of the past which still exists in various forms today. These sites assert that the environment they provide is conducive to learning but the student must apply aggressive tactics to acquire any knowledge gained. The true purpose of sites accepting interns is, on one hand, to provide a quality pool of potential hires, and on the other, a practical cost cutting measure. At the end of the internship, both student and site can evaluate future associations. They freely admit that internships can provide a test run that benefits the student in some ways, and from a strict site-centered perspective, virtually limits a financial downside.
Sites on the low end of fine dining quality insisted that they provide a real service to the interns. “Internships provide the student with real life experience at the workplace.” However, in the same breadth, these sites equally expressed that “it helps my company with seasonal labor and I think gives credit to the culinary industry as a whole being able to allocate students for future permanent jobs.” Another respondent expressed the benefits to their core employees: “It’s the financial and social satisfaction. Not only do the student internships alleviate my overtime budget, it helps motivate our regular workers with ‘new blood.’ It makes my crew feel important and they enjoy teaching the new generation and also learn from them new techniques sometimes.”
All of these site facilitators felt that students did benefit from their work experience and were helped to acclimate. “Our kitchen manager explains with detail all the rules and duties before they actually start working, we give them menu tests, forms, human resources policies and so on. When they start they know what to expect from us and what we want from them.” However, there was little mention of any discussion regarding what the intern personally wanted to gain from the experience. One site respondent offered: “They all want to learn as much as possible in a very limited time. Many have that famous restaurant mentality. They think that working in a famous restaurant is a need to be successful and profitable.” Students do not need a famous restaurant to be successful as a manifold of students demonstrate after graduation. They do however need a productive work environment that allows them to assess what they and the internship site value in a positive sense. I would argue that thinking critically and reflecting on negative experiences such as those recalled by interns interviewed is important. However, no durable preparation for the students' future occurs when site facilitators have no serious intensions in participating in the student's learning.
Site-centered restaurants lack evaluation standards. Several alarming themes emerged during the interviews with these low-end sites facilitators. Interestingly, all were unfamiliar with any guidelines enacted by the program with the exception of their ability to allow the student to work the minimum prescribed hours to satisfy their internship requirement. They were equally unclear regarding how the student would be evaluated. It was their impression that evaluations and grading were conducted under the auspices of the educational institution.
Some provided general written statements that the student had performed satisfactorily but by their account, if the student showed up for work consistently and made some effort their evaluative response was positive. In some cases, a check off questionnaire was provided by the institution as a summary evaluation. Seldom, if ever, was the time taken for a detailed account of the students’ activities by the chef.
A majority of the respondents seemed rather ‘detached’ from this question. Further, they stated the assumption that any student learning agenda would emanate for the program and as such, this was of little concern to them. “I’m sure the student knows what they have to accomplish on the job to get a good grade. I know they have to mind their ‘P’s’ and ‘Q’s” and act professionally while they’re here.” Thus, the discussion of what students’ would learn, or a lack of emphasis placed on the importance of what the student should take away from the experience by the site appeared to be the status quo. Further, these sites conducted no ongoing evaluative process to help guide the students in their charge, and little to no interest was expressed about this issue in general. When asked what changes they would make to the internship process, the majority response indicated no need for change. “I can’t think of anything these inexperienced young people could do to prepare themselves better. The ‘purpose’ of the internship is to experience a working restaurant or other type of culinary operation. That’s the important lesson that they can’t learn in a classroom.” These responses are consistent with the literature's stated lack of experiential learning schemes provided by internship sites but equally speak to the lack of method and assessment provided to students by culinary programs. Evaluation aligned with the student's background knowledge and experience were also not evident in a site-centered environment.
Site-student Reciprocation
While there are sites that use students solely for their operational needs, other sites exist that accept interns as the means to site-centered ends based on the unique seasonality of their business but these sites engage in win-win scenarios for both site and students. A large prestigious country club in the northeast serves as an exemplar. This enterprise peaks during the summer months and falls to modest levels of occupancy during the other times of the year. Thus, their labor requirements during June to August are extreme and their clientele is most discerning. To remedy this dilemma, they accept top student interns from several institutions, and pay them \$9 an hour which is below the \$25 to \$30 an hour their seasoned staff receives. At face value, this would appear to be just another site who abuses the purpose and intent of the internship process. What makes this site, and other site of this type, different are the other factors that come into play regarding their approach to internships and the interns themselves.
The site facilitator is a nationally renowned master chef [highest level of skill] and the core staff are hand-selected and of the highest caliber to meet the standards of the location. They accept the more experienced interns selected through on-site interviews conducted at the institution and to offset the lower pay grade, supply them with housing at the site, meals, and extensive training during the internship. The interns gain experience in the various moderate to eclectic restaurants on the property, and participate in high volume upscale catering events. The interns also receive top tier instruction at a site with no prescribed food budget which allows them to work with a variety of exotic products unavailable in the laboratory setting. As all interns are housed collectively, a ‘community’ atmosphere of collaboration is encouraged by the site, which gives interns from different institutions the added advantage of comparing notes and knowledge with each other, networking opportunities among themselves, and interaction with a most knowledgeable chef and site staff.
Evaluations occur often in both verbal and written form, and a concise detailed final evaluation is provided to the intern at the end of the internship. This site and others of this type have confronted the challenges of seasonality by becoming in depth teaching operations coveted by numerous institutions for internships. It would be appropriate to say that this site uses interns to lower their labor costs, but through the reciprocation of knowledge and amenities, the intern participates in a valuable experience, incurs the nominal expense of arrival and departure, and interacts with peer and skilled mentors.
Student-centered Sites
In addition to the student attributes cited as important by sites, the foundational theme of chefs who take an actual interest in the students they accept as interns was ‘site involvement.’ “I like to give students a guided “hands on” experience of the Culinary Arts which helps prepare them to excel both in school and after graduation. It also builds a good relationship between our organization, the university, as well as the community.” The importance of the students working environment was repeatedly stressed and summed by another chef. “I feel that the environment is crucial to learning and if an intern is empowered, that intern will take the initiative to perform well.”
Site-initiated learning - student and site facilitator partnerships. When asked who initiates what the student will learn and experience, the general response indicated that internship sites who initiate learning prefer to discuss those elements with the intern. This was a question the site posed to the student. Further, they felt that the initiation of any internship plan between the site and the student should start with the site. “It is initiated by me. I’m in the best position to get them acclimated. I’ve done this for a while and I understand what tends to overwhelm them and what works best. Who better to get things rolling?” Another site facilitator added: I like to expose interns to different circumstances. The more varied the experience, the better they see how everything fits together.”
Other site facilitators echoed the importance of a variety of work for the intern. “They have to learn to adjust and negotiate the situation at hand. Every service in a restaurant brings different challenges. We prefer working closely with the intern, not overcome the challenges, but to help them reason through ‘which’ challenges they’re facing - where does the emphasis go at that moment?” One facilitator cited that “the more comfortable a student feels in the workplace, the more effort they exert and also the more empowered they feel to extend that effort. We train them as though they were one of our own employees because after graduation – they may be.” These sites also felt that the initiation process should include getting to know coworkers. “They have to feel valued and accepted by the team to feel like they’re a ‘part’ of the team.”
A consistent evaluation process. How did these sites see the evaluation process? “For me, evaluation is a two-part process that begins with letting them know what I expect from them, and secondly, their understanding of what they can expect from me and their coworkers. In my opinion, it takes both parts for interns to really know where they stand.” Another facilitator laughed as he expressed his feeling that “evaluations are everywhere! All the time! Good job, we’re on pace, we’re falling a little behind and need to step it up a bit. These are all reinforcements if used correctly. It allows them to respond to unfamiliar situations and perform satisfactorily. Directing them toward the positives reinforces their confidence level. My approach is simply I keep them on pace which leaves no negatives for discussion at the end of the day. Good direction leads to good results.” Still another added the importance of constant positives. “Evaluation has to happen on a daily basis. You have to let the intern know how they are performing so they can understand where to adjust if necessary. Time management is crucial in our profession – so constant emphasis goes there until they develop a sense of urgency. I don’t take a negative approach. I’d rather say ‘you’re not there yet’ rather than ‘you’re going to slow’ because positive responses, even when things aren’t right, usually gets positive results.”
On the topic of preparation, most site facilitators felt that if the student wanted to learned they would, but the more experience they had prior to the internship the more prepared they would be to meet and overcome obstacles. The majority felt that internships are valuable experiences for students that help to enhance their social skills, job satisfaction, commitment to the industry, and build personal confidence. “It gives the student a snapshot of what their careers could be after graduation, and it reinforces their knowing that they can do the work”. A sum statement was provided by one facilitator who emphasized that “internships reinforce the fact that Culinary Arts is a ‘hands-on’ career and while the information in the classroom is an important foundation to acquire the knowledge and skill to perform, the real learning environment is the workplace.”
These sites, like others, overstated the importance of students gaining work experience prior to going on internships. Requiring student to have a certain amount of work hours before accepting an internship was another reoccurring suggestion that spoke to the same theme. As one site facilitator offered: This extra experience could be the difference in an intern being an ‘asset’ to the organization – or just a ‘body’ floating from one place to another in the kitchen. The former learns a variety of things, the latter just peels vegetables.” Not so different a theme heard over the years from students who lamented not seeing and doing more, or being allowed to work only one of the easy stations in the kitchen. These site facilitators further expressed that the expectations of the intern seldom matched reality unless they had achieved at least some working experience before the internship. Could interns achieve success without previous work experience? These facilitators said ‘yes’ but the odds of success were too small to constitute a viable plan of action.
Sites with a positive associational link to culinary programs
Socialization
A sense of completion. Two sites were encountered that approach the internship process from a different perspective – the linkage of site and institution. The field of culinary arts, in comparison to other fields of study, is relatively new and as such, some site facilitators who entered the profession through some form of apprentice scheme have achieved operational success and ownership of exceptional restaurants. What makes these facilitators different is the deliverable they experience by participating in the internship process – a sense of completion. “I wish I would have had the opportunity to attend culinary school, but they didn’t exist when I was coming into the business. In a way these interns make me feel like I’m a part of that in some way.” These operators take great care in teaching those in their charge and equally seek to gain the new knowledge the intern has experienced in the classroom and laboratory. “I didn’t get to go to culinary school but the interns take me full circle and in a lot of ways, I feel complete now because we share knowledge. I look at what they know and think about how long it took me to learn it on my own. I’m finally getting some formal education.” The chemistry and knowledge these sites provide make them locations of choice for both new and advanced interns.
Socialization aspects and organizational culture. The internship sites focused on skills and experience along with student-centered sites, and those sites with an associational bond to culinary education were most concerned with the newcomer’s socialization into the organization. Organizational socialization is the process through which organizational culture is perpetuated, and by which newcomers learn the appropriate roles and behaviors to become effective and participating members (Louis, 1990). Feldman (1980) defined ‘effective socialization’ as one of the main criteria for organizational socialization through which the success of the organization's socialization programs, the organizations perpetuation, and the newcomer's success through the entire socialization process are evaluated. It is conceptualized as the primary "outcome" of the socialization process that will enhance the achievement of individual and organizational outcomes.
The topic has been discussed from various perspectives including socialization stages (Wanous, 1992), socialization tactics (Volkart, 1951), person-situation interactionism, newcomer sense making (Louis, 1990), symbolic interactionism (Reichers, 1987), and stress (Nelson, 1987). The facilitators of each of these site classifications stressed; the interns as part of the team; understanding the organizational culture; personal learning; and making sense of everyday events, and so forth. The need for effective socialization by these site classifications is best reasoned and stated by Wanous (1992) who posited effective socialization to be synonymous with organizational ‘commitment’ rather than mere compliance. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.06%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others_-_Internship_Sites.txt |
Educational institutions informing this writing consisted of two large universities with culinary arts student populations greater than 600; two medium sized universities with student culinary enrollments of 350 or more; and one small university with a culinary student population of 200. The study revealed close similarities between both large culinary programs and one medium-sized program. More dramatic differences surfaced between those aforementioned institutions and the additional medium-size and smaller university Culinary Arts programs involved in the study. The size of the educational institution, the number of students enrolled in the program, the number internship facilitators available to assess the students’ qualifications, provide individualized guidance, and the program facilitators ability to mesh student needs and site expectations appeared to depict the most widely used elements in the internship site selection process. Institutional involvement for the two large and one of the medium culinary programs involved in the study included such factors as the concern for goodness of fit, a correlation of student interests and site, and the students’ level of skill.
Why do sites participate? All institutions indicated that sites became involved in the internship process through cultivation and association with faculty, involvement with the institution in various ways, selected by students as operations of interest, which would also include geographic location, or by the request of a culinary entity for inclusion in the internship program. All institutions indicated that most sites engage in these programs to develop a talent pool for future hiring needs, immediate labor, and that they generally paid these interns less than a trained employee. As stated by one institution facilitator, “the sites that are near the university, of course, are interested in just developing their labor force. That’s an easy thing.”
Other facilitators provided a more in-depth perspective. “Many of the chefs working today are products of culinary schools and they remember when they had to do their internship. I have to tell you that it’s only been a few people (the facilitator would not divulge names), and I’ll tell you what kind of people they are. They are chefs that are classically European trained (a particularly brutal apprenticeship process by today's educational standards more resembling a slave and master relationship) and there are two of them in particular, that I would never send a student to them again because of the treatment that past students received. They look at students as nothing more than cheap labor and have no stake in their education. But for the most part, more of the current chefs, especially the ones in hotels, and certainly the ones that have a certain standard of excellence, and those that were company trained remember their culinary school days and also they know that it’s important to give back to the industry and to further along young culinarians.
Involvement/Commitment
Some institutions use a systematic approach. The two large institutions, with enrollment of six hundred students or more, and one medium culinary program with an enrollment of three hundred fifty students utilized a more formalized and systematic approach to the site selection process. Students typically began to engage in the internship selection process five to six months in advance to allow for advising and preparation. Some programs utilized relatively similar elements deemed as essential eligibility criteria based factors such as the students’ grade point average, number of completed college credit hours, and readiness. The process typically involved the following steps: students were required to submit an application, resume, and complete an interview with one of the large institution’s three full-time internship facilitators, or the medium-sized program's two facilitators. Based on guidance and advice from the facilitator, students were expected to research and secure a host site from an approved list of sites previously accepting interns maintained by the institution provided to them, or another site not listed that must meet the institutions requirements. The internship facilitator reviews the host company information and job description, and ensures relevance to students’ program of study before approving the internship site operation. As indicated by these facilitators, “the primary consideration involves a match of the student’s ability and skill set to the site in terms of difficulty and the employers’ expectations.” Another facilitator indicated the need for students’ to consider and focus on long-term objectives. “We encourage students to work at sites that will allow them to grow. Their choice should fit within their skill set in order to become a better candidate for other jobs.” This is an ongoing theme discussed with students’ by professors, stressed when they seek advice, at internship seminars, and during site selection discussions with internship facilitators.” Thus, the selection process functions with certain regimented guidelines that exist within the structure of the Institution.
Students make internship site selections. One medium-sized culinary program, with 350 students, operate at the other end of the spectrum placing the burden of internship selection squarely on the shoulders of the students’ with little to no formal assistance from the institution. While some guidance is provided, direct assistance in securing the site is not provided. “We believe that the research and selection process should be conducted solely by the student. This more closely resembles the actual conditions of engaging in the ‘job hunt’ most will face upon graduation to it is our policy to not negotiate internships for our students.” Again, the students bear the responsibility of learning method.
While other institutions represent another extreme by simply appointing internships to interns who have no involvement in the selection process, and little say in where the internship will occur, more moderate institutions straddle this spectrum through the incorporation of both the elements of larger institutions, and those institutions placing the selection responsibility on the student.
Student should have a philosophical connection with the site. One smaller culinary program participating in the study takes another approach based on a different, more student-centered, way of thinking - students should have a vested interest in where they will perform the internship. “We want them to be in a place that has a connection with their philosophy of food, or with the chef, the cuisine, and so forth. We guide them as much as possible, but it’s my contention that the initial step in selecting an intern site begins with soul-searching on the part of the student to consider their strengths and weaknesses, do their site homework, and make the initial contact with the site.” Of course, the obvious weakness to this approach is the students' ability to accurately evaluate their strengths and weaknesses and to understand what attributes make sites a good choice or not despite their sharing a similar philosophy for food.
The importance of students having career objectives. The importance of students having focused career objectives was stressed by all culinary programs involved in the study. One facilitator suggested that students take their site assessment beyond verbal interaction. “They should go and ‘stage’ [work for free] for one shift to get some sense of the rhythm of the kitchen and the way it operates. After the shift they can get together with the chef and discuss the situation. If they are not comfortable, they can say no and move on to another location. This is particularly important for senior internships because if they have done their homework and pick correctly, that internship evolves into their first job.” Facilitators stress the importance of having a chef that has an interest in their education, will mentor them, supervise them correctly, and evaluate them frequently. Most of these facilitators felt that these elements could not be accurately assessed by the student during a brief interview. The interaction had to be deeper for the student to accurate gauge the site’s intentions.
Educational facilitators also expect student commitment. The ‘stage’ [audition] is highly suggested for another important reason – commitment. “Once they’ve told me they’ve selected a site, then that’s it, they’re committed. One of the things we stress is living up to your word. There is no calling us and saying this is not what I thought it would be, or I’m not really interested in the work I’m doing. Unless the student is in harm’s way, the commitment must be honored. If they leave the site, they fail the course.” These facilitators further indicated that most students who perform stages seldom faced the forms of regret that would warrant departure from the site.
Most institutions further cited that “most internship sites were chosen or determined by word of mouth. Students are networking with prior students who have successfully completed an internship and getting satisfactory feedback on certain properties that may interest those students. Students are required to research possible internship sites, but generally they take the recommendations from fellow students.” These educational facilitators also stressed that students should look at an internship site to gain work-related experience that employers’ value, strengthen opportunities for jobs after graduation, and provide excellent resume builders. Thus, students required to participate in two internships were advised to carefully select an initial site that would provide the skills and overall preparation needed to excel at a more advance entity for their second experience. Thus students in programs requiring only one experiential work encounter, typically the program requirement for larger institutions, faced the additional burden of negotiating and excelling during only one real world encounter. This would also account for large institutions adopting more formalized and regiments program guidelines.
Higher Education Mandates
Site acceptability and institutional expectations. When asked what factors determine the suitability of a site for inclusion in the internship process, most educational facilitators responded that: “the host company agrees to respect the program start and completion dates set by the university and the ability to accommodate the student for the prescribed number of working hours." This was the initial response of all institutions interviewed. One large and one of the medium institutions cited an additional caveat “The host company agrees to allow a University representative to telephone and, or, visit the host company to confirm the student’s employment, discuss the student’s work performance with their supervisor, as well as to evaluate the educational value and quality of the internship experience at the site.”
Education facilitators also commit to students. The most structured and formalized internship site expectations surfaced during my interview with one large public institution where internship site facilitators were expected to assist in making the student an integral part of the host organization and provide a meaningful educational experience with supportive guidance and supervision. The work experience should provide an opportunity for the student to gain firsthand insight into the practical aspect of the organization’s operation by observation and participation. Further, it should provide a variety of practical learning experiences in a scheduled rotation, or in a specific department relative to the student’s field of study. Those experiences should also incorporate measurable, productive, relevant, skills and activities that match the real-world tasks of professionals in the industry. The internship sites should agree to provide regular and timely input and feedback to the intern, through two performance evaluations occurring midway and at the conclusion of the experience. The student’s supervisor/mentor at the site must be available to discuss the following with the student: individual internship goals and objectives, their project topic or thesis, job expectations regarding level of performance, and specific information relating to the preparation of the academic component. The site facilitator must also agree to communicate periodically with the educational facilitator regarding the individual student’s personal and professional development. The site should also provide feedback to the educational facilitator regarding the overall internship experience such as the student preparedness, recommendations or special considerations for future placements, and input for the program’s development. While these elements are well-designed deliverables, this educational facilitator also stated the difficulty in assessing whether or not they were understood by all internship site facilitators or adequately assess during a student's evaluation process at the end of the internship due to the large student to facilitator ratio. Other less stringent evaluation schemes surfaced during the course of the study.
One medium culinary program and the small program also expected timely student feedback, possibly midway but more often in the form of a formal final evaluation. The sites availability for phone conversations regarding the students’ progress, as well as more pragmatic site expectations was the norm. “We point out to them [site facilitators] that we expect the student to do a certain amount of the ‘grunge’ work, but we would also like the Chef to consider spending time with the intern, and giving they a fair round of the kitchen and we usually get good cooperation with that. The ones that don’t, quite frankly, I don’t send anybody else to them. So hopefully they will give them a fair round and an insight into what the chef has to do in the realm of human resources, having to hire people, what they do toward costing and keeping their labor and food cost down. How do they order, and what kind of system do they have? Is it a manual or computerized system? The essence of the internship is for the student to go in there and then to come back and tell me, in their portfolios, everything they possibly can about that restaurant – how they market themselves, what type of management styles do they have, how was the respect level in the kitchen, was it friendly place, was it a hostile environment, you know, those kinds of things.
Maintaining site relationships. Most institutions indicated the importance of constant communication with sites to build strong recruiting relationships for internships and beyond. Institutions felt that a majority of these entities want to develop a talent pool for future hiring needs thus they focus more on the symbolic capital possessed by those students who can best represent the institution. As such, “the institution feels compelled to send students who display a greater than average chance of successfully completing the internship experience where it is mutually and financially beneficial to both the site and the student.”
One large institution internship facilitator voiced a more program-centered perspective regarding the student’s evaluation driving the linkage between institution and site. “I don’t think site relationships are difficult at all. I look at those relationships as sort of a barometer as to whether or not we are doing our job. The sites will tell us what the student has learned and what their skill sets are at that point. The most common negative point is that their knife skills need to be better. Of course, they’re students and don’t spend a lot of time in the day to day operation of a restaurant. But normally I get ninety percent good feedback on our students as far a work ethic, and as far as wanting to learn so I think those are two of the most important things that help our program stay connected with sites.”
Prescribed institutional goals. Large institutions display more regimented and structured program-centered requirements that adhere to and correlate with the academic way of thinking. “In conjunction with their supervisor, students will develop five goals or objectives by the end of their second week that they wish to accomplish during their experience. These goals will be reflected upon at the end of their experience. Beginning with week three, students will submit a topic proposal and outline for their project. Students are required to communicate with their coordinator, and/or faculty adviser at least twice throughout the term to discuss their project.
Additionally, students are evaluated by their site supervisor on their skills, personal qualities, attitude and interpersonal relations as observed during the first half of the term. Students will work on a major-specific project that displays the skills and knowledge gained during their internship experience. At the conclusion, the entire completed project is submitted to their faculty advisor for grading. Site supervisors evaluate the progress of the student’s specific skills, personal qualities, attitude and interpersonal relations over the full course of the term.”
Other institutions took a more student-centered approach which was less stringent and less structured. Student were required to engage in critical thinking but this was to be accomplished along more constructivist tenants in a more exploratory fashion such as journalizing the experience, reflecting on what was learned, what was liked and disliked, and placed in perspective in the form of a final internship report.
As expressed by several educational facilitators: “Develop employable skills! Communicate in a professional manner, and learn to solve problems as an individual and in collaboration with others. Gain confidence as a professional by journaling and reflecting throughout your experience. Learn by doing-then think about what went well and what didn’t. Think about how you could improve and act upon it. Repeat the cycle. Add knowledge and skills related to your specific discipline and /or anticipated career field. Test out your classroom learning in the industry. Display strong work ethic! Work hard, take initiative, and be a dependable employee. Connect with an industry mentor who can offer advice and help guide you in your future career planning. Learn about your organization’s culture and what they value in employees. Practice interview skills and going through the hiring process to make a good first impression. Remember, internships have the possibility of turning into job offers upon graduation. This is the opportunity for employers to give you a ‘test run’ to see how you perform.”
Institutional guidelines for students. Large institutions imposed guidelines correlated to the institutions academic standards and as such, the internship was essentially treated as an academic course of study. “Students are expected to report to their internship sites fully prepared and in professional attire every day throughout the entire term dates as identified in the academic calendar as well as the letter of acceptance. If a student has not started by the term start date, they will be dropped from the course and no longer be considered actively enrolled for that term. It is crucial that you attend every day you are scheduled for or consult with your site supervisor if you think you may be tardy or absent from a day of work. More than two absences may result in being dropped from the course, and may jeopardize academic standing and enrollment status, which may impact financial aid, veteran’s benefits and athletic eligibility.”
Student interns were equally responsible for criteria set by the internship site itself. “Most employers have specific selection and performance criteria. You must meet their criteria and pass employment tests including and company-administered drug test) in order to confirm your position at that employer site. Students terminated by the employer or who leave of their own accord are no longer considered enrolled for that term and will be dropped which could jeopardize future internship options. Other institutions were less concerned with regimentation thus the primary guidelines were left at punctuality and professionalism, and the completion of the required amount of hours prescribed by the program with less emphasis on negative ramifications. From their perspective, strict academic deadlines did not correlate with the fluid nature of the real world workplace.
The interns’ learning agenda. Who controlled what students should learn or experience during their internship varied according to the size of the institution and how they considered learning to occur. Larger institutions tended to take an active role in deciding learning goals while the medium and small institutions appeared to embrace more guided constructivist methods. Large universities cited student learning assignments and institutional assessments and the overarching structural component guiding what the student should value. Medium to smaller institutions provided input to student interns but generally felt that what interns should experience was site specific and as such, should be left up to the site. Most institutions indicated the use of pamphlets explaining what the site could expect from interns and, in some cases, the general expectations of the institution. The mean institutional response focused on student abilities leaving actual learning decisions to the negotiations between student and site. “We send a pamphlet that outlines the general skills of all of our students, and what the site can expect. It is then left up to the site to determine where that student can fit into their organization and the student to communicate their expectations to the site.”
Evaluation
Evaluation and grading criteria. All education facilitators asserted that both student interns and internship sites were aware of the evaluation process. “Yes. The students are informed well in advance of the evaluation process that both the institution and the site use to evaluate their performance. The sites are very aware and are coached on the grading procedure used and what our expectations are.” However, most facilitators responded that the site’s knowledge of what was expected from them was provided in written form. “The site receives a pamphlet guide that details expectations of the students’ skills, and what their limitations might be.” and “the sites are given forms for evaluating the interns by the institution.” Another response indicated that “We use a form that includes a rubric that covers several criteria.” Still another facilitator confidently expressed that “everything is outlined in a site preparation form describing the student’s learning objectives so the site is ‘always’ aware of those objectives.” No institution involved in the study could actually confirm the internship site facilitator's understanding of grading criteria. Interviews with internship site facilitators indicated that most relied on the students to inform them about how they should be evaluated and were unaware or unsure of the culinary program's formal grading procedure. I questioned what if the site facilitator fails to read the form, or, fails to communicate its content to the person responsible for the intern? I was assured that “the site facilitator always reads the form.” The assurance of that fact was profound, but were there concrete grounds for this belief – none were provided. Another expressed way of clarifying the evaluation process involved telephone or in-person consultations by the facilitator including both student and the site facilitator.
“Who” and “what” receives scrutiny? Some facilitator responses indicated that both the student and the site were evaluated to ensure adherence to all institutional criteria. Other responses indicated that the evaluation “only concentrates on the student.” Should student and site grading inconsistencies exist, some facilitators sought resolution by telephone conversation with the site facilitator and the student present. Other educational facilitators indicated that they were the deciding factor based on the student’s portfolio, and journal entries. All institutions provided the interns with a copy of the sites evaluation of their performance, and a final grade by the program, as well as any advice the educator felt would enhance the student’s experience and reflectively increase their learning.
Student deliverables for grading varied among institutions. Student intern deliverables varied from one institution to another. Some students were evaluated on assigned projects, creative thinking exercises conducted during the internship, and a completed essay describing the experience. Other institutions required ongoing journalizing of the experience, and a complete portfolio which included notes, pictures, problems experienced and how they were dealt with, what they felt was discovered about the entire operation, or in some cases, on the positions they were allowed to experience. The portfolio was the primary critical thinking deliverable which facilitators felt should exhibit personal growth and their inclusions were student-determined to a large extent. The physical skills of the intern, such as techniques and methods known, received the greatest attention (eighty percent) during the chef's evaluation. The interns’ social skills comprised roughly twenty percent of the evaluation. Those skills were narrowly defined in education facilitator responses.
Internship outcomes, whether positive or negative, were seen as beneficial to the student by the educational facilitators. “The student realizes that the outcomes are based on true and factual investigation. The student is also made to realize that we are in their corner.” Other education facilitator respondents saw outcomes as a gauge of student, site, and program. “In general, we are able to obtain information about the student’s performance, and the viability of the site as a continuing internship facility, along with the capability of the site in teaching our students important real-world skills. We also collate data from the internship evaluations in order to see areas where our students may be strong or weak, in order to make adjustments to the curriculum.”
Advice and Insights offered to students. All education facilitators cited the importance of researching a site of interest thoroughly and to seek and take the advice of an experienced faculty advisor. One of the most important issues stressed was to “make sure you are compatible with the expectations of the site.” Other germane advice to students was to always “apply your training and consistently maintain your work ethic and professionalism.” Most facilitators indicated that they actively coached students on writing resumes, contacting potential employers, helped with finding housing options, groomed professional behavior, and provided techniques to help students learn as much as possible prior to the internship.
Limitations on educators. All educators indicated that the internship process as a whole was less than exemplary citing student agency, site requirements, and institutional issues as contributing factors. “Personally, at this time I don’t feel that the faculty advisors are spending enough time developing a professional relationship with internship sites, and could be doing a better job at placing students according to their skills and mindset.” Another perspective expressed that their “program is limited by the internship students’ lack of knowledge. Most of the students tend to wait longer than they should before beginning the process, so there is typically a time crunch. The student also does not realize that the highly desirable internships are typically coveted by many students, and may be more competitive. We have information and try to inform our students as much as possible about internships, but ultimately, it’s up to the student to make the decisions, and follow through.”
Financial resources - public versus private institutions. The most formidable limitation faced by public institution culinary arts program facilitators involved the lack of financial resources allocated by the institution to the internship as a course of study. Traditional higher educational academic compensation has historically been centered on ‘contact hours,’ the amount of time a course instructor would spend instructing students. Thus, a lecture class meeting three hours a week equates to three credit hours of instructor contact while a three hour laboratory class is considered one hour of credit because students are conducting laboratory assignments and the instructor is not teaching while students execute those assignments. The result is a sizable disconnect between traditional higher education thought and practice as both relate to the nature of applied laboratory course work where teachable moments occur ‘mainly’ in the laboratory as instructors move from student to student to demonstrate correct improper techniques and correct execution difficulties students experience. This same long standing institutional way of thinking, extrapolates to internship course work viewed by virtually all higher education administrations as the student interacting with the site and having ‘no instructional contact’ with the educational facilitator.
In sum, educational facilitators at the three public institutions involved in the study receive no compensation for the contact they render interns during the duration of the internship. “As it stands now, I handle the internship process alone during the summer because the university does not consider an internship a “class” and therefore will not pay faculty to monitor the interns.” This also results in instructors who provide guidance, input, and assistance to students during the normal academic term having no contact with the students they have mentored during the internship experience. The Executive Director of one medium program explained what occurs when students leave the institution. “I am a twelve month employee so I take on that job [monitoring interns] myself to make sure that the students are getting the right kind of guidance at the site and to, of course, monitor their situation from a safety standpoint. It’s a difficult process in general, and I also have to grade almost two hundred portfolios when they students return.”
This director further indicated that the grading process was nothing sort of a “nightmare” due to the short amount of time between students’ portfolio submission deadlines and the last date for grade entry. The failure to enter a student’s grade began a negative chain of events. The student would receive an ‘incomplete’ grade for the course. Consequently, the ‘incomplete’ grade adversely affected the student’s financial aid status which ultimately resulted in the suspension of any financial assistance for the upcoming semester. In essence, the facilitator faced the dilemma of harming student’s ability to continue in the program or engaging in the cursory glance rather than the thorough read because of the sheer volume of portfolios to be graded. Thus in some cases, inconsistencies between student and site, or deeper issues went unnoticed.
Private institutions had greater immunity to variations in resource allocations. One large institution indicated a staff of three full-time internship facilitators for advising students and site relationship involvement and maintenance. However, given a student population of greater than six hundred students, the student to facilitator ratio was not considerably lower than the student to facilitator ratio experienced at smaller public institutions. The received responses from all institutions interviewed indicated no lack of intent to provide exemplary service to students, or interest in the students’ wellbeing for that matter. Program guidelines derived from more traditional academic ways of thinking defined the working parameters for educational facilitators. To their credit, most went beyond the limitations faced to whatever extent possible. As an exemplar, one facilitator overcame the insurmountable portfolio grading process by asking all of the program’s instructors to evenly share in grading portfolios reducing the workload for any one instructor, thus achieving a more in-depth reading of the students work. All were willing to participant to provide greater input for the student, and to help judge the quality of the sites and general internship experience. No instructor received any financial compensation for this work.
Socialization
Perceptions based on gender or ethnicity. The educational facilitator responses to issues student interns might encounter or have encountered at sites generally involved a “then versus now” response. All of the education facilitators cited no issues or incidents of racial discrimination. However, bias towards females, as corroborated by female students, did not draw a similar response. “You know, it’s not as bad as it once was, but there are some kitchens where it’s a “good ole boy” thing, in some places it’s still a man’s world in some professional kitchens.” Another facilitator recalled that “typically what I’ve seen would involve gender and that has improved over the last ten or fifteen years. The field has progressed in that regard by leaps and bounds in comparison to past years. Most facilitators believed that positive experiences continued to improve and were optimistic that the professional acceptance of females would continue to improve. “Ultimately, I believe that things were bound to change. Our student body is about at a fifty-fifty ratio of male to females and industry professionals who own or run kitchens continues to move closer to that proportion.” Thus workplace socialization, for females, still adheres, to some extent, to historical male dominated ways of thinking rather than an equality-based across-the-board mindset that acknowledges women as equals.
Gender bias is an opportunity. These facilitators also shared the opinion that gender bias, particularly toward females, provided an opportunity for female interns to show their worth and, unless forced to endure any form of extreme mistreatment, a site should not be avoided if the potential knowledge gain trumped the ideology of ‘females as inferior’ not manifested in physical or mental abuse. “We have had some of our female students that have turned those kitchens around on these issues. If I know what they are going into, I’m not going to let them go into it blind. I’m going to tell them exactly what to expect and how to prepare for that.” | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.07%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others-_Educators.txt |
As one looks at across the cases consisting of students, internship sites, and educators included in the study, the overarching themes could best be summarized as involvement, environment, social capital, and symbolic capital. Lacking from these separate themes is agency (the ability and motivation to act) because it is ubiquitous to all. As I began the study, previous insights suggested to me that agency was, indeed, a primary factor toward achieving success. What emerged for me during the course of the study was a different way of thinking about agency. Though vital to success, it is catalyzed by numerous factors.
As the findings tend to indicate, agency is more of a personal motivation that spurs students on to success, something prized by elite culinary sites, and noted with consequence by educators. Agency alone, however, does not provide direction. The lack of a viable plan for example renders agency ineffective. Equally, agency in and of itself cannot always overcome a lack of social capital (socialization tactics), involving the belief that one can act, or symbolic capital such as the seasoned ability and experience that allows the student intern to seize the opportunity to act.
Students
Freshmen. Freshmen opinions were surprisingly congruent with the thoughts and opinions of successful sophomores and seniors. A sense of the ‘applied’ nature of the culinary field was apparent in each of these respondent groups. Like the consistent themes from their upper-level constituents, they believed that personal involvement in each aspect of the internship process, and their learning in general, was essential to their success. They believed that the real world experience would provide them with important knowledge to further plan accurately from a first-hand experience regarding what would be expected of them in the future. Additionally, they saw the internship as an interaction with others who possessed superior skills that would help them gauge where they stood in terms of their own ability providing a real world assessment opportunity to extend proficiencies and correct or refine inconsistencies.
They did express apprehension regarding how they would perform, but the curiosity of learning and knowing was the stronger force. All successful students, at one time or another, fear failure. What sets them apart from others is never being afraid to try. These were the important freshmen themes and also the themes expressed by those students who achieved success. What separated these survey class freshmen from their sophomore and senior counterparts was the traditional classroom setting and future orientation of their learning environment.
Sophomores and seniors. Traditional disciplines focus the academic rigor on classroom learning and assessment. The students’ ability to excel in this environment has been refined and reinforced over many years of classroom endeavors. All understand how to prepare for multiple choice, true or false, short essay, and research paper testing methods. A student who excels in this environment might well graduate with honors when they receive their bachelor’s credential. In traditional disciplines the ultimate assessment of the students’ ability to apply what was learned occurs in the workplace. This is where the similarity between traditional disciplines and applied disciplines ends.
Scrutiny involves doing. In an applied field such as Culinary Arts, emphasis on learning does not center on the traditional classroom schema found in other higher education programs. The actual academic rigor occurs in the laboratory setting. Similar to other traditional disciplines, classroom rigor does exist utilizing traditional testing, critical writing, and so forth - assessment methods familiar to students. However, in the culinary laboratory setting hands-on assessment begins when students enter the laboratory and continues until they leave which represents a foreign and at times uncomfortable form of scrutiny to students.
The laboratory environment more closely resembles the restaurant setting where textbook knowledge and actual execution come together to form the assessment model. In many of the laboratory exercises students must execute the exercise within the time limit set by the instructor. Thus, the student must demonstrate knowledge, ability, and quickness. This environment is structured to allow students to equally assess areas of strength and weakness that need attention and more practice. Students work closely with each other, bonds are formed, but also the awareness of who is excelling and who is not also becomes readily and visually apparent. You cannot improve speed and accuracy, develop your ability to discern flavor profiles, or improve eye-hand coordination by reading the text. While some students are born with these skills, many need additional practice and constant repetition.
The student - internship site match. As one looks across the different urban culinary operations it thus becomes immediately apparent that the students’ work environment is an important consideration when selecting an internship site. Many student want to intern in high profile restaurants never considering whether the skills they possess match the requirements of the site or their willingness to teach. A good match, allows the intern to experience and learn much of the kitchen operation. They feel valued and a productive team environment exists. A poor match is thus far less beneficial for the student.
It is important for the student to become involved in negotiating what they would learn from the site. The site is always considering their best interests – the student must do the same. If the work environment is truly give and take, and the student in seen as a potential productive member of the operation, that chef will teach the student durable skills that transfer to the classroom and beyond. However, at the other end of the spectrum, sometimes the interests of the operation are the only consideration involving a different kind of give and take. The operation is providing the student with a real life experience and that’s enough of a contribution on their part. In return, the student helps them lower their labor costs. There is no durable knowledge transfer involved on the part of the site. What the student learns is directly proportionate to his or her ability to create their own take-away knowledge.
To bring home the true sense of the aforementioned I offer this simple example obtained through discussions with student interns. When a student becomes involved with a site that does not provide a teaching environment and is not actively involved with the student learning from the internship experience, that student might return to the university with a copy of the restaurant’s menu and the recipes he or she was allowed to prepare. In essence, the student might have simply purchased the restaurant’s cookbook and saved themselves the time spent following static cooking directions. They were allowed to ‘practice’ in a real operation – but the goal unachieved was durable learning that improved their knowledge and enhance their ability to excel during an internship or work experience at the next level.
The student lacks a progression of knowledge and skills enhancement from the sophomore level internship to the senior level endeavor where a position with that restaurant would be the overarching goal. A student intern in a productive environment with reciprocal involvement by the internship site facilitator would probably also return with a menu and recipes as part of the deliverables to demonstrate the complexity of the restaurant's food. The difference lies in that student’s acquired durable knowledge. In addition to a physical menu and its recipes, things that often change over time in all restaurants, the student now has the ability to discuss what theme the chef was exploring when the menu was constructed, why the recipe inclusions best represented that theme, and how different flavors choices were constructed so that no matter which items were ordered by the customer, the desired theme carried throughout the meal. That student left the site with durable knowledge by understanding the proper criteria to devise a menu, carefully select items for inclusion, and balance flavor profiles.
Based on student respondent comments and stated outcomes, the internship environment is essential to experiencing a productive internship. Did the successful interns place strong value on the site selection process? The resounding answer was yes. Do all student interns make thoughtful selections beneficial to their education and future goals? Unfortunately the answer was no. As some student respondents indicated, the site selection process was not considered in advance and in fact, many students waited until the last minute. Different student reasons for procrastination surfaced during the study but two important ‘surface’ responses were the “lack of time” for that particular consideration due to other priorities and “I was told that my skill set did not match the site I wanted so I had to hurry to find another site.” Both responses elude to one of the important vices that student’s in this applied field face – what I refer to as “grade think” common to students prior to entering the higher education environment and most certainly during their tenure at a university.
The focus on grades. The traditional indication of success in education is the grade a student receives for their coursework. Cumulatively, the grade point average has been instilled as the numerical value of concern. Thus their focus on other coursework and obtaining the appropriate grade takes precedence over current beneficial actions that, at the present, bear no weight on what is valued, their grades. The grade focus is not limited to the classroom. It also transfers to the laboratory setting creating a negative impact on their future endeavors. Should they receive a superior grade on laboratory exercises some students assume that they have met the proper proficiency measure for a real world high quality restaurant. They tend to misinterpret the focused exercise in comparison to the manifold actions required in a busy restaurant environment. No further practice occurs because an inaccurate skill assessment has been made.
Of course, there are students who see the need for additional work, but ‘time’ again becomes the issue with other class concerns and probably outside work, in many cases not related to their field, shortening the amount of time left in the day for things such as practicing practical culinary skills.
These students while academically strong have failed to acquire in some cases the social capital and in other cases the symbolic capital in the form of practical skill necessary to becoming part of a highly productive and interactive top quality restaurant team. Higher education lauds academic performance and the hospitality Industry also values critical thinking ability but a disconnection between industry and education exists because education does value application at the same high level of importance that industry places on it. Some students become trapped between these different perceptions of what performance means as it relates to those who require it.
Urban Internship Sites. One purpose of higher education or education in general for that matter, is to replenish the nation’s workforce. In the field of culinary arts, urban elite restaurants and those restaurants slightly below that designation are not immune from the need for additional workers. Students in culinary programs who have acquired practical skills achieved through hard work in school, extra-curricular involvement, and work outside of school provide a quantifiable potential employee pool. However, many of these enterprises are highly discerning about who enters their ranks. Competition in large metropolitan areas is extremely fierce and subsequently, the chefs who excel in this environment are to a great extent perfectionists. They are willing to teach and see interns as a viable way to acquire a certain level of employee but the entrance standards are extremely high.
From their experience, it will still take time to teach a highly skilled student to be proficient in such an operation. They know students will lesser skills will take much longer to train and the lack of highly honed skills and ability to work independently will invariably present them with several issues they prefer to avoid. First, they would essentially be paying the student to practice since they would be of little use as a productive member of the kitchen. Secondly, experience has also shown that slower workers with lesser skills need constant assistance which disrupts the flow of the operation and frustrates those who can perform at an extremely high level. These chefs also understand their own dispositions and patience is not seen as congruent with performance not yet achieved. These top quality restaurants represent roughly fifteen percent of the nation’s foodservice establishments.
Other restaurants offer good quality but are not quite as stringent in their employee selection and as such, their requirements reflect a more relaxed atmosphere and subsequently more relaxed entrance requirements. They exhibit patience to a point, they will extend opportunities to interns but constant improvement is essential. Many of the restaurants on the lower end of the quality spectrum equally provide good learning experiences to beginning interns. However, it is this genre of restaurants where some foodservice operators are apt to use interns for their own purposes paying them a reduced wage and having little interest in the goals of the intern or the institution.
Organizational training lacks regimentation. Most restaurants do not possess or offer clearly constructed training programs for interns or others for that matter. The element of critical thinking that educational institutions want students to demonstrate in internship portfolios and the like is a difficult, if not impossible, task for the student to accomplish on their own. In the classroom students are guided by the instructor, what is being critically considered is static, and the students’ concentration is centered on that one aspect. When that thought process is completed, they move on to the next area assigned for critical scrutiny. A restaurant does not function like a classroom. Does critical thinking occur in industry? The correct answer is that it does – but in ways that are foreign and indiscernible to the intern who has been groomed in traditional ways of thinking and approaching situations. In busy working restaurants multiple important decisions may be required at one single point in time and decisions thus equate more to properly learned reactions than well-conceived responses. Social capital, the ability to communicate and interact, and symbolic capital, the practical experience that allows interns to learn quickly, become important strengths to possess.
Formal culinary education. As we move into the twenty-first century, more and more of the current chefs have received their culinary education in the university setting. But many of these same chefs have studied at home and abroad with more experienced chef who achieved their knowledge through apprenticeships with other elite chefs in the field. Many of these chefs from the more famous culinary schools do not have academic credentials beyond the associate’s degree. This has and will continue to create a form of divide in an educational sense for still some time to come. More chefs are obtaining bachelor's degrees but it will be some time until they filter into positions of authority in upper strata establishments.
How internship sites convey knowledge. The culinary field continues to become more complicated and populated with professionals better versed in aspect of management, computerization, marketing and so forth. However, in many instances, the transfer of knowledge has remained as it was prior to higher education’s involvement in the field of Culinary Arts. This was expressed by site respondents in various ways but all methods of imparting knowledge expressed by these individuals lead to the same point. Critical thinking in the restaurant setting is conveyed and assessed more so by “demonstrated actions” rather than by constant verbal interaction because the intricate scheme and ways of knowing and conveying occur through the chef’s broad “tacit knowledge.” This is one of the primary reasons students must have a solid plan regarding what they intend to take away from the internship experience – especially in elite and upscale restaurant’s.
It now becomes more evident that the student cannot arrive at the site with no plan of action and simply asks: “What will you teach me?” This is in essence a confounding question to a seasoned chef with many years of experience. Typically, the response resembles: “What did you want to learn?” The different methods of grappling with criticality embraced by student and chef can easily create an initial or sometimes a lasting impasse. Students need direction but in truth, so do the chefs.
The way experienced restaurant chefs convey and assess knowledge became further evident by their lack of awareness of how the institution expected them to evaluate students. When institutions took time to discuss the site’s responsibility regarding the intern’s assessment, the sites were quite willing to comply with the institution’s assessment method. However, those institutions that merely enclosed assessment expectations within the internship documents requiring signatures as verification that the intern was accepted into the site, the knowledge regarding what was required by the site appeared lacking in most instances. There appeared to be an emphasis gap regarding what institutions required from sites in the way of assessment that, in many cases, extended to the point where sites assumed that the student’s assessment was an institutional issue requiring no site involvement.
Internship Educational Facilitators
Internship facilitators in general spend time where possible evaluating students to discern which sites might be the most beneficial. However, to a great extent they do rely on the opinion of the students’ instructors. In addition to evaluating student laboratory exercises, instructors are also forming other judgments of the students in their care. Instructors are willing and do spend additional time with the slower students to nurture them along, but at the end of the day, those students’ who remain quiet and unassuming, continuously lacks self-confidence, fail to step forward and take a leadership role, and exhibit less than sufficient hand skills are subsequently noted and discussed with other instructors when event participation is the issue. These students are not invited to participate in departmental, university, and community-wide functions.
The department and higher echelon administrators want superior exemplars where potential donors and people of note are involved. Stated differently, a dinner at the University President’s home with important guests present will utilize students with strong leadership, taste profiles, confidence, and accurate and quick motor skills. A weaker student or two may be included to help bring them along, but the event will be executed primarily by a naturally formed inner circle of top student performers with little input from those with lesser abilities and equally less confidence – factors that over time become reinforced in students who have not yet reached their potential. Fairness must be extended to culinary instructors in these instances. They arrive early to teach morning classes, spend the afternoon preparing for the event, and work late to supervise the students’ execution of the dinner. By the time the event begins, they are weary and certainly not eager to interact with less experienced students who need constant direction.
Additionally, though students execute all of the culinary aspects, should mishaps occur, the instructor will receive the blame – the instructor in charge is always responsible for what occurs at university-sponsored functions thus instructors are also constantly evaluated both formally and informally. To relate a proper perspective, over the course of study, slower student do ultimately rise to the occasion. They practice to overcome areas of weakness, gain experience working in restaurants, and often demonstrate noticeable improvement during the next school term – instructors note this as well and their involvement in extra-curricular areas increase. Improved performance, where possible, was also lauded and noted by whoever delivers it
If one extends this mindset to the internship process, it becomes apparent why certain students, “names” that immediately come to mind, receive consideration for the most prestigious internships. These are the students’ who have constantly been involved beyond the curriculum requirements, successfully negotiate different work environments, have the necessary social capital to lead and interact with other, and most importantly, have acquired symbolic capital through demonstrated work related accomplishments. Involvement, environment, social capital, and symbolic capital are obviously not mutual exclusives. The combined use of all must come together to produce achievement in the world of application. While these students typically receive the most coveted internships, some of the lesser-known “names” with adequate abilities go unnoticed.
Internship improvement is hindered at the program level. Each internship facilitator expressed a strong interest in students having a good internship experience. They were equally quick to point out that a need for improvement in their internship program exists. Even facilitators at the larger private institutions with funding for their internship facilitators cite dissatisfaction with elements of the process that were congruent with smaller private institutions. Most of smaller institutions have one internship facilitator who utilizes input from the programs instructors. Larger institutions with up to three full-time facilitators paid year round find themselves in no better position. The issue at hand is the ratio of students to facilitator. Smaller institutions must negotiate the placement of up to two hundred interns per year, primarily during the summer months when students are available to work full time in the industry. Larger institution facilitators with student populations in excess of six hundred students do not in reality face smaller student to facilitator ratios. This severely limits what the facilitator can actually know about any one student. Typically, a quick assessment of the student’s conversational ability and a broad assessment from one or more instructors form the facilitator’s impression of where the student might best fit in terms of site. The lack of real knowledge about the students’ abilities was one of the prime limitations they faced in their opinion.
Students procrastinate the site selection process. Another limitation cited by internship facilitators involved the students themselves. Facilitators felt that students waited too long to begin the internship process. Regardless of whether or not the site was an elite enterprise or not, placement in better internship sites was always highly competitive based on the number of sites available in comparison to the number of students seeking a site. The lack of agency on the part of the student often resulted in the selection process occurring at the last minute with little concern on the part of the student regarding what advantages the site might offer.
A site was in need, the internship is a program requirement, and the thought process did not progress beyond that point. Often these sites were selected by the students’ themselves with the facilitator merely confirming the site’s acceptance of the student. Even site facilitators who accept interns with the intention of "giving back" to the profession reflects a lost opportunity to improve internship learning methods and students' critical assessment and reflection strategies through constructive learning partnerships between educational program and site facilitators. Even if such learning partnerships were in fact constructed, internship facilitators would still have little time to evaluate and reflect on their effectiveness.
A disconnect between higher education administrators and applied programs again surfaced in the form of another limitation expressed by all institution internship facilitators. These respondents felt the lack of understanding exhibited by their university administrators regarding the importance of the internship as a valuable learning experience. This lack of understanding was evident in the insufficient funding for facilitators, some receiving no financial remuneration for their work during the academic term, or during the summer when following up on students involved in internships in the field are educational imperatives. These students are typically away from home, many for the first time, in cities unfamiliar to them. Thus at the very least, concern for their safety alone was seen as an important reason for maintaining contact. But to many administrators, it would appear that what does not occur in the classroom is out of sight, mind, and concern. Facilitators also felt that a certain lack of regard for the internship as a course was also evident. Students receive from one to two credit hours for their internship course which typically entails greater than three hundred hours of physical work, keeping journals, comprising portfolios, and compiling internship reports.
Educational programs lack learning methods. One of the smaller culinary arts programs requires that all students embarking on internships find their own sites. This builds character and improves their ability to take action. Of course, they are provided with a pamphlet that gives guidelines for a successful selection. In the end, this institution sends its student out into the world to negotiate and make selection decision with no constructive evaluation or enlightened input from the program itself. Clearly recounted by this educational facilitator was the feeling that higher education truly envisions the laboratory and experiential setting as a supporting component to the classroom although the facilitator's discussions and constant interaction with industry point to the reverse. As my interviews have indicated, a case exists for depicting higher education as an educational entity that has not yet truly embraced the applied nature of the Culinary Arts discipline or the importance of internships in general. Institutions of higher education consistently defend the importance of learning and knowing and rightfully so.
However, as indicated in various ways by all respondents of the study, learning in the form of application, although conducted within the walls and under the auspices of these same institutions, remains an example of “repetitive” learning, regarding university practice. Achievement at the student level is driven by boards of education and thus university administrations that maintain a status quo mindset requiring instructors to ‘do things the way they have always been done’ although economic realities and competitive forces point the need enhanced educational ways of thinking about how best to truly prepare student for working world realities.
How the Findings Informed the Research Questions
The research questions I posed were brought to light by the study. Do all stakeholders involved in internships understand and contribute equally towards the students acquisition of durable knowledge from the internship experience? The answer is no. How each participant: students, internship site facilitators, and culinary program facilitators envisioned and managed their respective roles varied based on their particular perspective and intended ends. The best outcomes were achieved when good planning and mutual commitment existed between student and internship site. In some cases, there were no well-defined goals on the part of all participants. For some students, the internships opportunities were ill-conceived or put together in the hurried fashion that often occurs when scheduling coursework for the following semester.
How do students manage their internship roles? How student stakeholders managed their role in attaining durable knowledge again covered the spectrum. For students, how they initially perceived their individual goals, engaged in aggressive role management, and followed their plan proved to be a recipe for success. Interestingly, novice culinary survey course students who had not yet entered actual culinary classroom and laboratory coursework placed a similar level of importance on utilizing personal agency to achieve intended goals as their successful sophomore and senior counterparts. Thus, students indicated their intention to succeed from the beginning. What became evident as the study progressed was the importance of possessing a high degree of social capital to maintain self-belief, build interaction with others to create or be a part of successful networks, and to apply agency to further one's own interests. The acquisition of symbolic capital in the form of practical knowledge proved to be an equally important success determinant because it conveys experience and the ability to extend oneself to gain achievement and of importance in the university setting - notice by their professors who can further their chances for acceptance by prominent restaurants in competitive culinary marketplaces. It is also important to note that students who obtained symbolic capital were less likely to engage in "grade think" assuming that good laboratory execution grades were adequate to successfully perform in the workplace. Thus, both forms of capital surfaced as prized components from success in quality-oriented urban restaurants for competitive reasons and the perfectionist perspectives of successful internship site facilitators.
What do internship site facilitators contribute to the internship process? What internship sites were willing to invest in the interns they accepted also varied broadly. For elite restaurant sites, standards were high and acceptance of interns was selective. These sites were willing to commit to the intern and their standards of what defined quality work were high. Some sites focused on providing a worthwhile experience for the students they accepted. At the other extreme, some internship sites brought students in to provide work experience in their kitchens and benefit from reduced labor costs. Thus internship sites ranged the gamut with some selective, some focused on student learning, and those who intended to use students for their own ends.
What were the contributions made by educational facilitators? The involvement of culinary program facilitators in most cases was well intentioned but to some extent restrained due to higher education mandates, maintaining internship site relations, and high student to facilitator ratios. They do their best to achieve a goodness of fit for the student and internship site. However, in many cases, what they actually know about the students they place is insufficient to achieve that perfect match. Try as they may, students unknown to them often receive a signed approval for the internship site and unfortunately little more based on placement volume.
Internship facilitators are further hampered in their efforts in terms of follow up and ongoing mentoring during the actual internship because these practical experiences in industry occur during the summer months when facilitators are not under contract with their respective universities and would not be paid to follow student progress. Some facilitators do remain in contact with their students without compensation. I did encounter a situation where the educational facilitator's contact with students was minimal from the beginning of the process up to the evaluation of the student. This culinary program intended for students to find and assess the value of the experience of the sites and make selection decisions. The internship selection process was considered good practice for honing job hunting skills rather than the learning opportunity an internship should provide to the student.
Were the contributions of all stakeholders: the students, educators, and site facilitators considered in judging the student's internship outcome? Again, unfortunately the answer is no. Interns do for the most part bear the sole weight of evaluation. Further, it is not that students innate lack the ability to engage in critical reflection upon their internship experiences but rather a lack of defined criteria and knowledge of how the frame the experience for critical consideration. Educators fail to embed the importance of social skills and the need for practical experience to enhance the value of their culinary education. Stated differently, students often consider a superior grade in laboratory coursework as an adequate level of performance. Those students who achieve strong practical work experience have a much better understanding of what industry requires as an acceptable level of ability.
Do students bear the sole weight of evaluation? The evaluation process is also marginally constructed and students are generally the only stakeholders evaluated. Internship site facilitators were vague regarding evaluation requirements and who was responsible for stating those ends. An additional barrier students face involves a ‘disconnect’ in the discipline terminology used in culinary program coursework versus the way information is conveyed in the workplace. As the literature indicates, the education of site facilitators ranges from apprenticeships to what is becoming a more university oriented culinary education. Still, many site facilitators have no more than an associate degree. Thus, in many cases, knowledge conveyance occurs in the form of demonstrating desired skills rather than verbally and the student is left to extract knowledge through social skills and careful observation.
Do all students obtain durable knowledge during their internships? In sum, the answer is no. What students learn is based on proper planning, desire, commitment, social skills, practical experience, and of the greatest importance, bring all of these elements to bear place students in the best position to achieve their desired goals from the internship experience. Thus, what the student will learn is truly a function of their desire and ability and the commitment of the internship site. Many sites facilitators contribute admirably while quite a few do not know how to best aid the student to achieve durable learning. Still others are attending to their own agenda and have little interest in nurturing the student. The consistent achievement of durable knowledge remains, based on a variety of situations culinary education has failed to address and control, a work in progress. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.08%3A_Across_Students_Sites_and_Educators_-_Themes.txt |
Why, oh, why do I have to do internships?
More than anything, exposure. We want everyone going through this program to find ‘their’ niche. To know what they like and what they do not like. Not everyone is going to like a production kitchen and not everyone is going to like working the line. The whole point of these internship requirements is for you to find where ‘you’ want to be and someone who will get you there – a different perspective to help you ‘critically think’ about everything that you have learned from classes so far. That is why these internships are structured the way they are. Your first one is an overall culinary internship to get you in a kitchen if you have not had experience there to see how things work.
Your second internship is a little more specific, you have had time to hone your skills, and possibly worked a couple jobs and know what direction you are heading, (and at the senior level, possibly looking for job offers after graduation). So, that is how you should walk into your internship, not judging or grading but evaluating: how do you like the feel/atmosphere? What are the qualities you appreciate in management? What kind of food are you cooking? What kind of creativity is there? Could you see yourself staying there long-term with the current staff?
Mentorship
Mentorship is a relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable person. The mentor may be older or younger than the person being mentored, but he or she must have a certain area of expertise. It is a learning and development partnership between someone with vast experience and someone who wants to learn.
“Mentoring is a brain to pick, an ear to listen, and a push in the right direction.”
John C. Crosby, American politician
The focus of mentoring is to develop the whole person and so the techniques are broad and require wisdom in order to be used appropriately. A 1995 study of mentoring techniques most commonly used in business found that the five most commonly used techniques among mentors were:
1. Accompanying: making a commitment in a caring way, which involves taking part in the learning process side-by-side with the learner.
2. Sowing: mentors are often confronted with the difficulty of preparing the learner before he or she is ready to change. Sowing is necessary when you know that what you say may not be understood or even acceptable to learners at first but will make sense and have value to the mentee when the situation requires it.
3. Catalyzing: when change reaches a critical level of pressure, learning can escalate. Here the mentor chooses to plunge the learner right into change, provoking a different way of thinking, a change in identity or a re-ordering of values.
4. Showing: this is making something understandable, or using your own example to demonstrate a skill or activity. You show what you are talking about, you show by your own behavior.
5. Harvesting: here the mentor focuses on "picking the ripe fruit": it is usually used to create awareness of what was learned by experience and to draw conclusions. The key questions here are: "What have you learned?", "How useful is it?".
Different techniques may be used by mentors according to the situation and the mindset of the mentee. The techniques used in modern organizations can be found in ancient education systems, from the Socratic technique of harvesting to the accompaniment method of learning used in the apprenticeship of itinerant cathedral builders during the Middle Ages. Mentors look for "teachable moments" in order to "expand or realize the potentialities of the people in the organizations they lead" and underline that personal credibility is as essential to quality mentoring as skill.
Can I have more than one mentor?
Multiple mentors: A new and upcoming trend is having multiple mentors. This can be helpful because we can all learn from each other. Having more than one mentor will widen the knowledge of the person being mentored. There are different mentors who may have different strengths.
Profession or trade mentor: This is someone who is currently in the trade/profession you are entering. They know the trends, important changes and new practices that you should know to stay at the top of your career. A mentor like this would be someone you can discuss ideas regarding the field - and be introduced to key and important people that you should know.
Industry mentor: This is someone who does not just focus on the profession. This mentor will be able to give insight on the industry as a whole. Whether it be research, development or key changes in the industry, you need to know.
Organization mentor: Politics in the organizations are constantly changing. It is important to be knowledgeable about the values, strategies and products that are within your company, but also when these things are changing. An organization mentor can clarify missions and strategies, and give clarity when needed.
Work process mentor: This mentor can speed quickly over the bumps, and cut through the unnecessary work. This mentor can explain the 'ins and outs' of projects, day-to-day tasks, and eliminate unnecessary things that may be currently going on in your workday. This mentor can help to get things done quickly and efficiently.
Technology mentor: This is an up-and-coming, incredibly important position. Technology has been rapidly improving, and becoming more a part of day-to-day transactions within companies. In order to perform your best, you must know how to get things done on the newest technology. A technology mentor will help with technical breakdowns, advice on systems that may work better than what you are currently using, and coach you through new technology - and how to best use it.
The importance of finding a mentor.
Along with the internship, you are also searching for mentors that you respect, that you appreciate, and that you want to work with, and under their direction. You appreciate their expertise, the things they do - and how they do it. There will be people who you think are your mentor, but until you truly consider following them from restaurant to restaurant, wanting to be right at their elbows, keep looking. Look for that chef that you want to follow on social media to see what their up too. You want to support them in their endeavors, and you want to mirror their philosophy. There will be chefs that you jive with right away and there will also be some that you fail to connect with in terms of ‘direction’. We have all been there. It’s also about the place, if it’s the right person but not the right place that could have an impact. Find the kind of food you want to be making, find the food that you are passionate about and are ready to cook when you walk into work.
Finding the Internship
Do Your Research:
Do your homework. Think about what you would like to do in the culinary and hospitality field after you graduate, and set up internships that will allow you to experience first-hand the kind of career path in which you are interested. Additionally, think about what you currently know, and additional elements that would make you better. The second internship is also for adding skills in addition selecting a place for employment. You are not looking for a ‘lateral’ move – you want to advance your skill set.
What do you mean by ‘research’?
You should research the restaurant thoroughly before you set up an interview, or a trail/stage. Study (REALLY STUDY) the menu(s) at the place(s) in which you are interested. If the menu does not interest you, why would you like to work there?
• Research the chef.
• Find as much as you can about him/her.
• Does his/her philosophy in culinary excite you?
• Does his menu show integrity and creativity?
• Do you respect him or her?
• Do you feel that the executive chef and his staff can help grow your resume in quality experience towards your end goal for post-graduated work?
• What do you know about the sous chefs there and their experience? Nine times out of ten the sous chefs will be managing you---not the executive chef.
Senior. Ideally, your senior internship should be taken during you final semester at Nicholls State University, and you should try to parlay it into your first job after graduation. In other words, if they like you and you like them, you already have 3 to 4 month experience so at least stay the year. You will see how a chef and restaurant deals with seasonal changes in product and business. More importantly, changing jobs too often (and this appears on your resume), management might question your commitment. This internship does not have to be in a traditional restaurant setting; it may be in management, manufacturing, front- of- the-house position or any field related to your career goals. You might also give some thought to other positions in which you can use your concentration class skills. Working in a position in which you are interested will allow you to identify and achieve your post-graduate goals.
After I have a short list of sites, what do I do?
First, make sure you have an updated/current resume to give to the management at the perspective internship sites. Your resume should be professional, concise, and free of spelling, grammar, and styling errors. Visit the Nicholls Office of Career Services to obtain professional advice on your resume. It is important that you get a copy of the appropriate internship agreement from Mrs. Joanne (in the culinary office) to give to the chef or manager at the place to which you apply. The internship agreement gives your internship site the information as to what is expected from you as an intern, them as internship site, and CJFCI as an institute of higher learning.
Dress professionally for your interview:
• CJFCI chefs work coat
• Work pants/black and white checks (black pants when advised by instructor)
• Neckerchief
• Approved non-skid shoes, with a black polished surface
• Socks, white or black
• Undergarments, such as another shirt, are not allowed to extend beyond the length (collar, cuff and waist) of the uniform. No logos or printing may be visible through the chef’s coat from the student’s undergarments. Only solid white shirts may be worn under the chef’s coat.
Executive chefs typically get Sundays and Mondays as their days off, so I have always had the best success showing up to a restaurant to discuss employment on Tuesdays, Wednesday, or Thursday between 2 pm and 4 pm. Not only is this generally the slowest days of service during the week, it is also between the lunch and dinner shifts at most restaurants. A face-to-face meeting with a chef will greatly increase your chances of landing an internship.
If you have done adequate research on the restaurant AND the chef (and his staff), and the menus, you should have some questions to ask the chef and/or his staff. Be aware that you are interviewing them as well as they are interviewing you. It is not a one-way street.
Finally, before you leave the interview site, make sure to get some assurances about follow-up. Try to set up a stage or trail opportunity. If they are too busy to set up a stage or interview that day, then coordinate a time in the near future. Always know where you stand with a site. “If I don’t hear from them by this date, it is time for me to move on to another possible site.” You cannot risk everything on one endeavor.
What is a state or a trail? What should I expect that day in the kitchen?
A stage or a trail is when the chef or owner of the restaurant allows you to observe and/or work an unpaid shift in the kitchen to get to know whether you will be a good fit for their needs, while you get to know if it is a good site for you to do your internship. When you are setting up a date and time for your state, it is also a good time to ask a few questions:
• Do you want me here in my school uniform?
• What time should I report to you (or the kitchen)?
• Will I be simply observing, or do you want me to prep or work a station for a while?
• Should I bring my knife kit?
• Are there any other details you recommend to help me prepare for the stage?
How do I make a good impression during my stage?
“I don’t want to see a resume`, or references. I want the individual to come to my restaurant and prep something, cook something, and clean something. I need to detect passion in all three areas - and their ability to work with my team. If I see commitment, I can work with that person.”
Charley Trotter, Chicago
Keep this in mind when you go: A successful chef has worked long and hard to perfect their craft and build a team around him or her that believes in the same ideals. You have to fit into that belief – or you do not fit period. You may not at that point in time match the skill level – it is OK they will teach you. You absolutely cannot fail to match their level of passion. They cannot teach you that, and they will not want to work with you. ‘No passion’ represents everything they have worked so hard to avoid.
• Show up at least 15 minutes early.
• Be positive and pleasant.
• Not the time to be chatty due to nervousness.
• You have two ears and one mouth – so listen twice as much as you talk.
• Be dressed, appropriately groomed and present a professional image.
• Stand up straight---no leaning or have your hands in your pocket.
• You can move quickly but do not appear to be rushed.
• Do not sit down unless everyone is sitting.
• Make eye contact when people are talking to you, or when you are talking to them.
• Keep your replies to questions on topic and avoid rambling on and on.
• Show them what you know, not what you do not know.
• Be excited about the opportunity to be staging.
• Take notes.
• Ask questions when it is appropriate – not when people are extremely busy.
• Question the chef (or kitchen manager) regarding what kind of work will you be doing if hired.
• If you are offered an internship after the stage, inquire if your internship will be paid and if so, what is your pay rate.
At this point, it would be wise to “sleep on it” and get to them as soon as possible with an answer. Be honest if you have other stages set up. This will allow you to have some time to make a pro/con list and get back to them in a timely fashion. If possible, avoid dragging out the process by scheduling all of your stages in one week. Always be professional, as they will perhaps consider hiring you down the road in the event you change your mind or if there are other issues.
I found my internship - NOW WHAT?
• Have your internship employer fill out the internship agreement and return it to Mrs. Joanne in the culinary office - have her scan it and email you a copy.
• Make sure the contact information on the form is correct, i.e. list the person who will be responsible for doing your evaluation so that it is submitted in a timely fashion.
• Finalize your travel and housing plans.
• Be prepared when the semester begins and read all the important documents on Moodle.
• Complete all assignments on Moodle as scheduled in the course schedule. Always read each week’s assignment BEFORE the week begins.
Enjoy your internship and make us PROUD | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.09%3A_Finding_an_internship_and_Mentors.txt |
What are your strengths?
What do you have to offer an employer? Why should that employer choose you over someone else? What will make interviewers remember you after they finish their first round of meeting potential candidates? It is about matching their problems and needs with your qualifications, skills and traits. Your mission is to convince interviewers that you are the solution they have been seeking.
Make your case. Concentrating on your five best strengths will help you focus during the interview and will make it easier for them to remember you. You can begin before the interview by identifying your five key strengths and matching them up with the job requirements. Once you have done that, determine ways to bring up these matches during the interview.
What are your weakness?
Be up front. Interviewers do not want to make people feel uncomfortable, but rather they want to see in which areas candidates feel they need to improve and what they are doing about it. In order to advance professionally, we all need to be able to identify not just strengths, but also our weaknesses, and how we can upgrade in these areas. Job candidates should be up front during interviews. Do not say you have "no weaknesses" or "work too hard." Instead, tell hiring managers what you are working on improving and what you have done to build your skills in these areas.
One thing to keep in mind: If one of your weaknesses relates directly to the position and could potentially take you out of contention the opportunity may not be right for you.
Why do you want this job?
When asked in an interview, "Why do you want this job?" you can answer using the following steps as a guide:
• Show how your skills match;
• Show your enthusiasm for the job;
• Show how you fit into the culture.
Where would you like to be in your career five years from now?
Nobody has a crystal ball, but that does not give you an excuse when it comes to predicting your future. When an interviewer asks you, “Where do you see yourself in five years?” they are testing your level of career ambition. Despite its ambiguity, this question, when asked, does have a definitive answer. They can tell by your resume and cover letter if you have the skills and education necessary to fill the position—that is why they are talking to you. What they need to know is, do you fit in with the company’s team, vision, and culture? Explain how your goals align with the company’s goals. Pick out some points from the company’s mission statement that resonate with you and your goals, and mention how you hope to expand on those in the coming years.
Where would you like to be in your career five years from now?
Nobody has a crystal ball, but that does not give you an excuse when it comes to predicting your future. When an interviewer asks you, “Where do you see yourself in five years?” they are testing your level of career ambition. Despite its ambiguity, this question, when asked, does have a definitive answer. They can tell by your resume and cover letter if you have the skills and education necessary to fill the position—that is why they are talking to you. What they need to know is, do you fit in with the company’s team, vision, and culture? Explain how your goals align with the company’s goals. Pick out some points from the company’s mission statement that resonate with you and your goals, and mention how you hope to expand on those in the coming years.
What attracted you to this company?
The hiring manager asks a rather simple interview question, yet it catches you off guard: "Why do you want to work for this company?" The obvious answer that comes to mind is, "Because you have an opening, and I need a job." While this may be true, it will not earn you any points in a job interview.
The interviewer is looking for an answer that indicates you have thought about where you want to work—that you are not just sending your resume to any company with a job opening.
Researching the company and industry before your interview will make you stand out as a more informed and competent applicant. Search company websites for mission statements, product and service information, principals' backgrounds, and contact information. Check company financials through the US Securities and Exchange Commission. By reviewing the company’s website and social media accounts, and reading news articles about the firm, you will be able to draw conclusions about the value you can bring to the position, whether it is because the company’s mission matches yours, its culture is a good fit or you have a skill that the company needs.
After you have done your research, come up with two or three reasons you want to work for the company. Also, think of at least two reasons this job is a good match for your skills, strengths, experience and background. What can you bring to the company? Write down your thoughts and rehearse them as part of your script. You should opportunities to show that you have done your homework on the company, and how you might fit into the open role.
Why should we hire you?
From the moment you enter the room for a job interview, the hiring manager is assessing one thing: Are you the best person for the job? At some point during the interview, you can expect to be asked straight up, “Why should we hire you?”
Obviously, you cannot respond, “Because I need a job.” Granted, it is a loaded question, “but you need to ace it.” Your answer needs to demonstrate that you are the solution to the employer’s problem (a vacancy on their team), and no other candidate could possibly do the job better than you could. So why should they choose you over anybody else? Take these steps to prepare a well-crafted response.
Focus on the employer’s needs (not yours). Though the question “Why should we hire you” seems like the focus is on you and your wants, it is not. Your personal career goals are certainly important, but this question is an opportunity to explain how you will bring value to the company.
To prepare, research everything you can about the business’ agenda—read its website, social media, quarterly reports, company profiles, press releases, and recent news stories about the company. What are their goals? Where do they see themselves headed in the future? How can your talents help get them there? (“This company wants to be an industry leader in xyz. My background has given me valuable experience in that realm, and I have a lot of ideas as to how we can make that happen together.”)
Reflect on the job itself. You can also learn a lot from a job posting. Most job descriptions outline not only job responsibilities, and qualifications, but also what core skills are required to be successful in the position.
The best strategy is to target three to four skills and explain how you have demonstrated them in the past. (“I know that being able to function is a busy workplace is one of the crucial skills for this position. Let me give you a few examples of how I’ve applied this skill in my career thus far.”)
Where possible, weave in language from the job posting. You can also use some of the company’s buzzwords without sounding overly rehearsed.
Address cultural fit. About eight in 10 employers said they measure for cultural fit when hiring job candidates. Part of your answer to “Why should we hire you” should indicate why you‘d be a good match for the company’s environment. (“This isn’t a traditional company, which is wonderful because I don’t consider myself a traditional worker. Like you, I thrive on innovation.”)
What did you like least about your last job?
"What did you like least about your last job?" can be something of a trap when it comes to interview questions, because your interviewer is asking for a negative answer. If you have not given the subject some thought, you may accidentally talk yourself out of a job.
If you are asked this question— or its close cousins, “What was the worst part of your last job?” or "Why didn't you like your last job?"—in an interview, you will want to keep your answer honest while trying to incorporate a positive angle. One of the purposes of this interview question is to find out if you are going to be satisfied in the job for which you are interviewing. If you were dissatisfied before, you may be dissatisfied again if the circumstances are similar.
Here is how three different candidates might answer this question
Answer No. 1: "I didn't have enough challenges. After a while, all the projects became repetitive. I thrive on challenge."
Interviewer's thoughts: Many of the tasks here are repetitive. What makes this candidate think he will like it here any better? Will we be able to keep him challenged?
Answer No. 2: "Lack of stability. After three company acquisitions, I had five bosses in three years. I could not take it any longer. What I am looking for is stability in a job and company."
Interviewer's thoughts: While our company is stable now, there are no guarantees about the future. This woman sounds like she may have some burnout and flexibility issues.
Answer No. 3: "In my last job, my boss was overbearing and wouldn't let me do my job. If she didn't like the way I was doing something, she'd criticize me."
Interviewer's thoughts: Could he work with me as a supervisor? How would he react if I had to comment on his work? He sounds like he could be a problem to supervise.
Do not make the same mistakes these candidates made. Instead, use this three-step strategy to leave the recruiter feeling positively after this negative question.
Start on the right foot
While this is a negative question in search of a negative answer, you want to begin your answer with something upbeat that shows you are generally not a negative person, which shows you generally look for the good in situations. You will probably want to note your overall satisfaction with your job, and even give one specific thing you have found valuable about the job.
You say: "I've given this question some thought, and overall I've been very satisfied with my job. I've been able to work with some really interesting people."
Stay on tasks
When you get to the meat of this question, you'll benefit by doing some advance planning, as you'll likely get some iteration of this question (it might sound something more like "Why are you looking to leave your current job?"). Create a list of those things responsible for your dissatisfaction. Spend some time looking at your list for patterns. Are there some projects that recur on your list? Are there some situations you don't want to get into again? This exercise will help you identify things to watch for and to ask questions about during the interview.
As you look for the answer to the question you're being asked, try to focus on an element of the work itself rather than company politics (which may be messy if your interviewer knows people at your company) or people (the recruiter may translate this answer into your being difficult). Try to limit yourself to one issue, such as workload, lack of growth or lack of flexibility.
You say: "I have to say that I did have a job where there was an inordinate amount of paperwork." Notice the word "inordinate." Not a normal load paperwork, but an unusually large amount. End with a strength
Use your closing sentence to acknowledge how this particular negative situation hampered you from deploying one of your key skills, so that the interviewer sees you as someone who wants to be able to work to their best potential.
You say: "The paperwork has bogged me down, and prevented me from doing what I do best, which is working with people."
Practicing the answer to this question can be duly helpful for you: Not only does it get you ready for the interview; it gets you ready to decide whether you will want the job. When you can identify the factors that give you job satisfaction, as well as the factors that were unpleasant or tedious for you, you can more easily determine if a job is the right job for you. Remember that this interview goes both ways!
Why are you leaving your present job?
There are many reasons for leaving a job without having a new one lined up, and not all of them are created equal. Some of your resulting resume gaps can be explained away by having “good” or “acceptable” reasons, like taking time off to raise a family or going back to school. Coming out of a tough economy, even getting laid off doesn’t have the stigma attached to it that it once did. However, what if you were the one who decided on quitting your job?
Additional responsibility, increased pay, and relocation are often ‘good excuses’ for leaving a job. However, many people quit for more personal reasons - because they could not deal with a boss from hell, they felt stuck in a dead-end position, or they were tired of enduring poor treatment. In those cases, you will have to find a way to put a positive spin on why you decided to say, “I quit!” when you go on your next job interview.
The last thing you want to risk is having your interviewer thinking that you are a quitter, who could not hack it, was not a team player, or who was hard to manage. This is how can you explain in an honest way why you quit your last job without scaring off recruiters.
You left a demanding job because you were feeling burned out
Do not launch into a tirade about how you were expected to work 80 hours a week or how your supervisor expected you to answer 11 p.m. emails. Instead, say something along the lines of “I’m looking for an opportunity where I can leverage my skills and experience, while also balancing time with family and friends. I believe we perform our best when we have a healthy balance between work and life.”
Many companies are embracing—and even demanding—work/life blend, so focus on the type of work environment you thrive in.
If you have no other gaps on your resume and have a record of accomplishment working with companies for big chunks of time, an interviewer should be satisfied with that response.
You left to take care of a family member or health issue
Of all the good reasons for leaving a job, your duty to your health and your loved ones is at the top. While you certainly don’t have to get into the specifics if you went out on ‘Family and Medical Leave Act’ and then just didn’t return to the job after your 12 weeks were up, you might want to at least give the interviewer some key information.
You can address that this was ‘a very specific and one-time issue’ that is now resolved, and assure them the situation isn’t part of a pattern. That way, a hiring manager will not be worried that they will bring you on board only to lose you in a few months.
You needed a change
If you are making a career change, is it because you simply reached the point where you could not stand what you were doing anymore? If so, that is not necessarily the best way to put it to a prospective employer. Instead, say something like “I’m seeking out opportunities that will allow me to make full use of my newly acquired web design skills” (or whatever new passion or old interest you want to tap into).
Again, prospective employers are looking for stability, so do your best to demonstrate that you’re not just seeking this position on a whim, but that you’ve taken steps to prepare yourself and done industry research to make sure this is what you want.
You did not click with your former company’s ethics
There are times when resigning from a job might have been the smartest thing you could have done. That said, whether you felt uncomfortable about the way management treated young hires or you found out about some shady financial practices, bashing your former employer will not go over well (even if it’s well deserved).
Instead, try to turn the conversation onto the values you share with this new potential employer. It’s fine to bring up legitimate high-level disagreements between you and management, but you should present their ‘train of thought’ and why you fundamentally disagreed.
Then, make the shift to describe what you admire about the company you are interviewing with, such as how they focus on diversity and inclusion or strive to be environmentally conscious. This will also give you the opportunity to show that you did your homework.
You are looking for more money or a promotion
You might have felt justified at leaving a job because you did not get a raise or title change in four years, but there is a way to express that in an interview without coming off as bitter. “Instead, explain that you’d reached the growth ceiling in your position and you are ready for your next challenge. This puts a positive spin on your departure and the ‘challenge’ portion implies that you will be a hard worker.
No matter your reason for resigning from a job, here are a few more general tips to keep in mind:
Less is more. Provide just enough information to explain your reason for leaving without going into too much detail.
Stay on point. Stick with sharing relevant information that relates to the company and position you’re applying to.
Be honest. While you can certainly frame how you quit in a positive way, you should never flat out lie about how things went down.
Show off your strengths
Though you may feel a bit tripped up on this question, remember it's not the only thing a hiring manager will take into consideration with regard to your candidacy. One way to start on a good foot is with a strong resume that highlights your achievements. If an employer is impressed by your resume, it could help draw the focus toward the stuff you want to talk about - your skills and experience.
What do you know about this industry?
Growth data and regional information is readily available on the Internet via a Google search as a start. This is a fair question. You should have some idea of your industry’s vitality, sustainability, as well as opportunities and threat on the horizon.
What do you know about our company?
This question intends to gauge your actual interest in a position. Take the time to scrutinize the company’s operation, facility, menu, reputation and so forth. If it is a public company, their financial data will be available to the public. Take a critical look at their website. Try to generate questions useful during an interview. Compare the potential company to other competitors in the genre and asses their strength and growth possibilities. You are also looking for talking points that indicate that you really are interested in the company and have done your homework.
Do you have any questions for me?
Surprisingly, the most common answer to the interview question, "Do you have any questions?" is no. Not only is this the wrong answer, but it is also a missed opportunity to find out information about the company. It is important for you to ask questions—not just any questions, but those relating to the job, the company and the industry.
Surprisingly, the most common answer to the interview question, "Do you have any questions?" is no. Not only is this the wrong answer, but it is also a missed opportunity to find out information about the company. It is important for you to ask questions—not just any questions, but those relating to the job, the company and the industry.
Consider this: Two candidates are interviewing for an inside sales position.
Henry asks, "I was wondering about benefits, and when they would become effective. In addition, what is the yearly vacation allowance? And, does the company match the 401k plan?" Assuming this is the first interview, it is premature to ask about benefits. "What's in it for me?" questions can be interpreted as self-centered and a sign of your lack of interest in the job.
The next candidate, Christine, says, "No, I think you just about covered everything I wanted to know. I'm sure I'll have more questions if I get the job." This is a very passive response that doesn't demonstrate interest or imagination. Once you get the job - if you get it - may be too late to ask questions.
It is important to ask questions to learn about the company and the job's challenges. In some cases, the interviewer will be listening for the types of questions you ask. The best questions will come as a result of listening to the questions the interviewer asks you.
A good response to the interviewer asking, "Do you have any questions?" would be: "Yes, I do. From what you've been asking during the interview, it sounds like you have a problem with customer retention. Can you tell me a little more about the current situation and what the first challenges would be for the new person?" This answer shows interest in what the problem is and how you could be the possible solution. It is also an opportunity to get a sense of what will be expected.
Be prepared
What information do you need to decide whether to work at this company? Make a list of at least 10 questions to take with you to the interview. Depending on who is interviewing you, your questions should vary.
If you are interviewing with the hiring manager, ask questions about the job, the desired qualities and the challenges.
If you are interviewing with the human resources manager, ask about the company and the department.
If you are interviewing with management, ask about the industry and future projections. This is your chance to demonstrate your industry knowledge.
Timing is important
You will have to use your judgment about the number of questions you ask and when to ask them. Think of this as a ‘conversation’. There will be an appropriate time to ask certain types of questions, like those about benefits and vacation. To be on the safe side, concentrate on questions about the job's responsibilities and how you fit the position until you get the actual offer.
When you begin to think of the interview as a two-way process, you will see it is important for you to find out as much as possible about the company. Questions will give you the opportunity to find out if this is a good place for you to work before you say yes.
Job interviews can be stressful. What, with remembering which questions to ask, what to wear, what to bring, it can be so confusing. Get expert advice on interviewing, negotiating, and conducting your job search by becoming a Monster member. The best part is that it all gets emailed to you so you don't even have to remember to check in. Instead, all you have to do is think about the first day at your dream job.
Behavioral interview questions
What was the last project you led, and what was its outcome?
It’s common to discuss your work history and experience in an interview, but some employers want more detail than others. In particular, some may ask you to dig into the last project you led.
There are many things interviewers might gauge from your response to this question. The interviewer may want to know if you were able to collaborate with and lead a team. Or, was there a major client issue that you resolved without specific direction or much information from others?”
Here are a few pointers for preparing your answer.
Choose the right example
Select a project you worked on recently, not one from several years ago.
You should choose a project that was successful, unless you’re going to explain how you turned around a negative outcome. I’ve been amazed how many times people when interviewed get halfway into this story and realize they’ve picked a bad example where the outcome was a disaster.
The answer should be honest. The interviewer is less worried about whether the project succeeded - though success is good - and whether the candidate can explain why it succeeded or failed.”
Interviewers don’t only want to know that you led a project, but also how you led. Again, the project did not necessarily need to be a total success—though that helps—but you will need to demonstrate the specific ways in which you organized and motivated your team.
You say “I recently led a team that prepared a series of presentations for clients at my company’s annual conference.”
Show your leadership skills
After you have established a solid example of a time you were thrust into the lead role, you will need to go into detail about what you did when you got there. Explain your processes, meeting schedules and the tools you used to stay organized. Be specific. The interviewer is trying to gauge how you may lead projects in your new role.
For example, if you were tasked with creating and presenting a new marketing campaign or organizing an internal client database, you will want to describe the employees on your team, their roles, how you handled delegating responsibilities and how you reported the group’s workflow to your superiors. Through this, you will be able to paint a full picture of what you did to accomplish the task.
You say “I was charged with assigning specific presentations to the team members, setting deadlines and editing their material.”
Provide proof of success
It’s easy to say that the project was a success, but you should give details that will prove it to the interviewer.
A good candidate will understand that their personal assessment of the project is one thing, but that the interviewer is likely interested in something more objective. Explain how your team determined that the project was a success, and detail goals that were met.
You should also include details about what you learned from the project—both the success and the problems. If the project did not end well, then it is OK to share that. However, you must be able to also share what you learned from that experience and how it helped you in your next lead role. The best responses will explain what was learned from the project. The very best will link this learning to the position they are interviewing for.
You say “Two colleagues missed their deadlines, but we all pulled together to help them, and after the conference our client feedback was 100% positive. I even received an email from one client who said this year’s was the best yet.”
Learn to say the right things
Every interview question is an opportunity to put your skills and experience front and center in order to impress hiring managers, but you have to choose your words carefully for maximum impact.
• Give me an example of a time that you felt you went above and beyond the call of duty at work.
• Can you describe a time when your work was criticized?
• Have you ever been on a team where someone was not pulling their own weight? How did you handle it?
• Tell me about a time when you had to give someone difficult feedback. How did you handle it?
• What is your greatest failure, and what did you learn from it?
• How do you handle working with people who annoy you?’
Get this job interview question right, and maybe you will find yourself in a new job with less annoying co-workers.
It's important to get along with your co-workers. It may sound like a question from an online dating profile, but when job interviewers ask what irritates you about others, they’re trying to assess how you will get along with your colleagues and clients, and how your personality will fit in with the company culture. Work culture is at the heart of what determines whether or not you love your job. You eat with your co-workers, spend early mornings and late nights together, celebrate, gossip—even argue sometimes. If you’re not family, you’re basically roommates, right? And just like you wouldn’t want to share space with someone who cranks death metal until 2 a.m. when you’re a light sleeper, you don’t want to work with people who aren’t on your wavelength either—not if you can help it.
No one can give you a crystal ball to predict your future happiness at a particular company, but there are some ways to get a sense of what the people, the work-life balance, and the day-to-day will be like at your new home away from home.
We spoke with career experts and hiring managers to find out some of the best questions you should ask during the interview process in order to get a sense of the ‘work culture’ you’ll be walking into. It is the kind of research that could make the difference between loving—and loathing—what you do.
1. “Does the company or job description sound like me?”
This first question is not one that you ask during the interview, but one you should ask yourself during your interview prep. As you do your research and find out as much about the company's work culture as possible—including reading employee reviews—read what the company has to say for itself, either on the company’s website. Check out the job description too. Some are written in a way that makes you say “Yes, that’s me!” but other times, you could read a job description and just not feel it. If you are a bona fide introvert and the description says, “Are you a dynamic go-getter who loves meeting hundreds of new people every day?” you might want to skip that one.
1. “What do you like to do outside of work?”
You’re going to be spending a lot of time with the people you end up working with, even outside of normal work hours, at conferences, celebrations, networking, etc. Getting a sense of what they do in their downtime could give you a sense of what they are like while on the clock. In addition, remember: You are interviewing them as much as they are interviewing you, so it is OK to ask a few things about their likes and dislikes, and some of their habits. By seeing how people like to spend their free time, you will get a sense of whether you will be working with like-minded people or not. For instance, if you’re single and live in the city, but everyone you interview with is married with kids in the suburbs, you may quickly realize that you won’t have a lot in common with your colleagues—and therefore might not find it easy to make work friends. On the other hand, if you are an avid cyclist and learn that your co-workers not only like to cycle, but there is a company team, that could add another plus to your list of pros and cons when deciding whether or not to take the job. Moreover, you would never know if you had not asked.
1. “What are your favorite things about working here?”
This question plays into people’s pride of their company, which can be strategic when asking about work culture. If someone can answer quickly with things they love, it shows they’ve got genuine love for their job (or at least strong like). Similarly, it’s actually a good idea to ask the opposite of this question, too: If you could change two things about the company, what topics would you tackle? But only ask this question if you’ve asked about that person’s favorite aspects of working at the company—that way it’s a natural counterpart and not taken out of context.
1. “What’s the busiest time of year like at the company?”
You might have the urge to ask about when people typically leave work, or if people are always stressed out at the company, but if you ask those questions you’re going to seem like you aren’t a hard worker. Instead, ask about the busiest time of year. Use a phrase like, ‘Tell me about your busiest times and how the team gets things done.’ This way, your interviewer can paint you a picture of how the company reacts when the workload gets heavier.
Think about it. Almost every company has that one worker who types like their fingers are hammers. Or who is a chatterbox. Or who’s excruciatingly perky and chipper at all hours. Or who argues with their significant other on the phone loud enough for the entire floor to hear—daily. Annoying co-workers are a fact of life. They mean no harm, but they can drive you batty, which can make doing your actual job a lot more difficult than it needs to be. Still, you have to push through the annoyance and get your work done. Interviewers want to know you will not let a little thing like a loud chewer sabotage your duties as an employee.
What annoys you is not a trick question. Hiring managers are trying to determine first, if you’re easily irritated, and second, if you’re irritated by the habits of their existing staff. They want to know if you are adaptable and a good fit for their organization. To ensure you do not answer this question by unloading every habit you find annoying in others, you need to do some preparation. Use the following tips to focus your answer on something that will not scare off a prospective employer.
Be upfront about what bothers you
• Think of all the different types of personalities that exist in a single workplace. Then consider that everyone is annoyed by something, and when the pressures of work begin to mount, the irritations can start to interfere with teamwork and productivity.
• Do not play dumb and tell the interviewer you never get annoyed with anyone. Even the most patient people will find themselves frustrated with co-workers at one point or another, so you need to describe a moment when you have been legitimately annoyed at work. (It likely will not take you too long to come up with something.)
• You can cite some things that are genuinely irritating, for example, ‘employees taking credit for your work’.
You say - “It doesn’t happen often, but I really get irritated when one person hogs all the glory on something that was a group effort. I believe in giving credit where it is due and fairness within a team dynamic.”
What to do when a co-worker takes credit for your work
Don’t be a pushover—stand up for yourself and get credit where credit is due.
Annoyed with a deceitful co-worker? This is how to take charge. You worked hard on the problem, came up with an innovative solution, and now you want to deliver your awesome solution to your team and client. But suddenly, your colleague stands up and starts talking about the plan he devised. Except it is actually not his idea at all—it is yours.
Getting recognition for your accomplishments is essential to accelerating your career trajectory and increasing your salary. Track or chronicle them throughout the year. But coming across like a whiner when someone throws you under the bus isn’t great for your career, either. It’s one of those tricky office-politics situations that must be handled delicately.
So what do you do when a co-worker takes credit for your work? We asked experts to explain how to navigate this career conundrum.
Bring up the elephant in the conference room…
Even though you might want to or vent to a co-worker rather than confront the idea thief himself, it is best to approach the person and assert yourself so he’ll know you’re not the office pushover. Address the situation quickly and directly. Remember, you do not need to accept this behavior no matter who is doing it. You are worthwhile and your ideas are obviously good, so stand up for yourself. Showing that you have a backbone in this way could make your co-worker think twice about trying the same move again.
…but do not point fingers—bring up observations instead
You do not want to say something you will regret—especially when you have to work with the person at least 40 hours a week. There is always the chance that wires got crossed, and you’d hate to have destroyed a salvageable working relationship due to your momentary anger.
“I have found that a non-accusatory approach helps to work through the situation better. Explain that, from your perspective, there appears to be a great similarity in your ideas. Share your observation then listen to the other person’s perspective.
Take steps to prevent a recurrence
At the end of the day, you can’t control how other people act in the workplace—otherwise, no one would assign you a time-sensitive project at 4:59 p.m.—but you can use the experience to adjust how you act in the future. Perhaps it’s a sign for you to take more ownership over your ideas. Copy your boss on certain project-specific emails and be sure to speak up in meetings, making it clear that the idea originated from you. You might send periodic updates about your work [to your boss] even before a project is completed. That way, someone else is unable to go around you before you're finished.
Show you are not bothered by the little stuff
Legitimate grievances are different from personal peeves; in the grand scheme of things, someone who bites their nails is less of an issue than someone who misses every single deadline given to them. Employers do not want to hire people who are going to be irritated by every little thing, so you need to give an answer that shows the little stuff will not get to you.
Working with others is challenging. People who are easily irritated are difficult to work with, and people who don’t deal with their concerns with others create more issues down the road. In addition, you want to avoid sounding like you aren’t able to work with people who operate differently than you do. It’s way too easy to fall into the trap of answering this question by showing a lack of patience or understanding toward others. Maybe you’re most productive in the mornings, but your co-worker really picks up in the afternoon. This shouldn’t derail the team. You need to adapt to different working styles, otherwise you are the annoying one.
You say: “I’m bothered by big mistakes or problems that have team impact. For example, it would bother me greatly if a co-worker were to miss an important deadline on a team project. It’s unfair to the people in the group who made their deadlines.”
Demonstrate your patience when handling an annoyance
Lastly, you must demonstrate that you handle your annoyances in a calm and productive manner. Nobody likes a complainer who does not take any action to fix the situation. Most interviewers are seeking to understand if the person being interviewed is positive and solutions-based, as well as a strong communicator. It is important not to be too harsh or too much of a people pleaser.
Meaning, shouting or putting down someone is both rude and unhelpful, no matter how annoying they are. Instead, it is best to explain how you listen to others when there is a misunderstanding. Give an answer that shows you prefer to discuss your irritations and find a point of agreement with others, rather than simply remaining annoyed or running to the boss to whine without first attempting to solve the issue yourself. Describe a healthy way to handle that situation such as, confronting the employee and only alerting your supervisor if needed.
You say: “Because I know I get irritated when co-workers miss deadlines, I try to always make sure goals are clearly communicated to everyone on the team. I also like to implement regular check-ins to make sure we’re all on the same page, rather than waiting until the end to see if there’s a problem. If the deadline is missed anyway, I try to find out what I can do differently next time so the problem doesn’t repeat itself.”
Smile—you are not done yet
It's not easy to get along with difficult people, but in the workplace, you have no choice if you want to keep—or in this case get—a job. Showing hiring managers that you are good natured is a step in the right direction, and you want your other answers to back up that claim.
• If I were your supervisor and asked you to do something that you disagreed with, what would you do?
• What was the most difficult period in your life, and how did you deal with it?
• Give me an example of a time you did something wrong. How did you handle it?
It’s not really about what you did or didn’t do, but about ‘how’ you handle adverse situations—and tough questions.
Answering an interviewer honestly will impress them the most.
Your resume and cover letter successfully outline your qualifications. You are nailing all the reasons you’re the right person for the job in the interview. Nevertheless, when the interviewer says, “Give me an example of a time you did something wrong, and how you handled it?” you freeze. No one wants to talk about his or her screw-ups, but doing so with confidence and answering this question well can prove crucial if you want the job. When interviewers ask this question they’re trying to evaluate how you responded in a tough situation.
Here are four tips to help you answer this tough question with confidence and offer an answer that will not only pass this test, but also impress your interviewer in the process.
Never say never
Answer honestly, because anyone who says they have never made a mistake is obviously lying or delusional. As unpleasant as it may be to discuss, you must admit to a mistake and explain how you made things right in some detail. They want you to tell them what you learned from a mistake. Everyone makes mistakes, its how you get past those mistakes that interest me.
You say: In my position three years ago at Company X, I missed a major deadline, which is why I am extremely vigilant on keeping my calendar and to do list up to date every day.
Do not blame others
Admit your mistake and take full responsibility for it. Do not try to blame someone else or spread the blame around, taking only part for yourself. Interviewers do not want to hear how your teammate gave you bad information and caused your mistake. Take responsibility of a mistake that happened. Own it. It was your mistake and it should not have happened. Taking responsibility is about being straightforward and contrite. The interviewer wants to see how you react to a difficult question, how you handle pressure, and if you will fit in with the company’s culture. If the mistake truly was not your own, pick a different mistake.
You say: I missed the deadline because I did not maintain proper communication with my team members.
Tell them you handled it like a champion.
Explain in detail how you solved the problem. Moreover, be honest about it, no matter how bad you think your explanation may make you look. The interviewer will not necessarily see it that way.
The interviewer wants to see if the candidate is adaptable and flexible. How do they deal with problems and what do they do when presented with a challenge?
You say: “As soon as I realized I was going to miss the deadline, I contacted all the stakeholders in the project to smooth things over, and we all put in the extra hours needed to get it completed quickly.”
Talk about lessons learned
As long as you were able to learn from it, you can admit to most any mistake—within reason. The interviewer is looking to hear that you did learn from it and put parameters in place so it does not happen again. Tell a story that highlights your ability to learn—and learn well enough not to make the same mistake again. “In almost every role, the best candidate is going to be a strong problem solver. This question helps show how we recover from a problem.
You say: After I missed that deadline, I created a spreadsheet for all future projects that showed everyone a project snapshot and clearly indicated deadlines and where we’re at in the process at any given time. Since then, I’ve never missed a deadline.
• Tell me about a time where you had to deal with conflict on the job.
• If you were at a business lunch and you ordered a rare steak and they brought it to you well done, what would you do?
• If you found out your company was doing something against the law, like fraud, what would you do?
• What assignment was too difficult for you, and how did you resolve the issue?
• What's the most difficult decision you've made in the last two years and how did you come to that decision?
• Describe how you would handle a situation if you were required to finish multiple tasks by the end of the day, and there was no conceivable way that you could finish them.
Salary questions
What salary are you seeking?
• Always refrain from revealing compensation to a recruiter first—let them tell you a number first. Unfortunately, sometimes the conversation goes like a ping-pong match and you ask them, they ask you, and you may have to finally succumb. In that case, give them a range, not a specific number. This gives you wiggle room to negotiate. Plus, if they’re a reputable company they will know a specific range for the job they’re offering and should not go under the lowest number.
• Keep in mind, companies expect you to negotiate. They are more surprised when you do not than when you do. Therefore, you need to look out for yourself. In addition, the current offer from the company where you interned over the summer should know you are currently interviewing and not locked in to accept their offer either. Even though their current offer is competitive for a new graduate, you need to first determine, if the compensation packages were equal, where you would rather work. Which employer would make you happier? Did you enjoy interning at the company over the summer, and could you see yourself working there?
• If so, go back to the company you interned at and say you have received another offer (thereby showing that you are in demand). Tell them you appreciate their offer, but are hoping for something more competitive—especially since they have already seen what an asset you will be as a full-time employee.
Career development questions
• What are you looking for in terms of career development?
• How do you want to improve yourself in the next year?
• What kind of goals would you have in mind if you got this job?
• If I were to ask your last supervisor to provide you additional training or exposure, what would she suggest?
Getting started questions
• How would you go about establishing your credibility quickly with the team?
• How long will it take for you to make a significant contribution?
• What do you see yourself doing within the first 30 days of this job?
• If selected for this position, can you describe your strategy for the first 90 days?
More questions about you
• How would you describe your work style?
First, what does work style even mean? The interviewer’s not asking if you like to kick back at your desk in a pair of wraparound shades and Beats. Rather, they are trying to discern how you will fit into an existing work culture, carefully gauging your response for hints about how you will mesh with potential co-workers and whether you’re well suited to the demands of the role.
In other words, it’s kind of an important question.
But don’t let it intimidate you or get you tongue-tied. You can figure out your work style with five smaller, far more straightforward questions. By asking yourself each of them, you can learn a lot about both how you work and how to frame yourself in an interview.
1. Do you like to work autonomously or collaboratively?
The vast majority of jobs will not have you working in a vacuum. Instead, you will be part of a larger group that must—get this—collaborate in order to achieve a common goal. Understandably, many interviewers will expect you to describe yourself in terms of working as part of a team. However, if you really do consider yourself a strong, independent worker, do not worry—there is nothing wrong with that. Just make sure you mention the importance of external feedback from both bosses and peers when it comes to being your best professional self.
1. How do you like to work with your boss?
We all have an idea of the kind of working relationship we would like with our superiors, but it does not always take shape beyond some vague notion of cordiality. But how you work with your boss truly does speak to how you’ll perform on the job, and you’ll need to consider this carefully.
Do you like receiving a set of clear-cut directions, so that your goals as a worker are never in doubt? Or do you feel comfortable doing a bit of creative interpretation in terms of what your boss actually wants from you, giving you a bit of leeway to do your own thing?
However, you define it, it never hurts to mention that you appreciate the importance of the routine check-in, ensuring you and your boss are on the same page and that your work’s consistently up to spec.
1. How do you prefer to communicate?
In decades past, this particular question would have been a whole lot simpler. After all, it doesn’t take much effort to determine if a workplace’s dominant mode of communication involves writing emails or simply yelling, “Watch your six!” across a factory floor.
However, organizations that communicate electronically now go a lot further than simply relying on email alone, and this question gives you a chance to prove you are comfortable with the full range of technologies on hand.
Do you tend to communicate over chat applications? Do you work best within a project management framework? Whatever your preference, it’s always worth bringing the conversation back around to the necessity of in-person communication—always an underrated asset in our increasingly digitized workplace.
1. What hours do you work?
No, your interviewer’s not looking for you to simply spit back the hours required for the position—they already know the work schedule, or whatever the case may be. What they want is a sense of whether you are the kind of person who likes to show up early or will not sweat staying a little bit late, should the job require it.
Later, down the road in the hiring process, you can go further into the particulars of your schedule, like the afternoons you need to leave 30 minutes early to pick up the kids from daycare or volunteer at the local iguana rescue. For now, you can focus on projecting your commitment to the job and your flexibility to stick around as long as it takes to get the work done.
1. How do you plan your day?
For an interviewer, this offers one of the best windows into how you conduct yourself at work. Maybe you are the kind of person who creates a daily action plan, organizes it by priority, and then unwaveringly stays the course. Alternatively, maybe you spend your mornings knocking out a few easy tasks or emails, and then dedicate your afternoon to larger projects on the docket.
Either way, sharing how you structure your day gives you an opportunity to demonstrate how you will take a purposeful approach to your work—even, as the case may be, if you like to sport a sweet pair of wraparound shades. We will defer to your target employer’s attire policy on that one
What would be your ideal working environment?
Job seekers and employers alike care a lot about cultural fit, so when you are asked in a job interview to describe your ideal work environment, you can be sure everyone in the room is interested in what you have to say. According to one survey, 88% of recruiters said cultural fit is important when assessing job candidates. Likewise, job seekers want to find a work environment that suits their personality and work preferences.
Knowing the type of work environment that allows you to thrive is half the battle. You also have to know how to answer the question without unintentionally knocking yourself out of the running for the job. Take these steps to prepare a well-crafted answer.
Do your research
Many hiring managers pose this question to candidates as a litmus test to see how well you’d fit into the organization, says Thea Kelley, a job search coach and author of Get That Job! The Quick and Complete Guide to a Winning Interview. “Look for overlap between what you want out of a company culture and what the company offers,” she says.
To do that, you will have to research your prospective employer thoroughly, which requires looking beyond the company’s website (though that is a good starting point). “You need to dig deeper,” says Mark Moyer, career coach and business strategist at New York City–based Compass Points Advisors.
These six sources can offer great insight into a company’s culture:
1. The company’s social media. Pay particular attention to the tone, “which can give you a good feel for the organization’s vibe,” Kelley says.
2. Current employees. Talk to two to three workers at the company to get an insider’s perspective on what it’s like to work there, says Moyer, who recommends asking mutual connections to make introductions for you. If you do not have any shared connections, tap into your college’s alumni database, advises job interview coach Bill Cole. Though you can certainly ask employees questions over email, meeting with them in person can help you cement relationships.
3. YouTube. To take advantage of this often under-utilized resource, “punch in the names of key players at the company, and see what they say during media interviews,” Cole suggests. “Oftentimes, executives will talk about company culture. Then, you can mention that you saw the interview when you sit down with the hiring manager.”
4. Press releases. A quick google search can provide a look at what the company’s current initiatives and challenges are.
5. Company reviews. See what former employees have to say about working there. The caveat? One or two negative reviews isn’t cause for concern—after all, chances are good there will always be a couple disgruntled employees—but if you see an overwhelming number of negative reviews, take them as a warning sign.
6. The job description. Job postings can help you glean information about a company’s work environment. Some job descriptions even describe what the organization’s culture is like, making your job a whole lot easier.
Show you have done your homework
Once you have done the legwork, it is time to apply your newfound knowledge during the job interview. When you are asked to describe your ideal work environment, your ultimate goal is to highlight the fact that you’ve researched the company and understand its culture.
Let’s say you want to work in a collaborative environment. In that case, you might say to the hiring manager, “From talking to a few employees here, I discovered that your organization prides itself on having a family atmosphere, where peers work closely together. I thrive in those kinds of environments. Does that match up with the way things work here?”
Remember, though, your core values should align with the company’s mission (e.g., “I want to work for a company that cares about giving back to the community, and that’s why I’m so interested in this opportunity.”). If your ideal work environment is nothing like what you found out about the company, you need to carefully consider whether you really want to work there.
Moreover, only focus on describing the kind of work environment you want—not what you do not want. So instead of saying, “I don’t want to work for a company with a lot of micromanagement,” a better frame way to frame that would be to say, “I’m a self-starter, so I’m looking for some autonomy.”
• What do you look for in terms of culture—structured or entrepreneurial?
• Give examples of ideas you have had or implemented.
• What techniques and tools do you use to keep yourself organized?
• If you had to choose one, would you consider yourself a big-picture person or a detail-oriented person?
• Tell me about your proudest achievement.
• Who was your favorite manager and why?
• What do you think about your previous boss?
When applying for jobs, you already have your references—people who you know will sing your praises—lined up. But in an interview, sometimes you’ll be the one asked to give perspective on your current or most recent boss.
As it turns out, most job seekers do not exactly have the best things to say about them. In a 2018 poll, the majority (76%) of U.S. respondents said they currently have or recently had a toxic boss. That is compared to the minority (5%) of respondents who are BFFs with their boss and 19% who described their boss as a mentor, or someone they can learn from and know has their back. The bad bosses, however, can best be described as power-hungry (26%), micromanager (18%), incompetent (17%), or just never around (15%).
Regardless of whether your previous boss was your best friend or your worst enemy, talking about him or her to a prospective employer takes a little tact.
“How you describe past relationships speaks volumes about you, not the boss, which is why interviewers pose the question. Interviewers are looking for a few different things when they ask this question: how well you handle being put on the spot, how well you play with others, and how you like to be managed. Come prepared to answer, so you do not get caught off-guard and say something you’ll regret.
Be Positive - even if it's difficult
The experts agree that saying something positive about your former boss is the only way to answer this question—regardless of your true feelings. If a candidate rants negatively about a prior manager, the interviewer often considers the employee the problem and will be hesitant to make the hire. Obviously if you had a great manager, acknowledge that and specify what made them so great. If, on the other hand, you had a more challenging relationship with you manager, proceed cautiously.
You want to highlight positive aspects of your manager’s leadership style and what you learned from him or her. If the interviewer pushes for some sort of criticism, say something that ends on a positive note. You may want to acknowledge that while you had very different styles, you found a way to work together to deliver results or meet customer needs. “Be prepared to give a specific example that can be shared in a positive way.
You say - “My boss was strong-willed, which sometimes made it difficult to communicate new ideas; however, we always managed to talk it out and find solutions that were best for the company.”
Bring it back to your strengths
Your answer to this question can indicate how you like—or don’t like—to be managed. How does that mesh with my own management style? Would this be a relationship that works?
The interviewer may also be testing to see what you’ll be like to work with. Will you make a positive contribution to the company’s culture, or will you need to be refereed?
Whatever the reason, remember they are interviewing you, not your former boss. Keep the focus on what skills and experience you bring to this position. Let your strengths show in your answer and move the interview onto more important questions.
You say - “She was so effective at advocating for our department. I learned a lot from her about how to diplomatically manage people, keep communication lines open between departments and how to advocate for the team.”
Demonstrate discretion and loyalty
By asking this question, an interviewer might also be testing you to see how you would handle sensitive inquiries from customers, colleagues or others.
Interviewer - “I’m not necessarily looking for loyalty to the boss, but how loyal are they to the organization?” “When they leave our company will they trash talk our organization?”
Many applicants fail to realize that their criticism of their boss is often perceived as their unwillingness to accept accountability for their own actions. Hiring managers believe that if an applicant would criticize their former manager in an interview, they would probably also criticize them or their co-workers if they were applying for a different job in the future.
You say: “We had our differences, but I thought it was important to stay focused on our goals and to set up my manager—and my team—for success.”
• Was there a person in your career who really made a difference?
• What kind of personality do you work best with and why?
• What are you most proud of?
• What do you like to do?
• What are your lifelong dreams?
• What do you ultimately want to become?
• What is your personal mission statement?
• What are three positive things your last boss would say about you?
• What negative thing would your last boss say about you?
• What three character traits would your friends use to describe you?
• What are three positive character traits you don't have?
• If you were interviewing someone for this position, what traits would you look for?
• List five words that describe your character.
• Who has impacted you most in your career and how?
• What is your greatest fear?
• What is your biggest regret and why?
• What's the most important thing you learned in school?
• Why did you choose your major?
• What will you miss about your present/last job?
• What is your greatest achievement outside of work?
• What are the qualities of a good leader? A bad leader?
• Do you think a leader should be feared or liked?
• How do you feel about taking no for an answer?
• How would you feel about working for someone who knows less than you?
• How do you think I rate as an interviewer?
• Tell me one thing about yourself you wouldn’t want me to know?
All sorts of inappropriate—no, really inappropriate—answers may pop into your ahead.
Do not say them! Take a moment, inhale slowly and then smile, because you have done your research and you know what this question is really asking you.
Interviewers are looking to hear how something in your past has changed you for the better. A good answer to this question demonstrates your adaptability to learn, grow and possibly be flexible.
One thing is certain: You have to give a response. Here is how to pick a good one.
Bring up your younger years
Start out by outlining a problem you faced in your past work life—or even something interesting from your high school or college years, McKay says. Those are prime mistake-making years—and you have come a long way since then. Just make sure you pick an example that you have learned something from. Do not overdo it with sordid details; simply describe ‘the challenge you were facing and what was at stake.’
You say - “I was an overachiever in college and there were a couple of semesters when I tried to do it all with classes and tons of extra-curricular involvement. My grades were slipping and I was burning out quickly.”
Describe your reaction
Then, follow up with how you overcame the problem. A spotless career is rare, and as long as you can show you aren’t afraid of dealing with adversity, even talking about a challenge that puts you in a bad light shouldn’t hurt your chances. Answering the question humanizes you to the interviewer.
You say - “So, I took a semester off to clear my mind, did some traveling—mostly some soul searching—and came back ready to finish my degree, which I did, with honors.”
Share the lesson
Finally, talk about the key takeaways from your experience. This may be something you learned about yourself, such as how you prefer to work or your career interests. If you can include information about ensuing successes or how it brought you to the current interview, add that as well.
You say - "Coming so close to burning out and giving up entirely helped me understand my own limits while also strengthening my resolve to succeed. Traveling also made me realize that any career I took would have to have international opportunities, which is why I’m interested in this position."
• Tell me the difference between good and exceptional.
• What kind of car do you drive?
• There's no right or wrong answer, but if you could be anywhere in the world right now, where would you be?
• What's the last book you read?
• What magazines do you subscribe to?
• What's the best movie you've seen in the last year?
• What would you do if you won the lottery?
• Who are your heroes?
• What do you like to do for fun?
• What do you do in your spare time?
• What is your favorite memory from childhood?
Brainteasers
• How many times do a clock's hands overlap in a day?
• How would you weigh a plane without a scale?
Walk the interviewer through your thinking about getting a weight. They want to see if you can reason through things. They are not really looking for a ‘weight’ answer.
• Tell me 10 ways to use a pencil other than writing.
• Sell me this pencil.
Most interviewers are screening for confidence and cogency. In general, interviewers use this question to get a feel for your sales style and experience. There are a few guidelines pros suggest you follow when crafting your response:
Ask questions—lots and lots of questions
The answer made famous in the movie The Wolf of Wall Street—in which stockbroker Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) asks a friend to sell him a pen. The friend takes the pen and asks Belfort to write his name down on a napkin. Belfort says he cannot, he does not have a pen, and the friend says, “Exactly”—is actually not the best approach in this real-life situation. In fact, Belfort told Piers Morgan on CNN in 2014 that the best salespeople would ask questions before they try to sell anything.
Other experts agree the best response is one that starts with plenty of questions. An ideal response to a question like this would be for the sales rep to start asking penetrating questions about person and their business that would help them identify whether or not they really need a pencil in the first place. Being able to identify a prospect’s needs is the single most important, and often most overlooked, aspect of being a good salesperson. By asking questions, you can sell the pencil, not as a commodity, but as a solution to the buyer’s problem.
You say - “I’d like to understand your needs surrounding pencils. What are you currently using to write with? Where do you most often use this writing instrument and what types of things do you normally write? Are you happy with your current writing tools? If you were to consider another vendor for your writing implements, what would be important to you?”
Understand their needs and pivot if necessary
You are selling the pencil, and you ask the interviewer, “What are you currently using to write with?” His response is, “Nothing, I never write.” What do you do next? Do not be afraid to say, ‘Oh, sounds like you’re not in the market for the pencil I’m selling. Do you know anyone who is?” Do not waste time pitching to people who do not have any use for what you are selling. Unless you are hoping to irritate someone into buying your pencil, do not keep pushing when the buyer says he does not need one.
You say - Since you have no use for this pencil I’m selling, is there someone else in your company who might need one?
• If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
• Why is there fuzz on a tennis ball?
• If you could choose one superhero power, what would it be and why?
• If you could get rid of any one of the US states, which one would you get rid of and why?
• With your eyes closed, tell me step-by-step how to tie my shoes. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.10%3A_Basic_Interview_Questions.txt |
“Mentoring is a brain to pick, an ear to listen, and a push in the right direction.” — John Crosby
When looking at the inner workings of a restaurant there are many organizational areas to explore. Although each restaurant will have organizational areas that may be specific to just that restaurant, there are seven widely accepted, important areas of organization that are universal. This chapter will explore these areas of importance individually and in more detail.
Area Assumptions Outcome
Organization Schema Purpose and functioning of the organization is necessary to become an effective organizational member. Improved understanding of coporate purpose
Things to think about:
• What is the organizational mission?
• What are the core values?
• Can personal and organizational goals be achieved simultaneoulsy.
Organizational Chart
An organizational chart describes a thought pattern or behavior that organizes all manners of the restaurant’s information into categories. In doing so, it shows the different relationships between specific information about the restaurant. In this way, the chart is used to arrange current knowledge in a systematic way, as well as provide a substructure for future understanding. It can involve team members or management structure as shown in the examples provided – build your own site organizational chart.
Creating an organizational chart is important for several reasons. Perhaps the most important reason is it creates a hierarchy within the restaurant. This hierarchy creates a chain of command that can help eliminate confusion. Employees now know where to go for answers and learn to respect the chain of command. It is important to note that every restaurant is different. Therefore, each restaurant will have their own specific organizational chart. Often times this has a great deal to do with the size of the restaurant. Typically, the less covers or plates of food you cook each service the smaller the organizational chart will be. Places that do a larger volume of customers would require more labor and therefore a larger management team.
A good organizational chart will leave room for growth. Restaurants are constantly changing and evolving to meet the needs of their clientele. For example, twenty years ago there was no need for someone on your organizational chart to deal with social media. No organizational chart is every set in stone. It should be a living breathing document. The organizational chart should be posted or readily available for all employees at all times. A plan that no one knows exists is not a plan. It is a lack in communication waiting to happen. A good organizational chart should be an incredible tool in aiding with the communication and politics of day-to-day workings of a professional restaurant. A well designed organizational chart along with creating policy and understanding the nature of politics in the kitchen will create an empowered employee that knows the importance of teamwork in getting the job done.
Questions for reflection
1. What is an organizational chart?
2. Describe how the size of your restaurant can affect the organizational chart.
3. List three reasons why a good organizational chart would leave room for growth.
Policy
Area Assumptions Outcome
Policy Every organization has a specific hierarchy, however, power may not lie where one might expect.
Effective organizational integration.
Who leads and decides?
Things to think about:
Who is the storyteller
Who is powerful and who is not?
What is the organizational structure?
Once you have examined the restaurants organizational chart and the interns can understand the proper chain of command, now it is time to look at policy. Policy can be best described as guidelines to specific day to day procedure of running a restaurant. Successful restaurants that have established a well-defined organizational chart will use policy to further outline procedure for each intern. The advantages of having well defined policies at your restaurant are many, but here are the two of the most important reasons. A well-defined set of policies will set specific expectations for your co-workers and yourself. It will also create a safer workplace by reducing the frequency of arguments, incidents, and accidents. The result over time if policies are sound and are easily understood will be a more successful service with more productivity.
When understanding policy there are many details to think about. Making an accessible, well defined, and enforceable policy is the lynch pin for creating the culture you want in the kitchen. Does the policy fit and follow the hierarchy of the organizational chart. If policies don’t fit the flow of the restaurants organizational chart, the restaurant creates confusion by sending mixed messages. A successful policy is much like an organizational chart should be written. It should be located where all employees have access. Most successful restaurants will make a handbook outlining the restaurants policy and procedures. These are typically given to the employees during their training period. Restaurants will also have a copy of the manual on site in the event there needs to be clarification on a specific policy.
Just having a well written, easily understood and accessible set of restaurant policies is not enough. For policies and procedures to be successful you must be able to tell if policies are being effective. One of the best ways understand if policies are successful is to have employee input. When workers feel listened to they feel part of a team and valued. Whenever possible, run policy ideas and changes by employees that best understand the culture and environment of the restaurant. This will create ownership of these policies by the employees. It is likewise important to remember that one of the quickest ways to lose employee confidence is to not enforce or inconsistently enforce policy.
When a problem arises that goes against or down right breaks a rule of policy and procedure, it is important to identify the problem. Once the problem is identified then it should be corrected in accordance to written policy. If there is no current written policy then perhaps it is time to re-examine the policy and make changes using the collaborative method that will be discussed more when we touch on restaurant politics. Consistency is the key. The more policy is reinforced and defended, the more it will become almost second nature. The constant reinforcement of policy is what creates a restaurants’ culture. This means holding the intern is held accountable to not only the policy, but the escalating consequences that come with repeatedly broken policies.
It is important for the punishment to fit the crime. For example, if the policy is, “All employees and interns handling food will wear a hair net.” If an intern forgets or does not wear a hairnet, the manager would explain the restaurant’s policy again making sure the intern understands. Many places use escalating consequences to deter infractions. Perhaps the first time a manager might explain why the health code necessitates the intern wearing one and how the restaurant could get written up by the health inspector for health code violations. The behavior being corrected is important, but the reason why it was broken is more important.
To be consistent in the enforcement of correct policy and procedure, it is more important to get to the understanding of why the policy was broken, because there are always circumstances where there are exceptions to policy usually based on health or personal human suffering. Policies in a restaurant that ultimately lead to the staff and interns being more hospitable. If policies punish unavoidable human suffering it is probably best they be re-examined. Policies that do not reflect the organizational chart, and more importantly are not consistently enforced create power struggles and confusion.
Questions for reflection
1. What are the two advantages of having well defined policies at your restaurant?
2. Why is it important that the policies reflect the hierarchy of the organizational chart?
3. Compare and contrast what a restaurant would look like without policies and procedures versus one with well-established ones.
Politics
Every workplace especially a kitchen is political. Politics can best be defined for our purposes as trying to gain power or influence for ones’ own personal gain. Everyone strives to be professional and avoid bad politics, but people will come to work with drive, emotions, needs, and apprehension. While we all strive to do our best we find there are differences in personalities, thought processes, and opinions. When constructive communication breaks down we can seek to influence others and their decisions. Co-workers can be open about their intentions or can be covert in their political influence. It is a tricky situation because due to the organizational chart some people will always naturally have more power than others. So how should new intern try to navigate the political trappings of a kitchen? It is not an easy question to answer, but there are steps you can take to better understand the politics of your kitchen and how it affects you.
The political climate of the kitchen you are in can vary at times due to staff turnover, but most of the time it will stay pretty constant. The first thing an intern should do is know the organizational chart. Once you know the chart and its’ hierarchy, it is time to observe. After you observe you will see who has the greatest influence or political strength. Go back and look at the organizational chart. Does the chart list the same people in order of political power? Who is the creative muscle behind this restaurant? Which employees have the greatest influence over others? Who are the leaders? Who are the followers? Which people on staff truly try to mentor? All of these questions will give you greater understanding of how this more informal network of politics works.
So now, you have some understanding of consistencies and differences between the restaurants’ organizational chart and the restaurants politics. What you are exploring is the informal networks of your restaurant. Once you better-understand who ultimately controls the influence in the restaurant, it is time to understand management and staff interactions better. You will observe again maybe in more detail and without the staff knowing. Are their separate groups? Are there people who are in or out of the loop? Who get along with everyone and who does not? Are their examples of bullying? Are these connections made due to admiration, genuine friendship, or even romance? It is your job to find out the ebb and flow between these groups in the restaurant. Discover if there is a long on-going interpersonal strife between certain groups or workers. Understanding the dynamic and flow of these informal networks will give you a greater understanding of office politics.
You have now studied your restaurants organizational chart, and have looked at more ‘personal’ and ‘interpersonal’ relationships between co-workers. Now you can use this knowledge to build your own social relationships in the kitchen. It is important to be cordial to everyone, however, you should refrain from aligning with this group or that group. It may be natural to try to avoid those with greatest political power especially if they can be difficult, however it is important to get to know them but don’t be naive. It is important while you do this that you are making genuine association with this person. Empty praise or flattery will get you nowhere. This is a perfect time to develop your people skills.
Think about what makes you tick. Think about your emotions. The more even keel your emotions are the less likely you will get on the wrong side of the political climate of the restaurant. How do you deal with your emotions? Do you act out? Do you shut down? When you do this you will greater understand your likes and dislikes. From here you will start to notice others emotions and their preferences. Everyone loves a good listener so the more you can wrap your head around your and your co-workers emotional intelligence, the more successful you will be in staying clear of negative political issues.
Remember from the day you walk into the kitchen you are creating your own image of how you are viewed at work. So make the most of the social networks you can make. The best way to create an image everyone loves is to make all your successes about the restaurant’s success. When colleagues see this they are more likely to reach out to you. It can help build strong ties with other employees. Always be accountable for your actions. Refrain from talking bad about others. If you strive to be trustworthy and do quality work, people will notice. Do not be afraid to ask for feedback. The more feedback you receive the more you will understand what your employer’s major concerns are. This will show that you are willing to learn and value others opinions.
Once you have gotten to this level of understanding your restaurant’s politics there may be a tendency to avoid the co-workers that practice bad politics or sabotage. This is not the best practice. As mentioned earlier, it is important to build trust among your co-workers. There is no way to build their trust if you are constantly trying to avoid them.
Get to know the people who try to work around the systems in place at your restaurant. You want to understand what their aspirations are, but don’t let your defenses down. Some people’s words or actions can be extremely manipulative. Be pleasant, but guarded. Every person has a different emotional intelligence. Often times a person this manipulative has deep insecurities and is ultimately self-sabotaging their career. Make sure they are not dragging you down with them.
There is much to think about on the subject of restaurant politics as you can see. What it really comes down to is being professional at all times. This is best done by lifting others up, not tearing them down. Rumors are just that and should be avoided like gossip. That does not mean you cannot voice your concerns. Even the best of restaurant teams will at times have discord. It is just important that when you do voice your opinions you do it politely and without malicious intent.
Questions for reflection
1. Define the word politics.
2. Express the important of comparing the organizational structure with kitchen’s politic.
3. Do a ‘self-critique’ - tell me what type of situations in the kitchen can make you struggle emotionally?
Management Styles
When entering the workforce as an intern it is important to understand the six different basic styles of management. A good manager will use a mixture of the most successful styles depending on the specific circumstances at that time. Bad managers will be limited in their use of different style of management. They will typically use only the management styles that prove to be ineffective or counterproductive. Most often, this is because their experience is limited and they are modeling the exact management style that was used on them. It is human nature to imitate what we see. The next paragraphs will discuss in more detail the six different management styles and their effectiveness.
Area Assumptions Outcome
Management Responsibilities duties, personalities may vary with different management philosophies. Understanding managment styles, six styles, six styles discussed
Things to think about:
What are the chef's duties?
Are the trainers knowledgeable?
What is the 'cultural' personality, the way everyone does things?
Coercive management – Compliance at the expense of commitment
The coercive style of management is the least effective style of management. This is the “classic angry chef model” there style is an intimidating leader who uses force to gain immediate adherence to policy and procedure. This is the manager who constantly says, “Do it the way I tell you to do it.” There is no style of management that can wreck a restaurant’s culture faster than this style. Eventually, it disenfranchises workers by making them constantly feel as if their opinion doesn’t matter and therefore an intern will not feel valued. You would think this management style has no value at all in the kitchen, however, there are certain times when it can prove to be effective. It is most effective in a time of a crisis when time is of the essence. An example would be, “That pot of milk is about to boil over, turn the fire off!” It also is used when addressing an intern that is consistently underperforming in the form of the last warning of impending termination for lack of policy compliance. However, his may force the intern to an immediate decision on whether to terminate their employment. So this technique would be used in the rarest of cases.
The overall problem of this management style is it places enormous stress on a staff. The staff can become so frightened of doing the wrong which leads to paralysis. It creates a culture of workers waiting to be told what to do, instead of understanding policy and procedures. Often times this kitchen will be without organizational chart or policy and procedure manuals. Coercive leaders live in a world of “It’s my way or hit the highway”. This is a breeding ground for bad intern morale and is best avoided.
Pacesetting Management – Setting standards
The next style of leadership is pacesetting. This leader constantly strives for perfection by setting high standards. This leader management style can best be described as, “Do it the way I do it, and do it now” Whereas this management style does have more hands on instruction generally than the coercive management style, it can be just as ineffective. While it will work with strong intrinsically highly motivated intern, it can leave the inexperienced overwhelmed. Once an intern or employee feels this way it is easy for them to give up because they feel the leaders standards are unobtainable. While this style usually will make experienced long time workers feel more successful because it rewards long term commitment, its down side is new employees feel inadequate.
Coaching management – Helping you learn
A leader who uses the coaching management style is most concerned the growth and future potential of an intern. This management style would use a phrase like, “have you tried this?” Managers using the coaching style tend to be more patient, and will put up with short term mistakes provided they see the intern progressing towards long-term growth. This more inquisitive approach to management make these managers more readily able to delegate. Delegating as such creates ownership by the intern as well as a feeling of belonging. This in turn reinforces the restaurant’s culture. Where these managers are more successful in creating a positive impact on the restaurant’s culture, it does have its’ drawbacks. For example, an intern that doesn’t have the foresight to look towards long term will feel frustrated because they would rather just be told what to do. As long as you have a highly motivated intern that wants to improve this style will achieve positive results.
Democratic management – Collective Vision
The next management style is even more about building a consensus than the coaching style. The democratic management style is where everyone gets to give his or her thoughts and opinions. This manager would use phrases like, “what are your thoughts on…?
This works wonders for team building. Interns feel validated because the commitment the democratic styled manager has to the process typically builds a reciprocal level of commitment from the intern as well. This style of management is great for creating agreement and harmony. Although this is a great management style for getting people to buy-in to the restaurant’s culture, it falls short in two places. Clear communication is a must for effective operation. This style does not work well with interns that are ignorant of all the facts of a specific situation causing confusion. Likewise, this management system does not work well when time is of the essence and it is necessary to be more direct. That fact notwithstanding, this approach will build culture at a slightly more effective level than the coaching management style.
Affiliative Management – People orientation, commitment
The affiliative style of management is a huge believer in “in house marketing.” This manager will create consonance with-in the restaurant by building bonds that deal with the emotional well-being of the intern. In this managers kitchen people come first.
This is a highly motivational style. Unlike the democratic style this style works better the more stressful the circumstances become. You will hear phrases no matter of stress level like, “This is a people business.” “People have to come first” The positive people centric nature of this style of management will obviously increase communication, but can also improve overall morale. It will even help mend issues of broken trust. In addition, unlike the previous mentioned styles of management, this style has almost no down side. It is for these reasons that interns would do well to try to search for managers using a majority of the affiliative management style at their internship site.
Authoritative Management – Team commitment to mission and vision
The last management style is authoritative. This leader is charismatic. Leading with energy and enthusiasm the set a visionary statement that will inspire. An authoritative manager will take and allow staff to take measured risks as long as it stays true to the restaurants vision. Instead of asking the intern to follow, they will ask them to come along the journey with them. It is much more collaborative and allows room for people to be creative and innovate. This is a great approach when a new direction is needed or when a fresh change is warranted. The one drawback of this style surfaces when the intern or employee is more experienced or knowledgeable than the manager. If the manager fails to stay positive this lack of knowledge can lead to the manager being perceived as arrogantly domineering. While it takes a dynamic visionary leader to manage authoritatively, this management style has the highest overall effect on the restaurants culture.
By now you should be able to see that there are different management styles that work better in different situations. The better you understand the management style your supervisor uses the more you will observe if your manager is using the appropriate style in the correct situation. There is no one management style that will work for all situations. The most successful managers will use anywhere from four to more styles. Most notably they use the affiliative, authoritative, democratic, and coaching styles. The manager that will produce a positive restaurant culture and enjoy the greatest success is the one who can no matter the challenge move effortlessly between these styles.
Questions for reflection
1. List the six types of management style.
2. Write a short paragraph defending this statement. “The affiliated management style is the best management style.”
3. Dissect the management styles of your immediate manager. When do you feel they are most successful?
Employees
When entering a kitchen for an internship, it is important to know the types of employees you may encounter. This is important because it will inform you as to which type your manager prefers. Whereas the types of employees can be broken down into many types, I would like to group them into three basic employee types for clarity’s sake. Understanding these three types will help you know co-workers personalities better. Knowing their personalities will help your form relationships and have greater empathy for your fellow workers.
Area Assumptions Outcome
Employees Team member competency, skills, talent, reliability, and motivation may vary individually or collectively Individual and collective team assessment
Thinks to think about:
What is important to the employees?
What are 'their' values like?
Are they motivated and consistent?
Survivalist – compliant for personal reasons
The first type of employee is the survivalist. The survivalist employee is an employee who is only there for the money. They will only works well when being observed by their managers. Then can often show open carelessness for their job. Survivalist employees will have trouble being truthful. Most of the time you will observe them feeling fed up with their job. You will find these types of people all over the organizational chart from top to bottom. This usually happens because the parasite employee will always appear to be energetic and downright delightful at first. However, over a period of time they can become lackluster, and deceitful. They usually will show just enough improvement to keep their employment. In restaurant politics this would be the type of person that you would be slightly guarded around because of their ability to deceive.
Laborer – Committed, limited vision, need direction
The second type of employee is the laborer. The laborer employee is an employee that needs a job, but also has the drive to feel useful in the restaurant. Often times these employees are less outgoing and charismatic than the survivalist employee. However, they get a great deal more production done than the survivalist employee. The biggest drawback to this employee is they usually stay in the moment. They typically will not have well defined long term professional goals. The laborer employee is not a self -starter. They must be constantly told what to do. This leads them to be the type of employee that never goes above and beyond their job duties. The mindset they have of just staying in the moment and completing the task at hand eventually will limit professional and personal lives.
Entrepreneur – Commitment leading to company growth
The third and final type is the entrepreneur. Unlike the survivalist employee entrepreneur type employee does not want the job for the money. And unlike the laborer employee they are not content with just being useful. The entrepreneur employee has a clear vision of their goals. These will usually involve owning their own business in the hospitality industry, which is why we use the term entrepreneur. The employee is full of intrinsic drive and will overcome any limitation. In fact this drive can become overbearing over time. Some restaurants see hiring this person as risky. They may want to just work until they have learned the skills they require to reach their professional goals and then leave. However, with the correct mentorship they will mismanage their professional goals less.
They will have fewer conflicts with other employees. Perhaps the most important upside is that the entrepreneur employee is their determination and creativity may lead to improvements in the restaurant that may have once seemed impossible. So long as the restaurants’ management team can utilize the entrepreneur employee’s talents without letting the personal and professional goals of the entrepreneur employee conflict with the restaurant culture this type of employee is invaluable.
As an intern being able to observe and distinguish which employees fall into which distinct type of employee, will greatly help your internships’ success. Each employee serves a place in the restaurant, but understanding their strengths and weaknesses will greatly improve your chance of aligning yourself with the correct mentorship. When it comes to incredible internship experiences it is all about doing the research to find the best mentors to lead you to your professional goals. Knowing the different types of employees will greatly improve your chance of navigating the ins and outs of your restaurants’ organizational structure, policies, and politics. This will in turn set you on the road to success.
Questions for reflection
1. What are the three types of employees?
2. Make a small visual chart that distinguishes the three different types of employees.
3. Which of the type of employee would you describe makes up the majority of your restaurant’s staff?
Marketing
Marketing for a restaurant can be best described in two part, the restaurants’ marketing strategy and its’ marketing plan. You will find restaurants that have little to no marketing strategy much less a plan, and others with elaborate well thought out plans, as well as everything in between. Most restaurants’ without sound marketing will not survive for the long-term. Without successful marketing a restaurant will have trouble finding its’ customers, keeping those customers, and growing that customer base. It will not be able to adapt quickly to changes in the restaurant industry. This section will explore the difference between marketing strategies and marketing plans. We will also look at the questions your employers should ask to align both the restaurant’s strategies and plans together successfully. This in turn will allow you to better observe and understand the marketing of the restaurant you choose for your internship.
A restaurant that wants to be successful at marketing itself must first start with a marketing strategy. Marketing strategies are over-arching thoughts on how best to reach your target audience. They are not plans. These ideas should target projects, industry and customers you hope to reach. These strategies should seriously consider the distinguishable market advantage your restaurant has available to use to their advantage. After a restaurant decides on its’ market strategies the next question is. How can the restaurant use their strategies and advantages to over-come the competition, find its’ true audience to create and maintain success. It is only when solid strategies have been put in place that the restaurant should start creating a marketing plan.
A marketing plan is a specific method of using resources to reach the customers. A marketing plan is putting strategies to work by exploiting the industry advantages your restaurant has identified to hit your target audience. Most restaurant will look at the resources and man power they have and outline the steps they would like to take to market to that audience. For example, if your restaurant targets senior for an early evening dinner, a strategy of using Instagram or Twitter may not reach that audience. It is also important to remember that as a restaurant grows and evolves so will your strategies, but to an even greater degree your marketing plan will. A good restaurant management staff constantly evaluates which a part of the plans are most and least successful. By monitoring they can quickly adjust their plan to better target their specific strategies, or change strategies altogether.
As an intern, it is important for you really observe first. Does the restaurant in which you are doing your internship have marketing strategies? What are those? Does their marketing stop there? Did your restaurant create a strong plan of action based on their strategies? Does it look like it is being successful? If the plan is not being successful, why is that the case? Observing the managements marketing strategies and plans by answering these questions will give you greater insight how well rounded the restaurants over-all business model is from a sustainability point. It will also prepare you to use best practices should you choose to open your own business in the hospitality industry.
Questions for reflection
1. Discuss the differences between a marketing strategy and a marketing plan?
2. Assess the effectiveness of your internship sites marketing plan.
3. Find one improvement you feel could be made to your restaurant’s current marketing plan and write a few sentences on how to make said improvement.
Internal Controls
Now that we have examined all the different areas that create the organizational structure of the restaurant in which you are interning, it is time to figure out how to monitor these areas and make sure they are staying true to the restaurants’ vision and culture. These internal controls will look very different at each restaurant. In fact, they will even be different from the examples provided throughout your course work.
Internal controls are systems put in place to improve profitability by monitoring and assuring the correct use of operational controls. Whereas some control are universal to all restaurant, those with greatest success know the importance of putting systems in place. Not just for the ability to quantify and qualify the results of all the restaurants’ planning and execution, but it will also help manage and discipline employees without appearing harsh and unfair. The more internal systems the restaurant has the more individual time management will have time for the training of interns and employees.
Once the interns are properly trained, the internal controls can act as the framework maintaining the important on the job training as well as your professional growth. Some examples of internal control mechanism are: employee handbooks, inventory, purchasing, menu pricing, tracking waste, tracking labor cost. These are all part of evaluating and maintaining the success of a restaurant. The more detailed and easily understood these monitoring devices are the more synergy you will create between staff and management. The end-result you should see while observing your restaurant is a more motivated staff that understands their duties and how to be successful.
Questions for reflection
1. What are internal controls?
2. Among the internal controls of your restaurant which are least effective and why?
3. Among the internal controls of your restaurant which are most effective and why? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.11%3A_Senior_Organizational_Areas_to_Explore.txt |
Assignment 1
Introduction
1. Cover Page
2. Student Profile
• Scheduling journal and Internship agreement
Assignment 2
Getting to know your Internship Site (500-word minimum)
Restaurant/Chef Bio Paper with Picture of chef and restaurant attached
1. Research the restaurant and past and current chefs on the internet. Later, fill in the gaps with discussions with chef and general managers
• Do not try to just sit down and ask the chef and gm every question
• Do your own research and fill in the gaps with quick, pointed questions to your chef and gm. They are extremely busy treat their time as valuable)
1. Using the information that you have found during Task 1 answer the following Questions:
• Name of restaurant
• When did this restaurant first open, how long has it been open
• Any awards or special recognitions for restaurant
• Past Chefs' career and their awards and special recognitions
• Current Chef's career and their awards and special recognitions
1. Sources:
• The restaurant website and chef for whom you are working, as well as articles and media on the chef and restaurant
• Use the attached TEMPLATE which includes the proper formatting for your paper.
Template for Chef Bio Paper
Your name
Date
CULA 495
Instructor (i.e. Chef Daigle, Chef Cheramie, Chef Kasten)
Introduction
Tell me what I am about to read – you must use the sentence “The purpose of this paper is….”
Body
Restaurant Information
First paragraph(s) should include:
• Name of restaurant
• When this restaurant first opened, how long it has been open
• Any awards or special recognition for restaurant
Chef Information
Past Chefs
Next paragraph(s) should include:
• Past Chefs’ careers and their awards and special recognitions
Current Chefs
Next paragraph(s) should include:
• Current Chef’s career and their awards and special recognitions
• Photo of Current Chef, not to exceed 3x3”
Conclusion
How will the research you just did on the history of your restaurant and chefs who have influenced it help you be more successful at your internship?
Sources (Two sources minimum)
Assignment 3
Daily Work Activities: Prep (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. An overview of daily prep activities. Describe from beginning to end the activities you perform on an average day.
2. Micro-view of one menu item being prepped for service (should not read like a recipe)
• You might discuss station, mise en place
• Timing your plate to come up with others on the order, etc.
3. 2nd Micro-view of a different menu item being prepped for service (should not read like a recipe)
Assignment 4
Executing Dishes and Service Time (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. An overview of daily service activities. Describe from beginning to end the activities you perform on an average day.
2. Micro-view of one menu item being picked up from service (should not read like a recipe)
• You might discuss station, mise en place
• Timing your plate to come up with others on the order, etc.
3. Micro-view of one menu item being picked up from service (should not read like a recipe)
Assignment 5
Flow of Food (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Ordering Food & Supplies
2. Receiving and Issuing Food
3. Storing Food
Assignment 6
Kitchen & Service Team (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Prep and Line Cooks' Titles and Functions (tailor to service team if service concentration)
2. Line/Worker Communication
3. Line/Worker Teamwork
Assignment 7
Management Organization Structure and Systems (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Discuss the number of managers you have at your internship site.
• List their name, title, and describe their duties
2. Discuss the written policies used by the management of your internship site.
• If there are none, discuss how policy information is disseminated to the staff.
3. Discuss the training procedure that you were provided at your internship site.
Assignment 8
Skills Obtained (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. What are some new things that you learned about your specific concentration(s) or about what it is like working in the food service industry?
2. What are some technical skills that you developed or that you have improved upon during your internship?
3. Discuss management styles you were exposed to during your internship.
• What style did you find to be most effective?
• Least effective?
Assignment 9
Reflection (300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Discuss what you enjoyed most about your internship (your favorite part)
2. Discuss what you enjoyed least about your internship (your least favorite)
3. What would you change about your least favorite part of your internship?
Assignment 10
Finalizing your Internship (1000-word minimum, this report is worth 20% of your Final Grade.
1. Please inform your supervisor that they should be receiving a link via email this week to complete your evaluation. This evaluation is worth 30% of your Final Grade.
2. Use the attached REQUIRED template to write your report. You may utilize materials created earlier in your internship.
Template for Final Internship Report
Your name
Date:
CULA 495: Senior Internship Final Paper
Instructor:
Introduction
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Tell me what I am about to read – you must use the sentence:
“The purpose of this paper is….” (Do not write this statement until you have finished your paper – it will be apparent what to write at that point
• Personal info
• Career/education info
Body
Concentration
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Concentration Content (150 words/150 pts)
• What is your concentration? Please review its outcome goals on CJFCI website (https://www.nicholls.edu/culinary/ac...gree-programs/)
• What did you expect to learn or do at an internship that supports your career goals
• How well has your concentration and the curriculum at NSU Culinary prepare you for entering the hospitality workforce?
Scope of Current Internship Activities and Effectiveness
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Scope of Internship Content (150 words/150 pts)
• What was your position and what did you do at your current Internship?
• Did it meet the goals for your advancement in your concentration and future career goals?
Future Criteria for Selecting Next Career Placement
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
What are you looking for in your next internship placement? (200 words/200 pts)
• Skills
• Knowledge
• Chef personality/management style
• Type of restaurant
• What steps will you take to meet these goals?
Three Possible Career Placement Work Sites
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Possible Career sites Content (total pts for section 600 pts)
(Each bullet worth 200 pts and must have 200 words minimum)
• Career Placement site 1: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
• Career Placement site 2: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
• Career Placement site 3: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
Conclusion
Overwrite your content here and delete the following red topic prompts
Conclusion Content (100 words/100 pts)
• Do not add any new information – just recap the above area(s)
Sources (100 pts)
• Should include journal entries from current internship, website for CJFCI culinary concentrations, and websites for future internship/career placement at the bare minimum | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.12%3A_Senior_Internship_Requirements.txt |
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Chapter 3
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Learning Notes
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Socialization Notes
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Internship Literature
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Schon, D.A., 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, D. 1999, February 2. The what, why and how of reflective practice in teacher education. Keynote address presented to Education Faculty staff, Auckland College of Education, New Zealand.
St. Amant, K. 2003. Expanding internships to enhance academic-industry relations: A perspective in stakeholder education. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 33(3), 231-241.
Yost, D.S., Sentner, S.M., and Forlenza-Bailey, A. F. 2000. An examination of the construct of critical reflection: Implications for teacher education programming in the 21st century. Journal of Teacher Education, 5(1), 39-49. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.13%3A_Notes.txt |
Kitchen Weight and Measures
1 pinch = 1/8 teaspoon
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon (teaspoon – tsp / Tablespoon = tbsp.)
2 tablespoons = 1 ounce
1 cup = 8 ounces / 16 tbsp.
¾ cup = 6 ounces / 12 tbsp.
½ cup = 4 ounces / 8 tbsp.
¼ cup = 2 ounces / 4 tbsp.
16 ounces = 1 pound
2 cups = 1 pint / 16 oz.
4 cups = 1 quart / 32 oz.
16 cups = 1 gallon / 128 oz.
2 quarts = ½ gallon / 64 oz.
4 quarts = 1 gallon
Metric Conversions
1 gram = 0.03527 oz.
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
28.35 grams = 1 ounce / 2 tbsp.
453.6 g. = 1 pound
5 milliliters = 1 teaspoon
15 milliliters = 1 tablespoon
240 milliliters = 1 cup
0.4732 liters = 1 pint
0.951 liters = 1 quart
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
Food Quantity Needed
(1) Number to be served X portions size = number of ounces needed
Number of ounces needed / 16 (ounces per pound) = pounds needed
EXAMPLE: 25 hamburgers, 8 oz. each. SO…. 8 oz. X 25 = 200 ounces needed. So….200oz. / 16oz (1 lb.) = 12.5 pounds of hamburger needed.
Recipe Conversion
Must know: (1) number of servings – recipe yield, and (2) # of servings needed.
• More servings than the recipe - recipe yield divided into number of servings needed is the amount needed.
• Less servings needed than the recipe yields - divide number of servings needed divided by recipe yield is the percentage to reduce the recipe by.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Recipe yields 6 servings – you need 24 servings SO… 24 / 6 = 4 times the recipe amounts.
(2) Recipe yields 24 servings and you need 6 servings So…. 6 servings / 24 servings = 25% of recipe ingredients. Or – 6/6 = 1 24/6 = 4 = ratio 1 to 4 or 25%
2.02: Measurement and Conversion Charts
Formulas for Exact Measurement
WHEN YOU KNOW: MULTIPLY BY: TO FIND:
Mass (weight) Ounces 28.35 grams
Pounds 0.45 kilograms
Grams 0.035 ounces
Kilograms 2.2 pounds
Volume (capacity) teaspoons 5.0 milliliters
tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters
cups 0.24 liters
pints 0.47 liters
quarts 0.95 liters
gallons 3.785 liters
milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces
Temperature Fahrenheit 5/9 (after subtracting 32) Celsius
Celsius 9/5 (then add 32) Fahrenheit
Rounded Measurement for Quick Reference
1 oz. = 30 g
4 oz. = 120 g
8 oz. = 240 g
16 oz. = 1 lb. = 480 g
32 oz. = 2 lb. = 960 g
36 oz. = 2¼ lb. = 1000 g (1 kg)
1/4 tsp. = 1/24 fl. oz. = 1 ml
1/2 tsp. = 1/12 fl. oz. = 2 ml
1 tsp. = 1/6 fl. oz. = 5 ml
1 Tbsp. = 1/2 fl. oz. = 15 ml
1 C. = 8 fl. oz. = 240 ml
2 c. (1 pt.) = 16 fl. oz. = 480 ml
4 c. (1 qt.) = 32 fl. oz. = 960 ml
4 qt. (1 gal.) = 128 fl. oz. = 3.75 It
32°F = 0°c
122°F = 50°c
212°F = 100°c
Conversion Guidelines
1 gallon 4 quarts
8 pints
16 cups (8 fluid ounces)
128 fluid ounces
1 fifth bottle approximately 1 ½ pints or exactly 26.5 fluid ounces
1 measuring cup 8 fluid ounces (a coffee cup generally holds 6 fluid ounces)
1 large egg white 1 ounce (average)
1 lemon 1 to 1 ¼ fluid ounces of juice
1 orange 3 to 3½ fluid ounces of juice
Scoop Sizes
Scoop Number Level Measure
6 2/3 cup
8 1/2 cup
10 2/5 cup
12 1/3 cup
16 1/4 cup
20 3 1/5 tablespoons
24 2 2/3 tablespoons
30 2 1/5 tablespoons
40 1 3/5 tablespoons
The number of the scoop determines the number of servings in each quart of a mixture: for example, with a No. 16 scoop, one quart of mixture will yield 16 servings.
Ladle Sizes
Size Portion of a Cup Number per Quart Number per Liter
1 fl. oz. 1/8 32 34
2 fl. oz. 1/4 16 17
2 2/3 fl. oz. 1/3 12 13
4 fl. oz. 1/2 8 8.6
6 fl. oz. 3/4 5 1/3 5.7
Canned Goods
SIZE NO. OF CANS PER CASE AVERAGE WEIGHT AVERAGE NO. CUPS PER CAN
No.¼ 1 & 2 doz. 4 oz. 1/2
No.½ 8 8 oz. 1
No. 300 1 & 2 doz. 14 oz. 1 3/4
No. 1 tall (also known as 303) 2 & 4 doz. 16 oz. 2
No. 2 2 doz. 20 oz. 2 1/2
No. 2½ 2 doz. 28 oz. 3 1/2
No.3 2 doz. 33 oz. 4
No. 3 cylinder 1 doz. 46 oz. 5 2/3
No. 5 1 doz. 3 lb. 8 oz. 5 1/2
No. 10 6 6 lb. 10 oz. 13 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.01%3A_Kitchen_Weights_and_measurements.txt |
With-in the cooking process, there are three distinct methods in reference to applying heat to food. These are: moist heat cooking, dry heat cooking, and combination cooking
Understanding the working procedure of each of these methods, will help you to become a better, more confident and successful chef.
Moist Heat Cooking
The method of applying heat via hot liquids, associated with:
1. Poaching,
2. Simmering,
3. Boiling,
4. Blanching
5. Braising
6. Steaming
These cooking methods are most useful when a cook fully understands the relationship of time and temperature. Establishing familiarity with these aspects of the cooking process will immediately improve and enhance one’s ability in the kitchen. The moist heat cooking methods follow with regard to temperature ranges.
Poaching - 160-180 degrees Fahrenheit
Poaching: to submerge food in a hot liquid at a temperature range of 160-180 degrees Fahrenheit, I like to use the term “gentle poach”. This requires submerging food into a hot liquid of no higher than 180 degrees Fahrenheit, and can be approached by two different methods. Two approaches are applicable: place a food product in a cold liquid, slowly raising the temperature up to 170/degrees, or bring the liquid to a boil then submerge the raw food product into the hot liquid then, immediately remove it from the heat source. Either method works well to cook the product while ultimately maintaining or protecting the quality and integrity of the food. It is important to remember that all proteins coagulate when applied to heat.
Simmering & Stewing - 180-205 degrees Fahrenheit
Simmering: to submerge a food in a hot liquid within a temperature range of 180-205 degrees, representing a slow to rapid performance result. Simmering is a long and slow cooking method utilized for cooking less tender cuts of meat as in a stew. Subsequently, less tender cuts of meat are most often less expensive. When simmering at the proper temperature one has total control over the cooking process with less evaporation or controlled loss of liquid. Evaporation can be controlled by utilizing a cover on the pot or pan. Ultimately, this method allows for both maximum flavor extraction, and maximum tenderization of a protein.
Stewing: to sear off in hot fat, then simmer fully submerged in a flavored liquid (stock or broth). Stewing is considered a ‘low and slow’ cooking method, is best prepared in a cassoulet or crock-pot, and is recognized as a combination form of cookery.
Boiling
Boiling: to submerge a food in a hot liquid at a temperature range of 205-212 degrees. A true boil is not effectively reached until 212/degrees, but for convenience and better control, consider 205 – 210 a gentle boil and 210 – 212 a rapid boil.
Blanching
Blanching: to cook food quickly submerged in a hot liquid such as boiling water (212 degrees F.) or hot fat. Usually this method is followed by “shocking” a process of halting cooking by submerging the food in an ice water bath. We blanch foods for the following purposes:
• Speeds up the final cooking process
• Promotes more even and consistent cooking throughout
• Enhances color pigmentation
• Promotes vitamin and nutrient retention
• Helps to prevent spoilage/extends the shelf life of a product
• Blanched vegetables can be easier for some people to digest v/s eating raw food
• Improves flavor - cooked food can taste better than raw food
Of course, if you were blanching in hot oil as in “French fries”, one would not shock the food afterwards. The process of blanching potatoes in hot oil, removes excess liquid from the potato, prevents oxidization and yields a much crispier fried potato as a result.
Braising
Braising: meats and vegetables are seared and browned in hot fat, then simmered in a covered pot or roasting pan with a small amount of liquid. This is referred to as a
combination form of cookery. Usually, this method of cookery is reserved for less tender and less expensive cuts of meats. Eye of the round, the cut of beef commonly recommended for braising pot roast is a good example of this application or cooking method. When braising a pot roast the liquid or stock should come half way up the side of the roast. Half way through the cooking process the roast would be turned over. Braising can be done on top of the stove or in the controlled temperature environment of an oven. The latter is the preferred method. However, be sure to bring the liquid to a simmer before placing it in the oven. Long, slow cooking produces the best results with less evaporation and shrinkage. A nominal braising temperature is 300 degrees Fahrenheit for three hours. This of course depends on the cut, weight and size of the meat being braised. The oven braising temperature range is 275 to 325 degrees Fahrenheit.
Steaming
Steaming: one of the hottest cooking mediums available ranging from 212 degrees Fahrenheit and higher. That is why pressure-cooking generally reduces overall cooking times by 2/3rds. This method is also arguably recognized and recommended for maximum vitamin and nutrient retention. Essential dietary vitamin and nutrient values are not washed away during the cooking process. As a word of caution, be very careful when cooking with steam, it is very hot and will burn if the steam is exposed to the skin or flesh of an individual. Never remove the cover of a steamer and look directly into the pot. Be sure to allow the steam to escape prior to inspecting your cooked foods.
Dry Heat Cooking
1. Roasting v/s Baking
2. Pan Roasting
3. Stove Top Smoking
4. Spit roasting
5. Grilling / Barbecuing
6. Broiling
7. Griddling
Roasting v/s Baking (300 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit)
I always ask this question on day one of my classes while discussing cooking methods. What is the difference between roasting and baking? Often, this question is followed by a long pause and then a few suggestions are offered. However, the answer is quite simple; there is no difference. Both cooking methods are performed in the temperature-controlled environment of an oven. One can low temperature roast or bake and one can high temperature roast or bake. They are both considered dry heat methods of cookery. The only difference is the semantics involved in describing a particular type of food or dish. For example, oven roasted breast of chicken verses baked chicken. Usually, the term roasting refers to meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables and baking refers more to the baking of bread or sweet and savory pastries.
Pan Roasting (350 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit)
A common cooking method frequently found on menus across America today. This method requires only a minimal amount of fat. After a food item is seared off (browned) in a hot pan on top of the stove, it is moved to a low or high temperature oven (dependent on the size of the cut) to complete the cooking process.
Stove Top Smoking (200 to 220 degrees Fahrenheit)
Is yet another dry heat cooking method. This method was traditionally carried out on a backyard BBQ or grill. Today smoking can be done on a grill or the stovetop or in an oven. However, all indoor smoking requires a good ventilation system or exhaust fan. For indoor smoking, soak wood chips in water for thirty minutes prior to using them. Drain them well, pat them dry with paper towel and then scatter them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Insert a wire rack over the wood chips, and then place your meat, fish, poultry or vegetables on the rack. Place a tightly fitting lid on the pan and secure it with aluminum foil. Begin by heating the pan on top of the stove until the wood chips start smoking. Adjust the flame or temperature to produce an even and consistent burn. At this point, the smoking procedure can be finished on top of the stove or in an oven. Due to the fact that this cooking method is so dry, it is recommended that all protein food products be marinated or brined prior to the smoking process. See Brining….
Spit roasting (minimum 300 degrees Fahrenheit)
This age-old method occurs by which a food item is skewered, and then placed on a rotisserie device over or next to an indirect flame. The advantages of using this method are uniform cooking throughout and even browning and self- basting. There is nothing more satisfying than a spit roasted chicken, marinated leg of lamb or barbecued pork loin cooked in your own back yard on a rotisserie, above a charcoal grill or a slow burning open pit wood fire…Wow! Brining is also recommended for this method of cookery.
Grilling Verses Barbecuing (350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit)
Being from the North East this is a frequently asked question: When cooking steaks outdoors on a gas grill am I grilling or barbecuing? Why is it when inviting guests we often say; we are having a backyard barbecue this afternoon would you like to join us? Although similar, there are some very distinct differences between the two cooking methods. Traditional barbecuing is done over rendered molten coals or cindered wood ash, over long periods and best described as a long, ‘low and slow’, methodical cooking process. Thus, fattier less expensive cuts of meat are recommended for this method of cooking.
Grilling is generally cooking over high heat with charcoal, wood or gas. Items are marked or seared on the outside surface, then most often moved and finished in an oven, as not to over-char the outside surface. Alternately, move your charred foods to a rack raised above the heat source rather than directly over it. Barbecued foods are slow cooked in a low temperature oven or over slow burning coals or wood over a long period, then moved to a grill or broiler for final finishing. Barbecue sauce can be applied by brushing during the final stages of cooking - or served with on the side as an accompaniment.
Broiling (500 to 550 degrees Fahrenheit)
Can be described as a rapid high heat cooking method achieved by a direct radiant heat source from above. Typically gas or electric broiling can be a very low fat way of cooking due to the fact that very little fat or liquid is required during the cooking process. Marinated foods work well using this direct heat method. Once an item is fully cooked on one side, it is turned over to finish the process on the other side. Broiling is a clean and efficient way to accomplish Maillard enzymatic browning, the toasting of breadcrumbs or melting cheese as in “Gratinee”.
Griddling (250 to 375 degrees Fahrenheit)
Is accomplished on a flat top temperature controlled surface, referred to as a pancake griddle. The heat source is from the bottom and usually a small amount of fat or vegetable spray is required to prevent sticking. The latest trend is to use a grooved or raised griddle surface that leaves the appearance of open flame grill marks on the foods that are being prepared an in a “Panini” griddle.
Dry Heat Using Fat
1. Sautéing
2. Pan Frying
3. Deep Fat Frying
4. Pan Searing
5. Radiation or Microwaving
The only distinguishable differences between these cooking methods are the varying amounts of fat required for each. If a recipe is calling for clarified butter, it is ok to use whole butter but oil must be added to raise the smoking point of the butter. I recommend using half butter and half oil. The food product can be placed in the pan when the butter is melted and after it stops foaming.
Sautéing (350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit)
To sauté literally means “to jump” referring to the action of the food being toss around or flipped directly in the pan. The sloped shaped sides of the pan help to facilitate this action. This method is achieved by cooking foods on very high heat in small amounts of fat. I recommend about (1-1 ½) ounces of fat in a standard 8” - 10” sauté pan. For the best results, get the pan hot, pour in the oil, followed by the food product. The most important factor when sautéing, is not to overcrowd the pan. NEVER let your proteins touch. Direct contact between proteins results in overcrowding. Overcrowding the pan causes moisture to build up, creating steam, which counteracts browning. Since browning is often the objective when sautéing, then anti-browning becomes counter-productive. Sometimes, meats are dredged in seasoned flour prior to being sautéed to help achieve uniform browning and to thicken a soup, stew, or sauce. This is perfectly acceptable; however never pre-dredge proteins ahead of time, as moisture in the product will make the flour wet and gummy.
Pan Frying or Shallow Fat Frying (325 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit)
Is accomplished is a shallow straight-sided pan with a moderate amount of fat over moderately high temperature (360) degrees. Pan-frying is recommended when preparing foods such as fish cakes, chicken parts and/or fritters. The proper amount of fat should come half way up the side of the food being fried. If too much fat is used the food product will become buoyant, preventing direct contact with the pan. Contact with the pan produces a brown exterior for which pan-frying is known. The food product is fried on one side, and then it is flipped over to finish cooking it on the other side. If the product being pan-fried is thick, dense, or on the bone, it can be finished in an oven for final cooking throughout.
Deep Fat Frying (350 to 375 degrees Fahrenheit)
This cooking method requires that foods be totally submerged in hot fat. Temperature of the fat plays a significant role in the success of deep frying foods. The average temperature range of the oil for fried foods should be between 360 - 375 degrees. It is important to regulate the temperature range of the fat throughout the cooking process or consistency of the cooked product will vary greatly. Never overcrowd the frying basket or pan because doing so will drastically reduce the temperature of the frying oil. Recommended frying oils should have a high smoking point. Vegetable and peanut oils work well for this reason. After frying, oils should be strained, filtered and cooled before being refrigerated.
Pan Searing (400 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit)
This method utilizes the least amount fat. Using, a pre-heated hot pan, spray the surface of the pan or the food with a light coating of vegetable oil. Another option may be to utilize a previously marinated product prior to exposing it to the surface of the pan. For example, pan searing may be the method chosen to cook a marinated tuna steak. The tuna steak is removed from the marinade, quickly seared on one side and then flipped over to finish the cooking process on the other side on top of the stove. If a really thick product is used, then it can be moved to a low temperature oven to finish the cooking process to ones desired degree of doneness.
Radiation or Microwaving
is certainly one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. This technology has added a significant convenience to today’s modern kitchen. Small waves of radiant energy motivate the water molecules in the food to move rapidly and flow through the food at an accelerated rate creating friction, which in turn heats and cooks the food product. Thus, dried or dehydrated foods that do not contain water cannot be cooked in a microwave without being rehydrated.
As with any piece of equipment or appliance, learning how to use the microwave properly is of most importance. One of the biggest benefits of the microwave oven is its ability to speed thaw and defrost frozen foods quickly and safely. Due to the speed of the defrosting process, foods are not exposed to the “Danger Zone” for extended periods before being cooked and served. Some foods respond extremely well to the microwave cooking process, such as steamed vegetables, corn on the cob, (in the husk) and potatoes. Rotating foods during the cooking process helps to cook foods more uniformly and microwaving in multiple short blasts rather than longer uninterrupted cook times is recommended. When reheating foods, they should be covered trapping the steam and moisture for maximum efficiency.
In terms of power and heat, 700 Watts in a microwave is like cooking at 350 degrees; 800 Watts equates to 450 degrees; 900 Watts equates to 525 degrees (Self clean) 1000 Watts equates to 575 degrees; and 1100 Watts would equal 625 degrees. Note: When using a microwave to thaw food I generally recommend cooking that food item shortly after thawing it to avoid the food being exposed to the danger zone for a prolong time. Remember that microwaving cooks food from the inside out. The inside temperature of the thawed food may be warmer than the outside temperature. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.03%3A_Basic_Cooking_Methods.txt |
Professional Associations
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
Industry Resources
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood
National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Association www.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soyfoods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Senior_Internship%3A_Advanced_leadership_Development_-_Analysis_Evaluation_Creation_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.05%3A_Professional_Associations.txt |
Today most hospitality programs emphasize the importance of experiential learning, or practical training and internships for students. Experiential learning is a broad term referring to multiple programs such as the externship, internship, practicum, or educational assignment that provide students with work-based applied learning opportunities (Lee, 2007). The development of vocational skills through industry work experience in conjunction with an academic program has been a popular way of meeting the needs of both the educational institution and the employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslie & Richardson, 2000). However, Cooper and Shepherd (1997), claim that “who” wants “what” can create educational disparities as employers seek practical and general transferable skills, while educators emphasize the conceptualization of theories and materials specific to the discipline.
Educators still grapple over how educational design can combine the structured teacher-centered learning strategy (passive learning) used in university classrooms with the learner-centered, constructivist active learning approach students typically utilize in for-profit culinary workplaces. Thus the pedagogical challenge involving all internship stakeholders is the fact that experiential internship programs, are developed with academic purpose but are designed for non-academic implementation (Petrillose & Montgomery, 1997/1998) requiring a delicate balance between classroom theory and the reality of real world culinary operations. The static and reflective nature of the traditional liberal arts institutional philosophy and the constantly evolving atmosphere of the twenty-first century culinary workplace can resemble educational “quicksand” for students attempting to acclimate to the realities of the working world (e.g. Titz & Wollin, 2002; Eyler, 1993; Varty, 2000). The differences in these two environments can present formidable obstacles to students on internships seeking practical knowledge but required to associate classroom endeavors and ways of thinking to the functional orientation of a real world operation. Under such conditions, the ability of the student and cooperation from the internship site is important to achieving student outcomes that meet higher education standards. However, not all students and internship providers understand their role in achieving outcomes, or what the outcomes should be for that matter. The system works, but not for all in consistent ways and this is the notion that drives this book.
The goals of the internship. Kiser and Partlow (1999) indicate that the preferred application of experiential learning in hospitality education is the industry work-study experience known by the term ‘internship’. They state that regardless of the term used, the objective is still the same - to enhance student learning by integrating practical work experience and classroom instruction. Experiential learning programs can be traced back to Herman Schnieder at the University of Cincinnati who started an experiential learning program to provide work-based experience to engineering students (Ryder, 1987). The internship is rooted in cooperative education conceived by John Dewey proposed bringing together the reality of the workplace and the theory of the classroom for vocational training shortly after World War II (Herrick, 1997). This connection to vocational training is evident in Varty’s (2000) posit that cooperative education, properly practiced, is an excellent strategy for future employees to develop the reflective behavior that will help them become contextual learners. The cooperative perspective reasons that programs (external conditions), what is inherent in the student (internal conditions), and what has been learned prior to or during the cooperative education experience (learning outcomes) may all interact to affect each other and/or may separately contribute to more of the variance in educational outcomes (Ricks, Van Gyn, Branton, Cut, Loken, & Ney, 1990).
Internships – not always an easy stakeholder process
Internships are educational bridges from classroom to the working world. Experiential learning is the most popular way to bridge the disparities between and needs of both educational institution and employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslie & Richardson, 2000). Ball (1995) and Becket (1996) posit that all students in higher education need to acquire extensive technical skills along with the associated skills needed to apply their knowledge within a profession or academic discipline, as well as the skills that required for the world of work and the to be attractive to employers. Moscardo and Norris (2003) claim that this challenge is particularly acute for tourism and hospitality as it is a relative new area of study within academic institutions and is primarily applied in orientation highlighting the need for devising new ways to improve the education of students in this field. Barron and Henderson (2000) also identify a need to utilize teaching and learning methods that encourage and facilitate deeper learning in tourism and hospitality education.
Internships produce different student reactions. Moscardo & Norris (2003) found that many students reported feelings of satisfaction and pride associated with completing complex and challenging experiential activity. However, students experience variable outcomes as argued by McDonald and McDonald (2000) who state that while there were a number of beneficial learning outcomes for students, the exercise was risky and not all students were prepared for it.
They found that student’s responses to experiential activities ranged from “excitement, involvement and appreciation, to apathy, withdrawal and confusion.” Barron and Henderson ((2000) posit that there is a need to improve the education of students and develop new teaching methods to enhance knowledge retention.
Internships as a difficult process. With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students.
Teaching methods are currently not refined. Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Specht & Sandlin, 1991), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) and Carson and Fisher (2006) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties.
Values, beliefs, assumptions, and critical thinking and reflection are important elements for students consideration in experiential learning as expressed by the theory, but research is lacking into how externships may or do move beyond program goals, by failing to ask how should program goals be strategized to achieve what the literature posits is important knowledge for students’ to acquire (Casado, 2000).
We will help you learn during this process
Mentoring. This has been a large part of the structure of the CJFCI internship program. Organizational trends such as downsizing, restructuring, teamwork, increased diversity, and individual responsibility for career development are contributing to an interest in mentoring. A traditional mentoring model is the apprentice learning from a master (Kerda, 1998). We are currently in an economic environment created by the Information Age, which demands heightened cognitive, interpersonal, technical, and managerial skills. Mentors represent continuity (The Mentoring Institute, 1998) and mentoring as a supplement can address new forms and kinds of critical thinking-based learning salient to the purposes of the liberal arts educational ideal. This suggests that the overall educational effectiveness of any student internship could improve or become a more consistent learning experience across students by blending cooperative education and mentoring through the utilization of an approach aimed at narrowing the gap between the classroom and the workplace. This additional component in the internship process creates a third element (a triadic approach) to the internship as opposed to the duality of student and site. Over time, the results of the additional element prove mentoring to be the most helpful approach to successful internship outcomes.
For a true understanding of the internship process, one needs to understand the roles of each participating stakeholder involved in the process. This book focuses on three primary stakeholders – students working at an internship site, the educational facilitators who oversee the internship, and internship site facilitators – Those restaurant and other locations that agree to accept the intern into their professional operation.
Questions this reading will answer
What are the factors that contribute to success on internships? To address that question, we need to look at how each stakeholder defines and thus manages their role in the internship process. What do interns, educators, and internship providers do to facilitate students’ learning on internships? What is not done by participants that hampers learning? Which participants exemplify the use of some educational strategy to increase the chances for gaining knowledge that lasts beyond the work experience? Are all participants actually aware of their role and investment, in creating worthwhile internship experiences?
Are the underlying themes, contexts and contributions for the participants of each internship equal?
Do all students, course instructors, and participating internship site care about the intern equally? Do some contribute more and others less? Do all participants strive for the same goal?
Do all interns attain some durable knowledge or do some simply become exposed to a work experience that produces no learning that results in lasting usability or the expansion of students’ capabilities.
One of the goals of any internship is increase one’s knowledge of the field, improve physical skills, and begin to understand how what they learned situates within their classroom studies. Does this occur in all cases or does it vary from one site to another. What contributes to differences?
Should students bear the sole weight of evaluation or should the actions of all stakeholders: students, site providers, and education undergo scrutiny in judging outcomes?
There is no one correct answer to this question. Students must uphold their end of the bargain but is that always possible? What stakeholder actions hamper or contribute to successful outcomes.
• Did all stakeholders have performance objectives?
• What social science theories provide appropriate theoretical explanations to describe the world of the intern?
• How does human tendencies and feelings affect internship outcomes?
To begin, it is important to note that learning in a classroom is different from learning on your own.
Nature of passive learning versus active learning on internships
Passive learning is a method of learning or instruction where students receive information from the instructor and internalize it. Passive learners may quietly absorb information and knowledge without typically engaging with the information received or the learning experience. They may not interact with others, share insights, or contribute to a dialogue. An estimated 60 percent of people are passive learners.
Passive Learning is Useful:
1. Exposure to new material,
2. Greater control by the instructor over the classroom, audience, or students;
3. Opportunity for a structured and engaging format; ensuring a complement to the subject matter outside of the learning environment;
4. The ability to clarify course material;
5. Presentation of a large amount of information in a short time; instructional materials (lecture notes, handouts, audiovisual media, etc.) can be prepared in advance;
6. Important concepts and content can be identified and presented in an organized, structured, and meaningful manner;
7. The potential to facilitate large-class communication.
8. This format can also permit dissemination of materials not yet published or readily available.
Passive learning has drawbacks:
Disadvantages of passive learning include:
1. The required assumption that for learning to be successful, the students will receive the subject matter with "open minds";
2. The instructor will fill the minds of the students with knowledge in order to obtain better examination results.
3. Passive learning allows limited opportunity to assess how well students are learning content and for questions, clarification, or discussion.
4. Students may be reticent about letting instructors know they do not understand key information and they may be reluctant to ask questions in class.
5. With no opportunity for application, it does not consistently engage students' use of higher-level cognitive skills.
6. A standard model is lecture-format with one-way communication, which does not engage the listener.
7. It also requires the instructor to have effective speaking and presentation skills.
8. Students are expected to wait for information to be provided and then to follow directions on what to do with that information.
9. Emphasis centers on repeating information without reflecting or demonstrating an understanding. This can result in surface processing instead of ‘deeper learning’.
10. Students have less ability to use what is learned.
Active learning is the opposite of passive learning; it is learner-centered, not teacher-centered, and requires more than just listening; the active participation of every student is a necessary aspect in active learning. There are a wide range of alternatives for the term "active learning" like learning through play, technology-based learning, activity-based learning, group work, project method, etc. the underlying factor behind these are some significant qualities and characteristics of active learning.
Think about What You are Doing
Students must be doing things and simultaneously think about the work done and the purpose behind it so that they can enhance their higher order thinking capabilities. Many research studies have proven that active learning as a strategy has promoted achievement levels and some others say that content mastery is possible through active learning strategies. However, some students as well as teachers find it difficult to adapt to the new learning technique. Active learning should transform students from passive listeners to active participants and helps students understand the subject through inquiry, gathering and analyzing data to solving higher order cognitive problems. There is intensive use of scientific and quantitative literacy across the curriculum and technology-based learning is also in high demand in concern with active learning.
Barnes and Keenan (1989) suggested principles of active learning:
Purposive: the relevance of the task to the students' concerns.
Reflective: students' reflection on the meaning of what is learned.
Negotiated: negotiation of goals and methods of learning between students and the site.
Critical: students appreciate different ways and means of learning the content.
Complex: students compare learning tasks with complexities existing in real life and making reflective analysis.
Situation-driven: the need of the situation is considered in order to establish learning tasks.
Engaged: real life tasks are reflected in the activities conducted for learning.
Sophomore Internship – Personal leadership Development a ‘Task’ and ‘Relationship’ Orientation
This internship requires you to be ‘your own leader’ in terms of learning.
Task Orientation
Task-focused ‘personal’ leadership is a behavioral approach in which the person focuses on the ‘tasks’ that need to be performed in order to meet certain goals, or to achieve a certain performance standard. Of course, as an intern, you need to meet the standards of the internship site – but you also need to meet your own personal expectations – what you want to achieve for ‘you’ from the experience.
What it accomplishes
Being task oriented allows you to focus on getting the necessary task, or series of tasks, in hand in order to achieve a goal. Your overarching focus should be more concerned with finding the ‘step-by-step’ solution required to meet specific goals. Actively define the work you will be doing, your role in the operation, put structures (how things work) in place, and plan, organize, and monitor your progress within the team as you work and progress.
Advantages
The advantages of a task orientation to you are that it ensures that you meet deadlines, your work is completed, and it is especially useful to help you learn to manage your time well. Interns who learn to do this well tend to exemplify a strong understanding of how to get the job done, focusing on necessary workplace procedures, and how work delegation occurs to ensure that everything gets done in a timely and productive manner – all of these elements will serve you well on your senior internship.
So what does this require you to do?
Task-Oriented Focus
• Emphasis on work facilitation
• Focus on structure (basic methods), roles (your position in the organization) and tasks (what you are required to do)
• Produce desired results is a priority
• Emphasis on goal-setting and a clear plan to achieve goals
• Strict use of schedules and step-by-step plans,
Relationship-Orientation
A common finding is that a relationship focus generates greater cohesion within groups, as well as greater team learning. It also has stronger individual impact, and a positive effect on self-efficacy. Think of it this way. To become a part of the team, you need to build a relationship with the team. In turn, when you have that relationship, you feel better about yourself because – you are a part of the team. They trust you, help you and support you – as you support them.
• Emphasis on interaction facilitation,
• Focus on relationships, well-being and motivation,
• Foster positive relationships is a priority,
• Emphasis on team members and communication within,
• Communication facilitation, casual interactions and frequent team meetings
Task efforts relate more to getting the job done while relationship efforts help you feel good about your environment, and building networks.
Employability
Graduate employability is a key issue for Higher Education. There are various definitions of ‘employability’, the one adopted here is that of Knight and Yorke (2004): “a set of achievements — skills, understandings and personal attributes — that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy.”
One of the key reasons why many students invest in university education is to improve their employment prospects. However, while the achievement of good academic qualifications is highly valued, alone, it no longer appears sufficient to secure employment (Knight and Yorke, 2004). Additionally, employers in the hospitality industry expect students to have well developed employability skills, so that they can make an immediate contribution to the workplace when recruited.
To face rapid changes in the economic environment, market pressures, and leaner organizations, organizations have had to become more flexible to maintain their competitive advantage, and this has had implications for individuals’ present-day career development. Employability can only be enhanced by absorbing up-to-date professional knowledge, planning professional development, and acquiring transferrable skills in this fast-growing and -changing economy.
In other words, employability requires not only the competencies demanded by the job market but also effective career planning and advancement. Only with strong employability can one realize goals, secure a job, or start a business. Since the 1990s, one of the goals of higher education has been to enhance the development of employability skills and/or ensure that the acquisition of such skills is made more explicit. Therefore, a major concern of colleges is facilitating college graduates in enhancing their employability by ensuring that they acquire the competencies needed in the job market and the competencies needed for career development.
Higher education should prepare students for future employment
Employability skills are important for students, organizations, employers, and educational institutions. Culinary programs in higher education focus on supplying hotels, restaurants, and related businesses with a source of professionally trained employees and potential managers. Therefore, increasing student employability is crucial for businesses, for education institutes, and for students themselves. However, what school education offers may differ substantially from actual business needs. Generic competencies are relevant for most organizations and that tourism graduates generally meet the expectations of the employer, although at a lower level than desired. For culinary graduates to fulfill their roles in the job market successfully and to advance their careers, job competencies, which can serve as indicators of student employability, must be identified during curricular design in order to bridge the gap between school education and business requirements.
Researchers have categorized competencies as personal competencies and job competencies and argued that the two should always be appropriately balanced. Other studies have divided employability into core items and advancing items, in which the former refers to core skills that meet general and various job requirements whereas the latter refers to the specific skills needed for certain industries and jobs. Parallels can be drawn between core skills and personal competencies and between specific skills and job competencies. Numerous studies have discussed the relationship between core skills and a successful career. However, career success requires both personal and job competencies.
Moreover, many studies have analyzed the nature of employability or competency from the perspectives of various stakeholders, such as businesses, teachers, students, and employees. From the perspective of the employers in hospitality and tourism industries, employers need cheap and flexible labor in order to remain viable); however, from the perspective of the students, work is often an introduction to the world of work, and their experiences assist with both personal and career development. However, some research indicates that the world of work should be more closely linked with higher education both through formal periods of supervised work experience and more informally through students’ work experiences.
Hospitality education comprises a complex system with programs on hospitality offered by universities, vocational colleges, junior colleges, and graduate schools. Therefore, in order to meet hospitality industry demand, students have to consider their career planning in the competitive hospitality related job environment. Although culinary educators also have begun to focus on bridging the gap between the skills of hospitality graduates and the expectations of hospitality businesses.
Employability of Hospitality Graduates
Researchers expect core competency to be an indispensable requirement in the future workforce; in other words, core competency is a key ability that must be acquired by employees in certain work environments or organizations. Moreover, employees must develop level-specific competencies and professional competencies for their positions (Schoonover, 1998). Some other researchers have classified competencies as personal and job competencies (Guthrie, 2009). Gangani and McLean (2006) further divided competency-based human resource development into three categories: fundamental competency, functional competency, and personal competency.
Fundamental competency, such as integrity, is aligned with organizational values, objectives, purposes, and vision and is a competency that all employees must achieve.
Functional competency, such as technical literacy and financial sensitivity, is based on department goals and objectives and is helpful in improving one’s job performance.
Finally, personal competency, such as adaptability, is fostered by achieving personal goals and is critical for preparing an individual to achieve a personal vision and developmental tasks. Comparison of these studies shows that the fundamental competency concept proposed by Gangani and McLean is similar to the core competency concept developed by Schoonover, and the concept of functional competency is similar to that of level-specific and professional competency.
Job competency includes core/fundamental competency and functional competency. Personal competency resembles the conception of career development competency presented by Wang and Tsai (2012), which includes career planning and development and core skills.
In conclusion, competency is the ability of an employee to perform a job and is often perceived from the business perspective. Employability, as perceived from the perspective of educators, refers to the skills that a student must acquire to qualify for a job. As a result, competency and employability are two overlapping and related concepts.
Personal competency is more than core employability; it also includes career planning and development ability. Job competency, which includes core competency, level-specific competency, and professional competency, overlaps with specific employability.
Therefore, ‘employability’ from the competency perspective depends on:
1. Personal competency, which includes core skills, career planning, and development skills.
2. Job competency referring to specific employability such as
1. Fundamental competency which includes work attitude and personal attributes, considered an essential attribute for all employees,
2. Level-specific competency, the leadership competency of a manager, and
3. Professional competency referring to professional management and technical skills needed to complete a task.
Employability has become a core part of the so-called new deal between employer and employee, in which the promise of employment security is said to be replaced by employability (e.g., Fugate & Kinicki, 2008; Hallier, 2009). This evolution is accompanied by a major shift in responsibility for career development from employers to employees.
Harvey, Locke, and Morey (2002) defined employability as the ability to acquire, keep, and excel at a job. The Center for Employability of the University of Central Lancashire in the United Kingdom defines employability as having the skill set, knowledge, understanding, and personal attributes needed to increase the likelihood of choosing a satisfying and successful occupation (Pool & Sewell, 2007). According to Knight and Yorke (2004), the attributes of employability include knowledge and skills, capacity for learning (e.g., Bagshaw, 1996; Lane et al., 2000), mastery of career management and job search (e.g., Hillage & Pollard, 1998), and professional knowledge (e.g., Van der Heijden, 2002). Other research has indicated that the attributes of employability should include resilience (Iles, 1997; Rajan, 1997; Rajan et al., 2000) and personal efficacy (Eades & Iles, 1998).
During the past decade, employability was defined as the continuous fulfilling, acquiring, or creating of work through the optimal use of competences. These competences referred to the knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual needed to adequately perform various tasks and carry out responsibilities within a job and to that individual’s adaptability to changes in the internal and external labor market (De Cuyper, Bernhard-Oettel, Berntson, De Witte, & Alarco, 2008; De Vos et al., 2011; Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004; Van Dam, 2004; Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006). The present study combined these attributes into a definition of employability as a set of knowledge, skills, and attributes that allow one to choose a career, to be employed, to transfer freely in the job market, to grow, to fulfill job duties, to show commitment to work, to feel satisfied or succeed, and to realize personal potential.
Stewart and Knowles (2000) proposed that graduates must offer two aspects of employability to a potential employer: (a) transferable skills, which are applicable throughout the working life; and (b) subject skills, which are relevant to a specific career. Raybould and Wilkins proposed employability skill models with nine generic skill groups: oral communication, written communication, problem solving, conceptual and analytical thinking, information management, team work and leadership, social networking skills, adaptability and learning, and self-management (Raybould &Wilkins, 2005).
Wang and Tsai (2012) reported that career development competencies of full-time include career development and planning and core employability. The former includes career recognition (e.g., self-exploration, career exploration, career selection), career action (e.g., career decision-making, career reflection, and planning action), and career attitude (e.g., career confidence). The latter includes career adjustment and control (e.g., self-management, job seeking and mobility, lifelong learning, and problem solving), workplace attitude (e.g., basic work attitude, work ethic and safety, and teamwork), and communication and networking (e.g., communication skills and social networking).
Competency
Spencer and Spencer (1993) proposed that job performance is closely related to professional knowledge and personal motives and attributes. Therefore, competency can forecast job performance by providing a measure of endogenous factors (such as personal motives, traits, and self-concept) and exogenous factors (such as knowledge and skills). Mirable (1997) held that competency is useful for forecasting good job performance and objectively assessing knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics.
Hayes (1979) considered competency a skill that allows one to integrate knowledge, personal strength, motive, social role, and social networking skills in order to deliver outstanding job performance. In sum, competency can be defined as a combination of exogenous abilities (e.g., professional knowledge or skills), personal attributes (e.g., personality, motive, or values), and capabilities that are indispensable to completing a task and delivering good performance.
See Competency Framework
Framework of College Culinary Students
Off-campus internship programs, subjects of professional skills, subjects of management theory, license exams, on-campus internship programs, and on campus volunteer services were the six most important courses in terms of employability development according to the students; specifically, off-campus internship programs and professional skills were considered much more relevant and effective compared to other variables.
In terms of competencies for kitchen management, the following required the most improvement: human resource management, administrative management, team building, cost and financial management, product positioning and marketing, persuasion and influence, crisis management, food material management, and product innovation. Finally, the following competencies needed the most improvement for restaurant management: human resource management, administrative management, team building, persuasion and influence, customer relationship management, product positioning and marketing, cost and financial management, crisis management, and quality control.
Competence Development
Gursoy and Swanger (2012) found that industry professionals do not expect a culinary arts curriculum to teach students specific applications because of the varying segments in the industry, company cultures, and operational procedures. Therefore, a curriculum should focus on developing higher-order concepts so that students will be well-rounded graduates. These authors proposed that content areas such as communication skills, customer service skills, and work ethics need to be embedded in the majority of courses in a curriculum to allow students develop those skills continuously throughout their college education.
According to Gregson & Bettis, (1991), technical skills unlike soft skills, do not easily lead to recognition, promotion and other opportunities. Termination in employment and failure in promotion among employees were always caused by human behaviors that usually reflected from inadequate work value or poor attitude rather than because of deficiencies in job skills or technical knowledge In other words, lack of soft skills is more likely to get an individual’s employment terminated than lack of cognitive or technological skills. Bennett et al. (2000) defined ‘soft skills’ as those skills which can support study in any discipline and also skills that have the potential to be transferred to a range of contexts, education and workplace. Hence, it could be set that soft skills consist of how individual managed himself/herself and how he/she managed the interaction among others.
Experiential Learning – learning in the workplace
Kolb's experiential learning model
Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. One example of experiential learning is going to the zoo and learning through observation and interaction with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences. Secondly, in culinary school, internships, and job-shadowing opportunities in a student’s field of interest can provide valuable experiential learning which contributes significantly to the student’s overall understanding of the real-world environment.
A third example of experiential learning involves learning how to ride a bike, a process which can illustrate the four-step experiential learning model (ELM) as set forth by Kolb and outlined in Figure 1 below. Following this example, in the "concrete experience" stage, the learner physically experiences the bike in the "here-and-now". This experience forms "the basis for observation and reflection" and the learner has the opportunity to consider what is working or failing (reflective observation), and to think about ways to improve on the next attempt made at riding (abstract conceptualization). Every new attempt to ride is informed by a cyclical pattern of previous experience, thought and reflection (active experimentation).
Figure 1 – David Kolb's Experiential Learning Model (ELM)
1. Concrete Experience
2. Reflective Observation
3. Active Experimentation
4. Abstract Conceptualization
Elements
Experiential learning can exist without a teacher and relates solely to the meaning-making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, a genuine learning experience requires certain elements. According to Kolb, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. Kolb states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, the learner must have four abilities:
1. The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience;
2. The learner must be able to reflect on the experience;
3. The learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and
4. The learner must possess decision-making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
Implementation
Experiential learning requires self-initiative, an "intention to learn" and an "active phase of learning". Kolb's cycle of experiential learning can be used as a framework for considering the different stages involved. Jennifer A. Moon has elaborated on this cycle to argue that experiential learning is most effective when it involves: 1) a "reflective learning phase" 2) a phase of learning resulting from the actions inherent to experiential learning, and 3) "a further phase of learning from feedback". This process of learning can result in "changes in judgment, feeling or skills" for the individual and can provide direction for the "making of judgments as a guide to choice and action".
Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. The role of emotion and feelings in learning from experience has been recognized as an important part of experiential learning. While those factors may improve the likelihood of experiential learning occurring, it can occur without them. Rather, what is vital in experiential learning is that the individual is encouraged to directly involve themselves in the experience, and then to reflect on their experiences using analytic skills, in order that they gain a better understanding of the new knowledge and retain the information for a longer time.
Reflection
Reflection is a crucial part of the experiential learning process, and like experiential learning itself, it can be facilitated or independent. Dewey wrote that "successive portions of reflective thought grow out of one another and support one another", creating a scaffold for further learning, and allowing for further experiences and reflection. This reinforces the fact that experiential learning and reflective learning are iterative processes, and the learning builds and develops with further reflection and experience. Facilitation of experiential learning and reflection is challenging, but "a skilled facilitator, asking the right questions and guiding reflective conversation before, during, and after an experience, can help open a gateway to powerful new thinking and learning". Jacobson and Ruddy, building on Kolb's four-stage Experiential Learning Model and Pfeiffer and Jones's five stage Experiential Learning Cycle, took these theoretical frameworks and created a simple, practical questioning model for facilitators to use in promoting critical reflection in experiential learning.
Their "5 Questions" model is as follows:
1. Did you notice?
2. Why did that happen?
3. Does that happen in life?
4. Why does that happen?
5. How can you use that?
These questions are posed by the facilitator after an experience, and gradually lead the group towards a critical reflection on their experience, and an understanding of how they can apply the learning to their own life. Although the questions are simple, they allow a relatively inexperienced facilitator to apply the theories of Kolb, Pfeiffer, and Jones, and deepen the learning of the group.
While it is the learner's experience that is most important to the learning process, it is also important not to forget the wealth of experience a good facilitator also brings to the situation. However, while a facilitator, or "teacher", may improve the likelihood of experiential learning occurring, a facilitator is not essential to experiential learning. Rather, the mechanism of experiential learning is the learner's reflection on experiences using analytic skills. This can occur without the presence of a facilitator, meaning that experiential learning is not defined by the presence of a facilitator. Yet, by considering experiential learning in developing course or program content, it provides an opportunity to develop a framework for adapting varying teaching/learning techniques into the classroom. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Our review of the literature considers the externship and internship literature as both terms are used to describe experiential learning experiences. The term internship is also used to define more structured forms of experiential learning, which occur in a facility adjacent to the university such as medical internships, and so forth. The externship is, in contrast, an unstructured experiential experience typically with no pre-determined agenda. Nonetheless, the terms externship and internship are interchangeable within the culinary field therefore in conducting a thorough examination of the literature both genres of appropriate theory are included. The externship, experiential, and internship literature represent the primary theoretical underpinning in the culinary arts discipline. Additional relevant theory pertaining to the urban environment as setting of the learning experience the socialization literature to explain how people interact with others and learn things as well as how organizations convey norms.
The review of the literature is organized around the focus of the study. My dissertation is about culinary externships and thus begins with the relevant literature to the culinary field. However, other literatures not part of Culinary Arts are equally germane as externships involve critical thinking on the part of the student as mandated by Higher Education, which compels the student, assess situations, and make judgments about their surroundings. Socialization thought is also included because of its pertinence to the students’ ability to effectively interact and be assertive to some extent in the workplace. Socialization skills are equally important to the externship site itself. Their ability to acclimate student externs into the operation and to convey norms and unacceptable actions is an important of organizational entry. The focus of all of these literatures is occurring in various urban environments, which make urban literature another equally important inclusion in the review of the literature.
Externship Literature
Enhancing programs and finding employment for students
Kiser and Partlow (1999) indicate that the preferred application of experiential learning in hospitality education is the industry work-study experience known by the terms externship or internship. They state that regardless of the term used, the objective is still the same - to enhance student learning by integrating practical work experience and classroom instruction. The externship is rooted in cooperative education conceived by John Dewey who first proposed bringing together the reality of the workplace and the theory of the classroom for vocational training shortly after World War II (Herrick, 1997). This connection to vocational training is evident in Varty’s (2000) argument that cooperative education, properly practiced, is an excellent strategy for future employees to develop the reflective behavior that will help them become contextual learners. The cooperative perspective reasons that programs (external conditions), what is inherent in the student (internal conditions), and what has been learned prior to or during the cooperative education experience (learning outcomes) may all interact to affect each other and/or may separately contribute to more of the variance in educational outcomes (Ricks, Van Gyn, Branton, Cut, Loken, and Ney, 1990).
The balance between theory and practical experience in the various curricula of programs in hospitality studies is a continuing subject of debate in both academia and in practice. Some academicians believe that a hands-on course of study is not appropriate or necessary in program curriculum that culminates in a bachelor’s degree from a liberal arts institution (DiMicelli, 1998). However others state that externships, as a form of experiential education, can also enhance stakeholder competency development through active learning as a cursory benefit (Wildes & Mount, 1997). Reich & De Franco (1994: 34) state that “people learn in three ways- by hearing, seeing, and doing.” Ross (1989) adds and defines reflection as a way of thinking about professional matters that involve the ability to make rational choices and to have ownership in those choices. However, constructing progressive learning experiences by matching practice with preaching [lecturing] is an ongoing struggle (Titz and Wollin, 2002).
Many employers and cooperative education centers report that externships can provide entry to employment in many organizations. To the degree that their externships are relevant to their professional education, students gain practical knowledge about their field of study and this added experience makes students more employable and enhances program reputations for student placement (Inkster & Ross, 1995).
Experiential Literature
The development of critical thinking skills – still a new process
Feinstein, Mann and Corson (2002) describe experiential learning (real-world learning) as a participatory method of learning that involves a variety of a person’s mental capabilities and exists when a learner processes information in an active and immersive learning environment. Experiential learning has been advocated as a powerful tool in education (Daily, 2001; Kennedy, Lawton, & Walker, 2001), used in a variety of disciplines such as medicine, social studies, and management which require a high degree of skill application. This approach focuses on “doing” in addition to the “hearing” and “seeing” that occurs in traditional classroom learning formats where students must rely heavily on laboratory activities, role playing activities, gaming, and computer simulation scenarios, as modes of instruction (Feinstein et al., 2002; and Specht & Sandlin, 1991). The educational benefits of experiential learning approaches have been found to include: the development of creative and critical thinking skills, practical experience for career development, the integration of various coursework elements and improved interpersonal skills and self-confidence (Papamarcos, 2002). Additionally, experiential learning has been credited with increasing a learners’ capacity to evoke higher-order cognitive abilities in terms of problem-solving skills and judgment (Feinstein et al., 2002).
Culinary Arts degree programs with experiential learning courses are now offered at a number of universities around the world, and both undergraduates and postgraduates in ever- increasing numbers are studying in these areas to fill the needs of a growing industry (Busby & Fiedel, 2001; Tribe, 2002). Cooper and Shepherd (1997) claim that employers seek practical and generally transferable kitchen skills, however, educators emphasize the conceptualization of restaurant operations theories and materials specific to the discipline resulting in disparities. Yet despite such disparities, they further indicate that the employment trend shows an increase in university graduates required in this sector. The restaurant operation of old consistently continues to give way to technological advances in restaurant equipment; the customer order pad has been replaced with powerful point-of-sale technology; the Internet is now available for purchasing food and other services and is also an integral part of a restaurant’s social media marketing efforts. Thus despite its traditional associations with a predominantly low-skilled, service-based labor force, Culinary Arts, as a field, continues to advance technically and competitively requiring greater thinking skills in addition to cooking ability. Experiential learning is the most popular way to bridge the disparities between and needs of both educational institution and employer (Busby, Brunt, & Baber, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997; and Leslies & Richardson, 2000).
The literature also supports the notion that such learning approaches do encourage students to engage in deeper learning behaviors. Hamer (2000) states that students become involved with their learning by applying theory to real-life situations and rather than passively listening and taking notes, students’ are encouraged to engage in higher-order thinking as they personalize the subject matter to develop a deeper understanding.
The concepts of synthesis, concentrating on what the topic is about, grasping main points, and drawing conclusions, and surface learning, simply concentrating on the topic have been discussed and documented at length in the educational literature (Biggs, 1999; Cannon & Newble, 2000; Ramsden, 1988; Schon, 1983; and Brockbank and McGill (1998). A shift towards deep learning can be seen with the increasing popularity and application of incorporating experiential learning with classroom theory to further meaningful education (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, & Mayo, 2000). Ball (1995) and Becket (1996) argue that all students in higher education need to acquire extensive technical skills along with the associated skills needed to apply their knowledge within a profession or academic discipline, as well as the skills that required for the world of work and the to be attractive to employers. Moscardo and Norris (2003) claim that this challenge is particularly acute for tourism and hospitality as it is a relative new area of study within academic institutions and is primarily applied in orientation highlighting the need for devising new ways to improve the education of students in this field. Barron and Henderson (2000) also identify a need to utilize teaching and learning methods that encourage and facilitate deeper learning in tourism and hospitality education.
Moscardo & Norris (2003) found that many students reported feelings of satisfaction and pride associated with completing complex and challenging experiential activity. However, students experience variable outcomes as argued by McDonald and McDonald (2000) who state that while there were a number of beneficial learning outcomes for students, the exercise was risky and not all students were prepared for it. They found that student’s responses to experiential activities ranged from “excitement, involvement and appreciation, to apathy, withdrawal and confusion.” Barron and Henderson (2000) posit that there is a need to improve the education of students and develop new teaching methods to enhance knowledge retention.
Internship Literature
Focus on higher education – the student becomes the teacher
Gardner (1964) asserts that the ultimate goal of the education system is to shift to the individual the burden of pursuing his or her own learning as education most certainly extends beyond the university setting. Learning theorists claim that internships contribute to students’ intellectual growth by providing a sustained opportunity to apply classroom knowledge in a complex, challenging setting. Internships are a natural setting in which students can integrate thinking and doing (Ruhanen, 2005). They also provide students with the opportunity to make an intellectual leap between what Smith (1999) calls dualism [a view of the world in terms of black and white, right and wrong] and commitment [the ability to see tensions and oppositions in oneself and the world and still maintain one’s integrity].
Inkster and Ross (1995) devised a learning approach to ensure that the pragmatic benefits of the internships do not reduce their educational value; first, students’ employers must write a letter formally acknowledging that the student is working to learn more about his or her major and report that the assigned job duties encourage such learning. Second, a faculty member is assigned to advise student interns, verify the quality of the working experience, verify the number of hours students will spend in the internship during the semester or term they are seeking credit, mentor students as necessary, and determine whether academic assignments completed in tandem with the internship are of passing quality. They state specific internship objectives as follows: (1) understanding one’s self, job, colleagues, and working environment in order to build professional skills demonstrated via journalized dialogue between theory and practice, and (2) increase employability after graduation by gathering concrete evidence of experience gained.
Critical Reflection
Developing a capacity for critical reflection has been recognized as essential for students in higher education (Barnett, 1997), and adult education in general, especially where “transformative learning” is the explicit goal (Brookfield, 1998; Mezirow, 1990). Reynolds (1998) argued that critical reflection promotes the questioning of assumptions, the “taken-for-granteds,” the rendering visible of otherwise invisible power relations, and the promotion of emancipation, democracy, and social and individual transformation.
Writers such as Cope (2003) and Reynolds (1998) have pointed out that an issue arises with the use of the term ‘critical reflection’ by those in the adult education tradition such as Bound, Keogh, and Walker (1987), and Mezirow (1990, 1991) whose focus lies more with personal rather than social transformation. For these theorists, critical reflection should acknowledge the historical, social, and political aspects of experience. Reynolds, (1998) agreed that the socially situated nature of experience must be taken into account for reflection to have any meaning. Mezirow (1991) recognized that learning occurs when one reviews and changes misconstrued meanings arising from uncritical acceptance of the status quo.
Carson and Fisher (2006) explored explicit strategies to support the critically reflective internship grading process: Students were required to keep personal journals (McNiff, 1990; Bound, 2001; Hiemstra, 2001; and Cunliffe, 2004); students were encouraged to form critical- friend partnerships (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, Hatton & Smith, 1995; and Smith, 1999); examples of critical reflection from students in other courses were used as the basis of a group activity and were freely available outside of the class. Further, Carson and Fisher offered guiding questions for students’ reflection, before and after their placement. The authors posit that the main features that should be present in student reflective writing to demonstrate that genuine critical reflection and transformative learning had occurred are: identifying values, beliefs, and assumptions; changing and/or reassessing values, beliefs, and assumptions; making connections with cultural, social, and political realities; and acting differently from habituated responses and /or taking on new behaviors.
Educators in the critical tradition know that the task of critical reflection, especially questioning fundamental premises and assumptions, is one that students frequently resist (Barnett, 1997; Hatton & smith, 1995). Shining a questioning and inquiring light on their work and lives is demanding and can take an emotional toll and leave people disoriented and confused (Reynolds, 1998). The process demands more than the usual intellectual tasks of analysis and synthesis required in academic work. It is a skill that requires higher order functioning, often associated with adulthood (Mezirow, 1991), so it is unrealistic to expect that all students enter the learning environment with similar capacities.
With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students. Carson and Fisher (2006) assisted students through a process of reasoning out the differences between values, beliefs, and assumptions, with key questions encapsulating the constructs such as: “what is important to me in this situation?” to determine what values the students’ held: “what do I think is true about this situation?” to derive beliefs; and “what do I take for granted about this situation?” to expose assumptions and presuppositions that we take for granted that are the basis for how we act in the world.
Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1989; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Sentner, and Forlenza-Bailey, 2000), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties.
Summary of the Experiential Literature
In viewing the literature collectively, it becomes clear that the ways of thinking about students working in industry have been evolutionary with overlapping occurring between theoretical camps. The externship literature closely associates with its historical roots in cooperative education as vocational training. This theoretical literature links: seeing, hearing, and doing, collectively as a necessity for employment. True to its vocational roots, this literature appears to value experiential learning as surface learning [simply learning tasks] useful for providing work experience, obtaining employment for students, and enhancing its program reputation for doing so. The experiential theory is more learner-centered and associated with medicine, social studies, and disciplines that require a high degree of skill, such as culinary arts. The experiential literature discusses “doing” as an addition to “seeing and hearing” then coupled with reflection.
The collective overarching values expressed in experiential scholarly writings were the student’s critical thinking, course integration, and improved interpersonal skills. The internship literature extends the experiential work with more extensive discussion of critical thinking and analysis, and the distinguishing of values and beliefs. Further this literature centers objectives in critical reflection. Learning approaches and objectives are suggested and the acknowledgment of the historical, social, and political aspects of learning experiences expands the critical thinking theme of the experiential work.
The field of Culinary Arts is relatively new as a higher education discipline, and the primary literature, as a collective, displays a progression in ways of thinking and valorizing experiential learning. The externship literature highlights the struggle within the theoretical community to bridge the more critical aspects of higher education with the practical aspects of getting experience to enter the work force. The experiential literature has made the jump, indicating a theoretical perspective embracing critical thinking although it still attempts to deal with the university’s need for critical learning from the vocational point of view. The internship literature show a shift toward deeper thinking, and critical reflection, elements valued in higher educational settings and represents the current theoretical position from which experiential learning in culinary arts is grappled. Culinary Arts is a young discipline which remains under-theorized in relation to other established fields such as the social sciences, business, and medicine as exemplars. Obvious gaps central to my study emerge clearly. When viewed collectively, the literature is not void of elements that should be valued. A gap lies in the discipline’s ability to construct methodology that teaches externs how to frame and consider what should be valued as a synthesis of knowledge. Pedagogical instruction strategies to drive learning objectives and outcome evaluation aligned with the student’s background knowledge, experience, and environment are not evident. The environment as urban setting, or work setting, equally receives no consideration thus physical, social, and cultural settings where externships occur receives no acknowledgement.
The largest gap is the discipline’s failure to view the externship process beyond program goals as evidenced by the lack of discuss of how to construct critical learning into an experiential endeavor. Values, beliefs, assumptions, and critical thinking and reflection are important elements for students consideration in experiential learning as expressed by the theory, but research is lacking into how externships may or do move beyond program goals, by failing to ask how should program goals be strategized to achieve what the literature posits is important knowledge for students’ to acquire. The literature states that critical learning does occur, but by providing no posited methodology for its construction, one must conclude that the student bears the burden of method.
Further, the literature fails to acknowledge that students, externship sites in distinct urban environments, and educators may view these elements differently. Students cannot consistently reflect critically on these elements because they remain unexplored and are not framed in a contextual sense by educators. My study seeks to bridge this gap by exploring what each stakeholder in the externship process considers to be valuable and important to educational ownership.
A common thread in the literature is the need for improved experiential teaching and learning method. How can educators make sense of the externship process to students without first understanding, in definable ways, how all elements of the externship process interrelate among the various stakeholders with different ways of thinking and valuing - each existing in their own unique context? This is the gap and lacking essential theme not expressed in the literature that my study will attempt to fill.
Critical Reflection
Critical reflection leads to personal transformation, which presents a challenge to the individual's accepted beliefs. It is a process wherein an individual's cultural sensibilities as well as life, professional, and social skills are in the process of continual expansion and growth.
Developing a capacity for critical reflection has been recognized as essential for students in higher education (Barnett, 1997), and adult education in general, especially where “transformative learning” is the explicit goal (Brookfield, 1998; Mezirow, 1990). Reynolds (1998) argued that critical reflection promotes the questioning of assumptions, the “taken-for-granteds,” the rendering visible of otherwise invisible power relations, and the promotion of emancipation, democracy, and social and individual transformation.
Writers such as Cope (2003) and Reynolds (1998) have pointed out that an issue arises with the use of the term ‘critical reflection’ by those in the adult education tradition such as Bound, Keogh, and Walker (1987), and Mezirow (1990, 1991) whose focus lies more with personal rather than social transformation. For these theorists, critical reflection should acknowledge the historical, social, and political aspects of experience. Reynolds, (1998) agreed that the socially situated nature of experience must be taken into account for reflection to have any meaning. Mezirow (1991) recognized that learning occurs when one reviews and changes misconstrued meanings arising from uncritical acceptance of the status quo.
Remember, your historical perspective, your life as you know it to be, will be different from the ‘historical context’ of the work place – the way they have come to know and do things. To become a part of their context – listen, ask, and learn how things are done there.
Carson and Fisher (2006) explored explicit strategies to support the critically reflective internship grading process: Students were required to keep personal journals (McNiff, 1990; Bound, 2001; Hiemstra, 2001; and Cunliffe, 2004); students were encouraged to form critical- friend partnerships (Brockbank & McGill, 1998, Hatton & Smith, 1995; and Smith, 1999); examples of critical reflection from students in other courses were used as the basis of a group activity and were freely available outside of the class. Further, Carson and Fisher offered guiding questions for students’ reflection, before and after their placement. The authors posit that the main features that should be present in student reflective writing to demonstrate that genuine critical reflection and transformative learning had occurred are: identifying values, beliefs, and assumptions; changing and/or reassessing values, beliefs, and assumptions; making connections with cultural, social, and political realities; and acting differently from habituated responses and /or taking on new behaviors.
Educators in the critical tradition know that the task of critical reflection, especially questioning fundamental premises and assumptions, is one that students frequently resist (Barnett, 1997; Hatton & smith, 1995). Shining a questioning and inquiring light on their work and lives is demanding and can take an emotional toll and leave people disoriented and confused (Reynolds, 1998). The process demands more than the usual intellectual tasks of analysis and synthesis required in academic work. It is a skill that requires higher order functioning, often associated with adulthood (Mezirow, 1991), so it is unrealistic to expect that all students enter the learning environment with similar capacities.
With regard to teaching and learning deficiencies, Fisher (2000, 2003) noted that students were not always clear about the differences between critical analysis and critical self-reflection, or about how to differentiate values, beliefs, and assumption. Students often demonstrated confusion, particularly in relation to distinguishing values and beliefs from the “taken-for-granteds.” The literature according to Fisher rarely makes these distinctions explicit, compounding the confusion for students. Carson and Fisher (2006) assisted students through a process of reasoning out the differences between values, beliefs, and assumptions, with key
questions encapsulating the constructs such as: “what is important to me in this situation?” to determine what values the students’ held: “what do I think is true about this situation?” to derive beliefs; and “what do I take for granted about this situation?” to expose assumptions and presuppositions that we take for granted that are the basis for how we act in the world.
Although much of the literature emphasizes the difficulties, challenges, and risks associated with students’ undertaking critical reflection (Barnett, 1997; Beyer, 1989; Ecclestone, 1996; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Ixer, 1999; Yost, Sentner, and Forlenza-Bailey, 2000), very little guidance is offered on how to teach it (Fisher, 2003). Cunliffe (2004) argued that it is important to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circumstances. However, few studies demonstrate the way students actually approach critical reflection or the impact of doing so on their learning. St. Amant (2003) speaks to the importance of communicating interactively, arguing that educators and internship providers need to find ways to revise internship experiences so that educators, internship providers, and student externs can use internship experiences in a way that benefits all three parties. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.02%3A_History_of_Experiential_Learning.txt |
Forms of Capital - a store of useful key assets or advantages
The term ‘capital’ is used by analogy with other forms of ‘economic’ capital – such as ‘money’, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. However, the analogy with capital is misleading to the extent that, unlike traditional forms of capital, social capital is not depleted by use; in fact it is depleted by non-use (use it or lose it). In this respect, it is similar to the now well-established economic concept of human capital.
The theory is simple and quite similar to using ‘money’ you have to buy the things you want or need. You will enter the organization with a certain amount of social capital, your social ability, and symbolic capital, your work experience and knowledge, and your goal is to utilize that personal capital to gain ‘capitals’ that the organization possesses for later use. Obviously, the goals of a sophomore would not be as refined as the goals of a senior. There is an old saying: from those who have more - more is expected.
Using Personal Capital to Gain Organizational Capital
Intellectual Capital
Intellectual capital is the intangible value of a business, covering its people (human capital), the value relating to its relationships (relational capital), and everything that is left when the employees go home, (structural capital), of which intellectual property (IP) is but one component. It is the ‘sum total’ of everything everyone in a company knows that gives it a competitive edge.
Intellectual capital has the following general classification:
Human capital
Human capital is the stock of habits, knowledge, social and personality attributes (including creativity) embodied in a person’s ability to perform labor producing economic value. Human capital is unique and differs from any other capital. It is an important asset to possess for companies to achieve goals, develop products, and remain innovative. Companies can invest in human capital for example, through education and training enabling improved levels of quality and production.
Human capital then, is the value that the employees of a business provide through the application of skills, knowledge and expertise. Human capital is an organization’s combined human capability for solving business problems and exploiting its intellectual property. Human capital is inherent in people and cannot be owned by an organization. Therefore, human capital can leave an organization when people leave, and if the management has failed to provide a setting where others can pick up their know-how. Human capital also encompasses how effectively an organization uses its people resources as measured by creativity and innovation.
Structural Capital
Structural capital, the supportive non-physical infrastructure, processes and databases of the organization that enable human capital to function. Structural capital includes processes, patents, and trademarks, as well as the organization’s image, organization, information system, and proprietary software and databases. Because of its diverse components, structural capital can be classified further into ‘organization’, ‘process’, and ‘innovation’ capital.
• Organizational capital includes the organization philosophy and systems for leveraging the organization’s capability.
• Process capital includes the techniques, procedures, and programs that implement and enhance the delivery of goods and services.
• Innovation capital includes intellectual property such as patents, trademarks and copyrights, and intangible assets.
• Intellectual properties are protected commercial rights such as patents, trade secrets, copyrights and trademarks. Intangible assets are all of the other talents and theory by which run an organization.
Structural capital is one of the three primary components of intellectual capital, and consists of the supportive infrastructure, processes, and databases of the organization that enable human capital to function. Structural capital is owned by an organization and remains with an organization even when people leave. It includes: capabilities, routines, methods, procedures and methodologies embedded in organization. Structural capital is the supportive non-physical infrastructure that enables human capital to function.
Relational capital, consisting of such elements as customer relationships, supplier relationships, trademarks and trade names (which have value only by virtue of customer relationships) licenses, and franchises. The notion that customer capital is separate from human and structural capital indicates its central importance to an organization’s worth. The value of the relationships a business maintains with its customers and suppliers is also referred as goodwill, but often poorly booked in corporate accounts, because of accounting rules.
Social Capital Theory – your ability to develop human relationships
Woolcock (2001) defined social capital as the stocks of social trust, norms and networks that people access to solve joint problems. Interrelationships and connectivity between humans are central to the formation of social capital, hence why it is often described as the glue that holds society together (Murphy, 200 source 4). In recent years, driven by fears over fragmentation of communities and a generalized decline in civic engagement (Foley et al., 2011) social capital has moved up the political agenda in democratic societies. It is, however, a complicated and contested concept with differing interpretations of its meaning and usefulness (Quinn, 2013).
Coleman (1998) defines social capital by its functions and views it as a resource that can be drawn upon collectively. Its presence encourages certain actions, which facilitate the accomplishment of mutually beneficial ends. Moreover,'' social capital in the family and community play a crucial role in creating human capital (defined as individual skills and abilities in the next generation). Like Coleman, Bourdieu (1985) presents a sociological view of social capital, but he views it primarily as a resource for individuals. He defined social capital as 'the aggregate of the actual or potential resources, which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition' (Bourdieu, 1985 p248).
Like Coleman (1998), Putnam (1995) underlines the collective dimensions of social capital, defining it as 'features of social organization such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate co-ordination and cooperation for mutual benefit'. Putnam (1993) argued that the quality of life in societies and their economic sustainability was directly attributable to the features of social organization. He suggested that the hallmarks of a successful society depended upon core attributes of human relationships, the presence or absence of trust, the expectation of reciprocity and the existence of networks. A basic premise underpinning the work of these three theorists, and indeed social capital theory in general, is that investment in social relations is expected to yield a whole series of returns in the marketplace and beyond.
Bonding and Bridging Capital – internal & external relationships
A distinction between bonding (exclusive) and bridging (inclusive) forms of social capital is widely made in the literature. Putnam {1993) explains that bonding social capital is inward looking and characterized by strong ties that reinforce exclusive identities, promote homogeneity and create strong in-group loyalty; whereas bridging social capital is outward looking, involves weaker ties and promotes links between diverse individuals and groups. Putnam suggests that many groups simultaneously bond across some social dimensions and bridge across others. In general, the dominant sense is that social capital is a force for good. However, Leonard (2004) has problematized the fact that policy-makers, seeing how social capital can potentially be converted into other forms of capital, often consider it as a quick-fix solution to complex, long-term structural problems. Indeed, viewing social capital as a 'quick-fix' and a panacea for all social ills is a noted criticism levelled at social capital theorists. Putnam's work in particular has been criticized for romanticizing 'the world we have lost' and ignoring the downside of community life.
Overtime, the growing social capital literature has developed a more critical lens, which acknowledge the inadequacies of the basic framework without abandoning the concept altogether (Muir 20 source 10}. For example, in their critique of Putnam's work, Portes and Landolt (1996) discuss how in, some cases, social capital can constrain individuals' actions and choices. This is because while social capital can promote access to resources, it can equally deny or limit such access.
A number of researchers have taken up this theme. Pickering (2006), writing about ethnically diverse societies transitioning away from conflict, discusses how social capital can threaten democracy. While strong ties foster high levels of trust and connect groups of people together through bonding capital, they can simultaneously serve to deepen the divisions, differences and lack of trust that separate groups from other cohorts. Leonard {2004) makes a very similar case in respect of politically contentious societies, arguing that trust within tightly bonded communities at local level may engender distrust of wider institutions, reinforcing 'them versus us' mentalities, as it were.
Given that the acknowledged value of social capital lies in the access it can afford to networks, resources and information that help advance the life chances of the actors and community groups involved, the value of having open, diverse and inclusive relationships that link outwards to other resources is critical. Thus for Dale and Newman {2008) the value of what is referred to as bridging capital cannot be over-emphasized. They conceive of bridging capital as relationship building which leads to accessing external resources, and links with others who move in different circles (Wilks, 2011). Although Blackshaw and Long, (2005) were criticized for being over simplistic thinking of social capital in terms of bonding and bridging, they present a useful theoretical framework upon which to base this study which empirically considers the workings of social capital in event contexts.
Social capital is a concept that is widely used across disciplines and within political discourse to theorize the processes that operate within communities from the local to the global. It relates to the social relations between humans and in particular, how the interrelationships between humans lead to the accumulation of certain benefits that are of value both to them individually and to the communities to which they belong (Quinn, 2013). Over the last ten years or so policy makers and politicians across the world have shown increasing interest in how the components of social capital - networks, shared values and trust - can be enhanced at a local, regional and national level (Muir, 2011). One area that has been targeted because of its potential to build social capital is the events industry. Smith {2012), for instance, discusses how the idea of building social capital and achieving greater community cohesion are now noted objectives of many restaurant event strategies.
Symbolic Capital – education and physical abilities
Symbolic capital might best be described as ‘status attained’ with regard to education and practical work experience within and external to the culinary program. Practical experience proves most helpful to internship outcomes because such experience allow the student to accurately judge his or her capability to apply practical experience to classroom and laboratory learning and also in determining strengths and weaknesses in their ability to physically perform to the standards of a selected site. In essence, they have the experience to better prepare themselves and more accurately judge ‘goodness of fit’ issues as they relate of site selection as opposed to those students with little to no practical experience.
A History of Work Experience. Deciding what information would or could be learned should be carefully thought out well in advance and is often the result of years of thinking for most of the student interns who excelled prior to, during, and after an internship experience. They accurately assessed their ability by seeking unbiased assessment from others in their cohort, from their teachers, and, of importance, from the professional culinary mentors for whom they worked. These students either possessed or developed an innate sense of “Who am I? What is my skill set? Where am I now? Where do I want to be? Moreover, what steps do I need to take to achieve my goals?
The Five people you need to make friends with at work
Because it's what you know 'and' who you know.
If you work at least 40 hours a week, you spend more time with your co-workers than your friends and family so it’s worthwhile to have good work relationships. In fact, a recent survey found that people with work friends are nearly three times more likely to say they love their companies.
“You don't have to be best friends [with your co-workers], but being polite, respectful, engaging, and on the ball is critical to your ongoing success. Your demeanor and relationships often count at least as much, if not more at times, than the work product itself. If people enjoy working with you, you are more likely to get additional opportunities.
It can seem transactional or opportunistic to create a strategy for forging work friendships, but there are some people that should be at the top of your ‘work friends’ wish list.
Your boss
Get to know more about your boss than the fact that they always assigns time-sensitive projects at 5 p.m. that are expected to be completed by 9 a.m. the next day, or that they has very strong feelings about punctuation in written reports. Your boss is, after all, a person.
So how do you become work friends with your boss without overstepping? Start by getting to know your boss’s professional goals and outlook. Ask what they are working on and showing interest in the business as a whole—not just your own role and career trajectory. They will appreciate that you are curious about the bigger picture, and you might get some helpful ‘hints’ about their priorities and business objectives. If you can get along with and actually like your boss, you are more likely to enjoy work, thrive, and find additional opportunities.
When it comes time for reviews, raises, and promotions, your boss’s feedback matters the most because she's the person who works closest with you—so it’s crucial that she likes the work you do and working with you.
If you regularly interact with your boss’s boss, become friendly with him too. You never know when your immediate manager might leave or be promoted, so keeping the person above them aware of the impact you are having will help when it comes to decisions being made if your boss were to leave.
The power brokers
Instead of viewing peers as direct competitors, focus on collaboration because that way you’ll do better work, faster. In addition, try not to be jealous or extra-competitive with your peers who seem to be on the “fast track.”
A natural inclination at work may be to feel threatened by someone with high talent who is already viewed as an up-and-comer. In fact, sometimes we project our own insecurities onto them and tag them with unfair judgments. That ‘scarcity mentality’ will not bring out your best. Be abundant instead and befriend the most talented, effective, high-performing colleagues in your midst.
Ask your co-workers how they are doing, learning more about their work, going to lunch instead of eating a sad desk salad and scrolling mindlessly through your Facebook newsfeed, and checking in to simply say hello. Be helpful when you work together. Be known for doing a good job. Do not complain. Be a good listener. Share insight to build trust.
The office rock star
Find someone above you whom people really respect and, ideally, whose values are similar to your own. Once you have worked anywhere for a short period, it is easy to identify the internal stars whom others listen to and follow.
Try this strategy for becoming friendly with office influencers. First, find someone you would like to learn from and emulate. Next, learn what the person is working on. Then at an upcoming company or department event, introduce yourself and ask him/her about the topic.
In the beginning, it is best to keep your communications ‘work-related’. Since the project is important to him or her, he/she will think you are someone who ‘gets it.’ You may just become an insider on her radar as new opportunities and projects open up. Having an opinion leader speak well of you is essentially a high-level testimonial. In essence, their lending you their good name.
A mentor
You might already have a mentor outside of the office, like someone who is in your industry at another company, a favorite professor, or even a family member who has great advice. But it's also beneficial to have a mentor who works at the same company as you because they’ve been there and done that.
Mentors can help with how you should be seeing the organization and how you should be thinking about the organization in order to get ahead. Your mentor could be your boss, an influencer, a peer, or someone who has the position you hope to have in a few years. Get to know them the same way you did with everyone else, but do not make it weird and ask, Will you be my mentor? It does not have to be a formal, Facebook-official relationship. It just has to be helpful.
Your staff
As you start climbing the proverbial corporate ladder, you will get your very own team to manage. The people who work for you will do a better job if they respect and like you. When you are seen as helpful, and focused on your teams' development, they will want to do better work for you.
Find out each person’s goals and help them achieve them, ask for their advice, say “thank you,” and give feedback regularly. Little gestures like saying good morning or asking how their weekend was before you go into all of the ‘to-dos’ for the week will also help. These things may sound small, but they are most definitely not. People want to feel as if the people they are working for actually care about them.
Soft Skill – Key Competencies in Culinary Education
Overall, the implication of the Wilks and Hemsworth’s findings is that hospitality educators should attend to those competencies perceived as essential for the field by practicing professionals, and provide programs to develop them. Since what is perceived as most important has greatly to do with personality disposition, ultimately it is important to select students who have an adequate profile. Flexibility and adaptability, for instance, are difficult to develop unless students possess certain personality traits. This is a controversial point because there is competition for students and the sector may not feel able to afford precise discrimination. It nevertheless remains an important point to be addressed.
Moreover, as Redman & Wilkinson (2006) points out, focusing on some competencies can legitimize prejudice, since what is perceived as most desirable may often correspond to a demeanor associated with a white middle-class profile. In addition, these competencies tend not to be highly rewarded when unaccompanied by technical competencies. There are also risks in developing interpersonal competencies, for instance, and neglecting the acquisition of technical competencies and the knowledge essential to managing an organization.
Furthermore, higher education is not only a means of getting a job. It is about getting an education‟. As Lashley (2004) points out, it is necessary to escape the tyranny of relevance and develop analytical and critical thinking essential to creating reflective practitioners.
Soft skills are best taught though role modeling rather than formal academic instruction. According to Bandura‟s (1986) Social Learning Theory, people learn from one another through observation and imitation (modeling), reproducing given behaviors. The process involves close contact, imitation of seniors, understanding the concepts and role model behavior. Following this line of thought, we propose important themes for students in the hospitality industry.
Competencies Highest Means (average scores on a 5-point scale)
• Being able to work in a team 4.71
• Leadership 4.67
• Problem solving capacity 4.65
• Sensitivity to customer needs 4.65
• To present a professional behavior 4.65
• To motivate others 4.61
• Empathy 4.56
• To act calmly 4.59
• Creativity 4.55
• Handling guest complaints 4.53
• To communicate 4.49
• Adaptability 4.47
• Self-control 4.47
• Mastering foreign languages 4.47
• Ethics and Social responsibility 4.45
• Capacity to negotiate 4.44
• E-commerce skills 4.20
Note:
Wilks, Daneila and Kevin Hemsworth (2011) Tourism management Studies, Nº 7, 131 -137, International English Edition, ISSN: 1646-2408
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
Social Development Theory was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) who argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.
Key Concepts
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)[1][2]. Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of ‘constructivism’. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.
Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological)”.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.
Notes:
Luis C. Moll: L.S. Vygotsky and Education (Routledge Key Ideas in Education): An accessible, introductory volume that provides a good summary of Vygtoskian core concepts, including the sociocultural genesis of human thinking, a developmental approach to studying human thinking, and the power of cultural mediation in understanding and transforming educational practices. Well written and worth a look.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard university press.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.
Crawford, K. (1996). Vygotskian approaches in human development in the information era. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 31(1-2), 43-62.
Situated Learning Theory (Jean Lave)
Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context, and culture.
In contrast with most classroom learning activities that involve abstract knowledge which is and out of context, Lave argues that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and Wenger call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation”[2].
Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert.
Other researchers have further developed Situated Learning theory. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship: “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge.” Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s notion of learning through social development.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Key Concepts
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors[1]. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence (relative capacity to unite, react, or interact), prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior[2],
Bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well[3]. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social learning. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.03%3A_Lab_-_Social_and_Symbolic_Capital.txt |
The Socialization Literature
There have been a number of different theories applicable to culinary arts as an applied discipline, which has tried to explain how people learn things from others. Reinforcement theory, growing out of the tradition of behaviorism, sought to explain human social learning as the product of conditioning. Social learning theory stands in contrast to reinforcement theory. Social learning theory attempts to explain human socialization as a product of observation and mimicry (Volkart, 1951). However, socialization theory has not been considered germane within the culinary arts literature in the past. The hospitality field is nonetheless a people oriented profession that requires teamwork, and strong communication skills. Hospitality organizations have increasingly become aware of the value for having strong organizational socialization tactics to improve newcomer entry and increase retention. Organizations now understand that losing good employees is a significant expense. Employee retention and proper newcomer socialization tactics are now on the front burner.
Elemental goals of socialization – conscience, performance, and values
Arnett (1995), in presenting a new theoretical understanding of socialization, outlined what he believes to be the three goals of socialization (1) impulse control and the development of a conscience; (2) role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions; (3) the cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for.
• In essence, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It is important for the intern to understand that socialization is culturally relative - people in different cultures socialize differently.
• This distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative judgment. Often, when you enter a new culture (like a restaurant) what’s going on may not seem to make sense until you become a part of that culture. Determine what is ‘normal’ in that environment – do not judge it, just listen learn, ease into it. We all form initial opinions – do not immediately act on those opinions. They tend to change, or they will confirm what you thought from the beginning. In either case, give it time.
• Socialization, because it is the adoption of culture, is going to be different in every culture.
• Socialization, as both process – what people do at work, or outcome – what the organization expects from the intern, cannot be judged as ‘better or worse’ in any particular culture (Decety, Michalska, and Akitsuki, 2008).
Theoretical understandings of socialization. Socialization, as a concept in social scientific research, has evolved over time. While the basic idea outlined above has been a component of most understandings of socialization, there has been quite a variety of definitions and theories of socialization. Some of these approaches are presented to provide definitional variety and include (Holland, 1970; Mortimer and Simmons 1978; Long and Hadden, 1985):
• Symbolic Interactionism - the student develops because of social interactions; as a result, socialization is highly dependent on the situations in which the intern finds him/herself; this approach also argues that socialization is a continuous, lifelong process as situations change.
Building relationships is an important part of the sophomore internship. Present yourself to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable light. Remember, all they know about you is what you say and show through your actions. Be respectful, be attentive, be interested, be modest, and be willing to lend a helping hand.
• Role Theory - socialization is seen as a ‘process of acquisition of appropriate norms’, attitudes, self-images, values, and role behaviors that enable acceptance in the group and effective performance of new roles. In this framework, socialization is seen as a conservative force, permitting the perpetuation of the social organization in spite of the turnover of individual members through time.
At the sophomore level, determine who are the best and most effective workers – and emulate them. Maximize your effort to achieve at their level. You do not have to be perfect – you only need to be moving in that direction. Achieve growth in your abilities.
• Reinforcement Theory - the self develops as a result of cognitive evaluations of costs and benefits; this understanding assumes that the ‘socializee’, in approaching new roles, is an independent and active negotiator for advantages in relationships with role partners and membership groups.
Use positive reinforcement with your peers. A couple of examples of a positive response to a desired behavior would be praise, public recognition. When used correctly, positive reinforcement can be one of the most effective strategies by an employee, or employer, in the workplace.
• Internalization Theory - socialization is a series of stages in which the individual learns to participate in various levels of organization in society; this theory contends that the child internalizes a cognitive frame of reference for interpersonal relations and a common system of expressive symbolism in addition to a moral conscience. You become a part of your surroundings. As the environment changes – you change with it.
Remember that your first internship should also prepare you for your second. Become a part of the ‘positives’ at your internship site. Develop good skills and traits. Also, note behavior that you will not take with you when you leave.
Socialization theories per se are not at the heart of the internship but they do thread through the internship experience in applicable ways. Applicable theories follow.
Socialization and social class
What is normal in your own personal environment may be quite different from the environment and way others think about things. We all grow up differently – including the ways we view life - conforming versus creating. Find a mentor and develop contacts capable of moving your career forward. Develop your professional network.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson (1978), developed a research agenda begun by Melvin L. Kohn (1969), to explore differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class. Kohn found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their children whereas middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance. Ellis et. al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance in children to the extent that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success in their own endeavors. In other words, the authors verified that the reason lower-class parents emphasize conformity in their children is because they experience conformity in their day-to-day activities. For example, factory work is far more about conforming than innovation (Ellis, Lee, and Peterson, 1978).
College preparation classes and difference
You will be moving to a more challenging environment. Embrace the positive culture of the worksite - the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that successful organizations possess. Turn these elements into habits that stay with you when you return to the university. Being competent when you think about a task is one thing – unconsciously doing ‘right’ things is another – that is where you want to be. What do I want to learn? What do I need to improve? Learn and confirm.
Rosenbaum (1975), in his article The Stratification of Socialization Processes tested the effects of high school tracks on Intelligence Quotient (IQ). High school tracks are the different levels or types of courses students can take; for instance, many high schools now include college preparation tracks and general education tracks. Rosenbaum's hypothesis was that students who followed the lower tracks (non-college-preparation) would score lower on IQ tests over time than would students who followed the higher tracks (college-preparation). Considering that school is one of the primary contributors to socialization, it makes sense that participation in a given track can also result in the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that correspond to that track.
In other words, tracks can turn into a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: you may start out at the same level as someone in a higher track, but by the time you have completed the lower track you will have become like the other students in your track. To reduce confounding variables and ensure notable test effects, Rosenbaum selected a homogeneous, white, working class public school with five different, highly stratified classes. Rosenbaum then compared IQ scores for individuals in the different tracks at two time points. As it turns out, tracking does have a significant effect on IQ. People in lower tracks can actually see a decline in IQ compared to a possible increase among those in the upper track. In other words, tracks socialize their students into their corresponding roles which are especially applicable in the applied sciences (Rosenbaum, 1975).
Organizational Socialization
We all enter a workplace with certain expectations – some based on optimism, some based on fear. Sometimes we overvalue what we actually know, and sometimes we lack confidence in our knowledge. You will experience change. You will be blindsided. You will make mistakes. However, in all cases, if you take it in stride, you will learn and become stronger. Learning can be twofold – what to do, and what not to do moving forward. You will experience both. Learn to discern between the two.
Anticipatory socialization. An initial theoretical perspective, as a prelude to the discussion of organizational socialization, is “anticipatory socialization,” the process of “preparing to accept new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors” (Shepard and Greene, 2003: 22) that occur when an individual develops expectations and knowledge about possible jobs and positions. It is usually the first step that occurs in the search and acceptance of an individual into an organization.
• Porter and Steers (1975) postulate that, because of this process, individuals never enter an organization with a completely blank opinion and that they carry with them “cultural baggage.”
• While this sounds as if it causes bias within participants, Arnold (1985) found that graduate students who know more about working life before they enter into an organization are better able to find work that fits their personalities and skill sets.
Several other positive effects of anticipatory socialization have been found as well.
• For example, anticipatory socialization helps in the formation of the overall set of expectations that an individual holds in relation to their contributions to an organization and the response by the organization to their contribution.
• An organization expects things such as time, energy, skills, and loyalty and an employee expects to be compensated as such. Based on what the employee perceives to be fair and just (from what they have come to expect based on their anticipatory socialization) this contract of sorts can be renegotiated or changed (Rousseau, 1991).
• Anticipatory socialization comes from a variety of sources including family, peers, school and the media. This cultivation of ideas is often seen from the standpoint of adolescents while the actual socialization occurs at the adult level. Each of these groups can add a different level to the socialization some providing broad information about organizations in general, and some providing specific task information for specific roles within an organization. (Taylor, Flanagin, and Seibold, 2000).
Apprehension. Apprehension is our fear of what ‘might’ happen as opposed to actual stress, dealing with something that has happened. Apprehension subsides as a person begins to realize that they can work through the perceived difficulty they face. It is normal to be apprehensive of things to come, but do not stress over it – you are not at that point. For example, keeps things in the proper context. If you have a problem – think only about the solution. Nothing else deserved your consideration. Worrying will accomplish nothing. Your actual ‘problem’ is simply what you will do about it.
The focus of a large portion of “organizational communication” research is concerned with the anticipatory socialization of college graduates during their initial job search. However, this linear approach does not account for a lot of the socialization occurring during role and organization switches in a person's lifetime. Jablin (1985) sees anticipatory socialization to occur on two different levels; one as a vocational socialization which would occur only once or twice, and ‘choice’ socialization as roles and specific jobs change.
Theoretical foundations of organizational socialization
The natural tendency for workers is to be compliant – just do their work. For your first internship, compliance is important to develop necessary skills. You are there to also question and learn beyond cooking, but cooking is your first priority – your primary skill for development. Thus, questions and learning should focus initially on preparing and executing the menu – and learn why it’s doing that way. Do things their way because that is what their customers expect and what they will expect from you. Focus on the kitchen – then everything about that area of the restaurant. The people working, the management attitude, the culture of the site – how they do things, and what do they value.
Organizational socialization is the process through which organizational culture is perpetuated, and by which newcomers learn the appropriate roles and behaviors to become effective and participating members (Louis, 1990). The topic has been discussed from various perspectives including socialization stages (Wanous, 1992), socialization tactics (Volkart, 1951), person-situation interactionism, newcomer sense making (Louis, 1990), symbolic interactionism - the interpretation process that occurs between interactions that help people create and recreate meaning. It is the shared understanding and interpretations of meaning that affect the interaction between individuals, especially those working together. Individuals act on the premise of a shared understanding of meaning within their social/professional context. Thus, interaction and behavior is framed through the shared meaning that objects and concepts have attached to them. From this view, people live in both natural (family, social, school) and symbolic environments (work). (Reichers, 1987), and stress (Nelson, 1987).
Effective Socialization. Effective socialization has been discussed in the literature (Feldman, 1980, 1981; Schein, 1978) and it has been used interchangeably with other related constructs, such as effective adaptation (Louis, 1980). Other researchers view it more narrowly as a change in basic attitudes and beliefs that suggest an internal commitment to the organization, rather than just compliance with organization practices. Wanous (1992) considers effective socialization to be synonymous with organizational commitment. He focuses on the internal processes of the individual, not on the socialization process.
Every organization wants committed employees. Your focus should be on working hard and understanding what ‘commitment‘ looks like in the workplace. Find the best employees and learn from them - skills, attitude, and ‘ways of thinking’ about what they do.
Effective socialization is defined as the criteria through which the success of the organization's socialization programs and the newcomer's success through the entire socialization process are evaluated. It is conceptualized as the primary "outcome" of the socialization process that will enhance the achievement of individual and organizational outcomes. The organization teaches the newcomer the skills of the new job, and the norms and values or organizational culture that guide behavior and enhance the newcomer's performance. The information that is transmitted through different socialization programs and informal processes is the socialization content, and how successful newcomers are in acquiring it determines socialization effectiveness (Greenhaus, 1999).
Socialization content. Socialization content refers to what is learned during socialization or what is being imparted to the newcomer in the organization (Louis, 1990).
Begin to concentrate on the four content categories: (1) organizational values, goals, and culture – the way their do things, (2) work group values, norms, and friendships, (3) how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge, and (4) personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motives. The fourth content area requires you to think about the other three areas.
Four content categories have been identified in the literature: task, group, organizational, and personal. Although commonalities exist among the authors in their discussion of socialization content, they differ in their emphasis or focus on specific content categories. For instance, consistent with Louis (1980), and similar to Feldman (1981) and Schein (1980), Fisher (1986) specified four content categories:
1. Organizational values – what the organization considers to be important to its success, goals, and culture- the accepted ways of doing things,
2. Work group values, norms, and friendships,
3. Operational processes - how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge, and
4. Personal growth - personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motives. Within the socialization literature, measures of socialization content were developed in only one empirical study where the content categories identified were performance proficiency, people, politics, organizational goals, values, and history.
A general typology of the information that newcomers must acquire upon entry into the organization is nonexistent (Morrison, 1995). Building on previous studies in socialization and related areas (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Louis, 1990; Morrison, 1995; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1993; Schein, 1980), the content categories utilized to evaluate socialization effectiveness include: (1) task mastery, (2) functioning within the work group, (3) knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture, (4) personal learning, and (5) role clarity. These categories represent indicators of socialization effectiveness and they reflect salient aspects of information newcomers are expected to acquire in any organization. Indicators of Socialization Effectiveness include:
A general typology of the information that newcomers must acquire upon entry into the organization is nonexistent (Morrison, 1995). Building on previous studies in socialization and related areas (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Louis, 1990; Morrison, 1995; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1993; Schein, 1980), the content categories utilized to evaluate socialization effectiveness include:
• (1) task mastery,
• (2) functioning within the work group,
• (3) knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture,
• (4) personal learning, and
• (5) role clarity.
• These categories represent indicators of socialization effectiveness and they reflect salient aspects of information newcomers are expected to acquire in any organization.
Indicators of Socialization Effectiveness include
Task mastery
Your goal is always to master the things and areas assigned to you. Begin by learning to do things correctly then build proficiency and speed. Determine what is ‘normal’ then do, and excel. Normal works in each particular environment. “Normal’ can vary from one environment to another.
It’s time to take your skills to the next level. Set goals ahead of time. What elements of your internship will you master? Discuss this with the chef. Have a list when you arrive. Expand that list as you go. Evaluate your proficiency along the way. Each day – something improves.
Task mastery involves learning the tasks of the new job, gaining self-confidence, and attaining a favorable level of job performance (Feldman, 1981). Fisher (1985, 1986) noted the importance of task mastery to successful newcomer adjustment. Newcomers upon entry seem to focus most of their attention on task relevant information, critical to their adjustment and continued membership in the organization (Morrison, 1995).
Functioning within the work group.
Determine the ‘local rules of the road’ in your new environment and do that. Fit in to the flow of things. Observe, embrace, and think about why ‘normal’ at the site works in that particular context.
When employees join the organization, they need to learn and understand the way things are done within their work units/groups that is consistent with that of other relevant employees.
Indicators of successful functioning within the work group include getting along with coworkers and superiors, coming to feel liked and trusted by peers, understanding the group norms and values, and making a satisfactory adjustment to group culture (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986). As such, learning how to function within the work unit is necessary for effective socialization.
Knowledge and acceptance of organization's culture. Knowledge reflects employees' understanding of the organization's culture. Acceptance relates to how fully the employees have internalized the culture of the organization. Every new employee has to be familiar with the organizational culture. The adjustment to organizational norms and values is beneficial when it leads to the internalization of pivotal norms and development of a new self-identity (Schein, 1988; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979). Learning the culture enables newcomers to develop a definition of the situation, and a scheme for interpreting everyday events (Louis, 1980).
Personal learning. This entails the newcomer learning about him or herself (Fisher, 1986). Personal learning has been identified by Fisher (1986) and Schein (1980) as an important component of the socialization process. Schein (1964) emphasized the importance of personal learning to new college graduates. According to Schein (1964), college graduates enter the work place with personal doubts about their competence in job performance and ability to cope with the anxieties and tensions of the work world. As such, the newcomer needs to learn the type of person he or she is and how he or she will function within the organization.
Roles. The absence of role ambiguity or role clarity has been studied as one of the outcomes of newcomer adjustment in the organization (Fisher, 1985, 1986; Jones, 1986). Achieving role clarity suggests that the newcomer is clear or certain about the expectations of members of his or her role set as well as the scope and responsibilities of his or her new job (Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman, 1970).
Role conflict in organizations
In the classroom, you are the learner. However, in the workplace, you become both learner and teacher. This can be confusing. Have goals about what you want to learn from the experience then exceed those expectations. You have to determine what is important to know. The following sections of the book will help you with that.
Role conflict is a special form of social conflict that takes place when one is forced to take on two different and incompatible roles, or statuses, at the same time. While at times such conflict can motivate the individual to do more and better work, it can equally lead to frustration, anxiety, and reduced efficiency (Knowles and Saxberg, 1971). Another facet of personal conflict has to do with the multiple roles people play in organizations. Behavioral scientists sometimes describe an organization as a system of position roles. Each member of the organization belongs to a role set, which is an association of individuals who share interdependent tasks and thus perform formally defined roles, which are further influenced both by the expectations of others in the role set and by one's own personality and expectations. For example, in a common form of classroom organization, students are expected to learn from the instructor by listening to him, following his directions for study, taking exams, and maintaining appropriate standards of conduct. The instructor is expected to bring students high-quality learning materials, give lectures, write and conduct tests, and set a scholarly example. The system of roles to which an individual belongs extends outside the organization as well, and influences his functioning within it. As an example, a man's roles as husband, father, son, and church member are all intertwine with each other and with his set of organizational roles (Katz and Kahn, 1966).
Organizational man or protean career?
Your internship is about acquiring knowledge to build upon. You are not at the site to become a product of that environment alone. Your goal is to learn knowledge that will carry forward taking you to the next level, and then the next, and so on. How to do something is important to know – ‘why’ it works and ‘how to think about that’ is the greater takeaway.
In their review of the development of the idea of a psychological contract, Hall and Moss (1998) found that the very nature of the contract has changed as organizations have less of an effect on career management than employees have on determining the directions of their own careers. Consequently, the image of the organization man, the long-term, loyal employee has faded in favor of the protean career, a process that the person, not the organization, is managing. There are profound implications of a shorter-term, transactional relationship between employees and organizations at the point of organizational entry. As Edgar Schein (1988) has noted in a discussion of the impact of change versus stability in the socialization of professional managers, so long as we have a pluralistic society that itself values some degree of diversity, more individuals may be better able to operate in industries that thrive on innovation. Organizations that are more conformist may have a hard time finding people willing to make the necessary psychological contract. In other words, the capacity of an organization to be successful in the process of socialization of new employees especially those who bring new professional expertise that is critical to the desire of the organization to change may be contingent upon the extent to which the culture of the organization affects its psychological contract with new employees. By extension, success in socialization may also be affected by the capacity of new employees to make sense of the new organization, what is expected of them and what they can contribute in return, and how they will build their careers within the organization (Schein, 1988).
Two prominent perspectives on organizational entry: socialization and turnover
Your job is to become part of the fabric of the organization, learn what you can, then move on to learn more. Think of your internship site as a different form of classroom. Take the time to confirm what you think is correct or adjust your thinking as necessary. When your ‘class’ in the workplace has concluded, and you have learned your lessons – how will you transfer back to the university classroom what you learn in industry? What will make be a better student and professional in my field of study?
According to Louis, (1980), new employees will leave an organization prematurely because of either unmet or unrealistic expectations. Organizational entry is a major phase of organizational socialization, in which a new employee defines his or her relationship to the organization. Sense making has generally been applied in library and information science to study information need and use in its broadest sense, and in particular, in the information search process of library users. Yet, sense making is also significant to the study of organizational life and organizational identity. Weick (2001) argues that organizations resemble puzzling terrain because they lend themselves to multiple, conflicting interpretations, all of which are plausible (Louis, 1980).
Summary – Important Socialization Theory
There have been a number of different theories, which have tried to explain how people learn things from others. Reinforcement theory, growing out of the tradition of behaviorism, sought to explain human social learning as the product of conditioning. Social learning theory stands in contrast to reinforcement theory. Social learning theory attempts to explain human socialization as a product of observation and mimicry (Volkart, 1951).
The self and socialization.
• The formation of the “self” - the set of concepts we use in defining who we are - is a central part of the socialization process.
• The self emerges in the course of interaction with other people and represents the ideas we have regarding our attributes, capacities, and behavior. It typically includes an egocentric bias as expressed by Cooley, Mead, and Goffman (Michener, DeLamater, and Myers. 2004).
Charles Horton Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self.
Charles Horton Cooley's notion that our consciousness arises in a social context is exemplified by his concept of the looking-glass self—
• A process by which we imaginatively assume the stance of other people and view ourselves as we believe they see us.
• Self-image is differentiated from self-conception.
• Self-esteem is governed by reflected appraisals, social comparisons, and self-attribution. Personal efficacy is another aspect of self-evaluation (Michener, DeLamater, and Myers. 2004).
George Herbert Mead: The Generalized Other.
George Herbert Mead (1934) contended that we gain a sense of selfhood by acting toward ourselves in much the same fashion that we act toward others.
According to Mead, children typically pass through three stages in developing a full sense of selfhood: the play stage, in which the child plays roles modeled on a significant other; the game stage; and the generalized other stage (Hughes, Kroehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002).
Erving Goffman: Impression Management.
Erving Goffman pointed out that only by influencing other people's ideas of us can we hope to predict or control what happens to us.
• Consequently, we have a stake in presenting ourselves to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable light, a process Goffman calls impression management (Hughes, Kroehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002).
Social Learning Theory. Social learning theory is derived from the work of Cornell Montgomery (1843-1904) which proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of limitation:
• (1) close contact,
• (2) imitation of superiors,
• (3) understanding of concepts,
• (4) role model behavior.
• It consists of three parts observing, imitating, and reinforcements (Miller and Dollard, 1941).
Julian Rotter developed a learning theory. In Social Learning and Clinical Psychology (1954),
• Rotter suggests that the effect of behavior has an impact on the motivation of people to engage in that specific behavior.
• People wish to avoid negative consequences, while desiring positive results or effects. If one expects a positive outcome from a behavior, or thinks there is a high probability of a positive outcome, then they will be more likely to engage in that behavior.
• The behavior is reinforced, with positive outcomes, leading a person to repeat the behavior.
• This social learning theory suggests that behavior is influenced by these environmental factors or stimulus, and not psychological factors alone.
Albert Bandura’s (1977) book Social Learning Theory expanded on Rotter's idea, as well as earlier work by Miller and Dollard (1941), and is related to social learning theories of Vygotsky and Lave. This theory incorporates aspects of behavioral and cognitive learning.
• Behavioral learning assumes that people's environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways.
• Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important for influencing how one behaves.
• Social learning suggests a combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors influence behavior.
• Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behavior include attention: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behavior), and motivation (good reason) to want to adopt the behavior (Bandura, 1977).
Thomas Theorem. The “Thomas theorem” is a theory of sociology which was formulated by W. I. Thomas (1863–1947) in the year 1928 by which Thomas states:
• “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” (Thomas and Thomas, 1928: 571).
• In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action. This interpretation is not objective.
• Actions are affected by subjective perceptions of situations. Whether there even is an objectively correct interpretation is not important for the purposes of helping guide individuals' behavior.
• In 1923, Thomas stated more precisely that—particularly within common social worlds, any definition of the situation will influence the present. Not only that, but—following a series of definitions in which an individual is involved—such a definition also "gradually [influences] a whole life-policy and the personality of the individual himself" (Thomas, 1967: 42).
• Consequently, Thomas stressed societal problems such as intimacy, family, or education as fundamental to the role of the situation when detecting a social world "in which subjective impressions can be projected on to life and thereby become real to projectors" (Volkart, 1951: 14).
Urban Literature
Dogan and Kasarda (1988:13) indicate that the size of cities continue to increase so that by the year 2010 there will be 511 metropolises exceeding a million inhabitants and by the year 2025, that figure will advance to 639. What interns feel is important about entering, living, and working in urban environments are an important consideration because size impacts mobility, safety, cultural orientation, and the formation of social relationships. As the population of a place increases, so does the number of strangers in direct proportion (Orum and Feagin, 1991, Lofland, 2007: 283).
Zukin. Cities are physical, social and cultural structures. Physical structures can be powerful directive symbols of what is going on and who is welcome to participate. Zukin (1995) asserts that culture is more and more the business of cities and the basis of their tourist attractions and their unique competitive edge. Culture has also become a more explicit site of conflicts over social differences and urban fears, and a powerful means of controlling cities symbolizing “who belongs” in specific places. Restaurants involve more than the consumption of food, they infer social and cultural standing and separation, and are equally forces of economic power and influence. Global business alliances are often forged in restaurant settings. The social, cultural, and economic meaning constructed in and associated to restaurants is manifold - as are the people who fully, or partially, participate in the operational functions and contexts of restaurants.
Lofland. The three realms. The theoretical work of Lofland (2007) is particularly helpful regarding ways to think about the urban environment in terms of specific space at the microlevel of the street narrowing Zukin’s macro components relating to population, physical structure, and culture. Lofland posits that the brevity of the human encounter with the city may not tell the whole story. Interns could experience anti-urban feelings combined with the belief that the city is “unnatural” and therefore an impermanent human habitat which might affect his or her ability or desire to acquire knowledge that is different and not pertinent to the world to which they will return (2007: 3). She argues that the crucial dynamic of public space emerges from the fact that not only do many of its inhabitants not know one another in the biographical sense they are often unknown in a cultural sense as well.
Therefore, public space is populated not only by people who have not met but often, as well, by people who do not share “symbolic words” (2007:8). Lofland more clearly discerns the ways interns might be taught to think about space through the use of three realms: the private realm consisting of household, friend, and kin networks; the parochial realm of neighborhood, workplace, or acquaintance networks; and the public realm, the world of strangers. Therefore public space within a metropolis can be public, private, parochial, or coexist together. Lofland (2007:10) indicates that the dangers associated with realms typically occur at the border of established realms which concern the student intern’s ability to discern within which realm they are entering, leaving, or currently positioned. This realm perspective could be utilized to explain to interns how to observe the interaction of their urban surroundings and help them determine when to attempt interaction with urban residents and with regard to their safety when to avoid interaction all together.
Zussman. When considering the restaurant site as both place and space physically and socially constructed, the theoretical work of Zussman (2004) is particularly useful for my study. He argues studying people in places, allows the researcher to look at multiple levels of social life. The study of people in places typically draws on case studies which are applicable in a variety of ways. By connecting people and places, I will be able to consider externs and sites as joint enterprises as well as shared circumstances, draw on various types of data, examine both individuals and institutions, and attend to both structure and agency. Something happens: A change in policy, an economic disruption, a cultural switch, and this “something” has consequences: people are happier or unhappier, more equal or less equal. Exactly how this something works out, its consequences are left unexplained or, at best, left to plausible by unsupported speculation. In many cases, the context of places alerts us to inputs and to outputs of the human consequences of those inputs which are sometimes surprising. The importance lies in that people are as much engaged in building institutions as institutions are in building people. A focus on people in places makes no assumptions about whether the macro precedes the micro or the micro precedes the macro. It is compatible both with various forms of structural argument and with various form of symbolic interaction that stress the ongoing creation of an interaction order – perhaps a way to look at both the structure and agency of ownership, without assuming the priority of either. Thus within the intern’s lived experience, cause and effect relationships affecting students ownership hold that exist, or emerge, within the social and physical contexts of the site, may become evident and usefully considered. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.04%3A_Human_Social_Theory.txt |
As a culinary educator, we tend to see life through the ‘eyes’ of educators. Educational discourse tends to gather human activity, relations, and sense making into the educator’s gaze. However much we resist, as the literature recounts, we are still, and always attempting to configure ourselves in cognition processes as active agents who ultimately manage the ‘processes’ we call learning from various positions. Often we strive to enhance, direct, resist, observe, or analyze for students. If the category of ‘internships’ as experiential learning signifies experiential learning as ‘non-school’ learning then our control and comments as educators would reify the classifying dimension which would subvert the purpose of the book. These findings represent the words and meaning attached by those who will be, or were engaged in internship learning environments.
How internship sites become part of the process
Forward thinking sites. Sites located in urban settings become part of the internship process in various ways. Forward thinking restaurant entities see students’ enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs of study as ‘capable potentials’ to replenish their work force and further the growth of their operations. They actively seek associations with educational institutions to accomplish that aim. Some desirable restaurant operations are approached by the educational institution, or its students, because such entities are seen as ‘up and coming’ foodservice operations within the industry.
Giving back. Some desirable operations seek involvement as a way of giving back to educational programs that help to further their careers or in some cases, they gained their operational knowledge through apprenticeships as culinary programs were not available when they were entering the field and the contact with students who are involve in formal culinary education provides a connection with formal study they desired but was unavailable for participation.
Operational need and seasonality. Other reasons restaurants participate in internships center on operational needs such as seasonality for example. Some well-known entities need additional help during the summer months but require individuals with the higher skill levels that interns possess. As such, they have evolved into training facilities that create win-win situations. They receive the necessary help during their busy season, and in turn, teach interns higher-level skills.
Lowering labor costs. Still other restaurant entities are willing to provide student interns with real world experience but their organizational reasoning for involvement centers on lowering labor costs through the use of individuals with adequate skills to meet their needs but they receive lower wages than the permanent staff as the internship is a transient learning endeavor.
While different selection strategies exist from one educational institution to another, the most commons tactics employed by educational institutions are essentially similar. Educational internship facilitators spend must time maintaining site relationships and on many occasions will speak with the site on behalf of the student in an introductory capacity. It is typically the responsibility of the student to contact the site, arrange for an interview, formalize the internship contract and convey institutional expectations, which will be confirmed by the facilitator. Many programs require the internship facilitator to convey program expectations to site facilitators verbally. However, while verbal overviews are preferred, pamphlets containing educational requirements for assessment and evaluation are normally mailed to the site, or given to the intern who provides them to the site upon arrival to begin the internship.
In most instances, students’ research pertinent sites that offer the skills they desire based on their particular interests. Students initiate the internship selection process personally by contacting the site and arranging the internship. Typically, the only substantive contact between site and the educational facilitator involves confirming the acceptance of the intern, discussing the necessary hours of work the intern must complete, and receiving the assurance from the site that those needs can be fulfilled. For some students the internship is an after-thought and much reliance is placed on the educational facilitator to find a site for them thus suitability for these students becomes a secondary concern. Further, the selection policy of some institutions requires the intern to handle all aspects of site selection and negotiations themselves. They consider this approach as experience and practice for students to engage in productive job searches on their own after graduation thus the educational facilitator function in a follow up capacity alone.
Focus. The first focus of the book presents the lived experiences and events of student interns and their perceptions of whether they were able to acquire durable knowledge useful to future endeavors and equally what personally constructed meanings those students attached to the internship experience.
Six consistent overarching themes that directly affected the success of any internship emerged from the responses of each participant student group: involvement, environment, evaluation, higher education mandates, the ability of the student to effectively socialize, and symbolic capital (practical work experience gained under the auspices of the educational institution and in for profit restaurants), and, as the findings indicate, these factors were not mutually exclusive to students. The utilization and interaction of all six of these themes, or their lack of, by the participating students were apparent outcome determinants.
Participants. The participants in the study consisted of three student groups stratified by virtue of their culinary program course progression. The first respondent group comprised twenty male and female incoming freshmen enrolled in an introductory culinary survey class with no prior exposure to the culinary arts program. The second student group had completed their first internship and entering their junior year of study engaged in advanced coursework leading to their final internship prior to graduation from the program. The final group consisted of students with some small amount of remaining course work but had completed their second capstone internship. The responses of the freshmen students are treated separately from the sophomore and senior student responses for the purposes of clarity in understanding the themes that surfaced from the lived experiences of all internship completers. The decision was to combine both sophomore and senior responses was made at the end of my data analysis because the positive and negatives themes of their responses followed consistent patterns and perspectives of what worked and what did not, which, if presented separately, would have been redundant to readers. Thus the combined responses of these groups provide a seamless yet accurate representation of what the book seeks to explore.
Chapter organization. The participants in the study were students consisting of freshmen in a culinary survey class with no other program participation to that point, sophomores who had completed internships, an senior students who were internship completers; and as such, this section follows the progression of responses situated in that order. The chapter sections begins with the novice freshmen then proceed to the responses of interns themselves.
The headings of each section represent the themes that emerged from deductive and inductive codes used to group the data provided by the respondents. At times, extant socialization theory is presented within areas of discussion to corroborate and connect responses to pertinent extant socialization theory that serves to inform that section of the findings and to provide further clarity to the conclusions.
Students
First Year Students
Unity spurs hope. First year student respondents were predominately freshmen participating in an introductory survey course on national and international food cultures prior to actual involvement in classroom study and the practice of culinary methods and execution skills in the laboratory setting. As such, they were particularly entwined as a student group through their engagements, activities, interaction, commiserations, and the avoidance of permanent labeling by others. Equally, knowing was interminably bound with the positive environment with knowledge not emphasized as a substance to be ingested and then transferred to new power-laden social and systemic processes where experience and knowledge are often mutually determined. The participative environment invoked togetherness, solidarity, and commonality, which could provoke more positive risk-taking and inquiry. Therefore, a sense of normalcy prevailed. Their responses were calm, and sheltered; in this context, all options are always open even if he or she carried some history of failure. Agency was plausible and viable because that view carried a future orientation.
The first-year student responses were well-reasoned and quite broad in scope. Surprisingly, the depth, clarity, and focus of their responses, and the importance of what was, and was not discussed, to some extent, overshadowed many of the sophomore and seniors responses which will become somewhat noticeable points of comparison as the discussion of all students ensues.
Themes
Evaluation
Internships as practical experience. Many of the first-year students recognized that a working environment is different from the classroom and acknowledged the value of combining classroom theory with practical experience to gain knowledge. “Practical experience is important – what works and what doesn’t – it’s reality versus theory.” Further, they felt that the working environment would probably drive additional questions to consider. Many saw the first internship as an opportunity to hone their social skills through interacting with kitchen staff, dining room staff, and the actual customer. “It’s an opportunity to learn and demonstrate professionalism in different situations.” Some students intended to utilize the experience to test “likes and dislikes” realistically. The majority of students, though stating it in different ways, expressed awareness that classroom and laboratory learning was obviously different from a professional operation and that maximizing both components would lead to better preparation for entering the culinary field. “I may use a cooking method a time or two in the laboratory, but using that method day after day in a restaurant will help me perfect it.”
The purpose of an internship was seen by most as a form of evaluation. “My first internship will be, in many ways, for me a career test.” Others felt that actually working in industry could “help me to decide what area I would want to specialize in.” Some student saw hard work as closely linked with respect and self-confidence. Some students indicated that: “motivation on my part will lead to the site being motivated to teach me.” Others offered that: “Experience is important to success and feeling able.” Thus, the overarching theme expressed by these students, situates the internship as “an important determining factor” which could aid in the crystallization of long tern career decisions.
Environment
Future sense-making as a practical advantage. Regarding the general expectations of what could or should be learned on a first internship, the predominant perspective centered on the positive practical implications of learning in a real work environment. The acquisition of broad knowledge, the big picture, was an important concern for a majority of students. The work should be basic jobs at first, learning to understand the setting and situations they might confront, and getting a general feel of the entire operation. Most wanted to learn the scope of involvement of people and place and “How do I feel about that?” The driver was adaptive learning of skills and knowledge which could be transferred to their future studies - what should be retained and brought to bear on future studies and the elements they considered unproductive and left behind. Understanding the importance of future class work and making sense of what they would be learning by applying their time spent in industry was seen as a considerable benefit.
Learning new techniques through interaction with others from different culinary backgrounds was considered a potential positive as well as developing ways to address those from different backgrounds and possibly different work ethics was also seen as a positive byproduct of such interaction. Some students would rather focus on more specific areas, improving their ability to multitask, or deeper into the social mechanics of the operation such as time management, and the pace of the operation, “who” is actually taking charge, and attention to honing, socialization skills. Personal learning themes addressed agency, seen as essential, tempered with humility which they felt would be more indicative of their willingness to learn and do whatever was necessary. Further, they could begin to explore their “style” of cooking, and test interest in specific areas of specialization. In sum, the majority saw the internship’s potential for building and confirming confidence and ability which would provide momentum to both future class work and career.
Involvement
Personal involvement in site selection. Most of these students were quite adamant regarding their primary involvement in all phases of the internship process and site selection. “I would like to talk with the site myself because I could ask important questions and get to know what I will be looking forward to, and how to prepare myself for the experience.” Most of these students saw personal involvement as indicative of responsibility. “The site will be investing money and time on me – I want them to know that I’m worth it.” Many of these students had personal agendas regarding the knowledge they wanted to attain in addition to a general learning experience in a working environment. They believed that hands on involvement would help to address “who” would they working with, and confirm “what” would be available to learn? As such, their responses were generally proactive seeing the internship as both a course requirement and an opportunity that could benefit their future studies and beyond. “I want to take control of both school and life” was the response of one student. Another noted “Culinary Arts is an applied science – so a good place to start would be to ‘apply’ myself to each task at hand.” Still other students felt that “personal attention to details could raise additional questions that I may not have considered.”
It is important to note that these students were aware of the program’s internship facilitators and their availability to help guide them through the process and they were quite willing to utilize their expertise in securing a site, general guidance, and advice. They indicated a sincere appreciation for any wisdom the program facilitator’s might render, which could also include: negotiating the terms of the internship, the quality of their choice, and goodness of fit, but the leg work and actual site discussions were their responsibility. Of note, the one key element that a majority of these students expected their instructors and the facilitator to provide was an honest appraisal of their ability which should be driven by their demonstration of a constant high level of involvement in both class and laboratory learning. Thus these student enter the program with a rudimentary understanding of “symbolic capital" [practical work experience gained by the student under the auspices of the educational institution and practical work experience obtained in for-profit restaurants]. Additionally, the importance of input from previous students who might have completed an internship at a site under consideration, or in general, was also considered a ‘high priority conversation’ towards securing a good learning environment.
Wanting personal control. Clearly, the overarching theme of the first-year students was personal control with regard to contacting a site, or following up on a program facilitator’s initial contact with a site. The majority of these students felt that, to whatever extent possible, major learning experiences should be pre-determined and negotiated with the site prior to the internship. The response of one first-year student might best collectively summarize the feelings of most of the students’ reasoning that: “I have to attack my first internship as the ‘only chance’ being provided to me to learn in a real life environment. If I stand out on the job, I can get a good recommendation that will help me later. If I get a good recommendation from the site, my professors will see that I’m a serious student.” Other students viewed the internship as a potential long-term “networking” opportunity. In sum, an overwhelming majority felt that engaging in personal negotiations with a site would demonstrate agency, interest, responsibility, and willingness to make key decisions - coupled with a high degree of faith in the program and those who have gone before them. A majority also felt the primary responsibility of selecting a site that best fit their personal schemes and agendas should be researched personally then interaction with the facilitator and others who could provide insight should follow.
The linkage of site and city. These students noted the importance of personally researching different urban internship sites and cities of interest paramount to the selection process. Additionally, the significance of culture was apparent as many considered learning the culture of the people of the site city to be an important aspect of the experience. There was the clear recognition that community and site constitute an inseparable linkage. Most were looking to achieve a complete experience and clearly stated their belief that “research aids preparation.” The best decision would culminate from viewing all aspects of the experience from an ontological way of thinking: What is there to know? Several students suggested that while speaking with the site would help to get a feel for the location, visiting the site and city could help to confirm which would be the best choice as every learning environment is unique.
Socialization
Inexperience created apprehension. Many of these students expressed a degree of fear and anxiousness due to their inexperience but the stronger feeling was excitement to begin. This might better be expressed as simple apprehension, the fear of the unknown. Some were concerned with fear of acceptance by the site. As first year students, they have not engaged in many of the classroom and laboratory elements that would greatly enhance their ability to perform. Further, having not encountered these elements, there are no successful experiences and confidence builders that would instill a more confident response. Thus, these responses were reasonable given their freshman status. However, other students pushed past any personal insecurities suggesting that the intern should: “just jump in and do it – figure it out as you go!” The confidence levels exhibited were predominantly in the normal range of what could be expected given the absence of practical knowledge and experience that more advanced students would have encountered before reaching the decision process of selecting a site. However, they can and often do surface later as embedded social constructs that can in various ways, drive or hinder a student’s ability to actualize their success as the discussion of sophomores and seniors demonstrated.
Managing impressions and anticipating expectations. Two important socialization connections emerged during the first-year student interviews. The first was an obvious connection to Erving Goffman’s ‘impression management’ (Hughes, Krehler, and Vander Zanden, 2002). Goffman pointed out that only by influencing other people’s ideas of us can we hope to predict or control what happens to us. These students, as a collective, believed that it was important to present themselves to others in ways that would lead them to be viewed in a favorable light. In line with the tenets of Cooley, Mead, and Goffman (Michner, DeLamater, and Myers, 2004), the formation of ‘self’ for these students began with the way they viewed and were willing to test their attributes, capacities, and behavior.
Secondly, as a prelude to organizational socialization, they engaged in "anticipatory socialization" (Shepard and Green, 2003), by developing expectations and knowledge about possible jobs and positions. Their positions were in line with Arnold’s (1985) argument that students who know more about working life before they enter into an organization are better able to find the type of employment that fits their personalities and skill sets and thus produce more accurate overall expectations.
Sophomores and Seniors
It is crucial to note that all student recounts and subsequent outcomes of these experiences were regarded by the internship program facilitators from all of the institutions involved in the study as ‘successful.’ The minimum criteria necessary for a satisfactory grade for the interns’ experiential coursework essentially turns on the following factors:
1. The completion of the institution’s required number of hours of work at the internship site;
2. The submission, in most cases, of a journalized representation the experience and/or the compilation of the experience in the form of a final portfolio; and
3. A satisfactory evaluation submitted by the site’s internship coordinator.
At the end of all student discussions, aspirations, and tribulations, the minimum criteria for site inclusion in the institutions internship program, and the evaluation process mirrors these minimum requirements.
Symbolic Capital and Involvement – Practical Experience
For those students who amassed sufficient "symbolic capital" (practical work experience) and displayed academic excellence, their demeanor conveyed ‘enlightenment’ regarding their possibilities with each step providing greater empowerment towards self-actualization and entrepreneurship evidenced by their actions and self-confidence. They further maintained the ‘hope’ elements expressed by the freshmen entering the program. Having established themselves, they exerted agency, believed in their ability to find answers to the things they questioned, and they felt calm and sheltered in their ability to perform within the institutional environment and equally in the real world. Others who did not reach such levels of success by lacking symbolic capital and institutional recognition were to some, or greater extent, in chaos. Their lack of self-confidence, surfaced in the form of fear or confusion exemplified by their lack of organization, and at times students experienced anger focused inwardly when they failed to initiate action. It also surfaced externally, when they waited for direction that did not materialize.
Approximately thirty percent of sophomore and senior students, both male and female, interns interviewed reported stellar internships. I discuss sophomores and senior interns together because the purpose of the study was to note successful tendencies and progressions rather than class levels and as such, to discuss the success aspects of either student level separately would be redundant. The following student recollections chart the course through a successful internship from its initiation to conclusion highlighting the productive tactics of both sophomore and senior interns. Of note, many of the astute tactics utilized by sophomore respondents were obtained through discussions with successful senior interns regarding their approaches to accomplish their personal goals for the internship.
What constitutes good preparation. For successful sophomore and senior students the preparation process for their internships began in their freshman year of study. The required investment was pre-calculated. Common factors among these students were their persistence and hard work in the culinary classroom. Additionally, they also excelled in the courses pertaining to other areas of university study maintaining high overall grade point averages. In the laboratory they spent additional hours perfecting the methods they were taught. All worked in the culinary field during the school term and summers to gain more experience. While many already possessed the social capital required, others identified such deficiencies and improved those skills, and of great importance, the ‘symbolic capital’ necessary for success in an applied field had been systematically amassed over time. Three minor themes became obvious during these student interviews: It is important to have ‘agency’, the ability to advocate for one’s self, to be inquisitive, and above all, to have confidence in your ability.
It is important for students to contact the site. One sophomore student indicated, “I think it’s important to prepare for the interview to understand what that is like. So, I started there. I went in for my interview with the chef and I explained to him that I was willing to do anything he asked me to do, but I also told him that I was interested in getting a well-rounded experience. I want to see the kitchen from both sides: front of the house [dining area], and back of the house [kitchen]. The student was asked to return for a second interview and the chef agreed to provide a complete look at the operation. “We talked a little and he said: I’m going to give you exactly what you are asking me for. We talked a bit more and set up a schedule for him and me that covered fifteen weeks to give me a full picture of the business. We decided nine weeks back of the house (kitchen) and six weeks in the front of the house(dining room). In a week I started just doing the basic jobs then moved to the other positions."
Another sophomore student indicated that at a proper site, the chef would allow students to acclimate to the new work environment by observing the operation in action for a while. "The chef made me do one thing for each station. First, he made me watch the station being operated. When I worked service, there was one spot that no one could stand, well, he made me stand there and watch my whole first night. That night I learned all the waiter calls. In this restaurant, the kitchen terminology was different from the last place I worked. Understanding those calls [when specific customer orders should be started] are really important to keeping the kitchen in sync. It keeps you from fumbling around if you understand when to begin preparing food.” This sophomore student was allowed to become not only familiar with the recipes he would have to prepare, but also the terminology of the kitchen for beginning and finishing customer orders. Being able to observe a station prior to working it was important to him. “Watching was incredible - I wish I had done that before. I could look at the station [area for preparing specific dishes on the menu]; see which items were busy, where everything was located, and how the person working the station did the work.”
Did the chef have an agenda for teaching or were decisions regarding what students learn left to their own construction? A common student response indicated that in general, most chefs do not have an agenda for teaching interns: “No, the chef really didn’t have anything in particular to tell me, but if I asked a question, he was more than happy to tell me anything I want to know. If I didn’t ask any questions, he didn’t bother telling me anything. But if I said, “I have a question for you,” He would say all right let me hear it. If he didn’t have the time at that point, or if he wasn’t sure of the answer at the moment, he would tell me that he would get back to me – and he always did. What I found worked really well was at the end of the night I would pull him aside and ask him - how did I do tonight? He would always say ok let's talk about your weaknesses and then we’ll talk about your strengths.”
A History of Work Experience. Deciding what information would or could be learned was carefully thought out well in advance and was often the result of years of thinking for most of the student interns who excelled prior to, during, and after an internship experience. They accurately assessed their ability by seeking unbiased assessment from others in their cohort, from their teachers, and, of importance, from the professional culinary mentors for whom they worked. These students either possessed or developed an innate sense of “Who am I? What is my skill set? Where am I now? And where do I want to be and what steps do I need to take to achieve my goals?” They were attentive in the classroom. The laboratory was their training ground for honing their abilities. They did not simply cook the recipe, they centered their concentration on learning and executing the cooking method – the rules that would apply to cooking any similar dish in which only the ingredients would be changed. As explained by one senior student: “If I were asked to make a cream of broccoli soup, in reality, I don’t need a recipe to do that. It’s a “cream” soup so I apply the method for making cream soups – I don’t need a recipe because I know the method cold. If you know the method you can make ‘any’ cream soup. My only question for the Chef would be about what spices, if any, he wanted me to include, or the intensity of the seasoning. If I have to ask the Chef for a recipe, I haven’t mastered the basics – why would he take me seriously?” The essential mindset was to first prepare yourself - be positioned to seize an opportunity to advance what you know. These students understood the value of learning from some of the best professionals in the culinary field and the need for a certain level of competency to acquire the site.
Another sophomore provided a summary view of what exemplary effort could accomplish: I did my first internship with a Master Chef in Chicago because I was prepared and as ready as I could be. I went in to the restaurant and ‘staged’ [work for no compensation, similar to an audition] for two days so the Chef could see my skills and attitude – that got me the internship. I worked hard, studied after my shift. I came in early and stayed late to ask questions – I did everything I could do every day I was there. I can’t begin to tell you how much I learned because I showed the interest and willingness to take away everything I could. I networked. I received a great evaluation and letter of recommendation. Now I have a much stronger resume and the personal recommendation from a nationally known Chef if I need it, to get me into an even better situation for my second. I look at some of the other student and I don’t get it. No real motivation or direction. I mean, just how loud does opportunity have to knock? I think some of my classmates are passing up some really good chances.”
Pre-negotiation of the work schedule leads to success. The most successful outcomes came from students that engaged in some form of pre-negotiation process with the site prior to arrival. From their perspective, this allowed time for reviewing basic skills that would be utilized during the internship, research the location for interesting things to try to experience and to prepare questions that would help drive their inquiry. “I took the time to research the Chef to get a better feel for his background. Since I was doing my internship in Maine and knew little about that State, I also researched the food and a bit of history about that area of the country which helped me learn quite a bit about the lobster industry and New England cuisine in general.” However, not all pre-negotiations panned out exactly as discussed. “I got there and was dealt a different card that I hadn’t planned for but regrouped, put in extra work to show I wanted it, could be trusted, and deserved to be there and by the end of the first week the plan was back on track. Thinking back, they were testing me to see if I could do what I said I would do.” I didn’t plan for that.”
Many student respondents took less formal and more candid approaches to preparing and planning their internships and the tactics utilized, or the lack of some form of preparatory method and depth of personal commitment when factoring in the different levels of engagement and willingness of the site to invest in the intern yielded varying results. Many students’ confronted ‘role conflict’ as they moved from the systematic teaching they experienced in the classroom to the working world where they were forced to become their own teachers. A common intern theme was the acknowledgement that the classroom and working world would be different but many failed to consider how such differences would affect their ability to learn – and who would have to be the initiator. “No there really was no learning agenda. I learned whatever I set out to learn. Had I not gone to the line during service to see what was being done I couldn’t have even begun to tell someone how anything on the menu was made. I had to put myself out there to gather information. I was an extra hand to them. Sometimes the guys would call me over to watch something or to show me something but not too often.” Some students made the transition by understanding what adjustments were required to learn. “They will teach you whatever you want to learn but will not come and find you. You have to step up and show interest. You have to control what happens next.” However, some students considered the challenge of taking on a personal leadership role to be untenable. “I did make a list of the things I wanted to learn, but, needless to say once I got there they just had me doing busy work that anyone could have done. I resigned myself to just finish what I started but I didn’t learn very much at all.”
Site selection planned in haste. “The site was chosen on short notice” was a frequent response for many of the students. Some decisions were made by collaborating with the institution’s intern facilitator – and such suggestions went unquestioned. Many of the students selected a site of their own choosing – which went unquestioned by the institution facilitator. In one way or another, a common theme “I selected this site because it was close to home.” also largely influenced the site decision. Most of these students did little to match their skill levels with the site or to inquire about what skill level the site expected them to possess. One intern responded: “I set up an interview with the owner of the site. In the interview, the owner seemed uninterested in my resume as if the information it contained was not important. I think he read all of two pages in mere seconds.” Nonetheless, the student decided to intern at this site even though there was no discussion of what he would learn during the internship. The site did him a favor by allowing him to intern there was the general inference.
Still others went through a formal interview process and performed a cursory inspection of the operation prior to accepting an internship. Some were certain during the selection process that the site would afford an appropriate learning experience. However, many responded “I was so nervous during the interview that I forgot to ask some important questions.” In most cases, those questions pertained to what they would be doing and learning during their time at the site.
What do students invest in internships? The depth in which student respondents addressed what they invested in their internship varied as might be expected. “I put a lot of effort into this internship. It was my first kitchen job, and I was looking to learn a lot from it. Time was heavily invested too; I worked overtime most weeks. I put a lot into this, and got a lot out.” This response represents the encapsulated ‘bullet’ form of summation I encountered from students who felt their internship experiences were productive.
Time. Other responses were equally reflective of the ‘moment’ of the experience and more focused from an ‘actions at the time’ perspective. "Time - I worked well over 360 hours. I averaged fifty-five to sixty hours per week. I was there from June fourteenth to August fifteenth. I always gave a good effort.” Another response: “My investment - I worked when I was scheduled, and sometimes stayed later.” Still another: “My entire summer. I usually went the day after finals and returned the day before school started back. I work a considerable of time on and off the clock about 70 to 80 hrs a week. I learned so much more than I expected I would and it didn’t cost me anything more than a plane ticket there."
Some students failed to grasp the purpose of the internship as it pertains to a field where useful application is both requisite and designed into the educational process. As encapsulated by one student: “I invested a summer of my life. I literally did nothing but sleep, eat, and work. I was exhausted every day and I had no social life outside of work. In terms of effort, I worked my ass off for minimum wage. I think it’s ridiculous that we have to pay for the internship class. Why should we ‘pay’ to’ work’ our asses off? That summer was the hardest I have ever worked and the hardest I ever want to work. It was miserable. The hours were horrible and the pay was crap.” From the perspective of this student, the response made perfect sense. If the internship is viewed as a true learning experience, then the amount of time worked was not the important factor, however, if the internship was considered to be just another course requirement to graduate, then the investment was seen as too extensive in comparison to more traditional institutional offerings.
Many of the student respondents calculated their investment in terms of ‘time’ but how their time was construed and utilized formed a noticeable separation that spoke to what the intern wanted to accomplish; planned goals, if any; self-evaluation, if any; and meeting prescribed standards that different types of venues required for successful inclusion. For students who achieved superior results, the word ‘time’ was more aptly envisioned as ‘timeline’ which conveyed a far different way of thinking about the purpose of an internship, what it disclosed, measured, afforded, and the positive impact on their future it potentially provided the student. For many of the students who embarked on internships, time was marked from the beginning of the experience. For those most successful interns, the beginning of the timeline began years prior to that first day working in a real world operation – time was relative and continual.
When the collective responses of successful students are considered, aspects such as gauging one’s ability, building one’s skills and resume, honing one’s attributes – or acquiring attributes seen as lacking were important student considerations. Additionally, involvement in school and work to build strengths that would allow them to be seen as “competent,” along with detailed preparation strategies such as the contemplation of personal goals and the acquisition of skills and knowledge through the careful selection of sites that would further their purposes were viewed as vital to their future. Thus these students engaged in careful negotiation with the site to gain the assurance that things agreed upon would occur. All of these elements involved time. However, time from their perspective appeared, in and of itself, not to be the overriding factor but rather a marker to gauge, to reflect, to be, or stay, on schedule – it was limited, valuable, and to be used wisely.
What advice would these interns give to a student preparing for their first internship? The sophomore and senior responses were varied but all equally insightful. Most sophomores indicated that a new intern should: “Talk to everyone around you – I mean everyone. You learn things from people you would never think you can learn from. People who have been there forever know a lot. Find out about the topics they like and begin talking to them about that. Eventually, they will open up. Find the storyteller. Find out who is in charge. There is the boss and then there is the person who really calls the shots. I actually saw that! I thought the chef controlled everything. It wasn’t the chef at all. It was the general manager who made the final decisions on everything. He knew the most about the customer. Decisions were about the customer first. Under the general manager, the kitchen had the final authority because they knew more about the food."
All interns suggested that new interns should "get out of your comfort zone. Throw yourself to the wolves every chance you get. If your station is not busy, go to the station that is and try to help. It’s the best way to learn something else. Do not just stay in one spot. They won’t get unset if you are trying to help. It shows initiative. Make the first moves and show interest and work as fast as you can, most importantly – always show interest. You have to want to learn. When they see that, it’s easy from that point on.
Many interns responded that being candid with their site facilitators contributed heavily to their improvement during the internship. “Sit with your boss and tell him that you don’t want fluff; you want to know, really, how you are doing. Tell them not to hold anything back from you. It won’t make you better if you settle for the fluff. I said that several times to be sure I got the truth.
All senior interns and most of the sophomores indicated that: "It’s important that interns ask questions because those questions lead to other questions. You could just look it up, but the scope of everything starts to widen when you have conversations about what you don’t know. So, think about the questions you develop in school, but use them as guides to develop other questions, and then more questions. It’s amazing how much you can learn if you do that.
Interns should begin to immediately become assertive and take action on their own behalf. One senior intern succinctly stated that, "the best thing to do is attack the situation from the beginning. Show them that you don’t have an attitude and you are there to learn and you don’t care who you learn from. Be relentless because they won’t just tell you things, but if you keep asking, the answers get longer and the conversation moves on to other things you want and need to know to be successful in this business." Students felt that it was important to be particular about the internship site choice and the specifics regarding learning opportunities. It was equally important to feel comfortable in the surroundings; being at ease affected learning in their opinion. Humility was seen as a plus when dealing with co-workers. “Nobody likes a know-it-all so even if you know how to do something, ask for directions and look like you got it right the first time you tried – that’s better than appearing arrogant and then messing up. Oh, learn to laugh at your mistakes.” Planning the experience to insure that outcomes were a high priority was also heavily stressed. The planning function also included a thorough investigation of the urban environment of the site city. “Know as much as you can about the city and how to navigate it, where do you want to go and what you want to see and experience. There were so many different cultures and cuisines I could have tried.” Many advised playing to your strengths while concentrating on your weaknesses - and to give extra time without pay if necessary. One senior intern provided this perspective: “I pay for school, I pay for books to learn more about the profession, so if I go in early or stay later and learn something important, so what if I didn’t get paid. It was an opportunity to learn - and for a change, it didn’t cost me anything.” Performance as a key component to success was heavily stressed. Overwhelming, keeping an open mind, and having clarity about your expectations, and theirs [the site] were stressed repeatedly.
Environment
The ultimate goal of the internship. Sophomore interns indicated that, from their perspective, their initial internship was success because it provided them with advanced insight and improved skill levels that would aid them in their future university studies and further propel their career advancement on a future more advanced internship. Their internship site had been selected for career building and their resumes were now more substantive. The first internship was a well thought out learning opportunity that would provide them with additional symbolic capital in the form of work experience to open the doors to more advanced levels of practical experience during their next internship, and result in more favorable employment upon graduation. The goal of most senior internships was the selection of a site that could directly further their career path and their intention was to select a restaurant operation for their final internship that would act as a prelude to employment. Thus, the senior internship site was intended to be their first employment upon graduation.
Internships are messy. Student intern responses from the interviews varied broadly in the reasoning, actions, and perceptions held and disclosed by interns who lived the experience which, as such, do not fit neatly into a collective representation of their total experience that emerged from their disclosures. Some responses represent the positive responses of interns who did achieve success while other responses necessarily turn the discussion toward elements at the crux of less desirable outcomes.
The following intern experiences, as comparison responses to the more successful student interns previously discussed differ in a variety of ways that turn on the interns intended internship goals; preparation tactics; their socialization abilities; and the amount of symbolic capital in the form of practical experience they were able to amass prior to the internship. The most successful sophomores saw their first internship as an opportunity to evaluate their abilities, work on weaknesses, and acquire high quality practical experience that would increase their desirability to top tier restaurant operations when applying for senior internships. Senior interns who subscribed to this way of thinking and planning on their first internships engaged in quality networking in the aftermath and focused all attention on their senior internship as the first permanent work position they would hold upon graduation. Most Culinary Arts graduates can obtain a job in the field after graduation but only a few begin their careers with top tier restaurant operations. Thus for the senior interns who thoughtfully prepared for graduation, this goal was quite attainable. They were known to their top tier restaurant internship sites as individuals with proven abilities and as such they were desirable hires. As the following experiences will expose, the combination of planning, agency, social ability and symbolic capital (practical experience) surfaced as profound factors leading to successful internship outcomes while the lack of any one of these elements tended to hinder internship outcomes.
Workplace versus classroom instruction. Several senior respondents echoed that: “The workplace is more high speed. You’re working fast, and thinking faster. You don’t realize how much you take with you from the classroom until you’re in a situation and you say “hey” I know what to do about this. I know how to make this sauce. I know a good way to handle this problem. It just hits you. An overwhelming number of successful senior respondents indicated that good chefs do engage student interns in critical think exercises. Extending the student's capabilities should always be one of the site facilitator’s goals. As recalled by one senior intern: Every day he [the chef] would make me come up with a special for the day. He would say: ‘Ok, today you’re got chicken, come up with something we can sell.” He just constantly made me think.”
Many sophomore and senior interns alike indicated a gap in educational terminology versus industry terminology reflecting on the predominate holding of an Associate degree by most industry professionals currently in supervisory roles within the culinary industry. An overwhelming number of interns at both the sophomore and senior levels of study indicated that: “I would ask the chef questions, but he didn’t understand them very well. So I would have to go home and re-phrase them so he would understand what I was asking. Getting questions formulated and answered amidst the busy work schedules of most restaurant operations was innovatively overcome by one senior intern with an interest in management but working in the kitchen. Another thing I did was to make up some management questions I wanted to know about and I gave a copy of those questions to the different managers and ask them to go over them, and when they had the time, to answer them for me so I could learn about those areas. Anything they could possibly give me. I also highlighted some of the questions that I thought were really important so if they were pushed for time, they would concentrate on the important ones. I gave each manager questions that pertained to their area of the operation.” This proved to be a favorable approach to overcoming time constraints and generate more thoughtful responses. An additional positive byproduct of this approach was an appreciation of the depth of what was being questioned and the creation a productive dialog that that further enhanced the student's inquiry. “My general manager loved my questions. He thought they were knowledgeable things to want to know. He told me that he was happy to see that I was asking those kinds of questions to learn about. So when he had to time to talk with me I would tell him that I also wanted to know about this or that – I would add additional questions so I would get more out of it. My goal was to get the most out of the internship.”
First day realizations. A common response, and equally a normal one, was “My first few days were a little awkward but after the first week, I felt part of the team.” Some responses were more intense. “I felt horrible! I was so nervous that I was shaking and afraid to do anything wrong. I hate not knowing where everything is and having to ask people for help with everything.” Some interns had a rude awakening regarding the site’s organizational culture discovering that “the staff consisted of an experienced ‘family’ and others who filled spaces on the schedule sheet. My heart sank when I realized that I wasn’t part of the family so that meant I was just filling space.”
Some students who were out of their element took a more proactive approach to getting off to a good start. One student with good upscale work experience who travelled to New York by car indicated that: “I arrived, settled in, took a nap and then went in to help with a few banquets I knew they had that night. I figured why waste time. I was rested and it was only for a few hours of work. I didn’t think about it at the time, but I gained an upper hand and impressed my superiors by deciding to work on my own.” Other students went to the site to watch the operation in action, study the layout of the kitchen, and speak with some of the workers to break the ice prior to the day they were scheduled to begin work. These students believed that confronting the pressure of the ‘first day’ before scheduled to begin work would make their initial day of work easier, more productive, convey interest, and of importance to them, possibly eliminate some of the inevitable ‘first day’ mistakes that might question their competency among new peers.
Organizational cultures can and do support gender bias. An alarming theme emerged during two of the interviews I conducted during the study relating to the organizational culture of sites – an imposed limitation of what would be available to learn based on gender. One female intern was given limited duties in the kitchen and another was informed that she would be working in the front of the house [dining room]. These decisions were not based on knowledge, skills, or competency but rather on the a priori determination that the tasks involved were essentially ‘men’s work.’ The second case was taken to the extreme of not allowing the female intern to train in the kitchen during her internship. Gender bias thus exists in the culinary workplace. Though unsettled with these responses, what I found to be more alarming was the nonchalant manner in which they were recounted. I did not confront these interns regarding the issue of bias initially thus allowing them to continue recalling their individual experiences to the appropriate conclusions. The sum of their descriptions told a story in both cases of what they considered to be successful experiences with some regret wishing they had been allowed to delve more deeply into the experience.
Organizational cultures toward females. While most organizational cultures were nurturing, some presented quite different challenges for a few female interns. “I was treated well for the most part. I was the only girl, so at times it was a little uncomfortable. I worked my butt off so they respected me as an employee. However, there was a fair share of sexist comments and things that would definitely be considered sexual harassment. I was referred to as “the girl” by some of the guys. This was ok with me because I have a good sense of humor but it would have been very uncomfortable for some people. Over all I was treated well but there was some days that I hated being referred to as the only "girl.” I asked if the intern had mentioned this situation to the university or site facilitator, or commented on those incidents in her internship journal or final report. The reply was “Why?” What I found to be more alarming than the actual incidents was the students resignation that a discussion of what had occurred with her educational facilitator would be an unproductive waste of time. It also indicated that these recent incidents were clearly not the first time her talents were minimized because she was female. I discussed such incidents with the individual in charge of internships at my institution indicating the need for us to more closely monitor our female interns. As an educational facility, we were indirectly supporting gender bias and it should be made clear that such action on the part of any site would not be condoned or tolerated.
Socialization
Socialization tactics are vital to success. I asked the interns I interviewed if a personal control-orientation was indeed the backbone of their learning approach. The majority of sophomores and seniors indicated that this was so. An additional personal touch of impression management was added by many interns to convey humility and the genuine want to learn by showing respect for the knowledge possessed by their site facilitators. "One thing that really helped me was something really simple. Every time the chef spoke to me I would say: “yes chef”. Finally, he said: “don’t call me chef.” I told him that I was taught from the beginning to show respect to those higher than me, and he was higher than me. He said he had never thought about it that way. But now he understood how I felt about working for him. I didn’t think I was better. It’s always good to be humble I think. Even if I thought I knew how to do something, I would ask somebody to show me the first time so I was sure I would do it the way they wanted it done."
Assertiveness. Somewhere between those students who were able to overcome site-encountered obstacles and those working at sites unreceptive to the student’s goals by their accounts, were those students who were capable of learning, possessed agency to some degree, but were hindered by their lack of assertiveness to advance their cause. “I was disappointed in that I wasn’t more assertive, because that’s just not the type of person I am, I wish I had been more forceful in pushing what I wanted to learn and be involved in more things going on. They were willing to show me, but I was afraid to ask.” Another student echoed this sentiment: “I wish that I had been more open. I should have pushed harder for them to show me more and let me do more.”
Remorse. Numerous versions of remorse for not taking personal action emerged during the study. Many sat at home and planned the questions they wanted to ask, thought about the areas they wanted to gain experience working in, but, upon arrival at the site, amidst the hustle and bustle, the sights and noise, and the general chaotic atmosphere that defines what a restaurant kitchen is, these questions and thoughts remained nothing more than secret aspirations kept safe and secure on notes in their pockets.
Communication barriers. For others, another roadblock occurred. The questions they complied utilized textbook terminology and the chef or supervisor, who ascended the ranks without the benefit of formal institutional coursework, was unfamiliar with terms such as ‘organizational culture’ or ‘menu engineering analysis’ and the student was ill prepared to transcribe classroom idioms into more understandable inquiries although some form of each of these terms exists in virtually all restaurants – places have particular ways of thinking and acting that are acceptable or unacceptable, and all restaurants evaluate sales from their menu to assess profitability. The knowledge existed but the communication failed to convey discernible questions.
Social agency. Another prevalent recollection expressed by interns centered on a common interest in food and different cuisines. This was always, even for those not as comfortable with starting a conversation as others, an obvious focal point to begin an initial dialog that could extend to more meaningful interaction though in some cases; it proved to be the only existing commonality. “I did fit in with my co-workers but the only thing we really have in common was food and the restaurant. During the time that I was working there, they were the only people I hung out with. It was funny to me because I literally spent all my time with these people. I got very close with a few of the employees and I liked them very much but after the internship, we lost contact.”
Others applied their social abilities: “I performed my greetings every shift, made jokes with everyone and generally became friends. I couldn’t imagine working long hours at a place where I didn’t talk to any other employees. Everyone talked with everyone.” Social ability was a definite ‘plus’ when coworkers were more distant. “I initiated most of the conversations because they had people who did things and were hesitant to show me how to do things. I always tried to be positive and ask questions. I guess you could say that I was pleasantly persistent.” Still others applied the basic power of observation. “You have to learn to do things the way the site wants them done. If you watch and listen, you just pick it up as you go along, figuring out who does what and who you can go to for a specific problem or question.”
Louis (1980) provides guidance for the adaptation of sense making in the context of newcomers and organizational when she defined sense making as attributing meaning to surprise in order to assess the special needs of newcomers through the comparison in general with that of insiders. The experience of newcomers differs from insiders in three important ways:
1. Insiders normally know what to expect in and of a given situation;
2. When surprises do arise, the insider usually has sufficient history in the setting to interpret them more accurately; and
3. When surprises arise and sense making is necessary, the insider usually has other insiders with whom to compare perceptions and interpretation.
In essence, the interaction between intern and site serve to promote or hinder the ease of organizational entry because whether focusing on formal or informal support for socializing the newcomer to the organization, its processes, procedures, and culture, all point to the needs of newcomers to attribute meaning to experiences.
Interaction with coworkers was generally regarded as peaceful coexistence. Some coworkers were thought to be most helpful while some interns experienced both initial and, in some cases, ongoing defensive postures from the existing restaurant staff. Nonetheless, for a majority of the interns interviewed, such interaction was not viewed as a hindrance. As coworker interaction applied to gender, females felt generally accepted and most considered their innate ability to socialize most helpful to learning what they intended to learn. Most experienced receptive organizational norms and felt equality. “Other than the pastry chef, I was the only female in the kitchen and the guys that worked with me treated me equally. The only time I was treated badly was by the Maitre’d [head of the dining area]. The Sous Chef had a talk with him right after the incident occurred and I felt as if the kitchen always had my back.” Some organizational cultures did not live up to that standard.
Weak organizational socialization schemes. Still other organizations lacked what might best be described as a supporting or productive culture for interns, if such a culture existed at all for that matter. Thus what also emerged were deficient organization norms that were, in fact, not suitable for internships. “It was easy to see the relationships throughout the staff. Everyone hated the bartender. There were actually fights during service between the bartender and the executive chef. The whole staff was like a family. Everyone hung out together after work. I began to think they couldn’t have relationships outside of the restaurant. I did adapt easily because I made myself. I drink but I’m not an alcoholic and a lot of the people that I worked with were. Yes the site did facilitate socialization but it was between the staff. On Sunday nights after closing the whole staff would stay and drink late in to the night. I had a short relationship with the Sous Chef so that made things a bit awkward at times. It’s true that you should not mix business with pleasure. If I was the owner I would not allow this. There were a lot of things that went on there that were extremely inappropriate.” This was not the first story relating to improprieties that emerged during the interview process. Again, did the intern bring this situation to the attention of the internship facilitator, the answer was consistently and unfortunately – no. The purpose of an internship did not include the formation of personal relationships with site supervisors. One could construe that the intern acted improperly in this instance but if such discussion turns toward the aspect of ‘responsibility’ for the safety, security, and wholesomeness of the internship experience, then the organizational norms of the site come into question, and equally the controls and guidelines imposed on both interns and sites by institutions should not escape scrutiny – sites should adhere to suitability standards and approval of the site as suitable for experiential learning is an institutional decision.
Anticipatory socialization. Thus, most of the students had some vision of what the internship process would be, how they would perform, and what the subsequent outcomes and effects would result. Some were apprehensive, while some too reassured with initially created hindrances and wrong impressions. Some worked hard and overcame obstacles, some workedhard to no avail. Expectations were created and equally dashed. Some students returned home with ‘what if’s’ having faced the realization that they learned, but could have accomplished more had they engaged in more preparation and practice of skills. But for roughly forty percent of the student respondents, their reply to the question: Was the internship what they expected? the response was “It ‘became’ a whole lot more.” This was a sum statement for those who found the internship to be an ‘evolutionary’ process they felt empowered to heighten and did so.
Fear of the unknown. For most interns expectations were initially, and for some period of time if not continuously, clouded by apprehension, even stronger students fell prey to questioning their ability to perform adequately. One student who received a glowing report from a master chef who subsequently requested more interns from the program recalled: “I was told my skills were up to par with the site, but looking back, I really needed some reassurance. I feel a little silly now because I never anticipated how I would feel if I were out of my comfort zone, but it did happen and I wasn’t sure what to do. It all worked out fine, but I had some questions about myself and not a lot of answers for a while.” The ameliorating factors in such cases became the internal condition of the student and receptiveness of the site to help the student acclimate.
As one student recalled his initial tension breaker laughing softly because he could still hear the chef’s voice in his head: “When I arrived, the Chef told me to look him in the eyes and listen carefully! Mistakes are nothing more than opportunities to learn and I won’t judge you by mistakes because I expect you to make them. If you learn from your mistakes, that’s called growth and that’s what we’re looking for because growth means progress - but if you fail to seize the opportunities presented to you, we’re going to clash.” The student had to repeat the statement back to the chef until the response was verbatim. The student recalled that the Chef was stern, but smiling during that conversation and by the end, the student felt relieved and strangely less tense. “I’m not sure how he did it because he was a pretty fierce guy, but he could get your attention, get his point across, and make you feel relaxed at the same time.” Not all students were quite as fortunate when it came to relieving tension. Some supervisors were better than others while a few appeared disinterested in what students might be feeling or fearing and did little to inquire about either.
Acclimating to coworkers and social norms. Student interns in larger facilities expressed ease in socially acclimating with coworkers. This, I learned, was a significant advantage of a large established venue that accepts a number of interns on an ongoing basis. “You can watch and listen and pick up on social norms pretty fast. I think I did adapt quite easily. Everyone was friendly there and helpful in showing you the ropes and you do wait around a lot sometimes which gives you a chance to get to know a little about the people there, not to mention teaching and learning from each other, so yes the site did facilitate socialization with peers in a lot of ways.” Interns working at sites utilizing numerous interns cited the benefits of going through the internship with others who collectively felt similar pressure to perform well. They would often compare notes, discuss future plans, and help each other overcome obstacles. Thus, support and motivational mechanisms existed among peers. An additional advantage for interns working in facilities who adopted an organizational culture that emphasized the value of teaching was their constant interaction with a staff acclimated to bringing new constituents into the fold and who, over time, became experienced in assessing and addressing the intern’s particular condition. “My Executive Chef and Sous Chef took an active lead with helping all of the interns socialize. To get things started, they showed us all around the city, and also threw a party for us at the Exec’s house.” Other large venue interns had similar experiences. “I was made to feel at home. The Executive Chef and Sous Chef, as well as the kitchen staff, took an active lead with helping all of the interns get to know each other and the staff.”
Culinary Arts programs lack socialization tactics. When one compares the responses of first-year students to the responses of those who have done internships, and the advice they would give to those entering the internship process which correlates to themes that first-year students have already identified as important successful functions, numerous tenets of the socialization literature appear to hold true. First-year students stressed the need for personal involvement, agency and the control of one’s destiny. Students who achieved successful internships did not stray from those beliefs yet some students, to a greater degree, failed to ascribe to that perspective or achieve their goal expectations. The question becomes: what limitations do students’ face that form inhibitions toward achieving stated ends? This might best be explored through the analysis of the students’ trajectory through a culinary program. First-year student responses present a consistent collective of what should be. However, at that point, they have not engaged in the actual ‘applied’ culinary courses of study. They come from different social settings; some have actual culinary experience prior to entry; and each have different social skill sets, levels of motivation, and confidence. As the actual coursework begins all of these elements converge in the classroom and laboratory. Rotter’s (1954) learning theory posited that the expectation of positive outcomes from behavior and maintaining the belief that a high probability exists for positive outcomes, will be more likely engaged in that behavior.
Bandura (1977) developed a social learning theory that incorporated aspects of behavior and cognitive learning. Behavioral learning assumes that people’s environment causes people to behave in certain ways and cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors such as belief in one’s ability are important for influencing how one behaves. Thus for Bandura, social learning suggests a combination of environmental and psychological factors combine to influence behavior. Students do not equally possess the same motor skills such as eye-hand coordination, a sense of urgency, or outgoing personalities. While the purposes of laboratory assignments are designed to address such inconsistencies, nonetheless they become points of personal comparison for students, and equally noticeable separators by the instructors which go un-ameliorated.
The Thomas Theorem (Thomas and Thomas, 1928) states that if men and women define situations as real, they are real in their consequences – the interpretation of a situation causes the actions of the present. Should students judge their performance to be below their fellow classmates, they begin to question their chances to succeed. They see other classmates begin to pull away from them in their work. The different ‘tracking’ of students is proverbial in the educational literature beginning in elementary and secondary education. Higher education, as an extension of that system, subsequently places no barriers to different ‘tracking’ as segregation according to attributes and abilities of those in its charge- especially in applied fields. Students exhibiting greater degrees of skill are placed in more important roles in school and community functions to encourage their ability thus sometimes reinforcing the weaker student’s view of his or her inability as stated by Rotter, as well as their chances to demonstrate improvement.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson (1978) developed a research agenda to explore differences in social class finding that lower class parents emphasized conformity in their children because they experienced conformity in their day-to-day activities while middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-reliance. Rosenbaum (1975) on college preparation classes and difference hypothesized that participation in a given higher or lower tracts [levels or types of courses] would result in the adoption of the norms, values, beliefs, skills, and behaviors that correspond to that tract. Thus, tracks socialize these students into their corresponding roles which are especially applicable in the applied sciences. The work of these authors extends to the university setting as well. The quantities of time culinary students spend working together generally create strong personal supportive bonds between classmates. Separations, however, occur internally among students’ based on ability, drive and success achieved in the classroom and laboratory setting and beyond. As such, while the personal connection usually remains constant, tracts do form grouping the more proficient students and those who have not as yet reached their full potential. As such, norms, values, beliefs, skills and behaviors become adopted by those with different skill sets and collectively drive how the student’s view of ‘self,’ over time, becomes fashioned.
It should be noted that, these factors do not necessarily forecast ultimate outcomes for students. Equalization over time is another factor that quite often comes into play. Weaker students upon graduation have gone on to perfect their skills and improve social abilities. As exemplars, several students considered not of the highest caliber have gone on to become high profile personal chefs for internationally known personalities. Others have gone on to successful careers including restaurant ownership. The point is simply that those students placed on the higher tract receive greater near-term opportunities and equally demonstrate the ability to be successful now.
Ellis, Lee, and Peterson’s (1978) argument regarding conformity between classes can be viewed from a different perspective that is in line with Fisher’s (1985) position on role clarity. Interns have been conditioned to conform to their classroom and laboratory regimentation. Teachers teach and students learn according to prescribed tenants – none of which applies to a working culinary operation, which can result in role conflict – the student as teacher and learner. The students who pre-negotiate their experiences reduce such conflict and their adjustment into the organization for the most part occurs without major conflict. The students who fail to negotiate the definable and measurable courses of action, which would occur on their internships, or sites that agree to student learning goals but fail to comply, place students in such conflict as their responses indicate. Thus, the student’s internal condition in more difficult circumstances can serve to ameliorate such conflict, or fail to overcome it. The interaction between student and site thus becomes a prime determinant of how clear or ambiguous the student’s role is defined.
Evaluation
Student and site facilitator partner to frame what should be valued. For these sophomore and senior student interns, agency began with the initial interview conducted for their acceptance as an intern. They asserted control over the situation by inquiring into what the site expected from them, and equally voicing what they expected in return. Verbal agreement was not an acceptable end for these students. The necessary deliverable from the restaurant was an agreed upon schedule of what would occur and an appropriate time frame which accomplished two things: they were responsible for learning at the agreed upon pace to prepare themselves for the next step, and the occurrence of that next step was planned. They asserted themselves and maintained control at every opportunity yet remained humble as they executed their tasks. They indicated interest in learning by questioning, and by requiring that their work be evaluated accurately. These interns played to their strengths but placed heavy concentration on perceived areas of weakness. The scope of knowledge they expected to learn was large, but that attainment was planned in advance. All was willing to expend extra time and effort towards their internship. They were not afraid to try something new, and asserted themselves into situations beyond their knowledge to extend the educational benefits.
It should be noted that these interns had strong partnerships with the restaurant sites where they did their internship. The students excelled through effort, but they also prospered because the internship site was engaged in the learning process. These restaurant facilitators made education a part of the company mission. The assertiveness of these students from the onset was an important factor, but the site exerted equal effort to teach. Agency was evidenced by both intern and site facilitator. Further, while these students negotiated a planned schedule of internship experiences, they repeatedly extended those experiences to further impact the internship outcome.
Not all internships follow the previous pattern. It should be additionally considered that a reversal in site conditions and attitudes could probably have resulted in different outcomes. Many sites do not invest equally in the internship experience, but clearly a more adventurous and inquisitive attitude on the part of the intern could to some extent, ameliorate outcomes in less than stellar learning situations. Thus in good situations these qualities could extend outcomes. In formidable situations, they could equally be helpful to learning, and possible change the contextual nature of the situation at hand. However, not all interns possess this level of social and symbolic capital and equally numerous sites lack organizational socialization schemes that allow them to reciprocate the level of interest expressed by students eager to learn.
Educational program imposed guidelines for interns. The collective response of students to what program guidelines they followed included the overarching requirement that students’ must complete and document 360 hours of work at the site and present a final evaluation by the site supervisor. Other required deliverables included pictures taken to convey the cuisine and presentation aspects utilized by the site, menus executed, and journaling their experiences for reflection and comparison over time which would aid in a critically-reflected internship ‘portfolio’ providing a synthesis of the experience.
Some students indicated that creative projects were also a part of their requirement such as the creation of menus, or designing items for inclusion on the site’s menu from products available or underutilized. The responses varied among respondents and the general theme that emerged during the interviews indicated a connection between the intern’s ability and the involvement of the site. Stated differently, the level of competence and willingness to be involved the intern displayed related directly to the receptiveness and involvement of the site to engage in advancing the student creatively.
Though this pattern appeared to predominate, there were also instances where these same student evaluation factors were of little consequence. “The only guidelines I followed were that I worked 360 hours. We were supposed to keep a journal four days a week and after the first two weeks of work, I was too tired to keep up with the journal. After working somewhere and standing on your feet for twelve hours a day the last thing you want to do is go home and write about that place. I got to the point where I was worthless by the end of a day.” I encountered various versions of this theme to a greater and lesser extent. Some students organized ways of coping and conquering heavy workloads and program requirements and persisted while others became simply engulfed by what seems unmanageable and unexpected. Somehow, “I was told to act professional and perform to the best of my abilities” failed to provide sufficient insight to those with little or no previous work experience in the field. The gap quickly became insurmountable. The advice to “tough it out” as some recalled also failed to provide ameliorative insight about how to address problems occurring in real time that the inexperienced intern could not clearly define let alone begin to control.
Educational programs found lacking in student-site connections. Some students felt that the list of previously approved sites compiled by the program helped with the student’s selection process. However, others felt that the list should be kept more current especially in terms of the site’s personnel which would directly address who the intern’s mentor might be. Another student added “What good is a restaurant name and address on a page? I needed to know more particulars about the sites.” Other students were not aware that a potential site list had been compiled. “I didn’t know about nearly any of the internship sites before having to choose one and the site I selected did not provide a good experience for me. Now, I feel behind and I’m having a difficult time getting into a good site for my second internship because my resume doesn’t list a place with strong credentials.” Numerous students cited the potential importance of the institution compiling the impressions of interns who had previously worked at sites new interns were considering to provide more breadth about what might be expected from the site. The opinions of previous interns in general were held in high regard as a ‘peer to peer’ trustworthy informational resource.
Student perceptions on what the site invested. The ability of a site to impart the knowledge the student sought or to advance their skills and abilities was viewed differently depending on student and site correlation and at times, where less desirable outcomes occurred, inequality of intentions was an emerging issue. I received positive responses such as “I felt the site helped my education, definitely. There was one worker in particular who was always teaching me, but every other cook there taught me something. It wasn’t a forced situation, it was natural. Everyone wanted to show me a better way if I needed to improve.” and “When I came back from my internship, I was totally a different person. My culinary knowledge changed dramatically. I had more confidence in the kitchen and knew a lot more.” Another student echoed: “Absolutely. It’s a great internship site. They reviewed my work daily to be sure I was accomplishing my goals.” From a slightly broader view: “I did mature because of the work and I did gain some useful knowledge about how to deal with people.” Another student reflected: “I gained confidence for sure. I guess I could say that I came away with a little from a lot of areas. I was able to perform well which made me happy with myself. Success is contagious in a way, the more you get, the more you want so it definitely helped me to commit and try harder. It showed me there is more than what I know and I have to keep pushing to get better.”
Student and site facilitator partner to frame what should be valued. For these sophomore and senior student interns, agency began with the initial interview conducted for their acceptance as an intern. They asserted control over the situation by inquiring into what the site expected from them, and equally voicing what they expected in return. Verbal agreement was not an acceptable end for these students. The necessary deliverable from the restaurant was an agreed upon schedule of what would occur and an appropriate timeframe which accomplished two things: they were responsible for learning at the agreed upon pace to prepare themselves for the next step, and the occurrence of that next step was planned. They asserted themselves and maintained control at every opportunity yet remained humble as they executed their tasks. They indicated interest in learning by questioning, and by requiring that their work be evaluated accurately. These interns played to their strengths but placed heavy concentration on perceived areas of weakness. The scope of knowledge they expected to learn was large, but that attainment was planned in advance. All was willing to expend extra time and effort towards their internship. They were not afraid to try something new, and asserted themselves into situations beyond their knowledge to extend the educational benefits.
It should be noted that these interns had strong partnerships with the restaurant sites where they did their internship. The students excelled through effort, but they also prospered because the internship site was engaged in the learning process. These restaurant facilitators made education a part of the company mission. The assertiveness of these students from the onset was an important factor, but the site exerted equal effort to teach. Agency was evidenced by both intern and site facilitator. Further, while these students negotiated a planned schedule of internship experiences, they repeatedly extended those experiences to further impact the internship outcome.
Not all internships follow the previous pattern. It should be additionally considered that a reversal in site conditions and attitudes could probably have resulted in different outcomes. Many sites do not invest equally in the internship experience, but clearly a more adventurous and inquisitive attitude on the part of the intern could, to some extent, ameliorate outcomes in less than stellar learning situations. Thus in good situations these qualities could extend outcomes. In formidable situations, they could equally be helpful to learning, and possible change the contextual nature of the situation at hand. However, not all interns possess this level of social and symbolic capital and equally numerous sites lack organizational socialization schemes that allow them to reciprocate the level of interest expressed by students eager to learn. Again, the aforementioned is representational of what thirty percent of the interns’ experience which is comfortably less than half of the internship population interviewed. Thus, not all interns share the motivation and exhibit the experience indicated by the aforementioned students, and not all sites value the sharing of knowledge to the extent recanted by the previous intern recollections as the study will now begin to present.
Maybe this is wrong for me. Other experiences produced outcomes that could be construed as positive or insightful in a different but no less important vein: “Maybe it’s important to understand what you don’t want to be able to define what makes you happy. I was able to see what areas excited me and the things I sure now that I don’t want to pursue.” For a few, the internship signaled the need to consider a different professional trajectory: “No. I learned more about what I don’t want to do and what kind of people I don’t want to work with than I did about a restaurant. It’s all politics. I will never own a restaurant and I never want to work for someone else as long as I live. I don’t think I progressed much in the field but I grew as a person.” What also emerged from several student respondents indicated that not all internship sites intend to invest in meaningful ways to better the intern. “They didn’t. They benefited from having me there to work hundreds of hours at minimum wage to help cut their labor.” Another student response summed the point succinctly: “I knew enough to fill employee gaps at a lower labor cost. I was there for the site’s benefit. It was never about educating me. If I learned something - good - but that wasn’t what was important to them.”
The internship was a valuable experience. For most of the interns, the internship experience was considered a worthwhile enterprise. For students who persevered over time, it brought them to new heights of awareness about their field, the opportunities that laid open to them and, of importance, about themselves. They added work experience in strong hospitality venues to their resumes, garnered recommendations from chefs highly respected in the industry, and created networks to advance the careers and knowledge. The rhyme and reason of the classroom generally made more sense to them – they had seen the correlation of strong organizational cultures to success, how knowledge and creativity were prized, and most of all, from their perspectives, they had been measured and not found lacking. What resonated from these students during the interview process was not arrogance in any form, not cockiness, but rather a quiet reassurance, a grateful humility they seemed to feel about what they had successfully experienced – they never saw the outcome as foregone conclusions. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.05%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others_-_Students.txt |
What internship sites value and invest. How should students prepare for high quality internship sites? What part does agency – advocating for oneself, the ability to socialize, and perform competently play in achieving a durable knowledge on a high quality internship? Various impressions and themes emerged from interviews with internship site supervisors that illuminated why they seek or agree to participate in the internship process; the reasons some place caveats on which interns they are willing to accept; and how interns can position themselves for success. Different levels of fine dining restaurants exist from the elite restaurants on one end of the spectrum to quality dining facilities with more moderate attitudes towards what incoming employees should be able to do and know on the other. After a review of all interviews conducted, the internship facilitator’s willingness to share knowledge with the student, what site facilitators valued, the sum total of their intended investment in the intern, and ultimately whether or not expectations of personal gain for the site itself drove participation in internship programs create necessary partitions for the purpose of this book.
These elements tended to classify these different internship sites into four distinct categories: those sites requiring skills and experience with entrance caveats; those operations that accept interns because involvement in the process serves the best interest of the site itself; sites that need seasonal help but acquire quality interns because they have evolved into teaching foodservice operations; and those internship sites that maintain a student-centered focus and accept responsibility for student outcomes. The emergent site in themes are chronicled within these site designations beginning with elite restaurants and then moving to upscale fine dining restaurants with more moderate attitudes regarding what knowledge and experience is acceptable for a potential intern.
As such, the themes that emerged from the codes developed for site facilitators include: involvement, symbolic capital, and environment. These themes are not treated separately because of their interaction in each site designation. For example, a site that is responsive to the intern creates a different level of involvement while a site that emphasizes skills requires a different level of experience or symbolic capital. Though not treated separately, each themes plays an important role in the mindset and expectations of each site designation discussed.
Involvement/Commitment, Symbolic Capital, and Environment
Formal culinary education as the new standard. To accurately describe the chefs interviewed in the proper perspective, the discussion must transcend the topic of standards which loom large on the daily horizons of all interviewed. The majority of the chefs who participated in the study are the products of culinary schools themselves, not to mention those with degrees in other professions as well. They are aware of, and acknowledged that times are changing and accommodations for student interns from culinary institutions were important to the industry itself. “More and more people are taking the culinary field as a serious career alternative.” Another extended that thought: “When I entered the field, my focus was on superior cooking. It still is, but now, I own my restaurant and each day also involves management, accounting, integrated technology and social network marketing. In this field, you progress or you fall behind. We have to bring culinary graduates along because they are the most viable candidates for understanding how a modern facility operates. What they are learning and bringing to the industry is important to its survival. As industry professionals, we all need to adjust our thinking to address the changes and groom the talent that will take us into the future.” All interviewed indicated that culinary programs should constantly adjust program content to match changes and innovations in industry.
Sites that Emphasize Skills and Experience
Entrance Standards for upscale restaurants. Some urban restaurants require interns to possess minimum skill and experience levels, which serve as important considerations that ultimately drive the site’s decision to accept or reject an internship applicant. To understand why such requirement exist, one must understand that these food service entities operate in dense metropolitan areas with stiff competition, they serve well-informed publics, and have built their reputations as eclectic and innovative destinations by achieving extremely high levels of quality and consistency – adherence to expected norms. The executive chefs who run these operations are, in essence, perfectionists in some form or another, who constantly strive for, and achieve success by, consistently surrounding themselves with co-workers who possess the talent to adhere to this mentality. These sites are willing to share their knowledge but, their organizational culture requires, and their patrons demand, superior performance levels. Quality urban foodservice operations that do not seek to be classified as elite destinations, in most instances, tend to apply less perfectionist ways of thinking to interns who have little experience in such venues. High standards are maintained and valued, but the operation is not centered in perfectionism although a high level of performance defines the operation and remains a clientele requisite. In essence, the perspective from which the site sees the restaurant in relation to the competitive terrain strongly correlated to the degree of flexibility the site could or would extend to interns when skill level and working knowledge were the primary factors driving the intern’s acceptance into the facility. These considerations resonated throughout the site themes that emerged during the study.
What do elite restaurants want from interns? Restaurants at the pinnacle of their profession were quite discerning about who would be allowed into their operation. One Chicago Chef, emphasized where deep commitment, from his view, begins. “First and foremost, I think it’s important for anyone working in my kitchen to realize that whether we’re talking about the center of the plate protein [meats, fish, etc.], vegetables, or a starch [potatoes, rice], these were once living organisms and they should be treated with respect.” When asked how the decision to accept an intern was determined, consistently, the chefs with national and international recognition indicated “the face to face interview is when I begin to decide. If I can detect a deep commitment for food, a humble attitude, and the ability to self-start then I feel inclined to continue discussions, but if I detect a lack of any of these qualities, departure is immediate.” This initial process was concurrent with other sites who expressed similar inclusions that critically informed the decision process.
Should the intern successfully navigate the initial interview the next step in the hiring process was to be more intense and to the chef, the tell-tale maker or breaker for acceptance into the operation – the ‘stage’ [audition]. “I also require that a potential employee spend a minimum of two days working with my kitchen brigade [with coworkers] for several reasons: First, we can ‘size up’ a person in the first ten minutes of their arrival. In the first task a candidate performs, we are able to observe basic essential behaviors required to excel in my kitchen. They have to be conscious and focused on the task before them. This is easier said than done because you have to analyze the situation constantly, be able to make decisions on that analysis, and act accordingly. Secondly, a good candidate is aware of their surroundings at all times. How does one walk down a busy hot line without running into cooks - they can read the play. Third, I evaluate the candidate’s demeanor toward their co-workers; is there a sense of respect and teamwork? This, in my opinion, has to be evident. The fourth behavior I need to see, as I said before, is passion. The candidate must be passionate about every task they perform. If mopping the floor, polishing copper, or filleting an exotic fish, every task must have the same passion and focus as any other. If the candidate has these behaviors, we know we can work with the individual to help him or her realize their full potential during the internship, or beyond.” Most of the chefs interviewed indicated that these minimum criteria were indicative of positive outcomes in this venue level.
Most indicated that a strong balanced team was an important essential characteristic. “Without a strong team to carry out the “plays” nothing of great importance can ever be accomplished.” Pride in workmanship in every endeavor consistently emerged as another required quality. “The magic that is fine dining occurs by striving to create cuisine that transcends and exceeds. Putting everything into each and every step in the process from receiving a product to bringing it to the table is about pride.” However, these were considered norms.
Transcending and exceeding expectations was always a work in progress which began with students having the courage to constantly assess their strengths and recognizing their weaknesses. They should, of course, play to the former, but a deep commitment to resolving the later was the crux of what needed to be observed. Personal evaluation, from their perspective, while not always easy, was seen as the precursor to growth in the culinary profession. “I don’t think it’s abnormal to wake up on occasion and feel a little overwhelmed by the responsibility of performing better on that day. True professionals have the courage to consistently aspire to greater heights and it always comes down to mental toughness and focus.”
New interns should never forget respect, humility, and the courage to progress. Additionally, a highly successful kitchen is based not only in respect for the food served, but for everyone involved in the process from beginning to end.
Elite restaurants prefer interns with experience. Chefs cited the importance of symbolic capital in the form of previous experience in a restaurant. “I expect one to two years of experience to insure that the intern has knowledge of the stress, the hours of work required in this profession, and the ability to confront the pressure of a busy kitchen.” Besides understanding work, pressure, and stress, a majority of these Chefs cited an additional advantage afforded by previous work: “It’s important for interns to have exposure to multitasking and a ‘third gear’ [additional speed] for turning up the pace at any given time with proficiency. This all comes with time.” Still others indicated that while they were looking for professionalism characterized by consistency, agency, and an attitude toward constant improvement, students should begin slow and move up as their ability allowed.
The student’s willingness to learn was seen as an imperative and their commitment to work and taking direction were seen as utmost student deliverables. They also believed that the student’s progression should be in the hands of the student and gauged by their performance, ability and willingness to learn and execute. Agency was always a predominant and reoccurring stated requirement. They further cited the importance of a ‘quality first’ attitude toward work, a ‘sponge’ attitude toward learning, and a willingness to say ‘I don’t know – but I can find out,’ and admitting to faults when things go wrong, all done with humility. In their general opinion, the path to failure was paved with “a lack of respect for others, calling in sick for minor ailments, car problems, and so forth.” These types of incidents lead to an abrupt departure of the employee. Not listening to directions and constructive criticism, or not providing constructive input, and not being honest were equally major concerns that moved the intern closer to the exit door if not entirely through it.
Moderate upscale dining. Chefs with more moderate attitudes toward what interns should know stressed the importance of basic skills: the proper care of their kitchen tools, how to understand recipes, how to set up a kitchen station, and above all cleanliness. An important aspect was the ability to do production work in volume. “One thing at a time is messy and inefficient. Moving with a sense of urgency is important. If they can’t multitask they won’t be around long.” Ultimately, all chefs in the upper strata of the fine dining segment stressed the need for critical thinking under pressure and having the ability to prioritize. “Everyone has to think and react quickly. Asking good questions is good – too many is problematic. I expect them to check with me to determine if the procedure is correct. What they have been taught is culinary school may not be what I’m looking for – advanced techniques apply here.” While the novice intern might view many of the stated requirements as stringent to the point of overwhelming, one Chef supplied the sum statement for why such standards exist. “I do understand that the intern is learning, I remember being in that position and I do empathize, but a lack of these tendencies and abilities has to be a deal-breaker because average performance is just not enough. Fine dining customers don’t pay for average. This leaves ‘good’ as the minimum entry-level standard I can accept, but good is only a place to begin.
Preparation should extend beyond program goals. The predominant theme, both expressed and emphasized, by all chefs was that school and class work should always be the number one priority which should never be jeopardized by outside endeavors. The student should never sacrifice their foundation for learning. However, all were quick to equally emphasize that interns need to understand that school was only the beginning. Exposure to a working culinary operation contributes to experience that broadened and routinized skills. “Work is the biggest preparation aid. Each experience, whether it be working as a line cook at a small restaurant to working in a large country club makes the concepts learned in school take on a reality that you need outside of school to be successful.” The most obvious reason cited for working outside the classroom environment was to become familiar with the kitchen routines of working restaurants which are much different from the classroom kitchen or the school restaurant. “The classroom and real world kitchen have differences in terms of demands and stress levels. The stress is real because the demands come from the guests and the Chef. Performance does not equate to grades any more – it’s about contributing to a working business.” Another chef comparison of learning in the culinary industry to institutional instruction cited that “there is more pressure in the industry than there is in school. You have to get the food out and it has to be good. They [interns] learn how to deal with pressure, stress, heat, the kitchen environment, and other people’s stress. People around them also need to get their work done. It is a real test for them.”
Why symbolic capital is important. For all chefs interviewed, symbolic capital in the form of practical experience and other culinary related activities outside of class were seen as important indicators of passion and commitment that go beyond the classroom. “Most culinary schools offer a variety of opportunities for student enrichment including clubs, catering work, pro bono work for charitable events, chances to assist for visiting guest chefs, volunteer work and a host of other activities. We want the student who avail themselves of the most possible opportunities.” Another responded: “I think all chefs look toward individuals who have the wherewithal to get started in the industry while in school. If you’re afraid to jump into the industry early, you probably won’t succeed.” Most professionals saw experience as vital, but was there another underlying reason for its importance that hit closer to home for industry professionals? “A student who gets involved in outside activities shows us that they care enough to go beyond the expected and chances are they will do the same when they come to work for us.” Another Chef expressed his reasoning regarding why involvement was important to both student and site: “Involvement is a precursor for confidence in one’s ability. Commitment takes sacrifice and hard work strengthens character. I also feel that volunteer work indicates responsibility to various communities. I love people who show that kind of enthusiasm! They get my attention – which typically leads to employment because these are the people I’m looking for.”
Self-centered Sites
Evaluation
Sites using interns for personal gain. Some internship sites see the value of participating in internships from a more limited and self-serving perspective than higher echelon sites. Sites operating at the more moderate to lower level of the fine dining segment see the importance of accommodating the student’s work-study priority and equally cite that classroom learning is limited, work provides practice for students, and practice leads to perfection. The pragmatic question becomes practice leading to perfection at what cost to the intern? Some site will accept a student, but the intern will receive minimum to no pay – a throwback to the apprentice system of the past which still exists in various forms today. These sites assert that the environment they provide is conducive to learning but the student must apply aggressive tactics to acquire any knowledge gained. The true purpose of sites accepting interns is, on one hand, to provide a quality pool of potential hires, and on the other, a practical cost cutting measure. At the end of the internship, both student and site can evaluate future associations. They freely admit that internships can provide a test run that benefits the student in some ways, and from a strict site-centered perspective, virtually limits a financial downside.
Sites on the low end of fine dining quality insisted that they provide a real service to the interns. “Internships provide the student with real life experience at the workplace.” However, in the same breadth, these sites equally expressed that “it helps my company with seasonal labor and I think gives credit to the culinary industry as a whole being able to allocate students for future permanent jobs.” Another respondent expressed the benefits to their core employees: “It’s the financial and social satisfaction. Not only do the student internships alleviate my overtime budget, it helps motivate our regular workers with ‘new blood.’ It makes my crew feel important and they enjoy teaching the new generation and also learn from them new techniques sometimes.”
All of these site facilitators felt that students did benefit from their work experience and were helped to acclimate. “Our kitchen manager explains with detail all the rules and duties before they actually start working, we give them menu tests, forms, human resources policies and so on. When they start they know what to expect from us and what we want from them.” However, there was little mention of any discussion regarding what the intern personally wanted to gain from the experience. One site respondent offered: “They all want to learn as much as possible in a very limited time. Many have that famous restaurant mentality. They think that working in a famous restaurant is a need to be successful and profitable.” Students do not need a famous restaurant to be successful as a manifold of students demonstrate after graduation. They do however need a productive work environment that allows them to assess what they and the internship site value in a positive sense. I would argue that thinking critically and reflecting on negative experiences such as those recalled by interns interviewed is important. However, no durable preparation for the students' future occurs when site facilitators have no serious intensions in participating in the student's learning.
Site-centered restaurants lack evaluation standards. Several alarming themes emerged during the interviews with these low-end sites facilitators. Interestingly, all were unfamiliar with any guidelines enacted by the program with the exception of their ability to allow the student to work the minimum prescribed hours to satisfy their internship requirement. They were equally unclear regarding how the student would be evaluated. It was their impression that evaluations and grading were conducted under the auspices of the educational institution.
Some provided general written statements that the student had performed satisfactorily but by their account, if the student showed up for work consistently and made some effort their evaluative response was positive. In some cases, a check off questionnaire was provided by the institution as a summary evaluation. Seldom, if ever, was the time taken for a detailed account of the students’ activities by the chef.
A majority of the respondents seemed rather ‘detached’ from this question. Further, they stated the assumption that any student learning agenda would emanate for the program and as such, this was of little concern to them. “I’m sure the student knows what they have to accomplish on the job to get a good grade. I know they have to mind their ‘P’s’ and ‘Q’s” and act professionally while they’re here.” Thus, the discussion of what students’ would learn, or a lack of emphasis placed on the importance of what the student should take away from the experience by the site appeared to be the status quo. Further, these sites conducted no ongoing evaluative process to help guide the students in their charge, and little to no interest was expressed about this issue in general. When asked what changes they would make to the internship process, the majority response indicated no need for change. “I can’t think of anything these inexperienced young people could do to prepare themselves better. The ‘purpose’ of the internship is to experience a working restaurant or other type of culinary operation. That’s the important lesson that they can’t learn in a classroom.” These responses are consistent with the literature's stated lack of experiential learning schemes provided by internship sites but equally speak to the lack of method and assessment provided to students by culinary programs. Evaluation aligned with the student's background knowledge and experience were also not evident in a site-centered environment.
Site-student Reciprocation
While there are sites that use students solely for their operational needs, other sites exist that accept interns as the means to site-centered ends based on the unique seasonality of their business but these sites engage in win-win scenarios for both site and students. A large prestigious country club in the northeast serves as an exemplar. This enterprise peaks during the summer months and falls to modest levels of occupancy during the other times of the year. Thus, their labor requirements during June to August are extreme and their clientele is most discerning. To remedy this dilemma, they accept top student interns from several institutions, and pay them \$9 an hour which is below the \$25 to \$30 an hour their seasoned staff receives. At face value, this would appear to be just another site who abuses the purpose and intent of the internship process. What makes this site, and other site of this type, different are the other factors that come into play regarding their approach to internships and the interns themselves.
The site facilitator is a nationally renowned master chef [highest level of skill] and the core staff are hand-selected and of the highest caliber to meet the standards of the location. They accept the more experienced interns selected through on-site interviews conducted at the institution and to offset the lower pay grade, supply them with housing at the site, meals, and extensive training during the internship. The interns gain experience in the various moderate to eclectic restaurants on the property, and participate in high volume upscale catering events. The interns also receive top tier instruction at a site with no prescribed food budget which allows them to work with a variety of exotic products unavailable in the laboratory setting. As all interns are housed collectively, a ‘community’ atmosphere of collaboration is encouraged by the site, which gives interns from different institutions the added advantage of comparing notes and knowledge with each other, networking opportunities among themselves, and interaction with a most knowledgeable chef and site staff.
Evaluations occur often in both verbal and written form, and a concise detailed final evaluation is provided to the intern at the end of the internship. This site and others of this type have confronted the challenges of seasonality by becoming in depth teaching operations coveted by numerous institutions for internships. It would be appropriate to say that this site uses interns to lower their labor costs, but through the reciprocation of knowledge and amenities, the intern participates in a valuable experience, incurs the nominal expense of arrival and departure, and interacts with peer and skilled mentors.
Student-centered Sites
In addition to the student attributes cited as important by sites, the foundational theme of chefs who take an actual interest in the students they accept as interns was ‘site involvement.’ “I like to give students a guided “hands on” experience of the Culinary Arts which helps prepare them to excel both in school and after graduation. It also builds a good relationship between our organization, the university, as well as the community.” The importance of the students working environment was repeatedly stressed and summed by another chef. “I feel that the environment is crucial to learning and if an intern is empowered, that intern will take the initiative to perform well.”
Site-initiated learning - student and site facilitator partnerships. When asked who initiates what the student will learn and experience, the general response indicated that internship sites who initiate learning prefer to discuss those elements with the intern. This was a question the site posed to the student. Further, they felt that the initiation of any internship plan between the site and the student should start with the site. “It is initiated by me. I’m in the best position to get them acclimated. I’ve done this for a while and I understand what tends to overwhelm them and what works best. Who better to get things rolling?” Another site facilitator added: I like to expose interns to different circumstances. The more varied the experience, the better they see how everything fits together.”
Other site facilitators echoed the importance of a variety of work for the intern. “They have to learn to adjust and negotiate the situation at hand. Every service in a restaurant brings different challenges. We prefer working closely with the intern, not overcome the challenges, but to help them reason through ‘which’ challenges they’re facing - where does the emphasis go at that moment?” One facilitator cited that “the more comfortable a student feels in the workplace, the more effort they exert and also the more empowered they feel to extend that effort. We train them as though they were one of our own employees because after graduation – they may be.” These sites also felt that the initiation process should include getting to know coworkers. “They have to feel valued and accepted by the team to feel like they’re a ‘part’ of the team.”
A consistent evaluation process. How did these sites see the evaluation process? “For me, evaluation is a two-part process that begins with letting them know what I expect from them, and secondly, their understanding of what they can expect from me and their coworkers. In my opinion, it takes both parts for interns to really know where they stand.” Another facilitator laughed as he expressed his feeling that “evaluations are everywhere! All the time! Good job, we’re on pace, we’re falling a little behind and need to step it up a bit. These are all reinforcements if used correctly. It allows them to respond to unfamiliar situations and perform satisfactorily. Directing them toward the positives reinforces their confidence level. My approach is simply I keep them on pace which leaves no negatives for discussion at the end of the day. Good direction leads to good results.” Still another added the importance of constant positives. “Evaluation has to happen on a daily basis. You have to let the intern know how they are performing so they can understand where to adjust if necessary. Time management is crucial in our profession – so constant emphasis goes there until they develop a sense of urgency. I don’t take a negative approach. I’d rather say ‘you’re not there yet’ rather than ‘you’re going to slow’ because positive responses, even when things aren’t right, usually gets positive results.”
On the topic of preparation, most site facilitators felt that if the student wanted to learned they would, but the more experience they had prior to the internship the more prepared they would be to meet and overcome obstacles. The majority felt that internships are valuable experiences for students that help to enhance their social skills, job satisfaction, commitment to the industry, and build personal confidence. “It gives the student a snapshot of what their careers could be after graduation, and it reinforces their knowing that they can do the work”. A sum statement was provided by one facilitator who emphasized that “internships reinforce the fact that Culinary Arts is a ‘hands-on’ career and while the information in the classroom is an important foundation to acquire the knowledge and skill to perform, the real learning environment is the workplace.”
These sites, like others, overstated the importance of students gaining work experience prior to going on internships. Requiring student to have a certain amount of work hours before accepting an internship was another reoccurring suggestion that spoke to the same theme. As one site facilitator offered: This extra experience could be the difference in an intern being an ‘asset’ to the organization – or just a ‘body’ floating from one place to another in the kitchen. The former learns a variety of things, the latter just peels vegetables.” Not so different a theme heard over the years from students who lamented not seeing and doing more, or being allowed to work only one of the easy stations in the kitchen. These site facilitators further expressed that the expectations of the intern seldom matched reality unless they had achieved at least some working experience before the internship. Could interns achieve success without previous work experience? These facilitators said ‘yes’ but the odds of success were too small to constitute a viable plan of action.
Sites with a positive associational link to culinary programs
Socialization
A sense of completion. Two sites were encountered that approach the internship process from a different perspective – the linkage of site and institution. The field of culinary arts, in comparison to other fields of study, is relatively new and as such, some site facilitators who entered the profession through some form of apprentice scheme have achieved operational success and ownership of exceptional restaurants. What makes these facilitators different is the deliverable they experience by participating in the internship process – a sense of completion. “I wish I would have had the opportunity to attend culinary school, but they didn’t exist when I was coming into the business. In a way these interns make me feel like I’m a part of that in some way.” These operators take great care in teaching those in their charge and equally seek to gain the new knowledge the intern has experienced in the classroom and laboratory. “I didn’t get to go to culinary school but the interns take me full circle and in a lot of ways, I feel complete now because we share knowledge. I look at what they know and think about how long it took me to learn it on my own. I’m finally getting some formal education.” The chemistry and knowledge these sites provide make them locations of choice for both new and advanced interns.
Socialization aspects and organizational culture. The internship sites focused on skills and experience along with student-centered sites, and those sites with an associational bond to culinary education were most concerned with the newcomer’s socialization into the organization. Organizational socialization is the process through which organizational culture is perpetuated, and by which newcomers learn the appropriate roles and behaviors to become effective and participating members (Louis, 1990). Feldman (1980) defined ‘effective socialization’ as one of the main criteria for organizational socialization through which the success of the organization's socialization programs, the organizations perpetuation, and the newcomer's success through the entire socialization process are evaluated. It is conceptualized as the primary "outcome" of the socialization process that will enhance the achievement of individual and organizational outcomes.
The topic has been discussed from various perspectives including socialization stages (Wanous, 1992), socialization tactics (Volkart, 1951), person-situation interactionism, newcomer sense making (Louis, 1990), symbolic interactionism (Reichers, 1987), and stress (Nelson, 1987). The facilitators of each of these site classifications stressed; the interns as part of the team; understanding the organizational culture; personal learning; and making sense of everyday events, and so forth. The need for effective socialization by these site classifications is best reasoned and stated by Wanous (1992) who posited effective socialization to be synonymous with organizational ‘commitment’ rather than mere compliance. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.06%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others_-_Internship_Sites.txt |
Educational institutions informing this writing consisted of two large universities with culinary arts student populations greater than 600; two medium sized universities with student culinary enrollments of 350 or more; and one small university with a culinary student population of 200. The study revealed close similarities between both large culinary programs and one medium-sized program. More dramatic differences surfaced between those aforementioned institutions and the additional medium-size and smaller university Culinary Arts programs involved in the study. The size of the educational institution, the number of students enrolled in the program, the number internship facilitators available to assess the students’ qualifications, provide individualized guidance, and the program facilitators ability to mesh student needs and site expectations appeared to depict the most widely used elements in the internship site selection process. Institutional involvement for the two large and one of the medium culinary programs involved in the study included such factors as the concern for goodness of fit, a correlation of student interests and site, and the students’ level of skill.
Why do sites participate? All institutions indicated that sites became involved in the internship process through cultivation and association with faculty, involvement with the institution in various ways, selected by students as operations of interest, which would also include geographic location, or by the request of a culinary entity for inclusion in the internship program. All institutions indicated that most sites engage in these programs to develop a talent pool for future hiring needs, immediate labor, and that they generally paid these interns less than a trained employee. As stated by one institution facilitator, “the sites that are near the university, of course, are interested in just developing their labor force. That’s an easy thing.”
Other facilitators provided a more in-depth perspective. “Many of the chefs working today are products of culinary schools and they remember when they had to do their internship. I have to tell you that it’s only been a few people (the facilitator would not divulge names), and I’ll tell you what kind of people they are. They are chefs that are classically European trained (a particularly brutal apprenticeship process by today's educational standards more resembling a slave and master relationship) and there are two of them in particular, that I would never send a student to them again because of the treatment that past students received. They look at students as nothing more than cheap labor and have no stake in their education. But for the most part, more of the current chefs, especially the ones in hotels, and certainly the ones that have a certain standard of excellence, and those that were company trained remember their culinary school days and also they know that it’s important to give back to the industry and to further along young culinarians.
Involvement/Commitment
Some institutions use a systematic approach. The two large institutions, with enrollment of six hundred students or more, and one medium culinary program with an enrollment of three hundred fifty students utilized a more formalized and systematic approach to the site selection process. Students typically began to engage in the internship selection process five to six months in advance to allow for advising and preparation. Some programs utilized relatively similar elements deemed as essential eligibility criteria based factors such as the students’ grade point average, number of completed college credit hours, and readiness. The process typically involved the following steps: students were required to submit an application, resume, and complete an interview with one of the large institution’s three full-time internship facilitators, or the medium-sized program's two facilitators. Based on guidance and advice from the facilitator, students were expected to research and secure a host site from an approved list of sites previously accepting interns maintained by the institution provided to them, or another site not listed that must meet the institutions requirements. The internship facilitator reviews the host company information and job description, and ensures relevance to students’ program of study before approving the internship site operation. As indicated by these facilitators, “the primary consideration involves a match of the student’s ability and skill set to the site in terms of difficulty and the employers’ expectations.” Another facilitator indicated the need for students’ to consider and focus on long-term objectives. “We encourage students to work at sites that will allow them to grow. Their choice should fit within their skill set in order to become a better candidate for other jobs.” This is an ongoing theme discussed with students’ by professors, stressed when they seek advice, at internship seminars, and during site selection discussions with internship facilitators.” Thus, the selection process functions with certain regimented guidelines that exist within the structure of the Institution.
Students make internship site selections. One medium-sized culinary program, with 350 students, operate at the other end of the spectrum placing the burden of internship selection squarely on the shoulders of the students’ with little to no formal assistance from the institution. While some guidance is provided, direct assistance in securing the site is not provided. “We believe that the research and selection process should be conducted solely by the student. This more closely resembles the actual conditions of engaging in the ‘job hunt’ most will face upon graduation to it is our policy to not negotiate internships for our students.” Again, the students bear the responsibility of learning method.
While other institutions represent another extreme by simply appointing internships to interns who have no involvement in the selection process, and little say in where the internship will occur, more moderate institutions straddle this spectrum through the incorporation of both the elements of larger institutions, and those institutions placing the selection responsibility on the student.
Student should have a philosophical connection with the site. One smaller culinary program participating in the study takes another approach based on a different, more student-centered, way of thinking - students should have a vested interest in where they will perform the internship. “We want them to be in a place that has a connection with their philosophy of food, or with the chef, the cuisine, and so forth. We guide them as much as possible, but it’s my contention that the initial step in selecting an intern site begins with soul-searching on the part of the student to consider their strengths and weaknesses, do their site homework, and make the initial contact with the site.” Of course, the obvious weakness to this approach is the students' ability to accurately evaluate their strengths and weaknesses and to understand what attributes make sites a good choice or not despite their sharing a similar philosophy for food.
The importance of students having career objectives. The importance of students having focused career objectives was stressed by all culinary programs involved in the study. One facilitator suggested that students take their site assessment beyond verbal interaction. “They should go and ‘stage’ [work for free] for one shift to get some sense of the rhythm of the kitchen and the way it operates. After the shift they can get together with the chef and discuss the situation. If they are not comfortable, they can say no and move on to another location. This is particularly important for senior internships because if they have done their homework and pick correctly, that internship evolves into their first job.” Facilitators stress the importance of having a chef that has an interest in their education, will mentor them, supervise them correctly, and evaluate them frequently. Most of these facilitators felt that these elements could not be accurately assessed by the student during a brief interview. The interaction had to be deeper for the student to accurate gauge the site’s intentions.
Educational facilitators also expect student commitment. The ‘stage’ [audition] is highly suggested for another important reason – commitment. “Once they’ve told me they’ve selected a site, then that’s it, they’re committed. One of the things we stress is living up to your word. There is no calling us and saying this is not what I thought it would be, or I’m not really interested in the work I’m doing. Unless the student is in harm’s way, the commitment must be honored. If they leave the site, they fail the course.” These facilitators further indicated that most students who perform stages seldom faced the forms of regret that would warrant departure from the site.
Most institutions further cited that “most internship sites were chosen or determined by word of mouth. Students are networking with prior students who have successfully completed an internship and getting satisfactory feedback on certain properties that may interest those students. Students are required to research possible internship sites, but generally they take the recommendations from fellow students.” These educational facilitators also stressed that students should look at an internship site to gain work-related experience that employers’ value, strengthen opportunities for jobs after graduation, and provide excellent resume builders. Thus, students required to participate in two internships were advised to carefully select an initial site that would provide the skills and overall preparation needed to excel at a more advance entity for their second experience. Thus students in programs requiring only one experiential work encounter, typically the program requirement for larger institutions, faced the additional burden of negotiating and excelling during only one real world encounter. This would also account for large institutions adopting more formalized and regiments program guidelines.
Higher Education Mandates
Site acceptability and institutional expectations. When asked what factors determine the suitability of a site for inclusion in the internship process, most educational facilitators responded that: “the host company agrees to respect the program start and completion dates set by the university and the ability to accommodate the student for the prescribed number of working hours." This was the initial response of all institutions interviewed. One large and one of the medium institutions cited an additional caveat “The host company agrees to allow a University representative to telephone and, or, visit the host company to confirm the student’s employment, discuss the student’s work performance with their supervisor, as well as to evaluate the educational value and quality of the internship experience at the site.”
Education facilitators also commit to students. The most structured and formalized internship site expectations surfaced during my interview with one large public institution where internship site facilitators were expected to assist in making the student an integral part of the host organization and provide a meaningful educational experience with supportive guidance and supervision. The work experience should provide an opportunity for the student to gain firsthand insight into the practical aspect of the organization’s operation by observation and participation. Further, it should provide a variety of practical learning experiences in a scheduled rotation, or in a specific department relative to the student’s field of study. Those experiences should also incorporate measurable, productive, relevant, skills and activities that match the real-world tasks of professionals in the industry. The internship sites should agree to provide regular and timely input and feedback to the intern, through two performance evaluations occurring midway and at the conclusion of the experience. The student’s supervisor/mentor at the site must be available to discuss the following with the student: individual internship goals and objectives, their project topic or thesis, job expectations regarding level of performance, and specific information relating to the preparation of the academic component. The site facilitator must also agree to communicate periodically with the educational facilitator regarding the individual student’s personal and professional development. The site should also provide feedback to the educational facilitator regarding the overall internship experience such as the student preparedness, recommendations or special considerations for future placements, and input for the program’s development. While these elements are well-designed deliverables, this educational facilitator also stated the difficulty in assessing whether or not they were understood by all internship site facilitators or adequately assess during a student's evaluation process at the end of the internship due to the large student to facilitator ratio. Other less stringent evaluation schemes surfaced during the course of the study.
One medium culinary program and the small program also expected timely student feedback, possibly midway but more often in the form of a formal final evaluation. The sites availability for phone conversations regarding the students’ progress, as well as more pragmatic site expectations was the norm. “We point out to them [site facilitators] that we expect the student to do a certain amount of the ‘grunge’ work, but we would also like the Chef to consider spending time with the intern, and giving they a fair round of the kitchen and we usually get good cooperation with that. The ones that don’t, quite frankly, I don’t send anybody else to them. So hopefully they will give them a fair round and an insight into what the chef has to do in the realm of human resources, having to hire people, what they do toward costing and keeping their labor and food cost down. How do they order, and what kind of system do they have? Is it a manual or computerized system? The essence of the internship is for the student to go in there and then to come back and tell me, in their portfolios, everything they possibly can about that restaurant – how they market themselves, what type of management styles do they have, how was the respect level in the kitchen, was it friendly place, was it a hostile environment, you know, those kinds of things.
Maintaining site relationships. Most institutions indicated the importance of constant communication with sites to build strong recruiting relationships for internships and beyond. Institutions felt that a majority of these entities want to develop a talent pool for future hiring needs thus they focus more on the symbolic capital possessed by those students who can best represent the institution. As such, “the institution feels compelled to send students who display a greater than average chance of successfully completing the internship experience where it is mutually and financially beneficial to both the site and the student.”
One large institution internship facilitator voiced a more program-centered perspective regarding the student’s evaluation driving the linkage between institution and site. “I don’t think site relationships are difficult at all. I look at those relationships as sort of a barometer as to whether or not we are doing our job. The sites will tell us what the student has learned and what their skill sets are at that point. The most common negative point is that their knife skills need to be better. Of course, they’re students and don’t spend a lot of time in the day to day operation of a restaurant. But normally I get ninety percent good feedback on our students as far a work ethic, and as far as wanting to learn so I think those are two of the most important things that help our program stay connected with sites.”
Prescribed institutional goals. Large institutions display more regimented and structured program-centered requirements that adhere to and correlate with the academic way of thinking. “In conjunction with their supervisor, students will develop five goals or objectives by the end of their second week that they wish to accomplish during their experience. These goals will be reflected upon at the end of their experience. Beginning with week three, students will submit a topic proposal and outline for their project. Students are required to communicate with their coordinator, and/or faculty adviser at least twice throughout the term to discuss their project.
Additionally, students are evaluated by their site supervisor on their skills, personal qualities, attitude and interpersonal relations as observed during the first half of the term. Students will work on a major-specific project that displays the skills and knowledge gained during their internship experience. At the conclusion, the entire completed project is submitted to their faculty advisor for grading. Site supervisors evaluate the progress of the student’s specific skills, personal qualities, attitude and interpersonal relations over the full course of the term.”
Other institutions took a more student-centered approach which was less stringent and less structured. Student were required to engage in critical thinking but this was to be accomplished along more constructivist tenants in a more exploratory fashion such as journalizing the experience, reflecting on what was learned, what was liked and disliked, and placed in perspective in the form of a final internship report.
As expressed by several educational facilitators: “Develop employable skills! Communicate in a professional manner, and learn to solve problems as an individual and in collaboration with others. Gain confidence as a professional by journaling and reflecting throughout your experience. Learn by doing-then think about what went well and what didn’t. Think about how you could improve and act upon it. Repeat the cycle. Add knowledge and skills related to your specific discipline and /or anticipated career field. Test out your classroom learning in the industry. Display strong work ethic! Work hard, take initiative, and be a dependable employee. Connect with an industry mentor who can offer advice and help guide you in your future career planning. Learn about your organization’s culture and what they value in employees. Practice interview skills and going through the hiring process to make a good first impression. Remember, internships have the possibility of turning into job offers upon graduation. This is the opportunity for employers to give you a ‘test run’ to see how you perform.”
Institutional guidelines for students. Large institutions imposed guidelines correlated to the institutions academic standards and as such, the internship was essentially treated as an academic course of study. “Students are expected to report to their internship sites fully prepared and in professional attire every day throughout the entire term dates as identified in the academic calendar as well as the letter of acceptance. If a student has not started by the term start date, they will be dropped from the course and no longer be considered actively enrolled for that term. It is crucial that you attend every day you are scheduled for or consult with your site supervisor if you think you may be tardy or absent from a day of work. More than two absences may result in being dropped from the course, and may jeopardize academic standing and enrollment status, which may impact financial aid, veteran’s benefits and athletic eligibility.”
Student interns were equally responsible for criteria set by the internship site itself. “Most employers have specific selection and performance criteria. You must meet their criteria and pass employment tests including and company-administered drug test) in order to confirm your position at that employer site. Students terminated by the employer or who leave of their own accord are no longer considered enrolled for that term and will be dropped which could jeopardize future internship options. Other institutions were less concerned with regimentation thus the primary guidelines were left at punctuality and professionalism, and the completion of the required amount of hours prescribed by the program with less emphasis on negative ramifications. From their perspective, strict academic deadlines did not correlate with the fluid nature of the real world workplace.
The interns’ learning agenda. Who controlled what students should learn or experience during their internship varied according to the size of the institution and how they considered learning to occur. Larger institutions tended to take an active role in deciding learning goals while the medium and small institutions appeared to embrace more guided constructivist methods. Large universities cited student learning assignments and institutional assessments and the overarching structural component guiding what the student should value. Medium to smaller institutions provided input to student interns but generally felt that what interns should experience was site specific and as such, should be left up to the site. Most institutions indicated the use of pamphlets explaining what the site could expect from interns and, in some cases, the general expectations of the institution. The mean institutional response focused on student abilities leaving actual learning decisions to the negotiations between student and site. “We send a pamphlet that outlines the general skills of all of our students, and what the site can expect. It is then left up to the site to determine where that student can fit into their organization and the student to communicate their expectations to the site.”
Students need their own agenda. With regard to how well the constructivist approach [students creating their own knowledge away from the classroom] worked, most of the education facilitators indicated that the results were generally considered good, but were also quick to indicate that not every site was organized well enough to assume the role of ‘teacher’ in a structured academic sense. The obvious disconnect between students and sites with unstructured teaching abilities occurred where students asked “what will you teach me?” and “what did you want to learn?” was the site’s response. In some instances, students did not have specific learning intentions in mind and the site was not aware of what students would consider valuable knowledge. From another perspective, students with no learning agenda of their own often confused sites capable of imparting extensive knowledge thus “Where should we begin?” and “How much can this novice absorb in a short period of time?” are questions that could easily result in less desirable internship outcomes. Where motivation existed on the part of both student and site such obstacles were overcome as the internship progressed however, where either student or site lacked such motivational agency in defining durable knowledge, final outcomes typically fell short of student expectations.
Evaluation
Evaluation and grading criteria. All education facilitators asserted that both student interns and internship sites were aware of the evaluation process. “Yes. The students are informed well in advance of the evaluation process that both the institution and the site use to evaluate their performance. The sites are very aware and are coached on the grading procedure used and what our expectations are.” However, most facilitators responded that the site’s knowledge of what was expected from them was provided in written form. “The site receives a pamphlet guide that details expectations of the students’ skills, and what their limitations might be.” and “the sites are given forms for evaluating the interns by the institution.” Another response indicated that “We use a form that includes a rubric that covers several criteria.” Still another facilitator confidently expressed that “everything is outlined in a site preparation form describing the student’s learning objectives so the site is ‘always’ aware of those objectives.” No institution involved in the study could actually confirm the internship site facilitator's understanding of grading criteria. Interviews with internship site facilitators indicated that most relied on the students to inform them about how they should be evaluated and were unaware or unsure of the culinary program's formal grading procedure. I questioned what if the site facilitator fails to read the form, or, fails to communicate its content to the person responsible for the intern? I was assured that “the site facilitator always reads the form.” The assurance of that fact was profound, but were there concrete grounds for this belief – none were provided. Another expressed way of clarifying the evaluation process involved telephone or in-person consultations by the facilitator including both student and the site facilitator.
Student deliverables for grading varied among institutions. Student intern deliverables varied from one institution to another. Some students were evaluated on assigned projects, creative thinking exercises conducted during the internship, and a completed essay describing the experience. Other institutions required ongoing journalizing of the experience, and a complete portfolio which included notes, pictures, problems experienced and how they were dealt with, what they felt was discovered about the entire operation, or in some cases, on the positions they were allowed to experience. The portfolio was the primary critical thinking deliverable which facilitators felt should exhibit personal growth and their inclusions were student-determined to a large extent. The physical skills of the intern, such as techniques and methods known, received the greatest attention (eighty percent) during the chef's evaluation. The interns’ social skills comprised roughly twenty percent of the evaluation. Those skills were narrowly defined in education facilitator responses.
Internship outcomes, whether positive or negative, were seen as beneficial to the student by the educational facilitators. “The student realizes that the outcomes are based on true and factual investigation. The student is also made to realize that we are in their corner.” Other education facilitator respondents saw outcomes as a gauge of student, site, and program. “In general, we are able to obtain information about the student’s performance, and the viability of the site as a continuing internship facility, along with the capability of the site in teaching our students important real-world skills. We also collate data from the internship evaluations in order to see areas where our students may be strong or weak, in order to make adjustments to the curriculum.”
Advice and Insights offered to students. All education facilitators cited the importance of researching a site of interest thoroughly and to seek and take the advice of an experienced faculty advisor. One of the most important issues stressed was to “make sure you are compatible with the expectations of the site.” Other germane advice to students was to always “apply your training and consistently maintain your work ethic and professionalism.” Most facilitators indicated that they actively coached students on writing resumes, contacting potential employers, helped with finding housing options, groomed professional behavior, and provided techniques to help students learn as much as possible prior to the internship.
Limitations on educators. All educators indicated that the internship process as a whole was less than exemplary citing student agency, site requirements, and institutional issues as contributing factors. “Personally, at this time I don’t feel that the faculty advisors are spending enough time developing a professional relationship with internship sites, and could be doing a better job at placing students according to their skills and mindset.” Another perspective expressed that their “program is limited by the internship students’ lack of knowledge. Most of the students tend to wait longer than they should before beginning the process, so there is typically a time crunch. The student also does not realize that the highly desirable internships are typically coveted by many students, and may be more competitive. We have information and try to inform our students as much as possible about internships, but ultimately, it’s up to the student to make the decisions, and follow through.”
Financial resources - public versus private institutions. The most formidable limitation faced by public institution culinary arts program facilitators involved the lack of financial resources allocated by the institution to the internship as a course of study. Traditional higher educational academic compensation has historically been centered on ‘contact hours,’ the amount of time a course instructor would spend instructing students. Thus, a lecture class meeting three hours a week equates to three credit hours of instructor contact while a three hour laboratory class is considered one hour of credit because students are conducting laboratory assignments and the instructor is not teaching while students execute those assignments. The result is a sizable disconnect between traditional higher education thought and practice as both relate to the nature of applied laboratory course work where teachable moments occur ‘mainly’ in the laboratory as instructors move from student to student to demonstrate correct improper techniques and correct execution difficulties students experience. This same long standing institutional way of thinking, extrapolates to internship course work viewed by virtually all higher education administrations as the student interacting with the site and having ‘no instructional contact’ with the educational facilitator.
In sum, educational facilitators at the three public institutions involved in the study receive no compensation for the contact they render interns during the duration of the internship. “As it stands now, I handle the internship process alone during the summer because the university does not consider an internship a “class” and therefore will not pay faculty to monitor the interns.” This also results in instructors who provide guidance, input, and assistance to students during the normal academic term having no contact with the students they have mentored during the internship experience. The Executive Director of one medium program explained what occurs when students leave the institution. “I am a twelve month employee so I take on that job [monitoring interns] myself to make sure that the students are getting the right kind of guidance at the site and to, of course, monitor their situation from a safety standpoint. It’s a difficult process in general, and I also have to grade almost two hundred portfolios when they students return.”
This director further indicated that the grading process was nothing sort of a “nightmare” due to the short amount of time between students’ portfolio submission deadlines and the last date for grade entry. The failure to enter a student’s grade began a negative chain of events. The student would receive an ‘incomplete’ grade for the course. Consequently, the ‘incomplete’ grade adversely affected the student’s financial aid status which ultimately resulted in the suspension of any financial assistance for the upcoming semester. In essence, the facilitator faced the dilemma of harming student’s ability to continue in the program or engaging in the cursory glance rather than the thorough read because of the sheer volume of portfolios to be graded. Thus in some cases, inconsistencies between student and site, or deeper issues went unnoticed.
Private institutions had greater immunity to variations in resource allocations. One large institution indicated a staff of three full-time internship facilitators for advising students and site relationship involvement and maintenance. However, given a student population of greater than six hundred students, the student to facilitator ratio was not considerably lower than the student to facilitator ratio experienced at smaller public institutions. The received responses from all institutions interviewed indicated no lack of intent to provide exemplary service to students, or interest in the students’ wellbeing for that matter. Program guidelines derived from more traditional academic ways of thinking defined the working parameters for educational facilitators. To their credit, most went beyond the limitations faced to whatever extent possible. As an exemplar, one facilitator overcame the insurmountable portfolio grading process by asking all of the program’s instructors to evenly share in grading portfolios reducing the workload for any one instructor, thus achieving a more in-depth reading of the students work. All were willing to participant to provide greater input for the student, and to help judge the quality of the sites and general internship experience. No instructor received any financial compensation for this work.
Socialization
Perceptions based on gender or ethnicity. The educational facilitator responses to issues student interns might encounter or have encountered at sites generally involved a “then versus now” response. All of the education facilitators cited no issues or incidents of racial discrimination. However, bias towards females, as corroborated by female students, did not draw a similar response. “You know, it’s not as bad as it once was, but there are some kitchens where it’s a “good ole boy” thing, in some places it’s still a man’s world in some professional kitchens.” Another facilitator recalled that “typically what I’ve seen would involve gender and that has improved over the last ten or fifteen years. The field has progressed in that regard by leaps and bounds in comparison to past years. Most facilitators believed that positive experiences continued to improve and were optimistic that the professional acceptance of females would continue to improve. “Ultimately, I believe that things were bound to change. Our student body is about at a fifty-fifty ratio of male to females and industry professionals who own or run kitchens continues to move closer to that proportion.” Thus workplace socialization, for females, still adheres, to some extent, to historical male dominated ways of thinking rather than an equality-based across-the-board mindset that acknowledges women as equals.
Gender bias is an opportunity. These facilitators also shared the opinion that gender bias, particularly toward females, provided an opportunity for female interns to show their worth and, unless forced to endure any form of extreme mistreatment, a site should not be avoided if the potential knowledge gain trumped the ideology of ‘females as inferior’ not manifested in physical or mental abuse. “We have had some of our female students that have turned those kitchens around on these issues. If I know what they are going into, I’m not going to let them go into it blind. I’m going to tell them exactly what to expect and how to prepare for that.” | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.07%3A_Through_the_eyes_of_others_-_Educators.txt |
As one looks at across the cases consisting of students, internship sites, and educators included in the study, the overarching themes could best be summarized as involvement, environment, social capital, and symbolic capital. Lacking from these separate themes is agency (the ability and motivation to act) because it is ubiquitous to all. As I began the study, previous insights suggested to me that agency was, indeed, a primary factor toward achieving success. What emerged for me during the course of the study was a different way of thinking about agency. Though vital to success, it is catalyzed by numerous factors.
As the findings tend to indicate, agency is more of a personal motivation that spurs students on to success, something prized by elite culinary sites, and noted with consequence by educators. Agency alone, however, does not provide direction. The lack of a viable plan for example renders agency ineffective. Equally, agency in and of itself cannot always overcome a lack of social capital (socialization tactics), involving the belief that one can act, or symbolic capital such as the seasoned ability and experience that allows the student intern to seize the opportunity to act.
Students
Freshmen. Freshmen opinions were surprisingly congruent with the thoughts and opinions of successful sophomores and seniors. A sense of the ‘applied’ nature of the culinary field was apparent in each of these respondent groups. Like the consistent themes from their upper-level constituents, they believed that personal involvement in each aspect of the internship process, and their learning in general, was essential to their success. They believed that the real world experience would provide them with important knowledge to further plan accurately from a first-hand experience regarding what would be expected of them in the future. Additionally, they saw the internship as an interaction with others who possessed superior skills that would help them gauge where they stood in terms of their own ability providing a real world assessment opportunity to extend proficiencies and correct or refine inconsistencies.
They did express apprehension regarding how they would perform, but the curiosity of learning and knowing was the stronger force. All successful students, at one time or another, fear failure. What sets them apart from others is never being afraid to try. These were the important freshmen themes and also the themes expressed by those students who achieved success. What separated these survey class freshmen from their sophomore and senior counterparts was the traditional classroom setting and future orientation of their learning environment.
Sophomores and seniors. Traditional disciplines focus the academic rigor on classroom learning and assessment. The students’ ability to excel in this environment has been refined and reinforced over many years of classroom endeavors. All understand how to prepare for multiple choice, true or false, short essay, and research paper testing methods. A student who excels in this environment might well graduate with honors when they receive their bachelor’s credential. In traditional disciplines the ultimate assessment of the students’ ability to apply what was learned occurs in the workplace. This is where the similarity between traditional disciplines and applied disciplines ends.
Scrutiny involves doing. In an applied field such as Culinary Arts, emphasis on learning does not center on the traditional classroom schema found in other higher education programs. The actual academic rigor occurs in the laboratory setting. Similar to other traditional disciplines, classroom rigor does exist utilizing traditional testing, critical writing, and so forth - assessment methods familiar to students. However, in the culinary laboratory setting hands-on assessment begins when students enter the laboratory and continues until they leave which represents a foreign and at times uncomfortable form of scrutiny to students.
The laboratory environment more closely resembles the restaurant setting where textbook knowledge and actual execution come together to form the assessment model. In many of the laboratory exercises students must execute the exercise within the time limit set by the instructor. Thus, the student must demonstrate knowledge, ability, and quickness. This environment is structured to allow students to equally assess areas of strength and weakness that need attention and more practice. Students work closely with each other, bonds are formed, but also the awareness of who is excelling and who is not also becomes readily and visually apparent. You cannot improve speed and accuracy, develop your ability to discern flavor profiles, or improve eye-hand coordination by reading the text. While some students are born with these skills, many need additional practice and constant repetition.
The student - internship site match. As one looks across the different urban culinary operations it thus becomes immediately apparent that the students’ work environment is an important consideration when selecting an internship site. Many student want to intern in high profile restaurants never considering whether the skills they possess match the requirements of the site or their willingness to teach. A good match, allows the intern to experience and learn much of the kitchen operation. They feel valued and a productive team environment exists. A poor match is thus far less beneficial for the student.
It is important for the student to become involved in negotiating what they would learn from the site. The site is always considering their best interests – the student must do the same. If the work environment is truly give and take, and the student in seen as a potential productive member of the operation, that chef will teach the student durable skills that transfer to the classroom and beyond. However, at the other end of the spectrum, sometimes the interests of the operation are the only consideration involving a different kind of give and take. The operation is providing the student with a real life experience and that’s enough of a contribution on their part. In return, the student helps them lower their labor costs. There is no durable knowledge transfer involved on the part of the site. What the student learns is directly proportionate to his or her ability to create their own take-away knowledge.
To bring home the true sense of the aforementioned I offer this simple example obtained through discussions with student interns. When a student becomes involved with a site that does not provide a teaching environment and is not actively involved with the student learning from the internship experience, that student might return to the university with a copy of the restaurant’s menu and the recipes he or she was allowed to prepare. In essence, the student might have simply purchased the restaurant’s cookbook and saved themselves the time spent following static cooking directions. They were allowed to ‘practice’ in a real operation – but the goal unachieved was durable learning that improved their knowledge and enhance their ability to excel during an internship or work experience at the next level.
The student lacks a progression of knowledge and skills enhancement from the sophomore level internship to the senior level endeavor where a position with that restaurant would be the overarching goal. A student intern in a productive environment with reciprocal involvement by the internship site facilitator would probably also return with a menu and recipes as part of the deliverables to demonstrate the complexity of the restaurant's food. The difference lies in that student’s acquired durable knowledge. In addition to a physical menu and its recipes, things that often change over time in all restaurants, the student now has the ability to discuss what theme the chef was exploring when the menu was constructed, why the recipe inclusions best represented that theme, and how different flavors choices were constructed so that no matter which items were ordered by the customer, the desired theme carried throughout the meal. That student left the site with durable knowledge by understanding the proper criteria to devise a menu, carefully select items for inclusion, and balance flavor profiles.
Based on student respondent comments and stated outcomes, the internship environment is essential to experiencing a productive internship. Did the successful interns place strong value on the site selection process? The resounding answer was yes. Do all student interns make thoughtful selections beneficial to their education and future goals? Unfortunately the answer was no. As some student respondents indicated, the site selection process was not considered in advance and in fact, many students waited until the last minute. Different student reasons for procrastination surfaced during the study but two important ‘surface’ responses were the “lack of time” for that particular consideration due to other priorities and “I was told that my skill set did not match the site I wanted so I had to hurry to find another site.” Both responses elude to one of the important vices that student’s in this applied field face – what I refer to as “grade think” common to students prior to entering the higher education environment and most certainly during their tenure at a university.
The focus on grades. The traditional indication of success in education is the grade a student receives for their coursework. Cumulatively, the grade point average has been instilled as the numerical value of concern. Thus their focus on other coursework and obtaining the appropriate grade takes precedence over current beneficial actions that, at the present, bear no weight on what is valued, their grades. The grade focus is not limited to the classroom. It also transfers to the laboratory setting creating a negative impact on their future endeavors. Should they receive a superior grade on laboratory exercises some students assume that they have met the proper proficiency measure for a real world high quality restaurant. They tend to misinterpret the focused exercise in comparison to the manifold actions required in a busy restaurant environment. No further practice occurs because an inaccurate skill assessment has been made.
Of course, there are students who see the need for additional work, but ‘time’ again becomes the issue with other class concerns and probably outside work, in many cases not related to their field, shortening the amount of time left in the day for things such as practicing practical culinary skills.
These students while academically strong have failed to acquire in some cases the social capital and in other cases the symbolic capital in the form of practical skill necessary to becoming part of a highly productive and interactive top quality restaurant team. Higher education lauds academic performance and the hospitality Industry also values critical thinking ability but a disconnection between industry and education exists because education does value application at the same high level of importance that industry places on it. Some students become trapped between these different perceptions of what performance means as it relates to those who require it.
Urban Internship Sites. One purpose of higher education or education in general for that matter, is to replenish the nation’s workforce. In the field of culinary arts, urban elite restaurants and those restaurants slightly below that designation are not immune from the need for additional workers. Students in culinary programs who have acquired practical skills achieved through hard work in school, extra-curricular involvement, and work outside of school provide a quantifiable potential employee pool. However, many of these enterprises are highly discerning about who enters their ranks. Competition in large metropolitan areas is extremely fierce and subsequently, the chefs who excel in this environment are to a great extent perfectionists. They are willing to teach and see interns as a viable way to acquire a certain level of employee but the entrance standards are extremely high.
From their experience, it will still take time to teach a highly skilled student to be proficient in such an operation. They know students will lesser skills will take much longer to train and the lack of highly honed skills and ability to work independently will invariably present them with several issues they prefer to avoid. First, they would essentially be paying the student to practice since they would be of little use as a productive member of the kitchen. Secondly, experience has also shown that slower workers with lesser skills need constant assistance which disrupts the flow of the operation and frustrates those who can perform at an extremely high level. These chefs also understand their own dispositions and patience is not seen as congruent with performance not yet achieved. These top quality restaurants represent roughly fifteen percent of the nation’s foodservice establishments.
Other restaurants offer good quality but are not quite as stringent in their employee selection and as such, their requirements reflect a more relaxed atmosphere and subsequently more relaxed entrance requirements. They exhibit patience to a point, they will extend opportunities to interns but constant improvement is essential. Many of the restaurants on the lower end of the quality spectrum equally provide good learning experiences to beginning interns. However, it is this genre of restaurants where some foodservice operators are apt to use interns for their own purposes paying them a reduced wage and having little interest in the goals of the intern or the institution.
Organizational training lacks regimentation. Most restaurants do not possess or offer clearly constructed training programs for interns or others for that matter. The element of critical thinking that educational institutions want students to demonstrate in internship portfolios and the like is a difficult, if not impossible, task for the student to accomplish on their own. In the classroom students are guided by the instructor, what is being critically considered is static, and the students’ concentration is centered on that one aspect. When that thought process is completed, they move on to the next area assigned for critical scrutiny. A restaurant does not function like a classroom. Does critical thinking occur in industry? The correct answer is that it does – but in ways that are foreign and indiscernible to the intern who has been groomed in traditional ways of thinking and approaching situations. In busy working restaurants multiple important decisions may be required at one single point in time and decisions thus equate more to properly learned reactions than well-conceived responses. Social capital, the ability to communicate and interact, and symbolic capital, the practical experience that allows interns to learn quickly, become important strengths to possess.
Formal culinary education. As we move into the twenty-first century, more and more of the current chefs have received their culinary education in the university setting. But many of these same chefs have studied at home and abroad with more experienced chef who achieved their knowledge through apprenticeships with other elite chefs in the field. Many of these chefs from the more famous culinary schools do not have academic credentials beyond the associate’s degree. This has and will continue to create a form of divide in an educational sense for still some time to come. More chefs are obtaining bachelor's degrees but it will be some time until they filter into positions of authority in upper strata establishments.
How internship sites convey knowledge. The culinary field continues to become more complicated and populated with professionals better versed in aspect of management, computerization, marketing and so forth. However, in many instances, the transfer of knowledge has remained as it was prior to higher education’s involvement in the field of Culinary Arts. This was expressed by site respondents in various ways but all methods of imparting knowledge expressed by these individuals lead to the same point. Critical thinking in the restaurant setting is conveyed and assessed more so by “demonstrated actions” rather than by constant verbal interaction because the intricate scheme and ways of knowing and conveying occur through the chef’s broad “tacit knowledge.” This is one of the primary reasons students must have a solid plan regarding what they intend to take away from the internship experience – especially in elite and upscale restaurant’s.
It now becomes more evident that the student cannot arrive at the site with no plan of action and simply asks: “What will you teach me?” This is in essence a confounding question to a seasoned chef with many years of experience. Typically, the response resembles: “What did you want to learn?” The different methods of grappling with criticality embraced by student and chef can easily create an initial or sometimes a lasting impasse. Students need direction but in truth, so do the chefs.
The way experienced restaurant chefs convey and assess knowledge became further evident by their lack of awareness of how the institution expected them to evaluate students. When institutions took time to discuss the site’s responsibility regarding the intern’s assessment, the sites were quite willing to comply with the institution’s assessment method. However, those institutions that merely enclosed assessment expectations within the internship documents requiring signatures as verification that the intern was accepted into the site, the knowledge regarding what was required by the site appeared lacking in most instances. There appeared to be an emphasis gap regarding what institutions required from sites in the way of assessment that, in many cases, extended to the point where site’s assumed that the student’s assessment was an institutional issue requiring no site involvement.
Internship Educational Facilitators
Internship facilitators in general spend time where possible evaluating students to discern which sites might be the most beneficial. However, to a great extent they do rely on the opinion of the students’ instructors. In addition to evaluating student laboratory exercises, instructors are also forming other judgments of the students in their care. Instructors are willing and do spend additional time with the slower students to nurture them along, but at the end of the day, those students’ who remain quiet and unassuming, continuously lacks self-confidence, fail to step forward and take a leadership role, and exhibit less than sufficient hand skills are subsequently noted and discussed with other instructors when event participation is the issue. These students are not invited to participate in departmental, university, and community-wide functions.
The department and higher echelon administrators want superior exemplars where potential donors and people of note are involved. Stated differently, a dinner at the University President’s home with important guests present will utilize students with strong leadership, taste profiles, confidence, and accurate and quick motor skills. A weaker student or two may be included to help bring them along, but the event will be executed primarily by a naturally formed inner circle of top student performers with little input from those with lesser abilities and equally less confidence – factors that over time become reinforced in students who have not yet reached their potential. Fairness must be extended to culinary instructors in these instances. They arrive early to teach morning classes, spend the afternoon preparing for the event, and work late to supervise the students’ execution of the dinner. By the time the event begins, they are weary and certainly not eager to interact with less experienced students who need constant direction.
Additionally, though students execute all of the culinary aspects, should mishaps occur, the instructor will receive the blame – the instructor in charge is always responsible for what occurs at university sponsored functions thus instructors are also constantly evaluated both formally and informally. To relate a proper perspective, over the course of study, slower student do ultimately rise to the occasion. They practice to overcome areas of weakness, gain experience working in restaurants, and often demonstrate noticeable improvement during the next school term – instructors note this as well and their involvement in extra-curricular areas increase. Improved performance, where possible, was also lauded and noted by whoever delivers it.
If one extends this mindset to the internship process, it becomes apparent why certain students, “names” that immediately come to mind, receive consideration for the most prestigious internships. These are the student’s who have constantly been involved beyond the curriculum requirements, successfully negotiate different work environments, have the necessary social capital to lead and interact with other, and most importantly, have acquired symbolic capital through demonstrated work related accomplishments. Involvement, environment, social capital, and symbolic capital are obviously not mutual exclusives. The combined use of all must come together to produce achievement in the world of application. While these students typically receive the most coveted internships, some of the lesser known “names” with adequate abilities go unnoticed.
Internship improvement is hindered at the program level. Each internship facilitator expressed a strong interest in students having a good internship experience. They were equally quick to point out that a need for improvement in their internship program exists. Even facilitators at the larger private institution’s with funding for their internship facilitators cite dissatisfaction with elements of the process that were congruent with smaller private institutions. Most of smaller institutions have one internship facilitator who utilizes input from the programs instructors. Larger institutions with up to three full-time facilitators paid year round find themselves in no better position. The issue at hand is the ratio of students to facilitator. Smaller institutions must negotiate the placement of up to two hundred interns per year, primarily during the summer months when students are available to work full time in the industry. Larger institution facilitators with student populations in excess of six hundred students do not in reality face smaller student to facilitator ratios. This severely limits what the facilitator can actually know about any one student. Typically, a quick assessment of the student’s conversational ability and a broad assessment from one or more instructors form the facilitator’s impression of where the student might best fit in terms of site. The lack of real knowledge about the students’ abilities was one of the prime limitations they faced in their opinion.
Students procrastinate the site selection process. Another limitation cited by internship facilitators involved the students themselves. Facilitators felt that students waited too long to begin the internship process. Regardless of whether or not the site was an elite enterprise or not, placement in better internship sites was always highly competitive based on the number of sites available in comparison to the number of students seeking a site. The lack of agency on the part of the student often resulted in the selection process occurring at the last minute with little concern on the part of the student regarding what advantages the site might offer.
A site was needed, the internship is a program requirement, and the thought process did not progress beyond that point. Often these sites were selected by the students’ themselves with the facilitator merely confirming the site’s acceptance of the student. Even site facilitators who accept interns with the intention of "giving back" to the profession reflects a lost opportunity to improve internship learning methods and students' critical assessment and reflection strategies through constructive learning partnerships between educational program and site facilitators. Even if such learning partnerships were in fact constructed, internship facilitators would still have little time to evaluate and reflect on their effectiveness.
A disconnect between higher education administrators and applied programs again surfaced in the form of another limitation expressed by all institution internship facilitators. These respondents felt the lack of understanding exhibited by their university administrators regarding the importance of the internship as a valuable learning experience. This lack of understanding was evident in the insufficient funding for facilitators, some receiving no financial remuneration for their work during the academic term, or during the summer when following up on students involved in internships in the field are educational imperatives. These students are typically away from home, many for the first time, in cities unfamiliar to them. Thus at the very least, concern for their safety alone was seen as an important reason for maintaining contact. But to many administrators, it would appear that what does not occur in the classroom is out of sight, mind, and concern. Facilitators also felt that a certain lack of regard for the internship as a course was also evident. Students receive from one to two credit hours for their internship course which typically entails greater than three hundred hours of physical work, keeping journals, comprising portfolios, and compiling internship reports.
Educational programs lack learning methods. One of the smaller culinary arts programs requires that all students embarking on internships find their own sites. This builds character and improves their ability to take action. Of course, they are provided with a pamphlet which provides guidelines for a successful selection. In the end, this institution sends its student out into the world to negotiate and make selection decision with no constructive evaluation or enlightened input from the program itself. Clearly recounted by this educational facilitator was the feeling that higher education truly envisions the laboratory and experiential setting as a supporting component to the classroom although the facilitator's discussions and constant interaction with industry point to the reverse. As my interviews have indicated, a case exists for depicting higher education as an educational entity that has not yet truly embraced the applied nature of the Culinary Arts discipline or the importance of internships in general. Institutions of higher education consistently defend the importance of learning and knowing and rightfully so.
However, as indicated in various ways by all respondents of the study, learning in the form of application, although conducted within the walls and under the auspices of these same institutions, remains an example of “repetitive” learning, regarding university practice. Achievement at the student level is driven by boards of education and thus university administrations that maintain a status quo mindset requiring instructors to ‘do things the way they have always been done’ although economic realities and competitive forces point the need enhanced educational ways of thinking about how best to truly prepare student for working world realities.
How the Findings Informed the Research Questions
The research questions I posed were illuminated by the study. Do all stakeholders involved in internships understand and contribute equally towards the students acquisition of durable knowledge from the internship experience? The answer is no. How each participant: students, internship site facilitators, and culinary program facilitators envisioned and managed their respective roles varied based on their particular perspective and intended ends. The best outcomes were achieved when good planning, and mutual commitment existed between student and internship site. In some cases, there were no well defined goals on the part of all participants. For some students, the internships opportunities were ill-conceived or put together in the hurried fashion that often occurs when scheduling coursework for the following semester.
How do students manage their internship roles? How student stakeholders managed their role in attaining durable knowledge again covered the spectrum. For students, how they initially perceived their individual goals, engaged in aggressive role management, and followed their plan proved to be a recipe for success. Interestingly, novice culinary survey course students who had not yet entered actual culinary classroom and laboratory coursework placed a similar level of importance on utilizing personal agency to achieve intended goals as their successful sophomore and senior counterparts. Thus students indicated their intention to succeed from the beginning. What became evident as the study progressed was the importance of possessing a high degree of social capital to maintain self-belief, build interaction with others to create or be a part of successful networks, and to apply agency to further one's own interests. The acquisition of symbolic capital in the form of practical knowledge proved to be an equally important success determinant because it conveys experience and the ability to extend oneself to gain achievement and of importance in the university setting - notice by their professors who can further their chances for acceptance by prominent restaurants in competitive culinary marketplaces. It is also important to note that students who obtained symbolic capital were less likely to engage in "grade think" assuming that good laboratory execution grades were adequate to successfully perform in the workplace. Thus both forms of capital surfaced as prized components from success in quality-oriented urban restaurants for competitive reasons and the perfectionist perspectives of successful internship site facilitators.
What do internship site facilitators contribute to the internship process? What internship sites were willing to invest in the interns they accepted also varied broadly. For elite restaurant sites, standards were high and acceptance of interns was selective. These sites were willing to commit to the intern and their standards of what defined quality work were high. Some sites focused on providing a worthwhile experience for the students they accepted. At the other extreme, some internship sites brought students in to provide work experience in their kitchens and benefit from reduced labor costs. Thus internship sites ranged the gamut with some selective, some focused on student learning, and those who intended to use students for their own ends.
What were the contributions made by educational facilitators? The involvement of culinary program facilitators in most cases was well intentioned but to some extent restrained due to higher education mandates, maintaining internship site relations, and high student to facilitator ratios. They do their best to achieve a goodness of fit for the student and internship site. However, in many cases, what they actually know about the students they place is insufficient to achieve that perfect match. Try as they may, students unknown to them often receive a signed approval for the internship site and unfortunately little more based on placement volume. Internship facilitators are further hampered in their efforts in terms of follow up and ongoing mentoring during the actual internship because these practical experiences in industry occur during the summer months when facilitators are not under contract with their respective universities and would not be paid to follow student progress. Some facilitators do remain in contact with their students without compensation. I did encounter a situation where the educational facilitator's contact with students was minimal from the beginning of the process up to the evaluation of the student. This culinary program intended for students to find and assess the value of the experience of the sites and make selection decisions. The internship selection process was considered good practice for honing job hunting skills rather than the learning opportunity an internship should provide to the student.
Were the contributions of all stakeholders: the students, educators, and site facilitators considered in judging the student's internship outcome? Again, unfortunately the answer is no. Interns do for the most part bear the sole weight of evaluation. Further, it is not that students innate lack the ability to engage in critical reflection upon their internship experiences but rather a lack of defined criteria and knowledge of how the frame the experience for critical consideration. Educators fail to embed the importance of social skills and the need for practical experience to enhance the value of their culinary education. Stated differently, students often consider a superior grade in laboratory coursework as an adequate level of performance. Those students who achieve strong practical work experience have a much better understanding of what industry requires as an acceptable level of ability.
Do students bear the sole weight of evaluation? The evaluation process is also marginally constructed and students are generally the only stakeholders evaluated. Internship site facilitators were vague regarding evaluation requirements and who was responsible for stating those ends. An additional barrier students face involves a disconnect in the discipline terminology used in culinary program coursework versus the way information is conveyed in the workplace. As the literature indicates, the education of site facilitators ranges from apprenticeships to what is becoming a more university oriented culinary education. Still, many site facilitators have no more than an associate degree. Thus, in many cases, knowledge conveyance occurs in the form of demonstrating desired skills rather than verbally and the student is left to extract knowledge through social skills and careful observation.
Do all students obtain durable knowledge during their internships? In sum, the answer is no. What students learn is based on proper planning, desire, commitment, social skills, practical experience, and of the greatest importance, bring all of these elements to bear place students in the best position to achieve their desired goals from the internship experience. Thus, what the student will learn is truly a function of their desire and ability and the commitment of the internship site. Many sites facilitators contribute admirably while quite a few do not know how to best aid the student to achieve durable learning. Still others are attending to their own agenda and have little interest in nurturing the student. The consistent achievement of durable knowledge remains, based on a variety of situations culinary education has failed to address and control, a work in progress. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.08%3A_Across_Students_Sites_and_Educators_-_Themes.txt |
Why, oh, why do I have to do internships?
More than anything, exposure. We want everyone going through this program to find ‘their’ niche. To know what they like and what they do not like. Not everyone is going to like a production kitchen and not everyone is going to like working the line. The whole point of these internship requirements is for you to find where ‘you’ want to be and someone who will get you there – a different perspective to help you ‘critically think’ about everything that you have learned from classes so far. That is why these internships are structured the way they are. Your first one is an overall culinary internship to get you in a kitchen if you have not had experience there to see how things work.
Your second internship is a little more specific, you have had time to hone your skills, and possibly worked a couple jobs and know what direction you are heading, (and at the senior level, possibly looking for job offers after graduation). So, that is how you should walk into your internship, not judging or grading but evaluating: how do you like the feel/atmosphere? What are the qualities you appreciate in management? What kind of food are you cooking? What kind of creativity is there? Could you see yourself staying there long-term with the current staff?
Mentorship
Mentorship is a relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable person. The mentor may be older or younger than the person being mentored, but he or she must have a certain area of expertise. It is a learning and development partnership between someone with vast experience and someone who wants to learn.
“Mentoring is a brain to pick, an ear to listen, and a push in the right direction.”
John C. Crosby, American politician
The focus of mentoring is to develop the whole person and so the techniques are broad and require wisdom in order to be used appropriately. A 1995 study of mentoring techniques most commonly used in business found that the five most commonly used techniques among mentors were:
1. Accompanying: making a commitment in a caring way, which involves taking part in the learning process side-by-side with the learner.
2. Sowing: mentors are often confronted with the difficulty of preparing the learner before he or she is ready to change. Sowing is necessary when you know that what you say may not be understood or even acceptable to learners at first but will make sense and have value to the mentee when the situation requires it.
3. Catalyzing: when change reaches a critical level of pressure, learning can escalate. Here the mentor chooses to plunge the learner right into change, provoking a different way of thinking, a change in identity or a re-ordering of values.
4. Showing: this is making something understandable, or using your own example to demonstrate a skill or activity. You show what you are talking about, you show by your own behavior.
5. Harvesting: here the mentor focuses on "picking the ripe fruit": it is usually used to create awareness of what was learned by experience and to draw conclusions. The key questions here are: "What have you learned?", "How useful is it?".
Different techniques may be used by mentors according to the situation and the mindset of the mentee. The techniques used in modern organizations can be found in ancient education systems, from the Socratic technique of harvesting to the accompaniment method of learning used in the apprenticeship of itinerant cathedral builders during the Middle Ages. Mentors look for "teachable moments" in order to "expand or realize the potentialities of the people in the organizations they lead" and underline that personal credibility is as essential to quality mentoring as skill.
Can I have more than one mentor?
Multiple mentors: A new and upcoming trend is having multiple mentors. This can be helpful because we can all learn from each other. Having more than one mentor will widen the knowledge of the person being mentored. There are different mentors who may have different strengths.
Profession or trade mentor: This is someone who is currently in the trade/profession you are entering. They know the trends, important changes and new practices that you should know to stay at the top of your career. A mentor like this would be someone you can discuss ideas regarding the field, and also be introduced to key and important people that you should know.
Industry mentor: This is someone who doesn't just focus on the profession. This mentor will be able to give insight on the industry as a whole. Whether it be research, development or key changes in the industry, you need to know.
Organization mentor: Politics in the organizations are constantly changing. It is important to be knowledgeable about the values, strategies and products that are within your company, but also when these things are changing. An organization mentor can clarify missions and strategies, and give clarity when needed.
Work process mentor: This mentor can speed quickly over the bumps, and cut through the unnecessary work. This mentor can explain the 'ins and outs' of projects, day-to-day tasks, and eliminate unnecessary things that may be currently going on in your work day. This mentor can help to get things done quickly and efficiently.
Technology mentor: This is an up-and-coming, incredibly important position. Technology has been rapidly improving, and becoming more a part of day-to-day transactions within companies. In order to perform your best, you must know how to get things done on the newest technology. A technology mentor will help with technical breakdowns, advice on systems that may work better than what you are currently using, and coach you through new technology and how to best use it.
The importance of finding a mentor
Along with the internship, you are also searching for mentors that you respect, that you appreciate, and that you want to work with, and under their direction. You appreciate their expertise, the things they do - and how they do it. There will be people who you think are your mentor, but until you truly consider following them from restaurant to restaurant, wanting to be right at their elbows, keep looking. Look for that chef that you want to follow on social media to see what their up too. You want to support them in their endeavors, and you want to mirror their philosophy. There will be chefs that you jive with right away and there will also be some that you fail to connect with in terms of ‘direction’. We have all been there. It’s also about the place, if it’s the right person but not the right place that could have an impact. Find the kind of food you want to be making, find the food that you are passionate about and are ready to cook when you walk into work.
Finding the Internship
Do your research
Do your homework. Think about what you would like to do in the culinary and hospitality field after you graduate, and set up internships that will allow you to experience first-hand the kind of career path in which you are interested.
What do you mean by ‘research’?
You should research the restaurant thoroughly before you set up an interview, or a trail/stage. Study (REALLY STUDY) the menu(s) at the place(s) in which you are interested. If the menu does not interest you, why would you like to work there?
• Research the chef.
• Find as much as you can about him/her.
• Does his/her philosophy in culinary excite you?
• Does his menu show integrity and creativity?
• Do you respect him or her?
• Do you feel that the executive chef and his staff can help grow your resume in quality experience towards your end goal for post-graduated work?
• What do you know about the sous chefs there and their experience? Nine times out of ten the sous chefs will be managing you---not the executive chef.
Sophomore. Your sophomore internship will need to be in a food production kitchen (restaurant, hotel, bakery, etc.) regardless of your concentration. Remember, the sophomore internship is part of the associate’s degree, which is why it is important that it be in a kitchen because, at this point in the culinary curriculum, students are taking kitchen labs designed for an overall culinary degree. For example, if you were in the pastry concentration, it would behoove you to select an operation that offers some kind of pastry experience.
After I have a short list of sites, what do I do?
First, make sure you have an updated/current resume to give to the management at the perspective internship sites. Your resume should be professional, concise, and free of spelling, grammar, and styling errors. Visit the Nicholls Office of Career Services to obtain professional advice on your resume. It is important that you get a copy of the appropriate internship agreement from Mrs. Joanne (in the culinary office) to give to the chef or manager at the place to which you apply. The internship agreement gives your internship site the information as to what is expected from you as an intern, them as internship site, and CJFCI as an institute of higher learning.
Dress professionally for your interview:
• CJFCI chefs work coat
• Work pants/black and white checks (black pants when advised by instructor)
• Neckerchief
• Approved non-skid shoes, with a black polished surface
• Socks, white or black
• Undergarments, such as another shirt, are not allowed to extend beyond the length (collar, cuff and waist) of the uniform. No logos or printing may be visible through the chef’s coat from the student’s undergarments. Only solid white shirts may be worn under the chef’s coat.
Executive chefs typically get Sundays and Mondays as their days off, so I have always had the best success showing up to a restaurant to discuss employment on Tuesdays, Wednesday, or Thursday between 2 pm and 4 pm. Not only is this generally the slowest days of service during the week, it is also between the lunch and dinner shifts at most restaurants. A face-to-face meeting with a chef will greatly increase your chances of landing an internship.
If you have done adequate research on the restaurant AND the chef (and his staff), and the menus, you should have some questions to ask the chef and/or his staff. Be aware that you are interviewing them as well as they are interviewing you. It is not a one-way street.
Finally, before you leave the interview site, make sure to get some assurances about follow-up. Try to set up a stage or trail opportunity. If they are too busy to set up a stage or interview that day, then coordinate a time in the near future. Always know where you stand with a site. “If I don’t hear from them by this date, it is time for me to move on to another possible site.” You cannot risk everything on one endeavor.
What is a stage or a trail? What should I expect that day in the kitchen?
A stage or a trail is when the chef or owner of the restaurant allows you to observe and/or work an unpaid shift in the kitchen to get to know whether you will be a good fit for their needs, while you get to know if it is a good site for you to do your internship. When you are setting up a date and time for your state, it is also a good time to ask a few questions:
• Do you want me here in my school uniform?
• What time should I report to you (or the kitchen)?
• Will I be simply observing, or do you want me to prep or work a station for a while?
• Should I bring my knife kit?
• Are there any other details you recommend to help me prepare for the stage?
How do I make a good impression during my stage?
“I don’t want to see a resume`, or references. I want the individual to come to my restaurant and prep something, cook something, and clean something. I need to detect passion in all three areas - and their ability to work with my team. If I see commitment, I can work with that person.”
Charley Trotter, Chicago
Keep this in mind when you go: A successful chef has worked long and hard to perfect their craft and build a team around him or her that believes in the same ideals. You have to fit into that belief – or you do not fit period. You may not at that point in time match the skill level – it is OK they will teach you. You absolutely cannot fail to match their level of passion. They cannot teach you that, and they will not want to work with you. ‘No passion’ represents everything they have worked so hard to avoid.
• Show up at least 15 minutes early.
• Be positive and pleasant.
• Not the time to be chatty due to nervousness.
• You have two ears and one mouth – so listen twice as much as you talk.
• Be dressed, appropriately groomed and present a professional image.
• Stand up straight---no leaning or have your hands in your pocket.
• You can move quickly but do not appear to be rushed.
• Do not sit down unless everyone is sitting.
• Make eye contact when people are talking to you, or when you are talking to them.
• Keep your replies to questions on topic and avoid rambling on and on.
• Show them what you know, not what you do not know.
• Be excited about the opportunity to be staging.
• Take notes.
• Ask questions when it is appropriate – not when people are extremely busy.
• Question the chef (or kitchen manager) regarding what kind of work will you be doing if hired.
• If you are offered an internship after the stage, inquire if your internship will be paid and if so, what is your pay rate.
At this point, it would be wise to “sleep on it” and get to them as soon as possible with an answer. Be honest if you have other stages set up. This will allow you to have some time to make a pro/con list and get back to them in a timely fashion. If possible, avoid dragging out the process by scheduling all of your stages in one week. Always be professional, as they will perhaps consider hiring you down the road in the event you change your mind or if there are other issues.
I found my internship. Now What Should I Do?
• Have your internship employer fill out the internship agreement and return it to Mrs. Joanne in the culinary office - have her scan it and email you a copy.
• Make sure the contact information on the form is correct, i.e. list the person who will be responsible for doing your evaluation so that it is submitted in a timely fashion.
• Finalize your travel and housing plans.
• Be prepared when the semester begins and read all the important documents on Moodle.
• Complete all assignments on Moodle as scheduled in the course schedule. Always read each week’s assignment BEFORE the week begins.
Enjoy your internship and make us PROUD | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.09%3A_Finding_an_internship_and_mentors.txt |
What are your strengths?
What do you have to offer an employer? Why should that employer choose you over someone else? What will make interviewers remember you after they finish their first round of meeting potential candidates? It is about matching their problems and needs with your qualifications, skills and traits. Your mission is to convince interviewers that you are the solution they have been seeking.
Make your case. Concentrating on your five best strengths will help you focus during the interview and will make it easier for them to remember you. You can begin before the interview by identifying your five key strengths and matching them up with the job requirements. Once you have done that, determine ways to bring up these matches during the interview.
What are your weakness?
Be up front. Interviewers do not want to make people feel uncomfortable, but rather they want to see in which areas candidates feel they need to improve and what they are doing about it. In order to advance professionally, we all need to be able to identify not just strengths, but also our weaknesses, and how we can upgrade in these areas. Job candidates should be up front during interviews. Do not say you have "no weaknesses" or "work too hard." Instead, tell hiring managers what you are working on improving and what you have done to build your skills in these areas.
One thing to keep in mind: If one of your weaknesses relates directly to the position and could potentially take you out of contention the opportunity may not be right for you.
Why do you want this job?
When asked in an interview, "Why do you want this job?" you can answer using the following steps as a guide:
• Show how your skills match;
• Show your enthusiasm for the job;
• Show how you fit into the culture.
Where would you like to be in your career five years from now?
Nobody has a crystal ball, but that does not give you an excuse when it comes to predicting your future. When an interviewer asks you, “Where do you see yourself in five years?” they are testing your level of career ambition. Despite its ambiguity, this question, when asked, does have a definitive answer. They can tell by your resume and cover letter if you have the skills and education necessary to fill the position—that is why they are talking to you. What they need to know is, do you fit in with the company’s team, vision, and culture? Explain how your goals align with the company’s goals. Pick out some points from the company’s mission statement that resonate with you and your goals, and mention how you hope to expand on those in the coming years.
What is your ideal company?
They are interested in finding a match for the position and the company. A match does not just consist of qualifications, but motivation, attitude, potential, culture, and more.
Your answer should resemble inclusive of the company mission: “My ideal company is one that values individual employees and encourages them to speak up and share ideas, but that also has a commitment to sustainability”
What attracted you to this company?
The hiring manager asks a rather simple interview question, yet it catches you off guard: "Why do you want to work for this company?" The obvious answer that comes to mind is, "Because you have an opening, and I need a job." While this may be true, it will not earn you any points in a job interview.
The interviewer is looking for an answer that indicates you have thought about where you want to work—that you are not just sending your resume to any company with a job opening.
Researching the company and industry before your interview will make you stand out as a more informed and competent applicant. Search company websites for mission statements, product and service information, principals' backgrounds, and contact information. Check company financials through the US Securities and Exchange Commission. By reviewing the company’s website and social media accounts, and reading news articles about the firm, you will be able to draw conclusions about the value you can bring to the position, whether it is because the company’s mission matches yours, its culture is a good fit or you have a skill that the company needs.
After you have done your research, come up with two or three reasons you want to work for the company. Also, think of at least two reasons this job is a good match for your skills, strengths, experience and background. What can you bring to the company? Write down your thoughts and rehearse them as part of your script. You should opportunities to show that you have done your homework on the company, and how you might fit into the open role.
Why should we hire you?
From the moment you enter the room for a job interview, the hiring manager is assessing one thing: Are you the best person for the job? At some point during the interview, you can expect to be asked straight up, “Why should we hire you?”
Obviously, you cannot respond, “Because I need a job.” Granted, it is a loaded question, “but you need to ace it.” Your answer needs to demonstrate that you are the solution to the employer’s problem (a vacancy on their team), and no other candidate could possibly do the job better than you could. So why should they choose you over anybody else? Take these steps to prepare a well-crafted response.
Focus on the employer’s needs (not yours). Though the question “Why should we hire you” seems like the focus is on you and your wants, it is not. Your personal career goals are certainly important, but this question is an opportunity to explain how you will bring value to the company.
To prepare, research everything you can about the business’ agenda—read its website, social media, quarterly reports, company profiles, press releases, and recent news stories about the company. What are their goals? Where do they see themselves headed in the future? How can your talents help get them there? (“This company wants to be an industry leader in xyz. My background has given me valuable experience in that realm, and I have a lot of ideas as to how we can make that happen together.”)
Reflect on the job itself. You can also learn a lot from a job posting. Most job descriptions outline not only job responsibilities, and qualifications, but also what core skills are required to be successful in the position.
The best strategy is to target three to four skills and explain how you have demonstrated them in the past. (“I know that being able to function is a busy workplace is one of the crucial skills for this position. Let me give you a few examples of how I’ve applied this skill in my career thus far.”)
Where possible, weave in language from the job posting. You can also use some of the company’s buzzwords without sounding overly rehearsed.
Address cultural fit. About eight in 10 employers said they measure for cultural fit when hiring job candidates. Part of your answer to “Why should we hire you” should indicate why you‘d be a good match for the company’s environment. (“This isn’t a traditional company, which is wonderful because I don’t consider myself a traditional worker. Like you, I thrive on innovation.”)
What did you like least about your last job?
"What did you like least about your last job?" can be something of a trap when it comes to interview questions, because your interviewer is asking for a negative answer. If you have not given the subject some thought, you may accidentally talk yourself out of a job.
If you are asked this question— or its close cousins, “What was the worst part of your last job?” or "Why didn't you like your last job?"—in an interview, you will want to keep your answer honest while trying to incorporate a positive angle. One of the purposes of this interview question is to find out if you are going to be satisfied in the job for which you are interviewing. If you were dissatisfied before, you may be dissatisfied again if the circumstances are similar.
Here is how three different candidates might answer this question:
Answer No. 1: "I didn't have enough challenges. After a while, all the projects became repetitive. I thrive on challenge."
Interviewer's thoughts: Many of the tasks here are repetitive. What makes this candidate think he will like it here any better? Will we be able to keep him challenged?
Answer No. 2: "Lack of stability. After three company acquisitions, I had five bosses in three years. I could not take it any longer. What I am looking for is stability in a job and company."
Interviewer's thoughts: While our company is stable now, there are no guarantees about the future. This woman sounds like she may have some burnout and flexibility issues.
Answer No. 3: "In my last job, my boss was overbearing and wouldn't let me do my job. If she didn't like the way I was doing something, she'd criticize me."
Interviewer's thoughts: Could he work with me as a supervisor? How would he react if I had to comment on his work? He sounds like he could be a problem to supervise.
Do not make the same mistakes these candidates made. Instead, use this three-step strategy to leave the recruiter feeling positively after this negative question.
Start on the right foot
While this is a negative question in search of a negative answer, you want to begin your answer with something upbeat that shows you are generally not a negative person, which shows you generally look for the good in situations. You will probably want to note your overall satisfaction with your job, and even give one specific thing you have found valuable about the job.
You say: "I've given this question some thought, and overall I've been very satisfied with my job. I've been able to work with some really interesting people."
Stay on tasks
When you get to the meat of this question, you'll benefit by doing some advance planning, as you'll likely get some iteration of this question (it might sound something more like "Why are you looking to leave your current job?"). Create a list of those things responsible for your dissatisfaction. Spend some time looking at your list for patterns. Are there some projects that recur on your list? Are there some situations you don't want to get into again? This exercise will help you identify things to watch for and to ask questions about during the interview.
As you look for the answer to the question you're being asked, try to focus on an element of the work itself rather than company politics (which may be messy if your interviewer knows people at your company) or people (the recruiter may translate this answer into your being difficult). Try to limit yourself to one issue, such as workload, lack of growth or lack of flexibility.
You say: "I have to say that I did have a job where there was an inordinate amount of paperwork." Notice the word "inordinate." Not a normal load paperwork, but an unusually large amount. End with a strength
Use your closing sentence to acknowledge how this particular negative situation hampered you from deploying one of your key skills, so that the interviewer sees you as someone who wants to be able to work to their best potential.
You say: "The paperwork has bogged me down, and prevented me from doing what I do best, which is working with people."
Practicing the answer to this question can be duly helpful for you: Not only does it get you ready for the interview; it gets you ready to decide whether you will want the job. When you can identify the factors that give you job satisfaction, as well as the factors that were unpleasant or tedious for you, you can more easily determine if a job is the right job for you. Remember that this interview goes both ways!
Why are you leaving your present job?
There are many reasons for leaving a job without having a new one lined up, and not all of them are created equal. Some of your resulting resume gaps can be explained away by having “good” or “acceptable” reasons, like taking time off to raise a family or going back to school. Coming out of a tough economy, even getting laid off doesn’t have the stigma attached to it that it once did. However, what if you were the one who decided on quitting your job?
Additional responsibility, increased pay, and relocation are often ‘good excuses’ for leaving a job. However, many people quit for more personal reasons - because they could not deal with a boss from hell, they felt stuck in a dead-end position, or they were tired of enduring poor treatment. In those cases, you will have to find a way to put a positive spin on why you decided to say, “I quit!” when you go on your next job interview.
The last thing you want to risk is having your interviewer thinking that you are a quitter, who could not hack it, was not a team player, or who was hard to manage. This is how can you explain in an honest way why you quit your last job without scaring off recruiters.
You left a demanding job because you were feeling burned out
Do not launch into a tirade about how you were expected to work 80 hours a week or how your supervisor expected you to answer 11 p.m. emails. Instead, say something along the lines of “I’m looking for an opportunity where I can leverage my skills and experience, while also balancing time with family and friends. I believe we perform our best when we have a healthy balance between work and life.”
Many companies are embracing—and even demanding—work/life blend, so focus on the type of work environment you thrive in.
If you have no other gaps on your resume and have a record of accomplishment working with companies for big chunks of time, an interviewer should be satisfied with that response.
You left to take care of a family member or health issue
Of all the good reasons for leaving a job, your duty to your health and your loved ones is at the top. While you certainly don’t have to get into the specifics if you went out on ‘Family and Medical Leave Act’ and then just didn’t return to the job after your 12 weeks were up, you might want to at least give the interviewer some key information.
You can address that this was ‘a very specific and one-time issue’ that is now resolved, and assure them the situation isn’t part of a pattern. That way, a hiring manager will not be worried that they will bring you on board only to lose you in a few months.
You needed a change
If you are making a career change, is it because you simply reached the point where you could not stand what you were doing anymore? If so, that is not necessarily the best way to put it to a prospective employer. Instead, say something like “I’m seeking out opportunities that will allow me to make full use of my newly acquired web design skills” (or whatever new passion or old interest you want to tap into).
Again, prospective employers are looking for stability, so do your best to demonstrate that you’re not just seeking this position on a whim, but that you’ve taken steps to prepare yourself and done industry research to make sure this is what you want.
You did not click with your former company’s ethics
There are times when resigning from a job might have been the smartest thing you could have done. That said, whether you felt uncomfortable about the way management treated young hires or you found out about some shady financial practices, bashing your former employer will not go over well (even if it’s well deserved).
Instead, try to turn the conversation onto the values you share with this new potential employer. It’s fine to bring up legitimate high-level disagreements between you and management, but you should present their ‘train of thought’ and why you fundamentally disagreed.
Then, make the shift to describe what you admire about the company you are interviewing with, such as how they focus on diversity and inclusion or strive to be environmentally conscious. This will also give you the opportunity to show that you did your homework.
You are looking for more money or a promotion
You might have felt justified at leaving a job because you did not get a raise or title change in four years, but there is a way to express that in an interview without coming off as bitter. “Instead, explain that you’d reached the growth ceiling in your position and you are ready for your next challenge. This puts a positive spin on your departure and the ‘challenge’ portion implies that you will be a hard worker.
No matter your reason for resigning from a job, here are a few more general tips to keep in mind:
Less is more. Provide just enough information to explain your reason for leaving without going into too much detail.
Stay on point. Stick with sharing relevant information that relates to the company and position you’re applying to.
Be honest. While you can certainly frame how you quit in a positive way, you should never flat out lie about how things went down.
Show off your strengths
Though you may feel a bit tripped up on this question, remember it's not the only thing a hiring manager will take into consideration with regard to your candidacy. One way to start on a good foot is with a strong resume that highlights your achievements. If an employer is impressed by your resume, it could help draw the focus toward the stuff you want to talk about - your skills and experience.
What do you know about this industry?
Growth data and regional information is readily available on the Internet via a Google search as a start. This is a fair question. You should have some idea of your industry’s vitality, sustainability, as well as opportunities and threat on the horizon.
What do you know about our company?
This question intends to gauge your actual interest in a position. Take the time to scrutinize the company’s operation, facility, menu, reputation and so forth. If it is a public company, their financial data will be available to the public. Take a critical look at their website. Try to generate questions useful during an interview. Compare the potential company to other competitors in the genre and asses their strength and growth possibilities. You are also looking for talking points that indicate that you really are interested in the company and have done your homework.
Do you have any questions for me?
Surprisingly, the most common answer to the interview question, "Do you have any questions?" is no. Not only is this the wrong answer, but it is also a missed opportunity to find out information about the company. It is important for you to ask questions—not just any questions, but those relating to the job, the company and the industry.
Consider this: Two candidates are interviewing for an inside sales position.
Henry asks, "I was wondering about benefits, and when they would become effective. In addition, what is the yearly vacation allowance? And, does the company match the 401k plan?" Assuming this is the first interview, it is premature to ask about benefits. "What's in it for me?" questions can be interpreted as self-centered and a sign of your lack of interest in the job.
The next candidate, Christine, says, "No, I think you just about covered everything I wanted to know. I'm sure I'll have more questions if I get the job." This is a very passive response that doesn't demonstrate interest or imagination. Once you get the job - if you get it - may be too late to ask questions.
It is important to ask questions to learn about the company and the job's challenges. In some cases, the interviewer will be listening for the types of questions you ask. The best questions will come as a result of listening to the questions the interviewer asks you.
A good response to the interviewer asking, "Do you have any questions?" would be: "Yes, I do. From what you've been asking during the interview, it sounds like you have a problem with customer retention. Can you tell me a little more about the current situation and what the first challenges would be for the new person?" This answer shows interest in what the problem is and how you could be the possible solution. It is also an opportunity to get a sense of what will be expected.
Be prepared
What information do you need to decide whether to work at this company? Make a list of at least 10 questions to take with you to the interview. Depending on who is interviewing you, your questions should vary.
If you are interviewing with the hiring manager, ask questions about the job, the desired qualities and the challenges.
If you are interviewing with the human resources manager, ask about the company and the department.
If you are interviewing with management, ask about the industry and future projections. This is your chance to demonstrate your industry knowledge.
Timing is important
You will have to use your judgment about the number of questions you ask and when to ask them. Think of this as a ‘conversation’. There will be an appropriate time to ask certain types of questions, like those about benefits and vacation. To be on the safe side, concentrate on questions about the job's responsibilities and how you fit the position until you get the actual offer.
When you begin to think of the interview as a two-way process, you will see it is important for you to find out as much as possible about the company. Questions will give you the opportunity to find out if this is a good place for you to work before you say yes.
Job interviews can be stressful. What, with remembering which questions to ask, what to wear, what to bring, it can be so confusing. Get expert advice on interviewing, negotiating, and conducting your job search by becoming a Monster member. The best part is that it all gets emailed to you so you don't even have to remember to check in. Instead, all you have to do is think about the first day at your dream job.
Behavioral interview questions
What was the last project you led, and what was its outcome?
It’s common to discuss your work history and experience in an interview, but some employers want more detail than others. In particular, some may ask you to dig into the last project you led.
There are many things interviewers might gauge from your response to this question. The interviewer may want to know if you were able to collaborate with and lead a team. Or, was there a major client issue that you resolved without specific direction or much information from others?”
Here are a few pointers for preparing your answer.
Choose the right example
Select a project you worked on recently, not one from several years ago.
You should choose a project that was successful, unless you’re going to explain how you turned around a negative outcome. I’ve been amazed how many times people when interviewed get halfway into this story and realize they’ve picked a bad example where the outcome was a disaster.
The answer should be honest. The interviewer is less worried about whether the project succeeded - though success is good - and whether the candidate can explain why it succeeded or failed.”
Interviewers don’t only want to know that you led a project, but also how you led. Again, the project did not necessarily need to be a total success—though that helps—but you will need to demonstrate the specific ways in which you organized and motivated your team.
You say “I recently led a team that prepared a series of presentations for clients at my company’s annual conference.”
Show your leadership skills
After you have established a solid example of a time you were thrust into the lead role, you will need to go into detail about what you did when you got there. Explain your processes, meeting schedules and the tools you used to stay organized. Be specific. The interviewer is trying to gauge how you may lead projects in your new role.
For example, if you were tasked with creating and presenting a new marketing campaign or organizing an internal client database, you will want to describe the employees on your team, their roles, how you handled delegating responsibilities and how you reported the group’s workflow to your superiors. Through this, you will be able to paint a full picture of what you did to accomplish the task.
You say “I was charged with assigning specific presentations to the team members, setting deadlines and editing their material.”
Provide proof of success
It’s easy to say that the project was a success, but you should give details that will prove it to the interviewer.
A good candidate will understand that their personal assessment of the project is one thing, but that the interviewer is likely interested in something more objective. Explain how your team determined that the project was a success, and detail goals that were met.
You say “Two colleagues missed their deadlines, but we all pulled together to help them, and after the conference our client feedback was 100% positive. I even received an email from one client who said this year’s was the best yet.”
Learn to say the right things
Every interview question is an opportunity to put your skills and experience front and center in order to impress hiring managers, but you have to choose your words carefully for maximum impact.
• Give me an example of a time that you felt you went above and beyond the call of duty at work.
• Can you describe a time when your work was criticized?
• Have you ever been on a team where someone was not pulling their own weight? How did you handle it?
• Tell me about a time when you had to give someone difficult feedback. How did you handle it?
• What is your greatest failure, and what did you learn from it?
• How do you handle working with people who annoy you?’
Get this job interview question right, and maybe you will find yourself in a new job with less annoying co-workers.
It's important to get along with your co-workers. It may sound like a question from an online dating profile, but when job interviewers ask what irritates you about others, they’re trying to assess how you will get along with your colleagues and clients, and how your personality will fit in with the company culture. Work culture is at the heart of what determines whether or not you love your job. You eat with your co-workers, spend early mornings and late nights together, celebrate, gossip—even argue sometimes. If you’re not family, you’re basically roommates, right? And just like you wouldn’t want to share space with someone who cranks death metal until 2 a.m. when you’re a light sleeper, you don’t want to work with people who aren’t on your wavelength either—not if you can help it.
No one can give you a crystal ball to predict your future happiness at a particular company, but there are some ways to get a sense of what the people, the work-life balance, and the day-to-day will be like at your new home away from home.
We spoke with career experts and hiring managers to find out some of the best questions you should ask during the interview process in order to get a sense of the ‘work culture’ you’ll be walking into. It’s the kind of research that could make the difference between loving—and loathing—what you do.
1. “Does the company or job description sound like me?”
This first question is not one that you ask during the interview, but one you should ask yourself during your interview prep. As you do your research and find out as much about the company's work culture as possible—including reading employee reviews—read what the company has to say for itself, either on the company’s website. Check out the job description too. Some are written in a way that makes you say “Yes, that’s me!,” but other times, you could read a job description and just not feel it. If you’re a bonafide introvert and the description says, “Are you a dynamic go-getter who loves meeting hundreds of new people every day?” you might want to skip that one.
1. “What do you like to do outside of work?”
You’re going to be spending a lot of time with the people you end up working with, even outside of normal work hours, at conferences, celebrations, networking, etc. Getting a sense of what they do in their downtime could give you a sense of what they’re like while on the clock. And remember: You’re interviewing them as much as they’re interviewing you, so it’s OK to ask a few things about their likes and dislikes, and some of their habits. By seeing how people like to spend their free time, you’ll get a sense of whether you’ll be working with like-minded people or not. For instance, if you’re single and live in the city, but everyone you interview with is married with kids in the suburbs, you may quickly realize that you won’t have a lot in common with your colleagues—and therefore might not find it easy to make work friends. On the other hand, if you’re an avid cyclist and learn that your co-workers not only like to cycle, but there’s a company team, that could add another plus to your list of pros and cons when deciding whether or not to take the job. And you’d never know if you hadn’t asked.
1. “What are your favorite things about working here?”
This question plays into people’s pride of their company, which can be strategic when asking about work culture. If someone can answer quickly with things they love, it shows they’ve got genuine love for their job (or at least strong like). Similarly, it’s actually a good idea to ask the opposite of this question, too: If you could change two things about the company, what topics would you tackle? But only ask this question if you’ve asked about that person’s favorite aspects of working at the company—that way it’s a natural counterpart and not taken out of context.
1. “What’s the busiest time of year like at the company?”
You might have the urge to ask about when people typically leave work, or if people are always stressed out at the company, but if you ask those questions you’re going to seem like you aren’t a hard worker. Instead, ask about the busiest time of year. Use a phrase like, ‘Tell me about your busiest times and how the team gets things done.’ This way, your interviewer can paint you a picture of how the company reacts when the workload gets heavier.
Think about it. Almost every company has that one worker who types like their fingers are hammers. Alternatively, who is a chatterbox. On the other hand, who is excruciatingly perky and chipper at all hours. Who argues with their significant other on the phone loud enough for the entire floor to hear—daily. Annoying co-workers are a ‘fact of life’. They mean no harm, but they can drive you batty, which can make doing your actual job a lot more difficult than it needs to be. Still, you have to push through the annoyance and get your work done. Interviewers want to know you will not let a little thing like a loud chewer sabotage your duties as an employee.
What annoys you is not a trick question. Hiring managers are trying to determine first, if you are easily irritated, and second, if you are irritated by the habits of their existing staff. They want to know if you are adaptable and a good fit for their organization. To ensure you do not answer this question by unloading every habit you find annoying in others, you need to do some preparation. Use the following tips to focus your answer on something that will not scare off a prospective employer.
Be upfront about what bothers you
• Think of all the different types of personalities that exist in a single workplace. Then consider that everyone is annoyed by something, and when the pressures of work begin to mount, the irritations can start to interfere with teamwork and productivity.
• Do not play dumb and tell the interviewer you never get annoyed with anyone. Even the most patient people will find themselves frustrated with co-workers at one point or another, so you need to describe a moment when you have been legitimately annoyed at work. (It likely will not take you too long to come up with something.)
• You can cite some things that are genuinely irritating, for example, ‘employees taking credit for your work’.
You say “It doesn’t happen often, but I really get irritated when one person hogs all the glory on something that was a group effort. I believe in giving credit where it is due and fairness within a team dynamic.”
What to do when a co-worker takes credit for your work
Do not be a pushover—stand up for yourself and get credit where credit is due.
Annoyed with a deceitful co-worker? This is how to take charge. You worked hard on the problem, came up with an innovative solution, and now you want to deliver your awesome solution to your team and client. But suddenly, your colleague stands up and starts talking about the plan he devised. Except it is actually not his idea at all—it is yours.
Getting recognition for your accomplishments is essential to accelerating your career trajectory and increasing your salary. Track or chronicle them throughout the year. But coming across like a whiner when someone throws you under the bus isn’t great for your career, either. It’s one of those tricky office-politics situations that must be handled delicately.
So what do you do when a co-worker takes credit for your work? We asked experts to explain how to navigate this career conundrum.
Bring up the elephant in the conference room…
Even though you might want to or vent to a co-worker rather than confront the idea thief himself, it’s best to approach the person and assert yourself so he’ll know you’re not the office pushover. Address the situation quickly and directly. Remember, you do not need to accept this behavior no matter who is doing it. You are worthwhile and your ideas are obviously good, so stand up for yourself. Showing that you have a backbone in this way could make your co-worker think twice about trying the same move again.
…but do not point fingers—bring up observations instead
You do not want to say something you will regret—especially when you have to work with the person at least 40 hours a week. There is always the chance that wires got crossed, and you’d hate to have destroyed a salvageable working relationship due to your momentary anger.
“I have found that a non-accusatory approach helps to work through the situation better. Explain that, from your perspective, there appears to be a great similarity in your ideas. Share your observation then listen to the other person’s perspective.
Take steps to prevent a recurrence
At the end of the day, you can’t control how other people act in the workplace—otherwise, no one would assign you a time-sensitive project at 4:59 p.m.—but you can use the experience to adjust how you act in the future. Perhaps it is a sign for you to take more ownership over your ideas. Copy your boss on certain project-specific emails and be sure to speak up in meetings, making it clear that the idea originated from you. You might send periodic updates about your work [to your boss] even before a project is completed. That way, someone else is unable to go around you before you're finished.
Show you are not bothered by the little stuff
Legitimate grievances are different from personal peeves; in the grand scheme of things, someone who bites their nails is less of an issue than someone who misses every single deadline given to them. Employers do not want to hire people who are going to be irritated by every little thing, so you need to give an answer that shows the little stuff will not get to you.
Working with others is challenging. People who are easily irritated are difficult to work with, and people who don’t deal with their concerns with others create more issues down the road. In addition, you want to avoid sounding like you aren’t able to work with people who operate differently than you do. It is excessively easy to fall into the trap of answering this question by showing a lack of patience or understanding toward others. Maybe you are most productive in the mornings, but your co-worker really picks up in the afternoon. This should not derail the team. You need to adapt to different working styles, otherwise you are the annoying one.
You say - “I’m bothered by big mistakes or problems that have team impact. For example, it would bother me greatly if a co-worker were to miss an important deadline on a team project. It’s unfair to the people in the group who made their deadlines.”
Demonstrate your patience when handling an annoyance
Lastly, you must demonstrate that you handle your annoyances in a calm and productive manner. Nobody likes a complainer who does not take any action to fix the situation. Most interviewers are seeking to understand if the person being interviewed is positive and solutions-based, as well as a strong communicator. It is important not to be too harsh or too much of a people pleaser.
Meaning, shouting or putting down someone is both rude and unhelpful, no matter how annoying they are. Instead, it is best to explain how you listen to others when there is a misunderstanding. Give an answer that shows you prefer to discuss your irritations and find a point of agreement with others, rather than simply remaining annoyed or running to the boss to whine without first attempting to solve the issue yourself. Describe a healthy way to handle that situation such as, confronting the employee and only alerting your supervisor if needed.
You say - “Because I know I get irritated when co-workers miss deadlines, I try to always make sure goals are clearly communicated to everyone on the team. I also like to implement regular check-ins to make sure we’re all on the same page, rather than waiting until the end to see if there’s a problem. If the deadline is missed anyway, I try to find out what I can do differently next time so the problem doesn’t repeat itself.”
Smile - you are not done yet
It is not easy to get along with difficult people, but in the workplace, you have no choice if you want to keep—or in this case get—a job. Showing hiring managers that you are good natured is a step in the right direction, and you want your other answers to back up that claim.
• If I were your supervisor and asked you to do something you did not with, what would you do?
• What was the most difficult period in your life, and how did you deal with it?
• Give me an example of a time you did something wrong. How did you handle it?
It is not really about what you did or didn’t do, but about ‘how’ you handle adverse situations—and tough questions.
Answering an interviewer honestly will impress them the most.
Your resume and cover letter successfully outline your qualifications. You are nailing all the reasons you are the right person for the job in the interview. Nevertheless, when the interviewer says, “Give me an example of a time you did something wrong, and how you handled it?” you freeze. No one wants to talk about his or her screw-ups, but doing so with confidence and answering this question well can prove crucial if you want the job. When interviewers ask this question they’re trying to evaluate how you responded in a tough situation.
Here are four tips to help you answer this tough question with confidence and offer an answer that will not only pass this test, but also impress your interviewer in the process.
Never say never
Answer honestly, because anyone who says they have never made a mistake is obviously lying or delusional. As unpleasant as it may be to discuss, you must admit to a mistake and explain how you made things right in some detail. They want you to tell them what you learned from a mistake. Everyone makes mistakes, it’s how you get past those mistakes that interest me.
You say - In my position three years ago at Company X, I missed a major deadline, which is why I am extremely vigilant on keeping my calendar and to do list up to date every day.
Do not blame others
Admit your mistake and take full responsibility for it. Do not try to blame someone else or spread the blame around, taking only part for yourself. Interviewers do not want to hear how your teammate gave you bad information and caused your mistake. Take responsibility of a mistake that happened. Own it. It was your mistake and it should not have happened. Taking responsibility is about being straightforward and contrite. The interviewer wants to see how you react to a difficult question, how you handle pressure, and if you will fit in with the company’s culture. If the mistake truly was not your own, pick a different mistake.
You say - I missed the deadline because I did not maintain proper communication with my team members.
Tell them you handled it like a champion.
Explain in detail how you solved the problem. Moreover, be honest about it, no matter how bad you think your explanation may make you look. The interviewer will not necessarily see it that way.
The interviewer wants to see if the candidate is adaptable and flexible. How do they deal with problems and what do they do when presented with a challenge?
You say - “As soon as I realized I was going to miss the deadline, I contacted all the stakeholders in the project to smooth things over, and we all put in the extra hours needed to get it completed quickly.”
Talk about lessons learned
As long as you were able to learn from it, you can admit to most any mistake—within reason. The interviewer is looking to hear that you did learn from it and put parameters in place so it does not happen again. Tell a story that highlights your ability to learn—and learn well enough not to make the same mistake again. “In almost every role, the best candidate is going to be a strong problem solver. This question helps show how we recover from a problem.
You say - After I missed that deadline, I created a spreadsheet for all future projects that showed everyone a project snapshot and clearly indicated deadlines and where we are at in the process at any given time. Since then, I’ve never missed a deadline.
• Tell me about a time where you had to deal with conflict on the job.
• If you were at a business lunch and you ordered a rare steak and they brought it to you well done, what would you do?
• If you found out your company was doing something against the law, like fraud, what would you do?
• What assignment was too difficult for you, and how did you resolve the issue?
• What's the most difficult decision you've made in the last two years and how did you come to that decision?
• Describe how you would handle a situation if you were required to finish multiple tasks by the end of the day, and there was no conceivable way that you could finish them.
What salary are you seeking?
• Always refrain from revealing compensation to a recruiter first—let them tell you a number first. Unfortunately, sometimes the conversation goes like a ping-pong match and you ask them, they ask you, and you may have to finally succumb. In that case, give them a range, not a specific number. This gives you wiggle room to negotiate. Plus, if they’re a reputable company they will know a specific range for the job they’re offering and should not go under the lowest number.
• Keep in mind, companies expect you to negotiate. They are more surprised when you do not than when you do. Therefore, you need to look out for yourself. In addition, the current offer from the company where you interned over the summer should know you’re currently interviewing and not locked in to accept their offer either. Even though their current offer is competitive for a new grad, you need to first determine, if the compensation packages were completely equal, where you would rather work. Which employer would make you happier? Did you enjoy interning at the company over the summer, and could you see yourself working there?
• If so, go back to the company you interned at and say you have received another offer (thereby showing that you are in demand). Tell them you appreciate their offer, but are hoping for something more competitive—especially since they have already seen what an asset you will be as a full-time employee.
Career development questions
• What are you looking for in terms of career development?
• How do you want to improve yourself in the next year?
• What kind of goals would you have in mind if you got this job?
• If I were to ask your last supervisor to provide you additional training or exposure, what would she suggest?
Getting started questions
• How would you go about establishing your credibility quickly with the team?
• How long will it take you to make a significant contribution?
• What do you see yourself doing within the first 30 days of this job?
• If selected for this position, can you describe your strategy for the first 90 days?
More questions about you
How would you describe your work style?
First, what does work style even mean? The interviewer is not asking if you like to kick back at your desk in a pair of wraparound shades and Beats. Rather, they are trying to discern how you will fit into an existing work culture, carefully gauging your response for hints about how you’ll mesh with potential co-workers and whether you’re well suited to the demands of the role.
In other words, it is kind of an important question.
However, do not let it intimidate you or get you tongue-tied. You can figure out your work style with five smaller, far more straightforward questions. By asking yourself each of them, you can learn a lot about both how you work and how to frame yourself in an interview.
Do you like to work autonomously or collaboratively?
The vast majority of jobs will not have you working in a vacuum. Instead, you will be part of a larger group that must—get this—collaborate in order to achieve a common goal. Understandably, many interviewers will expect you to describe yourself in terms of working as part of a team. However, if you really do consider yourself a strong, independent worker, do not worry—there is nothing wrong with that. Just make sure you mention the importance of external feedback from both bosses and peers when it comes to being your best professional self.
How do you like to work with your boss?
We all have an idea of the kind of working relationship we would like with our superiors, but it does not always take shape beyond some vague notion of cordiality. However, how you work with your boss truly does speak to how you will perform on the job, and you will need to consider this carefully.
Do you like receiving a set of clear-cut directions, so that your goals as a worker are never in doubt? On the other hand, do you feel comfortable doing a bit of creative interpretation in terms of what your boss actually wants from you, giving you a bit of leeway to do your own thing?
However, you define it, it never hurts to mention that you appreciate the importance of the routine check-in, ensuring you and your boss are on the same page and that your work’s consistently up to spec.
How do you prefer to communicate?
In decades past, this particular question would have been a whole lot simpler. After all, it doesn’t take much effort to determine if a workplace’s dominant mode of communication involves writing emails or simply yelling, “Watch your six!” across a factory floor.
However, organizations that communicate electronically now go a lot further than simply relying on email alone, and this question gives you a chance to prove you are comfortable with the full range of technologies on hand.
Do you tend to communicate over chat applications? Do you work best within a project management framework? Whatever your preference, it is always worth bringing the conversation back around to the necessity of in-person communication—always an underrated asset in our increasingly digitized workplace.
What hours do you work?
No, your interviewer is not looking for you to simply ‘spit-back’ the hours required for the position—they already know the work schedule, or whatever the case may be. What they want is a sense of whether you are the kind of person who likes to show up early or will not sweat staying a little bit late, should the job require it.
Later, down the road in the hiring process, you can go further into the particulars of your schedule, like the afternoons you need to leave 30 minutes early to pick up the kids from daycare or volunteer at the local iguana rescue. For now, you can focus on projecting your commitment to the job and your flexibility to stick around as long as it takes to get the work done.
How do you plan your day?
For an interviewer, this offers one of the best windows into how you conduct yourself at work. Maybe you are the kind of person who creates a daily action plan, organizes it by priority, and then unwaveringly stays the course. Alternatively, maybe you spend your mornings knocking out a few easy tasks or emails, and then dedicate your afternoon to larger projects on the docket.
Either way, sharing how you structure your day gives you an opportunity to demonstrate how you will take a purposeful approach to your work—even, as the case may be, if you like to sport a sweet pair of wraparound shades. We will defer to your target employer’s attire policy on that one.
What would be your ideal working environment?
Job seekers and employers alike care a lot about cultural fit, so when you are asked in a job interview to describe your ideal work environment, you can be sure everyone in the room is interested in what you have to say. According to one survey, 88% of recruiters said cultural fit is important when assessing job candidates. Likewise, job seekers want to find a work environment that suits their personality and work preferences.
Knowing the type of work environment that allows you to thrive is half the battle. You also have to know how to answer the question without unintentionally knocking yourself out of the running for the job. Take these steps to prepare a well-crafted answer.
Do your research
Many hiring managers pose this question to candidates as a litmus test to see how well you’d fit into the organization, says Thea Kelley, a job search coach and author of Get That Job! The Quick and Complete Guide to a Winning Interview. “Look for overlap between what you want out of a company culture and what the company offers,” she says.
To do that, you will have to thoroughly research your prospective employer, which requires looking beyond the company’s website (though that is a good starting point). “You need to dig deeper,” says Mark Moyer, career coach and business strategist at New York City–based Compass Points Advisors.
These six sources can offer great insight into a company’s culture:
1. The company’s social media. Pay particular attention to the tone, “which can give you a good feel for the organization’s vibe,” Kelley says.
2. Current employees. Talk to two to three workers at the company to get an insider’s perspective on what it is like to work there, says Moyer, who recommends asking mutual connections to make introductions for you. If you do not have any shared connections, tap into your college’s alumni database, advises job interview coach Bill Cole. Though you can certainly ask employees questions over email, meeting with them in person can help you cement relationships.
3. YouTube. To take advantage of this often under-utilized resource, “punch in the names of key players at the company, and see what they say during media interviews,” Cole suggests. “Oftentimes, executives will talk about company culture. Then, you can mention that you saw the interview when you sit down with the hiring manager.”
4. Press releases. A quick google search can provide a look at what the company’s current initiatives and challenges are.
5. Company reviews. See what former employees have to say about working there. The caveat? One or two negative reviews isn’t cause for concern—after all, chances are good there will always be a couple disgruntled employees—but if you see an overwhelming number of negative reviews, take them as a warning sign.
6. The job description. Job postings can help you glean information about a company’s work environment. Some job descriptions even describe what the organization’s culture is like, making your job a whole lot easier.
Show you have done your homework
Once you have done the legwork, it is time to apply your newfound knowledge during the job interview. When you are asked to describe your ideal work environment, your ultimate goal is to highlight the fact that you’ve researched the company and understand its culture.
Let’s say you want to work in a collaborative environment. In that case, you might say to the hiring manager, “From talking to a few employees here, I discovered that your organization prides itself on having a family atmosphere, where peers work closely together. I thrive in those kinds of environments. Does that match up with the way things work here?”
Remember, though, your core values should align with the company’s mission (e.g., “I want to work for a company that cares about giving back to the community, and that’s why I’m so interested in this opportunity.”) If your ideal work environment is nothing like what you found out about the company, you need to carefully consider whether you really want to work there.
Moreover, only focus on describing the kind of work environment you want—not what you do not want. So instead of saying, “I don’t want to work for a company with a lot of micromanagement,” a better frame way to frame that would be to say, “I’m a self-starter, so I’m looking for some autonomy.”
• What do you look for in terms of culture—structured or entrepreneurial?
• Give examples of ideas you have had or implemented.
• What techniques and tools do you use to keep yourself organized?
• If you had to choose one, would you consider yourself a big-picture person or a detail-oriented person?
• Tell me about your proudest achievement.
• Who was your favorite manager and why?
• What do you think about your previous boss?
When applying for jobs, you already have your references—people who you know will sing your praises—lined up. But in an interview, sometimes you’ll be the one asked to give perspective on your current or most recent boss.
As it turns out, most job seekers do not exactly have the best things to say about them. In a 2018 poll, the majority (76%) of U.S. respondents said they currently have or recently had a toxic boss. That is compared to the minority (5%) of respondents who are BFFs with their boss and 19% who described their boss as a mentor, or someone they can learn from and know has their back. The bad bosses, however, can best be described as power-hungry (26%), micromanager (18%), incompetent (17%), or just never around (15%).
Regardless of whether your previous boss was your best friend or your worst enemy, talking about him or her to a prospective employer takes a little tact.
“How you describe past relationships speaks volumes about you, not the boss, which is why interviewers pose the question. Interviewers are looking for a few different things when they ask this question: how well you handle being put on the spot, how well you play with others, and how you like to be managed. Come prepared to answer, so you don’t get caught off-guard and say something you’ll regret.
Be positive—even if it is difficult
The experts agree that saying something positive about your former boss is the only way to answer this question—regardless of your true feelings. If a candidate rants negatively about a prior manager, the interviewer often considers the employee the problem and will be hesitant to make the hire. Obviously if you had a great manager, acknowledge that and specify what made them so great. If, on the other hand, you had a more challenging relationship with you manager, proceed cautiously.
You want to highlight positive aspects of your manager’s leadership style and what you learned from him or her. If the interviewer pushes for some sort of criticism, say something that ends on a positive note. You may want to acknowledge that while you had very different styles, you found a way to work together to deliver results or meet customer needs. “Be prepared to give a specific example that can be shared in a positive way.
You say - “My boss was strong-willed, which sometimes made it difficult to communicate new ideas; however, we always managed to talk it out and find solutions that were best for the company.”
Bring it back to your strengths
Your answer to this question can indicate how you like—or don’t like—to be managed. How does that mesh with my own management style? Would this be a relationship that works?
The interviewer may also be testing to see what you’ll be like to work with. Will you make a positive contribution to the company’s culture, or will you need to be refereed?
Whatever the reason, remember they are interviewing you, not your former boss. Keep the focus on what skills and experience you bring to this position. Let your strengths show in your answer and move the interview onto more important questions.
You say - “She was so effective at advocating for our department. I learned a lot from her about how to diplomatically manage people, keep communication lines open between departments and how to advocate for the team.”
Demonstrate discretion and loyalty
By asking this question, an interviewer might also be testing you to see how you would handle sensitive inquiries from customers, colleagues or others.
Interviewer - “I’m not necessarily looking for loyalty to the boss, but how loyal are they to the organization?” “When they leave our company will they trash talk our organization?”
Many applicants fail to realize that their criticism of their boss is often perceived as their unwillingness to accept accountability for their own actions. Hiring managers believe that if an applicant would criticize their former manager in an interview, they would probably also criticize them or their co-workers if they were applying for a different job in the future.
You say - “We had our differences, but I thought it was important to stay focused on our goals and to set up my manager—and my team—for success.”
• Was there a person in your career who really made a difference?
• What kind of personality do you work best with and why?
• What are you most proud of?
• What do you like to do?
• What are your lifelong dreams?
• What do you ultimately want to become?
• What is your personal mission statement?
• What are three positive things your last boss would say about you?
• What negative thing would your last boss say about you?
• What three character traits would your friends use to describe you?
• What are three positive character traits you don't have?
• If you were interviewing someone for this position, what traits would you look for?
• List five words that describe your character.
• Who has impacted you most in your career and how?
• What is your greatest fear?
• What is your biggest regret and why?
• What's the most important thing you learned in school?
• Why did you choose your major?
• What will you miss about your present/last job?
• What is your greatest achievement outside of work?
• What are the qualities of a good leader? A bad leader?
• Do you think a leader should be feared or liked?
• How do you feel about taking no for an answer?
• How would you feel about working for someone who knows less than you?
• How do you think I rate as an interviewer?
• Tell me one thing about yourself you wouldn’t want me to know?
All sorts of inappropriate—no, really inappropriate—answers may pop into your ahead.
Do not say them! Take a moment, inhale slowly and then smile, because you have done your research and you know what this question is really asking you.
Interviewers are looking to hear how something in your past has changed you for the better. A good answer to this question demonstrates your adaptability to learn, grow and possibly be flexible.
One thing is certain: You have to give a response. Here is how to pick a good one.
Bring up your younger years
Start out by outlining a problem you faced in your past work life—or even something interesting from your high school or college years, McKay says. Those are prime mistake-making years—and you have come a long way since then. Just make sure you pick an example that you have learned something from. Do not overdo it with sordid details; simply describe ‘the challenge you were facing and what was at stake.’
You say - “I was an overachiever in college and there were a couple of semesters when I tried to do it all with classes and tons of extra-curricular involvement. My grades were slipping and I was burning out quickly.”
Describe your reaction
Then, follow up with how you overcame the problem. A spotless career is rare, and as long as you can show you are not afraid of dealing with adversity, even talking about a challenge that puts you in a bad light shouldn’t hurt your chances. Answering the question humanizes you to the interviewer.
You say - “So, I took a semester off to clear my mind, did some traveling—mostly some soul searching—and came back ready to finish my degree, which I did, with honors.”
Share the lesson
Finally, talk about the key takeaways from your experience. This may be something you learned about yourself, such as how you prefer to work or your career interests. If you can include information about ensuing successes, or how it brought you to the current interview, add that as well.
You say - "Coming so close to burning out and giving up entirely helped me understand my own limits while also strengthening my resolve to succeed. Traveling also made me realize that any career I took would have to have international opportunities, which is why I’m interested in this position."
• Tell me the difference between good and exceptional.
• What kind of car do you drive?
• There's no right or wrong answer, but if you could be anywhere in the world right now, where would you be?
• What's the last book you read?
• What magazines do you subscribe to?
• What's the best movie you've seen in the last year?
• What would you do if you won the lottery?
• Who are your heroes?
• What do you like to do for fun?
• What do you do in your spare time?
• What is your favorite memory from childhood?
Brainteasers
• How many times do a clock's hands overlap in a day?
• How would you weigh a plane without a scale?
Walk the interviewer through your thinking about getting a weight. They want to see if you can reason through things. They are not really looking for a ‘weight’ answer.
• Tell me 10 ways to use a pencil other than writing.
• Sell me this pencil.
Most interviewers are screening for confidence and cogency. In general, interviewers use this question to get a feel for your sales style and experience. There are a few guidelines pros suggest you follow when crafting your response:
Ask questions—lots and lots of questions
The answer made famous in the movie The Wolf of Wall Street—in which stockbroker Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) asks a friend to sell him a pen. The friend takes the pen and asks Belfort to write his name down on a napkin. Belfort says he cannot, he does not have a pen, and the friend says, “Exactly”—is actually not the best approach in this real-life situation. In fact, Belfort told Piers Morgan on CNN in 2014 that the best salespeople would ask questions before they try to sell anything.
Other experts agree the best response is one that starts with plenty of questions. An ideal response to a question like this would be for the sales rep to start asking penetrating questions about person and their business that would help them identify whether or not they really need a pencil in the first place. Being able to identify a prospect’s needs is the single most important, and often most overlooked, aspect of being a good salesperson. By asking questions, you can sell the pencil, not as a commodity, but as a solution to the buyer’s problem.
You say - “I’d like to understand your needs surrounding pencils. What are you currently using to write with? Where do you most often use this writing instrument and what types of things do you normally write? Are you happy with your current writing tools? If you were to consider another vendor for your writing implements, what would be important to you?”
Understand their needs and pivot if necessary
You are selling the pencil, and you ask the interviewer, “What are you currently using to write with?” His response is, “Nothing, I never write.” What do you do next? Do not be afraid to say, ‘Oh, sounds like you’re not in the market for the pencil I’m selling. Do you know anyone who is?” Do not waste time pitching to people who do not have any use for what you are selling. Unless you are hoping to irritate someone into buying your pencil, do not keep pushing when the buyer says he does not need one.
You say - Since you have no use for this pencil I’m selling, is there someone else in your company who might need one?
• If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
• Why is there fuzz on a tennis ball?
• If you could choose one superhero power, what would it be and why?
• If you could get rid of any one of the US states, which one would you get rid of and why?
• With your eyes closed, tell me step-by-step how to tie my shoes. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.10%3A_Basic_Interview_Questions.txt |
When looking at the inner workings of a restaurant there are many organizational areas to explore. Although each restaurant will have organizational areas that may be specific to just that restaurant, there are seven widely accepted, important areas of organization that are universal. This chapter will explore these areas of importance individually and in more detail.
Area Assumptions Outcome
Organization Schema Purpose and functioning of the organization is necessary to become an effective organizational member. Improved understanding of corporate purpose
Things to think about:
• What is the organizational mission?
• What are the core values?
• Can personal and organizational goals be achieved simultaneously.
Organizational Chart
An organizational chart describes a thought pattern or behavior that organizes all manners of the restaurant’s information into categories. In doing so, it shows the different relationships between specific information about the restaurant. In this way, the chart is used to arrange current knowledge in a systematic way, as well as provide a substructure for future understanding. It can involve team members or management structure as shown in the examples provided – build your own site organizational chart.
Creating an organizational chart is important for several reasons. Perhaps the most important reason is it creates a hierarchy within the restaurant. This hierarchy creates a chain of command that can help eliminate confusion. Employees now know where to go for answers and learn to respect the chain of command. It is important to note that every restaurant is different. Therefore, each restaurant will have their own specific organizational chart. Often times this has a great deal to do with the size of the restaurant. Typically, the less covers or plates of food you cook each service the smaller the organizational chart will be. Places that do a larger volume of customers would require more labor and therefore a larger management team.
A good organizational chart will leave room for growth. Restaurants are constantly changing and evolving to meet the needs of their clientele. For example, twenty years ago there was no need for someone on your organizational chart to deal with social media. No organizational chart is every set in stone. It should be a living breathing document. The organizational chart should be posted or readily available for all employees at all times. A plan that no one knows exists is not a plan. It is a lack in communication waiting to happen. A good organizational chart should be an incredible tool in aiding with the communication and politics of day-to-day workings of a professional restaurant. A well designed organizational chart along with creating policy and understanding the nature of politics in the kitchen will create an empowered employee that knows the importance of teamwork in getting the job done.
Questions for reflection
1. What is an organizational chart?
2. Describe how the size of your restaurant can affect the organizational chart.
3. List three reasons why a good organizational chart would leave room for growth
Policy
Area Assumptions Outcome
Policy Every organization has a specific hierarchy, however, power may not lie where one might expect. Effective organizational integration. Who leads and decides?
Things to think about:
• Who is the storyteller?
• Who is powerful and who is not?
• What is the organizational structure?
Once you have examined the restaurants organizational chart and the interns can understand the proper chain of command, now it is time to look at policy. Policy can be best described as guidelines to specific day to day procedure of running a restaurant. Successful restaurants that have established a well-defined organizational chart will use policy to further outline procedure for each intern. The advantages of having well defined policies at your restaurant are many, but here are the two of the most important reasons. A well-defined set of policies will set specific expectations for your co-workers and yourself. It will also create a safer workplace by reducing the frequency of arguments, incidents, and accidents. The result over time if policies are sound and are easily understood will be a more successful service with more productivity.
When understanding policy there are many details to think about. Making an accessible, well defined, and enforceable policy is the lynch pin for creating the culture you want in the kitchen. Does the policy fit and follow the hierarchy of the organizational chart. If policies do not fit the flow of the restaurants organizational chart, the restaurant creates confusion by sending mixed messages. A successful policy is much like an organizational chart should be written. It should be located where all employees have access. Most successful restaurants will make a handbook outlining the restaurants policy and procedures. These are typically given to the employees during their training period. Restaurants will also have a copy of the manual on site in the event there needs to be clarification on a specific policy.
Just having a well written, easily understood and accessible set of restaurant policies is not enough. For policies and procedures to be successful, you must be able to tell if policies are being effective. One of the best ways understand if policies are successful is to have employee input. When workers feel listened to they feel part of a team and valued. Whenever possible, run policy ideas and changes by employees that best understand the culture and environment of the restaurant. This will create ownership of these policies by the employees. It is likewise important to remember that one of the quickest ways to lose employee confidence is to not enforce or inconsistently enforce policy.
When a problem arises that goes against or down right breaks a rule of policy and procedure, it is important to identify the problem. Once the problem is identified then it should be corrected in accordance to written policy. If there is no current written policy then perhaps it is time to re-examine the policy and make changes using the collaborative method that will be discussed more when we touch on restaurant politics. Consistency is the key. The more policy is reinforced and defended, the more it will become almost second nature. The constant reinforcement of policy is what creates a restaurants’ culture. This means holding the intern is held accountable to not only the policy, but also the escalating consequences that come with repeatedly broken policies.
It is important for the punishment to fit the crime. For example, if the policy is, “All employees and interns handling food will wear a hair net.” If an intern forgets or does not wear a hairnet, the manager would explain the restaurant’s policy again making sure the intern understands. Many places use escalating consequences to deter infractions. Perhaps the first time a manager might explain why the health code necessitates the intern wearing one, and how the restaurant would be ‘written up’ by the health inspector for health code violations. The behavior needing correction is important, but the reason ‘why’ it was broken is more important.
To be consistent in the enforcement of correct policy and procedure, it is more important to get to the understanding of why the policy was broken, because there are always circumstances where there are exceptions to policy usually based on health or personal human suffering. Policies in a restaurant that ultimately lead to the staff and interns being more hospitable. If policies punish unavoidable human suffering it is probably best they be re-examined. Policies that do not reflect the organizational chart, and more importantly are not consistently enforced create power struggles and confusion.
Questions for reflection
1. What are the two advantages of having well defined policies at your restaurant?
2. Why is it important that the policies reflect the hierarchy of the organizational chart?
3. Explain why it is a good idea to have employee input when coming up with policy
Politics
Every workplace especially a kitchen is political. Politics can best be defined for our purposes as trying to gain power or influence for ones’ own personal gain. Everyone strives to be professional and avoid bad politics, but people will come to work with drive, emotions, needs, and apprehension. While we all strive to do our best we find there are differences in personalities, thought processes, and opinions. When constructive communication breaks down, we can seek to influence others and their decisions. Co-workers can be open about their intentions or can be covert in their political influence. It is a tricky situation because due to the organizational chart some people will always naturally have more power than others will. So how should new intern try to navigate the political trappings of a kitchen? It is not an easy question to answer, but there are steps you can take to better understand the politics of your kitchen and how it affects you.
The political climate of the kitchen you are in can vary at times due to staff turnover, but most of the time it will stay constant. The first thing an intern should do is know the organizational chart. Once you know the chart and its’ hierarchy, it is time to observe. After you observe you will see who has the greatest influence or political strength. Go back and look at the organizational chart. Does the chart list the same people in order of political power? Who is the creative muscle behind this restaurant? Which employees have the greatest influence over others? Who are the leaders? Who are the followers? Which people on staff truly try to mentor? All of these questions will give you greater understanding of how this more informal network of politics works.
So now, you have some understanding of consistencies and differences between the restaurants’ organizational chart and the restaurants politics. What you are exploring is the informal networks of your restaurant. Once you better-understand who ultimately controls the influence in the restaurant; it is time to understand management and staff interactions better. You will observe again maybe in more detail and without the staff knowing. Are their separate groups? Are there people who are in or out of the loop? Who get along with everyone and who does not? Are their examples of bullying? Are these connections made due to admiration, genuine friendship, or even romance? It is your job to find out the ebb and flow between these groups in the restaurant. Discover if there is a long on-going interpersonal strife between certain groups or workers. Understanding the dynamic and flow of these informal networks will give you a greater understanding of office politics.
You have now studied your restaurants organizational chart, and have looked at more ‘personal’ and ‘interpersonal’ relationships between co-workers. Now you can use this knowledge to build your own social relationships in the kitchen. It is important to be cordial to everyone; however, you should refrain from aligning with this group or that group. It may be natural to try to avoid those with greatest political power especially if they can be difficult, however it is important to get to know them but do not be naive. It is important while you do this that you are making genuine association with this person. Empty praise or flattery will get you nowhere. This is a perfect time to develop your people skills.
Think about what makes you tick. Think about your emotions. The more even keel your emotions are the less likely you will get on the wrong side of the political climate of the restaurant. How do you deal with your emotions? Do you act out? Do you shut down? When you do this you will greater understand your likes and dislikes. From here you will start to notice others emotions and their preferences. Everyone loves a good listener so the more you can wrap your head around your and your co-workers emotional intelligence, the more successful you will be in staying clear of negative political issues.
Remember from the day you walk into the kitchen you are creating your own image of how you are viewed at work. So make the most of the social networks you can make. The best way to create an image everyone loves is to make all your successes about the restaurant’s success. When colleagues see this, they are more likely to reach out to you. It can help build strong ties with other employees. Always be accountable for your actions. Refrain from talking bad about others. People will notice if you strive to be trustworthy and do quality work. Do not be afraid to ask for feedback. The more feedback you receive the more you will understand what your employer’s major concerns are. This will show that you are willing to learn and value others opinions.
Once you have gotten to this level of understanding your restaurant’s politics, there may be a tendency to avoid the co-workers that practice bad politics or sabotage. This is generally not the best practice. As mentioned earlier, it is important to build trust among your co-workers. There is no way to build their trust if you are constantly trying to avoid them.
Get to know the people who try to work around the systems in place at your restaurant. You want to understand what their aspirations are, but do not let your defenses down. Some people’s words or actions can be extremely manipulative. Be pleasant, but guarded. Every person has a different emotional intelligence. Often, a person being this manipulative has deep insecurities and ultimately will ‘self-sabotage’ their own career. Make sure they are not dragging you down with them.
There is much to think about on the subject of restaurant politics as you can see. What it really comes down to is being professional at all times. This is best done by lifting others up, not tearing them down. Rumors are just that – avoid them, as you would gossip. That does not mean you cannot voice your concerns. Even the best of restaurant teams will at times have discord. It is just important that when you do voice your opinions you do it politely and without malicious intent.
Questions for reflection
1. Define the word politics.
2. Explain why it is important to understand the organizational structure before analyzing kitchen politics.
3. Discuss the role your emotions can play in the kitchen to your overall success.
Management Styles
Area Assumptions Outcome
Management Responsibilities duties, personalities may vary with different management philosophies. Understanding management styles, six styles discussed
Things to think about:
• What are the chef's duties?
• Are the trainers knowledgeable?
• What is the 'cultural' personality, the way everyone does things?
When entering the workforce as an intern it is important to understand the six different basic styles of management. A good manager will use a mixture of the most successful styles depending on the specific circumstances at that time. Bad managers will be limited in their use of different style of management. They will typically use only the management styles that prove to be ineffective or counterproductive. Most often, this is because their experience is limited and they are modeling the exact management style that was used on them. It is human nature to imitate what we see. The next paragraphs will discuss in more detail the six different management styles and their effectiveness.
Coercive management – Compliance at the expense of commitment
The coercive style of management is the least effective style of management. This is the “classic angry chef model” there style is an intimidating leader who uses force to gain immediate adherence to policy and procedure. This is the manager who constantly says, “Do it the way I tell you to do it.” There is no management style capable of wrecking a restaurant’s culture faster than this style. Eventually, it disenfranchises workers by making them constantly feel as if their opinion does not matter and therefore an intern will not feel valued. You would think this management style has no value at all in the kitchen; however, there are certain times when it can prove to be effective. It is most effective in a time of a crisis when time is of the essence. An example would be, “That pot of milk is about to boil over, turn the fire off!” It also is used when addressing an intern that is consistently underperforming in the form of the last warning of impending termination for lack of policy compliance. However, his may force the intern to an immediate decision on whether to terminate their employment. So this technique would be used in the rarest of cases.
The overall problem of this management style is it places enormous stress on a staff. The staff can become so frightened of doing the wrong which leads to paralysis. It creates a culture of workers waiting to be told what to do, instead of understanding policy and procedures. Often times this kitchen will be without organizational chart or policy and procedure manuals. Coercive leaders live in a world of “It’s my way or hit the highway”. This is a breeding ground for bad intern morale and is best avoided.
Pacesetting Management – Setting standards
The next style of leadership is pacesetting. This leader constantly strives for perfection by setting high standards. This leader management style can best be described as, “Do it the way I do it, and do it now” Whereas this management style does have more hands on instruction generally than the coercive management style, it can be just as ineffective. While it will work with strong intrinsically highly motivated intern, it can leave the inexperienced overwhelmed. Once an intern or employee feels this way it is easy for them to give up because they feel the leaders standards are unobtainable. While this style usually will make experienced long time workers feel more successful because it rewards long-term commitment, its down side is new employees feel inadequate.
Coaching management – Helping you learn
A leader who uses the coaching management style is most concerned the growth and potential of an intern. This management style would use a phrase like, “have you tried this?” Managers using the coaching style tend to be more patient, and will put up with short term mistakes provided they see the intern progressing towards long-term growth. This more inquisitive approach to management make these managers more readily able to delegate. Delegating as such creates ownership by the intern as well as a feeling of belonging. This in turn reinforces the restaurant’s culture. Where these managers are more successful in creating a positive impact on the restaurant’s culture, it does have its’ drawbacks. For example, an intern that does not have the foresight to look towards long term will feel frustrated because they would rather just be told what to do. As long as you have a highly motivated intern that wants to improve this style will achieve positive results.
Democratic management – Collective Vision
The next management style is even more about building a consensus than the coaching style. The democratic management style is where everyone gets to give his or her thoughts and opinions. This manager would use phrases like, “what are your thoughts on…?
This works wonders for team building. Interns feel validated because the commitment the democratic styled manager has to the process typically builds a reciprocal level of commitment from the intern as well. This style of management is great for creating agreement and harmony. Although this is a great management style for getting people to buy-in to the restaurant’s culture, it falls short in two places. Clear communication is a must for effective operation. This style does not work well with interns that are ignorant of all the facts of a specific situation causing confusion. Likewise, this management system does not work well when time is of the essence and it is necessary to be more direct. That fact notwithstanding, this approach will build culture at a slightly more effective level than the coaching management style.
Affiliative Management – People orientation, commitment
The affiliative style of management is a huge believer in “in house marketing.” This manager will create consonance with-in the restaurant by building bonds that deal with the emotional well-being of the intern. In this managers kitchen people come first.
This is a highly motivational style. Unlike the democratic style this style works better the more stressful the circumstances become. You will hear phrases no matter of stress level like, “This is a people business.” “People have to come first” The positive people centric nature of this style of management will obviously increase communication, but can also improve overall morale. It will even help mend issues of broken trust. In addition, unlike the previous mentioned styles of management, this style has almost no down side. It is for these reasons that interns would do well to try to search for managers using a majority of the affiliative management style at their internship site.
Authoritative Management – Team commitment to mission and vision
The last management style is authoritative. This leader is charismatic. Leading with energy and enthusiasm the set a visionary statement that will inspire. An authoritative manager will take and allow staff to take measured risks as long as it stays true to the restaurants vision. Instead of asking the intern to follow, they will ask them to come along the journey with them. It is much more collaborative and allows room for people to be creative and innovate. This is a great approach when a new direction is needed or when a fresh change is warranted. The one drawback of this style surfaces when the intern or employee is more experienced or knowledgeable than the manager. If the manager fails to stay positive this lack of knowledge can lead to the manager being perceived as arrogantly domineering. While it takes a dynamic visionary leader to manage authoritatively, this management style has the highest overall effect on the restaurants culture.
By now, you should be able to see that there are different management styles that work better in different situations. The better you understand the management style your supervisor uses the more you will observe if your manager is using the appropriate style in the correct situation. There is no one management style that will work for all situations. The most successful managers will use anywhere from four to more styles. Most notably, they use the affiliative, authoritative, democratic, and coaching styles. The manager that will produce a positive restaurant culture and enjoy the greatest success is the one who can no matter the challenge move effortlessly between these styles.
Questions for reflection
1. List the six types of management style.
2. Which style is considered most effective and why?
3. How many different managing styles have you observed you immediate supervisor using?
4. Which one seemed most successful in their use? Why was it successful
Employees
Area Assumptions Outcome
Employees Team member competency, skills, talent, reliability, and motivation may vary individually or collectively. Individual and collective team assessment
Things to think about:
• What is important to the employees?
• What are 'their' values like?
• Are they motivated and consistent?
When entering a kitchen for an internship, it is important to know the types of employees you may encounter. This is important because it will inform you as to which type your manager prefers. Whereas the types of employees can be broken down into many types, I would like to group them into three basic employee types for clarity’s sake. Understanding these three types will help you know co-workers personalities better. In addition, knowing their personalities will help your form relationships and have greater empathy for your fellow workers.
Survivalist – compliant for personal reasons
The first type of employee is the survivalist. The survivalist employee is an employee who is only there for the money. They will only works well when being observed by their managers. Then can often show open carelessness for their job. Survivalist employees will have trouble being truthful. Most of the time you will observe them feeling fed up with their job. You will find these types of people all over the organizational chart from top to bottom. This usually happens because the parasite employee will always appear to be energetic and downright delightful at first. However, over a period, they can become lackluster, and deceitful. They usually will show just enough improvement to keep their employment. In restaurant politics, this would be the type of person that you would be slightly guarded around because of their ability to deceive.
Laborer – Committed, limited vision, need direction
The second type of employee is the laborer. The laborer employee is an employee that needs a job, but also has the drive to feel useful in the restaurant. Often times these employees are less outgoing and charismatic than the survivalist employee. However, they get a great deal more production done than the survivalist employee. The biggest drawback to this employee is they usually stay in the moment. They typically will not have well defined long term professional goals. The laborer employee is not a self -starter. They must be constantly told what to do. This leads them to be the type of employee that never goes above and beyond their job duties. The mindset they have of just staying in the moment and completing the task at hand eventually will limit professional and personal lives.
Entrepreneur – Commitment leading to company growth
The third and final type is the entrepreneur. Unlike the survivalist employee, entrepreneur type employee does not want the job for the money. Moreover, unlike the laborer employee they are not content with just being useful. The entrepreneur employee has a clear vision of their goals. These will usually involve owning their own business in the hospitality industry, which is why we use the term entrepreneur. The employee is full of intrinsic drive and will overcome any limitation. In fact, this drive can become overbearing over time. Some restaurants see hiring this person as risky. They may want to just work until they have learned the skills they require to reach their professional goals and then leave. However, with the correct mentorship they will mismanage their professional goals less.
They will have fewer conflicts with other employees. Perhaps the most important upside is that the entrepreneur employee is their determination and creativity may lead to improvements in the restaurant that may have once seemed impossible. So long as the restaurants’ management team can utilize the entrepreneur employee’s talents without letting the personal and professional goals of the entrepreneur employee conflict with the restaurant culture this type of employee is invaluable.
As an intern being able to observe and distinguish which employees fall into which distinct type of employee, will greatly help your internships’ success. Each employee serves a place in the restaurant, but understanding his or her strengths and weaknesses will greatly improve your chance of aligning yourself with the correct mentorship. When it comes to incredible internship experiences, it is all about doing the research to find the best mentors to lead you to your professional goals. Knowing the different types of employees will greatly improve your chance of navigating the ins and outs of your restaurants’ organizational structure, policies, and politics. This will in turn set you on the road to success.
Questions for reflection
1. What are the three types of employees?
2. Compare and contrast the major differences between the three different types of employees.
3. Explain why it is important that employees with entrepreneurial drive must have great mentors.
Marketing
Area Assumptions Outcome
Marketing Customer perception and intended audience can be approach utilizing various methodologies Overall marketing approach and effectiveness
Things to think about:
• Does price determine an item's popularity?
• Who are the clientele - age, income?
• Is the marketed perception complimented?
Marketing for a restaurant can be best described in two part, the restaurants’ marketing strategy and its’ marketing plan. You will find restaurants that have little to no marketing strategy much less a plan, and others with elaborate well thought out plans, as well as everything in between. Most restaurants’ without sound marketing will not survive for the long-term. Without successful marketing a restaurant will have trouble finding its’ customers, keeping those customers, and growing that customer base. It will not be able to adapt quickly to changes in the restaurant industry. This section will explore the difference between marketing strategies and marketing plans. We will also look at the questions your employers should ask to align both the restaurant’s strategies and plans together successfully. This in turn will allow you to better observe and understand the marketing of the restaurant you choose for your internship.
A restaurant that wants to be successful at marketing itself must first start with a marketing strategy. Marketing strategies are over-arching thoughts on how best to reach your target audience. They are not plans. These ideas should target projects, industry and customers you hope to reach. These strategies should seriously consider the distinguishable market advantage your restaurant has available to use to their advantage. After a restaurant decides on its’ market strategies the next question is. How can the restaurant use their strategies and advantages to over-come the competition, find its’ true audience to create and maintain success. It is only when solid strategies have been put in place that the restaurant should start creating a marketing plan.
A marketing plan is a specific method of using resources to reach the customers. A marketing plan is putting strategies to work by exploiting the industry advantages your restaurant has identified to hit your target audience. Most restaurants will look at the resources and staff they have and outline the steps they would like to take to market to that audience. For example, if your restaurant targets senior for an early evening dinner, a strategy of using Instagram or Twitter may not reach that audience. It is also important to remember that as a restaurant grows and evolves so will your strategies, but to an even greater degree, your marketing plan will. A good restaurant management staff constantly evaluates which a part of the plans are most and least successful. By monitoring they can quickly adjust their plan to better target their specific strategies, or change strategies altogether.
As an intern, begin by observing your work environment more closely. Does the restaurant in which you are doing your internship have marketing strategies? What are those? Does their marketing stop there? Did your restaurant create a strong plan of action based on their strategies?
Does it look like it is being successful? If the plan is not being successful, why is that the case? Observing the managements marketing strategies and plans by answering these questions will give you greater insight how well rounded the restaurants over-all business model is from a sustainability point. It will also prepare you to use best practices should you choose to open your own business in the hospitality industry.
Questions for reflection
1. Discuss the differences between a marketing strategy and a marketing plan.
2. What do you need to know to market the restaurant properly?
3. How will a marketing plan help you market the restaurant properly?
Internal Controls
Now that we have examined all the different areas that create the organizational structure of the restaurant in which you are interning, it is time to figure out how to monitor these areas and make sure they are staying true to the restaurants’ vision and culture.
These internal controls will look very different at each restaurant. In fact, they will even be different from the examples provided throughout your course work.
Area Assumptions Outcome
Internal Controls Menu pricing, purchasing, tracking, waste and inventory control may indicate similarities or differences from classroom instruction Improving profitability through proper planning and operational control.
Things to think about:
• Who orders for the operation?
• Is product waste tracked and evaluated?
• What F & B costs are acceptable?
• How are purchase amounts determined?
Internal controls are systems put in place to improve profitability by monitoring and assuring the correct use of operational controls. Whereas some control are universal to all restaurant, those with greatest success know the importance of putting systems in place. Not just for the ability to quantify and qualify the results of all the restaurants’ planning and execution, but it will also help manage and discipline employees without appearing harsh and unfair. The more internal systems the restaurant has the more individual time management will have time for the training of interns and employees. Once the interns are properly trained the internal controls can act as the frame work maintaining the important on the job training as well as your professional growth. Some examples of internal control mechanism are: employee handbooks, inventory, purchasing, menu pricing, tracking waste, tracking labor cost. These are all part of evaluating and maintaining the success of a restaurant. The more detailed and easily understood these monitoring devices are the more synergy you will create between staff and management. The end result you should see while observing your restaurant is a more motivated staff that understands their duties and how to be successful.
Questions for reflection
1. Why are internal controls necessary for a successful a restaurant?
2. Give five examples of internal controls.
3. What do internal controls allow you to monitor? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.11%3A_Organizational_Areas_to_Explore.txt |
Assignment 1: Introduction
1. Cover Page
2. Student Profile
• Scheduling journal and Internship agreement
Assignment 2: Getting to know your Internship Site
(500-word minimum)
Restaurant/Chef Bio Paper with Picture of chef and restaurant attached
1. Research the restaurant and past and current chefs on the internet. Later, fill in the gaps with discussions with chef and general managers
• Do not try to just sit down and ask the chef and gm every question
• Do your own research and fill in the gaps with quick, pointed questions to your chef and gm. They are extremely busy treat their time as valuable)
2. Using the information that you have found during Task 1 answer the following Questions:
• Name of restaurant
• When did this restaurant first open, how long has it been open
• Any awards or special recognitions for restaurant
• Past Chefs' career and their awards and special recognitions
• Current Chef's career and their awards and special recognitions
3. Sources:
• The restaurant website and chef for whom you are working, as well as articles and media on the chef and restaurant
• Use the attached TEMPLATE that includes the proper formatting for your paper.
Template for Chef Bio Paper
Your name:
Date:
CULA 495
Instructor:
Introduction
Tell me what I am about to read – you must use the sentence “The purpose of this paper is….”
Body
Restaurant Information
First paragraph(s) should include:
• Name of restaurant
• When this restaurant first opened, how long it has been open
• Any awards or special recognition for restaurant
Chef Information
Past Chefs
Next paragraph(s) should include:
• Past Chefs’ careers and their awards and special recognitions
Current Chefs
Next paragraph(s) should include:
• Current Chef’s career and their awards and special recognitions
• Photo of Current Chef, not to exceed 3x3”
Conclusion
How will the research you just did on the history of your restaurant and chefs who have influenced it help you be more successful at your internship?
Sources (Two sources minimum)
Assignment 3: Daily Work Activities - Prep
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. An overview of daily prep activities. Describe from beginning to end the activities you perform on an average day.
2. Micro-view of one menu item being prepped for service (should not read like a recipe)
• You might discuss station, mise en place
• Timing your plate to come up with others on the order, etc.
1. 2nd Micro-view of a different menu item being prepped for service (should not read like a recipe)
Assignment 4: Executing Dishes and Service Time
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. An overview of daily service activities. Describe from beginning to end the activities you perform on an average day.
2. Micro-view of one menu item being picked up from service (should not read like a recipe)
• You might discuss station, mise en place
• Timing your plate to come up with others on the order, etc.
1. Micro-view of one menu item being picked up from service (should not read like a recipe)
Assignment 5: Flow of Food
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Ordering Food & Supplies
2. Receiving and Issuing Food
3. Storing Food
Assignment 6: Kitchen & Service Team
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Prep and Line Cooks' Titles and Functions (tailor to service team if service concentration)
2. Line/Worker Communication
3. Line/Worker Teamwork
Assignment 7: Management Organization Structure and Systems
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Discuss the number of managers you have at your internship site.
• List their name, title, and describe their duties
1. Discuss the written policies used by the management of your internship site.
• If there are none, discuss how policy information is disseminated to the staff.
1. Discuss the training procedure that you were provided at your internship site.
Assignment 8: Skills Obtained
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. What are some new things that you learned about your specific concentration(s) or about what it is like working in the food service industry?
2. What are some technical skills that you developed or that you have improved upon during your internship?
3. Discuss management styles you were exposed to during your internship.
• What style did you find to be most effective?
• Least effective?
Assignment 9: Reflection
(300-word minimum per discussion topic)
1. Discuss what you enjoyed most about your internship (your favorite part)
2. Discuss what you enjoyed least about your internship (your least favorite)
3. What would you change about your least favorite part of your internship?
Assignment 10: Finalizing your Internship
(1000-word minimum, this report is worth 20% of your Final Grade)
1. Please inform your supervisor that they should be receiving a link via email this week to complete your evaluation. This evaluation is worth 30% of your Final Grade.
2. Use the attached REQUIRED template to write your report. You may utilize materials created earlier in your internship.
Template for Final Internship Report
Your name
Date:
CULA 241: Sophomore Internship Final Paper
Instructor (i.e. Chef Daigle, Chef Cheramie, Chef Kasten)
Introduction
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Tell me what I am about to read – you must use the sentence:
“The purpose of this paper is….” (Do not write this statement until you have finished your paper – it will be apparent what to write at that point
• Personal info
• Career/education info
Body
Concentration
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Concentration Content (150 words/150 pts)
• What is your concentration? Please review its outcome goals on CJFCI website (https://www.nicholls.edu/culinary/ac...gree-programs/)
• What did you expect to learn or do at an internship that supports your career goals
• How well has your concentration and the curriculum at NSU Culinary prepare you for entering the hospitality workforce?
Scope of Current Internship Activities and Effectiveness
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Scope of Internship Content (150 words/150 pts)
• What was your position and what did you do at your current Internship?
• Did it meet the goals for your advancement in your concentration and future career goals?
Future Criteria for Selecting Next Career Placement
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
What are you looking for in your next internship placement? (200 words/200 pts)
• Skills
• Knowledge
• Chef personality/management style
• Type of restaurant
• What steps will you take to meet these goals?
Three Possible Career Placement Work Sites
Overwrite your content here and delete the following topic prompts
Possible Internship sites Content (total pts for section 600 pts)
(Each bullet worth 200 pts and must have 200 words minimum)
• Internship Placement site 1: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
• Internship Placement site 2: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
• Internship Placement site 3: location, type of restaurant, chef/personality, why you think it will help you further your concentration or career advancement.
Conclusion
Overwrite your content here and delete the following red topic prompts
Conclusion Content (100 words/100 pts)
• Do not add any new information – just recap the above area(s)
Sources (100 pts)
• Should include journal entries from current internship, website for CJFCI culinary concentrations, and websites for future internship/career placement at the bare minimum | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.12%3A_Sophomore_Internship_Requirements.txt |
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David L, "Social Learning Theory (Bandura)," in Learning Theories, February 7, 2019, https://www.learning-theories.com/so...y-bandura.html.
Edvinsson, L (1997). "Developing intellectual capital at Skandia". Long Range Planning, 30(3): 366–373. doi:10.1016/s0024-6301(97)90248
Gibbons, Robert; Waldman, Michael (May 2004). "Task-Specific Human Capital". American Economic Review. 94 (2): 203–207.
Kenton, Will. "Human Capital". Investopedia. Retrieved 2019-03-28.
Khavandkar, Ehsan, Theodorakopoulos, Nicholas, Hart, Mark, & Preston, Jude (2016). Leading the Diffusion of Intellectual Capital Management Practices in Science Parks. In H. Shipton, P. Budhwar, P. Sparrow, & A. Brown (Eds.), Human Resource Management, Innovation and Performance (pp. 213–231). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Luis C. Moll: L.S. Vygotsky and Education (Routledge Key Ideas in Education): An accessible, introductory volume that provides a good summary of Vygtoskian core concepts, including the sociocultural genesis of human thinking, a developmental approach to studying human thinking, and the power of cultural mediation in understanding and transforming educational practices. Well written and worth a look.
Maddocks, J. & Beaney, M. 2002. See the invisible and intangible. Knowledge Management, March, 16-17.
Roos, J., Roos, G., Dragonetti, N. C., & Edvinsson, L. (1997). Intellectual capital. Macmillan Business. http://staffweb.hkbu.edu.hk/vwschow/...m3620/rp01.pdf
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard university press.
Wilks, Daneila and Kevin Hemsworth (2011) Tourism management Studies, Nº 7, 131 -137, International English Edition, ISSN: 1646-2408
Chapter 4
Introduction Literature
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1972. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press.
Busby, G., Brunt, P., and Baber, S. 1997. Tourism sandwich placements: An appraisal. Tourism management, 18(2), 105-110.
Busby, G., and Fiedel, D. 2001. A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United Kingdom. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 53(4), 501-522.
Cooper, C., and Shepherd, R. 1997. The relationship between tourism education and the tourism industry: Implications for tourism education. Tourism Recreation Research, 22(1), 34-47.
Creswell, J.W. 2007. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among five approaches. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Denzin, N. K., and Lincoln, Y. S. 2005. The Sage Handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Eyler, J. 1993. Comparing the impact of two internship experiences on student learning. Journal of Cooperative Education, 29 (3), 41-53.
Hazleton V. and W. Kennan. 2000. Social capital: reconceptualizing the bottom line. Corporate Communications: An international journal, 5(2), 81-86.
Jacobs, Jane. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Random House.
Leslie, D., and Richardson, A. 2002. Tourism and cooperative education in UK undergraduate courses: Are the benefits being realized? Tourism Management, 21(5), 489-498.
Merriam, S.B. 1998. Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Petrillose, M.J, and Montgomery, R. 1997/1998. An exploratory study of internship practices in hospitality education and industry’s perception of the importance of internships in hospitality curriculum. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 9(4), 46-51.
Stake, R.E. 1995. Qualitative case studies. In N.K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stake, R. E. 2005. Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443-366). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York: Guilford Press.
Titz, K. and Wollin, M. (2002). Consensus building as a change strategy for experiential learning at the Conrad N. Hilton College Hilton Hotel. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 14(2), 31-37.
Tribe, J. (2002). The philosophic practitioner. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 338- 357.
Varty, J.W. (2000). Partnership: An essential condition for sound cooperate education practice. Journal of Cooperative Education, 31(2), 132-139.
Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design and method (3rd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Urban Studies Literature
Dogan, Mattei and John D. Kasarda. 1988. “Introduction: How Giant Cities Will Multiply and Grow.” Pp.12-29 in The Metropolis Era, Volume 1, A World of Giant Cities, edited by Mattei Dogan and John D. Kasarda. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Lofland, Lyn H. 2007. The Public Realm: Exploring the city’s quintessential social territory. Piscataway, NJ: Aldine Transaction.
Orum, Anthony M. and Joe R. Feagin. 1991. “A Tale of Two Cities.” Pp. 121-47 in A Case for the Case Study, edited by Joe R. Feagin, Anthony M. Orum, and Gideon Sjoberg. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Zukin, Sharon. 1995. The Cultures of Cities. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing
Zussman, R. 2004. People in places. Qualitative Sociology, 27(4), 351-363.
Learning Notes
Bloom, B. S., Krathwohl, D. R., & Masia, B. B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York, NY: David McKay Company.
Renkl, A., Atkinson, R. K., Maier, U. H., & Staley, R. (2002). From example study to problem solving: Smooth transitions help learning. Journal of Experimental Education, 70 (4), 293–315.
Bonwell, Charles; Eison, James (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. Information Analyses - ERIC Clearinghouse Products (071). p. 3. ISBN 978-1-878380-08-1. ISSN 0884-0040.
Bean, John C. (2011). Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking and Active Learning in the Classroom (2 Ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 384. ISBN 978-1-118-06233-3.
Barnes, Douglas (1989). Active Learning. Leeds University TVEI Support Project, 1989. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-872364-00-1.
Kyriacou, Chris (1992). "Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics". British Educational Research Journal. 18 (3): 309–318. Doi: 10.1080/0141192920180308. JSTOR 1500835.
Dean A. McManus, The Two Paradigms of Education and the Peer Review of Teaching, Journal of Geoscience Education, V.49, n.5,
Socialization Notes
Arnett, J. J. 1995. Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the Context of a Cultural Theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3), 617-628.
Arnold, J. 1985. Tales of the unexpected: Surprises experienced by graduates in the early months of employment. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 13(3), 308- 319.
Bandura, A. 1977. Social Learning Theory. General Learning Press.
Bystrom, K. 2002. Information and Information Sources in Tasks of Varying Complexity. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(7), 581-591.
Decety, J., K. J. Michalska, and Y. Akitsuki. 2008. Who caused the pain? An FMRI Investigation of Empathy and Intentionality in Children. Neuropsychologia, 46(11), 2607-2614.
Eckert, R. A. 2001. Where Leadership Starts. Harvard Business Review.
Ellis, G. J., G. R. Lee, and L. R. Petersen. 1978. Supervision and Conformity: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Parental Socialization Values. American Journal of Sociology 84(2), 386-403.
Feldman, D.C. 1980. A Socialization Process That Helps New Recruits Succeed. Personnel, 57, 11-23.
Feldman, D.C. 1981. The Multiple Socialization of Organization Members. Academy of Management Review, 6, 309-318.
Fisher, C. D. 1985. Social Support and Adjustment to Work: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Management, 11, 34-53.
Fisher, C. D. 1986. Organizational Socialization: An Integrative Review. In G. R. Ferris and K. M. Rowland (Eds.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 4. Pp. 101-145. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Greenhaus, Jeffrey H. 1999. Effective socialization of employees: socialization content perspective. Journal of Management Issues, 3, 27-34.
Hall, D. T. and J. E. Moss. 1998. The New Protean Career Contract: Helping Organizations and Employees Adaptive Organizational Dynamics 26(3), 24.
Holland, D. 1970. Familization, Socialization, and the Universe of Meaning: An Extension of the Interactional Approach to the Study of the Family. Journal of Marriage and the Family 32(3), 415-427.
Hughes, M., C. J. Kroehler, and J. W. Vander Zanden. 2001. Sociology: The Core. NY: McGraw- Hill.
Kohn, M. L. 1969. Class and Conformity, a Study in Values. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
Jablin, F. M. 1985. An exploratory study of vocational organizational communication socialization. Southern Speech Communication Journal, 50, 261-282.
Johnson, R. A. 1976. Management, systems, and society: an introduction. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Publishing.
Jones, G. R. 1986. Socialization Tactics, Self-Efficacy, and Newcomers Adjustments to Organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 262-279.
Katz, D., and R. L. Kahn. 1966. The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.
Knowles, H. P., and B. O. Saxberg. 1971. Personality and leadership behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Long, T. E. and J. K. Hadden. 1985. A Reconception of Socialization. Sociological Theory 3(1), 39-49.
Louis, M. R. 1980 .Surprise and Sense Making: What Newcomers Experience in Entering Unfamiliar Organizational Settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 226- 251.
Louis, M. R. 1990 .Surprise and Sense Making: What Newcomers Experience in Entering Unfamiliar Organizational Settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 226- 251.
March, J. G., and H. A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
McKeachie, W. 1997. Student ratings: The validity of use. American Psychologist, 52, 1218-1225.
Mead, G. H. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Michener, A. H., J. D. DeLamater, and D. J. Myers. 2004. Social Psychology. (5th ed.). Canada: Wadsworth.
Miller, N., and J. Dollard. 1941. Social Learning and Imitation. Yale University Press.
Morrison, E. W. 1995. Information usefulness and acquisition during organizational encounter. Management Communication Quarterly, 9 (2), 131-156.
Morrison, E. W. 2002. Information Seeking Within Organizations. Human Communication Research 28(2), 229.
Mortimer, J. T. and R. G. Simmons. 1978. Adult Socialization. Annual Review of Sociology 4, 421-454.
Nelson, D. L. 1987. Organizational Socialization: A Stress Perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 8, 311-324.
Ostroff, C. and S. W. J. Kozlowski. 1993. The Role of Mentoring in Information Gathering Processes of Newcomers during Early Organizational Socialization. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 170-183.
Pfeffer, J. 2001. Fighting the War for Talent is Hazardous to Your Organization’s Health. California Management Review, 29(4), 248.
Porter, L. W., and R. W. Steers. 1975. Organizational, work and personal factors in employee turnover and absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 151-76.
Reichers, A. E. 1987. An Interactionist Perspective on Newcomer Socialization Rates. Academy of Management Review, 12, 278-287.
Rizzo, J. R., R. J. House, and S. I. Lirtzman. 1970. Role Conflict and Ambiguity in Complex Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 150-163.
Robinson, D. T., and L. Smith-Lovin. 1992. Selective interaction as a strategy for identity maintenance: An affect control model. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 12-28.
Rosenbaum, James E. 1975. The Stratification of Socialization Processes. American Sociological Review 40(1), 48-54.
Rotter, J. B. 1954. Social Learning and Clinical Psychology. Prentice-Hall.
Rousseau, D. M. 1991. Assessing organizational culture: the case for multiple methods, In B. Stirred (Ed.), Organizational Climate & Culture. San Francisco, CA: Sage.
Satir, V. 1967. Conjoint family therapy; a guide to theory and technique. Palo Alto, Ca: Science and Behavior Books.
Schein, E. H. 1964. How to Break in the College Graduate. Harvard Business Review, 42, 68-76.
Schein, E. H. 1978. Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Schein, E. H. 1980. Organizational Psychology (third Ed.). New York, Prentice Hall.
Schein, E. H. 1988. Retrospective Commentary to Organizational Socialization and the Profession of Management. Sloan Management Review, 53, 64.
Shepard, J. and R. W. Greene. 2003. Sociology and You. Ohio: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.
Smeby, J. C. 1996. Disciplinary differences in university teaching. Studies in Higher Education, 21(1), 69-79.
Solomon, P. 1997. Discovering Information Behavior in Sense Making: Time and Timing. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 48(12), 1098.
Swanger, N. and D. Gursoy. 2007. An industry-driven model of hospitality curriculum for programs houses in accredited colleges of business: Program learning outcomes - Part III. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 19(2), 12-22.
Tajfel, H., and J. Turner. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin, G. William, and S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Pp. 94-109. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Taylor, J., A. Flanagin, and D. R. Seibold. 2000. Organizational research: Key moments, central concerns, and future challenges. Communication Yearbook, 24, 99-137.
Thibaut, W.J., and H. H. Kelley. 1959. The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.
Thomas, W. I. 1967. The Unadjusted Girl. With Cases and Standpoint for Behavioral Analysis. London: Harper & Row.
Thomas, W. I., and D. S. Thomas. 1928. The child in America: Behavior problems and programs. New York: Knopf.
Van Maanen, J. and E. H. Schein. 1979. Toward a Theory of Organizational Socialization. In B. M. Staw (Ed.). Research in organizational behavior, vol. 1. Pp. 209-264. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Volkart, E. H. (Ed.). 1951. Social Behavior and Personality. Contribution of W. I. Thomas to Theory and Social Research. NY: Social Research Council.
Wanous, J. P. 1992. Organizational Entry: Recruitment, Selection, and Socialization of Newcomers. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Weber, M. 1922. The Nature of Social Action. In W.G. Runciman, (Ed.), Weber: Selections in Translation. Cambridge University Press. 1991.
Weick, K. E. 2001. Making Sense of the Organization. Oxford: Blackwell.
Externship Literature
DiMicelli, P. Jr. 1998. Blending theory and practical experience: A hands-on approach to educating hospitality managers. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 10 (1), 32-36.
Herrick, M.A. 1997. The effects of internship experience and participation modeling on the skill development and psychological adjustment of rehabilitation interns: A thesis in counseling psychology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.
Inkster, R. P., and Ross, R.G. 1995. The internship as partnership. A handbook for campus-based coordinators and advisors. Raleigh, NC: National Society for Experiential Education.
Kiser, J.W., and Partlow, C.G. 1999. Experiential learning in hospitality education: An exploratory study. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 11(2/3), 11-17.
Reich, A.Z., and De Franco, A.L. 1994. How to teach so students will learn: Part one. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 6(1), 47-51.
Ricks, F., Van Gyn, G., Branton, G., Cut, J., Loken, M., & Ney, T. 1990. Theory and research in cooperative education: Practice implications. Journal of Cooperative Education, 25(1), 7-19.
Ross, D.D. 1989. First steps in developing a reflective approach. Journal of Teacher Education, 40(2), 22-30.
Titz, K. and Wollin, M. 2002. Consensus building as a change strategy for experiential learning at the Conrad N. Hilton College Hilton Hotel. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 14(2), 31-37.
Varty, J.W. 2000. Partnership: An essential condition for sound cooperate education practice. Journal of Cooperative Education, 31(2), 132-139.
Wildes, V.J., and Mount, D.J. 1997/1998. The effect of structure on hospitality internship programs. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 9(4), 43-45.
Experiential Literature
Ball, S. 1995. Enriching student learning through innovative real-life exercises. Education & Training, 2(1), 5-16.
Barron, P.E. and Henderson, D. 2002. Achieving deep learning in higher education programs: Hospitality and leisure management students’ perceptions of the potential use of virtual reality technology. International Journal of Hospitality Information Technology, 2(2), 63-76.
Beckett, J. 1996. Exploring the possible impact of current and future information technology developments on university teaching and learning processes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 15(2), 137-154.
Biggs, J. 1999. What the student does: Teaching for enhanced learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 18(1), 57-76.
Bobitt, L.M., Inks, S.A., Kemp, K.T., and Mayo, D.T. 2000. Integrating marketing courses to enhance team-based experiential learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1), 15-24.
Brockbank, A., and McGill, I. 1998, Facilitating reflective learning in higher education. Philadelphia, PA: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Busby, G., Brunt, P., and Baber, S. 1997. Tourism sandwich placements: An appraisal. Tourism management, 18(2), 105-110.
Busby, G., and Fiedel, D. 2001. A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United Kingdom. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 53(4), 501-522.
Cannon, R., Newble, D. 2000. A handbook for teachers in universities & colleges: A guide to improving teaching methods (4th ed.). London: Kogan Press.
Cooper, C., and Shepherd, R. 1997. The relationship between tourism education and the tourism industry: Implications for tourism education. Tourism Recreation Research, 22(1), 34-47.
Daily, S.P. 2001. Student-operated internet businesses: True experiential learning in entrepreneurship and retail management. Journal of Marketing Education, 23(3), 204-215.
Feinstein, A.H., Mann, S., and Corsun, D.L. 2002. Charting the experiential territory: clarifying definitions and uses of computer simulation, games, and role play. The Journal of Management Development, 21 (9/10), 732-744.
Hamer, L.O. 2000. The additive effects of semi structured classroom activities on student learning: An application of classroom-based experiential learning techniques. Journal of Marketing Education, 22(1), 25-34.
Kennedy, E.J., Lawton, L., and Walker, E. 2001. The case for using live cases: Shifting the paradigm in marketing education. Journal of Marketing Education, 23(2), 145- 151.
Leslie, D., and Richardson, A. 2002. Tourism and cooperative education in UK undergraduate courses: Are the benefits being realized? Tourism Management, 21(5), 489-498.
McDonald, D., and McDonald, T., 2000. Festival and event management: An experiential approach to curriculum design. Event Management, 6(1), 5-13.
Moscardo, G., and Norris, A. 2003. Learning lessons in a real world: Running events with students. Paper presented at the Convention and Expo Summit, School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Papamarcos, S.D. 2002. The ‘next wave’ in service-learning: Integrative team-based engagements with structural objectives. Review of Business, 23(2), 31-38.
Ramsden, P. 1988. Improving learning: New perspectives. London: Kogan Press.
Schon, D.A., 1983. The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Specht, L.B., and Sandlin, P.K. 1991. The differential effects of experiential learning activities and traditional lecture classes in accounting. Simulation and Gaming, 22(2), 196-210.
Tribe, J. 2002. The philosophic practitioner. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 338- 357.
Internship Literature
Barnett, R. 1997. Higher Education: A Critical business. Buckingham, UK: The Society for Research into Higher Education, and Open University Press.
Beyer, R. 1997. Critical reflection and the culture of schooling: Empowering teachers. Melbourne, Australia: Dakin University Press.
Bound, D. 2001. Using journal writing to enhance reflective practice. In L. English & M. Gillen (Eds.), New directions for adult and continuing education, no. 90, 9-17. New York: John Wiley.
Bound, D., Keogh, R., and Walker, D. (Eds.). 1985. Reflection: Turning experience into learning. London: Kogan Page.
Brockbank, A. and McGill, I. 1998. Facilitating reflective learning in higher education. Buckingham, UK: Society for Research in Higher Education, and Open University Press.
Brookfield, S. 1998. Critically reflective practice. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 18(4), 162-184.
Carson, L., and Fisher, K. 2006. Raising the bar on Criticality: Students’ critical reflection in an internship program. Journal of Management education, 30, 700-723.
Clark, S.C. 2003. Enhancing the educational value of business internships. Journal of Management Education, 27. 472-484.
Cope, J. 2003. Entrepreneurial learning and critical reflection: Discontinuous events as triggers for “higher level” learning. Management Learning, 34(4), 429-450.
Cunliffe, A.L., 2004. On becoming a critically reflective practitioner. Journal of Management Education, 28(4), 407-426.
Ecclestone, K. 1996. The reflective practitioner: Mantra or a model for emancipation? Studies in the Education of Adults, 28(2), 146-160.
Fisher, K., 2000. A wealth of notions: Reflective engagement in the emancipatory teaching and learning of economics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Sydney, Richmond, Australia.
Fisher, K. 2003. Demystifying critical reflection: Defining criteria for assessment. Higher Education Research and Development, 22(3), 318-335.
Gardner, J.W. 1964. Self-renewal. New York: HarperCollins.
Hatton, N., and Smith, D. 1995. Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 35-49.
Hiemstra, R. 2001. Uses and benefits of journal writing. In L. English and M. Gillen (eds.). New directions for adult and continuing education, no. 90 (pp.9-26). New York: John Wiley.
Inkster, R. P., and Ross, R.G. 1995. The internship as partnership. A handbook for campus-based coordinators and advisors. Raleigh, NC: National Society for Experiential Education.
Ixer, G. 1999. There’s no such thing as reflection. British Journal of Social Work, 29, 513-527.
McNiff, J. 1990. Writing and the creation of educational knowledge. In P. Lomax (Ed.). Managing staff development in schools: An action research approach (pp. 52-60). Avon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Mezirow, J. (Ed.). 1990. Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. 1991. Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Reynolds, M. 1998. Reflection and critical reflection in management learning. Management Learning, 29(2), 183-200.
Ruhanen, L., 2005. Bridging the divide between theory and Practice: Experiential learning approaches for tourism and hospitality management education. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 5(4), 33-51.
Schon, D.A., 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, D. 1999, February 2. The what, why and how of reflective practice in teacher education. Keynote address presented to Education Faculty staff, Auckland College of Education, New Zealand.
St. Amant, K. 2003. Expanding internships to enhance academic-industry relations: A perspective in stakeholder education. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 33(3), 231-241.
Yost, D.S., Sentner, S.M., and Forlenza-Bailey, A. F. 2000. An examination of the construct of critical reflection: Implications for teacher education programming in the 21st century. Journal of Teacher Education, 5(1), 39-49. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/01%3A_Modules/1.13%3A_Notes.txt |
Kitchen Weights and Measures
1 pinch = 1/8 teaspoon
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon (teaspoon – tsp / Tablespoon = tbsp.)
2 tablespoons = 1 ounce
1 cup = 8 ounces / 16 tbsp.
¾ cup = 6 ounces / 12 tbsp.
½ cup = 4 ounces / 8 tbsp.
¼ cup = 2 ounces / 4 tbsp.
16 ounces = 1 pound
2 cups = 1 pint / 16 oz.
4 cups = 1 quart / 32 oz.
16 cups = 1 gallon / 128 oz.
2 quarts = ½ gallon / 64 oz.
4 quarts = 1 gallon
Metric Conversions
1 gram = 0.03527 oz.
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
28.35 grams = 1 ounce / 2 tbsp.
453.6 g. = 1 pound
5 milliliters = 1 teaspoon
15 milliliters = 1 tablespoon
240 milliliters = 1 cup
0.4732 liters = 1 pint
0.951 liters = 1 quart
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
Food Quantity Needed
(1) Number to be served X portions size = number of ounces needed
Number of ounces needed / 16 (ounces per pound) = pounds needed
EXAMPLE: 25 hamburgers, 8 oz. each. SO…. 8 oz. X 25 = 200 ounces needed. So….200oz. / 16oz (1 lb.) = 12.5 pounds of hamburger needed.
Recipe Conversion
Must know: (1) number of servings – recipe yield, and (2) # of servings needed.
• More servings than the recipe - recipe yield divided into number of servings needed is the amount needed.
• Less servings needed than the recipe yields - divide number of servings needed divided by recipe yield is the percentage to reduce the recipe by.
EXAMPLES:
(1) Recipe yields 6 servings – you need 24 servings SO… 24 / 6 = 4 times the recipe amounts.
(2) Recipe yields 24 servings and you need 6 servings So…. 6 servings / 24 servings = 25% of recipe ingredients. Or – 6/6 = 1 24/6 = 4 = ratio 1 to 4 or 25%
2.02: Measurement and Conversion Charts
Formulas for Exact measurement
WHEN YOU KNOW: MULTIPLY BY: TO FIND:
Mass (weight) Ounces 28.35 grams
Pounds 0.45 kilograms
Grams 0.035 ounces
Kilograms 2.2 pounds
Volume (capacity) teaspoons 5.0 milliliters
tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters
cups 0.24 liters
pints 0.47 liters
quarts 0.95 liters
gallons 3.785 liters
milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces
Temperature Fahrenheit 5/9 (after subtracting 32) Celsius
Celsius 9/5 (then add 32) Fahrenheit
Rounded Measurement for Quick Reference
1 oz. = 30 g
4 oz. = 120 g
8 oz. = 240 g
16 oz. = 1 lb. = 480 g
32 oz. = 2 lb. = 960 g
36 oz. = 2¼ lb. = 1000 g (1 kg)
1/4 tsp. = 1/24 fl. oz. = 1 ml
½ tsp. = 1/12 fl. oz. = 2 ml
1 tsp. = 1/6 fl. oz. = 5 ml
1 Tbsp. = 1/2 fl. oz. = 15 ml
1 C. = 8 fl. oz. = 240 ml
2 c. (1 pt.) = 16 fl. oz. = 480 ml
4 c. (1 qt.) = 32 fl. oz. = 960 ml
4 qt. (1 gal.) = 128 fl. oz. = 3.75 It
32°F = 0°c
122°F = 50°c
212°F = 100°c
Conversion Guidelines
1 gallon 4 quarts
8 pints
16 cups (8 fluid ounces)
128 fluid ounces
1 fifth bottle approximately 1 ½ pints or exactly 26.5 fluid ounces
1 measuring cup 8 fluid ounces (a coffee cup generally holds 6 fluid ounces)
1 large egg white 1 ounce (average)
1 lemon 1 to 1 ¼ fluid ounces of juice
1 orange 3 to 3½ fluid ounces of juice
Scoop Sizes
Scoop Number Level Measure
6 2/3 cup
8 1/2 cup
10 2/5 cup
12 1/3 cup
16 1/4 cup
20 3 1/5 tablespoons
24 2 2/3 tablespoons
30 2 1/5 tablespoons
40 1 3/5 tablespoons
The number of the scoop determines the number of servings in each quart of a mixture: for example, with a No. 16 scoop, one quart of mixture will yield 16 servings.
Ladle Sizes
Size Portion of a Cup Number per Quart Number per Liter
1 fl. oz. 1/8 32 34
2 fl. oz. 1/4 16 17
2 2/3 fl. oz. 1/3 12 13
4 fl. oz. 1/2 8 8.6
6 fl. oz. 3/4 5 1/3 5.7
Canned Goods
SIZE NO. OF CANS PER CASE AVERAGE WEIGHT AVERAGE NO. CUPS PER CAN
No.¼ 1 & 2 doz. 4 oz. 1/2
No.½ 8 8 oz. 1
No. 300 1 & 2 doz. 14 oz. 1 3/4
No. 1 tall (also known as 303) 2 & 4 doz. 16 oz. 2
No. 2 2 doz. 20 oz. 2 1/2
No. 2½ 2 doz. 28 oz. 3 1/2
No.3 2 doz. 33 oz. 4
No. 3 cylinder 1 doz. 46 oz. 5 2/3
No. 5 1 doz. 3 lb. 8 oz. 5 1/2
No. 10 6 6 lb. 10 oz. 13 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.01%3A_Kitchen_Weights_and_measurements.txt |
With-in the cooking process, there are three distinct methods in reference to applying heat to food. These are: moist heat cooking, dry heat cooking, and combination cooking
Understanding the working procedure of each of these methods, will help you to become a better, more confident and successful chef.
Moist Heat Cooking
The method of applying heat via hot liquids, associated with:
1. Poaching,
2. Simmering,
3. Boiling,
4. Blanching
5. Braising
6. Steaming
These cooking methods are most useful when a cook fully understands the relationship of time and temperature. Establishing familiarity with these aspects of the cooking process will immediately improve and enhance one’s ability in the kitchen. The moist heat cooking methods follow with regard to temperature ranges.
1. Poaching - 160-180 degrees Fahrenheit
Poaching: to submerge food in a hot liquid at a temperature range of 160-180 degrees Fahrenheit, I like to use the term “gentle poach”. This requires submerging food into a hot liquid of no higher than 180 degrees Fahrenheit, and can be approached by two different methods. Two approaches are applicable: place a food product in a cold liquid, slowly raising the temperature up to 170/degrees, or bring the liquid to a boil then submerge the raw food product into the hot liquid then, immediately remove it from the heat source. Either method works well to cook the product while ultimately maintaining or protecting the quality and integrity of the food. It is important to remember that all proteins coagulate when applied to heat.
1. Simmering & Stewing - 180-205 degrees Fahrenheit
Simmering: to submerge a food in a hot liquid within a temperature range of 180-205 degrees, representing a slow to rapid performance result. Simmering is a long and slow cooking method utilized for cooking less tender cuts of meat as in a stew. Subsequently, less tender cuts of meat are most often less expensive. When simmering at the proper temperature one has total control over the cooking process with less evaporation or controlled loss of liquid. Evaporation can be controlled by utilizing a cover on the pot or pan. This method allows for both maximum flavor extraction, and maximum tenderization of a protein.
Stewing: to sear off in hot fat, then simmer fully submerged in a flavored liquid (stock or broth). Stewing is considered a ‘low and slow’ cooking method, is best prepared in a cassoulet or crock-pot, and is recognized as a combination form of cookery.
1. Boiling: to submerge a food in a hot liquid at a temperature range of 205-212 degrees. A true boil is not effectively reached until 212/degrees, but for convenience and better control, consider 205 – 210 a gentle boil and 210 – 212 a rapid boil.
2. Blanching: to cook food quickly submerged in a hot liquid such as boiling water (212 degrees F.) or hot fat. Usually this method is followed by “shocking” a process of halting cooking by submerging the food in an ice water bath. We blanch foods for the following purposes:
• Speeds up the final cooking process
• Promotes more even and consistent cooking throughout
• Enhances color pigmentation
• Promotes vitamin and nutrient retention
• Helps to prevent spoilage/extends the shelf life of a product
• Blanched vegetables can be easier for some people to digest v/s eating raw food
• Improves flavor - cooked food can taste better than raw food
Of course, if you were blanching in hot oil as in “French fries”, one would not shock the food afterwards. The process of blanching potatoes in hot oil, removes excess liquid from the potato, prevents oxidization and yields a much crispier fried potato as a result.
1. Braising: meats and vegetables are seared and browned in hot fat, then simmered in a covered pot or roasting pan with a small amount of liquid. This is referred to as a combination form of cookery. Usually, this method of cookery is reserved for less tender and less expensive cuts of meats. Eye of the round, the cut of beef commonly recommended for braising pot roast is a good example of this application or cooking method. When braising a pot roast the liquid or stock should come half way up the side of the roast. Half way through the cooking process the roast would be turned over. Braising can be done on top of the stove or in the controlled temperature environment of an oven. The latter is the preferred method. However, be sure to bring the liquid to a simmer before placing it in the oven. Long, slow cooking produces the best results with less evaporation and shrinkage. A nominal braising temperature is 300 degrees Fahrenheit for three hours. This of course depends on the cut, weight and size of the meat being braised. The oven braising temperature range is 275 to 325 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Steaming: one of the hottest cooking mediums available ranging from 212 degrees Fahrenheit and higher. That is why pressure-cooking generally reduces overall cooking times by 2/3rds. This method is also arguably recognized and recommended for maximum vitamin and nutrient retention. Essential dietary vitamin and nutrient values are not washed away during the cooking process. As a word of caution, be very careful when cooking with steam, it is very hot and will burn if the steam is exposed to the skin or flesh of an individual. Never remove the cover of a steamer and look directly into the pot. Be sure to allow the steam to escape prior to inspecting your cooked foods.
Dry Heat Cooking
1. Roasting v/s Baking
2. Pan Roasting
3. Stove Top Smoking
4. Spit roasting
5. Grilling / Barbecuing
6. Broiling
7. Griddling
1. Roasting v/s Baking (300 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit): I always ask this question on day one of my classes while discussing cooking methods. What is the difference between roasting and baking? Often, this question is followed by a long pause and then a few suggestions are offered. However, the answer is quite simple; there is no difference. Both cooking methods are performed in the temperature-controlled environment of an oven. One can low temperature roast or bake and one can high temperature roast or bake. They are both considered dry heat methods of cookery. The only difference is the semantics involved in describing a particular type of food or dish. For example, oven roasted breast of chicken verses baked chicken. Usually, the term roasting refers to meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables and baking refers more to the baking of bread or sweet and savory pastries.
2. Pan Roasting (350 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit): a common cooking method frequently found on menus across America today. This method requires only a minimal amount of fat. After a food item is seared off (browned) in a hot pan on top of the stove, it is moved to a low or high temperature oven (dependent on the size of the cut) to complete the cooking process.
3. Stove Top Smoking (200 to 220 degrees Fahrenheit): is yet another dry heat cooking method. This method was traditionally carried out on a backyard BBQ or grill. Today smoking can be done on a grill or the stovetop or in an oven. However, all indoor smoking requires a good ventilation system or exhaust fan. For indoor smoking, soak wood chips in water for thirty minutes prior to using them. Drain them well, pat them dry with paper towel and then scatter them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Insert a wire rack over the wood chips, and then place your meat, fish, poultry or vegetables on the rack. Place a tightly fitting lid on the pan and secure it with aluminum foil. Begin by heating the pan on top of the stove until the wood chips start smoking. Adjust the flame or temperature to produce an even and consistent burn. At this point, the smoking procedure can be finished on top of the stove or in an oven. Due to the fact that this cooking method is so dry, it is recommended that all protein food products be marinated or brined prior to the smoking process. See Brining….
4. Spit roasting (minimum 300 degrees Fahrenheit): this age-old method occurs by which a food item is skewered, and then placed on a rotisserie device over or next to an indirect flame. The advantages of using this method are uniform cooking throughout and even browning and self- basting. There is nothing more satisfying than a spit roasted chicken, marinated leg of lamb or barbecued pork loin cooked in your own back yard on a rotisserie, above a charcoal grill or a slow burning open pit wood fire…Wow! Brining is also recommended for this method of cookery.
5. Grilling Verses Barbecuing (350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit): being from the North East this is a frequently asked question: When cooking steaks outdoors on a gas grill am I grilling or barbecuing? Why is it when inviting guests we often say; we are having a backyard barbecue this afternoon would you like to join us? Although similar, there are some very distinct differences between the two cooking methods. Traditional barbecuing is done over rendered molten coals or cindered wood ash, over long periods and best described as a long, ‘low and slow’, methodical cooking process. Thus, fattier less expensive cuts of meat are recommended for this method of cooking.
Grilling is generally cooking over high heat with charcoal, wood or gas. Items are marked or seared on the outside surface, then most often moved and finished in an oven, as not to over-char the outside surface. Alternately, move your charred foods to a rack raised above the heat source rather than directly over it. Barbecued foods are slow cooked in a low temperature oven or over slow burning coals or wood over a long period, then moved to a grill or broiler for final finishing. Barbecue sauce can be applied by brushing during the final stages of cooking - or served with on the side as an accompaniment.
1. Broiling (500 to 550 degrees Fahrenheit): can be described as a rapid high heat cooking method achieved by a direct radiant heat source from above. Typically gas or electric broiling can be a very low fat way of cooking due to the fact that very little fat or liquid is required during the cooking process. Marinated foods work well using this direct heat method. Once an item is fully cooked on one side, it is turned over to finish the process on the other side. Broiling is a clean and efficient way to accomplish Maillard enzymatic browning, the toasting of breadcrumbs or melting cheese as in “Gratinee”.
2. Griddling (250 to 375 degrees Fahrenheit): is accomplished on a flat top temperature controlled surface, referred to as a pancake griddle. The heat source is from the bottom and usually a small amount of fat or vegetable spray is required to prevent sticking. The latest trend is to use a grooved or raised griddle surface that leaves the appearance of open flame grill marks on the foods that are being prepared an in a “Panini” griddle.
Dry Heat Using Fat
1. Sautéing
2. Pan Frying
3. Deep Fat Frying
4. Pan Searing
5. Radiation or Microwaving
The only distinguishable differences between these cooking methods are the varying amounts of fat required for each. If a recipe is calling for clarified butter, it is ok to use whole butter but oil must be added to raise the smoking point of the butter. I recommend using half butter and half oil. The food product can be placed in the pan when the butter is melted and after it stops foaming.
1. Sautéing (350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit): to sauté literally means “to jump” referring to the action of the food being toss around or flipped directly in the pan. The sloped shaped sides of the pan help to facilitate this action. This method is achieved by cooking foods on very high heat in small amounts of fat. I recommend about (1-1 ½) ounces of fat in a standard 8” - 10” sauté pan. For the best results, get the pan hot, pour in the oil, followed by the food product. The most important factor when sautéing, is not to overcrowd the pan. NEVER let your proteins touch. Direct contact between proteins results in overcrowding. Overcrowding the pan causes moisture to build up, creating steam, which counteracts browning. Since browning is often the objective when sautéing, then anti-browning becomes counter-productive. Sometimes, meats are dredged in seasoned flour prior to being sautéed to help achieve uniform browning and to thicken a soup, stew, or sauce. This is perfectly acceptable; however never pre-dredge proteins ahead of time, as moisture in the product will make the flour wet and gummy.
2. Pan Frying or Shallow Fat Frying (325 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit): is accomplished is a shallow straight-sided pan with a moderate amount of fat over moderately high temperature (360) degrees. Pan-frying is recommended when preparing foods such as fish cakes, chicken parts and/or fritters. The proper amount of fat should come half way up the side of the food being fried. If too much fat is used the food product will become buoyant, preventing direct contact with the pan. Contact with the pan produces a brown exterior for which pan-frying is known. The food product is fried on one side, and then it is flipped over to finish cooking it on the other side. If the product being pan-fried is thick, dense, or on the bone, it can be finished in an oven for final cooking throughout.
3. Deep Fat Frying (350 to 375 degrees Fahrenheit): this cooking method requires that foods be totally submerged in hot fat. Temperature of the fat plays a significant role in the success of deep frying foods. The average temperature range of the oil for fried foods should be between 360 - 375 degrees. It is important to regulate the temperature range of the fat throughout the cooking process or consistency of the cooked product will vary greatly. Never overcrowd the frying basket or pan because doing so will drastically reduce the temperature of the frying oil. Recommended frying oils should have a high smoking point. Vegetable and peanut oils work well for this reason. After frying, oils should be strained, filtered and cooled before being refrigerated.
4. Pan Searing (400 to 450 degrees Fahrenheit): this method utilizes the least amount fat. Using, a pre-heated hot pan, spray the surface of the pan or the food with a light coating of vegetable oil. Another option may be to utilize a previously marinated product prior to exposing it to the surface of the pan. For example, pan searing may be the method chosen to cook a marinated tuna steak. The tuna steak is removed from the marinade, quickly seared on one side and then flipped over to finish the cooking process on the other side on top of the stove. If a really thick product is used, then it can be moved to a low temperature oven to finish the cooking process to ones desired degree of doneness.
5. Radiation or Microwaving: is certainly one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. This technology has added a significant convenience to today’s modern kitchen. Small waves of radiant energy motivate the water molecules in the food to move rapidly and flow through the food at an accelerated rate creating friction, which in turn heats and cooks the food product. Thus, dried or dehydrated foods that do not contain water cannot be cooked in a microwave without being rehydrated.
As with any piece of equipment or appliance, learning how to use the microwave properly is of most importance. One of the biggest benefits of the microwave oven is its ability to speed thaw and defrost frozen foods quickly and safely. Due to the speed of the defrosting process, foods are not exposed to the “Danger Zone” for extended periods before being cooked and served. Some foods respond extremely well to the microwave cooking process, such as steamed vegetables, corn on the cob, (in the husk) and potatoes. Rotating foods during the cooking process helps to cook foods more uniformly and microwaving in multiple short blasts rather than longer uninterrupted cook times is recommended. When reheating foods, they should be covered trapping the steam and moisture for maximum efficiency.
In terms of power and heat, 700 Watts in a microwave is like cooking at 350 degrees; 800 Watts equates to 450 degrees; 900 Watts equates to 525 degrees (Self clean) 1000 Watts equates to 575 degrees; and 1100 Watts would equal 625 degrees. Note: When using a microwave to thaw food I generally recommend cooking that food item shortly after thawing it to avoid the food being exposed to the danger zone for a prolong time. Remember that microwaving cooks food from the inside out. The inside temperature of the thawed food may be warmer than the outside temperature. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.03%3A_Basic_Cooking_Methods.txt |
Professional Associations
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
Industry Resources
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood
National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Association www.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soyfoods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co.
www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Sophomore_Internship_(Thibodeaux_and_Daigle)/02%3A_Appendices/2.05%3A_Professional_Associations_and_Industry_Resources.txt |
The History of Wheat Flour
Archaeologists who did excavations in the region of the lake dwellers of Switzerland found grains of wheat, millet, and rye 10,000 years old. The Romans perfected the rotary mill for turning wheat into flour. By the time of Christ, Rome had more than 300 bakeries, and Roman legions introduced wheat throughout their empire. Improved milling processes were needed because even when wheat was milled twice and bolted (sifted) through silk gauze, the result was still a yellowish flour of uneven texture and flecked with germ and bran.
In the second half of the 19th century, there were great changes in the flour milling process. An American inventor, Edmund LaCroix, improved the process with a purifier to separate the middlings (bran, germ, and other coarse particles) from the particles that form smooth-textured white flour. In recent years, the demand for whole grain milling has increased because whole grain food products have proved to be more nutritious than products made from white flour. (More information on whole grain and artisan milling is provided later in this section.)
In Canada, large-scale wheat growing didn’t occur until after the Prairies were settled in the 1800s. Hard wheat, such as Red Fife, Marquis, and Selkirk, earned Canada a position as the granary for Britain and many other European countries. Today, most of the wheat grown in Western Canada is the hard Red Spring variety. Soft wheats, such as soft red and soft white, are primarily grown in Quebec and Ontario. Many of the original wheat growers have passed on their farms to the next generations, while others branched out to organic farming and milling. One of these farms, Nunweiler’s, has a heritage that goes back to the early 1900s when the original wheat in Canada, Red Fife and Marquis, was grown on this farm.
Today, the major wheat growing areas of North America are in the central part of the continent, in the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies. From Nebraska south, winter wheat can be grown, while to the north through Saskatchewan spring wheat dominates. Many American states and some Canadian provinces grow both kinds. In fact, there are very few states that don’t grow some wheat. Kansas, the site of the American Institute of Baking, could be said to be at the heart of the U.S. wheat growing area, while Saskatchewan is the Canadian counterpart.
1.02: Agencies Responsible for Wheat and Grain
Agencies Responsible for Wheat and Grain
In Canada, various governing bodies responsible for aspects of wheat and grain emerged over the years. G3 Canada and the Canadian Grain Commission are responsible for grain handling. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada is the federal department that oversees both organizations. The National Farmers Union (NFU) is a direct-member organization consisting of farmers and non-farmers. NFU acts in the interest of all types of farming, promotes nutritious foods, and works toward developing economic and social policies. A few of these issues include food security and sustainability. The organization is involved in shaping policies and securing legislation to farmers’ benefits.
The Canadian Wheat Board
The Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) was established in the early 1930s by the Parliament of Canada. It is the official marketing board, responsible for buying and selling wheat and barley in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and British Columbia. The CWB will be dissolved by 2016 as a result of Agricultural Growth Act but will continue to operate on a voluntary basis until the organization becomes privatized. The duties of the CWB will be passed on to G3 Canada.
The Canadian Grain Commission
The Canadian Grain Commission (CGC) acts in the interests of grain producers and is guided by the Canada Grain Act. The CGC establishes and maintains standards of quality for Canadian grain, regulates grain handling in Canada, and ensures that grain is a dependable commodity for domestic and export markets (Canadian Grain Commission, 2008). Several regulations and policies fall under the Canada Grain Act that are monitored and reinforced by CGC. Some of these regulations include grain grades and inspection, licences for grain elevators and dealers, and enforcement procedures. The CGC also ensures Canadian grain marketability on a domestic and global level. Other services include grain inspections and analytical testing. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.01%3A_The_History_of_Wheat_Flour.txt |
Classification of Wheat
Wheat can be classified in three ways:
• Colour (e.g., red, yellow, white)
• Planting season: spring wheat, planted in the spring and harvested in early fall; winter wheat, planted in the fall, harvested the following summer
• Characteristics of the grain: durum, hard bread wheat, and soft wheat
In Canada, hard spring wheat suitable for yeast products is grown on the Prairies. In southern Alberta, where winters are not as severe, some hard winter wheat is grown. Irrigated land in Alberta also produces some white soft winter wheat. The main soft white winter wheat growing area is southern Ontario.
The CGC categorizes wheat by regions as well as different varieties of wheat by classes. As the CGC states, “the varieties within each class are grouped by their functional characteristics. For example, varieties in the Canada Prairie Spring Red class have medium hard kernels and medium dough strength. Canadian wheat classes are categorized by Canada Western and Canada Eastern, the regions in which the varieties are grown” (CGC, 2015, p1).
Wheat Classes
A list of the different classes of Eastern and Western wheat is as follows:
Eastern Wheat Classes
• Canada Eastern Amber Durum (CEAD)
• Canada Eastern Hard Red Winter (CEHRW)
• Canada Eastern Hard White Spring (CEHWS)
• Canada Eastern Red Spring (CERS)
• Canada Eastern Soft Red Winter (CESRW)
• Canada Eastern Soft White Spring (CESWS)
• Canada Eastern White Winter (CEWW)
Western Wheat Classes
• Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR)
• Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW)
• Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD)
• Canada Western Extra Strong (CWES)
• Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS)
• Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS)
• Canada Western Red Winter (CWRW)
• Canada Western Soft White Spring (CWSWS)
The characteristics and end uses of Eastern and Western wheat can be found online.
In Canada, grains are divided into “official grains of Canada” and “unofficial grains of Canada.” The former is regulated by the Canada Grain Act, whereas the unofficial grains are not subject to grading purposes. An example of an unofficial grain is the Canadian Western General all-purpose wheat, which produces great yield and has high starch but low protein content, thus affecting the end uses. This type of wheat is used for animal feed and, therefore, does not have to meet strict milling requirements.
Additional information on the qualities and protein content as well as classifications of Western Canadian wheat can be found in the CGC document Quality of Western Canadian Wheat [PDF].
The United States recognizes seven market classes of wheat. The first five, listed below, are the most important:
• Hard red winter (planted in the fall, harvested the following summer)
• Soft red winter
• Hard red spring (planted and harvested the same year)
• Durum
• Red durum
Characteristics of the Major Wheat Groups
The major wheat groups each have differing characteristics. This also determines their use in food production and baking. The following identifies the major characteristics of each of the three major wheat groups.
• Durum wheats: Durum wheats are generally high in gluten-producing proteins. They are, in effect, the “hardest” wheats. They are used for making semolina, which is made into macaroni and other pastas.
• Hard wheats: Hard wheats include hard winter wheats and hard spring wheats. Canadian Western Red Spring (CWRS) is the major hard wheat in Canada. Hard Red Winter (HRW) and Hard Red Spring (HRS) are the U.S. equivalents. They contain more gluten-producing proteins than soft wheat, and are used for making bread flours and all-purpose flours.
• Soft wheats: Soft wheats are low in gluten-producing protein. Soft Red Winter (SRW) is the chief of these in the United States. They are milled into cake and pastry flours.
Media Attributions
• Classes of Wheat © Canadian Grain Commission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.03%3A_Classification_of_Wheat.txt |
Milling of Wheat
Milling of wheat is the process that turns whole grains into flours. The overall aims of the miller are to produce:
• A consistent product
• A range of flours suitable for a variety of functions
• Flours with predictable performance
The very first mill operation is analyzing the grain, which determines criteria such as the gluten content and amylase activity. It is at this point that decisions about blending are made.
Following analysis, milling may be divided into three stages:
1. Cleaning and conditioning – ridding the grain of all impurities and readying it for milling
2. Crushing or breaking – breaking down the grain in successive stages to release its component parts
3. Reduction – progressive rollings and siftings to refine the flour and separate it into various categories, called streams
Cleaning
Wheat received at the mill contains weeds, seeds, chaff, and other foreign material. Strong drafts of air from the aspirator remove lighter impurities. The disc separator removes barley, oats, and other foreign materials. From there, the wheat goes to the scourers in which it is driven vigorously against perforated steel casings by metal beaters. In this way, much of the dirt lodged in the crease of the wheat berry is removed and carried away by a strong blast of air. Then the magnetic separator removes any iron or steel.
At this point, the wheat is moistened. Machines known as whizzers take off the surface moisture. The wheat is then tempered, or allowed to lie in bins for a short time while still damp, to toughen the bran coat, thus making possible a complete separation of the bran from the flour-producing portion of the wheat berry. After tempering, the wheat is warmed to a uniform temperature before the crushing process starts.
Crushing or Breaking
The objectives at this stage are twofold:
1. Separate as much bran and germ as possible from the endosperm
2. Maximize the flour from the resulting endosperm
Household grain mills create flour in one step — grain in one end, flour out the other — but the commercial mill breaks the grain down in a succession of very gradual steps, ensuring that little bran and germ are mixed with any endosperm.
Although the process is referred to as crushing, flour mills crack rather than crush the wheat with large steel rollers. The rollers at the beginning of the milling system are corrugated and break the wheat into coarse particles. The grain passes through screens of increasing fineness. Air currents draw off impurities from the middlings. Middlings is the name given to coarse fragments of endosperm, somewhere between the size of semolina and flour. Middlings occur after the “break” of the grain.
Bran and germ are sifted out, and the coarse particles are rolled, sifted, and purified again. This separation of germ and bran from the endosperm is an important goal of the miller. It is done to improve dough-making characteristics and colour. As well, the germ contains oil and can affect keeping qualities of the flour.
Reduction
In the reduction stage, the coarser particles go through a series of fine rollers and sieves. After the first crushing, the wheat is separated into five or six streams. This is accomplished by means of machines called plansifters that contain sieves, stacked vertically, with meshes of various sizes. The finest mesh is as fine as the finished flour, and some flour is created at an early stage of reduction.
Next, each of the divisions or streams passes through cleaning machines, known as purifiers, a series of sieves arranged horizontally and slightly angled. An upcurrent draught of air assists in eliminating dust. The product is crushed a little more, and each of the resulting streams is again divided into numerous portions by means of sifting. The final crushings are made by perfectly smooth steel rollers that reduce the middlings into flour. The flour is then bleached and put into bulk storage. From bulk storage, the flour is enriched (thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, and iron are added), and either bagged for home and bakery use or made ready for bulk delivery.
Extraction Rates
The extraction rate is a figure representing the percentage of flour produced from a given quantity of grain. For example, if 82 kg of flour is produced from 100 kg of grain, the extraction rate is 82% (82÷100×100). Extraction rates vary depending on the type of flour produced. A whole grain flour, which contains all of the germ, bran, and endosperm, can have an extraction rate of close to 100%, while white all-purpose flours generally have extraction rates of around 70%. Since many of the nutrients are found in the germ and bran, flours with a higher extraction rate have a higher nutritional value. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.04%3A_Milling_of_Wheat.txt |
Flour Streams and Types of Wheat Flour
Modern milling procedures produce many different flour streams (approximately 25) that vary in quality and chemical analysis. These are combined into four basic streams of edible flour, with four other streams going to feed.
• Top patent flour: This stream is composed of only the purest and most highly refined streams from the mill. It is low in ash and is approximately 50% of the flour extracted. The term ash indicates the mineral content (e.g., phosphorus) of the flour. When flour is burned, all that is left is the burned mineral elements that constitute ash.
• Second patent flour: This flour is composed of streams with an intermediate degree of refinement. It has an average ash content of approximately 0.45% and represents about 35% of the total flour.
• First clear flour: This stream contains the balance of the flour that possesses baking properties, and is high in ash and protein content. It is usually about 15% of the total flour.
• Second clear flour: This grade contains the poorest flour streams. It is very high in ash (approximately 0.75%), and has little or no baking quality. It is about 2% of the total flour.
• Feed streams: The balance of the streams from the mill are classed as feed. Feeds are marketed as bran, wheat shorts, flour middlings, and wheat germ.
Within the streams of edible flours, there are a number of different types of flour used in food preparation. Each has different characteristics, and with those come different uses, as described below.
All-Purpose Flour
General purpose or home use flours are usually a blend of hard spring wheats that are lower in protein (gluten) content than bread flours. They are top patent flours and contain sufficient protein to make good yeast breads, yet not too much for good quick breads, cakes, and cookies.
Note: A word about gluten quality as opposed to gluten quantity: The fact that a particular flour contains a high quantity of protein, say 13% to 15%, does not necessarily mean that it is of high quality. It may contain too much ash or too much damaged starch to warrant this classification. High quality is more important in many bread applications than high quantity. All-purpose flour is an example of a high-quality flour, with a protein content of about 12%.
Graham Flour
A U.S. patented flour, graham flour is a combination of whole wheat flour (slightly coarser), with added bran and other constituents of the wheat kernel.
Bread Flour
Bread flour is milled from blends of hard spring and hard winter wheats. They average about 13% protein and are slightly granular to the touch. This type of flour is sold chiefly to bakers because it makes excellent bread with bakery equipment, but has too much protein for home use. It is also called strong flour or hard flour and is second patent flour.
For example, the specification sheet on bread flour produced by a Canadian miller might include the following information:
Ingredients: Wheat flour, amylase, ascorbic acid, niacin, iron, thiamine mononitrate, riboflavin, azodicarbonamide, folic acid.
Moisture: 14.2%
Ash: 0.54%
Protein (5.7 x N) 13.00%
Along with this information there is microbiological data and an allergen declaration. (Note that the formula in parentheses beside “Protein” is simply the laboratory’s way of deriving the protein figure from the nitrogen content.)
Cake Flour
Cake flour is milled from soft winter wheats. The protein content is about 7% and the granulation is so uniform and fine that the flour feels satiny. An exception is a high-protein cake flour formulated especially for fruited pound cakes (to prevent the fruit from sinking).
Clear Flour
Clear flour comes from the part of the wheat berry just under the outer covering. Comparing it to first patent flour is like comparing cream to skim milk. It is dark in colour and has a very high gluten content. It is used in rye and other breads requiring extra strength.
Gluten Flour
Gluten flour is made from wheat flour by removing a large part of the starch. It contains no more than 10% moisture and no more than 44% starch.
Pastry Flour
Pastry flour is made from either hard or soft wheat, but more often from soft. It is fairly low in protein and is finely milled, but not so fine as cake flour. It is unsuitable for yeast breads but ideal for cakes, pastries, cookies, and quick breads.
Self-Rising Flour
Self-rising flour has leavening and salt added to it in controlled amounts at the mill.
Wheat Germ Flour
Wheat germ flour consists entirely of the little germ or embryo part of the wheat separated from the rest of the kernel and flattened into flakes. This flour should be refrigerated.
Whole Wheat Flour
Whole wheat flour contains all the natural parts of the wheat kernel up to 95% of the total weight of the wheat. It contains more protein than all-purpose flour and produces heavier products because of the bran particles.
Whole Wheat Pastry Flour
Whole wheat pastry flour is milled from the entire kernel of soft wheat, is low in gluten, and is suitable for pastry, cakes, and cookies.
Hovis Flour
Most of the germ goes away with the shorts and only a small fraction of the total quantity can be recovered in a fairly pure form. At the mill, a special process developed in England to improve its keeping qualities and flavour cooks this fraction. It is then combined with white flour to make Hovis flour, which produces a loaf that, though small for its weight, has a rich, distinctive flavour.
Triticale Flour
The world’s first new grain, triticale is a hybrid of wheat and rye. It combines the best qualities of both grains. It is now grown commercially in Manitoba.
Semolina
Semolina is the granular product consisting of small fragments of the endosperm of the durum wheat kernel. (The equivalent particles from other hard wheat are called farina.) The commonest form of semolina available commercially is the breakfast cereal Cream of Wheat.
No-Time Flour
The primary goal of all bakers has been to reduce production time and keep costs to a minimum without losing quality, flavour, or structure. After extensive research, millers have succeeded in eliminating bulk fermentation for both sponge and straight dough methods. No-time flour is flour with additives such as ascorbic acid, bromate, and cysteine. It saves the baker time and labour, and reduces floor space requirements. The baker can use his or her own formulas with only minor adjustments.
Blending Flours
Blending of flours is done at the mill, and such is the sophistication of the analysis and testing of flours (test baking, etc.) that when problems occur it is generally the fault of the baker and not the product. Today the millers and their chemists ensure that bakers receive the high grade of flour that they need to produce marketable products for a quality-conscious consumer. Due to the vagaries of the weather and its effect on growing conditions, the quality of the grain that comes into the mill is hardly ever constant. For example, if damp weather occurs at harvest time, the grain may start to sprout and will cause what is known as damaged starch. Through analysis and adjustments in grain handling and blending, the miller is able to furnish a fairly constant product.
Bakers do blend flours, however. A portion of soft flour may be blended with the bread flour to reduce the toughness of a Danish pastry or sweet dough, for example. Gluten flour is commonly used in multigrain bread to boost the aeration. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.05%3A_Flour_Streams_and_Types_of_Wheat_Flour.txt |
Flour Terms and Treatments
In addition to types of flour, you may come across various other terms when purchasing flour. These include some terms that refer to the processing and treatment of the flour, and others outlining some of the additives that may be added during the milling and refining process.
Bleached
Bleaching and maturing agents are added to whiten and improve the baking quality quickly, making it possible to market the freshest flour. Even fine wheat flours vary in colour from yellow to cream when freshly milled. At this stage, the flour produces doughs that are usually sticky and do not handle well. Flour improves with age under proper storage conditions up to one year, both in colour and quality.
Because storing flour is expensive, toward the close of the 19th century, millers began to treat freshly milled flour with oxidizing agents to bleach it and give it the handling characteristics of naturally aged flour. Under the category of maturing agents are included materials such as chlorine dioxide, chlorine gas plus a small amount of nitrosyl chloride, ammonium persulfate, and ascorbic acid. No change occurs in the nutritional value of the flour when these agents are present.
The Health Products and Food Branch of Health Canada approves and controls the use of flour treatments and additives. There are two classes of material used to bleach flour. A common one, an organic peroxide, reacts with the yellow pigment only, and has no effect on gluten quality. Chlorine dioxide, the most widely used agent in North America, neutralizes the yellow pigment and improves the gluten quality. It does, however, destroy the tocopherols (vitamin E complex).
Enriched
Iron and three of the most necessary B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin), which are partially removed during milling, are returned to white flour by a process known as enrichment. No change occurs in taste, colour, texture, baking quality, or caloric value of the flour.
Pre-sifted
During the milling process, flour is sifted many times through micro-fine silk. This procedure is known as pre-sifting. The mesh size used for sifting varies from flour to flour. There are more holes per square inch for cake flour than, for example, bread flour, so that a cup of cake flour has significantly more minute particles than does a cup of bread flour, is liable to be denser, and weigh slightly more. Sifted flour yields more volume in baked bread than does unsifted flour, simply because of the increased volume of air.
1.07: Flour Additives
Flour Additives
A number of additives may be found in commercial flours, from agents used as dough conditioners, to others that aid in the fermentation process. Why use so many additives? Many of these products are complementary – that is, they work more effectively together and the end product is as close to “ideal” as possible. Nevertheless, in some countries the number of additives allowed in flour are limited. For instance, in Germany, ascorbic acid remains the only permitted additive.
Some of the additives that are commonly added to flour include those described below.
Bromate
Until the early 1990s, bromate was added to flour because it greatly sped up the oxidation or aging of flour. Millers in Canada stopped using it after health concerns raised by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the United States, bromate is allowed in some states but banned in others (e.g., California).
Azodicarbonamide (ADA)
Approved in the United States since 1962, but banned in Europe, ADA falls under the food additives permitted in Canada. ADA is a fast-acting flour treatment resulting in a cohesive, dry dough that tolerates high water absorption. It is not a bleach, but because it helps produce bread with a finer texture it gives an apparently whiter crumb. It does not destroy any vitamins in the dough.
Bakers who want to know if their flours contain ADA or other chemical additives can request this information from their flour suppliers.
L-Cysteine
An amino acid, L-cysteine speeds up reactions within the dough, thus reducing or almost eliminating bulk fermentation time. In effect, it gives the baker a “no-time” dough. It improves dough elasticity and gas retention.
Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid was first used as a bread improver in 1932, after it was noticed that old lemon juice added to dough gave better results because it improved gas retention and loaf volume. Essentially vitamin C (ascorbic acid) has the advantage of being safe even if too much is added to the dough, as the heat of baking destroys the vitamin component. The addition of ascorbic acid consistent with artisan bread requirements is now routine for certain flours milled in North America.
Calcium Peroxide
Calcium peroxide (not to be confused with the peroxide used for bleaching flour) is another dough-maturing agent.
Glycerides
Glycerides are multi-purpose additives used in both cake mixes and yeast doughs. They are also known as surfactants, which is a contraction for “surface-acting agents.” In bread doughs, the main function of glycerides is as a crumb-softening agent, thus retarding bread staling. Glycerides also have some dough-strengthening properties.
Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate
Approved for use in the United States since 1961, this additive improves gas retention, shortens proofing time, increases loaf volume, and works as an anti-staling agent.
1.08: Whole Grain and Artisan Milling
Whole Grain and Artisan Milling
Whole grain and artisan milling is the type of milling that was practised before the consumer market demanded smooth white flours that are refined and have chemical additives to expedite aging of flours. Artisan milling produces flours that are less refined and better suited to traditional breads, but also contain little to no additives and have higher nutritional content. For that reason, demand for these types of flour is on the rise.
Artisan millers (also known as micro millers) process many non-stream grains, including spelt, kamut, buckwheat, and other non-gluten grains and pulses. This offers bakers opportunities to work with different grains and expand their businesses. Artisan flours are readily available directly from millers or through a distributor. Knowing the origin of the grains and the quality of the ingredients in baking is important for artisan bakers.
Whole grain flours are on the increase as consumers become more aware of their benefits. Whole grain flour, as the name suggests, is made from whole grains. Whole wheat flours in Canada, however, can have up to 5% of the grain removed (germ) and still be classified as whole wheat. More information about whole grains can be found on the Government of Canada’s website.
Many artisan millers purchase their grains directly from growers and not through the Canadian Wheat Board. As well, several millers demand that their grains be Canadian in origin. This method of purchasing establishes trustworthy working relationships with the grain growers and promotes transparency in grain growing and food safety practices. Grain growers that sell their grains to artisan millers apply conventional or organic growing practices. Grain growers and millers have to go through vigorous processes to obtain the certified organic certification for their grains or products, which guarantees that no chemical additives have been used.
How organic grain is processed varies. Stone milling and impact hammer milling methods are typical when minimal refined whole grain flour is preferred. Information on several Canadian artisan millers that produce various whole grain flours can be found at Anita’s Organic Mill; Daybreak Mill; True Grain; Urban Grains; and Fieldstone Organics. Organic flours have gained popularity in the baking industry. As consumers become more aware of them, we see the demand swinging back toward whole grain and artisan milling as a preference. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.06%3A_Flour_Terms_and_Treatments.txt |
Flour in Baking
Flour forms the foundation for bread, cakes, and pastries. It may be described as the skeleton, which supports the other ingredients in a baked product. This applies to both yeast and chemically leavened products.
The strength of flour is represented in protein (gluten) quality and quantity. This varies greatly from flour to flour. The quality of the protein indicates the strength and stability of the flour, and the result in bread making depends on the method used to develop the gluten by proper handling during the fermentation. Gluten is a rubber-like substance that is formed by mixing flour with water. Before it is mixed it contains two proteins. In wheat, these two proteins are gliadin and glutenin. Although we use the terms protein and gluten interchangeably, gluten only develops once the flour is moistened and mixed. The protein in the flour becomes gluten.
Hard spring wheat flours are considered the best for bread making as they have a larger percentage of good quality gluten than soft wheat flours. It is not an uncommon practice for mills to blend hard spring wheat with hard winter wheat for the purpose of producing flour that combines the qualities of both. Good bread flour should have about 13% gluten.
Storing Flour
Flour should be kept in a dry, well-ventilated storeroom at a fairly uniform temperature. A temperature of about 21°C (70°F) with a relative humidity of 60% is considered ideal. Flour should never be stored in a damp place. Moist storerooms with temperatures greater than 23°C (74°F) are conducive to mould growth, bacterial development, and rapid deterioration of the flour. A well-ventilated storage room is necessary because flour absorbs and retains odours. For this reason, flour should not be stored in the same place as onions, garlic, coffee, or cheese, all of which give off strong odours.
Flour Tests
Wheat that is milled and blended with modern milling methods produce flours that have a fairly uniform quality all year round and, if purchased from a reliable mill, they should not require any testing for quality. The teacher, student, and professional baker, however, should be familiar with qualitative differences in flours and should know the most common testing methods.
Flours are mainly tested for:
• Colour
• Absorption
• Gluten strength
• Baking quality
Other tests, done in a laboratory, are done for:
• Albumen
• Starch
• Sugar
• Dextrin
• Mineral and fat content
Colour
The colour of the flour has a direct bearing on baked bread, providing that fermentation has been carried out properly. The addition of other ingredients to the dough, such as brown sugar, malt, molasses, salt, and coloured margarine, also affects the colour of bread.
To test the colour of the flour, place a small quantity on a smooth glass, and with a spatula, work until a firm smooth mass about 5 cm (2 in.) square is formed. The thickness should be about 2 cm (4/5 in.) at the back of the plate to a thin film at the front. The test should be made in comparison with a flour of known grade and quality, both flours being worked side by side on the same glass. A creamy white colour indicates a hard flour of good gluten quality. A dark or greyish colour indicates a poor grade of flour or the presence of dirt. Bran specks indicate a low grade of flour.
After making a colour comparison of the dry samples, dip the glass on an angle into clean water and allow to partially dry. Variations in colour and the presence of bran specks are more easily identified in the damp samples.
Absorption
Flours are tested for absorption because different flours absorb different amounts of water and therefore make doughs of different consistencies. The absorption ability of a flour is usually between 55% and 65%. To determine the absorption factor, place a small quantity of flour (100 g/4 oz.) in a bowl. Add water gradually from a beaker containing a known amount of water. As the water is added, mix with a spoon until the dough reaches the desired consistency. You can knead the dough by hand for final mixing and determination of consistency. Weigh the unused water. Divide the weight of the water used by the weight of the flour used. The result is the absorption ability in percentage. For example:
Weight of flour used 100 g (4 oz.)
Weight of water used 60 g (2.7 oz.)
Therefore absorption = 6/10 or 60%
Prolonged storage in a dry place results in a natural moisture loss in flour and has a noticeable effect on the dough. For example, a sack of flour that originally weighed 40 kg (88 lb.) with a moisture content of 14% may be reduced to 39 kg (86 lb.) during storage. This means that 1 kg (2 lb.) of water is lost and must be made up when mixing. The moisture content of the wheat used to make the flour is also important from an economic standpoint.
Hard wheat flour absorbs more liquid than soft flour. Good hard wheat flour should feel somewhat granular when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. A soft, smooth feeling indicates a soft wheat flour or a blend of soft and hard wheat flour. Another indicator is that hard wheat flour retains its form when pressed in the hollow of the hand and falls apart readily when touched. Soft wheat flour tends to remain lumped together after pressure.
Gluten Strength
The gluten test is done to find the variation of gluten quality and quantity in different kinds of flour. Hard flour has more gluten of better quality than soft flour. The gluten strength and quality of two different kinds of hard flour may also vary with the weather conditions and the place where the wheat is grown. The difference may be measured exactly by laboratory tests, or roughly assessed by the variation of gluten balls made from different kinds of hard flours.
For example, to test the gluten in hard flour and all-purpose flour, mix 250 g (9 oz.) of each in separate mixing bowls with enough water to make each dough stiff. Mix and develop each dough until smooth. Let the dough rest for about 10 minutes. Wash each dough separately while kneading it under a stream of cold water until the water runs clean and all the starch is washed out. (Keep a flour sieve in the sink to prevent dough pieces from being washed down the drain.) What remains will be crude gluten. Shape the crude gluten into round balls, then place them on a paper-lined baking pan and bake at 215°C (420°F) for about one hour. The gluten ball made from the hard flour will be larger than the one made from all-purpose flour. This illustrates the ability of hard flour to produce a greater volume because of its higher gluten content.
Ash Content
Ash or mineral content of flour is used as another measurement of quality. Earlier in the chapter, we talked about extraction rates as an indicator of how much of the grain has been refined. Ash content refers to the amount of ash that would be left over if you were to burn 100 g of flour. A higher ash content indicates that the flour contains more of the germ, bran, and outer endosperm. Lower ash content means that the flour is more highly refined (i.e., a lower extraction rate).
Baking Quality
The final and conclusive test of any flour is the kind of bread that can be made from it. The baking test enables the baker to check on the completed loaf that can be expected from any given flour. Good volume is related to good quality gluten; poor volume to young or green flour. Flour that lacks stability or power to hold during the entire fermentation may result in small, flat bread. Flour of this type may sometimes respond to an increase in the amount of yeast. More yeast shortens the fermentation time and keeps the dough in better condition during the pan fermentation period. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.09%3A_Flour_in_Baking.txt |
Rye Flour
Rye is a hardy cereal grass cultivated for its grain. Its use by humans can be traced back over 2,000 years. Once a staple food in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe, rye declined in popularity as wheat became more available through world trade. A crop well suited to northern climates, rye is grown on the Canadian Prairies and in the northern states such as the Dakotas and Wisconsin.
Rye flour is the only flour other than wheat that can be used without blending (with wheat flour) to make yeast-raised breads. Nutritionally, it is a grain comparable in value to wheat. In some cases, for example, its lysine content (an amino acid), is even biologically superior.
The brown grain is cleaned, tempered, and milled much like wheat grain. One difference is that the rye endosperm is soft and breaks down into flour much quicker that wheat. As a result, it does not yield semolina, so purifiers are seldom used. The bran is separated from the flour by the break roller, and the flour is further rolled and sifted while being graded into chop, meal, light flour, medium flour, and dark flour:.
• Chop: This is the miller’s name for the coarse stock after grinding in a break roller mill.
• Meal: Like chop, meal is made of 100% extraction obtained by grinding the entire rye kernel.
• Light rye flour: This is obtained from the centre of the rye kernel and is low in protein and high in starch content. It can be compared to white bread flour and is used to make light rye breads.
• Medium rye flour: This is straight flour and consists of all the kernels after the bran and shorts have been removed. It is light grey in colour, has an ash content of 1%, and is used for a variety of sourdough breads.
• Dark rye flour: This is comparable to first clear wheat flour. It has an ash content of 2% and a protein content of 16%. It is used primarily for heavier types of rye bread.
The lighter rye flours are generally bleached, usually with a chlorine treatment. The purpose of bleaching is to lighten the colour, since there is no improvement on the gluten capability of the flour.
Extraction of Rye Flour
The grade of extraction of rye flour is of great importance to the yield of the dough and the creation of a particular flavour in the baked bread. Table 1 shows the percentage of the dry substances of rye flour by grade of extraction.
Table 1 Dry Substances of Rye Flour by Grade of Extraction
Substance 70% Extraction Rate 85% Extraction Rate
Ash 0.8% 1.4%
Fat 1.2% 1.7%
Protein 8.1% 9.6%
Sugar 6.5% 7.5%
Starch 72.5% 65.1%
Crude fibre 0.5% 1.3%
Pentosans 5.2% 7.6%
Undefinable 5.2% 5.8%
Note that ash, fibre, and pentosans are higher in the 85% extraction rate flour, and starch is lower. Pentosans are gummy carbohydrates that tend to swell when moistened and, in baking, help to give the rye loaf its cohesiveness and structure. The pentosan level in rye flour is greater than that of wheat flour and is of more significance for successful rye bread baking.
Rye flours differ from wheat flours in the type of gluten that they contain. Although some dark rye flours can have a gluten content as high as 16%, this is only gliadin. The glutenin, which forms the elasticity in dough is absent, and therefore doughs made only with rye flour will not hold the gas produced by the yeast during fermentation. This results in a small and compact loaf of bread.
Starch and pentosans are far more important to the quality of the dough yield than gluten. Starch is the chief component of the flour responsible for the structure of the loaf. Its bread-making ability hinges on the age of the flour and the acidity. While rye flour does not have to be aged as much as wheat flour, it has both a “best after” and a “best before” date. Three weeks after milling is considered to be good.
When the rye flour is freshly milled, the starch gelatinizes (sets) quickly at a temperature at which amylases are still very active. As a result, bread made from fresh flour may be sticky and very moist. At the other extreme, as the starch gets older, it gelatinizes less readily, the enzymes cannot do their work, and the loaf may split and crack. A certain amount of starch breakdown must occur for the dough to be able to swell.
The moisture content of rye flour should be between 13% and 14%. The less water in the flour, the better its storage ability. Rye should be stored under similar conditions to wheat flour.
Differences between Rye and Wheat
Here is a short list of the differences between rye and wheat:
• Rye is more easily pulverized.
• Rye does not yield semolina.
• Gluten content in rye is not a significant dough-making factor.
• Starch is more important for bread making in rye flour than in wheat flour.
• The pentosan level in rye flour is higher and more important for bread making.
• Rye flour has greater water binding capability than wheat flour, due to its starch and pentosan content.
In summary, both wheat and rye have a long history in providing the “staff of life.” They are both highly nutritious. North American mills have state-of-the-art technology that compensates for crop differences, thus ensuring that the baker has a reliable and predictable raw material. Flour comes in a great variety of types, specially formulated so that the baker can choose according to product and customer taste. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.10%3A_Rye_Flour.txt |
Other Grains and Flours
Several other types of grains are commonly used in baking. In particular, corn and oats feature predominantly in certain types of baking (quick breads and cookies respectively, for instance) but increasingly rice flour is being used in baked goods, particularly for people with gluten sensitivities or intolerances. The trend to whole grains and the influence of different ethnic cultures has also meant the increase in the use of other grains and pulses for flours used in breads and baking in general.
Corn
Corn is one of the most widely used grains in the world, and not only for baking. Corn in used in breads and cereals, but also to produce sugars (such as dextrose and corn syrup), starch, plastics, adhesives, fuel (ethanol), and alcohol (bourbon and other whisky). It is produced from the maize plant (the preferred scientific and formal name of the plant that we call corn in North America). There are different varieties of corn, some of which are soft and sweet (corn you use for eating fresh or for cooking) and some of which are starchy and are generally dried to use for baking, animal feed, and popcorn.
Corn is one of the grains defined in Canada Grain Regulations – Section 5. This means that the Canadian Grain Commission establishes and maintains quality standards for corn. The Canadian Grain Commission defines Canadian grain standards and assesses the grade of grains against these standards. The Grain Grading Guide contains all the standards for Canadian grain. Chapter 17 of the Grain Grading Guide presents the standards for corn.
Varieties Used in Baking
• Cornmeal has a sandy texture and is ground to fine, medium, and coarse consistencies. It has most of the husk and germ removed, and is used is recipes from the American South (e.g., cornbread) and can be used to add texture to other types of breads and pastry.
• Stone-ground cornmeal has a texture not unlike whole wheat flour, as it contains some of the husk and germ. Stone ground cornmeal has more nutrients, but it is also more perishable. In baking, it acts more like cake flour due to the lack of gluten.
• Corn flour in North America is very finely ground cornmeal that has had the husk and germ removed. It has a very soft powdery texture. In the U.K. and Australia, corn flour refers to cornstarch.
• Cornstarch is the starch extracted from the maize kernel. It is primarily used as a thickener in baking and other cooking. Cornstarch has a very fine powdery consistency, and can be dissolved easily in water. As a thickening agent, it requires heat to set, and will produce products with a shiny, clear consistency.
• Blue cornmeal has a light blue or violet colour and is produced from whole kernels of blue corn. It is most similar to stone-ground cornmeal and has a slightly sweet flavour.
Rice
Rice is another of the world’s most widely used cereal crops and forms the staple for much of the world’s diet. Because rice is not grown in Canada, it is not regulated by the Canadian Grain Commission.
Varieties Used in Baking
• Rice flour is prepared from finely ground rice that has had the husks removed. It has a fine, slightly sandy texture, and provides crispness while remaining tender due to its lack of gluten. For this reason, many gluten-free breads are based on rice flours or blends that contain rice flour.
• Short grain or pearl rice is also used in the pastry shop to produce rice pudding and other desserts.
Oats
Oats are widely used for animal feed and food production, as well as for making breads, cookies, and dessert toppings. Oats add texture to baked goods and desserts.
Oats is also one of the grains defined in Canada Grain Regulations – Section 5, which means that the Canadian Grain Commission establishes and maintains quality standards for oats. Chapter 7 of the Grain Grading Guide contains the standards for oats.
Varieties Used in Baking
• Bakers will most often encounter rolled oats, which are produced by pressing the de-husked whole kernels through rollers.
• Oat bran and oat flour are produced by grinding the oat kernels and separating out the bran and endosperm.
• Whole grain oat flour is produced by grinding the whole kernel but leaving the ground flour intact.
• Steel-cut oats are more commonly used in cooking and making breakfast cereals, and are the chopped oat kernels.
Other Grains and Pulses
A wide range of additional flours and grains that are used in ethnic cooking and baking are becoming more and more widely available in Canada. These may be produced from grains (such as kamut, spelt, and quinoa), pulses (such as lentils and chickpeas), and other crops (such as buckwheat) that have a grain-like consistency when dried. Increasingly, with allergies and intolerances on the rise, these flours are being used in bakeshops as alternatives to wheat-based products for customers with special dietary needs. (For more on this topic, see the chapter Special Diets, Allergies, Intolerances, Emergent Issues, and Trends in the open textbook Nutrition and Labelling for the Canadian Baker.)
1.12: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Wheat is by far the most common grain and flour used in the baking industry.
• Grains produced in Canada fall under the control of the Canada Grain Act and Regulations.
• Flours can be produced from cereals, grains, legumes, and other plants for a wide range of uses in baking.
• The function and use of grains and flours in baking varies greatly, depending on the type of flour and its protein and gluten content. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/01%3A_Grains_and_Flours/1.11%3A_Other_Grains_and_Flours.txt |
Sugar Chemistry
Chemically, sugar consists of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) atoms, and is classified as a carbohydrate. There are three main groups of sugars, classified according to the way the atoms are arranged together in the molecular structure. These groups are the following:
• Monosaccharides or simple sugars. Dextrose (glucose) is the major monosaccharide. Others are levulose or fructose (found in honey and many fruits), and galactose, which is a milk sugar. Such sugars do not readily crystallize. (Mono means one, indicating that the sugar consists of only one molecule.)
• Disaccharides or complex sugars. Sucrose (common sugar) is the primary example of a disaccharide. Maltose, found in cereals, and lactose, found in milk, are others.
• Polysaccharides. Examples are starches, dextrins, and cellulose.
Bakers are not concerned with polysaccharides but rather with the monosaccharides and disaccharides. The latter two both sweeten, but they cannot be used interchangeably because they have different effects on the end product. These differences are touched on later in the book.
Sugar Names
It is helpful to understand some of the conventions of the names of different sugars. Note that sugar names often end in “ose”: sucrose, dextrose, maltose, lactose, etc. Sucrose is the chemical name for sugar that comes from the cane and beet sugar plants.
Note that glucose is the chemical name for a particular type of sugar. What is sometimes confusing is that glucose occurs naturally, as a sugar molecule in substances such as honey, but it is also produced industrially from the maize plant (corn).
The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (FDR) govern the following definitions:
• Sugars: All monosaccharides and disaccharides. Used for nutrition labelling purposes.
• Sweetening agent: Any food for which a standard is provided in Division 18 of the Food and Drug Regulation, or any combination of these. Includes sugar (sucrose), sugar syrups, and molasses derived from sugar cane or sugar beet, dextrose, glucose and syrups, honey and lactose. Excludes sweeteners considered to be food additives.
• Sweetening ingredient: Any sugar, invert sugar, honey, dextrose, glucose, or glucose solids, or any combination of these in dry or liquid form. Designed for sweetening fruits, vegetables, and their products and substitutes.
• Maple syrup: The syrup obtained by the concentration of maple sap or by the dilution or solution of a maple product, other than maple sap, in potable water.
• Sweetener: Any food additive listed as a sweetener. Includes both sugar alcohols and high intensity-sweeteners such as acesulfame-potassium, aspartame, and sucralose.
• Sugar alcohols: Food additives that may be used as sweeteners. Includes isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, maltitol syrup, mannitol, sorbitol, sorbitol syrup, xylitol, and erythritol.
2.02: Sugar (Sucrose)
For the remainder of this section, we will be referring to sugar generally to mean sucrose and its derivatives.
Sugar is a natural food. Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter in plants, is the key to the natural production of sugar. The process used by green plants is called photosynthesis. Plants build all other food substances, such as protein and oil, directly or indirectly from this sugar.
The two plants that yield the most sugar and are commercially grown are sugar cane and sugar beet. Raw sugar is made in large refineries by crushing cane sugar (Sacchrum officinarum) or beet root (Beta vulgaris) to obtain juice. Boiling the juice removes water, and with further processing, unrefined raw sugar is obtained (sometimes also known as panela). Generally, cane sugar is produced by tropical countries and the beet sugar by cooler, temperate areas.
Sugar cane is actually a giant grass that stores sugar in its stalk. Planting the cane is something like planting potatoes. It is grown in warm, moist countries, and cane accounts for approximately 80% of the world’s sugar; the remaining 20% is produced from sugar beet. Brazil and India are the largest cane producers, with Brazil alone accounting for over 25% of the world’s sugar. Other producing regions significant to North America’s sugar supply are Thailand, China, Hawaii, the Caribbean, Philippines, and Australia.
Sugar beet was developed in the early 1800s. Since that time, sugar beet farming has spread to all parts of the temperate climatic zone. A root crop, it is more tolerant of northern climates and is grown as far north as Minnesota and Michigan in the United States. In Canada it was once grown in Alberta, Manitoba, southern Ontario, and Quebec, but today, all beet sugar produced in Canada is grown in southern Alberta.
In countries like Canada, sugar beet plays a very minor role, and the bulk of Canadian refined sugar comes from imported raw sugar from cane sources in South and Central America, Australia, and the Caribbean. Whatever its provenance, sugar is a uniform product of great purity.
Today, the Canadian industry consists of cane sugar refineries located in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver, as well as the one remaining sugar beet plant in Taber, Alberta, which processes about 150,000 tonnes of beets each year. These factories are all operated by the same company, Lantic Inc., which resulted from a merger of Canada’s two leading sugar producers, Lantic Sugar Limited and Rogers Sugar Ltd. in 2008. The two companies had worked together as one for a number of years before the amalgamation, and the sugar produced is still marketed under the two brands: Lantic in Eastern Canada and Rogers in Western Canada.
Cane refiners import primary-processed sugar cane called “raws.” By law, this product requires further purification and refining to be sold in Canada, as raw sugar does not meet the Canadian standards for health and hygiene.
Media Attributions
• Sugar refining process © Baking Association of Canada | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.01%3A_Sugar_Chemistry.txt |
While some refining usually occurs at source, most occurs in the recipient country. The raw sugar that arrives at the ports is not legally edible, being full of impurities.
At the refinery, the raw brown sugar goes through many stages:
• Washing and boiling
• Filtering to remove impurities
• Evaporation to the desired crystal size under vacuum to avoid caramelization
• Centrifuging, in which the fluid is spun off leaving the crystals
• Drying in a rotating drum with hot air
• Packaging in various sizes, depending on the intended market
Sugar beet undergoes identical steps after the initial processing, which involves:
• Slicing the beets and extracting the sugar with hot water
• Removing impurities
• Filtration
• Concentration in evaporators
From here, the process is identical to the final steps in cane processing. See Figure 2 which illustrates the process.
Some of the sugar passes through a machine that presses the moist sugar into cubes and wraps and packages them; still other sugar is made into icing sugar. The sugar refining process is completely mechanical, and machine operators’ hands never touch the sugar.
Brown and yellow sugars are produced only in cane sugar refineries. When sugar syrup flows from the centrifuge machine, it passes through further filtration and purification stages and is re-boiled in vacuum pans such as the two illustrated in Figure 2. The sugar crystals are then centrifuged but not washed, so the sugar crystals still retain some of the syrup that gives the product its special flavour and colour.
During the whole refining process almost 100 scientific checks for quality control are made, while workers in research laboratories at the refineries constantly carry out experiments to improve the refining process and the final product. Sugar is carefully checked at the mills and is guaranteed to have a high purity. Government standards both in the United States and Canada require a purity of at least 99.5% sucrose.
Are animal ingredients included in white sugar?
Bone char — often referred to as natural carbon — is widely used by the sugar industry as a decolourizing filter, which allows the sugar cane to achieve its desirable white colour. Other types of filters involve granular carbon or an ion-exchange system rather than bone char.
Bone char is made from the bones of cattle, and it is heavily regulated by the European Union and the USDA. Only countries that are deemed BSE-free can sell the bones of their cattle for this process.
Bone char is also used in other types of sugar. Brown sugar is created by adding molasses to refined sugar, so companies that use bone char in the production of their regular sugar also use it in the production of their brown sugar. Confectioner’s sugar — refined sugar mixed with cornstarch — made by these companies also involves the use of bone char. Fructose may, but does not typically, involve a bone-char filter.
Bone char is not used at the sugar beet factory in Taber, Alberta, or in Montreal’s cane refinery. Bone char is used only at the Vancouver cane refinery. All products under the Lantic trademark are free of bone char. For the products under the Rogers trademark, all Taber sugar beet products are also free of bone char. In order to differentiate the Rogers Taber beet products from the Vancouver cane products, you can verify the inked-jet code printed on the product. Products with the code starting with the number “22” are from Taber, Alberta, while products with the code starting with the number “10” are from Vancouver.
If you want to avoid all refined sugars, there are alternatives such as sucanat and turbinado sugar, which are not filtered with bone char. Additionally, beet sugar — though normally refined — never involves the use of bone char. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.03%3A_Sugar_Refining.txt |
Sugar in its various forms is the third most used ingredient in the bakeshop, exceeded only by flour and water. The following sections describe the forms of sugar available to bakers, and Table 2 shows the differences in composition of the leading types.
Cube Sugar
Cube sugar, or lump sugar, is made from the first refined syrup, which is the highest grade. It is formed in moulds while the sugar is still moist, then dried in ovens and packed. Cube sugar is excellent for sugar boiling in caramel work.
Granulated Sugar
Refined granulated sugar is the most common form of sugar used. It is produced in various crystal sizes (fine, super fine, and berry are a few). Custom sizes are also available from some manufacturers, since any size crystal is possible at the factory depending on when the process is halted. The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations require a minimum purity of 99.8% sucrose, but all refined white sugar produced in Canada exceeds 99.9%.
Bulk Granulated
Many food manufacturers purchase granulated sugar in bulk form to save handling and storage costs in their plants. It is delivered in specially designed trucks (20 tonnes) or railway cars (85 tonnes).
Liquid Sugar
Some food manufacturers prefer this mixture of water and sugar. Liquid sugar is metered into the manufacturing process. There are many grades and blends of liquid sugar tailored to suit food manufacturers’ requirements.
Invert Sugar
When water and sugar are heated in the presence of a weak acid solution and/or enzymes, the sucrose breaks up into sweeteners of simpler chemical structure, creating invert sugar. A similar process occurs in the stomach. Like commercial glucose, invert sugar is a thick, colourless syrup and consists of 38% dextrose, 38% levulose, and 24% water. It is slightly sweeter than sucrose and is popular with some industrial users like soft drink bottlers and confectioners. Invert sugar is a good example of a monosaccharide — that is, despite the presence of a high concentration of sugar, it stays as a thick syrup.
Icing Sugar
Also known as confectionary or powdered sugar, icing sugar is produced by grinding high-grade crystals. This sugar passes through a series of sieves, yielding a selection of icing sugars. Icing sugar contains from 3% to a maximum of 5% starch (either cornstarch or wheat starch) to retard lumping or crystallization. Tricalcium phosphate may be added in the United States at a level of 1% for the same purpose.
Note: Icing sugar that contains wheat starch is not a gluten-free ingredient!
Fondant Sugar
Fondant sugar is an especially fine icing sugar designed for frostings, doughnut glazes, and cold fondants. One of these super-fine icing sugars comes without any cornstarch, but with a small percent of invert sugar. It is designed for instant fondant centres for chocolate manufacture.
Brown Sugar and Golden (Yellow) Sugar
Brown sugar, light brown sugar, and yellow sugar are refined products containing a molasses-flavoured syrup giving the products a distinctive taste and colour. They are available in a variety of grades and colours and are soft sugars.
Keep this sugar moist. If stored in dry conditions, the sugar becomes lumpy and hard. If the ambient humidity is high, the sugar can be left exposed. If the air is dry, it must be kept well covered.
Demerara Sugar
This is a dark brown sugar containing coarse crystals.
Golden Syrup
Golden syrup is a by-product of sugar refining. When the syrups, after repeated boiling, no longer yield crystals, the syrup is filtered and concentrated.
Molasses
Molasses is a by-product of the cane and beet refining processes. Cane sugar molasses is edible and comes in many grades from fancy to black strap molasses. Sugar beet molasses is non-edible but has other industrial uses. Molasses is also available in dry form. In Canada, blackstrap molasses is another name for cooking molasses.
Raw Cane Sugar
This product is imported into Canada in special bulk cargo ships. Conditions under which it is manufactured and shipped vary.
Table 2 Composition of Various Sugars
Component Granulated Sugar Icing Sugar Invert Sugar Yellow Sugar
Moisture 0.03% 0.4% 23% 3%
Sucrose 99.95% 97% 4% 94%
Invert Sugar 73%
Starch 3%
pH 3.8-4.2
Note: These figures are rounded and may vary depending on place of production.
Sweetness in Sugar
Sweetness is influenced by many factors including temperature, pH, and the presence of other substances that need not themselves be sweeteners. The relative sweetness of sugar and other carbohydrate sweeteners is shown in Table 3. Note that sucrose is the reference standard to which all the other types of sugar are compared. This reference is called the sweetness equivalent.
Table 3 Relative Sweetness of Sugars
Type of Sugar Sweetness Equivalent
Fructose/levulose 1.73
Invert sugar 1.30
Sucrose 1.00 (reference)
Glucose/dextrose 0.74 – 0.80
Sorbitol 0.60
Mannitol 0.50
Maltose 0.33-0.45
Galactose 0.32
Lactose 0.16
What this table tells us is that mannitol, for example, is only half as sweet as sucrose. Therefore, two level teaspoons of mannitol would be needed in a cup of coffee to obtain the same sweetness level as one teaspoon of sucrose. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.04%3A_Forms_of_Sugar_Used_in_the_Bakeshop.txt |
As mentioned, sugar is the third most used ingredient in the bakeshop. Sugar has several functions in baking. The most recognized purpose is, of course, to sweeten food, but there are many other reasons sugar is used in cooking and baking:
• It can be used for browning effect, both caramelization and the Maillard reaction, on everything from breads to cookies to cakes. Browning gives a pleasant colour and flavour to the finished product. Caramelization results from the action of heat on sugars. At high temperatures, the chemical changes associated with melting sugars result in a deep brown colour and new flavours. The Maillard reaction results from chemical interactions between sugars and proteins at high heat. An amino group from a protein combines with a reducing sugar to produce a brown colour in a variety of foods (e.g., brewed coffee, fried foods, and breads).
• It acts as the most important tenderizing agent in all baked goods, and one of the factors responsible for the spread in cookies. It helps delay the formation of gluten, which is essential for maintaining a soft or tender product.
• It makes an important contribution to the way we perceive the texture of food. For example, adding sugar to ice cream provides body and texture, which is perceived as smoothness. This addition helps prevent lactose crystallization and thus reduces sugar crystal formation that otherwise causes a grainy texture sometimes associated with frozen dairy products.
• It preserves food when used in sufficient quantity.
• In baking, it increases the effectiveness of yeast by providing an immediate and more usable source of nourishment for the yeast’s growth. This hastens the leavening process by producing more carbon dioxide, which allows the dough to rise at a quicker and more consistent rate.
Just as there are many functions of sugar in the bakeshop, there are different uses for the various types of sugar as well:
• Fine granulated sugar is most used by bakers. It generally dissolves easily in mixes and is pure enough for sugar crafters to boil for “pulled” sugar decorations.
• Coarse granulated sugar may be used for a topping on sugar cookies, puff pastry, and Danish pastries as it doesn’t liquefy or caramelize so readily. In some European countries, an extra coarse sugar (called hail — a literal translation) is used for this purpose.
• Icing or powdered sugar is used in icings and fillings and in sifted form as a top decoration on many baked goods.
• Brown or yellow sugars are used where their unique flavour is important, or in bakeries where an old-fashioned or rustic image is projected. Brown sugar can usually be substituted for white sugar without technical problems in sugar/batter mixes such as cakes and muffins, and in bread dough.
2.06: Agave
Agave
Agave has gained popularity in the food industry due to some of its nutritional properties. The agave nectar is obtained from the sap of the heart of the agave plant, a desert succulent, which is also used to produce tequila. The syrup/sugar production process of agave is similar to that of sugar. See more about the nutritional properties and application of agave in the chapter Special Diets, Allergies, Intolerances, Emerging Issues, and Trends in the open textbook Nutrition and Labelling for the Canadian Baker. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.05%3A_The_Application_of_Sugar.txt |
Glucose/Dextrose
The sugar known as glucose has two origins:
• In a natural form in most fruits
• In a processed form from corn (corn syrup)
In baking, we usually refer to industrially made glucose. It is made from corn and the resulting product, a thick syrup, is then adjusted to a uniform viscosity or consistency. The particular form of the syrup is defined by what is known as the dextrose equivalent, or DE for short. Corn syrup is the most familiar form of glucose.
In plant baking, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is the major sweetening agent in bread and buns. It consists of roughly half fructose and half dextrose. Dextrose (chemically identical to glucose) is available in crystalline form and has certain advantages over sucrose:
• It is easily fermentable.
• It contributes to browning in bread and bun making.
• In crystalline form, it is often used in doughnut sugars as it is more inclined to stay dry and non-greasy.
• It is hygroscopic and valued as a moisture-retaining ingredient.
• It retards crystallization in syrups, candies, and fondant.
Corn syrup is made from the starch of maize (corn) and contains varying amounts of glucose and maltose, depending on the processing methods. Corn syrup is used in foods to soften texture, add volume, prevent crystallization of sugar, and enhance flavour.
Table 3 showed that glucose/dextrose has a sweetening level of approximately three-quarters that of sugar. Table 4 shows the amount of corn syrup or HFCS needed to replace sugar in a formula.
Table 4 Replacement Factor for Corn Syrup and High-Fructose Corn Syrup
Type of Sugar Solids Replacement Factor
Granulated sugar 100% 1.0
Regular corn syrup 80% 1.25
High-fructose corn syrup 71% 1.41
Glucose, HFCS, and corn syrup are not appropriate substitutions for sucrose in all bakery products. Certain types of cakes, such as white layer cakes, will brown too much if glucose or HFCS is used in place of sugar.
2.08: Honey
Honey
Honey is a natural food, essentially an invert sugar. Bees gather nectar and, through the enzyme invertase, change it into honey. Honey varies in composition and flavour depending on the source of the nectar. The average composition of honey is about 40% levulose, 35% dextrose, and 15% water, with the remainder being ash, waxes, and gum.
Blended honey is a mixture of pure honey and manufactured invert sugar, or a blend of different types of honey mixed together to produce a good consistency, colour, and aroma. Dehydrated honey is available in a granular form.
Store honey in a tightly covered container in a dry place and at room temperature because it is hygroscopic, meaning it absorbs and retains moisture. Refrigeration or freezing won’t harm the colour or flavour but it may hasten granulation. Liquid honey crystallizes during storage and is re-liquefied by warming in a double boiler not exceeding a temperature of 58°C (136°F).
Honey is used in baking:
• As a sweetener
• To add unique flavour
• In gingerbread and special cookies where a certain moistness is characteristic of the product
• To improve keeping qualities
There are several types of honey available:
• Comb honey is “packed by the bees” directly from the hive.
• Liquid honey is extracted from the comb and strained. It is the type used by most bakers.
• Creamed honey has a certain amount of crystallized honey added to liquid honey to give body to the final product.
• Chunk honey consists of pieces of comb honey as well as liquid.
• Granulated honey has been crystallized.
In the United States, honey categories are based on colour, from white to dark amber. Honey from orange blossom is an example of white honey. Clover honey is an amber honey, and sage and buckwheat honeys are dark amber honeys. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.07%3A_Glucose_Dextrose.txt |
Malt
Malt is the name given to a sweetening agent made primarily from barley. The enzymes from the germ of the seeds become active, changing much of the starch into maltose, a complex sugar. Maltose has a distinct flavour and is used for making yeast products such as bread and rolls. Malt is considered to be relatively nutritious compared to other sweeteners.
Malt is available as:
• Flour
• Malt syrup
• Malt extract
• Dried malt
The flour is not recommended since it can lead to problems if not scaled precisely. Malt syrup is inconvenient to work with, as it is sticky, heavy, and bulky. Dried malt is the most practical, though it must be kept protected from humidity.
There are two distinct types of malt:
• Diastatic malt flour is dried at low temperature, thus retaining the activity of the diastatic enzymes.
• Non-diastatic malt flour is darker in colour. It is treated at high temperature, which kills the enzymes, and the result is non-diastatic malt.
Crushing malted grain in water produces malt syrup. This dissolves the maltose and soluble enzymes. The liquid is concentrated, producing the syrup. If the process is continued, a dry crystallized product called dried malt syrup is obtained.
Malt syrup has a peculiar flavour, which many people find desirable. It is used in candy, malted milk, and many other products. The alcoholic beverage industry is the largest consumer of malt by far, but considerable quantities are used in syrup and dried malt syrup, both of which are divided into diastatic and non-diastatic malt.
Both diastatic and non-diastatic malts add sweetness, colour, and flavour to baked products. Both are valuable since they contain malt sugar, which is fermented by the yeast in the later stages of fermentation. Other sugars such as glucose and levulose are used up rapidly by fermenting yeast in the early stages of fermentation.
Diastatic malt is made with various levels of active enzymes. Malt with medium diastatic activity is recommended. Normally, bread bakers will find sufficient enzymes in well-balanced flour from a good mill, so it is unnecessary to use diastatic malt.
When using dry diastatic malt, about the same weight should be used as liquid regular diastatic malt. Adjustment is made at the factory insofar as the enzyme level is increased in the dry product to compensate. Since the dry type contains about 20% less moisture than the liquid type, add water to make up the difference if dry diastatic malt is substituted for malt syrup.
The main uses of malt in the bakery are to:
• Add nutritive value, as it is rich in vitamins and essential amino acids
• Lengthen shelf life through its ability to attract moisture
• Help fermentation by strengthening the gluten and feeding the yeast
• Make products more appealing through browning of the crust
• Add unique flavour to products when used in sufficient quantity
Table 5 shows the suggested use levels for malt.
Table 5 Recommended Level of Malt for Various Baked Goods
Product Percentage of Flour Weight
White pan bread 0.5-1.5
Sweet goods 1.5-3.0
French/Italian bread 0.5-2.0
Whole wheat bread 5.0-9.0
Pretzels 1.5-6.0
Hard rolls 3.0-5.5 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.09%3A_Malt.txt |
Maple Syrup
Canada is responsible for 84% of the world’s maple syrup production, with the United States being responsible for the remaining 16%. Maple syrup is made by boiling and evaporating the sap of the sugar maple tree. Because sap is only 2% or 3% sugar, it takes almost 40 litres of sap to make 1 litre of syrup. This makes maple syrup a very expensive sweetener. It is prized for its unique flavour and sweet aroma. Don’t confuse maple-flavoured pancake or table syrup with real maple syrup. Table syrup is made from inexpensive glucose or corn syrup, with added caramel colouring and maple flavouring.
Maple syrup in Canada has two categories:
1. Canada Grade A, which has four colour/flavour classes
• (i) golden, delicate taste
• (ii) amber, rich taste
• (iii) dark, robust taste
• (iv) very dark, strong taste
2. Canada Processing Grade, which has no colour descriptors (any maple syrup that possesses minimal food quality defects but still meets all government regulatory standards for food quality and safety for human consumption)
This definition and grading system gives consumers more consistent and relevant information about the varieties, and helps them make informed choices when choosing maple syrup.
Darker maple syrups are better for baking as they have a more robust flavour. Using maple sugar is also a good way to impart flavour. Maple sugar is what remains after the sap of the sugar maple is boiled for longer than is needed to create maple syrup. Once almost all the water has been boiled off, all that is left is a solid sugar. It can be used to flavour some maple products and as an alternative to cane sugar.
For a video on maple syrup production, see The Faces of Business: Mapleside Sugar Bush.
2.11: Sugar Substitutes
Sugar Substitutes
In Canada, food additives such as sugar substitutes, which cover both artificial sweeteners and intense sweeteners obtained from natural sources, are subject to rigorous controls under the Food and Drugs Act and Food and Drug Regulations. New food additives (or new uses of permitted food additives) are permitted only once a safety assessment has been conducted and regulatory amendments have been enacted.
Several sugar substitutes have been approved for use in Canada. These include acesulfame-potassium, aspartame, polydextrose, saccharin, stevia, sucralose, thaumatin, and sugar alcohols (polyols) like sorbitol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, and xylitol. Please see the Health Canada webpage Sugar Substitutes for more information on sugar substitutes.
Bakers must be careful when replacing sugar (sucrose) with these sugar substitutes in recipes. Even though the sweetness comparison levels may be similar (or less), it is generally not possible to do straight 1-for-1 substitution. Sugar (sucrose) plays many roles in a recipe:
• It is a bulking agent.
• It absorbs moisture.
• It is a tenderizer.
• It adds moisture and extends shelf life.
• It adds colour (caramelization).
Sugar substitutes may not work in a recipe in the same way.
More information on sugar substitutes and their relative sweetness can be found online.
2.12: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Sugar comes from a variety of sources. Our primary sugar, sucrose, comes from two sources: sugar cane and sugar beet, but both these sugars are chemically identical.
• As a food item, sugars are classed as carbohydrates, being formed from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms.
• There are three types of sugar, two of which are most important in their applications for the baker: monosaccharides (simple sugars) and disaccharides (complex sugars).
• Simple sugars comprise glucose (also known as dextrose), levulose, and galactose.
• Complex sugars comprise sucrose (our regular sugar), maltose, and lactose.
• Glucose is the same as dextrose, and fructose is the same as levulose.
• Relative sweetness varies among the different sugar types, from low as in lactose, to high as in levulose.
• Sugar has a wide range of applications in baking. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/02%3A_Sweeteners_in_Baking/2.10%3A_Maple_Syrup.txt |
Understanding Fats and Oils
Fats and oils are organic compounds that, like carbohydrates, are composed of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), arranged to form molecules. There are many types of fats and oils and a number of terms and concepts associated with them, which are detailed further here.
Lipids
In baking, lipids is generally a synonym for fats. Baking books may talk about the “lipid content of eggs,” for example.
Triglycerides
Triglycerides is another chemical name for the most common type of fats found in the body, indicating that they are usually made up of three (tri) fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol (glycerine is another name) as shown in Figure 3. (The mono and diglycerides that are used as emulsifiers have one and two fatty acids respectively.)
Fatty Acids
Each kind of fat or oil has a different combination of fatty acids. The nature of the fatty acid will determine the consistency of the fat or oil. For example, stearic acid is the major fatty acid in beef fat, and linoleic acid is dominant in seed oils. Fatty acids are defined as short, medium, or long chain, depending on the number of atoms in the molecule.
The reason that some fat melts gradually is that as the temperature rises, each fatty acid will, in turn, soften, as its melting point is reached. Fats that melt all of a sudden mean that the fatty acids are of the same or similar type and have melting points within a narrow range. An example of such a fat is coconut fat: one second it is solid, the next, liquid.
Table 6 shows the characteristics of three fatty acids.
Table 6: Characteristics of Fatty Acids
Type of Fatty Acid Melting Point Physical State (at room temperature)
Stearic 69°C (157°F) Solid
Oleic 16°C (61°F) Liquid
Linoleic -12°C (9°F) Liquid
Rancid
Rancid is a term used to indicate that fat has spoiled. The fat takes on an unpleasant flavour when exposed to air and heat. Unsalted butter, for example, will go rancid quickly if left outside the refrigerator, especially in warm climates.
Oxidation/Antioxidants
Oxidation (exposure to air) causes rancidity in fats over time. This is made worse by combination with certain metals, such as copper. This is why doughnuts are never fried in copper pans!
Some oils contain natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols (vitamin E is one kind), but these are often destroyed during the processing. As a result, manufacturers add synthetic antioxidants to retard rancidity. BHA and BHT are synthetic antioxidants commonly used by fat manufacturers.
Saturated/Unsaturated
Saturated and unsaturated refer to the extent to which the carbon atoms in the molecule of fatty acid are linked or bonded (saturated) to hydrogen atoms. One system of fatty acid classification is based on the number of double bonds.
• 0 double bonds: saturated fatty acids. Stearic acid is a typical long-chain saturated fatty acid (Figure 4).
• 1 double bond: monounsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid is a typical monounsaturated fatty acid (Figure 5).
• 2 or more double bonds: polyunsaturated fatty acids. Linoleic acid is a typical polyunsaturated fatty acid (Figure 6).
Saturated fat is a type of fat found in food. For many years, there has been a concern that saturated fats may lead to an increased risk of heart disease; however, there have been studies to the contrary and the literature is far from conclusive. The general assumption is that the less saturated fat the better as far as health is concerned. For the fat manufacturer, however, low saturated fat levels make it difficult to produce oils that will stand up to the high temperatures necessary for processes such as deep-frying. Hydrogenation has been technology’s solution. Hydrogenation will be discussed later in the chapter.
Saturated fat is found in many foods:
• Animal foods (like beef, chicken, lamb, pork, and veal)
• Coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils
• Dairy products (like butter, cheese, and whole milk)
• Lard
• Shortening
Unsaturated fat is also in the foods you eat. Replacing saturated and trans fats (see below) with unsaturated fats has been shown to help lower cholesterol levels and may reduce the risk of heart disease. Unsaturated fat is also a source of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are generally referred to as “healthy” fats. Choose foods with unsaturated fat as part of a balanced diet using Canada’s Food Guide.
Even though unsaturated fat is a “good fat,” having too much in your diet may lead to having too many calories, which can increase your risk of developing obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.
There are two main types of unsaturated fats:
• Monounsaturated fat, which can be found in:
• Avocados
• Nuts and seeds (like cashews, pecans, almonds, and peanuts)
• Vegetable oils (like canola, olive, peanut, safflower, sesame, and sunflower)
• Polyunsaturated fat, which can be found in:
• Fatty fish (like herring, mackerel, salmon, trout and smelt)
• Fish oils
• Nuts and seeds (like cashews, pecans, almonds and peanuts)
• Vegetable oils (like canola, corn, flaxseed, soybean and sunflower)
Hydrogenation
Simply put, hydrogenation is a process of adding hydrogen gas to alter the melting point of the oil or fat. The injected hydrogen bonds with the available carbon, which changes liquid oil into solid fat. This is practical, in that it makes fats versatile. Think of the different temperature conditions within a bakery during which fat must be workable; think of the different climatic conditions encountered in bakeries.
Trans Fat
Trans fat is made from a chemical process known as “partial hydrogenation.” This is when liquid oil is made into a solid fat. Like saturated fat, trans fat has been shown to raise LDL or “bad” cholesterol levels, which may in turn increase your risk for heart disease. Unlike saturated fat, trans fat also lowers HDL or “good” cholesterol. A low level of HDL-cholesterol is also a risk factor for heart disease.
Until recently, most of the trans fat found in a typical Canadian diet came from:
• Margarines (especially hard margarines)
• Commercially fried foods
• Bakery products made with shortening, margarine, or oils containing partially hydrogenated oils and fats (including cakes, cookies, crackers, croissants, doughnuts, fried and breaded foods, muffins, pastries, and other snack foods)
The Food and Drug Regulations (FDR) specifically prescribe what information must be displayed on a label. The trans fat content of food is one piece of core nutrition information that is required to be declared in a nutrition facts table. More information on a nutrition facts table and labelling details can be found in the open textbook Nutrition and Labelling for the Canadian Baker.
Emulsification (Emulsified Shortenings)
Emulsification is the process by which normally unmixable ingredients (such as oil and water) can be combined into a stable substance. Emulsifiers are substances that can aid in this process. There are natural emulsifiers such as lecithin, found in egg yolks. Emulsifiers are generally made up of monoglycerides and diglycerides and have been added to many hydrogenated fats, improving the fat’s ability to:
• Develop a uniformly fine structure
• Absorb a high percentage of sugar
• Hold in suspension a high percentage of liquid
Emulsified shortenings are ideal for cakes and icings, but they are not suitable for deep-frying.
Stability
Stability refers to the ability of a shortening to have an extended shelf life. It refers especially to deep-frying fats, where a smoke point (see below) of 220°C to 230°C (428°F to 446°F) indicates a fat of high stability.
Smoke Point
The smoke point is the temperature reached when fat first starts to smoke. The smoke point will decline over time as the fat breaks down (see below).
Fat Breakdown
The technical term for fat breakdown is hydrolysis, which is the chemical reaction of a substance with water. In this process, fatty acids are separated from their glycerol molecules and accumulate over time in the fat. When their concentration reaches a certain point, the fat takes on an unpleasant taste, and continued use of the fat will yield a nasty flavour. The moisture, which is at the root of this problem, comes from the product being fried. This is why it is a good reason to turn off the fryer or turn it to “standby” between batches of frying foods such as doughnuts. Another cause of fat breakdown is excessive flour on the product or particles breaking off the product.
Image Descriptions
Figure 4 image description: Diagram of the chemical makeup of stearic acid, labelled “Stearic acid, a saturated fatty acid.” A row of 18 carbon atoms are bonded together, with each (except for the rightmost) bonded to one hydrogen atom above and below, and the leftmost carbon atom bonded to a third hydrogen atom, for a total of 35 hydrogen atoms. The rightmost carbon atom is bonded to 1 hydrogen monoxide molecule and double bonded to 1 oxygen molecule. [Return to Figure 4]
Figure 5 image description: Diagram of the chemical makeup of oleic acid, labelled “Oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid. Note that the double bond is cis; this is the common natural configuration.” A row of 9 carbon atoms is double bonded to a row of 9 other carbon atoms. The row on the right is straight, and the double bond tilts down and to the left so that the left-hand group is at an angle. The first 8 carbon atoms in the left-hand group each have a hydrogen atom bonded to it from the top and the bottom. The first carbon atom has a third hydrogen atom bonded to its left, and the ninth carbon atom has only 1 hydrogen atom bonded to its top. In the right-hand group, the first carbon atom has only 1 hydrogen atom bonded to its top, and the next 7 each have a hydrogen atom bonded to its top and bottom. The ninth carbon atom is bonded to 1 hydrogen monoxide molecule and double bonded to 1 oxygen molecule. [Return to Figure 5]
Figure 6 image description: Diagram of the chemical makeup of linoleic acid, labelled “Linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid. Both double bonds are cis.” From left to right, a row of 6 carbon atoms is double bonded to 3 carbon atoms, which in turn are double bonded to a row of 9 carbon atoms. The left-hand row tilts downward to the right; the middle row tilts upward to the right; and the right-hand row is straight. In the left-hand group, the first 5 carbon atoms each have one hydrogen atom bonded to its top and one bonded to its bottom. The first carbon atom is bonded to a third hydrogen atom on its left side. The sixth carbon atom is bonded to only 1 hydrogen atom on its bottom. In the second group, the first carbon atom is bonded to 1 hydrogen atom on the bottom, the second carbon atom has one hydrogen atom on top and on the bottom, and the third carbon atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom on top. In the final group, the first carbon atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom on top. The next 7 carbon atoms each have a hydrogen atom on top and on the bottom. The ninth carbon atom is bonded to 1 hydrogen monoxide molecule and double bonded to 1 oxygen molecule. [Return to Figure 6]
Media Attributions
• Stearic Acid © James Baggott
• Oleic acid © James Baggott
• Linoleic Acid © James Baggott
3.02: Sources of Bakery Fats and Oils
Sources of Bakery Fats and Oils
Edible fats and oils are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. Animal sources include:
• Beef
• Pork
• Sheep
• Fish
In North America, the first two are the prime sources.
Vegetable sources include canola, coconut, corn, cotton, olive, palm fruit and palm kernel, peanut, soya bean, safflower, and sunflower.
Refining of Fats and Oils
The major steps in refining fats and oils are as follows:
• Free fatty acids are neutralized and treated with an alkali.
• Colour is removed.
• The fat is hydrogenated.
• The fat is deodorized.
• The fat is chilled and beaten to make it softer and whiter. This is done by a votator (a machine that cools and kneads liquid margarine).
• Fat is stored to facilitate the correct crystallization (tempering). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/03%3A_Fats_and_Oils/3.01%3A_Understanding_Fats_and_Oils.txt |
Major Fats and Oils Used in Bakeries
Table 7 lists the composition of major fats and oils used in bakeries.
Table 7 Composition of Typical Fats[1]
Fat type Saturated (g/100 g) Monounsaturated (g/100 g) Polyunsaturated (g/100 g) Cholesterol (mg/100 g) Vitamin E (mg/100 g)
Lard 40.8 43.8 9.6 93 0.60
Duck fat 33.2 49.3 12.9 100 2.70
Butter 54.0 19.8 2.6 230 2.00
Coconut oil 85.2 6.6 1.7 0 .66
Palm kernel oil 81.5 11.4 1.6 0 3.80
Palm oil 45.3 41.6 8.3 0 33.12
Cottonseed oil 25.5 21.3 48.1 0 42.77
Wheat germ oil 18.8 15.9 60.7 0 136.65
Soybean oil 14.5 23.2 56.5 0 16.29
Olive oil 14.0 69.7 11.2 0 5.10
Corn oil 12.7 24.7 57.8 0 17.24
Sunflower oil 11.9 20.2 63.0 0 49.00
Safflower oil 10.2 12.6 72.1 0 40.68
Hemp oil 10 15 75 0 12.34
Canola/Rapeseed oil 5.3 64.3 24.8 0 22.21
Lard
Lard is obtained from the fatty tissues of pigs, with a water content of 12% to 18%. Due to dietary concerns, lard has gradually lost much of its former popularity. It is still extensively used, however, for:
• Yeast dough additions
• Pie pastry
• Pan greasing
Lard has a good plastic range, which enables it to be worked in a pie dough at fairly low temperatures (try the same thing with butter!). It has a fibrous texture and does not cream well. It is therefore not suitable for cake making. Some grades of lard also have a distinctive flavour, which is another reason it is unsuitable for cake making.
Butter
Butter is made from sweet, neutralized, or ripened creams pasteurized and standardized to a fat content of 30% to 40%. When cream is churned or overwhipped, the fat particles separate from the watery liquid known as buttermilk. The separated fat is washed and kneaded in a water wheel to give it plasticity and consistency. Colour is added during this process to make it look richer, and salt is added to improve its keeping quality.
In Canada, the following regulations apply to butter:
• Minimum 80% milk fat by weight
• Permitted ingredients: milk solids, salt, air or inert gas, permitted food colour, permitted bacterial culture
• The grade and grade name for butter and butter products is Canada 1.
Sweet (or unsalted) butter is made from a cream that has a very low acid content and no salt is added to it. It is used in some baking products like French butter cream, where butter should be the only fat used in the recipe. Keep sweet butter in the refrigerator.
From the standpoint of flavour, butter is the most desirable fat used in baking. Its main drawback is its relatively high cost. It has moderate but satisfactory shortening and creaming qualities. When used in cake mixing, additional time, up to five minutes more, should be allowed in the creaming stage to give maximum volume. Adding an emulsifier (about 2% based on flour weight) will also help in cake success, as butter has a poor plastic range of 18°C to 20°C (64°F to 68°F).
Butter and butter products may also be designated as “whipped” where they have had air or inert gas uniformly incorporated into them as a result of whipping. Whipped butter may contain up to 1% added edible casein or edible caseinates.
Butter and butter products may also be designated as “cultured” where they have been produced from cream to which a permitted bacterial culture has been added.
Margarine
Margarines are made primarily from vegetable oils (to some extent hydrogenated) with a small fraction of milk powder and bacterial culture to give a butter-like flavour. Margarines are very versatile and include:
• General purpose margarine with a low melting point, suitable for blending in dough and general baking
• Cake margarine with excellent creaming qualities
• Roll-in margarine, which is plastic and suitable for Danish pastries
• Puff pastry roll-in, which is the most waxy and has the highest melting point
Margarine may be obtained white, but is generally coloured. Margarine has a fat content ranging from 80% to 85%, with the balance pretty much the same as butter.
In Canada, the following regulations apply to margarine:
• Margarine must contain at least 80% fat and added vitamins A and D. The edible fat/oil may be of vegetable, animal, or marine origin except milk fat, and may have been hydrogenated, fractionated, or modified.
• Margarine must be intended for substantially the same uses as butter. (This specification is intended to be used by food services in procurement of food. It does not apply to special margarines, such as calorie-reduced, baker’s, or whipped margarine.)
Oil content claims on margarine
The claim that margarine contains a certain percentage of a specific oil in advertisements should always be based on the percentage of oil by weight of the total product. All the oils used in making the margarine should be named. For example, if a margarine is made from a mixture of corn oil, cottonseed oil, and soybean oil, it would be considered misleading to refer only to the corn oil content in an advertisement for the margarine. On the other hand, the mixture of oils could be correctly referred to as vegetable oils.
It used to be that you could only buy margarines in solid form full of saturated and trans fat. The majority of today’s margarines come in tubs, are soft and spreadable, and are non-hydrogenated, which means they have low levels of saturated and trans fat. Great care must be taken when attempting to substitute spreadable margarine for solid margarine in recipes.
Shortenings
Since the invention of hydrogenated vegetable oil in the early 20th century, shortening has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated vegetable oil. Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard: both are semi-solid fats with a higher smoke point than butter and margarine. They contain less water and are thus less prone to splattering, making them safer for frying. Lard and shortening have a higher fat content (close to 100%) compared to about 80% for butter and margarine. Cake margarines and shortenings tend to contain a bit higher percentage of monoglycerides that margarines. Such “high-ratio shortenings” blend better with hydrophilic (attracts water) ingredients such as starches and sugar.
Health concerns and reformulation
Early in this century, vegetable shortening became the subject of some health concerns due to its traditional formulation from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that contain trans fats. The apparent link between trans fats and adverse health effects has raised alarm bells. Consequently, a low trans-fat variant of Crisco brand shortening was introduced in 2004. In January 2007, all Crisco products were reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving, and the separately marketed trans-fat free version introduced in 2004 was consequently discontinued. Since 2006, many other brands of shortening have also been reformulated to remove trans fats. Non-hydrogenated vegetable shortening can be made from palm oil.
Hydrogenated vegetable shortenings
Hydrogenated shortenings are the biggest group of fats used in the commercial baking industry. They feature the following characteristics:
• They are made from much the same oils as margarine.
• They are versatile fats with good creaming ability.
• Their hydrogenation differs according to the specific use for which the fat is designed.
• They are 100% fat – no water.
• They keep well for six to nine months.
Variations on these shortenings are: emulsified vegetable shortenings, roll-in pastry shortenings, and deep-frying fats.
Emulsified vegetable shortenings
Emulsified vegetable shortenings are also termed high-ratio fats. The added emulsifiers (mono- and diglycerides) increase fat dispersion and give added fineness to the baked product. They are ideal for high-ratio cakes, where relatively large amounts of sugar and liquid are incorporated. The result is a cake:
• Fine in texture
• Light in weight and of excellent volume
• Superior in moisture retention (good shelf life)
• Tender to eat
This is also the fat of choice for many white cake icings.
Roll-in pastry shortenings
This type of shortening is also called special pastry shortening (SPS). These fats have a semi-waxy consistency and offer:
• Large plastic range
• Excellent extensibility
• Excellent lifting ability
They are primarily used in puff pastry and Danish pastry products where lamination is required. They come in various specialized forms, with varying qualities and melting points. It is all a matter of compromise between cost, palatability, and leavening power. A roll-in that does not have “palate cling” may have a melting point too low to guarantee maximum lift in a puff pastry product.
Deep-Frying Fats
Deep-frying fats are special hydrogenated fats that have the following features:
• High smoke point of up to 250°C (480°F)
• High heat stability and resistance to fat breakdown
• No undesirable flavour on finished products
• No greasiness when cold
These fats contain an anti-foaming agent.
Vegetable Oils
Vegetable oil is an acceptable common name for an oil that contains more than one type of vegetable oil. Generally, when such a vegetable oil blend is used as an ingredient in another food, it may be listed in the ingredients as “vegetable oil.”
There are two exceptions: if the vegetable oils are ingredients of a cooking oil, salad oil, or table oil, the oils must be specifically named in the ingredient list (e.g., canola oil, corn oil, safflower oil), and using the general term vegetable oil is not acceptable. As well, if any of the oils are coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, peanut oil, or cocoa butter, the oils must be specifically named in the ingredient list.
When two or more vegetable oils are present and one or more of them has been modified or hydrogenated, the common name on the principal display panel and in the list of ingredients must include the word “modified” or “hydrogenated,” as appropriate (e.g., modified vegetable oil, hydrogenated vegetable oil, modified palm kernel oil).
Vegetable oils are used in:
• Chemically leavened batters (e.g., muffin mixes)
• Dough additives (to replace the fat)
• Short sponges (to replace the butter or fat)
Coconut Fat
Coconut fat is often used to stabilize butter creams as it has a very small plastic range. It has a quite low melting point and its hardness is due to other factors. It can be modified to melt at different temperatures, generally between 32°C and 36°C (90°F and 96°F).
The Importance of Melting Points
As mentioned above, all fats become oils and vice versa, depending on temperature. Physically, fats consist of minute solid fat particles enclosing a microscopic liquid oil fraction. The consistency of fat is very important to the baker. It is very difficult to work with butter (relatively low melting point) in hot weather, for example. At the other extreme, fats with a very high melting point are not very palatable, since they tend to stick to the palate. Fat manufacturers have therefore attempted to customize fats to accommodate the various needs of the baker.
Fats with a melting range between 40°C and 44°C (104°F and 112°F) are considered to be a good compromise between convenience in handling and palatability. New techniques allow fats with quite high melting points without unpleasant palate-cling.
Table 8 shows the melting points of some fats.
Table 8 Melting Points of Typical Fats
Type of Fat Melting Point
Coconut fat 32.5°C–34.5°C (90.5°F–4.1°F)
Regular margarine 34°C (93°F)
Butter 38°C (100°F)
Regular shortenings 44°C–47°C (111°F–116°F)
Roll-in shortenings 40°C–50°C (104°F–122°F)
Roll-in margarine 44°C–54°C (111°F–130°F)
Blending
It is probably safe to say that most fats are combinations or blends of different oils and/or fats.
They may be all vegetable sources. They may be combined vegetable and animal sources. A typical ratio is 90% vegetable source to 10% animal (this is not a hard and fast rule). Formerly, blends of vegetable and animal oils and fats were termed compound fats. Nowadays, this term, if used at all, may refer also to combinations of purely vegetable origin.
3.04: Functions of Fat in Baking
Functions of Fat in Baking
The following summarize the various functions of fat in baking.
Tenderizing Agents
Used in sufficient quantity, fats tend to “shorten” the gluten strands in flour; hence their name: shortenings. Traditionally, the best example of such fat was lard.
Creaming Ability
This refers to the extent to which fat, when beaten with a paddle, will build up a structure of air pockets. This aeration, or creaming ability, is especially important for cake baking; the better the creaming ability, the lighter the cake.
Plastic Range
Plastic range relates to the temperature at which the fatty acid component melts and over which shortening will stay workable and will “stretch” without either cracking (too cold) or softening (too warm). A fat that stays “plastic” over a temperature range of 4°C to 32°C (39°F to 90°F) would be rated as excellent. A dough made with such a fat could be taken from the walk-in cooler to the bench in a hot bakeshop and handled interchangeably. Butter, on the other hand, does not have a good plastic range; it is almost too hard to work at 10°C (50°F) and too soft at 27°C (80°F).
Lubrication
In dough making, the fat portion makes it easier for the gluten network to expand. The dough is also easier to mix and to handle. This characteristic is known as lubrication.
Moistening Ability
Whether in dough or in a cake batter, fat retards drying out. For this purpose, a 100% fat shortening will be superior to either butter or margarine.
Nutrition
As one of the three major food categories, fats provide a very concentrated source of energy. They contain many of the fatty acids essential for health.
3.05: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Fats and oils are manufactured and selected by the baker on the basis of certain functions or special characteristics.
• Fats and oils used in baking are made from animal and vegetable sources, with the trend toward vegetable sources.
• Fats and oils form one of the three major food groups and are concentrated energy sources.
• The major categories of fat used by the baker are:
• Butter
• Margarine
• Regular shortenings
• Hydrogenated shortenings
• The functions of fat in baking are:
• Shortening
• Lubrication
• Lamination
• Creaming
• Moistening
• Deep-frying | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/03%3A_Fats_and_Oils/3.03%3A_Major_Fats_and_Oils_Used_in_Bakeries.txt |
Yeast
Yeast is a microscopic unicellular fungus that multiplies by budding, and under suitable conditions, causes fermentation. Cultivated yeast is widely used in the baking and distilling industries. History tells us that the early Chaldeans, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans made leavened bread from fermented doughs. This kind of fermentation, however, was not always reliable and easy to control. It was Louis Pasteur, a French scientist who lived in the 19th century, who laid the foundation for the modern commercial production of yeast as we know it today through his research and discoveries regarding the cause and prevention of disease.
Types of Yeast
There are several types of yeast.
Wild Yeast
Wild yeast spores are found floating on dust particles in the air, in flour, on the outside of fruits, etc. Wild yeasts form spores faster than cultivated yeasts, but they are inconsistent and are not satisfactory for controlled fermentation purposes.
Compressed Yeast
Compressed yeast is made by cultivating a select variety, which is known by experiment to produce a yeast that is hardy, consistent, and produces a fermentation with strong enzymatic action. These plants are carefully isolated in a sterile environment free of any other type of yeast and cultivated on a plate containing nutrient agar or gelatin. Wort, a combination of sterilized and purified molasses or malt, nitrogenous matter, and mineral salts is used to supply the food that the growing yeast plants need to make up the bulk of compressed yeast.
After growing to maturity in the fermentation tank, the yeast is separated from the used food or wort by means of centrifugal machines. The yeast is then cooled, filtered, pressed, cut, wrapped, and refrigerated. It is marketed in 454 g (1 lb.) blocks, or in large 20 kg (45 lb.) bags for wholesale bakeries.
Figure 7 illustrates the process of cultivating compressed yeast, and Table 9 summarizes its composition.
Table 9 Average Composition of Fresh (Compressed) Yeast
Component Percentage
Water 68% to 73%
Protein 12% to 14%
Fat 0.6% to 0.8%
Carbohydrate 9% to 11%
Mineral Matter 1.7% to 2%
Active Dry Yeast
Active dry yeast is made from a different strain than compressed yeast. The manufacturing process is the same except that the cultivated yeast is mixed with starch or other absorbents and dehydrated. Its production began after World War II, and it was used mainly by the armed forces, homemakers, and in areas where fresh yeast was not readily available.
Even though it is a dry product, it is alive and should be refrigerated below 7°C (45°F) in a closed container for best results. It has a moisture content of about 7%. Storage without refrigeration is satisfactory only for a limited period of time. If no refrigeration is available, the yeast should be kept unopened in a cool, dry place. It should be allowed to warm up to room temperature slowly before being used.
Dry yeast must be hydrated for about 15 minutes in water at least four times its weight at a temperature between 42°C and 44°C (108°F and 112°F). The temperature should never be lower than 30°C (86°F), and dry yeast should never be used before it is completely dissolved.
It takes about 550 g (20 oz.) of dry yeast to replace 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of compressed yeast, and for each kilogram of dry yeast used, an additional kilogram of water should be added to the mix. This product is hardly, if ever, used by bakers, having been superseded by instant yeast (see below).
Instant Dry Yeast
Unlike instant active dry yeast that must be dissolved in warm water for proper rehydration and activation, instant dry yeast can be added to the dough directly, either by:
• Mixing it with the flour before the water is added
• Adding it after all the ingredients have been mixed for one minute
This yeast can be reconstituted. Some manufacturers call for adding it to five times its weight of water at a temperature of 32°C to 38°C (90°F to 100°F). Most formulas suggest a 1:3 ratio when replacing compressed yeast with instant dry. Others vary slightly, with some having a 1:4 ratio. In rich Danish dough, it takes about 400 g (14 oz.), and in bread dough about 250 g to 300 g (9 oz. to 11 oz.) of instant dry yeast to replace 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of compressed yeast. As well, a little extra water is needed to make up for the moisture in compressed yeast. Precise instructions are included with the package; basically, it amounts to the difference between the weight of compressed yeast that would have been used and the amount of dry yeast used.
Instant dry yeast has a moisture content of about 5% and is packed in vacuum pouches. It has a shelf life of about one year at room temperature without any noticeable change in its gassing activity. After the seal is broken, the content turns into a granular powder, which should be refrigerated and used by its best-before date, as noted on the packaging.
Instant dry yeast is especially useful in areas where compressed yeast is not available. However, in any situation, it is practical to use and has the advantages of taking up less space and having a longer shelf life than compressed yeast.
Cream Yeast
Creamy yeast is a soft slurry-type yeast that is used only in large commercial bakeries and is pumped into the dough.
Yeast Food
Yeast food is used in bread production to condition the dough and speed up the fermentation process. It consists of a blend of mineral salts such as calcium salt or ammonium salt and potassium iodate. It has a tightening effect on the gluten and is especially beneficial in dough where soft water is used. The addition of yeast food improves the general appearance and tasting quality of bread. The retail baker does not use it much.
Image Descriptions
Figure 7 long description: Diagram of the production of compressed yeast. To cultivate compressed yeast, you first start with a yeast cell. That cell grows and is transferred from test tube to test tube until it becomes a yeast culture, which is depicted in an Erlenmeyer flask. Then, the cultivated yeast seed goes into an air compressor, along with nitrogenous matter and mineral salts, as well as molasses, which has first been sterilized, purified, and put through a centrifuge. The air compressor looks like a boxy machine with different-sized circles representing air bubbles and what looks like a long tube ending in a circle leading out of the main vat. The mixture passes through the air compressor, then goes into a yeast separator, which is a machine that stands on two legs and has a round vat with a spout coming out of it. What comes out of the spout and into a bowl goes through a filter press, which has two angled shapes at each end and thin lines in the middle, almost like an accordion. The filter press produces cut compressed yeast, which is depicted as rectangular prisms that look like chocolate bars. [Return to Figure 7]
Media Attributions
• Production of Compressed Yeast © Baking Association of Canada | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/04%3A_Leavening_Agents/4.01%3A_Yeast.txt |
The Functions of Yeast
Yeast has two primary functions in fermentation:
• To convert sugar into carbon dioxide gas, which lifts and aerates the dough
• To mellow and condition the gluten of the dough so that it will absorb the increasing gases evenly and hold them at the same time
In baked products, yeast increases the volume and improves the flavour, texture, grain, colour, and eating quality. When yeast, water, and flour are mixed together under the right conditions, all the food required for fermentation is present as there is enough soluble protein to build new cells and enough sugar to feed them.
Activity within the yeast cells starts when enzymes in the yeast change complex sugar into invert sugar. The invert sugar is, in turn, absorbed within the yeast cell and converted into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. Other enzymes in the yeast and flour convert soluble starch into malt sugar, which is converted again by other enzymes into fermentable sugar so that aeration goes on from this continuous production of carbon dioxide.
Proper Handling of Yeast
Compressed yeast ages and weakens gradually even when stored in the refrigerator. Fresh yeast feels moist and firm, and breaks evenly without crumbling. It has a fruity, fresh smell, which changes to a sticky mass with a cheesy odour. It is not always easy to recognize whether or not yeast has lost enough of its strength to affect the fermentation and the eventual outcome of the baked bread, but its working quality definitely depends on the storage conditions, temperature, humidity, and age.
The optimum storage temperature for yeast is −1°C (30°F). At this temperature it is still completely effective for up to two months. Yeast does not freeze at this temperature.
Other guidelines for storing yeast include:
• Rotating it properly and using the older stock first
• Avoiding overheating by spacing it on the shelves in the refrigerator
Yeast needs to breathe, since it is a living fungus. The process is continuous, proceeding slowly in the refrigerator and rapidly at the higher temperature in the shop. When respiration occurs without food, the yeast cells starve, weaken, and gradually die.
Yeast that has been frozen and thawed does not keep and should be used immediately. Freezing temperatures weaken yeast, and thawed yeast cannot be refrozen successfully.
4.03: Using Yeast
Using Yeast
Many bakers add compressed yeast directly to their dough. A more traditional way to use yeast is to dissolve it in lukewarm water before adding it to the dough. The water should never be higher than 50°C (122°F) because heat destroys yeast cells. In general, salt should not come into direct contact with yeast, as salt dehydrates the yeast. (Table 10 indicates the reaction of yeast at various temperatures.)
It is best to add the dissolved yeast to the flour when the dough is ready for mixing. In this way, the flour is used as a buffer. (Buffers are ingredients that separate or insulate ingredients, which if in too close contact, might start to react prematurely.) In sponges where little or no salt is used, yeast buds quickly and fermentation of the sponge is rapid.
Table 10 How Yeast Reacts at Different Temperatures
Temperature Reaction
15°C–20°C (60°F–68°F) slow reaction
26°C–29°C (80°F–85°F) normal reaction
32°C–38°C (90°F–100°F) fast reaction
59°C (138°F) terminal death point
Never leave compressed yeast out for more than a few minutes. Remove only the amount needed from the refrigerator. Yeast lying around on workbenches at room temperature quickly deteriorates and gives poor results. One solution used by some bakeries to eliminate steps to the fridge is to have a small portable cooler in which to keep the yeast on the bench until it is needed. Yeast must be kept wrapped at all times because if it is exposed to air the edges and the corners will turn brown. This condition is known as air-burn. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/04%3A_Leavening_Agents/4.02%3A_Yeast_in_Baking.txt |
Enzymes are not ingredients as such, but they are present in other ingredients, chief among them are flour and yeast. Understanding how enzymes work is very helpful in understanding fermentation. Enzymes are as unique as fingerprints. They can be defined as minute substances produced by living organisms that bring about or speed up certain chemical changes. For example, enzymes act in the human digestive tract to break down food.
The action of enzymes is specific, and each class of enzymes has only one particular chemical conversion that it will bring about. For example, one kind of enzyme converts sugar into carbon dioxide and alcohol, and this is the only direct function it can perform.
A clue to recognizing enzymes is by the ending of their names, which usually is ase as in maltase. The sugar that maltase works on ends in ose as in maltose. There are a few exceptions; for example, papain, present in papaya and used as a tenderizer, is also an enzyme.
Sometimes the terms are confusing. For example, the two enzymes amylase and diastase work in such a similar way that they can be thought of as the same for the purposes of baking. Both these enzymes work on starch. Sometimes books refer to amylolytic activity, to refer to the work done by amylase, and sometimes they refer to diastatic activity to refer to the work done by the diastase. For convenience, in this book we use the term diastatic as much as possible.
Enzymes Present in Flour
Enzymes present in flour are diastase/amylase and protease.
Diastase/Amylase
Under the right conditions, diastase will break up some starch, liquefy it, and convert it into malt sugar. This provides food for the yeast and sugars that help to brown the loaf later on in baking. It is a very important function in lean dough where little or no sugar has been added. Diastase or amylase is destroyed at 77°C (170°F) during baking, at which point the dough stops expanding.
At the flour mill, one of the laboratory tasks is to determine if the grain has the correct balance of enzymes. Either too few or too many can affect the handling and fermentation of dough. One problem when too many enzymes are present is evident in rye flour, where the integrity of the starch is especially important.
The amount of diastase in grain varies from year to year, depending on harvest conditions. In a damp harvest season, the grain may start to sprout, which is a signal for enzymes to become active. The starch from such grain is said to be damaged, which is not a completely bad thing, as a certain amount of damaged starch is desirable to provide yeast food. The miller adjusts this level, if necessary, by adding amylase, and blending flours.
Protease
Protease is found in flour, but also in malt and yeast. Protease converts a portion of protein that cannot be dissolved in water into another form, which will dissolve in water. In this condition, the protein can be used by yeast as food. The protein makes the gluten more elastic by softening it, and produces amino acids (see Figure 8).
Protease starts to work immediately after the dough is mixed. It is instrumental in imparting good flavour and digestibility to the baked bread.
Enzymes Present in Yeast
The two principal enzymes present in yeast are maltase and invertase. In addition, there are several other minor enzymes in yeast, each of which contributes in some way to the total changes brought about by yeast activity in the dough. Some of these changes assist in imparting flavour and digestibility to the finished bread.
Maltase
Maltase changes malt sugar (also known as maltose) into simple sugar.
Invertase
Invertase converts cane sugar into simple sugar. This enzyme only has work to do if granulated cane sugar has been added to the dough. It does not break down maltose, for example.
Zymase
Zymase works on simple sugar that has been produced by the action of invertase and maltase. Zymase changes the simple sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas, which causes dough to rise and expand (see Figure 9).
In summary, enzymes work in fermented dough to effect starch reduction and sugar production. This enables the yeast to thrive and produce carbon dioxide, which leavens the bread. Each enzyme has a particular job to do. The enzyme level is checked at the mill laboratory, and flour delivered to the baker is generally perfectly balanced with the correct level for reliable fermentation.
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• Proteolytic Breakdown © Baking Association of Canada. .
• Diastatic Activity © Baking Association of Canada. . | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/04%3A_Leavening_Agents/4.04%3A_Enzymes.txt |
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