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Roux
There are four types of roux:
1. White roux is coo ked only briefly and should be removed from the heat as soon as it develops a frothy, bubbly appearance. It is used in white sauces, such as béchamel, or in dishes where little or no color is desired.
2. Blond roux is cooked slightly longer than white roux, and should begin to take on a little color as the flour caramelizes. It is used in ivory colored sauces, such as veloute, or where a richer flavor is desired.
3. Brown roux is cooked until it develops a darker color and a nutty aroma and flavor. Brown roux is used in brown sauces and dishes where a dark co lo r is desi red. It is important to re member that cooking a starch before adding a liquid breaks down the starch granules and prevents gelatinization from occurring. Therefore, because brown roux is cooked longer than white roux, more brown roux is required to thicken a given quantity of liquid.
4. Cajun Dark Roux is roux that is darker than a traditional French brown roux. This color roux is hard to do and the base color of dark gumbos.
Procedures for Preparing Roux
Whether it will be white, blond or brown, the procedure for making a roux is the same:
1. Using a heavy saucepan to prevent scorching, heat the clarified butter or other fat.
2. Add all the flour and stir to form a paste. Although all-purpose flour can be used, it is better to use cake or pastry flour because they contain a higher percentage of starch. Do not use high-gluten flour because of its greatly reduced starch content.
3. Cook the paste over medium heat until the desired color is achieved. Stir the roux often to avoid burning. Burnt roux will not thicken a liquid; it will simply acid dark specks and an undesirable flavor.
The temperature and amount of roux being prepared determine the exact length of cooking time. Gene rally, however, a white roux needs to cook for only a few minutes, long enough to minimize the raw flour taste. Blond roux is cooked longer, until the paste begins to change to a slightly darker color. Brown roux requires a much longer cooking time to develop its characteristic color and aroma. A goo d roux will be stiff, not runny or pourable.
Incorporating Roux into a Liquid
There are two ways to incorporate roux into a liquid without causing lumps:
1. Warm or hot stock can be added to the hot roux while stirring vigorously with a whisk. (Adding cold stock to a hot roux should be avoided as it can cause the mixture to seize up or create too much of a temperature difference that will create steam and/or burning).
2. Room-temperature roux can be added to a hot stock while stirring vigorously with a whisk.
3. When the roux and the liquid are completely incorporated and the sauce begins to boil, it is necessary to cook the sauce for a time to remove any raw flour taste that may remain. Most chefs feel a minimum of 20 minutes is necessary.
When thickening stock with roux, either (a) add cold stock to hot roux, or (b) add cold roux to hot stock.
Guidelines for Using Roux
1. Avoid using aluminum pots. The scraping action of the whisk will turn light sauces gray and will impart a metallic flavor.
2. Use sufficiently heavy pots to prevent sauces from scorching or burning during extended coo king times.
3. Avoid extreme temperatures. Roux should be no colder than room temperature so that the fat is not fully solidified. Extremely hot roux is dangerous and can spatter when combined with a liquid. Stocks should not be ice cold when combined with roux; the roux will become very cold, and the solidified pieces may be very difficult to work out with a whisk.
4. Avoid over thickening. Roux does not begin to thicken a sauce until the sauce is almost at the boiling point; the thickening act ion continues for several minutes while the sauce shimmers. If a sauce is to coo k for a long time, it will also thicken by reduction.
Proportions: Roux to Liquid
Flour plus Butter or Roux plus Liquid makes Sauce
6 oz./190 g plus 6 oz./190 g or 12 oz./375 g plus 1 gal./4 lt makes light
8 oz./250 g plus 8 oz./250 g or 1 lb./500 g plus 1 gal./4 lt makes medium
12 oz./375 g plus 12 oz./375 g or 24 oz./750 g plus 1 gal./4 lt makes heavy
Thickening Variables
1. The starch content of a flour determines its thickening power.
2. Cake flour, being lowest in protein and highest in starch, has more thickening power than bread flour, which is high in protein and low in starch.
3. In addition, a dark roux has less thickening power than a lighter one, so more will be needed to thicken an equal amount of liquid.
The above pictures are examples of different roux colors. Photo Credit to flickr.
The most common method for thickening liquids with flour is to prepare a roux; by cooking the flour with an equal weight of butter. This attenuates the flavor of the flour and eliminates lumps. Then, hot liquids are added to the cooked roux, and the mixture is brought to a simmer until it thickens. Because flour contains proteins and other compounds that impart flavor, sauces thickened with roux are usually skimmed for at least 30 minutes once they have been brought to a simmer to eliminate impurities.
Although stock that is used for sauce making should be carefully skimmed and degreased before it is combined with roux, further skimming is necessary once the roux has been added to eliminate the butter and to remove impurities in the flour. One excellent method for using flour is to cut the amount called for in classic sauces by half and then reduce carefully the thickened sauce to the desired thickness. This method allows more time for skimming and degreasing and will attenuate any floury taste.
In classic French cooking, both white and brown roux are prepared. White roux is used for white sauces; brown roux, for espagnole, the traditional base for the classic brown sauces. To prepare brown roux, the flour is either cooked for 15 to 20 minutes in clarified butter or browned first in the oven and cooked with butter in the same way as white roux. Brown roux is seldom used in modern restaurant kitchens.
Top rep are roux, use a whisk to stir together equal weights of butter and flour in a saucepan over medium heat. Bring the liquid to be thickened (such as stock or milk) to a simmer in another pot. Cook the roux for about 5 minutes, until it has a pleasant toasty smell, and then remove the saucepan from the heat fora minute to let the roux cool. Return the pan to the heat and pour in the hot liquid while whisking. Continue whisking until the sauce comes to a simmer. Turn down the heat and slowly simmer the sauce (such as béchamel or veloute) for 30 minutes. Skim any froth and impurities from the sauce's surface with a ladle. (It is also possible to thicken liquids with roux by simply adding the cold liquid to the hot roux thus saving time and a pot. When using this method, however, be careful to whisk thoroughly to prevent lumps.)
Starches
In the first edition of Le Guide Culinaire, published at the turn of the century, Escoffier predicted that the traditional roux-thickened sauces would be replaced with sauces thickened with purer forms of starch such as arrowroot, potato starch, and cornstarch. Using these starches would eliminate the need for the careful skimming necessary to rid flour-thickened sauces of impurities. He was correct in predict in g the demise of flour-thickened sauces but incorrect in assuming that other starches would be used to fill the gap.
Perhaps the glossy look of sauces thickened with these pure forms of starch explains why Western chefs and diners have never grown accustomed to cornstarch- or arrowroot-thickened sauces. The look of these sauces is almost too perfect, like costume jewelry that glitters just a bit too garishly.
Almost any thickener has drawbacks, which can be lessened by using the thickener in tandem with other methods or ingredients. A small amount of starch added to an already well-reduced stock or cooking liquid will hardly be noticed.
One method occasionally used in contemporary kitchens is to prepare a basic brown stock, reducing and degreasing it to concentrate flavor and eliminate impurities, and then thickening the entire stock with arrowroot. This lightly thickened brown sauce base - a kind of arrowroot espagnole - is then used as a base for made-to-order derivative sauces. When preparing a base in this way, starch must be used judiciously: There is nothing more irksome than a deeply colored, glistening sauce with no taste.
Purified starches should be worked to a thin paste with cold water before being added to hot liquids. If added directly, they will form insoluble lumps that must be strained out. Purified starches are approximately twice as efficient as flour is in thickening.
Starches derived from roots and grains are among the oldest and most versatile thickeners for sauces. They are inexpensive and efficient in small amounts, so that they can be used without imparting a flavor of their own.
Starches must be combined with liquid and heated almost to boiling to be effective. Some starches are purer than others. Cornstarch, arrowroot, and potato starch are almost pure starches and produce shiny sauces, whereas flour contains protein, which gives flour-thickened sauces a slightly mat appearance.
Flour
In Western cooking, flour has long been the most popular sauce thickener. Although flour has largely been rep laced in recent years by other thickeners, it is still the appropriate choice for many country-style and regional dishes. Chefs are also learning to use flour in limited amounts in conjunction with other thickeners.
One precaution to take when using flour for sauce making is to always make sure that liquids to be thickened have been thoroughly degreased before the flour is incorporated. Flour binds with fat and holds it in suspension throughout the liquid, making it difficult to skim. The result is a greasy, indigestible sauce with a muddy texture and flavor.
Cornstarch
Cornstarch, a very fine white powder, is a pure starch derived from corn. It is used widely as a thickening agent for hot and cold sauces and is especially popular in Asian cuisines for thickening sauces and soups. Liquid s thickened with cornstarch have a glossy sheen that may or may not be desirable.
One unit of cornstarch thickens about twice as much liquid as an equal unit of flour. Sauces thickened with cornstarch are less stable than those thickened with roux because cornstarch can break clown and lose its thickening power after prolonged heating. Products thickened with cornstarch should not be reheated.
Incorporating Cornstarch
Cornstarch must be mixed with a cool liquid before it is introduced into a hot one. The cool liquid separates the grains of starch and allows them to begin absorbing liquid without lumping. A solution of a starch and a cool liquid is called a slurry. The starch slurry may be added to either a hot or cold liquid. lf added to a hot liquid , it must be stirred continuously during incorporation. Unlike roux, cornstarch begins to thicken almost immediately if the liquid is hot. Sauces thickened with cornstarch must be cooked gently until the raw starch flavor disappears, usually about 5 minutes.
Arrowroot
Arrowroot, derived from the roots of several tropical plants, is similar in texture, appearance and thickening power to cornstarch and is used in exactly the same manner. Arrowroot does not break clown as quickly as cornstarch, and it produces a slightly clearer finished product although it is much more expensive.
Potato Starch
Although potato starch was one of the first starches to be used in French cooking, it has never been popular as a sauce thickener in the United States. It is used in the same way that cornstarch and arrowroot are. Like cornstarch, it tends to break down after prolonged exposure to heat.
Beurre Manie
Beurre manie is a combination of equal amounts, by weight, of flour and soft whole butter. Beurre manie is used for quick thickening at the end of the cooking process. The butter also adds shine and flavor to the sauce as it melts.
Procedure:
1. Knead flour and butter together until smooth.
2. Form the mixture into pea-sized balls, and then whisk the beurre manie gradually into a simmering sauce.
Like roux, beurre manie contains equal parts by weight of butter and flour. It differs from roux, however, in that it is not cooked and is usually added at the end of a sauce’s cooking rather than at the beginning. It is most often used to thicken stews at the end of cooking when the braising liquid is too thin. To prepare beurre manie, simply work together equal parts by weight of flour and butter with the back of a dinner fork until they forma smooth paste. To thicken a liquid simply whisk in the beurre manie a bit at a time, and wait for the liquid to come to a simmer (the thickening effect does not occur and cannot be gauged until the mixture comes to a simmer). Continue in this way until the liquid has the right thickness. Unlike roux, beurre manie should not be cooked any longer once the mixture thickens or the sauce will develop a strong floury taste. One of the peculiarities of flour is that it develops a strong floury taste after 2 minutes of cooking that begins to disappear as the cooking progresses, usually after 30 minutes.
Flouring Ingredients for a Stew
In home-style and country cooking, stew meat is often floured (in French, singer) before it is browned in hot fat. This is an excellent technique because the flour is thoroughly browned, eliminating any starchy flavor; moreover, the browning of the meat is made easier because the flour helps form a crust . The total amount of flour added to the stew is relatively small so that, if necessary, the cook can add more thickener (beurre manie) or reduce the stewing liquid at the end of cooking.
Some cooks add flour to stews by cooking it in the pan along with chopped aromatic vegetables after the meat has been removed. This method is effective as long as the caramelized meat juices on the bottom of the pan are not allowed to burn and too much flour is not used. Be sure to discard any burnt fat and replace it with fresh butter or olive oil before stirring in the flour.
Liaisons
Sauces are distinguished from broths and soups not only because they are thicker but because they are more intensely flavored. Liaisons were used in ancient and medieval cooking as thickeners so that the sauces would cling to the foods they accompanied, making the food easier to eat with the fingers. These liaison-thickened sauces were further developed in the seventeenth century as an economical alternative to earlier sauces, which were essentially concentrated extracts made with enormous quantities of meat. For centuries since, sauces have been thickened not only to help them cling to food but to give them the look of highly concentrated and flavorful meat juices or cooking liquids.
In modern times, chefs and diners have become skeptical of sauces that are thickened only to give them a richer appearance. Today's diner is more impressed by a light-appearing sauce than one that is thick or seems overly rich. Modern sauces are often less thick or have been thickened by reduction alone.
How Liaisons Thicken
Liaisons usually cause thickening by dispersing solids or insoluble liquids in a water-based medium; on a molecular level, these fine components prevent the water from moving freely and thus increase the sauce's viscosity.
Starch thickens sauces because its large molecules (made up of bush-like rows of sugar molecules) unravel in the liquid medium and bond into larger groupings with the water molecules. The efficiency of a particular starch as a thickener depends on the shape and size of its molecules - and how they disperse in the liquid medium.
Whereas the viscosity of starch-thickened sauces is attributable to solids suspended in a liquid (the scientific term for this kind of system is sol), emulsified sauces consist of two mutually insoluble liquids - usually fat and water - suspended one within the other. Emulsions rely on various additional ingredients to prevent the tiny particles from running into one another, joining up into larger particles, and eventually separating into two distinct layers- the usual course of events when combining water and oil alone.
Emulsifiers usually work in one of two ways. In the first, the emulsifier consists of long molecules that float between the microscopic globules of fat (or water, depending on what is suspended in what), preventing the globules from touching one another; the stability of butter sauces containing flour is an example of this. In the second system, the emulsifier molecules are asymmetrical: Half of the molecule is soluble in fat, the other half in water. The result is that half of the molecule embeds itself in the suspended globule while the other half protrudes into the liquid medium. The protruding ends of these molecules prevent the globules from touching and forming larger aggregates. Egg yolks emulsify in this way.
Vegetable and fruit purees can also be used as thickeners and function in different ways dep ending on how they are used. Some vegetable purees contain sufficient starch so that they behave like purified starches such as flour or cornstarch, but, most purees contain insoluble components that give most puree-thickened sauces a relatively rough texture and mat appearance. They also contribute flavor, whereas plain starch does not (at least not an agreeable one). Some purees, such as those made with tomato or green vegetables, contain so little starch that they thicken a sauce simply by adding a large bulk of fine solid particles to a liquid medium. Sauces thickened with these purees alone will separate in to liquid and solid when left to sit unless another liaison is used along with the puree. Vegetable purees are also used as emulsifiers in vinaigrettes, where they prevent the vinegar (or other acid) and the oil from coalescing (joining up into larger globules).
Sauces can be thickened by suspending solids in liquids (such as starch - and vegetable -puree-thickened sauces), liquids in liquids (emulsions, such as hollandaise and mayonnaise), and, in some cases, air in liquids (foams, such as sabayons and hollandaise). A well-made sauce bearnaise is both a foam and an emulsion: Minute fat globule s and microscopic bubbles of air are surrounded by a liquid medium.
Liaison Use
A liaison does not thicken a sauce through gelatinization. A liaison is a mixture of egg yolks and heavy cream; it adds richness and smoothness with minimal thickening. Special care must be taken to prevent the yolks from coagulating when they are added to a hot liquid because this could curdle the sauce.
Procedure for Using a Liaison
1. Whisk together one part egg yolk and three parts whipping cream. Combining the yolk with cream raises the temperature at which the yolk's proteins coagulate, making it easier to incorporate them into a sauce without lumping or curdling.
2. Temper the egg yolk and cream mixture by slowly adding a small amount of the hot liquid while stirring continuously.
3. When enough of the hot liquid has been added to the liaison to warm it thoroughly, begin adding the warmed liaison to the remaining hot liquid. Be sure to stir the mixture carefully to prevent the yolk from overcooking or lumping. Plain egg yolks coagulate at temperatures between 149°F and 158°F (65°C and 70°C). Mixing them with cream raises the temperatures at which they coagulate to approximately 180°F-185°F (82°C- 85°C).
• Temperatures over 185°F (85°C) will cause the yolks to curdle. Great care must he taken to hold the sauce above 135°F (57°C) for food safety and sanitation reasons, yet below 185°F (85°C) to prevent curdling.
Gelatin
As meats and fish cook, they release juices that contain gelatin, a water-soluble protein. Depending on the cooking method, these juices end up in the roasting pan or the sauté pan, or, in the case of poaching and braising, they are released into the surrounding liquid. When the gelatin is sufficiently concentrated, it gives the cooking liquid a natural, lightly syrupy consistency.
The natural gelatinous consistency that is so appealing in sauces and braising liquids can be achieved in several ways. The most obvious and expensive is to continually reuse meat or fish stocks as moisteners for more meat or fish until the gelatin (and flavor) is so concentrated that the stock has a natural consistency of its own. The resulting liquid is a natural, unthicken demi-glace. Home cooks and professionals have long added strips of pork skin, veal feet, veal knuckles, or chicken or turkey wing tips to stews and stocks to contribute additional natural gelatin.
Restaurant chefs often combine these methods with careful reduction to eliminate liquid and concentrate the natural gelatin. In a restaurant setting, natural gelatin is most often added to sauces at the last minute in the form of meat glace (glace de viande) or fish glace (Glace de Poisson). These glaces not only give a finished sauce the natural texture that results from careful reduction but also provide a complex flavor backdrop to offset more assertive components, such as wine or herbs, which are added to give the sauce its final character.
In the last twenty years, sauces made by natural reduction and concentration of meat and fish flavors have gradually replaced the more traditional flour-thickened sauces. Although these sauces are almost always better than a car e less, / made roux-based sauce, there are disadvantages to relying on reduction alone to give a sauce a syrupy or " sauce like" consistency. If a sauce has been overly reduced, it will feel gluey in the mouth; it will also quickly congeal on hot plates. Stocks and sauces that have been overly reduced often have a flat, cooked taste that must be offset with more assertive flavors. For this reason, natural gelatin alone is rarely relied on to thicken a sauce. Sauces containing a high concentration of natural gelatin are often finished with butter, which attenuates the gelatin's stickiness.
Egg Yolks
Because they thicken sauces in several ways, egg yolks are versatile liaisons. They provide the base for emulsified sauces, such as mayonnaise and hollandaise, and are used in conjunction with cream to finish the cooking liquid of poached meats and fish. They not only form emulsions of fat and liquids but also combine with air so they can be used for sabayon sauces. They are also used to give richness and texture to crème anglaise.
Egg yolks contain several emulsifiers - among them, cholesterol and lecithin, which account for their versatility. Many scientific studies have been done to explain the behavior of egg yolks, but a few tips and precautions are especially useful to the saucier. Sauces containing egg yolks should not be allowed to boil unless they contain flour, which stabilizes them. Sauce allemande and pastry cream are examples of sauces with flour that are boiled after the yolks are added. Egg yolks are also stabilized to some degree by sugar and acids such as lemon and vinegar, but not so much that the yolks can be boiled without curdling.
When combining egg yolks with hot liquids, be sure to whisk some of the hot liquid into the yolks before returning the mixture to the saucepan. If the yolks are added directly to a hot liquid, they are liable to coagulate as soon as they are exposed to the heat. Never cook sauces containing egg yolks in aluminum pots, or the sauces will tum gray.
Egg yolks and cream
Egg yolks are rarely used alone as a thickener for sauces. They are usually combined with cream, and then added to a liquid already lightly thickened with flour. Blanquette de veau, a white veal stew finished with cream and egg yolks, one of the cornerstones of French home cooking, illustrates the use of egg yolks as a final liaison for poached meats. The pieces of veal are poached in water or white veal stock along with aromatic vegetables and a bouquet gami.
When the veal is tender, the liquid is strained, thickened into a classic veloute with flour - about 3 ½-ounces (100 grams) roux to 1-quart (1 liter) poaching liquid - and then finished with the cream and egg yolk liaison . Recipes vary, but an egg yolk liaison is usually made by combining each yolk with 3- to 4-tablespoons (45 to 60 milliliters) heavy cream and then using 3 to 4 egg yolks' worth of this mixture to thicken 1-quart (1 liter) of veloute. After the liaison has been added to the veloute, the sauce is then gently stirred until it naps the back of a spoon. The stability of the egg yolks will depend on the proportion of flour in the veloute, but most recipes do not risk curdling and warn against letting the sauce boil.
Cream
Heavy cream has long been used to finish cooking liquids and sauces, but only in recent years has reduced cream largely replaced roux as a thickener, becoming an almost universal base for white sauces. Because of its richness, chefs are beginning to use cream more judiciously, and many of the reduced cream-thickened sauces of the last two decades are being abandoned for lighter versions, in which only enough cream is used to contribute a smooth texture.
Heavy cream can be used to finish a sauce, to give it a smooth texture and a more subtle flavor, but it becomes effective as a thickener per se only when it is reduced. Heavy cream or crème fraiche can be reduced and used in two ways. They can be reduced alone and used as needed as thickeners for last-minute sauces, or the cream can be combined with the ,sauce base or cooking liquid and the two reduced together. The second method is best used for sauces made in advance. One of the most commonly used methods is to finish pan sauces with cream (see the recipe that follows).
Whichever method is used, several precautions should be followed when reducing cream. Always reduce cream in a saucepan three or four times its volume; if cream is allowed to boil for even a few seconds, it will boil over. Although it is not necessary to stir or whisk simmering cream continually, give the cream a quick whisking at least every 2 minutes while it is reducing. Cream that is allowed to sit unheeded over even a low flame will become granular and may break.
Always use a saucepan with a large enough diameter to accommodate a medium to high flame. If the pan is too small, the flame will wrap around the outside of it and cause the cream to brown along the pan's inside, discoloring the finished sauce. This is less of a problem on an electric range. Never cook cream covered. Water will condense on a lid or covering and drip down into the cream, causing it to become granular and eventually to break.
When using reduced cream as a thickener for wine sauces, be sure to reduce the wine thoroughly before adding the cream. Not only can the raw wine's acidity cause the cream to break, but an unpleasant flavor of uncooked wine will remain in the sauce.
The degree that heavy cream should be reduced can vary, from one-third to two-thirds its original volume, depending on its butterfat content and the desired thickness of the finished sauce. In other words, if 1 ½ cups (375 milliliters) of heavy cream were added to ½ cup (125 milliliters) of flavor base, the mixture could be reduced to ½ cup (125 milliliters) for a very thick sauce or to 1 cup ( 250 milliliters) for a lighter sauce.
When used alone, reduced cream is very rich and sometimes has a slightly chalky texture in the mouth. Thus, it is rarely used as the only thickener for sauces but is usually used in conjunction with butter, egg yolks, or flour. Butter is often used to finish reduced cream sauces to give them an appealing sheen and a smoother texture; it of course does nothing to attenuate the sauce's richness. Some chefs use roux as a preliminary thickener for the sauce base or add beurre manie at the end so that the sauce requires less reduction and is hence less rich (and expensive). Using flour to augment the thickening power of cream is almost the same as preparing a classic sauce supreme, except the approach is reversed.
Double Cream
European recipes often call for double cream or crème double. Double cream has an especially high butterfat content and is particularly useful as a sauce thickener because it requires less reduction. It is not marketed in the United States but can be prepared using homemade crème fraiche. To prepare double cream, line a large strainer with a wet napkin or a triple layer of cheesecloth, fill it with crème fraiche, tie it at the top, and suspend it overnight in the refrigerator. The whey drains from the cream, leaving the remaining cream with a higher butterfat content. The approximate butterfat content of the finished cream can be calculated by measuring the amount of liquid (whey) that drained off the cream (for example, if 1 quart (1 liter) of cream released 2 cups (500 milliliters) of whey-that is, half its volume-then the butterfat content can be doubled, to 70 percent, given that heavy cream is 35 percent butterfat).
Butter
Butter has long been used in classic French cooking to finish sauces thickened with flour and for certain simple pan-deglazed sauces. In recent year, it has become popular as a liaison for flourless sauces and in fact has become the thickener of choice for made-to-order brown sauces.
When you whisk butter is into a hot liquid, it forms an emulsion, similar to the action of egg yolks. The milk solids and proteins contained in the butter act as emulsifiers, which keep microscopic globules of fat in suspension and give butter sauces their characteristic sheen and consistency. Because the milk solids contained in the butter are what maintain the emulsion, sauces and cooking liquids cannot be thickened with clarified butter. In fact, cold butter, itself an emulsion, is preferable to warm butter that may have begun to turn oily. Emulsions based on butter alone are less stable than reduced-cream sauces, egg-yolk sauces, or sauces that contain flour. Until recently, butter was usually used in conjunction with other thickeners. Even today, many emulsified butter sauces are only made to order so they do not sit around and break.
Enriching Sauces with Butter (Monter au Beurre). Finishing sauces with butter has become one of the most important and widely used techniques in contemporary sauce making. The technique consists of swirling chunks of cold butter into a hot flavor base, usually just before serving.
Certain precautions should always be followed when using butter as a thickener. If too large, or too small, a proportion of butter is used for a given amount liquid the sauce will break. The proportion of butter used to thicken a given amount of liquid can vary from about 20 percent butter to almost ten times much butter as flavor base (for example, beurre blanc). If too small a proportion of butter is used, it tends to separate and float to the surface of the sauce unless the sauce is already an emulsion based on cream or egg yolks, or it contains flour. Large proportions of butter are used to finish intensely flavored liquids – beurre blanc is an example - but if too much butter is used, the taste of the flavor base is lost, the sauce takes on a thick, waxy appearance, and it may break.
Most chefs finish made-to-order sauces by eye and can quickly judge the correct amount of butter to add based on the sauce’s look and flavor. Even though many well-reduced flavor bases do not require a liaison because of the natural gelatin they contain. Butter is often added to soften the sauce's flavor and to eliminate the sticky consistency of highly reduced meat and fish sauces. When using butter to finish a flavor base, it is better to risk over reducing the flavor base before adding the butter. A butter sauce can easily be thinned, but thickening a sauce containing butter would require reduction, and boiling a butter- enriched sauce for any length of time will cause it to break and become oily As a general rule, a made-to-order butter sauce should contain about one third butter
In other words, ½ cup (125 grams) of butter should be used to finish 1 cup (250 milliliters) of liquid sauce base. These proportions will vary widely, depending on the thickness of the sauce base, the intensity of its flavor, the water content of the butter, and the desired consistency of the finished sauce. Because of the richness of butter-enriched sauces, many chefs are starting to use butter in combination with vegetable purees. Tomato and mushroom purees work especially well as a preliminary thickener for brown sauces. Much less butter is then required to give subtlety and a brilliant shine to the sauce.
Emulsification
Sauces can also be thickened by the process of emulsification, whereby un-mixable liquids such as oil and water are forced into a uniform, creamy state. Usually an emulsifying agent such as the lecithin found in egg yolks must be present to aid in the process. The action of stirring or whisking a sauce to incorporate the ingredients will produce an emulsion that is permanent, semi-permanent or temporary. A permanent emulsion, such as that formed when making mayonnaise, will last for several clays. A semi-permanent emulsion will last for a few hours. Hollandaise sauce is one example of a semi-permanent emulsion. A temporary emulsion will last very briefly and usually does not contain an emulsifying agent. Rather, vigorous whisking aerates the mixture, causing the temporary suspension of liquids. Such is the case when oil and vinegar are whisked together to make a simple salad dressing.
Sauce Finishing Techniques
Reduction
As sauces cook, moisture is released in the form of steam. As steam escapes, the remaining ingredients concentrate, thickening the sauce and strengthening the flavors. This process, known as reduction, is commonly used to thicken sauces because no starches or other flavor-altering ingredients are needed. Sauces are often finished by allowing them to reduce until the desired consistency is reached.
Straining
Smoothness is important to the success of most sauces. They can be strained through either a china cap lined with several layers of cheesecloth or a fine mesh chinois. As discussed later, often vegetables, herbs, spices and other seasonings are added to a sauce for flavor. Straining removes these ingredients as well as any lumps of roux or thickener remaining in the sauce after the desired flavor and consistency have been reached.
Monter Au Beurre
Monter au beurre is the process of swirling or whisking who le b utter into a sauce to give it shine, flavor and rich ness. Compound or flavored butters, discussed later, can be used in place of whole butter to acid specific flavors. Monter au beurre is widely used to enrich and finish small sauces.
Nappe
Nappe consistency is a French culinary term. It is a term that refers to the consistency of a sauce. Nappe consistency is achieved when the sauce reaches a thickness that allows it to coat the food evenly. It should not be too thick or too thin. How do you know then your sauce has reached the right consistency? Take a spoon, immerse it in the sauce and turn it over with the back of the spoon facing you. Run your index finger down the spoon (see image above). If you end up with a clean line down the middle, your sauce is ready. Some examples of sauces that nappe consistency applies to are: hollandaise, bearnaise and bechamel. Nappe consistency basically ensures that your sauce will have a velvety smooth texture, without any lumps.
The secret to achieving a perfect, silky, nappe consistency lies in two things: constant stirring (always use a metal whisk) and the right temperature. The stirring will prevent the proteins from separating while keeping a silky consistency. The constant temperature will prevent your sauce from thickening and creating “gruel” - for lack a better term.
Sauce Families
Leading or mother sauces are the foundation for the entire classic repertoire of hot sauces. The five leading sauces béchamel, veloute, espagnole (also known as brown), tomato and hollandaise can be seasoned and garnished to create a wide variety of small or compound sauces. These five leading sauces are distinguished principally by the liquids and thickeners used to create them.
Small or compound sauces are grouped into families based on their leading sauce. Some small sauces have a variety of uses; others are traditional accompaniments for specific foods. A small sauce may be named for its ingredients, place of origin or creator. Although there are numerous classic small sauces, we have included only a few of the more popular ones following each of the leading sauce recipes.
Mother Sauce Liquid Thickener
Béchamel Milk Roux
Veloute
• Veal veloute
• Chicken veloute
• Fish veloute
White Stock
• Veal stock
• Chicken stock
• Fish stock
Roux
Espagnole (brown sauce) Brown stock Roux (optional)
Tomato sauce Tomato Roux (optional)
Hollandaise Butter Egg Yolks | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Sauces_and_Thickening_Agents.txt |
A sauce is a thickened liquid used to flavor and enhance other foods. A good sauce adds flavor, moisture, richness and visual appeal. A sauce should complement food; it should never disguise it. A sauce can be hot or cold, sweet or savory, smooth or chunky.
Although the thought of preparing stocks and sauces may be intimidating, the procedures are really quite simple. Follow the basic procedures outlined in this chapter, use highquality ingredients and, with practice and experience, you will soon master fine stocks and sauces.
The Espagnole Family
Espagnole is the French word for "Spanish", but the sauce's origin story is argued by French cooks. According to Louis Diat, the creator of vichyssoise and the author of the classic Gourmet's Basic French Cookbook: "There is a story that explains why the most important basic brown sauce in French cuisine is called sauce espagnole, or Spanish sauce. According to the story, the Spanish cooks of Louis XIII's bride, Anne, helped to prepare their wedding feast, and insisted upon improving the rich brown sauce of France with Spanish tomatoes. This new sauce was an instant success, and was gratefully named in honor of its creators."
Espagnole sauce is a basic ‘brown sauce’, has a strong taste, and is sparingly used directly on food. As a mother sauce, it serves as the starting point for many derivatives. The mother sauce of the espagnole or brown sauce family is full-bodied and rich. It is made from a brown stock to which brown roux, mirepoix and tomato puree have been added. Most often, this sauce is used to produce demi-glace. Brown stock is also used to make jus lie. Demi-glace and jus lie are intermediary sauces used to create the small sauces of the espagnole family.
Espagnole (Brown Sauce) Recipe
Yield: 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Mirepoix, medium dice 2 lb. (1 kg)
• Clarified butter 8 fl. oz. (250 ml)
• Flour 8 oz. (250 g)
• Brown stock 5 qt. (5 lt)
• Tomato puree 8 oz. (250 g)
Sachet
• Bay leaf 1 (1)
• Dried thyme ½ tsp. (2 ml)
• Peppercorns, crushed ¼ tsp. (1 ml)
• Parsley stems 8 (8)
• Salt and pepper TT (TT)
1. Sauté the mirepoix in butter until well caramelized.
2. Add the flour and cook to make a brown roux.
3. Add the stock and tomato puree. Stir to break up any lumps of roux. Bring to a boil; reduce to a simmer.
4. Add the sachet.
5. Simmer for approximately 1½ hours, allowing the sauce to reduce. Skim the surface as needed to remove impurities.
6. Strain the sauce through a china cap lined with several layers of cheesecloth. Adjust seasonings and cool in a water bath or hold for service.
Demi-Glace
Brown stock is used to make the espagnole or brown sauce described earlier. Espagnole sauce can then be made into demi-glace, which in turn is used to make the small sauces of the espagnole family. Demi-glace is half brown sauce, half brown stock, reduced by half. It is usually finished with a small amount of Madeira or sherry wine. Because demi-glace creates a richer, more flavorful base, it produces finer small sauces than those made directly from a brown sauce.
A properly made demi-glace is rich, smooth and lump-free. Its prominent roasted flavor comes from the bones used for the brown stock. There should be no taste of roux. The caramelized bones and mirepoix as well as the tomato product contribute to its glossy dark brown, almost chocolate, color. It should be thick enough to cling to food without being pasty or heavy.
Demi-Glace Recipe
Yield: l qt. (1 It)
• Brown stock 1 qt. (1 lt)
• Brown sauce 1 qt. (1 lt)
1. Combine the stock and sauce in a saucepan over medium heat.
2. Simmer until the mixture is reduced by half (a yield of l quart or 1 liter).
3. Strain and cool in a water bath.
Jus Lie
Jus lie, also known as fond lie, is used like a demi-glace, especially to produce small sauces. Jus lie is lighter and easier to make than a demi-glace, however. It is made in one of two ways:
1. A rich brown stock is thickened with cornstarch or arrowroot and seasoned.
2. A rich brown stock is simmered and reduced so that it thickens naturally because of the concentrated amounts of gelatin and other proteins.
The starch-thickened method is a quick alternative to the long-simmering demiglace. However, because it is simply a brown stock thickened with cornstarch or arrowroot, it will be only as good as the stock with which it was begun. Sauces made from reduced stock usually have a better flavor but can be expensive to produce because of high food costs and lengthy reduction time.
A properly made jus lie is very rich and smooth. It shares many flavor characteristics with demi-glace. Its color should be dark brown and glossy from the concentrated gelatin content. Its consistency is somewhat lighter than demi-glace, but it should still cling lightly to foods.
Gravy
A gravy is a jus (the natural juices from a roast) that has been thickened with flour. Depending on the amount of cooking liquid remaining in the roasting pan, gravies can be prepared using one of two similar techniques. If a small amount of jus remains in the pan, it should be boiled down on top of the stove until it caramelizes; all but a tablespoon or two of fat should be removed and discarded. The flour is then added and cooked for 2 or 3 minutes in the roasting pan on top of the stove; the mixture is then moistened with stock, water, or other liquids.
If a large amount of roasting jus remains in the pan, it should be transferred to a saucepan or glass container and the fat skimmed off with a ladle. A roux is then prepared in the roasting pan with a little of the fat or some fresh butter. The jus is then returned to the roasting pan and whisked until smooth and thickened. Because flour used as a last-minute thickener for gravies has little time to cook, an alternative is to use a previously thickened veloute- or espagnole-style flour-thickened sauce instead of plain stock to deglaze the pan; the roux is then omitted.
Small Brown Sauces
Demi-glace and jus lie are used to produce many small sauces. The quantities given are for 1 quart (1 liter) demi-glace or jus lie. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
BORDELAISE - Combine 16 fluid ounces (500 milliliters) dry red wine, 2-ounces (60 grams) chopped shallots, 1 bay leaf, 1 sprig thyme and 1 pinch black pepper in a saucepan. Reduce by three-fourths, then add demi-glace and simmer for 15 minutes. Strain through a fine chino is. Finish with 2-ounces (60 grams) whole butter and garnish with sliced, poached beef marrow.
CHASSEUR (HUNTER'S SAUCE) - Sauté 4-ounces (120 grams) sliced mushrooms and 1/2 ounce (15 grams) diced shallots in whole butter. Adel 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) white wine and reduce by three -fourths. Then acid demiglace and 6 ounces (170 grams) diced tomatoes; simmer for 5 minutes. Do not strain. Garnish with chopped parsley.
CHATEAUBRIAND - Combine 16 fluid ounces (500 milliliters) dry white wine and 2-ounces (60 grams) diced shallot s. Reduce the mixture by two-thirds. Add demi-glace and reduce by half. Season to taste with lemon juice and cayenne pepper. Do not strain. Swirl in 4-ounces (120 grams) whole butter to finish and garnish with chopped fresh tarragon.
CHEVREUIL - Prepare a poivrade sauce but add 6 ounces (170 grams) bacon or game trimmings to the mirepoix. Finish with 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) red wine and a dash of cayenne pepper.
MADEIRA OR PORT - Bring demi-glace to a boil and reduce slightly. Then add 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) Madeira wine or ruby port.
MARCHAND DE VIN - Reduce 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) dry reel wine and 2 ounces (60 grams) diced shallots by two-thirds. Then add demi-glace, simmer and strain.
MUSHROOM - Blanch 8-ounces (250 grams) mushroom caps in 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) boiling water seasoned with salt and lemon juice. Drain the mushrooms, saving the liquid. Reduce this liquid to 2- tablespoons (30 milliliters) and add it to the demi -glace. Just before service stir in 2-ounces (60 grams) whole butter and the mushroom caps.
PERIGUEUX - Add finely diced truffles to Madeira sauce. Perigourdine sauce is the same, except that the truffles are cut into relatively thick slices.
PIQUANT - Combine 1-ounce (30 grams) shallots, 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) white wine and 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) white wine vinegar. Reduce the mixture by two-thirds. Then add demi-glace and simmer for 10 minutes. Add 2-ounces (60 grams) diced cornichons, 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) fresh tarragon, 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) fresh parsley and 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) fresh chervil. Do not strain.
POIVRADE - Sweat 12-ounces (340 grams) mirepoix in 2-tablespoons (30 milliliters) oil. Add 1 bay leaf, 1 sprig thyme and 4 parsley stems. Then add 16 fluid ounces (500 milliliters) vinegar and 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) white wine. Reduce by half, add demi-glace and simmer for 40 minutes. Then add 20 crushed peppercorns and simmer for 5 more minutes. Strain through a fine chinois and finish with up to 2-ounces (60 grams) whole butter.
ROBERT - Sauté 8-ounces (250 grams) chopped onion in 1-ounce (30 grams) whole butter. Add 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) dry white wine and reduce by two -thirds. Add demi-glace and simmer for 10 minutes. Strain and then add 2-teaspoons (10 milliliters) prepared Dijon mustard and 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) granulated sugar. If the finished Robert sauce is garnished with sliced sour pickles, preferably cornichons, it is known as Charcutiere.
Demi sauce plate up example. Photo Credit Amelie Zeringue
Different demi sauces preapred in class. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.04%3A_Demi-Based_Sauces.txt |
The Bechamel Family
Balsamell or Besciamella is the Italian equivalent of the French Béchamel: a very simple white sauce of flour, butter and milk. The sauce was originally from Renaissance Tuscany and was known as "Salsa Colla or Colletta" ("glue sauce") because of the gluey consistency of the sauce, and was brought to France by the chefs of Catherina de' Medici in 1533. This sauce was prominent in Italian cooking texts of the Renaissance as "salsa colla", but was renamed much later in Le Cuisinier François, published in 1651 by François Pierre La Varenne (1615–1678).
Named for its creator, Louis de Béchamel (1630-1703), steward to Louis XIV of France, béchamel sauce is the easiest mother sauce to prepare. Traditionally, it is made by adding heavy cream to a thick veal veloute. Although some chefs still believe a béchamel should contain veal stock, today the sauce is generally made by thickening scalded milk with a white roux and adding seasonings. Often used for vegetable, egg and gratin dishes, béchamel has fallen into relative disfavor recently because of its rich, heavy nature. It is nevertheless important to understand its production and its place in traditional sauce making.
A properly made béchamel is rich, creamy and absolutely smooth with no hint of graininess. The flavors of the onion and clove used to season it should be apparent but not overwhelm the sauce's clean, milky taste. The sauce should be the color of heavy cream and have a deep luster. It should be thick enough to coat foods lightly bur should not taste like the roux used to thicken it.
Ingredients
Scalded Milk -to heat a liquid, usually milk, to just below boiling point. Boiling can cause the milk to curdle, which is not particularly appetizing. The milk separates and loses its emulsion which then will create the look of a broken sauce.
Onion Piquet - attach a bay leaf to a piece of onion by pushing whole cloves (like a toothpick) through the bay leaf into the onion. This is the classic seasoning for béchamel sauce. Clove is a spice that are flower buds from a tree. Very aromatic (May be considered as a Christmas Spice).
Example of an onion piquet. Photo Credit: Flikr
• Nutmeg - used sparingly and can be considered intrusive. Also a Christmas spice.
• White Roux - Barely cooked and has the most thickening power. Can be made with butter to added flavor since it is not cooked very long.
Sauce Qualities Small Sauce or Flavorings Use
Béchamel Smooth, rich and creamy; no graininess; cream- colored with rich sheen Cream Vegetables, pasta, eggs, fish, shellfish
Cheese Vegetables, pasta
Mornay Fish, shellfish, poultry, vegetables
Nantua Fish, shellfish
Soubise Veal, pork, eggs
Ingredients in Derivatives and Troubleshooting
• Cheese - can cause a bechamel to curdle because it can separate if heated to high. That is why it is usually slightly melted at the end
• Mustard - can cause curdling because of the acid in it.
• Horseradish - can cause curdling because of the acid in it.
• Lemon – can cause curdling because it is an acid.
• Mushrooms - add water, and may make the sauce watery if not sautéed before.
• Corn - is a starch and can cause additional thickening.
• Crawfish - can change the color or can become over cooked.
• Onions - add sweetness.
• Smoking flavor - too much/too little-could be considered an intrusive ingredient.
Factors affecting NAPPE
• Reducing too much
• Reducing too little
• Letting a sauce stand
• Refrigerating
• Other ingredients added to the sauce
All of the above notes can affect the consistency of a bechamel. Remember this is a tricky sauce because it can become easily gloopy or too thick.
A proper béchamel should be:
• Rich and Smooth
• With no hint of graininess
• You should not taste the roux
• When used as a sauce it should be thick enough to lightly coat the food.
Bechamel Sauce Recipe
Yield: 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Onion piquet 1 (1)
• Milk 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Flour 8 oz. (250 g)
• Clarified butter 8 fl. oz. (250 ml)
• Salt and white pepper TT (TT)
• Nutmeg TT (TT)
1. Tack a bay leaf onto a small peeled onion using a clove to make onion piquet. Add the onion piquet to the milk in a heavy saucepan and simmer for 20 minutes.
2. In a separate pot, make a white roux with the flour and butter.
3. Remove the onion piquet from the milk.
4. Gradually add the hot milk to the roux while stirring constantly with a whisk to prevent lumps. Bring to a boil.
5. Reduce the sauce to a simmer, add the seasonings and continue cooking for 30 minutes.
6. Strain the sauce through a china cap lined with cheesecloth. Carefully ladle melted butter over the surface of the sauce to prevent a skin from forming. Hold for service or cool in a water bath.
Small (Daughter) Sauces
With a good béchamel, producing the small sauces in its family is quite simple. The quantities given are for 1 quart (l liter) of béchamel. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
• CREAM SAUCE - Add to béchamel 8-12 fluid ounces (250-360 milliliters) scalded cream and a few drops of lemon juice.
• CHEESE - Add to béchamel 8 ounces (250 grams) grated Cheddar or American cheese, a clash of Worcestershire sauce and 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) city mustard.
• MORNAY - Add to béchamel 4-ounces (120 grams) grated Gruyere and 1 ounce (30 grams) grated Parmesan. Thin as desired with scalded cream. Remove the sauce from the heat and swirl in 2-ounces (60 grams) whole butter.
• NANTUA - Add to béchamel 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) heavy cream and 6-ounces (180 grams) crayfish butter. Add paprika to achieve the desired color. Garnish the finished sauce with d iced crayfish meat.
•
• SOUBISE (MODERN) - Sweat one pound (500 grams) diced onions in 1-ounce (30 grams) whole butter without browning. Adel béchamel and simmer until the onions are fully cook ed. Strain through a fine chinois.
Bechamel sauce plate up examples. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.05%3A_Bechamel_Based_Sauces.txt |
The Veloute Family
A velouté sauce is a savory sauce, made from a roux and a light stock. It is one of the five "mother sauces" of French cuisine listed by Auguste Escoffier in the 19th century. The term velouté is the French word for ‘velvety’.
Veloute Sauces
Fish stock + Roux = Veloute
Chicken stock + Roux = Veloute + Cream = Supreme
Chicken stock + Roux = Veloute + Liaison and lemon = Allemande
Veal stock + Roux = Veloute + Liaison and lemon = Allemande
Veloute sauces are made by thickening a white stock or fish stock with roux. The white stock can be made from veal or chicken bones. A veloute sauce made from veal or chicken stock is usually used 10 make one of two intermediate sauces allemande and supreme from which many small sauces are derived. Allemande sauce is made by adding lemon juice and a liaison to either a veal or chicken veloute. (The stock used depends on the dish with which the sauce will be served.) Supreme sauce is made by adding cream to a chicken veloute.
A properly made veloute should be rich, smooth and lump-free. If made from chicken or fish stock, it should taste of chicken or fish. A veloute made from veal stock should have a more neutral flavor. The sauce should be ivo1y -colored, with a deep luster. It should be thick enough to cling to foods without tasting like the roux used to thicken it.
Veloute Sauce Recipe
• Clarified butter 8 fl. oz. (250 ml)
• Flour 8 oz. (250 g)
• Chicken, veal or fish stock 5 qt. (4.7 lt)
• Salt and white pepper TT (TT)
1. Heat the butter in a heavy saucepan.
2. Add the flour and cook to make a blond roux.
3. Gradually add the stock to the roux, stirring constantly with a whisk to prevent lumps. Bring to a boil and reduce to a simmer. (Seasoning are optional; their use depends on the seasonings in the stock and the sauce's intended use.)
4. Simmer and reduce to 1 gallon {4 liters), approximately 30 minutes.
5. Strain through a china cap lined with cheesecloth.
6. Melted butter may be carefully ladled over the surface of the sauce to prevent a skin from forming. Hold for service or cool in a water bath
Small Fish Veloute Sauces
A few small sauces can be made from fish veloute. The quantities given are for 1-quart (1 liter) fish veloute sauce. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
Bercy
Sauté 2 ounces (60 grams) finely diced shallots in butter. Then add 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) dry white wine and 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) fish stock. Reduce this mixture by one -third and acid the fish veloute. Finish with butter and garnish with chopped parsley.
Cardinal
Acid 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) fish stock to 1-quart (1 liter) fish veloute. Reduce this mixture by half and add 1 pint (500 milliliters) heavy cream and a dash of cayenne pepper. Bring to a boil and swirl in l \2 ounces (45 grams) lobster butter. Garnish with chopped lobster coral at service time.
Normandy
Add 4 ounces (120 grams) mushroom trimmings and 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) fish stock to 1 quart Cl liter) fish veloute. Reduce by onethird and finish with an egg yolk and cream liaison. Strain through a fine chinois.
Allemande Sauce Recipe
Yield: 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Veal or chicken veloute sauce 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Egg yolks 8 (8)
• Heavy Cream 24 fl. oz. (675 ml)
• Lemon juice 1 fl. oz. (30 ml)
• Salt and white pepper TT (TT)
1. Bring the veloute to a simmer.
2. In a stainless steel bowl, whip the egg yolks with the cream to create a liaison.
3. Ladle approximately one-third of the hot veloute sauce into this mixture, while whisking, to temper the yolk-and-cream mixture.
4. When one-third of the veloute has been incorporated into the now-warmed yolk-and-cream mixture, gradually add the liaison to the remaining veloute sauce while whisking continuously.
5. Reheat the sauce. Do not let it boil.
6. Add the lemon juice; season with salt and white pepper to taste.
7. Strain through a china cap lined with cheesecloth.
Small Allemande Sauces
Several small sauces are easily produced from an allemande sauce made with either a chicken or veal veloute. The quantities given are for 1-quart (1 liter) allemande. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
Aurora
Add to allemande 2-ounces (60 grams) tomato paste and finish with 1-ounce (30 grams) butter.
Horseradish
Add to allemande 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) heavy cream and 1-teaspoon (5 milliliters) dry mustard. Just before service add 2-ounces (60 grams) freshly grated horse radish. Cook the horseradish separate from the sauce.
Mushroom
Sauté 4 ounces (120 grams) sliced mushrooms in 12 ounce 05 grams) whole butter; acid 2- teaspoons (10 milliliters) lemon juice. Then acid the allemande to the mushrooms. Do not strain.
Poulette
Sauté 8-ounces (250 grams) sliced mushrooms and 1/2 ounce (15 grams) diced shallot in 1- ounce (30 grams) whole butter. Adel to the allemande; then acid 2 fluid ounces (60 milliliters) heavy cream. Finish with lemon juice to taste and 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) chopped parsley.
Supreme Sauce Recipe
Yield: 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Chicken veloute sauce 1 gal. 4 (lt)
• Mushroom trimmings 8 oz. (225 g)
• Heavy cream 1 qt. (1 lt)
• Salt and white pepper TT (TT)
1. Simmer the veloute sauce with the mushroom trimmings until reduced by one-fourth.
2. Gradually whisk in the cream and return to a simmer
3. Adjust the seasonings.
4. Strain through a china cap lined with cheesecloth.
Small Supreme Sauces
The following small sauces are easily made from a supreme sauce. The quantities given are for 1-quart (l liter) supreme sauce. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
Albufera
Add to supreme sauce 3 fluid ounces (90 milliliters) glace de volaille and 2-ounces (60 grams) red pepper butter.
Hungarian
Sweat 2-ounces (60 grams) diced onion in 1-tablespoon (15 milliliters) whole butter. Adel 1 tables poon (15 milliliters) paprika. Stir in supreme sauce. Cook for 2 to 3 minutes, strain and finish with whole butter.
Ivory
Add to supreme sauce 3 fluid ounces (90 milliliters) glace de volaille.
Veloute sauce plate up examples. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.06%3A_Veloute_Based_Sauces.txt |
The Tomato Sauce Family
The use of tomato sauce with pasta appears for the first time in 1790 in the Italian cookbook L'Apicio moderno, by Roman chef Francesco Leonardi. Tomato sauce (also known as Neapolitan sauce, or salsa di pomodoro in Italian) can refer to a large number of different sauces made primarily from tomatoes, usually to be served as part of a dish, rather than as a condiment. Tomato sauces are common for meat and vegetables, known as bases for Mexican salsas or sauces for pasta dishes, and have a rich flavor, high water content, soft flesh which breaks down easily, and the right composition to thicken into a sauce when they are cooked (without the need of thickeners such as roux). All of these qualities make them ideal for simple and appealing sauces. Classic tomato sauce is made from tomatoes, vegetables, seasonings and white stock and thickened with a blond or brown roux. In today's kitchens, however, most tomato sauces are not thickened with roux. Rather, they are created from tomatoes, herbs, spices, vegetables and other flavoring ingredients simmered together and pureed.
A gastrique is sometimes added to reduce the acidity of a tomato sauce. To prepare a gastrique, caramelize a small amount of sugar, then thin or deglaze with vinegar. This mixture is then used to finish the tomato sauce.
A properly made tomato sauce is thick, rich and full-flavored. Its texture should be grainier than most other classic sauces, but it should still be smooth. The vegetables and other seasonings should add flavor, but none should be pronounced. Tomato sauce should not be bitter, acidic or overly sweet. It should be deep reel and thick enough to cling to foods.
Tomato Sauce Recipe
Yield: 1 gal. (4 lt)
• Salt pork, small dice 4 oz. (120 g)
• Mirepoix 1 lb. 8 oz. (750 g)
• Tomatoes, fresh or canned 3 qt. (3 lt)
• Tomato puree 2 qt. (2 lt)
Sachet
• Dried thyme 1 tsp. (5 ml)
• Bay leaves 3 (3)
• Garlic cloves 3 (3)
• Parsley stems 10 (10)
• Peppercorns, crushed ½ tsp. (3 ml)
• Salt l ½ oz. (45 g)
• Granulated sugar ¾ oz. (20 g)
• White stock 3 qt. (3 lt)
• Pork bones 2 lb. (1 kg)
1. Render the salt pork over medium heat.
2. Add the mirepoix and sauté, but do not brown.
3. Add the tomatoes, tomato puree, sachet, salt and sugar.
4. Add the stock and bones.
5. Simmer slowly for 1 to 2 hours or until the desired consistency has been reached.
6. Remove the bones and sachet and pass the sauce through a food mill. Cool in a water bath and refrigerate.
Small Tomato Sauces
The following small sauces arc made by adding the listed ingredients to 1-quart (1 liter) tomato sauce. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper.
Creole
Sauté 6-ounces (170 grams) finely diced onion, 4-ounces (120 grams) thinly sliced celery and 1-teaspoon (5 milliliters) garlic in 1 fluid ounce (30 milliliters) oil. Add tomato sauce, a bay leaf and 1 pinch thyme; simmer for 15 minutes. Then add 4-ounces (120 grams) finely sliced green pepper and a clash of hot pepper sauce; simmer for 15 minutes longer. Remove the bay leaf.
Spanish
Prepare creole sauce as directed, adding 4 ounces (120 grams) sliced mushrooms to the sautéed onions. Garnish with sliced black or green olives.
Milanaise
Sauté 5 ounces (140 grams) sliced mushrooms in 1/2 ounce 05 grams) whole butter. Incorporate the tomato sauce and then stir in 5-ounces (140 grams) cooked ham (julienne) and 5 ounces (140 grams) cooked tongue (julienne). Bring to a simmer.
Tomato sauce production. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.07%3A_Tomato_Based_Sauces.txt |
The Hollandaise Family
Hollandaise is a sauce that is made by the emulsification of clarified butter into a sabayon or fluffy cooked egg yolks sauce.
It gets its name because when butter production slowed in France due to WWI it was imported from Holland. The name was changed to reflect the country of origin of the butter and never changed back.
Sauce hollandaise is French for "Dutch sauce". The name implies Dutch origins, but the actual connection is unclear. The name "Dutch sauce" is documented in English as early as 1573, though without a recipe showing that it was the same thing. The first documented recipe is from 1651 in La Varenne's: Le Cuisinier François for "asparagus with fragrant sauce":
"make a sauce with some good fresh butter, a little vinegar, salt, and nutmeg, and an egg yolk to bind the sauce; take care that it doesn't curdle"
Hollandaise and the small sauces derived from it are emulsified sauces. Egg yolks, which contain large amounts of lecithin, a natural emulsifier, are used to emulsify warm butter and a small amount of water, lemon juice or vinegar. When the egg yolks are vigorously whipped with the liquid while the warm butter is slowly added, the lecithin coats the individual fat droplets and holds them in suspension in the liquid.
A properly made hollandaise is smooth, buttery, pale non-yellow-colored and very rich. It is lump-free and should not exhibit any signs of separation. The buttery flavor should dominate but not mask the flavors of the egg, lemon and vinegar. The sauce should be frothy and light, not heavy like a mayonnaise.
Temperatures and Sanitation Concerns
Temperatures play an important role in the proper production of a hollandaise sauce. As the egg yolks and liquid are whisked together, they are cooked over a bain marie until they thicken Lo the consistency of slightly whipped cream. Do not overheat this mixture, because even slightly cooked eggs lose their ability to emulsify. The clarified butter used to make the sauce should be warm but not so hot as to further cook the egg yolks. Although hollandaise sauce can be made from whole butter, a more stable and consistent product will be achieved by using clarified butter.
Handling Emulsified Butter Sauces
• Emulsified butter sauces must be held at the specific temperatures most conducive to bacterial growth: 41°F- 135°F (5°C-57°C).
• If the sauce is heated above 150°F (65°C), the eggs will cook and the sauce will break and become grainy. If the sauce temperature falls below 45°F (7°C), the butter will solidify, making the sauce unusable. In order to minimize the risk of food-borne illnesses:
• Always use clean, sanitized utensils.
• Schedule sauce production as close to the time of service as possible. Never hold hollandaise-based sauces more than 1½ hours.
• Make small batches of sauce.
• Never mix an old batch of sauce with a new one.
Rescuing a Broken Hollandaise
Occasionally, a hollandaise will break or separate and appear thin, grainy or even lumpy. A sauce breaks when the emulsion has not formed or the emulsified butter, eggs and liquid have separated. This may happen for several reasons: The temperature of the eggs or butter may have been too high or too low; the butter may have been added too quickly; the egg yolks may have been overcooked; too much butter may have been added or the sauce may not have been whipped vigorously enough.
To rescue and re-emulsify broken hollandaise you must first determine whether it is too hot or too cold. If it is too hot, allow the sauce to cool. If it is too cold, reheat the sauce over a double boiler before attempting to rescue it.
For 1-quart (1 liter) of broken sauce, place 1 tablespoon 05 milliliters) water in a clean stainless steel bowl and slowly beat in the broken sauce. If the problem seems to be that the eggs were overcooked or too much butter was added, add a yolk to the water before incorporating the broken sauce.
Tips for Hollandaise
• The general rule is that an egg yolk can hold 8 ounces of clarified butter (or oil for mayo)
• You should whip the sabayon to ribbon stage
• The sauce must be held at below 150 degrees F (45-145) (If the yolks or the butter get too hot the eggs will curdle and cook and if below 45 the butter will start to solidify and your sauce will break
• If the yolks or clarified butter gets too cold your sauce will break when you place it on your hot food product.
• You can make a perfect hollandaise then put it in a place that is too hot or too cold and it will break
• Also because it is held at less than 150 degrees F. it by definition sits in the “Danger Zone” and should be only held for 2 hrs max.
• Flavoring agents or added ingredients need to be within proper temperatures
• If you add extra yolks to make it more stable it can become too heavy
• If you don’t have enough yolks for the amount of clarified butter it can break
• If you don’t slowly add the butter it will break
• If you add it too slowly it will break
• There are two schools of thought on a broken hollandaise. You can fix it or start over. Your choice usually depends on how seriously you take your sauce making and how quickly you need it.
Ingredients
1. Egg yolks - contain lecithin, a natural emulsifier. When egg yolks are whisked vigorously with a liquid (water and acid) while warm butter is added slowly, lecithin coats the fat droplets and holds them in a suspension.
2. Clarified butter - although whole butter can be used, clarified will provide a more stable sauce and traditionally is used.
3. Acid - Balances flavor and cuts through the fat
4. Water - helps stabilize the emulsion
5. Seasoning - flavor
Emulsification
• The process by which generally unmixable liquids, such as oil and water, are forced into a uniform distribution.
• Permanent - Mayonnaise (lasting several days or longer)
• Semi-permanent - Hollandaise (lasting a few hours)
• Temporary - Vinaigrette with no emulsifier in it (lasting briefly)
Techniques
• Double Boiler - heating with water that cannot exceed 212 degrees, instead of directly over the stove which can exceed 212 degrees. Used in temperature sensitive cooking.
• Tempering - gradually raising the temperature of a cold liquid such as eggs by slowly stirring in a hot liquid.
• Sabayon stage - actually a dessert sauce of egg yolks, sugar, and wine. It resembles a light fluffy sauce that when thick enough to form a ribbon when the whisk is lifted while whipping. The sabayon stage will be what you are looking for before adding clarified butter.
Hollandaise Sauce Recipe
Yield: 24 fl. oz. (750 ml)
• White peppercorns, crushed ½ tsp. (2 ml)
• White wine vinegar 3 fl. oz. (90 ml)
• Water 2 fl. oz. (60 ml)
• Egg yolks, pasteurized 6 (6)
• Lemon juice 1½ fl. oz. (45 ml)
• Clarified butter, warm 1 pt. (450 ml)
• Salt and white pepper TT (TT)
• Cayenne pepper TT (TT)
1. Combine the peppercorns, vinegar and water in a small saucepan and reduce by one-half.
2. Place the egg yolks in a stainless steel bowl. Strain the vinegar-and-pepper reduction through a chinois into the yolks. There should be ½ fluid ounce (15 milliliters) acidic reduction for each egg yolk used.
3. Place the bowl over a double boiler whipping the mixture continuously with a wire whip. As the yolks cook, the mixture will thicken. When the mixture is thick enough to leave a trail across the surface when the whip is drawn away, remove the bowl from the double boiler. Do not overcook the egg yolks.
4. Whip in 1 fluid ounce (30 milliliters) lemon juice to stop the yolks from cooking.
5. Begin to add the warm clarified butter to the egg yolk mixture a few drops at a time, while constantly whipping the mixture to form an emulsion. Once the emulsion is started, the butter may be added more quickly. Continue until all the butter is incorporated.
6. Whip in the remaining lemon juice. Adjust the seasonings.
7. Strain the sauce through cheesecloth if necessary and hold for service in a warm (not simmering) bain marie. This sauce may be held for approximately l to 1½ hours.
Hollandaise Blender Method
Yield: 1 qt. (1 lt.)
• Egg yolks, pasteurized 9 (9)
• Water, warm 3 fl. oz. (90 ml)
• Lemon juice l fl. oz. (30 ml)
• Cayenne pepper TT (TT)
• Salt 1 tsp. (5 ml)
• White pepper ¼ tsp. (1 ml)
• Tabasco sauce TT (TT)
• Whole butter 24 oz. (750 g)
1. Place the egg yolks, water, lemon juice, cayenne pepper, salt, white pepper and Tabasco sauce in the bowl of the blender. Cover and blend on high speed for approximately 5 seconds.
2. Heat the butter to approximately 175°F (80°C). This allows the butter to cook the yolks as it is added to them.
3. Turn the blender on and immediately begin to add the butter in a steady stream. Incorporate all the butter in 20 to 30 seconds. Adjust the seasonings.
4. If any lumps are present, strain the sauce through a mesh strainer. Transfer the sauce to a stainless steel container and adjust the seasonings. Hold for service in a bain marie, remembering the sanitation precautions discussed earlier.
Small Hollandaise Sauces
The following small sauces are easily made by adding the listed ingredients to 1-quart (l liter) hollandaise. The final step for each recipe is to season to taste with salt and pepper. Bearnaise is presented here as a small sauce although some chefs consider it a leading sauce.
BEARNAISE - Combine 2- ounces (60 grams) chopped shallots, 5 tablespoons (75 milliliters) chopped fresh tarragon, 3 tablespoons (45 milliliters) chopped fresh chervil and 1-teaspoon (5 milliliters) crushed peppercorns with 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) white wine vinegar. Reduce to 2 fluid ounces (60 milliliters). Acid this reduction to the egg yolks and proceed with the hollandaise recipe. Strain the finished sauce and season to taste with salt and cayenne pepper. Garnish with additional chopped fresh tarragon.
CHORON - Combine 2-ounces (60 grams) tomato paste and 2 fluid ounces (60 milliliters) heavy cream; acid the mixture to a bearnaise.
FOYOT - Add to bearnaise 3 fluid ounces (90 milliliters) melted glace deviande.
GRIMROD - Infuse a hollandaise sauce with saffron.
MALTAISE - Add to hollandaise 2 fluid ounces (60 milliliters) orange juice and 2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) finely grated orange zest. Blood oranges are traditionally used for this sauce.
MOUSSELINE (CHANTILLY SAUCE) - Whip 8 fluid ounces (250 milliliters) heavy cream until stiff. Fold it into the hollandaise just before service. Mousseline sauce is also used as a glaze coating.
Beurre Blanc and Beurre Rouge
Beurre blanc and beurre rouge are emulsified butter sauces made without egg yolks. The small amounts of lecithin and other emulsifiers naturally found in butter are used to form an oil-in-water emulsion. Although similar to hollandaise in concept, they are not considered either classic leading or compound sauces. Beurre blancs are thinner and lighter than hollandaise and bearnaise. They should be smooth and slightly thicker than heavy cream.
Beurre blanc and beurre rouge are made from three main ingredients: shallots, white (Fr. blanc) wine or red (Fr. rouge) wine and whole butter (not clarified). The shallots and wine provide flavor, while the butter becomes the sauce. A good beurre blanc or beurre rouge is rich and buttery, with a neutral flavor that responds well to other seasonings and flavorings, there by lending itself to the addition of herbs, spices and vegetable purees to complement the dish with which it is served. Its pale color changes depending on the flavorings added. It should be light and airy yet still liquid, while thick enough to cling to food.
Preparing Beurre Blanc or Beurre Rouge
1. Use a non-aluminum pan to prevent discoloring the sauce. Do not use a thin-walled or nonstick pan, as heat is not evenly distributed in a thin-walled pan and a nonstick pan makes it difficult for an emulsion to set.
2. Over medium heat, reduce the wine, shallots and herbs or other seasonings, if used, until au sec (that is, nearly dry). Some chefs add a small amount of heavy cream at this point and reduce the mixture.
3. Although not necessary, the added cream helps stabilize the finished sauce.
4. Whisk in cold butter a small amount at a time. The butter should be well chilled, as this allows the butterfat, water and milk solids to be gradually incorporated into the sauce as the butter melts and the mixture is whisked.
5. When all the butter is incorporated, strain and hold the sauce in a bain-marie.
Temperature
Do not let the sauce become too hot. At 136°F (58° C), some of the emulsifying proteins begin to break down and release the butterfat they hold in emulsion. Extended periods at temperatures over 136°F (58°C) will cause the sauce to separate. If the sauce separates, it can be corrected by cooling to approximately J10°F - 120 °F (43°C-49°C) and whisking to re incorporate the butterfat.
If the sauce is allowed to cool below 85°F (30°C), the butterfat will solidify. If the sauce is reheated, it will separate into butterfat and water; whisking will not re-emulsify it. Cold beurre blanc can be used as a soft, flavored butter, however, simply by whisking it at room temperature until it smooths out to the consistency of mayonnaise.
Beurre Blanc Recipe
Yield: 1 qt. (1 lt)
• White wine 1 fl. oz. (30 ml)
• White wine vinegar 4 fl. oz. (120 ml)
• Salt l ½ tsp. (7 ml)
• White pepper 1/8 tsp. (2 ml)
• Shallot, minced 1 oz. (30 g)
• Whole butter, chilled 2 lb. (1 kg)
1. Combine the white wine, white wine vinegar salt, white pepper and shallot in a small saucepan. Reduce the mixture until approximately 2-tablespoons (30 milliliters) of liquid remain. If more than 2-tablespoons of liquid are allowed to remain, the resulting sauce will be too thin. For a thicker sauce, reduce the mixture au sec.
2. Cut the butter into pieces approximately 1 ounce (30 grams) in weight. Over low heat, whisk in the butter a few pieces at a time, using the chilled butter to keep the sauce between 100°F and 120°F (38°C and 49°C).
3. Once all the butter has been incorporated, remove the saucepan from the heat. Strain through a chinois and hold the sauce at a temperature between 100°F and 130°F (38°C and 54°C) for service.
Variations
Beurre Rouge - Substitute a dry red wine for the white wine and red wine vinegar for the white wine vinegar.
Lemon-Dill - Heat 2-tablespoons (30 milliliters) lemon juice and whisk it into the beurre blanc. Stir in 4 tablespoons (60 milliliters) chopped fresh dill.
Pink Peppercorn - Add 2-tablespoons (30 milliliters) coarsely crushed pink peppercorns to the shallot-wine reduction when making beurre rouge. Garnish the finished sauce with whole pink peppercorns.
Compound Butters
A compound butter is made by incorporating various seasonings into softened whole butter. These butters, also known as beurres composes give flavor and color to small sauces or may be served as sauces in their own right. For ex ample, a slice of maître' D’ hotel butter (parsley butter) is often placed on a grilled steak or piece of fish at the time of service. The butter quickly melts, creating a sauce for the beef or fish.
Butter and flavoring ingredients can be combined with a blender, food processor or mixer. Using parchment paper or plastic wrap, the butter is then rolled into a cylinder, chilled and sliced as needed. It can be piped into rosettes and refrigerated until firm. Most compound butters will keep for two to three days in the refrigerator, or they can be frozen for longer storage.
Recipes for Compound Butters
For each of the following butters, add the listed ingredients to 1 pound (500 grams) of softened, unsalted butter. The compound butter should then be seasoned with salt and pepper to taste.
BASIL BUTTER - Mince 2 ounces (60 grams) basil and 2 ounces (60 grams) shallots; add to the butter with 2-teaspoons (10 milliliters) lemon juice.
HERB BUTTER - Add to the butter up to 1-cup (250 milliliters) mixed chopped fresh herbs such as parsley, dill, chives, tarragon or chervil.
LOBSTER OR CRAYFISH BUTTER - Grind 8 ounces (250 grams) cooked lobster or crayfish meat, shells and/or coral with 1-pound (500 grams) butter. Place in a saucepan and clarify. Strain the butter through a fine chinois lined with cheesecloth. Refrigerate, and then remove the butterfat when firm.
MAITRE D'HOTEL BUTTER - Mix into the butter 4-tablespoons (60 milliliters) finely chopped parsley, 3 tablespoons (45 milliliters) lemon juice and a dash of ,white pepper.
MONTPELIER BUTTER - Blanch 1-ounce (30 grams) parsley, 1-ounce (30 grams) chervil, 1-ounce (30 grams) watercress and 1-ounce (30 grams) tarragon in boiling water. Drain thoroughly. Mince two hard-boiled egg yolks, 2 garlic cloves and 2 gherkin pickles. Blend everything into the butter.
RED PEPPER BUTTER - Puree 8-ounces (250 grams) roasted, peeled reel bell peppers until liquid, then acid to the butter.
SHALLOT BUTTER - Blanch 8-ounces (250 grams) peeled shallots in boiling water. Dry and finely dice them and mix with the butter.
Hollandaise sauce plate up examples. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.08%3A_Hollandaise_Based_Sauces.txt |
Pan Gravy
Pan gravy is aptly named: It is made directly in the pan used to roast the poultry, beef, Jamb or pork that the gravy will accompany. Pan gravy is actually a sauce; it is a liquid thickened with a roux. Pan gravy gains additional flavors from the drippings left in the roasting pan and by using a portion of the fat rendered during the roasting process to make the roux. A properly made pan gravy should have all the characteristics of any brown sauce except that it has a meatier flavor as a result of the pan drippings.
Procedure for Pan Gravy
1. Remove the cooked meat or poultry from the roasting pan.
2. If mirepoix was not added during the roasting process, add it to the pan containing the drippings and fat.
3. Place the roasting pan on the stovetop and clarify the fat by cooking off any remaining moisture.
4. Pour off the fat, reserving it to make the roux.
5. Deglaze the pan using an appropriate stock. The deglazing liquid may be transferred to a saucepan for easier handling, or the gravy may be finished directly in the roasting pan.
6. Add enough stock or water to the deglazing liquid to yield the proper amount of finished gravy.
7. Determine the amount of roux needed to thicken the liquid and prepare it in a separate pan, using a portion of the reserved fat.
8. Add the roux to the liquid and bring the mixture to a simmer. Simmer until the mirepoix is well cooked, the flavor is extracted and the flour taste is cooked out.
9. Strain the gravy and adjust the seasonings.
Pan Sauces
Sauces served with sautéed meats, poultry or fish are often made directly in the sauté pan in which the dish was cooked. Once the food is sautéed, it is removed from the pan and kept warm while the sauce is prepared. Stock, jus lie or other liquid is added to deglaze the pan. Like pan gravy, these pan sauces gain flavor from the drippings left in the pan. Unlike pan gravy, pan sauces are usually thickened by reduction, not with a starch.
Coulis
The term coulis most often refers to a sauce made from a puree of vegetables and/or fruit that is strained before serving. A vegetable coulis can be served as either a hot or a cold accompaniment to other vegetables, starches, meat, poultry, fish or shellfish. It is often made from a single vegetable base (popular examples include broccoli, tomatoes and sweet red peppers) cooked with flavoring ingredients such as onions, garlic, shallots, herbs and spices and then pureed. An appropriate liquid (stock, water or cream) may he added to thin the puree if necessary. Vegetable coulis are often prepared with very little fat and served as a healthy alternative to a heavier, classic sauce.
A fruit coulis, often made from fresh or frozen berries, is generally used as a dessert sauce. It is usually as simple as pureed fruit thinned to the desired consistency with sugar syrup.
Typically, both vegetable and fruit coulis have a texture similar to that of a thin tomato sauce. However, their textures can range from slightly grainy to almost lumpy, depending on their intended use. The flavor and color of a coulis should be that of the main ingredient. The flavors of herbs, spices and other flavoring ingredients should only complement and not dominate the coulis.
Procedure for a Vegetable Coulis
Cook the main ingredient and any additional flavoring ingredients with an appropriate liquid.
1. Puree the main ingredient and flavoring ingredients in a food mill, blender or food processor.
2. Combine the puree with the appropriate liquid and simmer to blend the flavors.
3. Strain, then thin and season the coulis as desired.
Contemporary Sauces
Modern chefs and menu writers are relying less on traditional sauces and more on salsas, relishes, juices, broths, essences and infused oils in their work. Unlike classic sauces, these modern accompaniments do not rely on meat-based stocks and starch thickeners, but rather on fresh vegetables, vegetable juices, aromatic broths and intensely flavored oils. The names for these sauces are not codified, as are those in the classic sauce repertoire. Chefs apply various terms freely using whatever name best fits the dish and the overall menu. Most of these contemporary sauces can be prepared more quickly than their classic counterparts, and the use of fresh fruits and vegetables enhances the healthfulness of the dish. These so-called contemporary or modern sauces may have a lighter body and less fat than classic sauces, but they are still derived from classical culinary techniques and principles. The sauces should be appropriate in flavor, texture and appearance and should complement, not overwhelm the food they accompany.
Salsa and Relish
Many people think of salsa (Spanish for "sauce") as a chunky mixture of raw vegetables and chiles eaten with chips or ladled over Mexican food; they think of relish as a sweet green condiment spooned onto a hot dog. But salsas and relishes - gen rally, cold chunky mixtures of herbs, spices, fruits and/ or vegetables can be used as sauces for many meat, poultry , fish and shellfish items. They can including ingredients such as oranges, pineapple, papaya, black beans, jicama, tomatillos and an array of other vegetables.
Although not members of any classic sauce family, salsas and relishes are currently enjoying great popularity because of their intense fresh favors, ease of preparation and low fat and calorie content. Salsas and relishes are often a riot of colors, textures and flavors, simultaneously cool and hot, spicy and sweet.
Chutney - A sweet-and-sour condiment made of fruits and/ or vegetables cooked in vinegar with sugar and spices; some chutneys are reduced to a puree, while others retain recognizable pieces of their ingredients.
Vegetable Juice Sauces
Juice extractors make it possible to prepare juice from fresh, uncooked vegetables such as carrots, beets and spinach. Thinner and smoother than a puree, vegetable juice can be heated, reduced , flavored and enriched with butter to create colorful, intensely flavored sauces. Cream or stock can be added to finish the sauce. Sauces made from vegetable juices are sometimes referred to as an essence or tea on menus.
Juice from a single type of vegetable provides the purest, most pronounced flavor, but two or more vegetables sometimes can be combined successfully. Be careful of mixing too many flavors and colors in the juice, however. Juiced vegetable sauces are particularly appropriate with pasta, fish, shellfish and poultry , and can be useful in vegetarian cuisine or as a healthier alternative to classic sauces.
Procedure for Vegetable Juice Sauce
1. Wash and peel vegetables as needed.
2. Process the vegetables through a juice ex tractor.
3. Place the juice in a saucepan and add stock, lemon juice, herbs or other flavorings as desired.
4. Bring the sauce to a simmer and reduce as necessary.
5. Strain the sauce through a fine chinois.
6. Adjust the seasonings and whisk in whole butter to finish
Broth
Broth, which also appears on menus as a tea, au jus, essence or nage, is a thin, flavorful liquid served in a pool beneath the main food. The broth should not be so abundant as to turn an entree into a soup, but it should provide moisture and flavor. The essence, broth or nage is often made by simply reducing and straining the liquid in which the main food was cooked. Alternatively, a specifically flavored stock - tomato, for example, can be prepared, then clarified like consommé to create a broth or essence to accompany an appetizer or entree.
Flavored Oil
Small amounts of intensely flavored oils can be used to dress or garnish a variety of dishes. Salads, soups, vegetable and starch dishes and entrees can be enhanced with a drizzle of colorful, appropriately flavored oil. Because such small quantities are used, these oils provide flavor and moisture without adding too many calories or fat.
Unless the flavoring ingredient goes especially well with olive oil (for example, basil), select a high quality but neutral oil such as peanut, safflower or canola. Although flavoring ingredients can be simply steeped in oil for a time, a better way to flavor oil is to crush, puree or cook the flavoring ingredients first. Warming the oil before infusing it with dry herbs or spices is recommended, as is decanting the oil to remove solids before using.
Modern chefs are also using vinaigrettes, a combination of oil and vinegar, citrus or other acidic liquid, as quick light sauces. Vinaigrettes give the illusion of lightness that many health -conscious customers are demanding, although the oil in such sauces can raise the fat and calorie content substantially.
Procedure for Flavored Oils
1. Puree or chop fresh herbs, fruits or vegetables. Sweat dry spices or seeds in a small amount of oil to form a paste.
2. Place the selected oil and the flavoring ingredients in a jar or other tightly lidded container.
3. Allow the mixture to stand at room temperature until sufficient flavor extraction occurs. This may take from 1 hour to 24 hours. Shake the jar periodically. Do not allow the flavoring ingredients to remain in the oil indefinitely, as the flavor may become harsh or bitter.
4. Strain the oil through a chinois lined with a coffee filter.
5. 5. Store the flavored oil in a covered container in the refrigerator | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.09%3A_Miscellaneous_Sauces.txt |
Introduction to Soups
Most soups can be classified by cooking technique and appearance as either clear or thick. Clear soups include broths that are made from meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables as well as consommés, which are broths clarified to remove impurities. Another name for broths is bouillon.
Thick soups include cream soups and puree soups. The most common cream soups are those made from vegetables cooked in a liquid that is thickened with a starch and pureed; cream is then incorporated to add richness and flavor.
Pureed soups are generally made from starchy vegetables or legume s. After the main ingredient is simmered in a liquid, the mixture, or a portion of it, is pureed.
Some soups (notably bisques and chowders as well as cold soups such as gazpacho and fruit soup) are neither clear nor thick soups. Rather, they use special preparation methods or a combination of the methods mentioned before.
A soup's quality is determined by its flavor, appearance and texture. A good soup should be full-flavored, with no off or sour tastes. A soup is the beginning course and should set the tone for the rest of the meal. It is associated with comfort so the soup should be made with thought. Soups are a great way to utilize leftover foods and can be a great profit menu item. Flavors from each of the soup's ingredients should blend and complement, with no one flavor overpowering another. Consommés should be crystal clear. The vegetables in vegetable soups should be brightly colored, not gray. Garnishes should be attractive and uniform in size and shape. The soup's texture should be very precise. If it is supposed to be smooth, then it should be very smooth and lump-free. If the soft and crisp textures of certain ingredients are supposed to contrast, the soup should not be overcooked, as this causes all the ingredients to become mushy and soft.
Garnishing is an important consideration when preparing soups. Garnishes should complement the soup or add an additional affect to it such as complimentary flavors, textures and colors.
Classification of Soups - Escoffier
In his 1903 culinary treatise Le Guide Culinaire, Auguste Escoffier recognized many more categories of soups than we do today. They include the following:
1. Clear soups, which are always "clear consommés with a slight garnish in keeping with the nature of the consommé."
2. Purees, made from starchy vegetables, thickened with rice, potato, or soft breadcrumbs.
3. Cullises, which use poultry, game or fish for a base and thickened with rice, lentils, espagnole sauce or bread soaked in boiling salted water.
4. Bisques, which use shellfish cooked with a mirepoix as a base and thickened with rice.
5. Veloute, which use veloute sauce as a base and are finished with a liaison of egg yolks and cream.
6. Cream soups, which use bechamel sauce as a base and are finished with heavy cream.
7. Special soups, which are those that do not follow the procedures for veloute or creams.
8. Vegetable soups, which are usually paysanne or peasant-type and "do not demand very great precision in the apportionment of the vegetables of which they are composed, but they need great care and attention, notwithstanding. "Foreign soups, "which have a foreign origin whose use, although it may not be general, is yet sufficiently common."
Because of changes in consumer health consciousness and kitchen operations, many of the distinctions between Escoffier's classic soups have now become blurred and, in some cases, eliminated. As discussed in this chapter, for example, clear consommés and vegetable soups are now made with stocks or broths; most cream soups use veloute as a base and are finished with milk or cream rather than a liaison. However, not everything has changed: The procedures for making purees and bisques are essentially the same today as they were when Escoffier haunted the great kitchens of Europe.
Clear Soups
All clear soups start as stock or broth. Broths may be served as finished items, used as the base for other soups or refined (clarified) into consommés.
Broths
The techniques for making stocks are identical to those used for making broths. Like stocks, broths are prepared by simmering flavoring ingredients in a liquid for a long time. Broths and stocks differ, however, in two ways. First, broths are made with meat instead of just bones. Second, broths (often with a garnish) can be served as finished dishes, while stocks are generally used to prepare other items.
Broths are made from meat, poultry, fish or vegetables cooked in a liquid. An especially full-flavored broth results when a stock and not just water is used as the liquid. Cuts of meat from the shank, neck or shoulder result in more flavorful broths, as will the flesh of mature poultry. Proper temperature, skimming and straining help produce well-flavored, clear broths.
Broth Preparation method
1. Prepare the main ingredient.
2. Brown the meat; brown or sweat the mirepoix or vegetables as necessary.
3. Place the main ingredient and mirepoix or vegetables in an appropriate stockpot and add enough cold water or stock to cover. Add a bouquet garni or sachet d'epices if desired.
4. Bring the liquid slowly to a boil; reduce to a simmer and cook, skimming occasionally, until the main ingredient is tender and the flavor is fully developed.
5. Carefully strain the broth through a china cap lined with damp cheesecloth; try to disturb the flavoring ingredients as little as possible in order to preserve the broth's clarity.
6. Cool and store following the procedures for cooling stocks or bring to a boil, garnish as desired and hold for service.
Broth Soups
Broths are often used as bases for such familiar soups as vegetable, chicken noodle and beef barley.
Transforming a broth into a broth-based vegetable soup, for example, is quite simple. Although a broth may be served with a vegetable (or meat) garnish, a broth-based vegetable soup is a soup in which the vegetables (and meats) are cooked directly in the broth, adding flavor, body and texture to the finished product. Any number of vegetables can be used to make a vegetable soup; it could be a single vegetable as in onion soup or a dozen different vegetables for a hearty minestrone.
When making broth-based vegetable soups, each ingredient must be added at the proper time so that all ingredients are cooked when the soup is finished. The ingredients must cook long enough to add their flavors and soften sufficiently but not so long that they lose their identity and become too soft or mushy. Because broth-based vegetable soups are made by simmering ingredients directly in the broth, they are generally not as clear as plain broths but appearances are still important. So when cutting ingredients for the soup, pay particular attention so that the pieces are uniform and visually appealing. Small dice, julienne, batonnet, or paysanne cuts tend to be the most appropriate.
Broth Vegetable Preparation Method
1. Sweat long -cooking vegetables in butter or fat.
2. Add the appropriate stock or broth and bring to a simmer.
3. Add seasonings such as bay leaves, dried thyme, crushed peppercorns, parsley stems and garlic in a sachet, allowing enough time for the seasonings to flavor the soup.
4. Add additional ingredients according to their cooking times.
5. Simmer the soup to blend all the flavors.
6. If the soup is not for immediate service, cool and refrigerate it.
7. Just before service, add any garnishes that were prepared separately or do not require cooking.
Consommés
A consommé is a stock or broth that has been clarified to remove impurities so that it is clear. Traditionally, all clear broths were referred to as consommés; a clear broth further refined using the process described later was referred to as a double consommé. The term double consommé is still used occasionally to describe any strongly flavored consommé.
Well-prepared consommés should be rich in the flavor of the main ingredient. Beef and game consommés should be dark in color; consommés made from poultry should have a golden to light amber color. They should have substantial body because of their high gelatin content, and all consommés should be perfectly clear with no trace of fat.
Because a consommé is a refined broth, it is essential that the broth or stock used be of the highest quality. Although the clarification process adds some flavor to the consommé, the finished consommé will be only as good as the stock or broth from which it was made.
Consommé Preparation Method
1. In a suitable stockpot (one with a spigot makes it much easier to strain the consommé when it is finished), combine the ground meat, lightly beaten egg white and other clearmeat ingredients.
2. Add the cold stock or broth and stir to combine with the clearmeat ingredients.
3. Over medium heat, slowly bring the mixture to a simmer, stirring occasionally.
4. As the raft forms, make a hole in its center so that the liquid can bubble through, cooking the raft completely and extracting as much flavor as possible from the raft ingredients.
5. Simmer the consommé until full flavor develops, approximately 1 to 11 / 2 hours.
6. Carefully strain the consommé through several layers of cheesecloth and degrease completely.
7. If the consommé is not for immediate use, it cool and refrigerate. When the consommé is completely cold, remove any remaining fat that solidifies on its surface.
8. If, after reheating the consommé, small dots of fat appear on the surface, they can be removed by blotting with a small piece of paper towel.
Stock or Broth Clarification Method
To make consommé, you clarify a stock or broth. The stock or broth to be clarified must be cold and grease-free.
1. To clarify, the cold degreased stock or broth is combined with a mixture known as a clearmeat or clarification. A clearmeat is a mixture of egg whites; ground meat, poultry or fish; mirepoix, herbs and spices; and an acidic product, usually tomatoes, lemon juice or wine. (An oignon brule, also known as an onion brule, is also often added to help flavor and color the consommé.
2. The stock or broth and clearmeat are then slowly brought to a simmer. As the albumen in the egg whites and meat begins to coagulate, it traps impurities suspended in the liquid. As coagulation continues, the albumen -containing items combine with the other clearmeat ingredients and rise to the liquid's surface, forming a raft. As the mixture simmers, the raft ingredients release their flavors, further enriching the consommé.
3. After simmering, the consommé is carefully strained through several layers of cheesecloth to remove any trace of impurities. It is then completely degreased, either by cooling and refrigerating, then removing the solidified fat, or by carefully ladling the fat from the surface. The result is a rich, flavorful, crystal-clear consommé.
Correcting a Cloudy Consommé
A clarification may fail for a variety of reasons. For example, if the consommé is allowed to boil or if it is stirred after, the raft has formed, a cloudy consommé can result. If the consommé is insufficiently clear, a second clarification can be performed using the following procedure. This second clarification should be performed only once, however, and only if necessary, because the eggs remove not only impurities but also some of the consommé’s flavor and richness.
1. Thoroughly chill and degrease the consommé.
2. Lightly beat four egg whites per gallon (4 liters) of consommé and combine with the cold consommé.
3. Slowly bring the consommé to a simmer, stirring occasionally. Stop stirring when the egg whites begin to coagulate.
4. When the egg whites are coagulated, carefully strain the consommé.
Thick Soups
There are two kinds of thick soups: cream soups and puree soups. In general, cream soups are thickened with a roux or other starch, while puree soups rely on a puree of the main ingredient for thickening. But in certain ways the two soups are very similar: Some puree soups are finished with cream or partially thickened with a roux or other starch.
Cream Soups
Most cream soups are made by simmering the main flavoring ingredient (for example, broccoli for cream of broccoli soup) in a white stock or thin veloute sauce to which seasonings have been added. The mixture is then pureed and strained. After the consistency has been adjusted, the soup is finished by adding cream. In classic cuisine, thin bechamel sauce is often used as the base for cream soups and can be substituted for veloute in many cream soup recipes, if desired.
Both hard vegetables (for example, celery and squash) and soft or leafy vegetables (for example, spinach, corn, broccoli and asparagus) are used for cream soups. Hard vegetables are usually sweated in butter without browning before the liquid is incorporated. Soft and leafy vegetables are usually added to the soup after the liquid is brought to a boil. Because cream soups are pureed, it is important to cook the flavoring ingredients until they are soft and can be passed through a food mill easily.
All cream soups are finished with milk or cream. Using milk thins the soup while adding richness; using the same amount of cream adds much more richness without the same thinning effect. Cold milk and cream curdle easily if added directly to a hot or acidic soup.
To prevent curdling
1. Never add cold milk or cream to hot soup. Bring the milk or cream to a simmer before adding it to the soup.
2. Never temper the milk or cream by gradually adding some hot soup to it and then incorporating the warmed mixture into the rest of the soup.
3. Add the milk or cream to the soup just before service, if possible.
4. Do not boil the soup after the milk or cream has been added.
5. Use bechamel or cream sauce instead of milk or cream to finish cream soups because the presence of roux or other starch helps prevent curdling.
Puree Soups
Puree soups are hearty soups made by cooking starchy vegetables or legumes in a stock or broth, then pureeing all or a portion of them to thicken the soup. Puree soups are similar to cream soups in that they both consist of a main ingredient that is first cooked in a liquid, and then pureed. The primary difference is that unlike cream soups, which are thickened with starch, puree soups generally do not use additional starch for thickening. Rather, puree soups depend on the starch content of the main ingredient for thickening. In addition, puree soups are generally coarser than cream soups and are typically not strained after pureeing. When finishing puree soups with cream, follow the guidelines discussed previously for adding the cream to a cream soup.
Puree soups can be made with dried or fresh beans such as peas, lentils and navy beans, or with any number of vegetables, including cauliflower, celery root, turnips and potatoes. Diced potatoes or rice is often used to help thicken vegetable puree soups.
Adjusting Thick Soups
Cream and puree soups tend to thicken when made in advance and refrigerated. To dilute a portion being reheated, add hot stock, broth, water or milk to the hot soup as needed. If the soup is too thin, additional roux, beurre manie or cornstarch mixed with cool stock can be used to thicken it. If additional starch is added to thicken the soup, it should be used sparingly and the soup should be simmered a few minutes to cook out the starchy flavor. A liaison of egg yolks and heavy cream can be used to thicken cream soups when added richness is also desired. Remember, the soup must not boil after the liaison is added or it may curdle.
Additional Soups
Several popular types of soup do not fit the descriptions of, or follow the procedures for, either clear or thick soups. Soups such as bisques and chowders as well as many cold soups use special methods or a combination of the methods used for clear and thick soups.
Bisques
Traditional bisques are shellfish soups thickened with cooked rice. Today, bisques are prepared using a combination of the cream and puree soup procedures. They are generally made from shrimp, lobster, or crayfish and are thickened with a roux instead of rice for better stability and consistency.
Much of a bisque’s flavor comes from crustacean shells, which are simmered in the cooking liquid, pureed (along with the mirepoix), returned to the cooking liquid and strained after further cooking. Pureeing the shells and returning them to the soup also adds the thickness and grainy texture associated with bisques.
Bisques are enriched with cream, following the procedures for cream soups, and can be finished with butter for additional richness. The garnish should be diced flesh from the appropriate shellfish.
Chowders
Although chowders are usually associated with the eastern United States where fish and clams are plentiful, they are of French origin. Undoubtedly the word chowder is derived from the Breton phrase ‘Faire Chaudière’, which means to make a fish stew in a caldron. The procedure was probably brought to Nova Scotia by French settlers and later introduced to New England.
Chowders are hearty soups with chunks of the main ingredients (including, virtually always, diced potatoes) and garnishes. With some exceptions (notably, Manhattan clam chowder), chowders contain milk or cream. Although there are thin chowders, most chowders are thickened with roux. The procedures for making chowders are similar to those for making cream soups except that chowders are not pureed and strained before the cream is added.
Cold Soups
Cold soups can be as simple as a chilled version of a cream soup or as creative as a cold fruit soup blended with yogurt. Cold fruit soups have become popular on contemporary dessert menus. Other than the fact that they are cold, cold soups are difficult to classify because many of them use unique or combination preparation methods. Regardless, they are divided here into two categories: cold soups that require cooking and those that do not.
Cooked Cold Soups
Many cold soups are simply a chilled version of a hot soup. For example, ‘consommé madrilene’ and ‘consommé Portuguese’ are prepared hot and served cold.
Many cooked cold soups use fruit juice (typically apple, grape, or orange) as a base, and thickened with cornstarch or arrowroot as well as with pureed fruit. For additional flavor, wine is sometimes used in lieu of a portion of the fruit juice. Cinnamon, ginger and other spices that complement fruit are commonly added, as is lemon or lime juice, which adds acidity as well as flavor. Crème fraiche, yogurt or sour cream can be used as an ingredient or garnish to add richness.
Un-Cooked Cold Soups
Some cold soups are not cooked at all. Rather, they rely only on pureed fruits or vegetables for thickness, body and flavor. Cold stock is sometimes used to adjust the soup's consistency. Dairy products such as cream, sour cream, and crème fraiche are sometimes added to enrich and flavor the soup.
Garnishing Soups
Garnishes and toppings can range from a simple sprinkle of chopped parsley on a bowl of cream soup to tiny profiteroles stuffed with foie gras adorning a crystal-clear bowl of consomme. Some soups are so full of attractive, flavorful and colorful foods that are integral parts of the soup (for example, vegetables and chicken in chicken vegetable soup) that no additional garnishes are necessary. In others, the garnish determines the type of soup. For example, a beef broth garnished with cooked barley and diced beef becomes beef barley soup.
Garnishing Guidelines
Although some soups (particularly consommés) have traditional garnishes, many soups depend on the chef's imagination and the kitchen’s inventory for the finishing garnish. The only rules are as follows:
• The garnish should be attractive.
• The meats and vegetables used should be neatly cut into an appropriate and uniform shape and size. This is particularly important when garnishing a clear soup such as a consommé, as the consommé’s clarity highlights the precise (or imprecise) cuts.
• The garnish's texture and flavor should complement the soup.
• Starches and vegetables used as garnishes should be cooked separately, reheated and placed in the soup bowl before the hot soup is added. If they are cooked in the soup, they may cloud or thicken the soup or alter its flavor, texture and seasoning.
• Garnishes should be cooked just until done; meat and poultry should be tender but not falling apart, vegetables should be firm but not mushy, and pasta and rice should maintain their identity. These types of garnishes are usually held on the side and added to the hot soup at the last minute to prevent overcooking.
Garnishing Suggestions
Some garnishes are used to add texture, as well as flavor and visual interest, to soups. Items such as crunchy croutons or oyster crackers, or crispy crumbled bacon on a cream soup, or diced meat in a clear broth soup add a textural variety that makes the final product more appealing.
• Clear soups- any combination of julienne cuts of the same meat, poultry, fish or vegetable that provides the dominant flavor in the stock or broth; vegetables (cut uniformly into any shape), pasta (flat, small tortellini or tiny ravioli), gnocchi, quenelles, barley, spaetzle, white or wild rice, croutons, crepes, tortillas or won tons.
• Cream soups, hot or cold- toasted slivered almonds, sour cream or crème fraiche, croutons, grated cheese or puff pastry fleurons’; cream vegetable soups are usually garnished with slices or florets of the main ingredient.
• Puree soups- julienne cuts of poultry or ham, sliced sausage, croutons, and grated cheese or bacon bits.
• Any soup- finely chopped fresh herbs, snipped chives, edible flowers, parsley or watercress.
Preparing Soup in Advance
Most soups can be made ahead of time, and reheated as needed for service. To preserve freshness and quality, small batches of soup should be heated as needed throughout the meal service.
Clear soups are quite easy to reheat because there is little danger of scorching. If garnishes are already added to a clear soup, care should be taken not to overcook the garnishes when reheating the soup. All traces of fat should be removed from a consommé’s surface before reheating.
Thick soups present more of a challenge. To increase shelf life and reduce the risk of spoilage, cool and refrigerate a thick soup when it is still a base (that is, before it is finished with milk or cream). Just before service, carefully reheat the soup base using a heavy-gauge pot over low heat. Stir often to prevent scorching. Then finish the soup (following the guidelines noted earlier) with boiling milk or cream, a light bechamel sauce or a liaison and adjust the seasonings. Always taste the soup after reheating and adjust the seasonings as needed.
Temperature
The rule is simple: Serve hot soup hot and cold soup cold. Hot clear soups should be served near boiling; 210°F (99°C) is ideal. Hot cream soups should be served at slightly lower temperatures; 190°F- 200°F (88°C- 93°C) is acceptable. Cold soups should be served at a temperature of 41°F (5°C) or below, and are sometimes presented in special serving pieces surrounded by ice.
Soup, often served as the first course, may determine the success or failure of an entire meal. Although a wide variety of ingredients can be used to make both clear and thick soups, including trimmings and leftovers, poor-quality ingredients make poor-quality soups. By using, adapting and combining the basic techniques described in this chapter with different ingredients, a chef can create an infinite number of new and appetizing hot or cold soups. However, exercise good judgment when combining flavors and techniques; they should blend well and complement each other. Moreover, any garnishes that are added should contribute to the appearance and character of the finished soup.
Butternut squash soup plate up example. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.10%3A_Soups.txt |
Gumbo in Louisiana is staple of the cuisine. It is a thick stew-like dish usually served with rice. There are many different types of gumbos including chicken and andouille and shrimp and okra gumbo. Gumbo is a common soup de jour on restaurant menus in Louisiana. For dark gumbos, the traditional roux is a dark Cajun roux. Okra is also used as a thickening agent as well as file powder.
Ingredients
• Trinity - 50% onions, 25% bell pepper, 25% celery
• File - an herb made from ground up leaves of the sassafras tree
• Andouille - smoked sausage coarsely ground pork sausage usually heavily smoked and seasoned, and commonly used in Cajun and creole dishes.
• Cajun Dark Roux - Cooked to a dark color without burning. Using the trinity to stop the cooking process. Has minimal thickening power but adds color, richness and mouthfeel.
Other proteins
• Stock - provides additional flavor in the gumbo as well as body.
Tips and Techniques for Cooking Gumbo
• If a gumbo contains meat or game, you must brown your meat.
• This adds the richness in color and the building of extra flavor.
• When you cook chicken in gumbo, do not cook it too much because it can over cook, and become shredded.
• When you cook seafood in gumbo, you should add this at the end to ensure you do not over cook
• Stock - Added flavor and body
• Trinity - flavor, stops the roux cooking
• Seasonings - spice and flavor
• Andouille - Smokiness and flavor
• File - Thickener
• Okra - added thickener. You must cook it down in a separate pot to prevent sliminess
Gumbo plate up example. Note the richness and color of the dark roux.
Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue
1.12: Pureed Thick Soups
The two kinds of thick soups are cream and pureed soups. Most pureed soups are thickened by the vegetable being pureed. The starches in the pureed vegetable aids in the thickening of the soup. Cream soups tend to have a roux. These two categories can be combined in the technique of the soup being made. For example, a pureed soup can have a roux.
A cream soup can be associated by the sauce category of veloute. Most cream soups have a roux, stock and then cream added for richness. A cream soup can also be associated with the sauce category béchamel.
Pureed soups can be pureed using a blender or immersion stick blender. They should be very smooth and lump free.
These soups are your bread and butter in the soup du jour world because:
• They are not time consuming to prep
• They use up product that needs to get used
• They are only limited by your imagination
• Especially with flavors, textures and garnishes
• Don’t be the chef that makes them as an after-thought with no love, passion or technique
• All praise the invention of the mighty immersion blender and Vitamix. It is one of the best investments you can make.
Soup plate up examples. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue
1.13: Bisques and Cream Soups
Bisque is a smooth, creamy, highly seasoned soup of French origin, classically based on a strained broth (coulis) of crustaceans. It can be made from lobster, langoustine, crab, shrimp, or crayfish.
Bisque is a method of extracting flavor from imperfect crustaceans not good enough to send to market. In an authentic bisque, the shells are ground to a fine paste and added to thicken the soup. Julia Child even remarked, "Do not wash anything off until the soup is done because you will be using the same utensils repeatedly and you don't want any marvelous tidbits of flavor losing themselves down the drain."[4] Bisques are thickened with rice, which can either be strained out, leaving behind the starch, or pureed during the final stages.
Seafood bisque is traditionally served in a low two-handled cup on a saucer or in a mug.
Bisque is also commonly used to refer to cream-based soups that do not contain seafood, in which the sometimes pre-cooked ingredients are pureed or processed in a food processor or a food mill. Common varieties include squash, tomato, mushroom, and red pepper.
Traditional bisques are shellfish soups and thickened with cooked rice
Today, bisques are prepared using a combination of the cream and puree soup procedures. The word bisque nowadays is sometimes used to describe a thick creamy soup and would not technically mean that it is made from crustacean shells. They are generally made from shrimp, lobster, or crawfish and are thickened with a roux instead of rice for better stability and consistency. (We will prepare both methods in class)
• Traditionally would not be garnished with actual seafood.
• Traditionally would only use small amounts to no heavy cream.
• Crawfish bisque (stuffed crawfish heads or boulettes dropped into soup) (South Louisiana Variation)
• Crab and corn (Cream method)
• Crawfish and corn (Cream method)
• Lobster bisque (traditional method with roux added for flavor and consistency)
• Shrimp bisque (traditional method)
Bisque Technique
• Caramelize the mirepoix and main flavoring agent in fat
• Add tomato product and deglaze with alcohol
• Add cooking liquid ( stock )
• Incorporate roux if needed
• Simmer and skim
• Puree and strain
• adjust thickness by adding cooked rice and pureeing
• simmer and finish with hot cream or cold compound butter
Steps to making Bisques
• Sauté
• Deglaze
• Add liquid and simmer
• Puree
• Strain
• Puree again with white rice
• Finish with cream
• Garnish
Crawfish Bisque plate up example. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue
Lobster bisque plate up example. Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.11%3A_Gumbos.txt |
Consommé
In cooking, a consommé is a type of clear soup made from richly flavored stock, or bouillon that has been clarified, a process that uses egg whites to remove fat and sediment.
A consommé is made by adding a mixture of ground meats, together with mirepoix (a combination of carrots, celery, and onion), tomatoes, and egg whites into either bouillon or stock. The key to making a high quality consommé is simmering; the act of simmering, combined with frequent stirring, brings impurities to the surface of the liquid, which are further drawn out due to the presence of acid from the tomatoes. Eventually, the solids begin to congeal at the surface of the liquid, forming a 'raft', which is caused by the proteins in the egg whites.
Once the 'raft' begins to form, the heat is reduced, and the consommé is simmered at a lower heat until it reaches the desired flavor, which usually takes anywhere from 45 minutes to over an hour. The resulting concoction is a clear liquid that has either a rich amber color (for beef or veal consommé) or a very pale yellow color (for poultry consommé). It is then carefully drawn from the pot and passed again through a filter to ensure its purity, and is then put through a lengthy process where all of the visible fat is skimmed from the surface.
To ensure total purification, the consommé can be refrigerated, which draws out remaining fat, which can easily be skimmed off with a cheesecloth. Alternatively, the consommé can be placed in a wide, shallow container such as a sauté pan or large bowl and wide strips of parchment paper can be dragged along the surface; the tiny amounts of remaining fat adhere to the parchment, leaving the consommé perfectly de-greased. Cartilage and tendons should be left on the meat because of the gelatin they contain, which enhances the mouthfeel of the soup. If beef or veal is used, shin meat is ideal[4] because it is very low in fat and very high in gristle, and although it is undesirable for most other purposes, it is near essential for the flavor of the consommé. The meat is best if it is ground very fine, as if for a mousseline.
Consommés are usually served piping hot because they tend to cool down more quickly than other soups and form a gel. They are most often served with garnishes, which vary in complexity from a simple splash of sherry or egg yolk, to cut vegetables, to shaped savory custards called 'royales'.
A large amount of meat only yields a small amount of consommé. In some recipes, as much as 500 g (a little over a pound) of meat can go into a single 250 mL (8.2 fl. oz.) serving. This low-yield is part of what has traditionally given consommé its refined reputation as a dish fit for the higher levels of society and not consumed among the poorer classes, who could not afford such extravagance.[citation needed]
Other types of consommé such as a tomato consommé are traditionally served chilled; this keeps the clearness of the consommé.
Oignon Brule (onion brulé) - French for burnt onion, made by charring halves. It is used to flavor and color stocks and sauces
In addition to consommé, there are many other broth based soup variations. The broth based soup category consists of any soup that is prepared with broth. Some examples of broth-based soups are minestrone, chicken tortilla, French onion and the Vietnamese soup, Pho. These are some soups that we prepare in class.
Consomme plate up examples. Photo Credit: Flikr
The straining of the raft in the consomme procedure.
Photo Credit: Flikr
French Onion Soup
Onion soups have been popular at least as far back as Roman times. Throughout history, they were seen as food for poor people, as onions were plentiful and easy to grow. The modern version of this soup originates in Paris, France in the 18th century, made from beef broth, and caramelized onions. It is often finished by being placed under a grill in a ramekin with croutons and gruyere melted on top. Recipes for onion soup vary greatly. Recipes specify that the onions should be cooked slowly, becoming caramelized. Brandy or sherry is added at the end. The soup base is often topped with a slice of bread (a "croute" or "crouton").
It is important to caramelize onions to a deep brown color. Photo Credit: Flikr
Pho
Pho is a popular street food in Vietnam and a specialty in a number of restaurant chains around the world. Pho originated in the early 20th century in northern Vietnam, and was popularized throughout the rest of the world by refugees after the Vietnam War.
Pho is served in a bowl with a specific cut of flat rice noodles in clear beef broth, with thin cuts of beef (steak, fatty flank, lean flank, brisket). Variations feature slow-cooked tendon, tripe, or meatballs in southern Vietnam. Chicken pho is made using the same spices as beef, but the broth is made using chicken bones and meat, as well as some internal organs of the chicken, such as the heart, the undeveloped eggs, and the gizzard.
When eating at ‘phở stalls’ in Vietnam, customers are generally asked which parts of the beef they would like and how they want it done.
Pho plate up example Minestrone soup plate up example
Photo Credit: Amelie Zeringue | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.14%3A_Broth_Based_Soups.txt |
Measurement and Conversion Charts
Formulas for Exact Measurement
WHEN YOU KNOW: MULTIPLY BY: TO FIND:
Mass (weight) Ounces 28.35 grams
Pounds 0.45 kilograms
Grams 0.035 ounces
Kilograms 2.2 pounds
Volume (capacity) Teaspoons 5.0 milliliters
Tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
Fluid Ounces 29.57 milliliters
Cups 0.24 liters
Pints 0.47 liters
Quarts 0.95 liters
Gallons 3.785 liters
Milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces
Temperature Fahrenheit 5/9 (after subtracting 32) celsius
Celsius 9/5 (then add 32) fahrenheit
Rounded Measurement for Quick Reference
1 oz. = 30 g
4 oz. = 120 g
8 oz. = 240 g
16 oz. = 1 lb. = 480 g
32 oz. = 2 lb. = 960 g
36 oz. = 2¼ lb. = 1000 g (1 kg)
1/4 tsp. = 1/24 fl. oz. = 1 ml
½ tsp. = 1/12 fl. oz. = 2 ml
1 tsp. = 1/6 fl. oz. = 5 ml
1 Tbsp. = 1/2 fl. oz. = 15 ml
1 C. = 8 fl. oz. = 240 ml
2 c. (1 pt.) = 16 fl. oz. = 480 ml
4 c. (1 qt.) = 32 fl. oz. = 960 ml
4 qt. (1 gal.) = 128 fl. oz. = 3.75 It
32°F = 0°c
122°F = 50°c
212°F = 100°c
Conversion Guidelines
1 gallon 4 quarts
8 pints
16 cups (8 fluid ounces)
128 fluids ounces
1 fifth bottle approximately 1 ½ pints or exactly 26.5 fluid ounces
1 measuring cup 8 fluid ounces (a coffee cup generally holds 6 fluid ounces)
1 large egg white 1 ounce (average)
1 lemon 1 to 1 ¼ fluid ounces of juice
1 orange 3 to 3½ fluid ounces of juice
Scoop Sizes
Scoop Number Level Measure
6 2/3 cup
8 1/2 cup
10 2/5 cup
12 1/3 cup
16 1/4 cup
20 3 1/5 tablespoons
24 2 2/3 tablespoons
30 2 1/5 tablespoons
40 1 3/5 tablespoons
*The number of the scoop determines the number of servings in each quart of a mixture: for example, with a No. 16 scoop, one quart of mixture will yield 16 servings.
Ladle Sizes
Size Portion of a Cup Number per Quart Number per Liter
1 fl. oz. 1/8 32 34
2 fl. oz. l/4 16 17
2 2/3 fl. oz. l/3 12 13
4 fl. oz. 1/2 8 8.6
6 fl. oz. 3/4 5 1/3 5.7
Canned Goods
Size No. of Cans per Case Average Weight Average No. Cups per Can
No.¼ 1 & 2 doz. 4 oz. 1/2
No.½ 8 8 oz. 1
No. 300 1 & 2 doz. 14 oz. 1 3/4
No. 1 tall (also known as 303) 2 & 4 doz. 16 oz. 2
No. 2 2 doz. 20 oz. 2 1/2
No. 2½ 2 doz. 28 oz. 3 1/2
No.3 2 doz. 33 oz. 4
No. 3 cylinder 1 doz. 46 oz. 5 2/3
No. 5 1 doz. 3 lb. 8 oz. 5 1/2
No. 10 6 6 lb. 10 oz. 13
2.02: New Page
Mother Sauce Daughter Sauces Derivatives
Béchamel Mornay
Crème Nantua
Soubise
Espagnole Africaine
Bourguignonne
Sauce aux Champignons
Sauce Charcutière
Chasseur
Poivrade Chevreuil
Demi-glace
Velouté Albufera
Allemande Poulette
Bercy
Aurore
Hungarian
Normande
Suprême
Venetian
Hollandaise Béarnaise Choron
Foyot
Colbert
Paloise
Barvaroise
Crème Fleurette
Dijon
Maltaise
Mousseline Divine
Tomate Spanish
Creole
Portuguese
Provençale
2.03: New Page
Classification of Sauces
Base Liquid Basic Sauce Derivative Sauce
Milk Béchamel
Cream
Mornay
Nantua
Soubise
Mustard
White veal stock Veal velouté
Allemande
Poulette
Aurore
Hungarian
Chicken stock Chicken velouté
Supreme
Mushroom
Ivory
Fish stock Fish velouté
Allemande
Poulette
Aurora
Hungarian
Brown Stock
Espagnole
Demi-glace
Bordelaise
Robert
Charcutiére
Chasseur
Diable
Madeira
Périgueux
Mushroom
Butter Hollandaise
Maltaise
Mousseline
Dijon
Béarnaise
Choron
Foyot
Rachel
Oil Mayonnaise
Tartare
Remoulade
Cocktail | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.01%3A_New_Page.txt |
Sauces & Terminology
Sauces are liquids of various thicknesses that are flavored or seasoned to enhance the flavor of food. Sauces can be sweet, sour, spicy, or savory and may be added to the food to become part of a main dish or used as an accompaniment to the food being prepared. Sauces add a variety of features to foods, such as complementing or enhancing flavors, adding an attractive appearance, and/or providing additional texture.
Initially perfected by the French, all sauces are now universally categorized into one of seven groups of sauces that are used as base sauces or foundations for other sauces known as secondary sauces. The primary sauces are known as Grand Sauces or Mother Sauces.
The following are the categories of the Mother Sauces of French cooking from which all other sauces are prepared.
• White Sauces (such as Béchamel Sauce)
• Brown Sauces (such as Madeira Sauce)
• Tomato Sauces or Red Sauces (such as Tomato Puree)
• Egg Yolk and Butter Sauces (such as Hollandaise Sauce)
• Egg Yolk and Oil Sauces (such as Mayonnaise)
• Oil and Vinegar Sauces (such as Salad Dressings)
• Flavored Butter Sauces (such as Beurre Blanc Sauce)
Reduction Sauce
A sauce made with the juices released from oven roasted or stove top cooked foods, such as meat, poultry or vegetables. The released juices become the base for the sauce, to which other ingredients may be added, such as wine, fruit juices, tomato paste, or bits of foods and herbs. The juice is boiled (or steamed) separately and stirred constantly to evaporate excess liquid (such as water), thus reducing the volume of the juices into a thicker consistency, providing a more intense flavor. The resulting liquid is strained and then used as a base for sauces, soups and stews. Gravies, meat sauces, wine sauces, and fruit sauces are all examples of reduction sauces that are used to enhance the flavor of foods being served.
A simple procedure for making a reduction sauce begins by removing the meat, poultry, fish, or vegetables from the pan containing the juices after the foods have cooked. Estimate the amount of juice remaining in the pan, and then add double that amount of water, wine, vermouth, liqueur, fruit juice, cream, milk, or any other liquid desired for the type sauce being prepared. On a stovetop burner, heat the combined liquids to boiling in order to evaporate the excess fluids. While doing this, stir continually and attempt to scrape the bottom of the pan to mix in any excess solids provided by the cooked foods in order to add flavor to the sauce. Cook the reduction sauce until evaporation decreases the sauce to half its beginning volume, turning down the heat to medium, being careful not to reduce the sauce too much, resulting in a somewhat dull tasting sauce with little aroma. Some sauces require additional thickening, so it may be wise to add a small amount of cornstarch or flour to thicken the consistency if necessary. In addition, butter, extra-virgin olive oil, or cream can be added to provide a thicker or more flavorful sauce.
For sauces in which a nonalcoholic alternative is desired, use lemon juice, white wine vinegar, or verjus, which is a wine without alcohol. The acidity provided by a cup of the alcoholic ingredient can be replaced and balanced with a half cup of verjus, or use 1 to 2 teaspoons of lemon juice, or white wine vinegar. It would be wise to add the amounts slowly, testing the results for the desired flavor before adding the entire amount of substituted liquid.
Secondary Sauce
A sauce that is derived from a mother sauce and has flavorings and seasonings added to create a new sauce. A secondary sauce is also referred to as a Small Sauce.
Small Sauce
A sauce that is derived from a mother sauce and has flavorings and seasonings added to create a new sauce. A small sauce is also referred to as a Secondary Sauce.
Finishing Sauce
A term commonly applied to mixtures that are served over various foods either as it finishes cooking or for use after it is served. As an example, a Finishing Sauce may be mixed into spaghetti as a pasta sauce or served as a topping over sliced pieces of roasted meat such as roast beef. Other types of Finishing Sauces may include red wine sauces, pepper sauces, béarnaise sauce, or mushroom sauces to name a few.
Pan Sauce
A sauce made from the juices left after pan-frying or sautéing food. It is served along with the food that is fried or sautéed.
French Sauces
White Sauces
In French cooking, traditional white sauces are one of two types: those made with hot milk added to a white roux (such as Béchamel sauce or Mornay sauce) or sauces made with hot broth or stock added to a white roux (such as Velouté sauce). A roux is a combination of flour and butter that are cooked together to be used as a thickening agent for the sauce. The roux may be referred to as a white, blonde, or brown roux, depending on the amount of cooking time of the flour and butter mixture. The mixture increasingly darkens the longer it cooks. Once the roux is ready, the hot milk or stock is stirred into the roux to create a thick sauce that may be seasoned with herbs and spices.
Béchamel Sauce
A basic French white sauce made by adding hot milk to a white roux (heated butter mixed with flour). In an early era, cream was generally used instead of milk. The roux thickens the milk into a creamy white sauce. Some sauces refer to a blonde and a white roux, the difference being the length of time the flour or mixture was allowed to cook and thus become brown or golden tan in color. Seasonings can be added based on the type of dish served with the sauce and the flavors desired.
A typical béchamel sauce begins by melting 3 or 4 tablespoons of unsalted butter in a saucepan on low heat and then mixing in 3 tablespoons of unbleached, all-purpose flour. Turn the heat up to medium and cook the mixture (referred to as the roux), allowing it to bubble but not turn brown as it cooks for 2 to 3 minutes. Whisk or stir the hot roux gently, letting it cool slightly and begin to add 1½ cups of milk, whisking the mixture so it becomes very smooth and thickens by whisking, which may take 4 to 5 minutes. Seasonings such a dash of salt, pepper, paprika, and nutmeg can be added as the sauce becomes smooth. If necessary, more milk can be added to thin the mixture. Remove the sauce from the heat and use it to pour over vegetables, pasta, poultry or fish dishes.
Mornay Sauce
A cheese sauce made by using Béchamel sauce (white sauce made by cooking flour and butter and then adding milk) as the base with Swiss and Parmesan cheese added to thicken and flavor the sauce. Some recipes suggest adding fish or chicken stocks to enhance the flavor or other ingredients, such as egg yolks, cream and/or butter to provide a richer flavor. Mornay sauce is commonly served over vegetables, eggs, various meats, poultry, and shellfish.
Veloute Sauce
One of the basic white sauces of French origin, which is prepared from a white stock, such as chicken or seafood stock, and a roux. The roux is a thickening agent made from cooked flour and fat. Numerous variations of this sauce are made, such as sauce Aurore (puréed tomatoes are added) or sauce supréme (cream and mushroom cooking stock is added).
A typical velouté sauce begins by making a roux. A 6 to 4 ratio of flour and fat (usually whole butter or clarified butter) is cooked over moderate heat. (The actual quantity of flour and fat to use depends on the quantity of liquid added to the roux and the desired thickness of the sauce). While stirring for 2 to 3 minutes, the mixture should bubble and foam and the color should gradually darken the longer the roux cooks. A light yellow to golden yellow color is typical of a roux that will be used for a velouté sauce. It is important that the flour not burn, but it should be cooked thoroughly so that the resulting sauce will not attain a pasty, floury flavor.
When the roux has cooked sufficiently, remove the pan from the heat to allow the roux to cool slightly. After the short cooling period, pour heated stock into the pan and return the pan to moderate heat. Vigorously whisk the liquid into the roux, reduce the heat to a low simmer, and continue stirring until the sauce becomes smooth. When the velouté sauce is ready to serve, stir in a small quantity of cream and season with salt and pepper to taste. Other seasonings can be added based on the type of dish that the sauce is accompanying.
Allemande or Parisienne Sauce
Occasionally referred to as Parisienne Sauce, Allemande Sauce is made by combining cream cheese, oil, lemon juice, and chervil. It is often spread over cold vegetables, most notably asparagus.
Brown Sauces
In French cooking, brown sauces serve as a base for other similar sauces that are used as an accompaniment for meats and vegetables. Brown sauces are made from a brown meat stock and thickened with cornstarch or roux (flour cooked with butter). Some chefs suggest using arrowroot to thicken the sauce; however, it can be thickened according to personal preference and taste with ingredients best suited for the food being prepared.
Espagnole Sauce
Also known as a brown sauce or demiglace, a basic sauce serves as a base for use in making other variations of the original sauce. It has been simmered and reduced to half of its original volume, resulting in a very thick, intensely flavored mixture. Typically, espagnole sauce is made by mixing roux as a thickener into the espagnole and then adding other ingredients such as vegetables, spices, herbs, wine, and vinegar to enhance the flavor and aroma. This sauce is then used as a topping for meats and other foods or is used as a base to make other types of sauces.
A traditional French sauce, espagnole is one of the Grand or Mother sauces used as a base or foundation sauce for making smaller versions that are seasoned and flavored separately. Common sauces in this group that use espagnole as a base include Bordelaise, Chasseur, Chateaubriand, Diablo, Diane, Estragon, Lyonnais, Madera, Madeira, Moscovite, Mushroom, Piquant, Porto, Robert, Romaine, Tarragon, and Zingara.
Demiglace
A French term historically used to describe a traditional brown sauce, such as Espangnole, which has been simmered and reduced to half of its original volume, resulting in a very thick, intensely flavored mixture. This sauce is then used as a topping for meats and other foods or is used as a base to make other types of sauces. Today, the term demiglace is often used in reference to a much wider variety of sauces, such pan sauces and reduction sauces, which all use a brown stock as a base.
A demiglace often contains half brown sauce (Espangnole) and half brown stock. Common sauces in this group include Bordelaise, Chasseur, Chateaubriand, Diable, Diane, Estragon, Lyonnais, Madera, Madeira, Moscovite, Mushroom, Piquant, Porto, Robert, Romaine, Tarragon, and Zingara.
Madeira Sauce
A wine sauce that is made from Madeira wine as the key ingredient. Although this sauce may consist only of Madeira wine and broth, there are also numerous variations that include other ingredients to enhance the flavors of the foods topped with the sauce. As an example, another version of the sauce may include the wine, a demiglace, water and/or broth, seasonings, and vegetables or mushrooms if desired that goes well with selected cuts of beef. Madeira sauces are typically used to season pasta, meats, stews, and savory dishes.
Tomato Sauces (Or Red Sauces)
Tomato Sauce
A tomato product that is not as thick as tomato puree but thicker than tomato juice. It generally has its flavor enhanced by the addition of herbs, spices, onion and garlic. Tomato sauce is commercially canned and sold in most food stores. It is used as a base for other sauces and in a variety of dishes. The difference between tomato paste, tomato puree and tomato sauce is texture and depth of flavor. The thicker the consistency, the deeper the flavor. Tomato paste is the thickest in consistency, puree is thinner than paste, and tomato sauce is the thinnest.
Tomato Coulis
A coulis is a liquid or sauce made with ingredients, such as fruits or vegetables, which have typically been puréed and strained to create a thick sauce-like consistency. The sauce may be thick, but is still easily poured. When making a coulis, it is important to not over or under cook the ingredients, so the texture and flavor are not diluted if overcooked or too stiff and thick if undercooked.
Tomatoes are often used to make a coulis, serving as a base for tomato soups and sauces, or passattas, fish sautés, grilled fish, and fresh pasta dishes. Similarly, other fruits such as raspberries, blueberries and strawberries are made into a coulis to be served over foods such as cheesecake, ice cream, tortes, soufflés, crêpes, waffles, pancakes, and French toast.
Egg Yolk and Butter Sauces
Hollandaise Sauce
A sauce made with egg yolks that are beaten as they are warmed slightly. Butter is gradually added along with lemon juice to create a thick, creamy sauce. Hollandaise sauce is used to accompany egg dishes, boiled or poached fish, and a variety of vegetables. It is the mother sauce for all of the variations of egg yolk and butter sauces.
Béarnaise Sauce
A derivation of the traditional French hollandaise sauce, this sauce is made with egg yolks and butter. Instead of being flavored with lemon juice like hollandaise sauce, it is flavored with wine, vinegar, shallots, pepper, and tarragon. This sauce is most often served as a dressing over meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, and eggs.
Mousseline Sauce
This term can apply to several different sauces or food dishes that all have a light, airy texture derived from using whipped cream or beaten egg whites added to the food dish immediately before it is served. The traditional Mousseline Sauce is a hollandaise sauce with whipped cream whisked into it prior to serving. When the term Mousseline is used to refer to a food dish, it will commonly refer to a savory dish containing meat, poultry, fish, or shellfish as the main ingredient. Typical of a Mousseline Sauce, either whipped cream or beaten egg whites are added just before serving to lighten the texture.
Normandy Sauce
A sauce consisting of fish stock, egg yolk, butter, and heavy cream, generally served with seafood but is also served with other foods. The ingredients may vary according to the type of food it is served with or because of regional preferences. Other ingredients used are mushrooms, apples, apple cider, and Calvados.
Egg Yolk and Oil Sauces
Mayonnaise
Mayonnaise is a sauce made with egg yolks, olive or vegetable oil, mustard, and lemon juice or vinegar, and various seasonings. It is one the mother sauces of French cooking and forms the base for a number of other sauces. Mayonnaise is an emulsion, which means that it is a substance created from the combination of two liquids that do not typically mix well, such as eggs and oil. Sauces or dressings that look like mayonnaise but which do not contain eggs as an ingredient, cannot be labeled as mayonnaise. Available as a traditional mixture of ingredients containing higher levels of fat, mayonnaise is also available in lighter versions that are considered low-fat and contain lower levels of fat content. Mayonnaise and its lighter versions are generally available in most food stores.
Remoulade Sauce
A classic French sauce made from mayonnaise, mustard, capers, chopped gherkins, anchovies, and fresh herbs. Typically made with a mayonnaise base, rémoulade is served cold as a condiment or dressing with vegetables, cold meats, fish, or shellfish. There are many versions of sauces referred to as Rémoulade sauce with a variety of ingredients, but the traditional sauce is commonly referred to as Sauce Rémoulade.
Tartar Sauce
A cold sauce used as a condiment most often with fish but also with other foods, such as vegetables. It is made with a mayonnaise base combined with ingredients such as chopped pickles, chopped onions, capers, olives, lemon juice or vinegar, and at times, it is lightly flavored with mustard. This sauce may also be referred to as tartare sauce.
Verte Sauce
An emulsion sauce made with mayonnaise as the base that is colored green with various other ingredients. Made to be served as a cold sauce, Verte Sauce or Sauce Verte as it is also known is often used as a condiment for fish and potato dishes. It is made by combining mayonnaise with the juice of herbs such as parsley and fresh spinach that are pureed together, giving the sauce a green or "verte" appearance. As versions of recipes evolve, the ingredients for this sauce have changed so that the Sauce Verte may include the juice as well as tiny bits of the spinach and herbs such as chervil, parsley, tarragon, and watercress.
Oil and Vinegar Sauces
Oil and Vinegar Sauce (Vinaigrette Salad Dressing)
An oil and vinegar sauce, or vinaigrette, is a temporary emulsion, which means that the oil and vinegar (or wine) will quickly separate when not in motion. An oil and vinegar sauce is most often used as a salad dressing, but since the oil and vinegar separate so readily, the sauce is vigorously whisked or shaken immediately before using in order to keep the oil and vinegar in suspension. As a general rule, the ratio for making a vinaigrette sauce is three parts oil to one part vinegar or wine (or other acidic ingredient). Vinaigrettes can be enhanced with the use of different oils, but a balance is needed between the oils so that an oil with an intense flavor doesn't overpower a less intense oil.
Flavored Butter Sauces
Beurre Blanc Sauce
Traditionally, this sauce is a white butter sauce native to France and is used to enhance a variety of foods, such as egg dishes, poultry, seafood, and vegetables; however, in many kitchens it is now also being made as a brown sauce.
Beurre Blanc Sauce is typically made as an emulsion containing white wine, vinegar, minced or chopped shallots, unsalted butter, heavy cream (or water), and seasonings. Often considered as a difficult sauce to prepare, it is more time consuming than difficult. To prepare Beurre Blanc Sauce, the shallots, wine, and vinegar are combined and reduced by heating the mixture to only 10% of the original volume. The cream or water is added to the reduction and the butter is combined into the ingredients as it melts and is whisked to blend evenly. When finished, the shallots can be removed by straining the sauce or allowed to remain in order to add to the presentation appearance and texture.
There are many variations of the traditional Beurre Blanc Sauce that can be made to provide a variety different versions and flavors. Some of the most common include Beurre Rouge, a red wine butter sauce (or versions of the sauce without wine such as Beurre Citron, a butter sauce, which uses lemon juice instead of wine); Beurre Fondu, an emulsified butter sauce; and Beurre Noisette, a nutty flavored sauce with lemon juice that employs a cooking procedure in which flavor is achieved by allowing the butter to brown.
Italian Pasta Sauces
The pasta sauces of Italy are made from any of a variety of savory toppings and mixtures of ingredients that enhance the flavor of the pasta dish being served. The traditional pasta sauces will generally be categorized as one of the following:
1. Tomato or vegetable-based sauce
2. Cream or butter-based sauce
3. Cheese sauce
4. Meat sauce
5. Herb-based sauce
6. Oil-based sauce
All of the variations contain a variety of ingredients mixed into the sauce base. As a rule, the lighter the sauce, the more noticeable the flavor of the pasta will be. When selecting a sauce, consider the shape and size of the pasta noodle, since some sauces are best suited for specific types of pasta. As an example, light tomato sauces go better with thinner pasta rather than shaped or tubular pasta.
Classic Pasta Sauce
An Italian sauce, which uses traditional or country ingredients, that has a rustic style of preparation comparable to the region from which it is created. Most always prepared as tomato-based sauce, the ingredients may include tomatoes, diced vegetables, olive oil, and seasonings. It is a sauce that is commonly served as a pasta sauce as well as a sauce for some poultry and fish dishes.
Bolognese Sauce
Like many pasta sauces, there are several that are traditional sauces native to their region of origination, such as Bolognese, a traditional Italian sauce originating in Bologna, Italy. Most often a Bolognese sauce will contain at least two types of meat, which may include veal, beef, pork, or chicken cut into small pieces. Unlike some sauces that use ground meat, traditional Bolognese sauces start with large pieces of meat that are chopped into finely cut bits.
The meats in Bolognese sauce are just some of a variety of ingredients that are used in the sauce. Among the other ingredients used are onions, celery, carrots, chili peppers, tomatoes, olive oil, and white wine, along with seasonings and herbs, such as oregano, basil, bay leaves, and nutmeg, all of which provide the distinct flavor of the sauce. It is also common to add cream or milk to the ingredients which provides a richer flavor to the sauce. Bolognese sauce can be added to many different foods but it goes especially well with fettuccine or tagliatelle ribbon pasta, tube pastas or with lasagna and cannelloni pasta as a stuffing.
Marinara Sauce
A traditional Italian tomato sauce that combines crushed tomatoes, garlic and a variety of other ingredients, such as onions, basil or parsley, oregano, and olive oil into a sauce that is well seasoned. Commonly served on pasta or meats, Marinara sauce has evolved as so many other pasta sauces, into many different variations that attempt to provide an acceptable balance between mildly acidic and slightly sweet flavors. Recipes that include various forms of tomatoes, such as ground, crushed or pureed, vegetables such as carrots and chili or sweet peppers, several types of herbs or spices, and sweet ingredients such as sugar or honey are becoming more common.
Amatriciana Sauce
Originating in a region of central Italy from a town known as Amatrice located near the Adriatic Sea coast, this sauce is a type of pasta sauce known for its meaty contents. Two versions of this sauce exist, however the second sauce became known as Alla Gricia to separate the distinctive quality of each.
The traditional Amarticiana Sauce typically includes tomatoes combined with pork meat sautéed in olive oil, minced onions, garlic if desired, a small amount of ground chili pepper, and a pinch of black pepper. The recipe, when made in the manner of a true Amatrice sauce, is served with cured pork meat from the cheek of the pig, which is referred to as guanciale; however, it is common to find Amatriciana Sauce prepared with the Italian bacon known as pancetta. Other types of pork are also used when the sauce is prepared in areas outside of Italy, generally because or limited access to guanciale or pancetta. Substitutes such as Canadian bacon may be used when necessary in an attempt to keep the flavor of sauce as close to the original as possible.
The second sauce from Amatrice is an Alla Grica Sauce, which is considered the "white" version of Amatriciana. Both sauces are prepared in the same manner using the same ingredients except that the Alla Grica Sauce does not contain tomatoes; therefore, it does not have the dark red coloring but instead is white in color. Some of the variations of these sauces have changed over the years and may include cheese, such as Romano, as an additional ingredient to enhance the flavors.
Both sauces go well as a topping for strand pasta, such as spaghetti; however, in traditional Amatrice cooking, the pastas most often used include bucatini, perciatelli, or fresh ravioli.
Puttanesca Sauce
An Italian sauce that is very spicy and strong flavored. Traditionally made with garlic, bits of dried chili peppers, capers, and anchovies as key ingredients, this sauce can be mild or well-seasoned depending on the type and amount of spices added. There are a variety of pasta and fish dishes using this sauce to enhance the flavor of the dish, such as Pasta Puttanesca, Spaghetti Puttanesca, Linguine Puttanesca, and Shrimp Puttanesca.
Arrabbiata Sauce
Italian in origin, this sauce is considered to be one of the fiery or spicier types of tomato sauces from Italy. Arrabbiata, which is a term generally used to describe aspects of anger or rage, is applied to the characteristics and intensity of this sauce made with chili peppers that add a spicy flavor to pasta, meats, poultry, seafood, and other foods such as pizza. Penne all'Arrabbiata (angry penne pasta) or Agnello all'Arrabbiata (angry lamb) typify dishes having a spicier taste made with Arrabbiata sauces.
Formaggi Sauce
A traditional cheese-based sauce that is most often used as pasta sauce. The classic Formaggi sauce may be referred to as a "Quattro Formaggi" sauce, referring to the four varieties of cheese mixed in with the other ingredients in the sauce. Some of the common cheeses that are combined together and blended into the sauce include Cheddar, Fontina, Gorgonzola, Gouda, Grana, Gruyere, Mozzarella, Parmigiano, Provolone, Ricotta, and Romano. The type of pasta and the selection of other ingredients with the pasta dish generally determine the types of cheeses that will be included in the Formaggi sauce. A few of the additional ingredients that will added to the cheeses may include: cream, tomato sauce, a type of meat such as ham or bacon, herbs such as rosemary, sage, oregano, and several other mild seasonings.
Alfredo Sauce
An Italian sauce that is usually combined with fettuccine noodles and is then referred to as Fettuccine Alfredo. The sauce consists of heavy cream or half-and-half that is mixed with butter, grated Parmesan cheese, pepper, and occasionally nutmeg to create a rich Italian meal.
Carbonara Sauce
Italian pasta dishes that are served with a sauce (Carbonara sauce) made with cream, eggs, Parmesan cheese, small pieces of bacon and vegetables, such as peas. Although any type of pasta can be used, spaghetti and linguine are most suitable with this sauce. The sauce is heated for several minutes until it begins to thicken. It is then spread over pasta that is very hot, enabling the eggs to continue cooking while the food simmers.
Vodka Sauce
A creamy smooth textured pasta sauce that goes well with penne, ravioli, rigatoni, tortellini, or ziti pasta as well as on some poultry dishes or bruschetta appetizers. Rich in flavor, this sauce typically contains tomatoes, cream, vodka, olive oil, garlic, onions, and seasonings. Parmesan, pecorino or Romano cheese and meats such as prosciutto are also additional ingredients that may be included in some vodka sauces.
Alla Grica Sauce
A type of white pasta sauce that originated in Amatrice, Italy a small town located adjacent to the Gran Sasso massif, a mountain region in the middle of the country. Made with the distinct flavor of cured pork, the traditional Alla Grica Sauce will use cured pork sautéed in olive oil and seasoned with onions, possibly garlic, and a very small amount of ground chili pepper with a pinch of black pepper as well. When prepared as a local Amatrice sauce, the recipe will contain guanciale, which is the cheek meat of the pig. Since guanciale is not always available outside of Italy, this sauce may be prepared in other countries with pancetta, an Italian bacon, or other pork substitutes such as Canadian bacon.
A second sauce from Amatrice that is considered to be the "sister" sauce to Alla Grica is Amarticiana Sauce, which is considered the "red" version of Alla Grica. Prepared in the same manner, each sauce goes through the same preparation process; however, the Amarticiana Sauce includes tomatoes as an ingredient, which results in the deep red color of the sauce. There are variations of the sauce that include other ingredients, such as cheese or garlic. Romano cheese is often used as an additional ingredient in some of the Alla Grica and Amarticiana sauces. Strand pasta such as spaghetti is the most common pasta topped with these sauces, but in Amatrice or other areas of Italy, the pasta typically served is bucatini, perciatelli, or fresh ravioli.
Other Types of Italian Sauces
Marsala Sauce
Marsala sauce is a rich sauce made with Marsala wine as a key ingredient. The sauce is used to enhance the flavor of pasta, poultry, pork, veal, fish, and game. It can be made from a variety of flavored bases, such as tomato, mushroom, or fruit flavors, and it is served as a sauce for several traditional food dishes, such as pollo (chicken) Marsala or veal Marsala.
A typical recipe for the sauce may include onions, garlic, herbs, mushrooms, heavy cream, oil or butter, and the key ingredient of Marsala wine. When making the sauce, the wine can be added to the other ingredients immediately or, as preferred by many, added at the end of the sauce making process.
To prepare the sauce using the preferred method, the meat is first seared and cooked in a bit of oil; then it is removed from the pan. The sauce ingredients, excluding the wine (and heavy cream, if it is used), are added to the pan and are cooked with the meat juices and pan drippings for a short period. The Marsala wine is added, which helps deglaze the pan and loosen any bits that have stuck to the pan. If heavy cream is to be used in the sauce recipe, it is added last. The sauce can be spooned over the meat and served immediately, or the meat can be returned to the pan to allow the sauce to enhance the flavor of the meat.
Ragu Sauce
A slow cooked sauce that uses the cooking process to combine all the ingredients into a blend of unique flavors. Made from ingredients that cook for 3 to 4 hours, the traditional Italian ragù included the cooking of bits of beef with chicken livers and unsmoked pancetta to be combined with tomato purée, mushrooms if desired, onions, celery, olive oil, seasonings, white wine and a stock base. As the meat cooked with the other ingredients, it began to soften and absorb all of the other flavors, turning into a fully flavored sauce providing only a mildly pronounced tomato taste.
Variations of the traditional ragù sauce have evolved to include carrots, sautéed shallots, and depending on taste, either cream or milk and cheese. Typically, the meats used in the sauce were diced, later to be minced or ground from meats such as beef, lamb, or pork, used individually or in combinations, such as beef and lamb. Made as either a tomato-based red sauce or a cheese-based white sauce, ragù is served as a base sauce for cooked pastas such as lasagna or ravioli in addition to many other pastas. This sauce may also be referred to as Bolognese sauce, a classic ragù sauce of Bologna, Italy.
Fresca Sauce
Any of a variety of sauces made from fresh ingredients that have not been cooked and are ready to serve on pasta, meat, poultry, fish, and other foods. Fresca, meaning "fresh" is commonly created with uncooked ingredients that are combined to be made into salsas and pasta sauces, which are then added, either warm or cold to the foods after they have been prepared.
Spinach Sauce
Very common in Italian and Indian dishes, this type of sauce is used as a base for cooking and flavoring dishes with poultry, vegetables, legumes, and pasta. Spinach Sauce may be made as a white creamy sauce or a red, tomato-based sauce. For a white Spinach Sauce, ingredients such as garlic, cheese, fresh or frozen spinach, and seasonings are often combined in a food processor to be blended, but not to the texture of a puree. For the red sauce, ingredients are similarly processed only to a point of fine bits, which may include tomatoes and tomato paste, fresh or frozen spinach, red peppers, onions, olives, lemon juice, garlic, ginger, cumin, coriander, cinnamon, paprika, and cloves.
Gribiche Sauce
Attributed to early Roman times, this sauce, which was more commonly referred to as Sauce Gribiche, is usually served as a condiment or dressing for salad greens, fish, poultry, and eggs. Very similar to tartar sauce, Gribiche is made with shallots, parsley, cornichons, capers, eggs, oil, vinegar, and seasonings. However, other ingredients are often added such as chives, other herbs, and prepared mustard. A key difference between Sauce Gribiche and tartar sauce is that the oil, vinegar, and seasonings are not emulsified (fully blended) into the Sauce Gribiche as they are in tartar sauce.
Pesto Sauce
An herb-based sauce originating in Italy that is typically made with basil, parsley, pine nuts, garlic, olive oil, and parmesan or Romano cheese. Many variations of this sauce exist, which may be different simply by the type of cheese, nuts or herbs, or other ingredients that are used to make the sauce. As an example, a red colored version of pesto, known as pesto rosso in Italian, is made with sun-dried tomatoes as one of the key ingredients, in addition to the basil, parsley, garlic, cheese and olive oil. Pesto is traditionally used as a pasta sauce but may be used as a seasoning for other foods as well as an ingredient or topping for appetizers.
Fresh pesto can be kept refrigerated for 2 to 3 days, or frozen to keep for longer periods. As the fresh pesto is exposed to air, the outer fringes of the pesto will darken while the inner areas will tend to remain brighter in color. This discoloration of the sauce occurs naturally and is part of the aging process that decreases the full flavor of fresh pesto.
Chinese Sauces
Plum Sauce
A thick sweet-and-sour Chinese sauce, which is used as a condiment for Asian foods. It is made from a combination of dried plums and apricots, vinegar, sugar, and spices, which provide a sweet tangy and somewhat spicy flavor to foods. The sauce is generally served with duck, pork and spareribs and can be commonly used as a dipping sauce, a seasoning in cooking sauces, or as a glaze on roasts. Also known as duck sauce, it is available in Asian markets and well-stocked grocery stores.
Duck Sauce
A sweet and sour sauce prepared from a combination of dried plums and apricots, vinegar, sugar, and spices, which is served as a condiment with cooked duck or pork. A common sauce for Asian foods, which may also be referred to as plum sauce, provides a sweet tangy and somewhat spicy flavor to foods. The sauce is generally served with duck, pork, and spareribs, as well as being used as a dipping sauce, a seasoning in cooking sauces, or as a glaze on roasts.
Leek Flower Sauce
A condiment made from the Chinese Leek Flower, a long thin and very narrow stem that grows a tiny flowering bulb at the top of the stem. Produced to harvest both the stem and the bulb, the Chinese Leek Flower is processed into a condiment that is served over rice dishes or with lamb dishes such as boiled mutton. The Chinese Leek Flower, which is also known as the Chinese chive, provides a garlic-like flavor with a chive overtone, thus the Leek Flower Sauce adds a similar flavoring when served with meat and rice.
Oyster Sauce
A Chinese seasoning made by cooking a blend of steamed oysters, soy sauce, and salt together until thick and concentrated. The ingredients used may vary according to different recipes. It is used as a condiment, in stir-frying and to season other dishes. Oyster sauce enriches the flavor of a dish without overpowering its taste. It can be found bottled in Asian markets or in well-stocked supermarkets.
Japanese Sauces
Shoyu Sauce
Shoyu is a Japanese word for "soy sauce." Shoyu is a salty brown Asian sauce used as a seasoning or a condiment for Asian dishes. The sauce is made from fermented soybeans, wheat, water and salt. There are two varieties, light and dark. The dark soy sauce is darker in color, thicker in consistency and sweeter in taste than the light soy sauce. The dark soy sauce is used more often in Japanese cooking. The Chinese soy sauce is generally the light soy sauce, which is lighter in color and saltier. The dark soy sauce has a longer life than the light. The light should be used shortly after opening.
A Japanese sauce that is used as a dipping sauce for poached meats, dumplings, fried foods and seafood; as a sauce added to sautéed foods during cooking, or a salad and cooked greens vinaigrette; or as a dressing for Asian noodle dishes. It is traditionally made by mixing soy sauce, lemon or lime juice, rice vinegar, mirin (sweet rice wine or sake), dried bonito flakes, and Kombu seaweed or dried kelp.
Teriyaki Sauce
A Japanese sauce that is made from a combination of soy sauce, sake, sugar, ginger, and seasonings. The sauce is generally used as a marinade for meats that are then grilled, broiled or fried.
Tamari Sauce
A sauce that is made primarily from soybeans that is used as a condiment for dipping foods or as a basting sauce. It is created as a liquid when miso, which is a soybean paste, ripens as it ferments. Similar to soy sauce, Tamari is mild flavored, contains little or no wheat, but is thicker in consistency. It is brewed over a longer period of time, sometimes up to six months, giving the Tamari a smoother flavor than soy sauce.
Other Asian Sauces
Soy Sauce
Soy sauce is a salty brown Asian sauce used as a seasoning or condiment to enhance and harmonize the flavors of various foods. It is a sauce that is used to bring out the flavor in foods, such as meats, poultry, fish, and cheese. The traditional soy sauce, typically considered as an Asian condiment, is made from fermented soybeans, ground roasted wheat, and a starter mold known as koji to begin the fermentation. A brine of sea salt and water are added after the original mixture has aged for 3 to 5 days. This combination of ingredients is then seasoned again and allowed to mature for approximately 6 months after which it is pasteurized and prepared for commercial use.
In Japan, soy sauces are referred to as shoyu, or in Chinese, they are called pinyin jiàngyóu (Mandarin) and see ‘yau’ (Cantonese). There are a number of different varieties made, of which there are basically two different categories, referred to as either the light or the dark sauces. Dark soy sauce is darker in color, thicker in consistency and sweeter or richer in flavor than the light soy sauce. Dark soy sauce, which typically contains molasses and other seasonings, is used most often in Japanese or Chinese cooking for stir-fry marinades, meat glazes, and to flavor stews.
Chinese dark soy is a traditional dark soy sauce, which is very thick in texture and contains molasses as a main ingredient. Another dark, thick textured sauce made with an Asian dark soy sauce, is Kecap Manis or Ketjap Manis, which contains palm sugar, star anise and garlic as flavorings. This sauce is a common condiment, marinade and flavoring for Indonesian food dishes. A version of soy sauce that may be referred to as "wheat free" is the Japanese Tamari, a strong flavored sauce processed either as a sauce made only from soybeans or as a sauce containing only a small amount of low quality wheat. Tamari is thick in consistency, stronger flavored than traditional Chinese sauces, and is generally used as a sauce for raw fish or a cooking sauce for dishes with longer cooking times, such as stews, soups and cooked meat dishes. However, it can also be used as a marinade sauce, a salad dressing, or as a seasoning and dipping sauce. Flavored soy sauces are also available, such as mushroom soy sauce, made with dried mushrooms and considered a dark soy sauce. The mushroom sauce has an earthy flavor that goes well with meat stews and marinades.
The light soy sauces are lighter in color, thinner in texture, saltier in flavor, and contain more of the sour overtones than other soy sauces. The Japanese word for this type of soy sauce is "shoyu," which is a sauce typically made from soybeans, roasted wheat, sea salt, water, and koji starter mold. The lighter sauces, which will generally not alter the color of the foods being prepared, are traditionally used when cooking vegetables, clear soup, soup bases for noodles, and white fish. Since light soy sauces have a shorter shelf life than the darker sauces, they should be used shortly after opening.
The alternative to a traditional fermented sauce is the hydrolyzed soy sauce, but it often lacks the full flavor of the natural or traditional sauces. Hydrolyzed soy is a synthetic sauce that has not been brewed in the same manner as a naturally brewed soy sauce.
Soy sauces can be used in salad dressings, as well as an ingredient for many other sauces, such as marinades, steak sauces, barbecue sauces, or as flavorings in soups, stews, and a variety of food dishes.
Hoison Sauce
A popular thick sauce used for Asian foods, both as an ingredient in cooking and also as a condiment. It is made from fermented soybeans, garlic, chilies, vinegar, sugar, and various spices that provide a sweet and somewhat tangy flavor. There are different brands of this sauce that vary in consistency and flavor, some being less sweet and spicy than others.
If used for cooking, the sauce is often brushed onto meats prior to being broiled or grilled. It can be added to meats and other ingredients as they are stir-fried or used as a dipping sauce. Since it contains a higher level of sugar than many other sauces, it is best to use caution when applying heat, making sure not to burn the sauce as it cooks. Keep unused sauce refrigerated and it can then be kept for very long periods of time without losing much flavor.
Fish Sauce
An amber red to reddish-brown colored sauce produced as a liquid byproduct from fermenting salt-cured fish. In some countries such as the Philippines, an Asian food known as bagoong monamon is is prepared first in order to produce a fish sauce referred to as patis, which becomes the byproduct of making bagoong. But bagoong monamon can also be considered a type of fish sauce, since bagoong is basically a flavoring for other foods, which fish sauce is as well.
Some sauces are clear in consistency as they are often removed or refined from a more dense mixture of cured fish, while others are cloudy and appear more like a pureed food substance. Bagoong has the opaque or pureed consistency and often is produced with whole anchovy filets in the sauce to improve the flavor. Many fish sauces are made with anchovies which are the species of fish typically prepared to produce bagoong monamon. However, other varieties or combinations of fish are also used to make fish sauce, such as mackerel, tuna, shrimp, and squid. Sauces made with 100% of a specific variety of fish, like anchovies, are considered to be the best tasting of the fish sauces.
Fish sauce has a sharp, salty taste with a strong aroma that is used as a seasoning or condiment to enhance the flavor of various foods. It is popular in Southeast Asian dishes and can be found in many Asian markets. The traditional fish sauce is known as nuoc nam in Vietnam, patis in the Philippines, Nampla in Thailand, and shottsuru in Japan. Fish sauce may also be referred to as fish gravy in some regions.
Fish sauce is generally not served separately as a topping sauce or seasoning due to its overpowering flavor. Instead, it is most often used on foods that may have already been flavored with other seasonings or sauces. In addition, if desired, it can be tempered by adding sugar and lime juice to make it less intense in flavor for use as a dipping sauce with vegetables or wrapped foods, such as spring rolls.
Bean Paste or Bean Sauce
A type of seasoning made from fermented or germinated soybeans that are used to flavor a variety of Asian foods. Bean pastes and sauces are common in Asian cooking and are often used as a base sauce from which other types of pastes or sauces are developed. Combining a bean sauce with hoisin sauce or a hoisin sauce with chili bean paste enhances the flavor of the sauce and the food to which it is added. Bean pastes and sauces are used to flavor hot or spicy tasting food dishes and are often combined with chili peppers or other seasonings to intensify the heat and taste. Poultry, meat, noodles, pork, and vegetables are all foods that are frequently seasoned with bean sauces.
There are many different types of bean pastes and sauces made for use in Asian cooking such as chili bean pastes made in red, green, yellow, or roasted varieties, bean sauces made in yellow or brown varieties, and chili bean sauce made as a red sauce. In addition, within all the varieties, there are different textures (from thick to thin), different intensities of heat (from mild to hot), and different levels of sweetness. Black bean sauce contains ground black beans combined with seasonings such as garlic and at times star anise. The pastes and sauces labeled as hot such as hot black bean sauce will often contain chilies to provide the heat combined with the ground beans, garlic seasoning and sugar. Yellow bean sauce, which contains yellow beans and is brown in color is basically the same as brown bean sauce or ground bean sauce. Chili bean sauce is a salty flavored sauce containing chili peppers, fermented soybean paste, possibly fermented broad bean paste, sugar, garlic, and other seasonings.
Bean paste or sauce is typically sold as a sauce either made with whole beans or crushed (mashed) beans that have been ground into a puree-like texture. The pastes and sauces made with whole beans are typically labeled as bean sauce or bean paste, which are mixtures containing the whole beans processed into a thick paste or sauce, which may be sweetened or unsweetened. These pastes and sauces are generally the preferred types of mixtures since they have more of the soy flavor and texture that is similar to the traditional soy sauces. Beans that have been crushed are most often puréed, as they are ground or mashed into a smoother texture and labeled as a yellow or crushed bean sauce. The crushed bean sauces are saltier tasting than the whole bean sauces. Other names often used for the pastes or sauces may include brown bean sauce, bean paste, soybean sauce or soybean condiment.
For storage, keep opened paste and sauces stored in an airtight plastic or glass container placed in the refrigerator. Storing for several months is acceptable and use by the date displayed on the label.
Asian Chili Sauce
A type of condiment that is somewhat similar to the Chile Sauces produced in countries such as Mexico and the U.S. Often referred to as either a Sauce or a Paste, Asian Chile Sauces can contain any one of many different chili peppers used to produce the sauces, which provide numerous variances in flavor and heat intensity. Some ingredients commonly used to produce an Asian Chile Sauce or Chile Paste may include soybean or palm oil, herbs such as basil, garlic, sugar, and other seasonings to produce a somewhat sweet and spicy flavored red, green, yellow, or brown colored Chili Sauce.
Many US and Mexican Chile Sauces use tomatoes and chilies as a base while the Asian Chili Sauces and Pastes most often do not use tomatoes, so there is less of a lighter water-like texture and more of an oily consistency to the Asian Sauces. All types of Chile Sauces are commonly served as toppings for red meat, poultry, fish, and egg dishes, while Asian Sauces and Paste are commonly used during the preparation and cooking of the foods as well as a topping or dipping Sauce.
Maggi® Sauce.
An Asian sauce, made from vegetable proteins combined with salt, pepper and various spices, which is used as a food flavoring. Commonly found in food stores, Maggi® Seasoning is used as an ingredient with stir-fried foods, cooked vegetables, noodle or rice dishes, salads, meats, and poultry. Versatile in use, it is served as a dipping sauce, it can be made into a marinade or it is simply added as a seasoning sauce to a variety of foods. This sauce provides a flavor that is very similar to a sweet soy sauce.
Banana Sauce
An Asian condiment that has the same appearance and flavor as tomato ketchup. Made with bananas, water, sugar, vinegar and seasonings such as garlic, onions, salt, and spices, this sauce is produced as an alternative to ketchup for regions that grow significant numbers of bananas.
Peanut Sauce
A popular sauce in Southeast Asia which is made from peanut oil, peanut butter or ground peanuts, garlic, onions, chilies, and soy sauce. Peanut sauce is served with dishes such as tofu, satay dishes, and gado-gado where it may be considered a dipping sauce, a dressing or in some instances altered to be used as a marinade.
Sriracha Sauce
Thai chili sauce, sold commercially in a mild or hot form, which is similar to an orange-red ketchup and used in cooking or as a condiment.
Mexican Sauces
Chili or Chile Sauce
A sauce or condiment that can be made from any one of many different chili peppers, depending on the desired intensity and flavor. This sauce may be blended with vinegar, herbs, garlic, and other seasonings to produce a somewhat sweet and spicy flavored chili sauce that can be red, green, yellow, or brown in color. Many different ingredients can be added to create this sauce, such as tomatoes in some recipes, giving the sauce a deeper red color and a stronger tomato flavor, while green ingredients produce a green chili sauce. A combination of ingredients, some of which may be roasted, will provide a brown-toned sauce.
Asian chili sauces are available that contain various herbs such as basil and are flavored with different levels of sweetness as well as heat intensities. The sauces may be produced as red, green, or yellow mixtures that are also referred to as chili pastes. Typically, the Asian sauce or paste will contain more of an oil base (palm or soybean oil) than a U.S. or Mexican variety of chili sauce.
Mexican chili sauces are typically red in color, using tomatoes as a base, and are flavored with various chilies that contain a higher level of heat to provide a very spicy taste. Prepared with varying intensities of heat, from mild to extra hot, all types of chili sauces are commonly served as toppings for red meat, poultry, fish, egg dishes, and other foods that are often seasoned with a spicy sauce.
Mexican Chili Sauce
Defining one type of sauce as a traditional Mexican chili sauce is difficult because of the many different varieties that are made and referred to as a chili sauce. Mexican chili sauces are typically very spicy, very hot, and very flavorful. Many sauces are made with a tomato and chili base that may contain red or green tomatoes combined with a desired variety of chili pepper, such as jalapeño chili peppers. In addition, many chili sauces may have tomatillos added or consist of tomatillos instead of tomatoes. As a way to identify various sauces, it is common practice to name the sauce according to the type of chili pepper used in the sauce, such as arbol chili sauce, which refers to the use of arbol chilies as the key ingredient for making the sauce.
Mexican chili sauces are served with all types of meats, such as shredded and whole sliced meats. In addition, it is common to add sauce as a topping for sandwiches, such as when served with torta sandwiches that are usually covered with sauce. This is known as torta ahogada, which translates to drowned in sauce. Mexican chili sauce is also served as a condiment or topping for poultry, fish, shellfish, and a variety of other foods, such as meat place atop a bed of rice and beans. Commonly referred to as a Mexican hot sauce or a red chili sauce, a typical Mexican chili sauce often uses jalapeno chili peppers or red chili peppers plus onions and tomatoes as key ingredients.
Chimichurri Sauce
A spicy herb sauce or marinade that is served with grilled and roasted meats. With origins credited to Argentina, Chimichurri sauce generally consists of water, salt, garlic, parsley, oregano, pepper, red chili peppers, lemon zest, red or white-wine vinegar, and extra-virgin olive oil. There are numerous versions of this sauce that range from tangy and spicy to tart and somewhat sweet. Chimichurri sauce can be used as a basting sauce for fish, shellfish, poultry, beef, and pork, or it can be used as a dipping sauce after the food has been cooked.
Taco Sauce
A spicy sauce that is used as a topping for the various ingredients that are inserted into a folded tortilla or taco shell. Taco sauce is available as either a red or green (verde) sauce. The red sauce typically consists of red tomatoes, tomato paste, green chilies, jalapeno peppers, and various seasonings. The green sauce often contains green tomatoes, bell peppers, onions, tomatillos, jalapenos, and seasonings.
Mole Sauce
Mole refers to a group of traditional Mexican pastes that are made into sauces that range in flavor from delicately spicy to very rich and spicy. The sauces are made with a mixture of ingredients that include onions, garlic, chili peppers, ground nuts (almonds, pumpkin seeds, and sesame seeds), toasted bread or crackers, spices, sunflower or soybean oils, sugar, and occasionally a small amount of sweet chocolate (if the sauce is red mole). Mole sauce can be reddish-brown in color with a sharp spicy flavor or it can be green, which is known as green mole or mole verde. Mole verde, which has a milder flavor, is made with green peppers and tomatillos. Mole pastes are typically mixed with water or a chicken broth (1 part mole paste to 3 parts water/broth) before being heated and boiled. It is then added as a seasoning and marinade for seafood, chicken, pork, eggs or egg dishes, enchiladas, rice, refried beans, or tamales.
Adobo Sauce
A sauce or paste of Mexican origin made with ground chili peppers, sesame seeds, peanuts, bread or crackers (wheat flour, salt, and cornstarch), sugar, vinegar, garlic, pepper, and other spices. The ingredients are generally cut with 4 parts of water or broth before being heated moderately and served over poultry, seafood, pork, or vegetables. It is considered to be one of the traditional mole sauces that can be used as either a condiment to flavor foods or as a marinade to season and improve the taste of meats and vegetables.
Pipian Sauce
Pipian sauce is one of the traditional Mexican mole sauces that is served as a condiment or as a marinade sauce for poultry, seafood, pork, and vegetable dishes. It is a puréed seed sauce consisting of vegetable or soybean oil, onions, pumpkin seeds (pepitas), peanuts, sesame seeds, chili peppers, garlic cloves, and other seasonings.
Known simply as Pipian sauce when it is prepared as a reddish-brown sauce, it is also known as green pipian, pipian verde, or mole verde when prepared as a green sauce. It is not to be confused with the red mole (mole rojo), which is a little spicier and contains red peppers (and sometimes sweet chocolate as well), while the green variety is made with tomatillos and green peppers. The ingredients of pipian sauce recipes may vary, such as substituting almonds for the pumpkin seeds or adding more herbs to enhance the flavor.
Pepper Sauce
A spicy hot sauce seasoned with cayenne peppers, chili peppers, or peppercorns. It is used as a condiment for many foods, such as meats, chicken, and fish, or it can be added to other foods, such as marinades, beverages, dips, chili, casseroles, or other sauces, when a spicy flavor is desired.
Picante Sauce
A tomato-based Mexican sauce made of tomatoes, chili peppers, and onions. Picante is a sauce that is very similar to salsa, except that it is thinner and smoother in consistency (not as chunky). Picante sauce is available as a red sauce or as a green (verde) sauce, either of which can be mild to very hot depending on the types of spices that are added.
Miscellaneous Sauces From Around the World
England
Worcestershire Sauce
A popular condiment that has a savory flavor and is used to season a wide variety of dishes. This thin dark sauce is made with soy sauce, garlic, onion, molasses, vinegar, anchovies, lime, and a variety of other seasonings. The name Worcestershire refers to the town of Worcester, England where the sauce was first produced commercially.
Mint Sauce
A green colored herb sauce made from mint leaves, sugar, and vinegar. Mint sauce is often applied as a marinade to poultry, fish, or meat, most notably lamb. Mint sauce and mint jelly have long been traditional accompaniments for a variety of lamb dishes. Mint sauce can also be used as an ingredient for dips in which the sauce is combined with mayonnaise and yogurt, or it can be used as a means to enhance the flavors of potatoes and vegetables. There are numerous types of mint sauces that range in flavor from highly tangy to quite mild and mellow. Generally, the flavor of vinegar and spicy ingredients will be very noticeable in the tangy flavored mint sauces.
Spain
Alioli Sauce
A popular Spanish sauce served most often with grilled meats, fish or vegetables. The traditional version of this sauce includes saffron, an emulsion of garlic and oil, eggs (to stabilize the sauce), mustard, olive oil, lemon juice, tomato paste, and seasonings. Today, it is more common to replace the emulsion sauce with mayonnaise.
Romesco Sauce
A sauce that is considered to be a traditional Catalan type of food sauce, which originated in the Catalonia region of Spain. Typically used as an ingredient to enhance the flavor of various foods, Romesco sauce is often served over grilled foods such as fish, poultry, meats, and vegetables. It may also be used as a flavoring for stews and pasta dishes, as well as a spread for breads with meats and cheese. Considered by some to be a garlic sauce, Romesco is most often made with tomatoes, garlic, olive oil, blanched almonds, hazelnuts, vinegar, herbs, red chili peppers, and salt.
Greece
Avgolemono Sauce (Or Soup)
Avgolemono refers to a traditional Greek soup or sauce. Most often, when it is made as a soup, bits of chicken are added to make it similar to a cream of chicken soup but one that has a lemony flavor. The liquid obtained from cooking fish or chicken is added to the soup along with eggs and the featured ingredient, lemon juice. As a sauce for fish or poultry, the egg yolks and lemon juice are whisked separately from the egg whites, which are beaten into a stiff foam. The yolks and lemon juice are added to the stiff whites and the ingredients are then combined with the cooking liquid, which is reheated until fairly thick in consistency.
When made as a soup, avgolemono usually includes a filler, such as rice. The soup is also somewhat thinner in consistency than the sauce. The sauce makes a very tasty lightly textured addition to meals of fish and fowl. This soup may also be referred to as Greek chicken soup or Greek egg lemon soup.
Tzatziki Sauce
A creamy Greek garlic sauce often served as a topping, a condiment, or a food dip, commonly served with a variety of Mediterranean dishes. Tzatziki is a white sauce made with yogurt, cream, cucumbers, fresh herbs, and seasonings, such as mint, dill, olive oil, and garlic. Served as a chilled sauce, tzatziki is commonly used on gyros, pita sandwiches, dolmades, roast lamb, roast pork or beef, fish or seafood, rice dishes, grilled vegetables, and many other foods. This cold sauce with its fresh ingredients adds a refreshing taste to many foods. Tzatziki sauce may also be referred to as tsatziki, satziki, satsike, or simply as a yogurt and cucumber sauce.
Other Countries and Regions
Pinjur Sauce
Common in areas of eastern Europe such as Macedonia, Pinjur is a sauce that is used as a topping or a cooking ingredient to be added to foods. Typically made from eggplant mixed with garlic, olive oil, and seasonings, Pinjur may also contain roasted peppers, chopped nuts such as walnuts, and fresh herbs. Pinjur is often served as a condiment to be used on various foods that are served for a meal or snack. It provides a mild earthy flavor, somewhat similar to sweet and spicy ketchup or various pasta sauces. Additional uses for this flavored sauce include as a spread for breads and sandwiches, a pasta or rice sauce, and as a cooking sauce for cooked vegetables, poultry, stews, and casseroles.
Dill Sauce
A sauce that may be made with wine or vinegar, dill, salt, garlic, possibly sour cream, mayonnaise, butter, and combinations of other ingredients. Depending on the consistency desired, dill sauce may be rich and creamy in appearance and texture, or mildly flavored with a light texture. The creamy version is a sauce commonly used as a salad dressing or as a topping for meats and fish, such as grilled or roasted salmon. The lighter dill sauce is most often used as a marinade or cooking sauce for meat, seafood, fish, poultry, and vegetables, enhancing the flavor of the food.
Korma Sauce
Korma is a cooking sauce that is common in India. Basically, it is a type of curry sauce with a mild flavor, seasoned with a variety of ingredients. Some of the ingredients that are most often used to make this sauce are onions, sugar, pureed tomatoes, coconut flour, coconut cream or yogurt, garlic, sunflower oil, lemon juice, citric acid, cilantro, nuts, and various spices. Korma Sauce is often cooked with chicken or lamb and then served over a bed of rice when preparing recipes known as Chicken Korma or Lamb Korma. Korma Sauce may also be referred to as qorma.
Artichoke Sauce
A sauce made from artichoke hearts that is served over, or stuffed into, vegetables. It is also added to pasta or rice or served as a condiment for a variety of foods and appetizers. Typically, the sauce combines the artichoke hearts with olive oil, vinegar, lemon juice, and other seasonings to create a rich and creamy sauce for pouring or spreading on foods.
Berbere Sauce
A common Ethiopian sauce that has a hot and spicy taste. Made with the seeds of cumin, cardamom, coriander, and fenugreek that are combined with garlic, ground cloves, turmeric, grated gingerroot, black pepper, salt, paprika, cinnamon, and dried red chilies, this sauce provides a distinctive tangy flavor for ethnic foods. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.04%3A_New_Page.txt |
Design Principles for Plating Food
A checklist:
• Flow from left to right
• Splash of color on left
• Height on right side
In the western world, we read from left to right. When a new image is presented to us, we tend to scan it from the left side to the right side. You can use this knowledge to influence the placement of food on the plate. If you have a bit of color on the left side of the plate (sauce, fresh fruit, etc.), the eye will be attracted to that. If you plan to have height on the right side of the plate (garnish, ramekin, etc.), it will draw the eye across the plate (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Your eye should be able to flow across the components. There should be movement on the plate. An upward curve of a tuile or chocolate garnish, a connection between two components with a caramel stick, or the flow of coulis can help direct movement and create a focal point. All these items combined will make a plate more appealing visually and attract the eye of the diner before the dessert is eaten.
The main component of the dessert does not always need to be centered, but can be placed slightly offset. Generally, sauce, ice cream or sorbet, and the main garnishes should radiate from the main component without a lot of separation. This allows the plate to have a balance of white space and not look too busy or confusing. Keeping components away from the outside edge of the plate will also help balance the presentation.
Placement on the plate
Figure 7a.
Figure 7b.
On the plate in Figure 7a, the two main components are pushed to the outside of the plate, causing the eye to focus on the emptiness (or negative space) in the middle. On the plate in Figure 7b, the components have been brought together, making a connection between all three items. This creates visual harmony.
Using the serving area of the plate well
Figure 8a.
Figure 8b.
Figure 8a shows the correct design principles (color on the left, and a garnish that is high on the right side), which do cause the eye to move left to right, but the cake is pushed back almost to the very edge of the plate. The sauce is all on the left side. The combination of the two uses only about half of the surface area. This highlights the negative space on the plate.
In Figure 8b, the sauce is piped across the entire surface of the plate, and the cake is brought almost to the center, creating more balance.
Flow
Figure 9a.
Figure 9b.
Figure 9a shows a dessert with a lot of sauce, done in similar shapes. The highest item is placed incorrectly, in the bottom left corner.
In Figure 9b, the presentation is simplified. Movement is controlled, drawing the eye to the tallest component. To help balance the plate, perhaps another component could have been added in the middle. Think about what might make an appropriate addition.
Which Cajun & Creole dishes would be appropriate for this plate design? What is the atmosphere of the restaurant? Whom would consider this design appealing?
Media Attributions: CC BY 4.0:
Modern dessert plate by Ken Harper
Plate Placement A by Ken Harper
Plate Placement B by Ken Harper
Unbalanced Plate by Ken Harper
Balanced Plate by Ken Harper
Flow 1 by Ken Harper
Flow 2 by Ken Harper | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.05%3A_New_Page.txt |
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
2.7: Industry Resources
Meats
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood
National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Association www.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soyfoods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co.
www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Flavors_of_the_Saucier%3A_Stocks_Sauces_and_Soups_(Zeringue_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.06%3A_New_Page.txt |
In British Columbia, the Food Premises Regulation[1] stipulates that:
1. Every operator of a food service establishment must hold a certificate, issued by a health officer, for the successful completion of the food handler training program known as FOODSAFE or its equivalent.
2. Every operator of a food service establishment must ensure that, while the operator is absent from the food service establishment, at least one employee present in the establishment holds the certificate referred to in subsection (1).
Although food safety certification is only required of one person per shift, a FOODSAFE certificate is recognized by many employers as a valuable and necessary employee qualification and an industry best practice for all people handling food.
FOODSAFE Level 1, B.C.’s provincial food safety course, is available in three ways: face to face, online, or through distance education (correspondence). In order to obtain a FOODSAFE Level 1 certificate, you must take a course through an approved training provider and pass an exam, which consists of 50 multiple-choice questions. A minimum score of 70% is required to pass the exam. Once you have successfully completed both the course and the exam, you will be registered in the BC Centre for Disease Control (BCCDC) database and receive a FOODSAFE certificate.
All new FOODSAFE Level 1 certificates have a five-year expiry date. Once your certificate expires, you must take a refresher course and achieve a grade of 80% on the refresher exam in order to be recertified.
For those in supervisory positions, the FOODSAFE Level 2 course offers training in the management of food safety and food safety systems.
More information on FOODSAFE certification as well as other equivalent food safety certificates can be found on the FOODSAFE website.
1.02: An Approach to Food Safety
Food safety does not happen by accident. To prepare safe food, you must follow certain steps and procedures throughout the entire food preparation process. You have to think, and you have to pay attention to how you prepare food to make sure it is safe. You do this by developing a food safety plan. A good food safety plan will make sure that anything that might make someone sick is under control.
A basic food safety plan uses the HACCP method. HACCP stands for hazard analysis critical control points. HACCP was originally developed by NASA to make sure the food on their space flights was safe to eat. HACCP is not a complicated process; it just means that you have to first identify the various steps you must take when you prepare your menu items, then look for possible sources of contamination, and then find ways to control these sources.
The HACCP approach
HACCP is an approach to food safety that is systematic and preventive. It is recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the United Nations international standards organization for food safety. HACCP is used by most countries around the world and has been in use since the 1960s.
HACCP goes beyond inspecting finished food products. It helps to find, correct, and prevent hazards throughout the production process. These include physical, chemical, and biological hazards.
There are seven universally accepted HACCP principles. Every country that uses HACCP follows these principles.
Principle 1: Hazard analysis
A plan is laid out to identify all possible food safety hazards that could cause a product to be unsafe for consumption, and the measures that can be taken to control those hazards. For example, at the cooking step of the production process, one of the identified hazards is the survival of pathogens due to inadequate cooking time or temperature.
Principle 2: Identifying critical control points
Critical control points are the points in the production process where an action can be taken to prevent, eliminate, or reduce a food safety hazard to an acceptable level. For example, the cooking step is considered a critical control point because control measures are necessary to deal with the hazard of pathogens surviving the cooking process.
Principle 3: Establishing critical limits for each critical control point
A critical limit is the limit at which a hazard is acceptable without compromising food safety. For example, critical limits at the cooking stage include specific time and temperature for cooking the product.
Principle 4: Establishing monitoring procedures for critical control points
Highly detailed monitoring activities are essential to make sure the process continues to operate safely and within the critical limits at each critical control point. For example, monitoring procedures at a cooking critical control point could include taking the internal temperature of the product with a specialized thermometer.
Principle 5: Establishing corrective actions
Actions must be taken to bring the production process back on track if monitoring indicates that deviation from critical limits has occurred. In food production, correcting problems before end-stage production is far more effective than waiting until a product is finished to test it. For example: If the required internal temperature has not been reached, a corrective action would require that the product be cooked further. If the cooking temperature cannot be reached, another corrective action would call for the product to be held and destroyed.
Principle 6: Establishing verification procedures
Verification means applying methods, procedures, tests, sampling and other evaluations (in addition to monitoring) to determine whether a control measure at a critical control point is or has been operating as intended. Verification activities also ensure that the monitoring and the corrective actions are done according to a company’s written HACCP program. For example, testing and calibrating thermometers is a verification procedure that is important to ensure accurate readings. The easiest way to test a thermometer’s accuracy is by submerging the probe into a pot of boiling water. If it does not read 100˚C (212˚F) then the thermometer must be adjusted to read the correct temperature.
Principle 7: Record keeping
The company must keep records to demonstrate the effective application of the critical control points and assist with official verification (which is done in Canada by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency). Records must be established to document the monitoring and verification results as well as all information and actions taken in response to any deviations found through monitoring and verification. For example, the employee responsible for monitoring a cooking critical control point completes a cooking log sheet. This sheet includes the date, the start and finish time, the temperature, and the employee’s signature. If a deviation has occurred in the production process, the responsible employee records the details in a deviation log book.
For more information on current food safety regulations in Canada, see Safe Food for Canadians Regulations.
Here is the original HACCP document from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (now archived). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.01%3A_Food_Safety_Regulations.txt |
There are many myths about foodborne illness and food poisoning. Table 1 dispels some common misconceptions about food poisoning.
Table 1. Food poisoning myths
Myth Fact
1. A food with enough pathogens to make you sick will look, smell, or taste bad. 1. A food with enough pathogens to make you sick may look, smell, or taste good.
2. Really fresh food cannot make people sick. 2. Really fresh food can cause food poisoning if it is not properly handled.
3. Only dirty kitchens can make people sick. 3. Even clean kitchens can make people sick.
4. Properly cooked food can never cause food poisoning. 4. Food poisoning can occur even when foods are properly cooked.
Foodborne illnesses can be caused by any of:
• Contaminants
• Improper food handling practices
• Food allergies
Understanding each of these is critical in ensuring that food safety is maintained.[1]
Food contaminants can be:
• Chemical, such as cleaning agents or pesticides
• Physical, such as hair, bandages, or glass
• Biological, such as pathogens and microbes introduced from infected workers, unsanitary work surfaces, or contaminated water
Biological causes of foodborne illness
Biological contaminants are by far the greatest cause of illness. Many of the risks associated with biological contaminants can be controlled or removed by effective food handling practices, so it is critical that the safe food handling and prevention procedures outline in the rest of the book be followed.
Microbes are all around us. They are living things, often too small to be seen without a microscope. Many microbes are beneficial, but some can cause illness or even death. These harmful microbes are called pathogens. Five types of microbes include bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, and fungi.
• Bacteria are present in many of the foods we eat and the body itself. Most bacteria are not harmful, and some are even very beneficial to people, but some types of bacteria are pathogenic and can cause illness. Campylobacter, E.coli, Listeria, and Salmonella are examples of pathogenic bacteria. Foods that contain these bacteria must be handled correctly and cooked appropriately.
• Viruses frequently cause illness, and are found in food, but do not grow or multiply in food. Most foodborne illness caused by viruses happens because the person handling the food has transmitted to the virus to the food through improper food handling or poor sanitation. Hepatitis A and Norovirus are examples of viruses that are responsible for foodborne illness.
• Parasites live in or on animals and people and cause illness when the food infected with the parasite is not cooked to a temperature high enough or frozen to a temperature cold enough to kill the parasite. Trichinella (found in pork and some game meats) and roundworms (found in raw fish) are examples of parasites found in food.
• Protozoa are one celled animals that may be found in water. Use of water from unsafe sources can lead to illness. Giardia lamblia is an example of protozoa that may be found in water from rivers, lakes, streams and shallow wells. Food washed in water containing Giardia lamblia that is served without any further cooking (such as salad greens) can cause illness.
• Fungi grow on decaying organic matter. Many fungi are harmless or beneficial, but some, such as mould that grows on spoiled food, can be harmful and remain even after cutting or scraping the visible mould off the food.
Food Intoxication and Food Infection
Have you ever had the “24-hour flu”? Probably not, because there’s no such thing. Many people who think they have the 24-hour flu have had a foodborne illness caused by some type of pathogen. A rapid reaction is normally caused by a food intoxication. A slower reaction is normally caused by a food infection. Here’s how to tell the difference between the two:
• Food intoxication occurs when bacteria grow in food and produce a waste product called a toxin (poison). When the food is eaten, the toxins are immediately introduced into the body, causing a rapid reaction. Example: Staphylococcus
• Food infection occurs when food contains living pathogens that grow in the human intestinal tract after the food is eaten. Because the bacteria continue to multiply in the body and cause infection, the reaction will be slower. Example: Salmonella
Improper Food Handling Practices
The top 10 causes of foodborne illness are the following:
1. Improper cooling
2. Advance preparation
3. Infected person
4. Inadequate reheating for hot holding
5. Improper hot holding
6. Contaminated raw food or ingredient
7. Unsafe source
8. Use of leftovers
9. Cross-contamination
10. Inadequate cooking
We will be looking at this top 10 list in greater detail later in the book.
Food Allergies
Food allergies are specific to individuals, but can be life threatening, and can be prevented by a thorough understanding of the allergy issue, knowledge of ingredients used in the preparation of foods, including pre-prepared foods, and care in ensuring separate cooking utensils, cookware, and food preparation surfaces. Oftentimes, the smallest oversights can have serious consequences, as indicated in the example below:
A customer has indicated they have an allergy to MSG and ordered chicken strips with a sweet and sour sauce. The server tells them that the restaurant doesn’t add MSG to any of its food normally, so the order should be fine. After eating the sauce, the customer experiences tingling lips and hives. In follow up, the manager discovers that the pre-prepared sweet and sour sauce served with the chicken strips contains MSG on the list of ingredients.
This incident could have been prevented if the server was aware of all of the ingredients used in the dish.
Find more information foodborne illness and their causes and symptoms on the FOODSAFE Foodborne Illness Chart [PDF].
1. For more information on foodborne illnesses, outbreaks, and important news bulletins, consult the BC Centre for Disease Control website. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.03%3A_Causes_of_Foodborne_Illnesses.txt |
Food-handling and Storage Procedures
Proper food handling and storage can prevent most foodborne illnesses. In order for pathogens to grow in food, certain conditions must be present. By controlling the environment and conditions, even if potentially harmful bacteria are present in the unprepared or raw food, they will not be able to survive, grow, and multiply, causing illness.
There are six factors that affect bacterial growth, which can be referred to by the mnemonic FATTOM:
1. Food
2. Acid
3. Temperature
4. Time
5. Oxygen
6. Moisture
Each of these factors contributes to bacterial growth in the following ways:
• Food: Bacteria require food to survive. For this reason, moist, protein-rich foods are good potential sources of bacterial growth.
• Acid: Bacteria do not grow in acidic environments. This is why acidic foods like lemon juice and vinegar do not support the growth of bacteria and can be used as preservatives
• Temperature: Most bacteria will grow rapidly between 4°C and 60°C (40°F and 140°F). This is referred to as the danger zone (see the section below for more information on the danger zone).
• Time: Bacteria require time to multiply. When small numbers of bacteria are present, the risk is usually low, but extended time with the right conditions will allow the bacteria to multiply and increase the risk of contamination
• Oxygen: There are two types of bacteria. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to grow, so will not multiply in an oxygen-free environment such as a vacuum-packaged container. Anaerobic bacteria will only grow in oxygen-free environments. Food that has been improperly processed and then stored at room temperature can be at risk from anaerobic bacteria. A common example is a product containing harmful Clostridium botulinum (botulism-causing) bacteria that has been improperly processed during canning, and then is consumed without any further cooking or reheating.
• Moisture: Bacteria need moisture to survive and will grow rapidly in moist foods. This is why dry and salted foods are at lower risk of being hazardous.
Identifying Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHFs)
Foods that have the FATTOM conditions are considered potentially hazardous foods (PHFs). PHFs are those foods that are considered perishable. That is, they will spoil or “go bad” if left at room temperature. PHFs are foods that support the growth or survival of disease-causing bacteria (pathogens) or foods that may be contaminated by pathogens.
Generally, a food is a PHF if it is:
• Of animal origin such as meat, milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, poultry (or if it contains any of these products)
• Of plant origin (vegetables, beans, fruit, etc.) that has been heat-treated or cooked
• Any of the raw sprouts (bean, alfalfa, radish, etc.)
• Any cooked starch (rice, pasta, etc.)
• Any type of soya protein (soya milk, tofu, etc.)
Table 2 identifies common foods as either PHF or non-PHF.
Table 2. Common PHF and non-PHFs
PHF Non-PHF
Chicken, beef, pork, and other meats Beef jerky
Pastries filled with meat, cheese, or cream Bread
Cooked rice Uncooked rice
Fried onions Raw onions
Opened cans of meat, vegetables, etc. Unopened cans of meat, vegetables, etc. (as long as they are not marked with “Keep Refrigerated”)
Tofu Uncooked beans
Coffee creamers Cooking oil
Fresh garlic in oil Fresh garlic
Fresh or cooked eggs Powdered eggs
Gravy Flour
Dry soup mix with water added Dry soup mix
The Danger Zone
One of the most important factors to consider when handling food properly is temperature. Table 3 lists the most temperatures to be aware of when handling food.
Table 3. Important temperatures to remember
Celsius Fahrenheit What happens?
100° 212° Water boils
60° 140° Most pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. Keep hot foods above this temperature.
20° 68° Food must be cooled from 60°C to 20°C (140°F to 68°F) within two hours or less
40° Food must be cooled from 20°C to 4°C (68°F to 40°F) within four hours or less
32° Water freezes
–18° Frozen food must be stored at −18°C (0°F) or below
The range of temperature from 4°C and 60°C (40°F and 140°F) is known as the danger zone, or the range at which most pathogenic bacteria will grow and multiply.
Time-temperature Control of PHFs
Pathogen growth is controlled by a time-temperature relationship. To kill micro-organisms, food must be held at a sufficient temperature for a sufficient time. Cooking is a scheduled process in which each of a series of continuous temperature combinations can be equally effective. For example, when cooking a beef roast, the microbial lethality achieved at 121 minutes after it has reached an internal temperature of 54°C (130°F) is the same as if it were cooked for 3 minutes after it had reached 63°C (145°F).
Table 4 show the minimum time-temperature requirements to keep food safe. (Other time-temperature regimens might be suitable if it can be demonstrated, with scientific data, that the regimen results in a safe food.)
Table 4. Temerature control for PHFs
Critical control point Type of food Temperature
Refrigeration Cold food storage, all foods. 4°C (40°F) or less
Freezing Frozen food storage, all foods. −18°C (0°F) or less
Freezing Parasite reduction in fish intended to be served raw, such as sushi and sashimi −20°C (−4°F) for 7 days or −35°C (−31°F) in a blast freezer for 15 hours
Cooking Food mixtures containing poultry, eggs, meat, fish, or other potentially hazardous foods Internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) for at least 15 seconds
Cooking Rare roast beef Internal temperature of 54°C to 60°C (130°F to 140°F)
Cooking Medium roast beef Internal temperature of 60°C to 65°C (140°F to 150°F)
Cooking Pork, lamb, veal, beef (medium-well) Internal temperature of 65°C to 69°C (150°F to 158°F)
Cooking Pork, lamb, veal, beef (well done) Internal temperature of 71°C (160°F)
Cooking Poultry Internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) for 15 seconds
Cooking Stuffing in poultry 74°C (165°F)
Cooking Ground meat (Includes chopped, ground, flaked, or minced beef, pork, or fish) 70°C (158°F)
Cooking Eggs[1] 63°C (145°F) for 15 seconds
Cooking Fish[2] 70°C (158°F)
Holding Hot foods 60°C (140°F)
Cooling All foods 60°C to 20°C (140°F to 68°F) within 2 hours and 20°C to 4°C (68°F to 40°F) within 4 hours
Reheating All foods 74°C (165°F) for at least 15 seconds
The Top 10 List: Do’s and Don’ts
Figure 1 illustrates the top 10 improper food-handling methods and the percentage of foodborne illnesses they cause.
This section describes each food-handling practice outlined in the top 10 list and the ways to prevent each problem.
1. Improper cooling
Many people think that once a food has been properly cooked, all disease-causing organisms (pathogens) have been killed. This is not true. Some pathogens can form heat-resistant spores, which can survive cooking temperatures. When the food begins cooling down and enters the danger zone, these spores begin to grow and multiply. If the food spends too much time in the danger zone, the pathogens will increase in number to a point where the food will make people sick. That is why the cooling process is crucial. Cooked food must be cooled from 60°C to 20°C (140°F to 70°F) in two hours or less, AND then from 20°C to 4°C (70°F to 40°F) in four hours or less.
Even in modern walk-in coolers, large cuts of meat will not cool down properly. Neither will whole poultry. Even large pots (4 L/1 gal. or more) of soup, stews, gravy, etc., can take a day or more to cool to 4°C (40°F). However, you can cool these foods down quickly by using one or more of the following methods depending on the type of food being cooled:
• Place the food in shallow pans (with the food no deeper than 5 cm/2 in.) and put the pans in the cooler.
• When the food is cooling, do not tightly cover. Doing so only seals in the heat.
• Do not stack the shallow cooling pans during the cooling step. This will defeat the purpose of shallow panning by preventing cold air from reaching the food. You may need to add more shelves to your cooler.
• Cut large cuts of meat or whole poultry into smaller or thinner portions. Then place these portions into shallow pans for cooling.
• Use cooling wands or cooling sticks to cool foods quickly.
• Use rapid cooling equipment such as walk-in coolers with wire shelving and good air flow. Home-style refrigerators or reach-ins do not cool food well.
• Stir the food in a container placed in an ice-water bath.
• Use containers that help heat transfer, such as stainless steel or aluminum. Plastic does not transfer heat well.
• Use ice as an ingredient (e.g., in stews or soups).
• For large pots of cooked desserts (e.g., custard), divide it into serving sizes and then cool.
2. Advance preparation
Advance preparation is the cause of many food-poisoning outbreaks, usually because food has been improperly cooled. Often, foods that are prepared well before serving spend too much time in the danger zone. This may happen for one or more of the following reasons:
• The food is left out at room temperature too long.
• The food is not heated or reheated properly (to a high enough temperature), or not cooled properly.
• The food is brought in and out of the danger zone too many times (e.g., cooked, hot held, cooled, reheated, hot held, cooled, reheated again).
To prevent problems of advance preparation:
• Try to prepare all foods for same-day use and as close to serving time as possible.
• To prevent outside contamination of foods prepared in advance, cover them tightly after they have been properly cooled.
• Reheat leftovers only once. If leftovers are not consumed after being reheated, throw them out.
• For foods prepared and held refrigerated in the cooler for more than 24 hours, mark the date of preparation and a “serve by” date. Generally, PHFs should be thrown out if not used within three days from date they were made.
• If you must prepare foods in advance, be sure you properly cool and refrigerate them.
3. Infected person
Many people carry pathogens somewhere on or in their bodies without knowing it—in their gut, in their nose, on their hands, in their mouth, and in other warm, moist places. People who are carrying pathogens often have no outward signs of illness. However, people with symptoms of illness (diarrhea, fever, vomiting, jaundice, sore throat with a fever, hand infections, etc.) are much more likely to spread pathogens to food.
Another problem is that pathogens can be present in the cooked and cooled food that, if given enough time, can still grow. These pathogens multiply slowly but they can eventually reach numbers where they can make people sick. This means that foods that are prepared improperly, many days before serving, yet stored properly the entire time can make people sick.
Some pathogens are more dangerous than others (e.g., salmonella, E. coli, campylobacter). Even if they are only present in low numbers, they can make people very sick. A food handler who is carrying these kinds of pathogens can easily spread them to foods – usually from their hands. Ready-to-eat food is extra dangerous. Ready-to-eat food gets no further cooking after being prepared, so any pathogens will not be killed or controlled by cooking.
To prevent problems:
• Make sure all food handlers wash their hands properly after any job that could dirty their hands (e.g., using the toilet, eating, handling raw meats, blowing their nose, smoking).
• Food handlers with infected cuts on their hands or arms (including sores, burns, lesions, etc.) must not handle food or utensils unless the cuts are properly covered (e.g., waterproof bandage covered with a latex glove or finger cot).
• When using gloves or finger cots, food handlers must still wash their hands. As well, gloves or cots must be replaced if they are soiled, have a hole, and at the end of each day.
• Food handlers with infection symptoms must not handle utensils or food and should be sent home.
• Where possible, avoid direct hand contact with food – especially ready-to-eat foods (e.g., use plastic utensils plastic or latex gloves).
4. Inadequate reheating for hot holding
Many restaurants prepare some of menu items in advance or use leftovers in their hot hold units the next day. In both cases, the foods travel through the danger zone when they are cooled for storage and again when they are reheated.
Foods that are hot held before serving are particularly vulnerable to pathogens. In addition to travelling through the danger zone twice, even in properly operating hot hold units, the food is close to the temperature that will allow pathogens to grow.
To prevent problems:
• Do not use hot hold units to reheat food. They are not designed for this purpose. Instead, rapidly reheat to 74°C (165°F) (and hold the food at that temperature for at least 15 seconds before putting it in the hot hold unit. This will kill any pathogens that may have grown during the cool-down step and the reheat step.
• If using direct heat (stove top, oven, etc.), the temperature of the reheated food must reach at least 74°C (165°F) for at least 15 seconds within two hours. Keep a thermometer handy to check the temperature of the food.
• If using a microwave, rotate or stir the food at least once during the reheat step, as microwaves heat unevenly. As well, the food must be heated to at least 74°C (165°F) and then stand covered for two minutes after reheating before adding to the hot hold unit. The snapping and crackling sounds coming from food being reheated in a microwave do not mean the food is hot.
5. Improper hot holding
Hot hold units are meant to keep hot foods at 60°C (140°F) or hotter. At or above this temperature, pathogens will not grow. However, a mistake in using the hot hold unit can result in foods being held in the super danger zone – between 20°C and 49°C (70°F and 120°F), temperatures at which pathogens grow very quickly.
To prevent problems:
• Make sure the hot hold unit is working properly (e.g., heating elements are not burnt out; water is not too low in steam tables; the thermostat is properly set so food remains at 60°C (140°F) or hotter) Check it daily with a thermometer.
• Put only already hot (74°C/165°F) foods into the hot hold unit.
• Preheat the hot hold unit to at least 60°C (140°F) before you start putting hot foods into it.
• Do not use the hot hold unit to reheat cold foods. It is not designed for or capable of doing this rapidly.
• After the lunch or dinner rush, do not turn off the heat in the hot hold unit and then leave the food there to cool. This is very dangerous. When you do this, the food does not cool down. It stays hot in the super danger zone and lets pathogens grow quickly. Foods in hot hold units should be taken out of the units after the meal time is over and cooled right away.
6. Contaminated raw food or ingredient
We know that many raw foods often contain pathogens, yet certain foods are often served raw. While some people believe these foods served raw are “good for you,” the truth is that they have always been dangerous to serve or eat raw. Some examples include:
• Raw oysters served in the shell
• Raw eggs in certain recipes (e.g., Caesar salad, eggnog made from raw eggs)
• Rare hamburger
• Sushi/sashimi
• Steak tartare
These foods have caused many food-poisoning outbreaks. Always remember: you cannot tell if a food contains pathogens just by look, taste, or smell.
To prevent problems:
• Buy all your foods or ingredients from approved suppliers.
• If available, buy foods or ingredients from suppliers who also have food safety plans for their operations.
• Where possible, use processed or pasteurized alternatives (e.g., pasteurized liquid eggs).
• Never serve these types of foods to high-risk customers (e.g., seniors, young children, people in poor health, people in hospitals or nursing homes).
7. Unsafe source
Foods from approved sources are less likely to contain high levels of pathogens or other forms of contamination. Approved sources are those suppliers that are inspected for cleanliness and safety by a government food inspector. Foods supplied from unreliable or disreputable sources, while being cheaper, may contain high levels of pathogens that can cause many food-poisoning outbreaks.
Fly-by-night suppliers (trunk sales) often do not care if the product is safe to sell to you, but approved suppliers do! As well, many fly-by-night suppliers have obtained their product illegally (e.g., closed shellfish fisheries, rustled cattle, poached game and fish) and often do not have the equipment to properly process, handle, store, and transport the food safely.
Of particular concern is seafood from unapproved sources. Seafood, especially shellfish, from unapproved sources can be heavily contaminated with pathogens or poisons if they have been harvested from closed areas.
To prevent problems:
• Buy your food and ingredients from approved sources only. If you are not sure a supplier has been approved, contact your local environmental health officer. He or she can find out for you.
• Do not take the chance of causing a food-poisoning outbreak by trying to save a few dollars. Remember, your reputation is on the line.
8. Use of leftovers
Using leftovers has been the cause of many outbreaks of food poisoning because of improper cooling and reheating (of “hot” leftovers). Leftovers that are intended to be served hot pass through the danger zone twice (during the initial cooling of the hot food and when reheating). Those leftovers intended to be served without reheating, or as an ingredient in other foods (e.g., sandwich filler), go through the danger zone during cooling and then, when being prepared and portioned, often stay in the danger zone for another long period. The time in the danger zone adds up unless the food is quickly cooled and then quickly reheated (if being served hot), or kept cold until serving (if not being served hot).
Contamination can also occur with leftover foods when they are stored in the cooler. Improperly stored leftovers can accidentally be contaminated by raw foods (e.g., blood dripping from a higher shelf).
To prevent problems:
• Reheat leftovers only once. Throw out any leftovers that have already been reheated once.
• Do not mix leftover foods with fresh foods.
• Be sure to follow the proper cooling and reheating procedures when handling leftovers. These are critical control points.
• Cool leftovers in uncovered containers separate from any raw foods. After they are cooled, cover them tightly.
9. Cross-contamination
You can expect certain foods to contain pathogens, especially raw meat, raw poultry, and raw seafood. Use extreme caution when you bring these foods into your kitchen. Cross-contamination happens when something that can cause illness (pathogens or chemicals) is accidentally put into a food where not previously found. This can include, for example, pathogens from raw meats getting into ready-to-eat foods like deli meats. It can also include nuts (which some people are very allergic to) getting into a food that does not normally have nuts (e.g., tomato sauce).
To prevent problems:
• Use separate cutting boards, separate cleaning cloths, knives/utensils, sinks, preparation areas, etc., for raw and for ready-to-eat foods. Otherwise, wash all of these items with detergent and sanitize them with bleach between use.
• Use separate storage areas for raw and ready-to-eat foods. Always store ready-to-eat foods on separate shelves and above raw foods. Store dry foods above wet foods.
• Prepare ready-to-eat foods at the beginning of the day before the raw foods are prepared.
• After handling raw foods, always wash your hands properly before doing anything else.
• Keep wiping or cleaning cloths in a container of fresh bleach solution (30 mL/1 oz. of bleach per 4 L/1 gal. of water) when not in use.
• Use clean utensils, not your hands, to handle cooked or ready-to-eat foods.
• If a customer indicates a food allergy, follow all the same steps to avoid cross contamination and use separate or freshly sanitized tools and utensils to prepare food for the individual with the allergy.
10. Inadequate cooking
Proper cooking is one of the best means of making sure your operation does not cause a food-poisoning outbreak. Proper cooking kills all pathogens (except spores) or at least reduces their numbers to a point where they cannot make people sick. Inadequate cooking is often done by accident: for example, cooking still-frozen poultry or meat; attempting to cook a stuffed bird using the same time and temperature as an unstuffed bird; using an inexperienced cook.
To prevent problems:
• Don’t rely on cooking times alone. Check the internal temperature of the food being cooked.
• For large cuts of meat or large batches of food, check the temperature in several spots.
• Be extra careful when cooking partially frozen foods. There can be cold spots in the food that are not properly cooked. The normal cooking time will have to be increased.
• When grilling or frying meat, cook until the juices run clear. Cooked fish until it flakes easily. Make thin, not thick, hamburgers.
Image descriptions
Figure 1 image description:
At 100°C (or 212°F), water boils. Above 74°C (or 165°F), bacteria die, although spores and toxins may survive. Food that is being cooked or reheated should hit 74°C (or 165°F). You can hold hot food for service at 60°C (or 140°F). Between 4°C and 60°C (or 40°F and 140°F) is the “Danger Zone.” Keep food out of this temperature range because bacteria will multiply rapidly. Between 0°C and 4°C (or 32°F and 40°F), most bacteria will survive but will not multiply quickly. Water freezes at 0°C (or 32°F). Between 0°C and −18°C (or 0°F and 32°F), most bacterial will survive but not grow. Frozen food is stored at −18°C (or 0°F).
[Return to Figure 1]
Figure 2 image description:
1. Improper cooling, 30%.
2. Advance preparation, 15%.
3. Infected person, 12%.
4. Inadequate reheating, 10%.
5. Improper hot holding, 8%.
6. Contaminated raw food, 4%.
7. Unsafe source, 3%.
8. Use of leftovers, 2%.
9. Cross-contamination, 2%.
10. Inadequate cooking, 1%.
11. All other causes, 3%.
[Return to Figure 2]
1. Customers requiring a runny yolk egg should be aware that pathogens are not destroyed until yolk has completely coagulated.
2. Customers wishing raw marinated fish and raw shellfish, such as oysters, should be aware that they should be cooked to ensure safety. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.04%3A_Preventing_Foodborne_Illness.txt |
HACCP is an operation system that ensures that as many precautions as possible are undertaken to eliminate, minimize, or prevent any kind of contamination. HACCP identifies critical control points that relate to all transportation, handling, preparation, service, and storage of food products.
Receiving, storage, and preparation are all important sections of a food safety flow chart, and receiving of products is your first step when developing a flow chart. The following are important elements to consider when receiving products in general.
• Never assume that all the food you receive is good enough to eat.
• The receiving dock and related areas should be well lit and kept very tidy. Incorporate this area into a daily cleaning schedule to ensure proper cleanliness.
• Schedule your deliveries to allow adequate time for the proper inspection and receiving of all food products.
• Have all appropriate equipment and containers on hand. Scales, plastic gloves, containers, and thermometers are important pieces to have in easy reach.
• Record the temperatures of the delivery trucks refrigerated and freezer storage. If the temperature is not within an acceptable range, do not accept the shipment (because you are unable to ascertain the length of time that the temperature has been unacceptable).
Each group of food, whether dry foods, dairy products, fresh produce, or meats, requires a slightly different procedure. No matter what the product type, the principal component in a receiving procedure is accuracy. Any carelessness or half-hearted attempts at checking the delivery will render the whole process useless.
Dry foods
Dry foods or goods are usually shipped in cartons, bags, cases, or pails. Count the pieces and check that the number corresponds with what is listed on the invoice.
If a carton is damaged, check the contents carefully. Pay particular attention to signs of leakage in cartons that contain products in jars or bottles. It is extremely difficult to get credit at a later date for products stored in glass jars or bottles that have broken. In addition, visually check bags and pails for damage or leakage.
If sealed cartons show evidence of having been opened, check the contents. All unsealed or obviously repacked cartons should be checked to verify what they contain. Do not sign the invoice if there is any doubt about quantity, quality, or damage until you or your supervisor has cleared up the problem with the shipper.
Canned goods are delivered in cases or cartons. Do a count and a quality check of the cans.
The two most common types of damage to cans are swelling and large dents. If cans are swollen or bulging, it means the food has spoiled and must not be used. If the cans have large dents, seams may have split and the food may be contaminated. Again, the canned product is unsafe to use and should be sent back to the supplier. If a whole case of canned goods is unacceptable, the local health authority should be notified.
Dairy products
Dairy products are perishable and do not store long. Check the best-before date on each container, which should be at least a week after the receiving date.
As with dry foods, compare the number of items received with the invoice and check all items for damage and leakage.
Produce
Produce is delivered in bags, cases, or cartons. Count the number of pieces, weigh items, and check for quality. Open any closed cases and cartons to check the produce for ripeness, freshness, and other signs of quality.
When there are mistakes in delivery or an unacceptable quality of food has been received, you should insist that the supplier pick up the item and issue a credit.
Meats, poultry, and seafood
Fresh meat is shipped in pieces and/or by weight. Count and weigh the fresh items. Check for leaking vacuum-packed (Cryovac) packages, and check the grade of the meat against the grade on the invoice. In addition, if specifications were given on the order form, confirm the cuts of meat do meet those specifications.
Fresh poultry and seafood should also be counted, weighed, and checked for quality.
Frozen products are often delivered in cases and cartons. Open the cases to count the items and to check for signs of freezer burn, torn wrappings, partial thawing, or other problems.
In summary, when receiving goods, remember:
• The quantity of the goods received should match the quantity on the invoice and the quantity on the purchase order.
• The quality of the goods received should be to the specifications given on the invoice or to specifications previously worked out with the supplier. This includes supplying the specific brand name when it is requested.
• The prices of the goods should be listed on the invoice and should match the prices on the purchase order. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.05%3A_Receiving_Practices.txt |
A food service operation needs to have clearly defined storage areas and procedures for several reasons. First, by providing storage facilities it is possible to purchase supplies in quantities large enough quantities to get price breaks. Second, the ability to store supplies on the premises reduces the cost and time needed to order supplies and handle them upon delivery. Third, menu planning is easier when you are aware of the quality, quantity, and types of supplies that are on hand. If there is a run on a particular menu item, it is nice to know there are enough materials on hand to ensure that everyone who orders the item can be served.
In today’s market, many food service operations are reducing the amount of stock they keep on hand because storage is expensive. Not only does space need to be found but security needs to be tight. Many operators are willing to pay a bit extra to suppliers in order to avoid the headaches of keeping track of expensive items such as large quantities of high-quality meat, wines, and spirits.
Regardless, there still is a need for storing many types of supplies including dry foods, dairy products, frozen foods, produce, and fresh meats. Storage areas for such items often have design requirements that must be built into the space in order to efficiently handle the specific types of supplies.
Dry Foods
The storeroom for dry foods should be located near the receiving area and close to the main kitchen. Unfortunately, the storeroom for dry foods is often an afterthought in food service facility designs, and the area designated for storage is sometimes in an inconvenient location.
No matter where the location, there are several essential points to be observed in the care and control of the dry storeroom.
• The area should be dry and cool to prevent spoilage and the swelling of canned goods. The ideal temperature range is 10°C to 15°C (50°F to 59°F).
• The storeroom should be easy to keep clean and free from rodents and vermin. This means all wall, ceiling, and floor openings should be sealed and protected to prevent access.
• It should be designed so it is easy to arrange and rearrange supplies to facilitate stock rotation. The best arrangement is to have shelves situated in the middle of the room so they can be stocked from both sides. This allows you to rotate stock by simply pushing out old stock by sliding new stock in from the other side of the shelf. This guarantees that first items received will be the first items used, or the “first in, first out” (FIFO) concept in stock rotation.
• The area should be well lit.
• Shelving must be at least 15 cm (6 in.) above the floor. Do not store items right on the floor.
• Aisles should be wide enough to allow room for carts or dollies, which should be used to prevent possible injuries from lifting.
• Food and supply storage areas should be kept under lock and key to prevent pilferage. Food storage control is an important step in the overall control of food costs. All storerooms should be considered to be like bank safes where the assets of the operation are being stored. This may mean that more valuable commodities such as liquor and wine should be stored and locked inside a larger storage area, such as the dry food storage area.
Refrigerated Products
The refrigerator, whether a walk-in or a standard upright, is an important component in planning the storage of food items. Most fresh foods must be stored in the refrigerator to delay their deterioration and decomposition. The most basic rule must be always followed: store raw products below, never above, your cooked or ready-to-eat products.
Critical Control Point
Keep foods 4°C (39°F) or colder, the safe temperature for refrigerated storage.
Here are some considerations to ensure that the refrigerator does not break down and risk spoiling food:
• Monitor the temperature of the refrigerator daily. All refrigerators should be provided with a thermometer so that daily readings can be taken.
• Keep refrigerators in good working order. Maintain a regular servicing contract with a local refrigerator repair company.
• Most breakdowns are beyond the ability of kitchen staff to repair, but if the refrigerator does stop running, first check that the power supply cord hasn’t simply been pulled out or the breaker has flipped off.
• Clean refrigerators regularly. Shelves should be shallow and well vented to make such cleaning quick and easy. Develop and follow a schedule to ensure that refrigerators are cleaned on a consistent basis.
There are also several general rules that all personnel using the refrigerator should follow:
• Store raw products below cooked or ready-to-eat products.
• Develop and follow a FIFO system for refrigerated food.
• Designate areas in the refrigerator for certain items, and keep only those items in their designated place.
• Never put hot foods in the refrigerator unless absolutely necessary. (Unfortunately, one person’s understanding of “necessary” may not be the same as another person’s, so consider developing guidelines.)
• Never leave the refrigerator door open longer than needed.
Although lack of time and personnel shortages often make it difficult to observe these rules, it is imperative that they be followed.
Dairy Products
Dairy products must be stored in the refrigerator at temperatures of 2°C to 4°C (36° to 39°F). Follow these guidelines:
• The fat in dairy products has a tendency to absorb strong odours from the storage surroundings. To reduce the likelihood of this happening, store dairy products in their own area in protective coverings.
• Do not store dairy products in a vegetable cooler; a separate refrigerator is much more acceptable.
• Keep the refrigerator clean at all times.
• Rotate dairy products when fresh product arrives. Dairy products should not be ordered too far in advance of when they will be used. Ideally, such products should be delivered on a daily basis.
Produce
Most produce is stored in the refrigerator at 2° to 4°C (36° to 39°F) to ensure freshness and to prevent rapid deterioration. There are, however, a number of exceptions, including potatoes and bananas, which should be stored at higher temperatures.
Keep these factors in mind when storing produce:
• Soft fruits should not be stored too long. It is often best to buy soft fruit as you need it, keeping very little on hand.
• Unripe fruit can be ripened at storeroom temperatures of 10°C to 15°C (50°F to 59°F). It will ripen much more slowly under refrigerator conditions.
• Before storing and when rotating stock, it is important to remove rotting fruit from cases as one piece can affect others. The chain reaction can quickly destroy the quality of a whole case of fruit.
• Be aware of special storage problems. For example, bananas stored in the refrigerator turn black quickly. Bananas should be stored under conditions where the temperature range is 10°C to 15°C (50°F to 59°F).
• The length of time produce can be stored varies widely. For example, hardy vegetables such as carrots and cabbage will last for weeks, while delicate vegetables such as lettuce should be bought as fresh as possible as they do not keep for long.
• Moisture on vegetables tends to soften them, causing rot. Even though in the early stages of rot there is nothing basically wrong with such vegetables, they can be unattractive to the eye.
Fresh Meats, Poultry, and Seafood
These items are the most difficult to store and the most expensive food items sold by the restaurant. When storing meats, poultry, and seafood items, remember the critical control point.
Critical Control Point
Keep foods 4°C (39°F) or colder, the safe temperature for refrigerated storage.
Keep these factors in mind when storing fresh meats, poultry, and produce:
• All carcass meats should be unwrapped and hung so that air can circulate around them. They should be stored at 1°C to 3°C (34°C to 37°F) in a walk-in refrigerator. Place absorbent paper under the meats for quick cleanup of any unwanted drips.
• Fresh meat must not be kept too long. Boned meat should be kept no longer than three days. Individual cuts should be used within two days, preferably on the day they are cut.
• Individual meat cuts such as steaks, chops, stewing meat, and ground meat should be kept covered on plastic or stainless steel trays at 2°C to 4°C (36°F to 39°F).
• Fresh poultry should be packed in ice and stored in the refrigerator.
• Fresh seafood should be packed in ice, stored at −1°C to 2°C (30°C to 34°F) and used as soon as possible.
• Store raw products on the lower shelves of the refrigerator, below cooked products.
Frozen Foods
Frozen foods should be stored at –18°C (0°F) or lower. If the temperature rises above –18°C, food can become discoloured and lose vitamin content. Lowering the temperature after it has risen does not correct the damage.
Critical Control Point
Frozen food must be kept at −18°C or lower to maintain its quality.
Keep these factors in mind when storing frozen foods:
• Fruit and vegetables that are received frozen will keep for months if they are properly wrapped. Fish and meat properly wrapped also have a relatively long freezer shelf life.
• Freezing fresh fruits and vegetables on the premises is time consuming and may be too expensive to consider. Fresh fruit must be properly prepared for freezing or it will not store well.
• All freezer products not properly wrapped will develop freezer burn, which is a loss of moisture that affects both the texture and the flavour of the food. A common sign of freezer burn is a white or grey dry spot developing on the surface of the frozen product. Meat is particularly susceptible to freezer burn.
• Rotating stock is extremely important with frozen foods. Such rotation is difficult in standard chest freezers as it often means that old stock must be removed before new stock is added. The temptation with frozen foods is to develop the unacceptable habit of using the last item bought first, instead of FIFO (first in, first out).
1.07: Food Rotation
The primary purpose of proper storage is to prevent food from spoiling. There are three main agents that cause food to deteriorate: moulds, yeast, and bacteria. Although they all act quickly on all foods containing moisture, each has its own characteristics.
Moulds are easily detected by their bluish-green colour and hair-like fungal structure. Mould commonly grows on bread, fruit, and cheese when these items are stored in a warm, dark, and slightly moist environment.
Yeast are plant micro organisms that are present in the air at all times. In order to grow and reproduce, yeasts require air, a source of food, and warm temperatures. Yeasts cause fruit and vegetables to ferment and rot by changing the natural sugars of the fruit into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process of fermentation is used deliberately to make wine and beer, and the production of carbon dioxide during fermentation causes bread dough to rise. Yeasts can be detected by the formation of slime in the foods in which they are present.
Bacteria, although they are usually the first agents to begin the decomposition process, are the hardest to detect. Their presence usually only becomes noticeable after decomposition has advanced to the stage where unpleasant odours are produced.
When food is deteriorating, you will notice changes in its colour, odour, and taste. Examples include:
• Fruit goes soft, gets darker, and quickly rots.
• Vegetables start wilting and then become slimy and rotten.
• Butter, cheese, and dairy products get darker and develop a sour smell.
• Eggs become darker and acquire a foul aroma.
• Meat changes gradually at first, but then becomes darker and begins to smell “off.”
• Slime and mould appear. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.06%3A_Storage_Temperatures_and_Procedures.txt |
You should always know, without a doubt, that the food you serve your customers is safe. The only way you can be sure of this is by developing and following a food safety plan (FSP).
There are two types of food safety plans: process based and recipe based. A process-based FSP is often used when the same process is used for several different food items, or when menu items change regularly, such as on a daily special sheet. For example, the process for cooking pork chops and chicken breasts is very similar, as is the process for cooking bacon and sausages. A process-based food safety plan for the station preparing these items will ensure the steps to food safety are being followed.
Whether the FSP is process based or recipe based, the seven basic steps for creating one are the same. This section leads you through these steps by using a basic recipe and turning it into a food safety plan.
Recipe
SAMPLE RECIPE: BEEF STEW
Ingredients Weights and Measures
Stewing beef (pre-cooked) 2.5 kilograms
Beef stew base, beef consommé, beef gravy 1 can (each)
Vegetables (frozen) 2 packages
Seasoning 1 packet
Water 5 litres
PREPARING
1. Pour beef stew base, beef consommé, and beef gravy into stock pot. Add water and seasoning. Stir with wire whisk until all seasoning is dissolved.
COOKING
1. Preheat stove. Begin heating beef stew mix.
2. Break up any clumps in the frozen vegetables. Add to the beef stew mix. Stir with long-handled spoon.
3. Add cooked stewing beef and stir. Simmer for 30 minutes.
SERVING AND HOLDING
1. Serve immediately, or
2. Hold beef stew in hot hold unit.
COOLING
1. Store any leftovers in a covered pan in the cooler.
REHEATING
1. Reheat beef stew until steaming.
Step 1: Find the food safety hazards and critical control points.
• Look at your menu. Find those menu items that are potentially hazardous foods (PHFs) or that have one or more PHFs as ingredients.
• For each of these menu items, think about the steps the food goes through from when you first get the ingredients to when you serve it to your customers.
• To make this step easier, use your recipe to review every ingredient, or make a flow chart for each menu item.
• Consider the list of top 10 causes of foodborne illness. For each menu item, ask yourself if it is handled in any of the ways shown on the list: Does the food ever go through the temperature range in the danger zone? Is it cooked and then cooled? Hot held? Reheated? Remember, most food-poisoning cases involve food that has been heated up and then cooled down through the danger zone.
• Is the food handled a lot by workers? Could it be contaminated by a sick worker?
• Could the food be contaminated by raw food or dirty equipment after it is cooked?
If the answer is yes to any of the questions in the list above, then the menu item has a food safety hazard that must be controlled.
Now let’s apply this to the beef stew recipe.
Beef stew is a PHF. The main hazards with this menu item would be:
• Pathogens in the raw beef stew
• Pathogens in the cooked beef stew that survived the cooking step or that were accidentally introduced after the cooking step and then given a chance to grow if the cooked beef stew is temperature abused
Step 2: Identify where and when you have to control the hazards for each menu item.
In Step 1 you found the food safety hazards in a specific menu item that must be controlled. Now you must find the steps in the food preparation process where these hazards can best be controlled. (These steps are called critical control points.)
The critical control point is the “kill step” where the bacteria are either killed by cooking or are controlled to prevent or slow their growth (such as by proper hot holding or rapid cooling). Cooking, cooling, hot holding, and reheating are always critical control points. For ready-to-eat foods (e.g., sandwiches, salads), all steps where hands touch foods are critical control points.
Highlight the critical control points in your recipe or flow chart of the menu item by underlining them or highlighting them with a marker.
Here is the same recipe with the critical control points identified:
SAMPLE RECIPE: BEEF STEW (with critical control points identified)
Ingredients Weights and Measures
Stewing beef (pre-cooked) 2.5 kilograms
Beef stew base, beef consommé, beef gravy 1 can (each)
Vegetables (frozen) 2 packages
Seasoning 1 packet
Water 5 litres
PREPARING
1. Pour beef stew base, beef consommé, and beef gravy into stock pot. Add water and seasoning. Stir with wire whisk until all seasoning is dissolved.
COOKING (critical control point)
1. Preheat stove. Begin heating beef stew mix.
2. Break up any clumps in the frozen vegetables. Add to the beef stew mix. Stir with long-handled spoon.
3. Add cooked stewing beef and stir. Simmer for 30 minutes.
SERVING AND HOLDING (critical control point)
1. Serve immediately, or
2. Hold beef stew in hot hold unit.
COOLING (critical control point)
1. Store any leftovers in a covered pan in the cooler.
REHEATING (critical control point)
1. Reheat beef stew until steaming.
Step 3: Set critical limits or procedures to control the hazards.
Once you have identified the food safety hazards and where to control them (the critical control points), you need to set limits or procedures to control the hazard at each critical control point. This includes identifying minimum cooking temperature/times, maximum time to cool foods , minimum hot hold temperatures, etc.
You can incorporate most control procedures or limits right onto your recipe cards. Now look at the beef stew recipe showing both the critical control points and critical limits. You will see that the cooking temperature and time, the hot hold temperature, the cooling temperatures and times, and the reheating temperature and times (the critical control points) have the limits written right into the recipe.
SAMPLE RECIPE: BEEF STEW (with critical control points and critical limits identified)
Ingredients Weights and Measures
Stewing beef (pre-cooked) 2.5 kilograms
Beef stew base, beef consommé, beef gravy 1 can (each)
Vegetables (frozen) 2 packages
Seasoning 1 packet
Water 5 litres
PREPARING
1. Pour beef stew base, beef consommé, and beef gravy into stock pot. Add water and seasoning. Stir with wire whisk until all seasoning is dissolved.
COOKING (critical control point)
1. Preheat stove. Begin heating beef stew mix.
2. Break up any clumps in the frozen vegetables. Add to the beef stew mix. Stir with long-handled spoon.
3. Add cooked stewing beef and stir. Continue heating beef stew until 74°C (165°F) or hotter is reached for at least 15 seconds (critical limit). Simmer for 30 minutes.
SERVING AND HOLDING (critical control point)
1. Serve immediately, or
2. Hold beef stew at 60°C (140°F) or hotter in hot hold unit (critical limit)
COOLING (critical control point)
1. Cool in shallow pans with product depth not to exceed 5 cm (2 in.), stirring frequently while cooling. Product temperature must reach 20°C (70°F) within 2 hours and then 4°C (60°F) within next 4 hours (critical limit).
REHEATING (critical control point)
1. Reheat beef stew to an internal temperature of 74°C (160°F) or hotter for at least 15 seconds within 2 hours – one time only (critical limit).
Step 4: Check the critical limits.
You have now set critical limits for each critical control point. Next you want to make sure the limits that you’ve set are actually being followed. To do this they must be checked regularly.
• For those critical control points that involve temperature, this means measuring the actual internal temperature of the food (whether cooking, cooling, or hot holding).
• For those critical control points that involve things that workers do, this means first training them to make sure they know how to do their jobs properly, and then watching them regularly to make sure they keep doing it right.
Make sure everyone in your operation knows their responsibilities for checking critical limits. Make it a part of their job description.
Step 5: Set up procedures to handle control problems.
Workers must also know what to do if a process or step does not meet critical limits and what corrective action can be taken.
Problems happen when critical limits are not met. You must have a plan in place when a critical limit is not met. These procedures are called corrective actions.
Examples of corrective actions might include:
• Rejecting received products that are unacceptable (broken containers, etc.)
• Adjusting a thermostat in the cooler to get the proper temperature
• Recooking or reheating a food again to get to the proper temperature (one time only)
• Changing the food handling steps
• Throwing the food away
If you find a problem, correct it right away, and remember, If in doubt, throw it out!
Let’s again use the beef stew recipe and include corrective actions to take when critical limits are not met. In most cases, the corrective actions are common sense and can easily be incorporated into the recipe or flow chart. Also add any food safety steps that are important to keep in mind prior to and while preparing the recipe.
Once you have added the corrective actions and safety steps, you have a completed food safety plan for the beef stew recipe.
SAMPLE RECIPE: BEEF STEW (with critical control points, critical limits, and corrective actions identified)
Ingredients Weights and Measures
Stewing beef (pre-cooked) 2.5 kilograms
Beef stew base, beef consommé, beef gravy 1 can (each)
Vegetables (frozen) 2 packages
Seasoning 1 packet
Water 5 litres
PREPARING
1. Pour beef stew base, beef consommé, and beef gravy into stock pot. Add water and seasoning. Stir with wire whisk until all seasoning is dissolved.
COOKING (critical control point)
1. Preheat stove. Begin heating beef stew mix.
2. Break up any clumps in the frozen vegetables. Add to the beef stew mix. Stir with long-handled spoon.
3. Add cooked stewing beef and stir. Continue heating beef stew until 74°C (165°F) or hotter is reached for at least 15 seconds critical limit. If the critical limit has not been met, continue to cook until it has been met (corrective action) Simmer for 30 minutes.
SERVING AND HOLDING (critical control point)
1. Serve immediately, or
2. Hold beef stew at 60°C(140°F) or hotter in hot hold unit (critical limit). If critical limit has not been met, increase thermostat on holding unit (corrective action).
COOLING (critical control point)
1. Cool in shallow pans with product depth not to exceed 5 cm (2 in.), stirring frequently while cooling. Product temperature must reach 20°C (70°F) within 2 hours and then 4°C (60°F) within next 4 hours (critical limit). If critical limit is not met, modify the cooling procedure to ensure food does not stay in the danger zone or discard food (corrective action).
REHEATING (critical control point)
1. Reheat beef stew to an internal temperature of 74°C (160°F) or hotter for at least 15 seconds within 2 hours – one time only (critical limit). If the critical limit has not been met, continue to heat food until it has been met (corrective action).
Remember these safety steps:
• Receiving: Check temperature of the beef at delivery to ensure the temperature is below 4°C. Check package of beef for damage. If the beef or packaging is damaged or the temperature is above 4°C, refuse the product. Ensure the product is from approved suppliers
• Storing: Put beef into the cooler immediately.
• Preparing: Measure all temperatures with a cleaned and sanitized thermometer. Wash hands before handling food, after handling raw foods, and after any interruption that may contaminate hands. Wash, rinse and sanitize all equipment and utensils before and after use. Return all ingredients to refrigerated storage if preparation is interrupted. Clean and sanitize all tools and equipment according to the cleaning schedule before reusing.
Figure 2 shows in detail a process-based food safety plan flow chart. The plan identifies the critical control points and critical limits in the process for cooking and reheating hot foods and provides a monitoring step and corrective action to minimize risk at each of the critical control points.
Figure 4. Process-based food safety plan
Figure 5. Process-based food safety plan: hot entrée station (hot entrée items: chicken cacciatore, beef bourguignon, turkey tetrazzini)
Hazards Monitoring action Corrective action Checks Actions
Receiving raw meats and poultry
Safety step
Bacterial growth during transportation
Cross-contamination during transport
Physical contamination during transport
Sourced from approved suppliers
Remained colder than 4°C (39°F) during transport.
Delivered in secure packaging
Ensure supplier is on approved list.
Check temperature of product and vehicle on delivery.
Ensure packaging is secure.
Refuse delivery if any of the following are found:
• Supplier is not on approved list
• Temperature of product is above 4°C (39°F)
• Packaging is damaged
Storing ingredients
Safety step
Bacterial growth during storage
Cross-contamination during storage
Stored between 0° and 4°C (32°F and 39°F)
Raw meats and poultry are stored separately from each other and below ready-to-use or prepared foods
Check temperature of cooler twice each shift.
Monitor storage locations in cooler.
If ingredients have been stored over 4°C (39°F) for less than 2 hours, move to a cooler at the correct temperature
If ingredients have been stored over 4°C (39°F) for more than 2 hours, discard food
If raw meats and poultry have been stored above ready to eat or prepared foods, modify storage procedures and discard any foods that have been contaminated
Preparation
Safety step
Cross-contamination by food handlers Use clean hands
Use sanitized utensils
Do not work when sick
Visual observation.
Do not allow employees to work when sick.
Follow proper handwashing procedures
Provide sanitized utensils for preparation
Send sick employees home
Cooking
Critical control point
Survival of pathogens during cooking process Cook foods to a minimum of 74°C (165°F) Measure and record internal temperature at the end of the cooking time. If food has not reached 74°C (165°F), continue cooking until it reaches 74°C (165°F)
Hot holding
Critical control point
Bacterial growth following cooking process Cover foods and hold hotter than 60°C (140°F) Check temperature of food every 2 hours. If food has been held below 60°C (140°F) for less than 2 hours, reheat food to 74°C (165°F), and transfer to a clean container.
Increase temperature of storage equipment to above 60°C (140°F)
Reheat food only once
If food has been held at below 60°C (140°F) for more than 2 hours, discard food
Serving
Critical control point
Cross-contamination by servers Use clean hands
Use sanitized utensils
Do not work when sick
Visual observation.
Do not allow employees to work when sick.
Follow proper handwashing procedures
Provide sanitized utensils for serving
Send sick employees home
Step 6: Keep accurate records. Review them regularly to make sure that the controls are working.
You and your workers are now taking corrective actions when critical limits are not met. To make sure that the controls are working, you have to keep records of the checks that are being done, and any corrective actions that have been taken
A regular review of these records will quickly tell you if your controls are working and if your workers are handling the foods properly. If your records show a problem, fix it right away.
Step 7: Check your food safety plan to make sure it’s working.
At least once a year you should check your food safety plan to make sure it is working and is complete. Verify with your environmental health officer that your plan is appropriate. Questions to ask yourself can include:
• Are there any new foods or recipes being served?
• Have you changed recipes for some foods?
• Have any preparation steps been changed?
If the answer is yes to any of these questions, you probably need to adjust your food safety plan. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.08%3A_Developing_a_Food_Safety_Plan.txt |
Maintaining a clean work environment is critical in preventing foodborne illness. Bacteria can grow on unsanitary surfaces and then contaminate food. Just because a work surface looks clean does not mean that it is sanitary. Always ensure that you clean and sanitize a work area before starting to prepare food.
Cleaning Procedures and Schedules
Cleaning with soap and other detergents is just one step of the cleaning procedure. It is also necessary to sanitize. Cleaning will remove any dirt or grease, but will not necessarily kill any bacteria or other pathogens. Only a sanitizer will kill bacteria and ensure the area is safe for food preparation. Leading sanitizers used in the food service industry are chlorine solutions (bleach), quaternary solutions (quats), and iodine. Use these materials according to the manufacturer’s instructions that accompany the product and that are found on the material safety data sheet (MSDS) using the appropriate personal protective equipment.
A sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures that all surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of transferring bacteria or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean equipment such as cutting boards or tools. A sanitation plan has two components:
1. A list of cleaning and sanitizing agents or supplies with instructions on their safe use and storage
2. A cleaning schedule, outlining how each item needs to be cleaned, who is responsible, and how frequently it happens
Figure 5 shows a sample daily and weekly cleaning schedule for a restaurant.
Figure 5. Sample Cleaning Schedule
Daily Cleaning Schedule. Date: ______________
Item Frequency Method Responsibility Supervisor initial
Upright mixer
• Prior to use if mixer not used in previous 2 hours
• Immediately after use when finished task
1. Lock out machine (unplug) and remove attachments and bowl. Send through dishwasher.
2. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent.
3. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water).
4. Allow to air dry prior to reassembly and next use.
Pastry cooks ________
Meat slicer
• Prior to use if slicer not used in previous 2 hours
• Immediately after use when finished task
1. Lock out machine (unplug) and set slicer to zero.
2. Remove blade guard. Send through dishwasher.
3. Carefully wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent.
4. Carefully wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water).
5. Allow air dry prior to reassembly and next use.
Garde manger ________
Weekly Cleaning Schedule. Date: ______________
Item Frequency Method Responsibility Supervisor initial
Dry storage Monday after dinner service
1. Remove food from shelves one shelf at a time. Store rolling rack in dry storage while cleaning shelf in place.
2. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent.
3. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water).
4. Allow to air dry prior to replacing food on shelves.
Grill cook ________
Reach-in freezer Tuesday after dinner dervice
1. Remove food from shelves one shelf at a time. Store rolling rack in cooler while cleaning shelf in place.
2. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent.
3. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water).
4. Allow to air dry prior to replacing food on shelves.
Garde manger ________
Dishwashing Procedures
Effective dishwashing ensures that all equipment is sanitary and ready for use when required. Using soiled or dirty china is not only dangerous, but it will tell customers that the operator as little or no regard for customer safety. Table 2.5 shows the proper procedures for both manual and automatic dishwashing.
Before washing, scrape dishes and pre-soak any items with hard to remove residue. Then follow the procedure in Table 5, depending on whether you are using a high- or low-temperature dishwasher or you are washing dishes manually.
Table 5. Dishwashing procedures
Step Manual High-temperature dishwasher Low-temperature dishwasher or glass washer
Wash Use a commercial detergent and 45°C (113°F) water. Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F). Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F).
Rinse Rinse in clean hot water. Hot rinse cycle. Warm or cold rinse cycle with sanitizer.
Sanitize Sanitize for 2 minutes with an approved sanitizing solution (50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine). Rinse cycle must reach at least 82°C (180°F) for at least 10 seconds. Final rinse must have concentration of 50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine.
Dry Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage.
Never towel dry.
Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage
Never towel dry.
Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage
Never towel dry.
Routine Equipment Maintenance
Most kitchen equipment is intended to be disassembled for cleaning. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and training provided by your employer or instructor on how to do this safely. Some equipment is intended to be cleaned in place. This should be identified in your sanitation plan and cleaning schedule.
All equipment must be routinely cleaned and inspected. Older equipment may have nooks and crannies where dirt and bacteria can hide, which can be difficult to clean effectively. Proper cleaning procedures must be established and followed at all times with regular review to ensure that procedures are working. If equipment is replaced or cleaning materials change, the process may have to be adjusted. If you notice any safety concerns with the equipment while cleaning it, such as a frayed cord, missing guard or loose parts, let your supervisor know immediately.
Importance of Personal Hygiene
It is imperative for safe food-handling outcomes for all workers to be familiar with standard sanitation and hygiene practices. Figure 6 shows the cycles of transmission of micro-organisms. One of the basic principles is to break the cycle by avoiding cross-contamination, which can be achieved by ensuring personal hygiene practices are followed.
Proper personal hygiene is critical in any food service premise. Personal hygiene includes:
• Showering and bathing regularly
• Keeping hair clean hair and covered or tied back
• Keeping clean clothing and footwear that is used only at work
• Handwashing regularly
• Using clean utensils for tasting food
• Using separate cloths for cleaning and wiping plates
Handwashing
Proper and regular handwashing is a critical part of any food safety system. You must always wash your hands after:
• Sneezing, coughing, or touching your mouth or nose
• Using the bathroom
• Smoking or using toothpicks
• Handling raw foods
• Cleaning and wiping tables, food preparation surfaces, or equipment
• Handling soiled objects, garbage, or money
The steps for proper handwashing are as follows:
1. Wet hands with warm water.
2. Apply liquid soap and lather for at least 20 to 30 seconds.
3. Scrub backs of hands, wrists, all fingers, and under nails.
4. Rinse under running water, pointing down toward the drain.
5. Dry with a paper towel.
6. Turn off taps and open bathroom door using the paper towel.
1.10: Key Takeaways and Activities
Key Takeaways
• Foodborne illness is most often caused by cross-contamination of some form, and therefore effective steps must be taken to prevent the transfer of contaminants at every stage of the production process.
• Temperature control is a critical way to manage food safety—by properly heating and cooling foods, and limiting the time potential hazardous foods spend in the danger zone.
• Personal hygiene, equipment and tool cleanliness, pest control, and environmental sanitation are all areas to scrutinize when considering an operations ability to control cross-contamination.
Activities
1. Complete a Food safety plan flow chart [.docx] for a recipe or process of your choice. Remember to follow all of the seven steps when completing your flow chart.
2. Complete a Cleaning Schedule [.docx] for your station or work area. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Food_Safety_Sanitation_and_Personal_Hygiene/1.09%3A_Workplace_Sanitation.txt |
The chef must understand how to flavor foods and be able to recognize flavoring ingredients and know how to use them. This chapter looks at the sense of taste and smell and the flavoring ingredients used in the professional kitchen to enhance foods. Flavorings are the herbs, spices, salt, oils, vinegars, condiments, wines and other alcoholic beverages typically used to create, enhance or alter the natural flavors of a dish-are featured.
From the simplest grunt of pleasure upon biting into a chunk of meat fresh from the fire to the most sophisticated discourse on the fruity top notes of a full-bodied Cabernet Sauvignon, people have long attempted to describe the flavors of food. This is clone by describing physical perceptions ("it tastes tart or sugary" or "it feels greasy") or the recognition of the flavor ("I can sense the rosemary" or "there is a hint of strawberries"). In either case, the terms flavor and taste are often confused. Although often used interchangeably, they are not synonymous.
A flavor is a combination of the tastes, aromas and other sensations caused by the presence of a foreign substance in the mouth.
Tastes are the sensations we detect when a substance comes in contact with the taste buds on the tongue (sweet, sour, salt, bitter and umami.) Some substances irritate other nerves on the tongue or embedded in the fleshy areas of the mouth. These nerves respond to sensations of pain, beat or cold, or sensations our brain interprets as spiciness, pungency, or astringency.
Mouthfeel refers to the sensation created in the mouth by a combination of a food's .taste, smell, texture and temperature.
Aromas are the odors that enter the nose or float up through the back of the mouth to activate smell receptors in the nose. Whenever a particular taste, sensation and/or aroma is detected, a set of neurons in the brain is excited and, with experience, we learn to recognize these patterns as the flavor of bananas, chocolate , grilled lamb or sour milk. Each person has a unique ability to recognize and appreciate thousands of these patterns.
This collection of flavors and your ability to recognize them is sometimes referred to as your palate.
Tastes: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter and Now Umami
Over the centuries, various cultures have developed complex philosophies based, in part, on the basic tastes they found in the foods they ate. For example, ' as early as 1000 R.C.E., the Chinese were describing the five-taste scheme that they still adhere to today.
For them, each of the basic tastes - sweet, sour, salty, bitter and pungent/ hot/spicy- is associated with a vital organ of the body, a certain season, a specific element of nature, or an astrological sign. Maintaining the proper balance of tastes in a dish or during a meal assists in the maintenance of good health and good fortune.
About the same time, in what is now India, the practice of ayurvedic medicine was developing. Indians recognized six tastes (and still do) sweet, sour, salty, spicy/ pungent, bitter and astringent. Based on the tastes of various herbs and spices, practitioners of ayurvedic medicine associate them with specific vital organs or bodily systems. India n cooks attempt to create dishes with a balance of all six tastes, in part to encourage good health.
A continent away and several hundred years later, the Greek philosopher Aristotle identified seven tastes. He arranged the various tastes on a sort of continuum with the two primary and contrasting tastes, sweet and bitter, at either end. He placed a secondary taste next to each primary taste: succulent to the right of sweet and salty to the left of bitter. Between these secondary tastes he placed - from left to right- pungent, harsh and astringent. Each taste gave way to the next, creating, along with the other senses, the perception of flavors.
As the understanding of the human body evolved, the definition of taste came to be based more on science than on a balancing of elements. Today, taste is defined as the sensations detected when substances come in contact with the taste buds on the tongue.
Sweet - For most people, sweetness is the most pleasurable and often sought after taste, although, ironically, the fewer sweet-tasting foods we consume, the more enhanced our ability to recognize sweetness becomes. A food's sweetness comes from the naturally occurring sugars it contains (for example, sucrose and fructose) or sweeteners added to it. This sweetness can sometimes be enhanced by adding a small amount of a sour, bitter or salty taste. Adding too much sourness, bitterness or saltiness, however, will lessen our perception of the food's sweetness.
Sour - Considered the opposite of sweet, a sour taste is found in acidic foods and, like sweetness, can vary greatly in intensity. Many foods with a dominant sour taste, such as reel currants or sour cream, will also contain a secondary or slight sweetness. Often a sour taste can be improved by adding a little sweetness or negated by adding a large amount of a sweet ingredient.
Salty - With the notable exception of oysters and other shellfish and seaweed, the presence of a salty taste in a food is the result of the cook's decision to acid the mineral sodium chloride, known as salt, or to use a previously salted ingredient such as salt-cured fish or soy sauce. Salt helps finish a dish, heightening or enhancing its other flavors. Dishes that lack salt often taste flat. Like the taste of sweetness, the less salt consumed on a regular bas is, the more saltiness we can detect in foods.
Bitter - Although the bitterness associated with tasting alkaloids and other organic substances may occasionally be appreciated, such as when tasting chocolate or coffee, a bitter-flavored ingredient unbalanced by something sour or salty is gene rally disliked and, as a survival mechanism, is believed to serve as a warning of inedibility or unhealthfulness.
In the past several years, many western researchers have begun to recognize a fifth taste, akin to the savory taste long recognized as the fifth taste in Japanese savory a food that is not sweet cuisine. Called ‘um ami ‘(from the Japanese word umai, meaning "delicious"), this fifth taste does not have a simple English translation. Rather, for some people it refers to a food's savory characteristic; for others to the richness or fullness of a dish's overall taste, and still others, the meatiness or meaty taste of a dish.
Taste buds sense umami in the presence of several substances, including the naturally occurring amino acid glutamate and its commercially produced counterpart known as monosodium glutamate (MSG).
Cheeses, meats, rich stocks, soy sauce, shellfish, fatty fish, mushrooms, tomatoes and wine are all high in glutamate and produce the taste sensation of umami. Aged or fermented foods also provide umami.
Often food professionals and others refer to tastes in addition to sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami. Typically, they describe something as pungent, hot, spicy or piquant or something that is astringent, sharp or dry. None of these terms, however, fit the definition of a taste, as none are detected solely by taste buds. Rather, these sensations are detected by nerve endings embedded in the fleshy part of the mouth. These nerves, when "irritated" by the presence of compounds such as piperine (the active ingredient in black peppercorns) or capsaicin (the active ingredient in chiles), register a burning sensation that the brain translates as the hot and spicy "taste" of Szechuan or Mexican cuisines, for example.
Factors Affecting Perception Of Flavors
Obviously, the most important factors affecting the flavor of a dish are the quantity, quality and concentration of the flavoring ingredients. (With practice, a chef gains a feel for the proper proportions.) Other factors that affect one's perception of flavors include the following:
Temperature - Food sat warm temperatures offer the strongest tastes. Heating foods releases volatile flavor compounds, which intensifies one's perceptions of odors. This is why fine cheese is served at room temperature to improve its eating quality and flavor. Foods tend to lose their sour or sweet tastes both the colder and the hotter they become. Saltiness, however, is perceived differently at extreme cold temperatures; the same quantity of salt in a solution is perceived more strongly when very cold than when merely cool or warm. Therefore, it is best to adjust a dish's final flavors at its serving temperature.
That is, season hot food when they are hot and cold foods when they are cold.
Consistency - A food's consistency affects its flavor. Two items with the same amount of taste and smell compounds that differ in texture will differ in their perceived intensity and onset time; the thicker item will take longer to reach its peak intensity and will have a less intense flavor. For example, two batches of sweetened heavy cream made from the same ingredients in the same proportions can taste different if one is whipped and the other is un-whipped; the whipped cream has more volume and therefore a milder flavor.
Presence of contrasting tastes - Sweet and sour are considered opposites, and often the addition of one to a food dominated by the other will enhance the food's overall flavor. For example, adding a little sugar to vinaigrette reduces the dressing's sourness, or adding a squeeze of lemon to a broiled lobster reduces the shellfish's sweetness. Nevertheless, add too much, and the dominant taste will be negated. Likewise, adding something sweet, sour or salty to a dish with a predominantly bitter flavor will cut the bitterness.
Presence of fats - Many of the chemical compounds that create tastes and aromas are dissolved in the fats naturally occurring in foods or added to foods during cooking. As these compounds are slowly release d by evaporation or saliva, they provide a sustained taste sensation. If, however, there is too little fat, the flavor compounds may not be released efficiently, resulting in a dish with little sustained flavor. Too much fat poses another problem; it can coat the tongue and interfere with the ability of taste receptors to perceive flavor compounds.
Color - A food's color affects how the consumer will perceive the food's flavor before it is even tasted. When foods or beverages lack their customary color, they are less readily identified correctly than, when appropriately colored. As color level change s to match normal expectations, our perception of taste and flavor intensity increases. A miscue created by the perceived flavor (the flavor associated with the color) can have an adverse impact on the consumer's appreciation of the actual flavor. For example, if the predominant flavor of a dessert is lemon, the dessert or some component of the dessert should be yellow; a green color will trigger an expectation of lime and the possible disappointment of the consumer. Similarly, the dark ruby-red flesh of a blood orange looks different from the bright orange flesh of a Valencia orange. This tonal difference can create the expectation of a different, non-orangey flavor, even though the blood orange's flavor is similar to that of other sweet orange varieties. Likewise, a sliced apple that has turned brown may suggest an off-flavor, although there is none.
Compromises to the Perception Of Taste
The sense of taste can be challenged by factors both within and beyond one's control. Age and general health can diminish one's perception of flavor, as can fatigue and stress. Chefs need to be aware of the age and health of their clientele, adjusting the seasoning of foods served according to their needs. Here are some factors that can affect one's taste perceptions.
Age. "The bad news is that taste and smell sensitivity does decline as we age. The good news is that it declines at a slower rate than our vision and hearing. The sense of smell tends to decline earlier than the sense of taste. There is a great deal of variance across individuals, with some showing declines earlier than others."
Health. "An acute condition, such as a cold, can result in a temporary loss of smell. The presence of mucus can prevent airflow, preventing the odor compounds from reaching the olfactory receptors. In contrast, the sense of taste would remain largely unaffected. Medications can also alter the perception of taste and smell. Some medications suppress the perceptions of saltiness, while others result in chronic perception of bitterness. Still other medications alter salivary flow, making it difficult to swallow dry foods. A further complication is the underlying conditions for taking medication. If an individual is taking high blood pressure medications, not only may the medication have a direct impact on perceived taste, but the same individual is likely to be on a sodium-restricted diet."
Smoking. "Anecdotal reports from those who quit smoking strongly indicate that smoking diminishes odor sensitivity. This is further supported by evidence indicating that people who smoke generally are less sensitive to odors than those who do not. In contrast, evidence indicates that if one waits two hours after smoking, the sense of taste is unaltered. Immediately after smoking, however, taste sensitivity is lowered."
Describing Aromas and Flavors in Food
Food scientists and professional tasters make their living describing the smell and taste of foods. Many have attempted to standardize the language used to describe positive and negative aromas and flavors in foods such as beer, cheese, chocolate, coffee and fish. Frequently they employ flavor wheels or other charts to identify types of flavors and tastes found in foods.
Describing Food Using Flavor Profiles
A food's flavor profile describes its flavor from the moment the consumer gets the first whiff of its aroma until he or she swallows that last morsel. It is a convenient way to articulate and evaluate a dish's sensory characteristics as well as identify contrasting or complementing items that could be served with it.
A food's flavor profile consists of one or more of the following elements:
1. Top notes or high notes - the sharp, first flavors or aromas that come from citrus, herbs, spices and many condiments. These top notes provide instant impact and dissipate quickly.
2. Middle notes – the second wave of flavors and aromas. More subtle and more lingering than top notes, middle notes come from dairy products, poultry, some vegetables , fish and some meats.
3. Low notes or bass notes - the most dominant, lingering flavors. These flavors consist of the basic tastes (especially sweetness, sourness, saltiness and um ami) and come from foods such as anchovies, beans, chocolate, dried mushrooms, fish sauce, tomatoes, most meats (especially beef and game) and garlic. Or they can be created by smoking or caramelizing the food's sugars during grilling, broiling and other dry-heat cooking processes.
4. After taste or finish - the final flavor that remains in the mouth after swallowing; for example, the lingering bitterness of coffee or chocolate or the pungency of black pepper or a strong mustard.
5. Roundness - the unity of the dish's various flavors achieved through the judicious use of butter, cream, coconut milk, reduced stocks, salt, sugar and the like; these ingredients cause the other flavorings to linger without necessarily adding their own dominant taste or flavor.
6. Depth of flavor - whether the dish has a broad range of flavor notes.
7. these expressions can be applied to any dish to describe its sensory characteristics. For example, a free-range chicken has a flavor profile with a top note of rosemary. Its middle notes are contributed by the chicken, and the low notes from the anchovies and garlic. There is an aftertaste of garlic and vinegar. The sauce adds roundness to the chicken, thus creating a dish with a fine depth of flavor. An experienced chef is able to taste and evaluate aversion of this dish, adjusting flavorings, ingredients and cooking technique as needed to maintain the balance of flavors in the original recipe.
Important Terms:
seasoning an item added to enhance the natural flavors of a food without dramatically changing its taste; salt is the most common seasoning
flavoring an item that adds a new taste to a food and alters its natural flavors; flavorings include herbs, spices, vinegars and condiments; the terms seasoning and flavoring are often used interchangeably.
herb any of a large group of aromatic plants whose leaves, stems or flowers are used as a flavoring; used either dried or fresh
aromatic a food added to enhance the natural aromas of another food; aromatics include most flavorings, such as herbs and spices, as well as some vegetables
spice any of a large group of aromatic plants whose bark, roots, seeds, buds or berries are used as a flavoring; usually used in dried form, either whole or ground
condiment traditionally, any item added to a dish for flavor, including herbs, spices and vinegars; now also refers to cooked or prepared flavorings such as prepared mustards, relishes, bottled sauces and pickles.
Flavorings: Herbs and Spices
Herbs and spices are used as flavorings. Herbs refer to the large group of aromatic plants whose leaves, stems or flowers are used to acid flavors to other foods. Most herbs are available fresh or dried. Because drying alters their flavors and aromas, fresh herbs are generally preferred and should be used if possible. Spices are strongly flavored or aromatic portions of plants used as flavorings, condiments or aromatics. Spices are the bark, roots, seeds, buds or berries of plants, most of which grow naturally only in tropical climates. Spices are usually used in their dried form, rarely fresh, and can usually be purchased whole or ground. Some plants- dill, for example- can be used as both an herb (its leaves) and a spice (its seeds). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.01%3A_Introduction_to_Flavors.txt |
Basil
Basil is considered one of the great culinary herbs. It is available in a variety of "flavors" - cinnamon, garlic, lemon, even chocolate- but the most common is sweet basil. Sweet basil has light green, tender leaves and small white flowers. Its flavor is strong, warm and slightly peppery, with a hint of cloves. Basil is used in Mediterranean and some Southeast Asian cuisines and has a special affinity for garlic and tomatoes. When purchasing fresh basil, look for bright green leaves; avoid flower buds and wilted or rust-colored leaves. Dried sweet basil is readily available but has a decidedly weaker flavor.
Opal basil is named for its vivid purple color. It has a tougher, crinkled leaf and a medium-strong flavor. Opal basil may be substituted for sweet basil in cooking, and its appearance makes it a distinctive garnish.
Bay Leaves
Bay, also known as sweet laurel, is a small tree from Asia that produces tough, glossy leaves with a sweet balsamic aroma and peppery flavor. Bay symbolized wisdom and glory in ancient Rome; the leaves were used to form crowns or "laurels" Bay leaves worn by emperors and victorious athletes. In cooking, dried bay leaves are often preferred over the more bitter fresh leaves. Essential in French cuisine, bay leaves are part of the traditional bouquet garnish and court bouillon. Whole dried leaves are usually added to a dish at the start of cooking, then removed when sufficient flavor has been extracted the Middle East. Its lacy, fern-like leaves are similar to parsley and can be used as a garnish.
Chervil
Chervil is commonly used in French cuisine and is one of the traditional fine herbs. Chervil's flavor is delicate, similar to parsley but with the distinctive aroma of anise. It should not be heated for long periods.
Chives
Chives are perhaps the most delicate and sophisticated members of the onion family. Their hollow, thin grass-green stems grow in clump s and produce round, pale purple flowers, which are use d as a garnish. Chives may be purchased dried, quick-frozen or fresh. They have a mild onion flavor and bright green color. Chives complement eggs, poultry, potatoes, fish and shellfish. They should not be cooked for long, periods or at high temperatures. Chives make an excellent garnish when snipped with scissors or carefully chopped and sprinkled over finished soups or sauces.
Garlic chives, also known as Chinese chives, actually belong to another plant species. They have flat, solid (not hollow) stems and a mild garlic flavor. They may be used in place of regular chives if their garlic flavor is desired.
Cilantro
Cilantro is the green leafy portion of the plant that yields seeds known as coriander. The flavors of the two portions of this plant are very different and cannot be substituted for each other. Cilantro, also known as Chinese parsley, is sharp and tangy with a strong aroma and an almost citrus flavor. It is widely used in Asian, Mexican and South American cuisines, especially in salads and sauces. It should not be subjected to heat, and cilantro's flavor is completely destroyed by drying. Do not use yellow or discolored leaves or the tough stems. When used in excess, cilantro can impart a soapy taste to foods.
Curry leaves
Curry leaves are the distinctively flavored leaves of a small tree that grows wild in the Himalayan foothills, southern India and Sri Lanka. They look like small shiny bay leaves and have a strong curry-like fragrance and a citrus-curry flavor. Often added to a preparation whole, then removed before serving, they can also be minced or finely chopped for marinades and sauces. Choose fresh bright green leaves, if possible, or frozen leaves; dried leaves have virtually no flavor. Although used in making southern Indian and Thai dishes, curry leaves (also known as neem leaves) must not be confused with curry powder.
Dill
Dill, a member of the parsley family, has tiny, aromatic, yellow flowers and feathery, delicate blue-green leaves. The leaves taste like parsley, but sharper, with a touch of anise. Dill seeds are flat, oval and brown, with a bitter flavor similar to caraway. Both the seeds and the leaves of the dill plant are used in cooking.
Dill is commonly used in Scandinavian and central European cuisines, particularly with fish and potatoes, mushrooms, and other vegetables. Both leaves and seeds are used in pickling and sour dishes. Dill leaves are available fresh or dried but lose their aroma and flavor during cooking, so add them only after the dish is removed from the heat. Dill seeds are available whole or ground and are used in fish dishes, pickles and breads.
Epazote
Epazote, also known as wormseed or stinkweed, grows wild throughout the Americas. It has a strong aroma similar to kerosene and a wild flavor. Fresh epazote is used in salads and as a flavoring in Mexican and Southwestern cuisines. It is often cooked with beans to reduce their gaseousness. Dried epazote is brewed to make a beverage.
Lavender
Lavender is an evergreen with thin leaves and tall stems bearing spikes of tiny purple flowers. Although lavender is known primarily for its aroma, which is widely used in perfumes, soaps and cosmetics, the flowers are also used as a flavoring, particularly in Middle Eastern cuisines though other cuisines use it as well. These flowers have a sweet, lemony flavor and can be crystallized and used as a garnish. Lavender is also used in jams and preserves and to flavor teas and tisanes.
Lemongrass
Lemongrass, also known as citronella grass, is a tropical grass with the strong aroma and flavor of a lemon. It is similar to scallions in appearance but with a woody texture. Only the lower base and white leaf stalks are used. Available fresh or quick-frozen, lemongrass is widely used in Southeast Asian cuisines.
Lime leaves
Lime leaves from a species of thorny lime trees are used much like bay leaves to flavor soups and stews in Thai and other Asian cuisines. These small, dark green leaves have a bright citrus floral aroma. Fragrant lime leaves are available fresh in the United States now that these trees are cultivated domestically.
Lovage
Lovage has tall stalks and large dark green celery-like leaves. The leaves, stalks and seeds (which are commonly known as celery seeds) have a strong celery flavor. Also known as, ‘sea parsley’, the leaves and stalks are used in salads and stews and the seeds are used for flavoring.
Marjoram
Marjoram, also known as sweet marjoram, is a flowering herb native to the Mediterranean and used since ancient times. Its flavor is similar to thyme but sweeter; it also has a stronger aroma. Marjoram is now used in many European cuisines. Although it is available fresh, marjoram is one of the few herbs whose flavor increases when dried. Wild marjoram is more commonly known as oregano.
Mint
Mint a large family of herb, includes many species and flavors (even chocolate). Spearmint is the most common garden and commercial variety. It has soft, bright green leaves and a tart aroma and flavor. Mint does not blend well with other herbs, so its use is confined to specific dishes, usually fruits or fatty meats such as lamb. Mint has an affinity for chocolate. It can also be brewed into a beverage or used as a garnish.
Peppermint
Peppermint has thin, stiff, pointed leaves and a sharper menthol flavor and aroma. Fresh peppermint is used less often in cooking or as a garnish than spearmint, but peppermint oil is a common flavoring in sweets and candies.
Oregano
Oregano, also known as wild marjoram, is a pungent, peppery herb used in Mediterranean cuisines, particularly Greek and Italian, as well as in Mexican cuisine. It is a classic complement to tomatoes. Oregano's thin, woody stalks bear clumps of tiny, dark green leaves, which are available dried and crushed.
Parsley
Parsley is probably the best-known and most widely used herb in the world. It grows in almost all climates and is available in many varieties, all of which are rich in vitamins and minerals. The most common type in the United States and Northern Europe is curly parsley. It has small curly leaves and a bright green color. Its flavor is tangy and clean. Other cuisines use a variety sometimes known as Italian parsley, which has flat leaves, a darker color and coarser flavor. Curly parsley is a ubiquitous garnish; both types can be use d in virtually any food except sweets. Parsley stalks have a stronger flavor than the leaves and are part of the standard bouquet garnish. Chopped parsley forms the basis of any fine herb blend.
Rosemary
Rosemary is an evergreen bush that grows wild in warm, dry climates worldwide. It has stiff, needlelike leaves; some varieties bear pale blue flowers. It is highly aromatic, with a slight odor of camphor or pine. Rosemary is best used fresh. When dried, it loses flavor, and its leaves become very hard and unpleasant to chew. Whole rosemary stems may be added to a dish such as a stew and then removed when enough flavor has been imparted. They may also be added to a bouquet garnish. Rosemary has a great affinity for roasted and grilled meats, especially lamb.
Sage
Sage was used as a medicine for centuries before it entered the kitchen as a culinary herb. Culinary sage has narrow, fuzzy, gray-green leaves and blue flowers. Its flavor is strong and balsamic, with notes of camphor. Sage is used in poultry dishes, with fatty meats or brewed as a beverage. Sage’s strong flavor does not blend well with other herbs. It dries well and is available in whole or chopped leaves or rubbed (coarsely ground).
Savory
Savory has been used since ancient times. Its leaves are small and narrow, and it has a sharp, bitter flavor, vaguely like thyme. It dries well and is used in bean dishes, sausages and fine herb blends. While the variety called summer savory is most common and popular, a variety called winter savory is also available.
Tarragon
Tarragon is another of the great culinary herbs, is native to Iberia. It is a bushy plant with long, narrow, dark green leaves and tiny gray flowers. Tarragon goes well with fish and tomatoes and is essential in many French dishes such as bearnaise sauce and fine herb blends. Its flavor is strong and diffuses quickly through foods. It is available dried, but drying may cause hay-like flavors to develop.
Thyme
Thyme has been popular since 3500 B.C.E., when Egyptians used it as a medicine and for embalming. Thyme is as mall, bushy plant with woody stems, tiny green-gray leaves and purple flowers. Its flavor is strong but refined, with notes of sage. Thyme dries well and complements virtually all types of meat, poultry, fish, shellfish and vegetables. It is often included in a bouquet garnish or added to stocks. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.02%3A_Herbs.txt |
Different cuisines and areas of the world utilize different spices, and spice combinations. See the chart below:
Aleppo pepper
Aleppo pepper is made from bright red chiles grown in Turkey and northern Syria. The sun-dried Aleppo chiles are seeded and crushed, then used as a condiment. It has a sharp, but sweet, fruity flavor, with only mild heat (15,000 Scoville units) Although a member of the capsicum family, Aleppo pepper is used more like ground peppercorns (piper nigrum) than a chile . Also known as Halaby pepper, it acids an authentic Mediterranean flavor and fragrance to foods.
Anise
Anise is native to the eastern Mediterranean is grown commercially in warm climates throughout India, North Africa and southern Europe. The tiny, gray-green egg-shaped seeds have a distinctively strong, sweet flavor, similar to licorice and fennel. When anise seeds turn brown, they are stale and should be discarded. Anise is used in pastries as well as fish, shellfish and vegetable dishes, and is commonly used in alcoholic beverages (for example, Pernod and ouzo). The green leaves of the anise plant are occasionally used fresh as an herb or in salads.
Star anise
Star anise, also known as Chinese anise, is the dried, star-shaped fruit of a Chinese magnolia tree. Although it is botanically unrelated, its flavor is similar to anise seeds but bitterer and pun gent. It is an essential flavor in many Chinese dishes and one of the components of five-spice powder.
Annatto
Annatto seeds are the small, brick red triangular seeds of a shrub from South America and the Caribbean. Annatto seeds add a mild, peppery flavor to rice, fish and shellfish dishes and are crushed to make Mexican achiote paste. Because they impart a bright yellow-orange color to foods, annatto seeds are commonly used as a natural food coloring, especially in cheeses and margarine.
Asafetida
Asafetida is a pale brown resin made from the sap of a giant fennel-like plant native to India and Iran. Also known as devil's dung, it has a garlicky flavor and a strong unpleasant fetid aroma (the aroma is not transferred to food being flavored). Available powdered or in lump form, it is used- very sparingly as a flavoring in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisines.
Capers
Capers come from a small bush that grows wild throughout the Mediterranean basin. Its unopened flower buds have been pickled and used a: condiment for thousands of years. Fresh capers are not used, as the sharp, salty, sour flavor develops only after curing in strongly salted white vinegar. The finest capers are the smallest, known as nonpareils, which are produced in France's Provence region. Capers are used in a variety of sauces (tartare, remoulade) and are excellent with fish and game. Capers will keep for long periods if moistened by their original liquid. Do not acid or substitute vinegar, however, as this causes the capers to spoil.
Caraway
Caraway is perhaps the world's oldest spice. Its use has been traced to the Stone Age, and seeds have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The caraway plant grows wild in Europe and temperate regions of Asia. It produces a small, crescent-shaped brown seed with the peppery flavor of rye. Seeds may be purchased whole or ground. (The leaves have a mild, bland flavor and are rarely use d in cooking.) Caraway is a ‘European’ flavor, used extensively in German and Austrian dishes, particularly breads, meats and cabbage. It is also used in alcoholic beverages and cheeses.
Cardamom
Cardamom is one of the most expensive spices, second only to saffron in cost. Its seeds are encased in 1/4-inch- (6-millimeter) long light green or brown pods. Cardamom is highly aromatic. Its flavor, lemony with notes of camphor, is quit e strong and is used in both sweet and savory dishes. Cardamom is widely used in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisines, where it is also used to flavor coffee. Scandinavians use cardamom to flavor breads and pastries. Ground cardamom loses its flavor rapidly and is easily adulterated, so it is best to purchase whole seeds and grind your own as needed.
Chiles
Chiles, including paprika, chile peppers, bell peppers and cayenne, are members of the capsicum plant family. Although cultivated for thousands of years in the West Indies and Americas, capsicum peppers were unknown in the Old World prior to Spanish explorations during the 15th century.
Capsicum
Capsicum peppers come in all shapes and sizes, with a wide range of flavors, from sweet to extremely hot. Some capsicums are used as a vegetable, while others are dried, ground and used as a spice.
Cayenne
Cayenne, sometimes simply labeled "red pepper," is ground from a blend of several particularly hot types of dried red chile peppers. Its flavor is extremely hot and pungent; it has a bright orange-red color and fine texture.
Paprika
Paprika, also known as Hungarian pepper, is a bright reel powder ground from specific varieties of red-ripened and dried chiles. Paprika's flavor ranges from sweet to pungent; its aroma is distinctive and strong. It is essential to many Spanish and eastern European dishes. Mild paprika is meant to be used in generous quantities and may be sprinkled on prepared foods as a garnish.
Chile powders are made from a wide variety of dried chile peppers, ranging from sweet and mild to extremely hot and pungent. The finest pure chile powders come from dried chiles that are simply roasted, ground and sieved. Commercial chilli powder, an American invention, is actually a combination of spices-oregano, cumin, garlic and other flavorings-intended for use in Mexican dishes. Each brand is different and should be sampled before using.
Plant Spice
Crushed chiles
Crushed chiles, also known as chile flakes, are blended from dried, coarsely crushed chiles. They are quite hot and are used in sauces and meat dishes.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon and its cousin cassia are among the oldest known spices: Cinnamon's use is recorded in China as early as 2500 B.C.E., and the Far East still produces most of these products. Both cinnamon and cassia come from the bark of small evergreen trees, peeled from branches in thin layers and dried in the sun. High-quality cinnamon should be pale brown and thin, rolled up like paper into sticks known as quills. Cassia is coarser and has a stronger, less subtle flavor than cinnamon. Consequently, it is cheaper than true cinnamon. Cinnamon is usually purchased ground because it is difficult to grind.
Cinnamon sticks are used when long cooking times allow for sufficient flavor to be extracted (for example in stews or curries). Cinnamon's flavor is most often associated with pastries and sweets, but it has a great Ground Cinnamon and affinity for lamb and spicy dishes. Labeling laws do Cinnamon Sticks not require that packages distinguish between cassia and cinnamon, so most of what is sold as cinnamon in the United States is actually cassia, blended for consistent flavor and aroma.
Cloves
Cloves are the unopened buds of evergreen trees that flourish in muggy tropical regions. When dried, whole cloves have hard, sharp prongs that can be used to push them into other foods, such as onions or fruit, in order to provide flavor. Cloves are extremely pungent, with a sweet, astringent aroma. A small amount provides a great deal of flavor. Cloves are used in desserts and meat dishes, preserves and liquors. They may be purchased whole or ground.
Coriander
Coriander seeds come from the cilantro plant. They are round and beige, with a distinctive sweet, spicy flavor and strong aroma. Unlike other plants in which the seeds and the leaves carry the same flavor and aroma, coriander and cilantro are very different. Coriander seeds are available whole or ground and are frequently used in Indian cuisine and pickling mixtures.
Cumin
Cumin is the seed of a small delicate plant of the parsley family that grows in North Africa and the Middle East. The small seeds are available whole or ground and look (but do not taste) like caraway seeds. Cumin has a strong earthy flavor and tends to dominate any dish in which it is included. It is used in Indian Middle Eastern and Mexican cuisines, in sausages and a few cheeses.
Fennel
Fennel is a perennial plant with feathery leaves and tiny flowers long cultivated in India and China as a medicine and cure for witchcraft. Its seeds are greenish brown with prominent ridges and short, hair-like fibers. Their taste and aroma are similar to anise, though not as sweet. Whole seeds are widely used in Italian stews and sausages; central European cuisines use fennel with fish, pork, pickles and vegetables. Ground seeds can also be used in breads, cakes and cookies. The same plant produces a bulbous stalk used as a vegetable.
Fenugreek
Fenugreek is grown in Mediterranean countries since ancient times, is a small, beanlike plant with a tiny flower. The seeds, are available whole or ground, are pebble shaped and transfer their pale orange color to the foods with which they are cooked. Their flavor is bittersweet, like burnt sugar with a bitter aftertaste. Fenugreek is a staple in Indian cuisines, especially curries and chutneys.
File powder
File powder is the dried, ground leaf of the sassafras plant. Long used by Choctaw Indians, it is now most commonly used as a thickener and flavoring in Cajun and Creole cuisines. File is also use d as a table condiment to acid a spicy note to stews, gumbo and the like. The powder forms strings if allowed to boil, so it should be added during the last minutes of cooking.
Sassafras plant
Galangal
Galangal is the rhizome of a plant native to India and Southeast Asia. The rhizome has a reddish skin, an orange or whitish flesh and a peppery, ginger-like flavor and piney aroma. Also known as galanga root, Thai ginger and Laos ginger, it is peeled and crushed for use in Thai, and Indonesian cuisines. Fresh ginger is an appropriate substitute.
Galangal root
Ginger
Ginger is a well-known spice obtained from the rhizome of a tall, flowering tropical plant. Fresh ginger is known as a "hand" because it looks vaguely like a group of knobby fingers. It has gray is h-tan skin and a pale yellow, fibrous interior. Fresh ginger should be plump and firm with smooth skin. It should keep for about a month under refrigeration. Its flavor is fiery but sweet, with notes of lemon and rosemary. Fresh ginger is widely available and is used in Indian and Asian cuisines. It has a special affinity for chicken, beef and curries. Ginger is also available pee led and pickled in vinegar, candied in sugar or preserved in alcohol or syrup. Dried, ground ginger is a fine yellow powder widely used in pastries. Its flavor is spicier than and not as sweet as fresh ginger.
Grains of paradise
Grains of paradise are the seeds of a perennial reed-like plant indigenous to the West African coast. Related to cardamom, grains of paradise have a spicy, warm and slightly bitter flavor, similar to peppercorns. In fact, grains of paradise were traditionally used in place of black pepper and are also known as Guinea pepper or Melegueta pepper. Now enjoying a resurgence in popularity and increase d availability, they are ground and used primarily in West African and Maghreb dishes, and in the spice blend known as ‘ras el hanout’.
Horseradish
Horseradish is the large off-white taproot of a hardy perennial (unrelated to radishes) that flourishes in cool climates. Fresh roots should be firm and plump; they will not have the distinctive horseradish aroma unless cut or bruised. The outer skin and inner core of a fresh horseradish root can have an unpleasant flavor and should be discarded. Typically used in Russian and Central European cuisines, especially as an accompaniment to roasted meats and fish and shellfish dishes, horseradish is usually served grated, creamed into a sauce or as part of a compound butter or mustard preparation. If horseradish is cooked, heat can destroy its flavor and pungency, so any horseradish should be added near the end of cooking.
Juniper
Juniper is an evergreen bush grown throughout the Northern Hemisphere. It produces round purple berries with a sweet flavor similar to pine. Juniper berries are used for flavoring gin and other alcoholic beverages, and are crushed and incorporated in game dishes, particularly venison and wild boar.
Mustard seeds
Mustard seeds, available in black, brown and yellow, come from three different plants in the cabbage family. Mustard see ds are small, hard spheres with a bitter flavor. The seeds have no aroma, but their flavor is sharp and fiery hot. Yellow seeds have the mildest and black seeds the strongest flavor. All are sold whole and can be crushed for coo king. Mustard see ds are a standard component of pickling spices and are processed and blended for pre pared mustards, which we discuss later. Ground or city mustard is a bright yellow powder made from a blend of ground seeds, wheat flour and turmeric.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg and mace come from the yellow plum-like fruit of a large tropical evergreen. These fruits are dried and opened to reveal the seed known as nutmeg. A bright red lacy coating or aril surrounds the seed; the aril is the spice mace. Whole nutmegs are oval and look rather like a piece of smooth wood. The flavor and aroma of nutmeg are strong and sweet, and a small quantity provides a great deal of flavor. Nutmeg should be grated directly into a dish as needed; once grated, flavor loss is rapid. Nutmeg is used in many European cuisines, mainly in pastries and sweets, but is also important in meat and savory dishes.
Mace
Mace is an expensive spice, with a flavor similar to nutmeg but more refined. It is almost always purchased ground and retains its flavor longer than other ground spices. Mace is used primarily in pastry items.
Peppercorns
Peppercorns are the berries of a vine plant (piper nigrum) native to tropical Asia. Peppercorns should not be confused with the chile (capsicum) peppers discussed earlier. Peppercorns vary in size, color, pungency and flavor. Many of these differences are the result of variations in climate and growing conditions. Good-quality pepper is expensive and should be purchased whole and ground fresh in a pepper mill as needed. Whole peppercorns will last indefinitely if kept dry. They should be stored well covered in a cool, dark place.
Black and white peppercorns
Black and white peppercorns are produced from the same plant, but are picked and processed differently. For black peppercorns, the berries are picked when green and simply dried whole in the sun. Black pepper has a warm, pungent flavor and aroma. Tellicheny peppercorns from the southwest coast of India are generally considered the finest black peppercorns in the world and are priced accordingly. For white peppercorns, the berries are allowed to ripen until they turn reel. The ripened berries are allowed to ferment, and then the outer layer of skin is washed off. Now, white pepper may be produced by mechanically removing the outer skin from black peppercorns. This is not true white pepper, and the resulting product should be labeled "decorticated." White pepper has fewer aromas than black pepper but is useful in white sauces, or, when the appearance of black speckles is undesirable.
Green peppercorns
Green peppercorns are unripened berries that are either freeze-dried or pickled in brine or vinegar. Pickled green peppercorns are soft, with a fresh, sour flavor similar to capers. They are excellent in spiced butters and sauces or with fish.
Pink peppercorns
Pink peppercorns are actually the berries of a South American tree, not a vine pepper plant. Pink peppercorns are available dried or pickled in vinegar. Although they are attractive, their flavor is bitter and pine-like, with less spiciness than true pepper.
Szechuan pepper
Szechuan pepper is the dried red berries of the prickly ash tree native to China. Also known as anise pepper and Chinese pepper, the berries have an extremely hot, peppery, spicy flavor with citrus overtones and are used in Chinese cuisines and as part of Chinese five-spice powder.
Poppy seeds
Poppy seeds are the ripened seeds of the opium poppy, which flourishes in the Middle East and India. (When ripe, the seeds do not contain any of the medicinal alkaloids found elsewhere in the plant.) The tiny blue-gray seeds are round and hard with a sweet, nutty flavor. Poppy seeds are used in pastries and breads.
Saffron
Saffron comes from the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus. Each flower bears only three thread like stigmas, and each must be picked by hand. It takes about 250,000 flowers to produce one pound of saffron, making it the most expensive spice in the world. Beware of bargains; there is no such thing as cheap saffron. Luckily, a tiny pinch is enough to color and flavor a large quantity of food. Good saffron should be a brilliant orange color, not yellow, with a strong aroma and a bitter, honey-like taste. Saffron produces a yellow dye that diffuses through any warm liquid. Valencia or Spanish saffron is considered the finest. It is commonly used with fish and shellfish (a necessity for bouillabaisse) and rice dishes such as paella and risotto. When using saffron threads, first crush them gently, and then soak them in some hot liquid from the recipe. Powdered saffron is less expensive but more easily adulterated. It may be added directly to the other ingredients when cooking.
Crocus plant Saffron spice
Sesame seeds
Sesame seeds, also known as benne seeds, are native to India. They are small, flat ovals, with a creamy white color. Their taste is nutty and earthy, with a pronounced aroma when roasted or ground into a paste (known as tahini). Sesame seeds are the source of sesame oil, which has a mild, nutty flavor and does not go rancid easily. Sesame seeds are roasted and used in or as a garnish for breads and meat dishes. They are popular in Indian and Asian cuisines, with a black variety of seeds most popular as a Japanese condiment.
Tamarind
Tamarind also know n as an Indian date, is the brown, bean-shaped pod of the tamarind tree, which is native to Africa. Although naturally sweet, tamarind also contains 12% tartaric acid, which makes it extremely tart. It is commonly used in Indian curries and Mediterranean cooking as a souring agent and in the West Indies in fruit drinks. Tamarind is sold as a concentrate or in sticky blocks of crushed pods, pulp and seeds, which should be soaked in warm water for about five minutes, then squeezed through a sieve. Tamarind's high pectin content is useful in chutneys and jams, and it is often included in barbeque sauces and marinades. It is a key ingredient in Worcestershire sauce.
Tumeric
Turmeric, also known as Indian saffron, is produced from the rhizome of a flowering tropical plant related to ginger. It has a mild, woodsy aroma. It is most often available dried and usually ground although fresh turmeric appears in ethnic markets. Turmeric is renowned for its vibrant yellow color and is use d as a food coloring and dye. Turmeric's flavor is distinctive and strong; it should not be substituted for saffron. Turmeric is a traditional ingredient in Indian curries, to which it imparts color as well as flavor.
Wasabi
Wasabi is a pale green root similar, but unrelated, to horseradish. It has a strong aroma and a sharp, cleansing flavor with herbal overtones that is a bit hotter than that of horseradish. Fresh wasabi is rarely found outs ide Japan, but tins of powder and tubes of paste are readily available. It is commonly served with sushi and sashimi and can be used to add a spicy Asian note to other dishes, such as mashed potatoes or a compound butter.
Herb and Spice Blends
Many cuisines have created recognizable combinations of flavors that are found in a variety of dishes. Although many of these blends are available already prepared for convenience, most can be mixed by the chef as need. (In addition, commercial blends can contain large amounts of salt.) Chinese five-spice powder is a combination of equal parts finely ground Szechuan pepper, star anise, cloves, cinnamon and fennel seeds. This blend is widely used in Chinese and some Vietnamese foods and is excellent with pork and in pates.
Curry powder is a European invention that probably took its name from the Tamil word Kari, meaning "sauce." Created by 19th-century Britons returning from colonial India, it was meant to be the complete spicing for a "curry" dish. There are as many different formulas for curry powder as there are manufacturers, some mild and sweet (Bombay or Chinese style), others hot and pungent (Madras style). Typical ingredients in curry powder are black pepper, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, ginger, mace and turmeric.
Fine herbs are a combination of parsley, tarragon, chervil and chives widely used in French cuisine. The mixture is available dried, or it can be created from fresh ingredients.
Jamaican jerk seasoning is a powdered or wet mixture used on the Caribbean island of the same name made from a combination of spices that typically includes thyme, ground spices such as allspice, cinnamon, cloves, and ginger as well as onions and garlic. Chicken and pork are typically rubbed or marinated in the blend, then grilled .
Herbes de Provence is a blend of dried herbs commonly grown and used in southern France. Commercial blends usually include thyme, rosemary, bay leaf, basil, fennel seeds, savory, and lavender. The herb blend is used with grilled or roasted meat, fish or chicken; in vegetable dishes; on pizza; and eve n in steamed rice and yeast breads.
Italian seasoning blend is a commercially pre pared mixture of dried basil, oregano, sage, mar jo ram, rosemary, thyme, savo1y and other herbs associated with Italian cuisine.
Masala is a flavorful, aromatic blend of roasted and ground spices used in Indian cuisines. A garam masala is a masala made with hot spices (garam means warm or hot). A dry garam masala usually contains peppercorns, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, nutmeg, turmeric, bay leaves and fennel seeds and is added toward the end of cooking or sprinkled on the food just before service. Adding coconut milk, oil or sometimes tamarind water to a dry garam masala makes a wet garam masala. A wet garam masala is typically added at the start of cooking.
Pickling spice, as with other blends, varies by manufacturer. Most pickling spice blends are based on black peppercorns and red chiles, with some or all of the following added: allspice, cloves, ginger, mustard seeds, coriander seeds, bay leaves and dill. These blends are useful in making cucumber or vegetable pickles as well as in stews and soups.
Quatre-epices, literally "four spices” in French and also the French word for allspice, is a peppery mixture of black peppercorns with lesser amounts of nutmeg, cloves and dried ginger. Sometimes cinnamon or allspice is included. Quatre-epices is used in charcuterie and long-simmered stews.
Ras el hanout is a common Moroccan spice blend varying greatly from supplier to supplier. It typically contains 20 or more spices, such as turmeric, cinnamon, cloves, grains of paradise , coriander , cumin , cardamom , peppercorns, dried chiles, dried flower petals and, allegedly, an aphrodisiac or two. It is sold whole and ground by the cook as necessary to flavor stews, rice, couscous, and game dishes.
Seasoned salts are commercially blended products containing salt and one or more natural flavoring ingredients such as garlic, spices or celery seeds and, often, monosodium glutamate.
Storing Herbs and Spices
Fresh herbs should be kept refrigerated at 34°F-4 0°F (2°C-4 °C). Large bouquets can be stored upright, their leaves loosely covered with plastic wrap and their stems submerged in water. Smaller bunches should be stored loosely covered with a clamp towel. You can dry excess fresh herbs for later use in an electric dehydrator. You can also spread them out on baking sheets in a 100°F (38°C) oven.
Dried herbs and spices should be stored in airtight, opaque containers in a cool, dry place. Avoid light and heat, both of which destroy delicate flavors. If stored properly, dried herbs should last for two to three months.
Using Herbs and Spices
Herbs and spices are a simple, inexpensive way to bring individuality and variety to foods. They add neither fat nor sodium and virtually no calories to foods; most contain only 3 to 10 calories per teaspoon.
Although the flavors and aromas of fresh herbs are generally preferred, dried herbs are widely used because they are readily available and convenient. Use less dried herb than you would fresh herb. The loss of moisture strengthens and concentrates the flavor in dried herbs. In general, use only one-half to one-third as much dried herb as fresh in any given recipe. For example, if a recipe calls for 1-tablespoon of fresh basil, substitute only 1-teaspoon of dried basil. More can usually be added later if necessary. The delicate aroma and flavors of fresh herbs is volatile. Most fresh herbs such as chives, parsley, cilantro, basil and tarragon are best when added at the end of cooking.
Spices are often available whole or ground. Once ground, they lose their flavors rapidly, however. Whole spices should keep their flavors for at least six to nine month s if stored properly. Stale spices lose their spicy aroma and develop a bitter or musty aftertaste. Discard them.
Most dried spices need to be added early in order for their flavor to develop during the cooking. Whole spices take the longest; ground spices release their flavor more quickly. In some preparations, Indian curries for example, ground spices are first cooked in oil to release their aromas before being added to a dish. However, some dried spices such as black pepper may become bitter when cooked for an extended period. In uncooked dishes that call for ground spices (for example, salad dressings), the mixture should be allowed to stand for several hours to develop good flavor.
Creating dishes with appealing and complex flavors comes with practice and a solid understanding and appreciation of flavoring ingredients. Although some flavoring combinations are timeless - rosemary with lamb, dill with salmon, nutmeg with spinach, and caraway with rye bread - less common pairings can be equally delicious and far more exciting. Chefs must be willing and ab le to experiment with new flavors. First, they must become familiar with the distinctive flavors and aromas of an herb, spice, condiment, vinegar or the like.
When experimenting, always bearing in mind the following guidelines:
1. Flavorings should not hide the taste or aroma of the primary ingredient. Balance flavoring combinations so as not to overwhelm the palate.
2. Flavorings should not be used to disguise poor quality or poorly prepared products.
3. Flavorings should be added sparingly when foods are to be cooked over an extended time.
4. When reduced during cooking, flavorings can intensify and overpower the dish.
5. Taste and season foods frequently during cooking.
Even in a well-tested recipe, the quantity of flavorings may need to be adjusted because of a change in brands or the condition of the ingredients. A chef should strive to develop his or her palate to recognize and correct subtle variances as necessary.
Salt
Salt is the most basic and universal seasoning. It preserves foods, heightens their flavors and provides the distinctive taste of saltiness. The presence of salt can be tasted easily but not smelled. Salt suppresses bitter flavor, making the sweet and sour ones more prominent. The flavor of salt will not evaporate or dissipate during cooking so it should be added to foods carefully, according to taste. Remember, more salt can always be added to a dish but too much salt cannot be removed nor can its flavor be masked if too much salt has been added.
Culinary or table salt is sodium chloride (NaCl), one of the minerals essential to human life. Salt contains no calories, proteins, fats or carbohydrates. It is available from several sources, each with its own flavor and degree of saltiness. Rock salt, mined from underground deposits, is available in both edible and nonedible forms. It is used in ice cream churns, for thawing frozen sidewalks and, in edible form, in salt mills.
Common kitchen or table salt is produced by pumping water through underground salt deposits, then bringing the brine to the surface to evaporate, leaving behind crystals. Chemicals are usually added to prevent table salt from absorbing moisture and thus keep it free flowing. Iodized salt is commonly used in the United States. The iodine has no effect on the salt's flavor or use; it is simply added to provide an easily available source of iodine, an important nutrient, to a large number of people.
Kosher salt has large, irregular crystals and is used in the "koshering " or curing of meats. It is purified rock salt containing no iodine or additives. It is a perfect substitution for common kitchen salt. Some chefs prefer it to table salt because they prefer its flavor and it dissolves more easily than other salts.
Sea salt is obtained, not surprisingly, by evaporating seawater. The evaporation can be clone naturally by drying the salt in the sun (unrefined sea salt) or by boiling the salty liquid (refined sea salt). Unlike other table salts, unrefined sea salt contains additional mineral salts such as magnesium, calcium and potassium, which give it a stronger, more complex flavor and a grayish-brown color. The region where it is produced can also affect its flavor and color. For example, salt from the Mediterranean Sea will taste different from salt obtained from the Indian Ocean or the English Channel.
Sel gris is a sea salt harvested off the coast of Normandy, France. It is slightly wet and takes its gray color from minerals in the clay from which it is collected. Fleur de sel, which means "flower of salt," is salt that collects on rocks in the sel gris marshes. It forms delicate crystals and has little color because it has not been exposed to the clay.
Some specialty salts are mined from the earth, such as that from the foothills of the Himalayan Mountains. The presence of iron and copper along with other minerals gives Himalayan salt a pink hue and distinct flavor. Black salt, common in traditional Indian recipes, is mined rock salt; minerals and other components in the salt give it a dark color and sulfurous taste. Smoked salt is a type of flavored salt made by smoking the salt over a smoldering fire. It can also be made by adding liquid smoke to a salt solution before it is evaporated.
Sea salt is considerably more expensive than other table salts and is often reserved for finishing a dish or used as a condiment. Because it is nonorganic, salt keeps indefinitely. However, it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, which prevents it from flowing properly. Salt is a powerful preservative; its presence stops or greatly slows down the growth of many undesirable organ isms. Salt is used to preserve meats, vegetables and fish. It is also used to develop desirable flavors in bacon, ham, cheeses and fish products as well as pickled vegetables. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.03%3A_Spices.txt |
Oils are a type of fat that remains liquid at room temperature. Cooking oils are refined from various seeds, plants and vegetables. When purchasing oils, consider their use, smoke point, flavor and cost. Fats, including oils and shortenings, are manufactured for specific purposes such as deep-frying, cake baking, salad dressings and sautéing. Most food service operations purchase different ones for each of these needs. Fats break clown at different temperatures. When fats break down, their chemical structure is altered - the triglyceride molecules that make up fat are converted into individual fatty acids. These acids add undesirable flavors to the fat and can ruin the flavor of the food being cooked. The temperature at which a given fat begins to break down an d smoke is known as its smoke point. Select fats with higher smoke points for high-temperature cooking such as deep-frying and sautéing.
The flavor and cost of each oil must be considerations. For example, both corn oil and walnut oil can be used in a salad dressing. Their selection may depend on balancing cost (corn oil is less expensive) against flavor (walnut oil has a stronger, more distinctive flavor).
Terms:
• smoke point the temperature at which a fat begins to break down and smoke.
• flash point the temperature at which a fat ignites and small flames appear on the surface of the fat.
• shortening (1) a white , flavorless, solid fat formulated for baking or deepfrying; (2) any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten strands.
When fats spoil, they go rancid. Rancidity is a chemical change cause d by exposure to air, light or heat. It results in objectionable flavors and odors. Different fats turn rancid at different rates, but all fats benefit from refrigerated storage away from moisture, light and air. (Some oils are packaged in colored glass container s because certain tints of green and yellow block the damaging light rays that can cause an oil to go rancid.) Although oils may become thick and cloudy under refrigeration, this is not a cause for concern. The oils will return to their clear, liquid states at room temperature. Stored fats should also be covered to prevent them from absorbing odors.
Vegetable oils are extracted from a variety of plants, including corn, cottonseed, peanuts, grape seeds, sesame seeds and soybeans, by pressure or chemical solvents. The oil is then refined and cleaned to remove unwanted colors, odors or flavors. Vegetable oils are virtually odorless and have a neutral flavor. Because they contain no animal products, they are cholesterol-free. If a commercial product contains only one type of oil, it is labeled "pure" (as in "pure corn oil") Products labeled "vegetable oil" are blended from several sources. Products labeled "salad oil" are highly refined blends of vegetable oil.
Canola oil is processed from rapeseeds. Its popularity is growing rapidly because it contains no cholesterol and has a high percentage of monounsaturated fat. Canola oil is useful for frying and general cooking because it has no flavor and a high smoke point.
Nut oils are extracted from a variety of nuts and are usually packaged as a "pure" product, never blended. A nut oil should have the strong flavor and aroma of the nut from which it was processed. Popular examples are walnut and hazelnut oils. These oils are used to give flavor to salad dressings, marinades and other dishes. Heat diminishes their flavor, so nut oils are not recommended for frying or baking. Nut oils tend to go rancid quickly and therefore are usually packaged in small containers.
Olive oil is the only oil that is extracted from a fruit rather than a seed, nut or grain. Olive oil is produced primarily in Spain, Italy, France, Greece and North Africa; California produces a relatively minor amount of olive oil. Like wine, olive oils vary in color and flavor according to the variety of tree, the ripeness of the olives, the type of soil, the climate and the producer’s preferences. Colors range from dark green to almost clear, depending on the ripeness of the olives at the time of pressing and the amount of subsequent refining. Color is not a good indication of flavor, however. Flavor is ultimately a matter of personal preference. A stronger-flavored oil may be desired for some foods, while a milder oil is better for others. Good olive oil should be thicker than refined vegetable oils, but not so thick that it has a fatty texture.
The label designations - extra virgin, virgin and pure refer to the acidity of the oil (a low acid content is preferable) and the extent of processing used to extract the oil. The first cold pressing of the olives results in virgin oil. (The designation "virgin" is used only when the oil is 100% unadulterated olive oil, unheated and without any chemical processing.) Virgin oil may still vary in quality depending on the level of free acidity, expressed as oleic acid. Extra virgin oil is virgin oil with not more than 1% free acidity (oleic acid); virgin oil may have up to 3%. Pure olive oil is processed from the pulp left after the first pressing using heat and chemicals. Pure oil is lighter in flavor and less expensive than virgin oil.
Flavored oils, also known as infused oils, are an interesting and increasingly popular condiment. These oils may be used as a dip for breads, a cooking medium or a flavoring accent in marinades, dressings, sauces or other dishes. Flavors include basil and other herbs, garlic, citrus and spice. Flavored oils are generally prepared with olive oil for additional flavor or canola oil, both considered more healthful than other fats.
Top-quality commercially flavored oils are prepared by extracting aromatic oils from the flavoring ingredients and then emulsifying them with a high-grade oil; any impurities are then removed by placing the oil in a centrifuge. Using the aromatic oils of the flavoring ingredients yields a more intense flavor than merely steeping the same ingredients in the oil. Flavored oils should be stored as you would any other high-quality oil. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.04%3A_Oils.txt |
Strictly speaking, a condiment is any food added to a dish for flavor, including herbs, spices and vinegars. Today, however, condiments more often refer to cooked or prepared flavorings, such as prepared mustards, relishes, bottled sauces and pickles served to accompany foods. We discuss several frequently used condiments here. These staples may be used to alter or enhance the flavor of a dish during cooking, or added to a completed dish at the table.
Chutney (from the Hindi word for catnip) is a pungent relish made from fruits, spices and herbs and is frequently used in Indian cooking.
Fermented black bean sauce is a Chinese condiment and flavoring ingredient made from black soybeans that have been heavily salted, then fermented and either slightly mashed (whole bean sauce) or pureed (paste). Both versions are usually mixed with hoisin, chile sauce or minced garlic to produce a sauce that has an intense, pun gent, salty flavor. Yellow bean sauces are similar, but milder and sweeter.
Fish sauce is the liquid drained from fermenting salted anchovy-like fish. It is a thin, golden to light brown liquid with a very pungent odor and salty flavor. There is no substitute for the savory richness that it acids to food and it is considered an essential flavoring and condiment throughout South east Asia, where it is use d in and served with most every sort of dish.
Ketchup (also known as catsup or catchup) originally referred to any salty extract from fish, fruits or vegetables. Prepared tomato ketchup is really a sauce, created in America and used worldwide as a flavoring ingredient or condiment. It is bright red and thick, with a tangy, sweet-sour flavor. Ketchup can be stored either in the refrigerator or at room temperature; it should keep well for up to four months after opening. Ketchup does not turn rancid or develop mold, but it will dark en and lose flavor as it ages.
Prepared mustard is a mixture of crushed mustard seeds, vinegar or wine and salt or spices. It can be flavored in many ways- with herbs, onions, peppers and even citrus zest. It ca n be a smooth paste or coarse and chunky, depending on how finely the seeds are ground and whether the skins are strained out. Prepared mustard gets its tangy flavor from an essential oil that forms only when the seeds are crushed and mixed with water. Prepared mustard can be used as a condiment, particularly with meat and charcuterie items, or as a flavoring ingredient in sauces, stews and marinades.
Dijon mustard takes its name from a town and the surrounding region in France that produces about half of the world's mustard. French mustard labeled as "Dijon" must by law, be produced ‘only’ in that region. Dijon and Dijon-style mustards are smooth with a rich, complex flavor.
English and Chinese mustards are made from mustard flour and cool water. They are extremely hot and powerful. American or "ballpark" mustard is mild and vinegary with a bright yellow color. Unless it contains a high percentage of oil, mustard never really spoils; its flavor just fades away. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.05%3A_Condiments.txt |
Vinegar is a thin, sour liquid used for thousands of years as a preservative, cooking ingredient, condiment and cleaning solution. Vinegar is obtained through the fermentation of wine or other alcoholic liquid. Bacteria attack the alcohol in the solution, turning it into acetic acid. No alcohol remains when the transformation is complete. The quality of vinegar depends on the quality of the wine or other liquid on which it is based. Vinegar flavors are as varied as the liquids from which they are made.
Vinegars should be clear and clean looking, never cloudy or muddy. Commercial vinegars are pasteurized, so an unopened bottle should last indefinitely in a cool, dark place. Once opened, vinegars should last about three months if tightly capped. Any sediment that develops can be strained out; if mold develops, discard the vinegar.
Wine vinegars are as old as wine itself. They may be made from white or red wine, sherry or even Champagne, and should bear the color and flavor hallmarks of the wine used. Wine vinegars are preferred in French and Mediterranean cuisines.
Malt vinegar is produced from malted barley. Its slightly sweet, mild flavor is used as a condiment, especially with fried foods.
Distilled vinegar, made from grain alcohol, is completely clear with a stronger vinegary flavor and higher acid content than other vinegars. It is preferred for pickling and preserving.
Cider vinegar is produced from unpasteurized apple juice or cider. It is pale brown in color with a mild acidity and fruity aroma. Cider vinegar is particularly popular in the United States.
Rice vinegar is a clear, slightly sweet product brewed from rice wine. Its flavor is clean and elegant, making it useful in a variety of dishes, especially those of Japanese or Asian origin.
Flavored vinegars are simply traditional vinegars in which herbs, spices, fruits or other foods are steeped to infuse their flavors. They are easily produced from commercial wine or distilled vinegars, using any herb, spice or fruit desired.
Inferior flavored vinegars are made by adding the desired flavoring to lowgrade vinegar. The use of flavored vinegars is extremely popular but definitely not new. Clove, raspberry and fennel vinegars were sold on the streets of Paris during the 13th century. Making fruit-flavored vinegars was also one of the responsibilities of housewives during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Balsamic vinegar is newly popular in the United States, though it has been produced in Italy for more than 800 years. To produce traditional balsamic vinegar, reel or white wine made from specially cultivated grapes (white Trebbiano and red Lambrusco grapes among others), is reduced, then aged in a succession of wooden barrels made from a variety of woods-oak, cherry, locust, ash, mulberry and juniper- for at least 4, but sometimes up to 50, years. The resulting liquid is dark reddish-brown and sweet. Balsamic vinegar has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tart flavor, making it very mellow. True balsamic is extremely expensive because of the long aging process and the small quantities available. Most of the commercial products imported from Italy are now made by a quick carmelization and flavoring process. Balsa mic is excellent as a condiment or seasoning and has a remarkable affinity for tomatoes and strawberries.
1.7: Classroom Preparation Assignment - Flavors
Discussion Questions:
1. Define flavor
2. Define tastes
3. Define mouthfeel
4. Define aromas
5. Give an example of something sweet
6. Give an example of something sour
7. Give an example of something bitter
8. Explain briefly umami
9. What is the difference between herbs and spices
10. Give an example of a condiment. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Flavors/1.06%3A_Vinegars.txt |
Thumbnail: Baked Egg Breakfast (Unsplash license; Christian Coquet via Unsplash)
02: Eggs and Breakfast
Learning Objectives
• understand the composition of eggs
• purchase and store eggs properly
• apply various cooking methods to eggs
• prepare pancakes and other griddlecakes
• understand and prepare various beverages served at breakfast and other meals
• offer customers a variety of breakfast foods
According to French culinary lore, the hundred folds in a chef's toque (that tall, pleated hat) represent the hundred ways to cook an egg.
Nature designed eggs as the food source for developing chicks. Eggs, particularly chicken eggs, are also an excellent food for humans because of their high protein content, low cost and ready availability. They are extremely versatile and are used throughout the kitchen, either served alone or as ingredients in a prepared dish. Eggs are used to provide texture, flavor, structure, moisture and nutrition in everything from soups and sauces to breads and pastries.
Egg dishes are, of course, most often associated with the meals breakfast and brunch. But food service operations must offer a variety of breakfast options to appeal to a wide range of consumers.
Composition
Breakfast cookery is often one of the first line positions a new cook will be offered. This important duty requires speed, timing and precision and can help an apprentice or beginning cook develop organized, efficient work habits.
This chapter discusses cooking methods used for eggs as well as breakfast meats, griddlecakes, crepes, cereals and the beverages coffee and tea.
The primary parts of an egg are the shell, yolk and albumen.
• The shell, composed of calcium carbonate, is the outermost covering of the egg. It prevents microbes from entering and moisture from escaping, and protects the egg during handling and transport. The breed of the hen determines shell color; for chickens, it can range from bright white to brown. Shell color has no effect on quality, flavor or nutrition:
• The yolk is the yellow portion of the egg. It constitutes just over one -third of the egg and contains three -fourths of the calories, most of the minerals and vitamins and all the fat. The yolk also contains lecithin, the compound responsible for emulsification in products such as hollandaise sauce and mayonnaise. Egg yolk solidifies (coagulates) at temperatures between 149°F and 158°F (65°C and 70°C). Although the color of a yolk may vary depending on the hen's feed, color does not affect quality or nutritional content.
• The albumen is the clear portion of the egg and referred to as the egg white. It constitutes about two-thirds of the egg and contains more than half of the protein and riboflavin. Egg white coagulates, becoming firm and opaque, at temperatures between 144°F and 149°F (62°C and 65°C).
An often -misunderstood portion of the egg is the chalazae cords. These thick, twisted strands of egg white anchor the yolk in place. They are neither imperfections nor embryos. The more prominent the chalazae, the fresher the egg. Chalazae do not interfere with cooking or with whipping egg whites.
Eggs are sold in Jumbo, Extra Large, Large, Medium, Small and Peewee sizes, as determined by weight per dozen. Food service operations generally use Large eggs, which weigh 24 ounces per dozen. Other sizes are based on plus or minus 3 ounces per dozen; Medium eggs weigh 21 ounces per dozen while Extra Large eggs weigh 27 ounces per dozen.
The yolk is the yellow portion of the egg. It constitutes just over one -third of the egg and contains three -fourths of the calories, most of the minerals and vitamins and all the fat. The yolk also contains lecithin, the compound responsible for emulsification in products such as hollandaise sauce and mayonnaise.
Egg yolk solidifies (coagulates) at temperatures between 149°F and 158°F (65°C and 70°C). Although the color of a yolk may vary depending on the hen's feed, color does not affect quality or nutritional content. The albumen is the clear portion of the egg and is often referred to as the egg white. It constitutes about two-third s of the egg and contains more than half of the protein and riboflavin. Egg white coagulates, becoming firm and opaque, at temperatures between 144°F and 149°F (62°C and 65°C).
An often -misunderstood portion of the egg is the chalazae cords. These thick, twisted strands of egg white anchor the yolk in place. They are neither imperfections nor embryos. The more prominent the chalazae, the fresher the egg. Chalazae do not interfere with cooking or with whipping egg whites.
Eggs are sold in Jumbo, Extra Large, Large, Medium, Small, and Peewee sizes, as determined by weight per dozen. Food service operations generally use Large eggs, which weigh 24 ounces per dozen. Other sizes are based on plus or minus 3 ounces per dozen; Medium eggs weigh 21 ounces per dozen while Extra Large eggs weigh 27 ounces per dozen.
EGG GRADES
Grade AA Grade A Grade B
Remains compact Spreads slightly Spreads over wide area
Clear, thick and firm Clear and reasonably Clear; weak or
prominent chalazae firm; prominent chalazae Watery
Firm; centered; stands Firm; stands fairly enlarged and
round and high; free from defects high; practically free from defects flattened; may show slight defects
Clean; of normal shape; unbroken Slight stains permissible; abnormal shape; unbroken
Any use, especially frying, poaching and cooking in shell Baking; scrambling, used in bulk egg products
*Spread refers to the appearance of the egg when first broken onto a flat surface
Grading
Eggs are graded by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), or a state agency following USDA guidelines. The grade AA, A, or B is given to an egg based on interior and exterior quality, not size. Grade has no effect on nutritional values.
Storage
Improper handling quickly diminishes egg quality. Eggs should be stored at temperatures below 45°F (7°C) and at a relative humidity of 70 to 80 percent. Eggs will age more during one day at room temperature than they will during one week under proper refrigeration. As eggs age, the white becomes thinner and the yolk becomes flatter. Although this will change the appearance of poached or fried eggs, age has little effect on nutrition or behavior during cooking procedures. Older eggs, however, should be used for hard cooking, as the shells are easier to remove than those on fresh eggs are.
Cartons of fresh, uncooked eggs will keep for at least four to five weeks beyond the pack date if properly refrigerated. Hard-cooked eggs left in their shells and refrigerated should be used within one week. Store eggs away from strongly flavored foods to reduce odor absorption. Rotate egg stock to maintain freshness. Do not use dirty, cracked or broken eggs, as they may contain bacteria or other contaminants. Frozen eggs should be thawed in the refrigerator and used only in dishes that will be thoroughly cooked, such as baked products.
Other eggs
When most people refer to an "egg," they mean a chicken's egg. However, other eggs are sometimes used in the kitchen:
• Bantam egg: The egg from a breed of small chicken; it is about half the size of a regular chicken egg and has the same characteristics.
• Duck egg: An egg with an off-white shell and a richer flavor and higher fat content than a chicken's egg; when it is boiled, the white turns bluish and the yolk turns red-orange.
• Goose egg: A white-shelled egg that is four to five times as large as a chicken egg; it also has a somewhat richer flavor.
• Guinea fowl egg: An egg with an ivory shell flecked with brown; its flavor is more delicate than that of a chicken egg.
• Gull egg: An egg whose shell is covered with light to dark brown blotches; it comes in various small sizes and has a slightly fishy flavor.
• Ostrich egg: An egg that is 20 times as large as a chicken egg and has a thick, ivory-colored shell; its flavor is similar to that of a chicken egg.
• Partridge egg: A small egg with a white, buff or olive shell; it has a mild flavor.
• Quail egg: A small egg with a speckled brown shell; it has a rich flavor.
• Turkey egg: A large egg with a brown shell; it has a delicate flavor.
• Turtle egg: A reptile's egg with a soft shell that is buff or speckled; it has a mild, rich flavor.
Sanitation
Eggs are a potentially hazardous food. Rich in protein, they are an excellent breeding ground for bacteria. Salmonella is of particular concern with eggs and egg products because the bacteria are commonly found in a chicken's intestinal tract. Although shells are cleaned at packinghouses, some bacteria may remain. Therefore, to prevent contamination, it is best to avoid mixing a shell with the liquid egg.
Inadequately cooking or improperly storing eggs may lead to food-borne illnesses. USDA guidelines indicate that pasteurization is achieved when the whole egg stays at a temperature of 140°F (60°C) for Y/2 minutes. Hold egg dishes below 40°F (4°C) or above 140°F (60°C). Never leave an egg dish at room temperature for more than one hour, including preparation and service time. Never reuse a container after it has held raw eggs without thoroughly cleaning and sanitizing it.
Egg Products
Food service operations often want the convenience of buying eggs out of the shell in the exact form needed: whole eggs, yolks only or whites only. These processed items are called egg products and are subject to strict pasteurization standards and USDA inspections. Egg products can be frozen, refrigerated or dried. Precooked, pre-portioned, and blended egg products are also available.
Egg Substitution
Concerns about the cholesterol content of eggs have increased the popularity of egg substitutes. There are two general types of substitutes. The first is a complete substitute made from soy or milk proteins. It should not be used in recipes in which eggs are required for thickening. The second substitute contains real albumen, but the egg yolk has been replaced with vegetable or milk products. Egg substitute s have a different flavor from real eggs, but may be useful for people on a restricted diet.
Nutrition
Eggs contain vitamins A, D, E and K, and the B-complex vitamins. They are rich in minerals and contain less cholesterol now than previously. Research indicates that the cholesterol in whole eggs does not affect serum cholesterol as much as was once feared. In fact, the American Heart Association now suggests that it is acceptable to consume up to four egg yolks per week as part of a balanced diet. Egg whites do not contain cholesterol and are often added to egg dishes such as omelets to reduce total fat content.
Whipped White Eggs
Egg whites are whipped into a foam and then incorporated into cakes, custards, soufflés, pancakes, and other products. The air beaten into the egg foam gives products lightness and assists with leavening.
Procedure for Whipping Egg Whites
1. Use fresh egg whites that are completely free of egg yolk and other impurities. Warm the egg whites to room temperature before whipping; this helps a better foam to form.
2. Use a clean bowl and whisk. Even a tiny amount of fat can prevent the egg whites from foaming properly.
3. Whip the whites until very foamy, and then add salt or cream of tartar as directed.
4. Continue whipping until soft peaks form, and then gradually add granulated sugar as directed.
5. Whip until stiff peaks form. Properly whipped egg whites should be moist and shiny; over-whipping will make the egg whites appear dry and spongy or curdled.
6. Use the whipped egg whites immediately. If liquid begins to separate from the whipped egg whites, discard them; they cannot be rewhipped successfully.
Applying Various Cooking Methods
No other food is as popular for breakfast, or as versatile, as the egg. Eggs can be cooked by almost any method. Equally, eggs can be served with a wide array of seasonings, accompaniments and garnishes.
Whatever cooking method is selected, be sure to prepare the eggs carefully: Overcooked eggs and those cooked at too high a temperature will be tough and rubbery. Undercooked eggs may transmit pathogenic bacteria and pose a risk of food-borne illness.
The following cooking methods are those most often used for egg-based dishes. They include dry-heat cooking methods (baking, sautéing and panfrying) and moist-heat cooking methods (in-shell cooking and poaching).
Dry Heat Cooking
Baking
Shirred Eggs
Baked eggs, also referred to as shirred eggs, are normally prepared in individual ramekins or baking dishes. The ramekins can be lined or partially filled with ingredients such as bread, ham, creamed spinach or artichokes. The eggs are often topped with grated cheese, fresh herbs or a sauce. When properly cooked, the egg whites should be set while the yolks are soft and creamy.
Preparation
1. Coat each ramekin with melted butter. Add flavoring ingredients as desired.
2. Break one or two eggs into each ramekin. Do not break the yolks. Season with salt and pepper.
3. Bake the eggs until the white is firm, approximately 12- 15 minutes. Approximately 3- 5 minutes before the eggs are done, add cream or top the eggs with grated cheese , diced ham, fresh herbs or other ingredients as desired.
Sauteing
Scrambled Eggs
Scrambled eggs are eggs whisked with seasonings and then sautéed. They must be stirred nearly constantly during cooking. The finished eggs should be light and fluffy with a tender, creamy texture. A small amount of milk or cream may be added to the eggs to provide a more delicate finished product. Overcooking or cooking at too high a temperature causes the eggs to become tough and rubbery.
Scrambled eggs are often flavored by sautéing other foods (for example), onions, mushrooms or diced ham) in the pan before adding the eggs or by adding other foods (for example, grated cheeses or herbs) to the eggs just before cooking is complete. Suggested additions include finely diced bell peppers, onions, mush rooms, zucchini or tomatoes; cottage cheese or any variety of shredded firm cheese; crumbled bacon; diced ham, turkey or beef; bits of smoked salmon, cooked shrimp or cooked sausage; and fresh herbs.
Scrambled eggs can also be prepared using only egg whites. Because all of an egg's fat is stored in the yolk, no-yolk scrambled egg dishes are lower in fat, cholesterol and calories. Water or nonfat milk can be used in place of whole milk or cream to further reduce the fat and calorie content of the finished dish. Re member that egg whites coagulate at a lower temperature than yolks, so adjust the cooking time and temperature accordingly.
Preparation
1. Break the eggs into a mixing bowl. Season lightly with salt and pepper. Add 1 scant tablespoon (12 milliliters) milk or cream per egg and whisk everything together.
2. Heat a sauté pan, add clarified butter or oil and heat until the fat begins to sizzle.
3. Sauté any additional ingredients in the hot fat.
Frittatas
Frittatas are essentially open -faced omelets of Spanish-Italian heritage. They may be cooked in small pans as individual portions, or in large pans, and then cut into wedges for service. A relatively large amount of hearty ingredients is mixed directly into the eggs.
The eggs are first cooked on the stovetop, and then the pan is transferred to an oven or placed under a salamander or broiler to finish cooking.
Preparation
1. Fully cook any meats and blanch or otherwise prepare any vegetables that will be incorporated into the frittata .
2. Heat a sauté pan and add clarified butter.
3. Whisk the eggs, flavorings and any other ingredients together; pour into the pan.
4. Stir gently until the eggs begin to set. Gently lift cooked egg at the edge of the frittata so that raw egg can run underneath. Continue cooking until the eggs are almost set.
5. Place the pan in a hot oven or underneath a salamander or broiler to finish cooking and lightly brown the top.
6. Slide the finished frittata out of the pan onto a serving platter.
Pan-Frying
Pan-fried eggs are commonly referred to as sunny side up or over easy, over medium or over hard. These are visibly different products produced with proper timing and technique. Very fresh eggs are best for pan-frying, as the yolk holds its shape better and the white spreads less.
Sunny-side-up eggs are not turned during cooking; their yellow yolks remain visible. They should be cooked over medium -low heat long enough to firm the whites and partially firm the yolks: approximately 4 minutes if cooked on a 250°F (120°C) cooking surface.
For "over" eggs, the egg is partially cooked on one side, then gently flipped, and cooked on the other side until done. The egg white should be firm, and its edges should not be brown. The yolk should never be broken regardless of the degree of doneness. Not only is a broken yolk unattractive, but the spilled yolk will coagulate on contact with the hot pan, making it difficult to serve.
For over-easy eggs, the yolk should remain very runny; on a 250°F (120°C) cooking surface, the egg should cook for about 3 minutes on the first side and 2 minutes on the other. Over-medium eggs should be cooked slightly longer, until the yolk is partially set. For over -hard eggs, the yolk should be completely cooked.
Preparation
1. Select a sauté pan just large enough to accommodate the number of eggs being cooked. An 8-inch in diameter pan is appropriate for up to three eggs.
2. Add a small amount of clarified butter and heat until the fat just begins to sizzle.
3. Carefully break the eggs into the pan.
4. Continue cooking over medium-low heat until the eggs reach the appropriate degree of firmness. Sunny-side-up eggs are not flipped during cooking; "over" eggs are flipped once during cooking.
5. When done, gently flip the "over" eggs once again so that the first side is up, then gently slide the cooked eggs out of the pan onto the serving plate.
Basted eggs are a variation of sunny-side-up eggs. Basted eggs are cooked over low heat with the hot butter from the pan spooned over them as they cook. Another version of basted eggs is made by adding 1 to 2 teaspoons (5 to 10 milliliters) water to the sauté pan and then covering the pan. The steam cooks the top of the eggs.
Moist Heating Cooking
In-Shell Cooking (Simmering)
The difference between soft-cooked eggs (also called soft-boiled) and hard-cooked eggs (also called hard-boiled) is time. Both styles refer to eggs cooked in their shell in hot water. Despite the word boiled in their names, eggs cooked in the shell should never be boiled. Boiling toughens eggs and causes discoloration. Instead, the eggs should be simmered. Soft-cooked eggs are usually simmered for 3 to 5 minutes; hard-cooked eggs may be simmered for as long as 12 to 15 minutes. Sometimes it is difficult to remove the shell from very fresh eggs. Eggs that are a few days old are better for cooking in the shell.
Preparation
1. Fill a saucepan or stockpot with sufficient water to cover the eggs. Bring the water to a simmer.
2. Carefully lower each egg into the simmering water.
3. Simmer uncovered for 3 to 5 minutes (soft cooking), depending on the firmness desired.
4. Lift each egg out of the water with a slotted spoon or spider.
5. Crack the large end of the shell carefully and serve immediately.
6. When the eggs are cool enough to handle, peel them and use as desired or cover and refrigerate for up to 5 days.
Poaching
Eggs that are to be poached should always be very fresh. They should also be kept very cold until used, as cold egg whites stay together better when dropped into hot water. The water for poaching eggs should be held at approximately 200°F (90°C), a gentle simmer. Poached eggs should be soft and moist; the whites should be firm enough to encase the yolk completely, but the yolk should still be runny.
Some chefs add salt to the poaching water for flavor; others believe that the salt causes the egg whites to separate. To help the egg whites cling together, add 2-tablespoons (30 milliliters) white vinegar per quart (liter) of water.
Preparation
1. Fill a saucepan or stockpot with at least 3 inches (7.S centimeters) water. Add salt and vinegar if desired.
2. Bring the water to a simmer and hold at a temperature of approximately 200°F (90°C).
3. One at a time, crack the eggs into a small ramekin or cup. If a piece of shell falls into the egg, it should be removed; if the yolk breaks, the egg can be set aside for some other use.
4. Gently slide each egg into the simmering water and cook for 3 to 5 minutes.
5. Lift the poached egg out of the water with a slotted spoon. Trim any ragged edges with a paring knife. Serve immediately.
For quantity service, eggs can be poached in advance and held for up to one day. To do so, cook the eggs as described. As each egg is removed from the hot water, set it in a hotel pan filled with ice water to stop the cooking process. The eggs can then be stored in the ice water until needed. For banquet -style service, all the eggs can be reheated at once by placing the entire pan on the stove top. Alternatively, the eggs can be reheated one or two at a time by placing them in a pan of barely simmering water until they are hot. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Eggs_and_Breakfast/2.01%3A_Eggs.txt |
Breakfast is often an on-the-go, rushed experience; hence the popularity of breakfast sandwiches, jumbo muffins and disposable coffee cups. Brunch, on the other hand, is a leisurely experience, combining breakfast and lunch in to a social occasion. Brunch menus include traditional breakfast foods along with almost anything else. Unlike breakfast, brunch is often accompanied by champagne or other alcoholic beverages and concludes with a pastry or dessert.
Food service operations must offer a variety of breakfast options to appeal to a wide range of consumers. Hotels and resorts may offer a complimentary continental-style breakfast of coffee, juice and sweet rolls; a full-service a la carte dining room; a room service menu and a casual snack bar. The grand hotel Sunday and holiday brunch buffet is an American institution for celebrations and special occasions.
Office, retail, and commercial complexes abound with small shops selling coffee, muffins, bagels and sweet rolls. Coffee houses offering a variety of coffee blends and drinks, pastries, breads and quiche are also popular. Even fastfood facilities have expanded their menus and hours of operation to meet the needs of early-morning diners.
The foods served at breakfast include most of the foods served at other times during the day. A diner’s perceptions of a ‘proper breakfast’ depends on his or her cultural, ethnic, economic and geographic background, as well as sleep patterns and work schedule.
Breakfast menus typically include the following items:
• Coffee, tea or other hot beverages Fruits or fruit juices
• Eggs
• Breads, including sweet breads Cereals and grains
• Potatoes
• Pancakes, waffles and French toast Meats or fish
• Dairy products, including milk, cheese and yogurt
• Although few people could sit down to a breakfast including all of these components even occasionally, most food service operations find it necessary to offer some items from each category in order to meet their customers' expectations.
Breakfast Around the World
In the 21st century, North Americans traveling abroad will more than likely be able to order a breakfast similar to that which they would eat at home. However, in many countries residents still consume their traditional breakfast foods.
• Japan: tea; asa-gohan, morning rice, with side dishes of pickles, dried seaweed, tofu, fish; miso soup
• China: tea; congee, rice porridge, topped with meat, seafood and/or vegetables; you tiao, a type of fried cruller that is dipped in soy milk
• France: cafe au lait; baguette, butter and jam
• Southern Italy/Sicily: coffee granite served in brioche bread
• Australia: tea; steak and eggs; toast
• Egypt: fulmedames, slow cooked beans seasoned with olive oil, lemon and garlic
• India: tea; khichri, a Hindi dish of rice, lentils and spices; appam, a thin rice pancake with spiced meat and vegetables; vada pavs, deep-fried mashed potatoes wrapped in flatbread and seasoned with chutney or chilli powder
• Costa Rica: Coffee or aqua duke, warm water flavored with concentrated sugar cane juice; go/lo pinto, rice and beans with cilantro and onions
• Spain: milk, coffee, rolls and jam; chocolatey churros, hot chocolate with a cinnamon-sugar coated donut
• Greece: Greek coffee or instant coffee with milk; sesame bread; yogurt with honey and/ or fruit
• Eastern Europe/Germany/Holland: coffee or tea; cold cuts; a variety of cheeses and breads
• Argentina: coffee or hot chocolate; facturas, sweet pastries with duke de leche, a paste made with milk and sugar
Breakfast
At other meals, meat is typically the principal food, but at breakfast, it is usually an accompaniment. Breakfast meats tend to be spicy or highly flavored. A hearty breakfast menu may include a small beefsteak (usually sirloin and often pan-fried) or pork chop. Corned beef, roast beef or roast turkey can be diced or shredded, then sautéed with potatoes and other ingredients for a breakfast hash. Fish, particularly smoked products, are also served at breakfast.
However, the most popular breakfast meats are bacon (including Canadian-style bacon), ham and sausages. Bacon can be cooked on a flat griddle or in a heavy skillet or baked on a sheet pan. Regardless of the method used, the cooked bacon should be drained on absorbent paper towels to remove excess fat. Canadian-style bacon is very lean and requires little cooking, although slices are usually sautéed briefly before serving. The round slices may be served like ham and are essential for eggs Benedict. A ham steak is simply a thick slice ideal for breakfast. Fully cooked ham needs to be heated only briefly on a griddle or in a sauté pan before service. The most popular breakfast sausages are made from uncured, uncooked meats. They can be mild to spicy, slightly sweet or strongly seasoned with sage. Breakfast sausage is available in bulk, links or preformed patties. Link sausage is often partially cooked by steam, and then browned by sautéing at service time. It should be drained on absorbent paper towels to remove excess fat before service.
Griddlecakes
Pancakes and waffles are types of griddlecakes or griddle breads. They are usually leavened with baking soda or baking powder and are quickly cooked on a very hot griddle or waffle iron with very little fat. Griddlecakes should be more than just an excuse for eating butter and maple syrup, however. They should have a rich flavor and a light, tender, moist interior.
Pancake and waffle batters may be flavored with tangy buckwheat flour, fruits, whole grains or nuts. Both pancakes and waffles are usually served with plain or flavored butter and fruit compote or syrup. Waffles must be cooked in a special waffle iron, which gives the cakes a distinctive grid-like pattern and a crisp texture. Electric waffle irons are available with square, round and even heart-shaped grids. The grids should be seasoned well, and then never washed. (Follow the manufacturer's directions for seasoning.) Belgian waffles are especially light and crisp because of the incorporation of whipped egg whites and/or yeast. They are often made in a waffle iron with extra deep grids and are served for breakfast or as a dessert, topped with fresh fruit, whipped cream or ice cream.
Crepes
Crepes are thin, delicate, unleavened pancakes. They are made with a very liquid egg batter cooked in a small, very hot sauté pan or crepe pan. Crepe batter can be flavored with buckwheat flour, cornmeal or other grains. Crepes are not eaten plain, but are usually filled and garnished with sautéed fruits, scrambled eggs, cheese or vegetables. Crepes can be prepared in advance, then filled and reheated in the oven.
Blintzes are crepes that are cooked only on one side, then filled with cheese, browned in butter, and served with sour cream, fruit compote or preserves. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Eggs_and_Breakfast/2.02%3A_Breakfast_and_Brunch.txt |
Water, coffee and tea are the staples of most beverage menus. Despite their relatively low price, bottled water or, a good cup of coffee or tea can be extremely important to a customer's impression of a food service operation.
A cup of coffee is often either the very first or the very last item consumed by a customer. Tea, whether iced or hot, is often consumed throughout the meal. Consequently, it is important to learn to prepare and serve these beverages properly. Many varieties of water are now available and some customers prefer these specialty waters to that from the tap. Not only do these beverages complement a meal, they are important profit centers for restaurant owners. Appreciation of the proper preparation and service of these beverages is an important part of a culinary student's training.
Water
At one time in the United States a glass of iced water was more than likely the first thing placed in front of the customer as the menu was presented. The origin of this practice is lost to time; perhaps it was thought that sipping water would ease the waiting time until the food was served. There were also those who believed that water aided digestion. Whatever the reasons, water service has evolved as the preference for bottled water has grown. In other countries, because of suspect local water supplies, if a customer orders water it is usually bottled.
Bottled water is the fastest -growing segment of the beverage industry, in part because of increased health consciousness, in part because of a perception that bottled water is safer. Waters are available from all over the globe, from Australia, France, Fiji, Germany, Italy, Wales and many points between. The list is endless and always growing. All waters imported into the United States are subject to federal regulation.
Types of Water
Bottled water is by definition potable water sold for human consumption and it is subject to FDA regulations. Bottled water comes from a variety of sources such as a municipal water supply, natural spring or well. Spring water originate from an underground source that flows naturally to the earth's surface. Mineral water can come from a spring, a well, or an artesian bore but by definition must contain not less than 250 parts per million total dissolved solids. This level of trace minerals distinguishes such water and frequently contributes to its unique taste.
Bottled water is sold as either still or sparkling, but within these two broad definitions are varieties of subgroups. Many brands offer either a still or sparkling version of their water. The "sparkle" is often achieved by the addition of carbon dioxide, which not only gives the beverage its ‘carbonated’ taste but also prevents spoilage.The more carbonation, the more acidic the taste. Bottled waters are best served lightly chilled and without ice, unless it is requested.
Various types of water
• fluoridated water - water, either naturally fluoridated or treated with a fluorine-containing compound, intended to promote healthy teeth by preventing tooth decay
• hard water - water with relatively high calcium and magnesium concentrations
• mineral water - drinking water that comes from a protected underground water source and contains at least 250 parts per million of total dissolved solids such as calcium
• natural water - bottled drinking water not derived from a municipal water supply; it can be mineral, spring, well or artesian-well water
• purified water - bottled water produced by distillation, reverse osmosis, deionization or suitable processes that meet governmental standards
• seltzer water - a flavorless natural mineral water with carbonation, originally from the German town of Niederselters
• soda water - a flavorless water with induced carbonation, consumed plain or used as a mixer for alcoholic drinks or soda fountain confections; also known as club soda and seltzer
• soft water - water with a relatively high sodium concentration
• spring water - water obtained from an underground source that flows naturally to the earth's surface
Coffee
History of Coffee
Some anthropologists suggest that coffee was initially consumed by central African warriors in the form of a paste made from mashed coffee beans and animal fat rolled into balls. Eaten before battle, the animal fat and bean protein provided nourishment; the caffeine provided a stimulant.
A hot coffee drink may first have been consumed sometime during the ninth century A.D. in Persia. Made by a decoction of ripe beans, the drink was probably very thick and acrid. Nevertheless, by the year 1000, the elite of the Arab world were regularly drinking a decoction of dried coffee beans. The beans were harvested in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and brought to market by Egyptian merchants. Within a century or so, kahwa became immensely popular with members of all strata of Arab society. Coffeehouses opened throughout the Levant, catering to customers who sipped the thick, brown brew while discussing affairs of heart and state.
Although European travelers to the Ottoman Empire had tasted coffee, and a few Arab or Turkish merchants living in Marseilles offered their guests a chance to sample the rare drink, coffee did not become popular in Europe until the 17th century. Its popularity is due in great part to Suleiman Aga, the Grand Panjandrum of the Ottoman Empire. In 1669, he arrived at the court of King Louis XIV of France as ambassador, bringing with him many exotic treasures, including coffee. Offered at his opulent parties, coffee soon became the drink of choice for the French aristocracy.
Coffee became popular in Vienna as a fortune of war. By 1683, the Turks were at the gates of Vienna. A decisive battle was fought, and the Turks fled, leaving behind stores of gold, equipment, supplies and a barely known provision green coffee beans. One of the victorious leaders, Franz George Kolschitzky, recognized the treasure, took it as his own and soon opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna, The Blue Bottle.
Despite its growing popularity, coffee was exorbitantly expensive, in part the result of the sultan's monopoly on coffee beans. His agents, principally in Marseilles, controlled the sale of beans. However, the monopoly was not to survive. By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had stolen coffee plants from Arabia and had begun cultivating them in Java. By the early 18th century, the French had transported seedlings to the West Indies; from there coffee plantations spread throughout the New World.
Coffee begins as the fruit of a small tree grown in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The fruit, referred to as a cherry, is bright red with translucent flesh surrounding two flat-sided seeds. These seeds are the coffee beans. When ripe, the cherries are harvested by hand, then cleaned, fermented and hulled, leaving the green coffee beans. The beans are then roasted, blended, ground and brewed. Note that any coffee bean can be roasted to any degree of darkness; ground to any degree of fineness; and brewed by any number of methods.
Only two species of coffee bean are routinely used: Arabica and Robusta. Arabica beans are the most important commercially and the ones from which the finest coffees are produced. Robusta beans do not produce as flavorful a drink as Arabica. Nevertheless, Robusta beans are becoming increasingly significant commercially, in part because Robusta trees are heartier and more fertile than Arabica trees. The conditions in which the beans are grown have almost as much effect on the final product as subsequent roasting, grinding and brewing. Because coffee takes much of its flavor and character from the soil, sunlight and air, the beans ' origin is critical to the product's final quality.
Each valley and mountain produces coffee distinct from all others, so geographic names are used to identify the beans whether they are from Arabica or Robusta trees. Thus, purveyors may offer beans known as Colombian, Chanchamayo (from Peru), Kilimanjaro (from Tanzania), Blue Mountain (from Jamaica), Java and Sumatra (from Indonesia) or Kona (from Hawaii), to name a few. Although many so-called gourmet coffees are made from a single type of bean, nearly all coffee sold in the United States is a blend of various qualities and types of bean.
Roasting Coffee
Roasting releases and enhances the flavors in coffee. It also darkens the beans and brings natural oils to the surface. Traditionally, almost everyone roasted their own coffee beans because all coffee beans were sold green. Today, however, roasting is left to experts who possess the necessary equipment. It is important to recognize and understand some of the standard descriptions used for various types of roasting. No single international organization controls the naming of roasted coffee, however, so a coffee roaster may refer to products by any name. In general, roasts fall into four categories based on their color-light, medium, medium-dark or dark. The following descriptions are based on the most common terminology:
• City roast: Also called American or brown roast, city roast is the most widely used coffee style in this country. City roast, which is medium brown in color, produces a beverage that may lack brilliance or be a bit flat, yet, it is the roast most Americans assume they prefer because it is the roast most often used in grocery store blends.
• Brazilian: Somewhat darker than a city roast, Brazilian roast should begin to show a hint of dark-roast flavor. The beans should show a trace of oil. In this context, the word Brazilian has no relationship to coffee grown in Brazil.
• Viennese: Also called medium-dark roast, Viennese roast generally falls somewhere between a standard city roast and French roast.
• French roast: French roast, also called New Orleans or dark roast, approaches espresso in flavor without sacrificing smoothness. The beans should be the color of semisweet chocolate, with apparent oiliness on the surface.
• Espresso roast: Espresso roast, also called Italian roast, is the darkest of all. The beans are roasted until they are virtually burnt. The beans should be black with a shiny, oily surface.
Grinding Coffee
Unlike roasting, which is best when left to the experts, the grinding of coffee beans produces the best results when left to the consumer or food service operation. Whole coffee beans stay fresh longer than ground coffee. Ground coffee kept in an airtight container away from heat and light will stay fresh for three or four days. Whole beans will stay fresh for a few weeks and may be kept frozen for several months, as long as they are dry and protected from other flavors. Frozen coffee beans do not need to be thawed before grinding and brewing. Do not refrigerate coffee.
The fineness of the grind depends entirely on the type of coffee maker being used. The grind determines the length of time it takes to achieve the optimum (19%) extraction from the beans. The proper grind is simply whatever grind allows this to happen in the time it takes a specific coffee maker to complete its brewing cycle. Generally, the finer the grind, the more quickly the coffee should be prepared. Follow the directions for your coffeemaker or ask your specialty coffee purveyor for guidance.
Brewing Coffee
Coffee is brewed using one of two methods: decoction or infusion. Decoction means boiling a substance until its flavor is removed. Boiling is the oldest method of making coffee, but is no longer used except in preparing extremely strong Turkish coffee. Infusion refers to the extraction of flavors at temperatures below boiling. Infusion techniques include steeping (mixing hot water with ground coffee), filtering (slowly pouring hot water over ground coffee held in a disposable cloth or paper filter) and dripping (pouring hot water over ground coffee and allowing the liquid to run through a strainer). Percolating is undesirable, as the continuous boiling ruins the coffee's flavor.
The secrets to brewing a good cup of coffee include knowing the exact proportion of coffee to water, as well as the length of time to maintain contact between the two. This varies depending on the type of coffee brewing equipment in use.
Drip Brewing
Drip coffee is commonly made from a machine that operates on the principle of gravity and a filter. Water is placed in a reservoir, heated by an element, and released slowly over the coffee grounds. For drip coffee, the best results are nearly always achieved by using 2-level tablespoons of ground coffee per 3/4-cup (6 fluid ounces) water. (A standard cup of coffee is three -fourths the size of a standard measuring cup; one pound of coffee yields approximately 80 level tablespoons or enough for 40 "cups" of coffee.) An Approved Coffee Measure (ACM) was developed by the Coffee Brewing Institute to measure 2-level tablespoons accurately. ACM scoops are readily available and are often included with retail coffee packages.
Premeasured packages of ground coffee are generally used with commercial brewing equipment. These packages are available in a range of sizes for making single pots or large urns of coffee. If stronger coffee is desired, use more coffee per cup of water, not a longer brewing time. For weaker coffee, prepare regular strength coffee and dilute it with hot water. Never reuse coffee grounds.
Espresso Brewing
Espresso is made with a pump-driven machine that forces hot water through compressed, finely ground coffee. Finely ground coffee to be used in espresso coffee machines is sold in bulk or in premeasured packets, or pods, that enable a consistent level of quality. Espresso measures usually come with a 1-ounce scoop on one side and a 2-ounce scoop on the other. A single serving of espresso uses about 1/4 ounce (7 grams) coffee to 1½ fluid ounces (45 milliliters) water. Americans tend to prefer a larger portion, known as espresso lungo, made with 2 to 3 fluid ounces (60 to 90 milliliters) water. It is important that the espresso be made quickly: If the machine pumps water through the coffee for too long, too much water will be added to the cup and the intense espresso flavor will be ruined. Because the single or double "shot" of espresso forms the foundation of so many beverages, this is an important consideration.
Conditions That Affect the Quality of Brewed Coffee
Most coffees are affected by the quality of the water used to brew them. Many commercial establishments have their machines tied into their water supply, so water quality may be beyond the maker's control. Unless equipment is properly cleaned after use, oils from coffee form an invisible film on the inside of the maker and pots, imparting a rancid or stale flavor to each subsequent batch. Coffeepots and carafes should be cleaned well with hot water between each use; coffee makers should be disassembled and cleaned according to the manufacturer's directions. Calcification on heating elements can also reduce their effectiveness.
Finally, all coffee should be served as soon as it is brewed. Oxidation takes a toll on the aroma and flavor, which soon becomes flat and eventually bitter. Drip coffee may be held for a short time on the coffee maker's hot plate at temperatures of 185°F to 190°F (85°C to 88°C). A better holding method, however, is to immediately pour freshly brewed coffee into a thermal carafe. Never attempt to reheat cold coffee, as drastic temperature shifts destroy flavor.
Tasting Coffee
Coffee is evaluated on four characteristics: aroma, acidity, body and flavor. As a rule, coffee will taste the way it smells. Some coffees, particularly Colombian, are more fragrant than others are, however. Acidity refers to the tartness of the coffee. Acidity is a desirable characteristic that indicates snap, life or thinness. Kenyan and Guatemalan are examples of particularly acidic coffees. Body refers to the feeling of heaviness or thickness that coffee provides on the palate. Sumatran is generally the heaviest, with Mexican and Venezuelan being the lightest. Flavor, of course, is the most ambiguous as well as the most important subjective characteristic.
Serving Coffee
Coffee beverages can be made with specific additions and provide value-added menu alternatives. The most common ways of serving coffee are:
Drip Coffee or Filtered Coffee
Drip or filter coffee is the most common style of coffee served in the United States. It is served unadorned, unsweetened and black (without milk or cream). The customer then adds the desired amount of sweetener and/or milk.
• Black: A plain cup of unsweetened coffee with no milk or cream added.
• Cafe au lait: The French version of the Italian caffe latte, cafe au lait (or cafe crème) is made with strong coffee instead of espresso and hot, not steamed, milk. It is traditionally served in a handle-less bowl.
• Demitasse: A small cup of strong black coffee or espresso; also refers to the small cup in which it is served.
• Iced coffee: Strong coffee served over ice. If desired, it is best to add sweetener before the coffee is poured over ice or shaken. Iced coffee can also be served with milk or cream. In Australia, a dollop of vanilla ice cream is often added. In Vietnam, it is made with a small Vietnamese filter pot using condensed milk as a sweetener. Under no circumstances should leftover coffee be used to make iced coffee.
• After-dinner coffee: Strong coffee with the addition of liquor, liqueurs, or spices, and often sweetened and garnished with whipped cream; examples include Irish coffee, made with Irish whisky, or cafe brullot, made with orange, cloves and brandy.
Espresso
Espresso refers to a unique brewing method in which hot water is forced through finely ground and packed coffee under high pressure. Properly made espresso is strong, rich and smooth, not bitter or acidic. As the coffee drains into the cup it will be golden brown, forming a crema or foam that lies on top of the black coffee underneath. It is important that the small espresso cups be pre-warmed. In Europe, an espresso is often served with a twist of lemon on the saucer and a small glass of water on the side.
Types of Espresso Coffee
• Espresso: A single (shot) or double serving, black served in a demitasse.
• Espresso machiatto: Espresso "marked" with a tiny portion of steamed milk.
• Cappuccino: One -third espresso, one-third steamed milk and one -third foamed milk; the total serving is still rather small, about 4 to 6 ounces (120 to 180 milliliters).
• Caffe latte: One -third espresso and two-thirds steamed milk without foam; usually served in a tall glass.
• Caffe mocha: One-third espresso and two-thirds steamed milk flavored with chocolate syrup; usually topped with whipped cream and chocolate shavings or cocoa.
• Caffe freddo: A double serving of sweetened espresso served chilled with ice or shaken with crushed ice. Can be served with milk or whipped cream, usually in a tall glass.
• Espresso con panna: Espresso with a dollop of whipped cream.
• Espresso corretto: A shot of espresso "corrected" with the addition of liquor such as brandy or liqueur.
• Espresso ristretto: Espresso made with half the water normally used for a regular espresso.
Terms
Barista - Italian for "bartender"; now used to describe someone who has been professionally trained in the art of preparing espresso and espresso-based beverages
Steamed milk - milk that is heated with steam generated by an espresso machine; it should be approximately 150°F to 170°F (66°C to 77°C)
Foamed milk - milk that is heated and frothed with air and steam generated by an espresso machine; it will be slightly cooler than steamed milk.
Any type of milk can be used to make cappuccino, latte and other espresso beverages. Milk with higher fat content will produce a creamier tasting beverage. To froth the milk for these beverages, pour the milk into a jug, and then position it under the steam spout of the espresso machine. Activate the steam control only when the head of the spout is under the surface of the milk. Moving the jug around while keeping the spout under the surface of the milk helps the steam aerate the milk, giving it a consistency resembling frothed cream.
Flavored Coffee
Dried and ground chicory root has long been added to coffee. The French, in particular, enjoy its bitter flavor. Toasted barley, dried figs and spices have also been used by various cultures for years. Coffee s flavored with vanilla, chocolate, liquors, spices and nuts have recently become popular in the United States. These flavors are added to roasted coffee beans by tumbling the beans with special flavoring oils. The results are strongly aromatic flavors such as vanilla, hazelnut, chocolate raspberry or maple walnut.
Decaffeinated Coffee
Caffeine is an alkaloid found in coffee beans (as well as in tea leave s and cocoa beans). It is a stimulant that can improve alertness or reduce fatigue. In excess, however, caffeine can cause some people to suffer palpitations or insomnia. Regular filtered coffee contains 85 to 100 milligrams of caffeine per cup. Robusta beans contain more caffeine than the better-quality Arabica beans. Decaffeinated coffee (with 97 percent or more of the caffeine removed) is designed to meet consumer desires for a caffeine-free product.
Coffee - Other Uses
In addition to its use as a beverage, coffee is also used in stews, sauces and pan gravy. It may be added to breads (such as rye and pumpernickel), cakes, custards, ice creams, dessert sauces and frostings. The flavor of coffee has a strong affinity for chocolate, nuts and rum.
Tea, Tisanes, and Related Beverages
Tea and tisanes are made from dried leaves, herbs, spices, flowers or fruits that are prepared by infusion, which is, steeping in fresh boiling water. Tea is the beverage of choice for more than half the world's population and may be served hot or cold. Eighty-five percent of the tea consumed in the United States is iced, a uniquely American preference. Tisanes, or herbal infusions, have long been popular for their perceived health benefits and healing properties in Europe and Asia. As customers in the United States have become familiar with herbal teas, demand for them is growing.
Tea
Tea is the name given to the leaves of Camellia sinensis, a tree or shrub that grows at high altitudes in damp tropical regions. Although tea comes from only one species of plant, there are three general types of tea- black, green and oolong. The differences among the three are the result of the manner in which the leaves are treated after picking.
Tea Varieties
Black tea is amber-brown and strongly flavored. Its color and flavor result from fermenting the leaves. Black tea leaves are named, or graded, by the size of the leaf.
Because larger leaves brew more slowly than smaller ones, teas are sorted by leaf size for efficient brewing. Souchong denotes large leave s, pekoe denotes medium-sized leaves and orange pekoe denotes the smallest whole leaves. (Note that orange pekoe does not refer to any type of orange flavor.) Broken tea , graded as either broken orange pekoe or broken pekoe, is smaller, resulting in a darker, stronger brew. Broken tea is most often used in tea bags. These grades apply to both Chinese and Indian black teas.
Green tea is yellowish -green in color with a bitter flavor. Leaves used for green tea are not fermented. Chinese green tea leaves are also graded according to leaf size and age. The finest green tea is Gunpowder, followed by Imperial and Hyson.
Oolong tea is partially fermented to combine the characteristics of black and green teas. Oolong is popular in China and Japan, often flavored with jasmine flowers. Oolong tealeaves are also graded by size and age. As with coffee, tea takes much of its flavor from the geographic conditions in which it is grown. Teas are named for their place of origin- for example, Darjeeling, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) or Assam.
Many popular and commercially available teas are actually blends of leaves from various sources. Blended and unblended teas may also be flavored with oils, dried fruit, spices, flowers or herbs; they are then referred to as flavored teas. Spices such as allspice, cinnamon, nutmeg and black pepper are often used to create teas flavored for cold-weather drinking. Bright herbs such as mint and citrus rind or oil, especially bergamot, which gives Earl Grey tea its flavor, add complexity to brewed teas and are popular additions.
Tea Flavors
Tea can be described according to three key characteristics: astringency or briskness, body and aroma. Astringency is not bitterness, which is undesirable, but a sharp, dry feeling on the tongue that contributes to the refreshing taste of a tea. Body refers to the feeling of thickness on the tongue. Teas range from light to full-bodied. Aronia is the smell and flavors of the tea when brewed.
Black Teas
• Assam - A rich black tea from northeastern India with a reddish color. It is valued by connoisseurs, especially for breakfast.
• Ceylon - A full-flavored black tea with a golden color and delicate fragrance. Ideal for serving iced, it does not become cloudy when cold. Darjeeling the champagne of teas, grown in the foothills of the Himalayas in northeastern India. It is a full-bodied, black tea with a Muscat flavor.
• Earl Grey - blend of black teas, usually including Darjeeling, flavored with oil of bergamot. A popular choice for afternoon tea.
• English Breakfast - An English blend of Indian and Sri Lankan black teas; it is full-bodied and robust, with a rich color.
• Keemum - A mellow black Chinese tea with a strong aroma. It is less astringent than other teas and is delicious iced.
• Lapsang Souchong - A large-leafed (souchong) tea from the Lapsang district of China. It has a distinctive tarry, smoky flavor and aroma, appropriate for afternoon tea or dinner.
Green Teas
• Gunpowder - A green Chinese tea with a tightly curled leaf and gray-green color. It has a pungent flavor and a light straw color. It is often served after the evening meal.
• Sencha (common) - A delicate Japanese green tea that has a light color with a pronounced aroma and a bright, grassy taste.
• White tea - A delicate green tea made from new buds picked before they open. Allowed to wither so that natural moisture evaporates, these leaves are lightly dried to a pale silvery color. White tea has a subtle flavor.
Oolong Teas
• Formosa Oolong - A unique and expensive large -leafed oolong tea with the flavor of ripe peaches. It is appropriate for breakfast or afternoon tea.
Variety of cups of brewed tea (from left): Chinese tea, Japanese tea, Moroccan mint tea and black tea with milk
Tisanes (Herb Teas)
Tisanes are herbal infusions that do not contain any "real" tea. They are commonly made from fresh or dried flowers, herbs, seeds or roots; chamomile, ginseng, linden flowers and lemon balm are among the more popular tisanes. In most countries, there is a tradition of indigenous herbal medicine often administered in an infused form, as a tea. In Europe, a tisane may be served after a meal to aid digestion or taken before bed as an aid to sleep. (Herbal teas usually contain no caffeine, so they do not act as stimulants.) In the United States, herbal teas are gaining in popularity, but not for the first time: During the American Revolution herbal teas became known as "Liberty teas." In a professional food service establishment, herbal teas are prepackaged blends and require no mixing. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Eggs_and_Breakfast/2.03%3A_Beverages.txt |
Shirred Eggs with Ham
Makes 1 serving
Shirred eggs (also known as baked eggs) is a dish in which eggs have been baked in a flat-bottomed dish; the name originates from the type of dish in which it was traditionally baked. It is considered a simple and reliable dish that can be easily varied and expanded upon. An alternative way of cooking is to crack the eggs into individual ramekins and cook them in a water bath, creating the French dish, eggs en cocotte.
Recipe
Equipment:
• Measuring spoons
• Scale
• Box grater
• Ramekins (white ceramic in dry storage)
Ingredients:
• 2 tablespoons whole butter, melted
• 2 thin slices ham (about 1/2 ounce)
• 2 eggs
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 1 tablespoon warm, heavy cream
• 1 tablespoon grated Swiss cheese
• Splash of dry sherry
Procedure:
1. Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
2. Brush the interior of the ramekin with melted butter. Line the ramekin with the slice of ham. Break the eggs into a cup and slide them carefully into the ramekin on top of the ham. Season with salt and pepper.
3. Put the ramekins on a half-sheet pan lined with parchment paper. Bake until the eggs begin to set, 8 to 10 minutes, Remove from the oven, then add the warm cream and cheese. Splash with sherry and return to the oven and bake until the eggs are cooked and the cheese is melted.
4. The yolks should still be "jiggly" and not cooked "hard." Serve hot.
Quiche Lorraine
Makes 1 quiche to serve 6
Quiche Lorraine is a popular variant that was originally an open pie with a filling of custard with smoked bacon or lardons (pieces of pork fat). It was only later that cheese was added to the quiche Lorraine.
The origin of quiche Lorraine comes from Alsace/Lorraine (a region of France) and the original quiche Lorraine had a rustic style: it was cooked in a cast-iron pan and the pastry edges were not crimped. Today, quiche Lorraine is served throughout France and has a modern look with a crimped pastry crust. In France, the version is unlike that served in the United States; the bacon is cubed, no onions are added and the custard base is thicker.
Baking blind (sometimes called pre-baking) is the process of baking a piecrust or other pastry without the filling. Blind baking a piecrust is necessary when it will be filled with an unbaked filling (such as with pudding or cream pies), in which case the crust must be fully baked.
Recipe
Equipment:
• Pie or quiche pan
• Scale
• Box grater
• Fork
• Measuring cups
Ingredients:
• 4 ounces bacon, diced
• 2 ounces Swiss or Gruyere cheese, shredded
• 1 (10-inch) pie crust (prick the pie crust with the tines of a fork)
• (Beans for blind baking-in dry storage)
• 4 eggs
• 1 3/4 cups milk
• 4 fluid ounces heavy cream
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper (to taste)
• Pinch of nutmeg
Procedure:
1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
2. Fry the bacon in a small skillet until crispy. Drain on paper towels and set aside. (Set aside the bacon grease until it cools, and then dispose.)
3. Place the piecrust on a baking sheet and put a piece of parchment paper on top of the piecrust, pressing down lightly. Arrange a layer of dried beans evenly over the paper. Bake until the edges of the crust is lightly browned, about 12 minutes. Remove the crust from the oven and cool for a minute or two. Carefully grasp the corners of the parchment and lift the weights out of the piecrust. Allow the piecrust to cool for about 5 minutes.
4. Arrange the bacon and cheese in the piecrust.
5. To make the custard, combine the eggs, milk, and cream and season with salt, pepper and nutmeg. Pour the custard over the bacon and cheese and bake until the custard sets and is golden brown, about 1 hour. *The center should be a little "jiggly" but it will set as it cools. (Residual heat)
6. Remove from the oven and cool for about 10 minutes before cutting into wedges to serve. (A pizza cutter can be used to cut, then lift out with a small spatula.)
Ham and Cheese Omelet
Makes 1 servings
Equipment and Ingredients Needed
Equipment:
• Scale
• Box grater
• Small mixing bowl
• Non-stick medium-size skillet
• Fork
Ingredients:
• 3 eggs
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste
• 1 tablespoon butter
• 1/2 ounce diced ham
• 1 tablespoon chopped green onions or chives, plus more for garnish
• 2 tablespoons shredded cheddar
Procedure:
1. In a small bowl, combine the eggs and season with salt and pepper. Whisk the eggs together (use a fork) until frothy--we want to get some air in there).
2. Melt the butter in a small to medium non-stick skillet over medium-high heat. Add the ham and cook, stirring, until just heated through.
3. Carefully pour the eggs into the skillet. Stir the eggs gently as they cook. Stop when they begin to set. Lift the edges as the omelet cooks to allow the raw eggs to run underneath.
4. When the eggs are nearly set, add the green onions (or chives) and cheese, and gently fold the front of the egg over and roll the omelet onto a plate. Serve warm.
5. Garnish with green onions or chives. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Eggs_and_Breakfast/2.04%3A_Egg_Based_Recipes.txt |
The term vegetable refers to any herbaceous plant that can be partially or, wholly eaten. An herbaceous plant has little or no woody tissue. The portions we consume include the leaves, stems, roots, tubers, seeds and flowers. Vegetables contain more starch and less sugar than fruits. Therefore, vegetables tend to be savory, not sweet. Also unlike fruits, vegetables are most often eaten cooked, not raw.
03: Vegetables
Learning Objectives
• Identify a variety of vegetables
• Purchase vegetables appropriate for your needs
• Store vegetables properly
• Understand how vegetables are preserved
• Prepare vegetables for cooking or service
• Apply various cooking methods to vegetables
Long overcooked and underrated, vegetables are enjoying a welcome surge in popularity. Gone are the days when a chef included vegetables as an afterthought to the "meat and potatoes" of the meal. Now properly prepared fresh vegetables are used to add flavor, color and variety to almost any meal.
Many restaurants are featuring vegetarian entrees, an extensive selection of vegetable side dishes or an entire vegetarian menu. This trend reflects the demands of more knowledgeable and health-conscious consumers as well as the increased availability of high-quality fresh produce.
The term vegetable refers to any herbaceous plant that can be partially or, wholly eaten. An herbaceous plant has little or no woody tissue. The portions we consume include the leaves, stems, roots, tubers, seeds and flowers. Vegetables contain more starch and less sugar than fruits. Therefore, vegetables tend to be savory, not sweet. Also unlike fruits, vegetables are most often eaten cooked, not raw.
MASTER CLASSES – VIDEO ON ASPARAGUS
Two chefs
Two preparations
Two cooking methods
Thomas Keller and Gordon Ramsey: https://www.masterclass.com/homepage
3.02: Cabbages
The Brassica or cabbage family includes a wide range of vegetables used for their heads, flowers or leaves. They are generally quick-growing, cool-weather crops. Many are ancient plants with unknown origins. They are inexpensive, readily available and easy to prepare.
Bok Choy
Bok choy, also known as ‘pok choy’, is a white-stemmed variety of southern Chinese cabbage. The relatively tightly packed leaves are dark green, with long white ribs attached at a bulbous stem. The stalks are crisp and mild with a flavor similar to romaine lettuce. Although bok choy may be eaten raw, it is most often stir-fried or used in soups.
Select heads with bright white stalks and dark green leaves; avoid those with brown, moist spots. Fresh bok choy is available all year. Jars of pickled and fermented bok choy (known as Korean kimchee) are also available.
Broccoli
Broccoli, a type of flower, has a thick central stalk with grayish-green leaves topped with one or more heads of green florets. Broccoli may be eaten raw or steamed, microwaved or sautéed and served warm or cold. Broccoli stalks are extremely firm and benefit from blanching. Stems are often slow-cooked for soups. Generally, broccoli leaves are not eaten.
• Select firm stalks with compact clusters of tightly closed dark green florets. Avoid stalks with yellow flowers. Broccoli is available all year.
Brussel Sprouts
Brussels sprouts) were first cultivated around 1700. The plant produces numerous small heads arranged in neat rows along a thick stalk. The tender young sprouts are similar to baby cabbages and are usually steamed or roasted. Brussels sprouts have a strong, nutty flavor that blends well with game, ham, duck or rich meats.
• Select small, firm sprouts that are compact and heavy. The best size is 3/4 to 11/ 2 inches (2 to 4 centimeters) in diameter. They should be bright green and free of blemishes. Their peak season is from September through February.
Cauliflower
Cauliflower is the king of the cabbage family. Each stalk produces one flower or head surrounded by large green leaves. The head, composed of creamy white florets, can be cooked whole or cut into separate florets for steaming, blanching or stir-frying.
• Select firm, compact heads. Any attached leaves should be bright green and crisp. A yellow color or spreading florets indicate that the vegetable is overly mature. Cauliflower is available all year, especially from the late fall through the spring.
Head Cabbages (Green and Red)
Cabbage has been a staple of northern European cuisine for centuries. The familiar green cabbage has a large, firm, round head with tightly packed pale green leaves. Flat and cone-shaped heads are also available. Red (or purple) cabbage is a different strain and may be tougher than green cabbage. Cabbage can be eaten raw (as in coleslaw), or used in soups or stews; it can be braised, steamed or stir-fried. The large, waxy leaves can also be steamed until soft, and then wrapped around a filling of seasoned meat.
• Select firm heads without dried cores. Cabbages are available all year.
Kale
Kale has large ruffled, curly or bumpy leaves. Its rather bitter flavor goes well with rich meats such as game, pork or ham. Kale is typically prepared boiled, stuffed, or used in soups.
Select leaves that are crisp, with a grayish-green color. Kale is available all year; its peak season is during the winter months. Ornamental or flowering kale, sometimes marketed as "savoy," is edible, but its pink, purple, yellow or white -and-green variegated leaves are best used for decoration and garnish.
Kohlrabi
Although it looks rather like a round root, kohlrabi is actually a bulbous stem vegetable created by crossbreeding cabbages and turnips. Both the leaves (which are attached directly to the bulbous stem) and the roots are generally removed before sale. Depending on the variety, the skin may be light green, purple or green with a hint of red. The interior flesh is white, with a sweet flavor similar to that of turnips. (Kohlrabi can be substituted for turnip in many recipes.) Younger plants are milder and tenderer than large, mature ones. The outer skin must be removed from mature stems; young stems need only to be well scrubbed before cooking. Kohlrabi can be eaten raw, or it can be cooked (whole, sliced or diced) with moist-heat cooking methods such as boiling and steaming. Kohlrabi can be hollowed out and stuffed with meat or vegetable mixtures.
• Select small, tender stems with fresh, green leaves. Peak season for kohlrabi is from June through September.
Napa Cabbage
Napa cabbage, also known as Chinese cabbage, is widely used in Asian cuisines. It has a stout, elongated head with relatively tightly packed, firm, pale green leaves. It is more moist and more tender than common green and red cabbages, with a milder, more delicate flavor. Napa cabbage may be eaten raw but is particularly well suited for stir- frying or steaming.
• Select heads with crisp leaves that are free of blemishes. Napa cabbage is available fresh all year.
Savoy
Savoy cabbage has curly or ruffled leaves, often in variegated shades of green and purple. (The term savoy is used to refer to any vegetable with bumpy, wavy or wrinkled leaves.) Savoy cabbage tends to be milder and more tender than regular cabbages and can be substituted for them, cooked or uncooked. Savoy leaves also make an attractive garnish.
• Select heads that are loose or tight, depending on the variety, with tender, unblemished leaves. Peak season is from August through the spring. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.01%3A_Introduction_to_Vegetables.txt |
Botanists classify avocados, eggplants, peppers and tomatoes as fruits because they develop from the ovary of flowering plants and contain one or more seeds. Chefs, however, prepare and serve them like vegetables; therefore, they are discussed here.
Avocados
Avocados include several varieties of pear-shaped fruits with rich, high-fat flesh. This light golden-green flesh surrounds a large, inedible, oval-shaped seed (pit). Some varieties have smooth, green skin; others have pebbly, almost black skin. Avocados should be used at their peak of ripeness, a condition that lasts only briefly. Firm avocados lack the desired flavor and creamy texture. Ripe avocados should be soft to the touch but not mushy. Ripe Haas avocados have almost black skins; the skins of the other varieties remain green when ripe. Firm avocados can be left at room temperature to ripen and then refrigerated for one or two days. Avocados are generally used raw to garnish salads, mashed or pureed for sauce s, sliced for sandwiches or diced for omelets. Avocado halves are popular containers for chilled meat, fish, and shellfish or poultry salads. Because avocado flesh turns brown very quickly once cut, dip avocado halves or slices in lemon juice and keep unused portions tightly covered with plastic wrap.
• Select avocados that are free of blemishes or moist spots. The flesh should be free of dark spots or streaks. Available all year, the peak season for Haas avocados is April through October; for Fuertes avocados, it is November through April.
Eggplants
Two types of eggplants (Fr. Aubergine) are commonly available: Asian and western. Asian varieties are either round or long and thin, with skin colors ranging from creamy white to deep purple. Western eggplants, which are more common in the United States, tend to be shaped like a plump pear with a shiny lavender to purple-black skin. Both types have a dense, khaki-colored flesh with a rather bland flavor that absorbs other flavors well during cooking. Eggplants can be grilled, baked, steamed, fried or sautéed. They are commonly used in Mediterranean and Indian cuisines (especially in vegetarian dishes), but also appear in European and North American dishes. The skin may remain intact, or removed before or after cooking. Sliced eggplants may be salted and left to drain for 30 minutes to remove moisture and bitterness before cooking.
• Select plump, heavy eggplants with a smooth, shiny skin that is not blemished or wrinkled. Asian varieties tend to be softer than western. Eggplants are available all year; their peak season is during the late summer.
Eggplant - to salt or not salt?
Eggplants are filled with cells that contain water and are surrounded by tiny air pockets. The presence of heat will squeeze the air out of the pockets. If the eggplant has not been salted, oil is then free to seep into these pockets and the eggplant becomes soggy when fried. But when salt is sprinkled on an eggplant, it draws the water out of the cells. The cells then collapse, which in turn makes the air pockets collapse. As a result, no oil can seep into the tiny pockets during the frying process.
Peppers
Members of the Capsicum family are native to the New World. When "discovered" by Christopher Columbus, he called them "peppers" because of their sometimes-fiery flavor. These peppers, which include sweet peppers and hot peppers (chiles), are unrelated to peppercorns, the Asian spice for which Columbus was actually searching. Interestingly, New World peppers were readily accepted in Indian and Asian cuisines, in which they are now considered staples.
One can find fresh peppers in a wide range of colors - green, red, yellow, orange, purple and white - as well as shapes, from tiny teardrops to cones to spheres. They have dense flesh and a hollow central cavity. The flesh is lined with placental ribs (the white internal veins), to which tiny yellowish -white seeds are attach ed. A core of seeds is also attached to the stem end of each pepper.
Chile peppers get their heat from capsaicin, which is found not in the flesh or seeds, but in the placental ribs. Thus, a pepper's heat can be greatly reduced by carefully removing the ribs and attached seeds. Generally, the smaller the chile, the hotter it is. The amount of heat varies from variety to variety, how ever, and even from one pepper to another depending on growing conditions. Hot, dry conditions result in hotter peppers than do cool, moist conditions.
When selecting peppers, choose those that are plump and brilliantly colored with smooth, unblemished skins. Avoid wrinkled, pitted or blistered peppers. A bright green stem indicates freshness. The searing heat of a Scotch bonnet or habanero can burn. Wearing gloves is recommended when working with these chile peppers.
Sweet Peppers
Common sweet peppers, known as bell peppers, are thick -walled fruits available in green, red, yellow, purple, orange and other colors. They are heartshaped or boxy, with a short stem and crisp flesh. Their flavor is warm, sweet (red peppers tend to be the sweetest) and relatively mild. Raw bell peppers may be sliced or diced and used in salads or sandwiches. Bell peppers can also be stuffed and baked, grilled, fried, sautéed or pureed for soups, sauces or condiments. Green bell peppers are available all year; other colors are more readily available during the summer and fall.
Hot Peppers
Hot peppers, also known as chiles, are also members of the Capsicum family. Although a chile's most characteristic attribute is its pungency, each chile actually has a distinctive flavor, from mild and rich to spicy and sweet to fiery hot. Chiles are commonly used in Asian, Indian, Mexican and Latin American cuisines. The larger (and milder) of the hot peppers, such as Anaheim and poblano, can be stuffed and baked or sautéed as a side dish. Most chiles, however, are used to add flavor and seasoning to sauces and other dishes. Fresh chiles are available all year and are also available canned in a variety of processed forms such as whole or diced, roasted, pickled or marinated.
Dried chiles are widely used in Mexican, Central America n and southwestern cuisines. They can be ground to create a powdered spice called chilli, or soaked in a liquid and then pureed for sauces or condiments. Drying radically alters the flavor of chiles, making them stronger and more pungent. Just as one type of fresh chile cannot be substituted for another without altering a dish's flavor, so too dried chiles cannot be substituted without flavor changes.
Choose dried chiles that are clean and unbroken, with some flexibility. Avoid any with white spots or a stale aroma. Drying changes not only the pepper's flavor, but also its name. Regional variations in chile names also add to the confusion. Several of the more frequently encountered chiles are listed here according to the names most commonly used for both their fresh and dried forms.
Fresh (Fresco) Dried (Seco)
Anaheim Mild red or California
Ancho Ancho or pastilla
Chilaca Pastilla or negro
Jalapeno Chipotle (smoked)
Mirasol Guajillo
New Mexico green New Mexicored
New Mexico red Chile Colorado
Pimento Paprika
Poblano Mulato
Tomatillos
Tomatillos, also known as Mexican or husk tomatoes, grow on small, weedy bushes. They are bright green, about the size of a small tomato, and are covered with a thin, papery husk. They have a tart, lemony flavor and crisp, moist flesh. Although they are an important ingredient in southwestern and northern Mexican cuisines, tomatillos may not be readily available in other areas. Tomatillos can be used raw in salads, pureed for salsa or cooked in soups, stews or vegetable dishes.
• Select tomatillos whose husks are split, but still look fresh. The skin should be plump, shiny and slightly sticky. They are available all year; their peak season is during the summer and fall.
Tomatoes
Tomatoes (Fr. Tomate or pomme d'amour; It. pomodoro) are available in a wide variety of colors and shapes. They vary from green (unripe) to golden yellow to ruby red; from tiny spheres (currant tomatoes) to huge, squat ovals (beefsteak). Some, such as the plum tomato, have lots of meaty flesh with only a few seeds; others, such as the slicing tomato, have lots of seeds and juice, but only a few meaty membranes. All tomatoes have a similar flavor, but the levels of sweetness and acidity vary depending on the species, growing condition s and ripeness at harvest.
Because tomatoes are highly perishable, they are usually harvested when mature but still green (unripe), then shipped to wholesalers who ripen them in temperature- and humidity-controlled rooms. The effect on flavor and texture is unfortunate. Tomatoes are used widely in salads, soups, sauces and baked dishes. They are generally eaten raw, but can be grilled, pickled, pan-fried, roasted, or sautéed as a side dish.
• Select fresh tomatoes that are plump with a smooth, shiny skin. The color should be uniform and true for the variety. Tomatoes are available all year; most varieties have a summer peak season. Many canned tomato products are also available such as puree, paste, sauce, or stewed whole). Sun-dried and air-dried tomatoes are available in crumbs, pieces, slivers, or halves, dry or packed in oil. The dry-pack version can be soaked in oil or steeped in hot water to soften before use. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.03%3A_Fruits-Vegetables.txt |
Baked Broccoli Custards
Makes 6 individual servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Scale
Measuring spoons
Measuring cups (both dry and liquid)
Box grater
Ingredients:
• 1 1/2 pounds broccoli, cut into florets (about 8 cups)
• 3 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
• Coarse salt and freshly ground pepper
• 3 tablespoons unsalted butter
• 3 tablespoons all-purpose flour
• 3 cups whole milk
• 2 tablespoons coarsely grated Parmigiano-Reggiano
• Pinch of freshly grated nutmeg
• 1 ½ cups finely grated Gruyere (about 4 ounces)
Procedures:
1. Preheat oven to 425 degrees. On a rimmed baking sheet, toss broccoli with oil. Season with salt and pepper. Spread in a single layer and roast, turning once, until golden and crisp, about 15 minutes. BE CAREFUL not to burn.
2. Reduce oven temperature to 325 degrees. Melt butter in a medium saucepan over medium-high heat. Add flour and cook, stirring, 1 minute. Add milk, whisking until mixture just comes to a simmer. Gently simmer, stirring constantly, until mixture is thickened slightly, about 12 minutes.
3. Remove from heat; stir in Parmigiano-Reggiano, nutmeg, and 1/2 cup Gruyere. Season with salt and pepper.
4. Divide broccoli among six 8-ounce gratin dishes. Pour cream mixture over vegetables. Sprinkle with remaining 1 cup Gruyere.
5. Place gratin dishes on a rimmed baking sheet lined with parchment paper. Bake until bubbly and golden brown in spots, 23 to 25 minutes. Cool slightly before serving.
Cabbage Casserole
Makes 8 to 10 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Scale
Measuring spoons
Dry measuring cups
Can opener
Box grater
Casserole dish
Ingredients:
• 1 pound sweet Italian sausage (either in bulk or in casings – if using the cased – remove from casing and break into small chunks
• 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
• 1 ½ cups thinly sliced yellow onions
• 1 (10-ounce) can tomatoes with green chilies (mild)
• 2 large heads cabbage, cored and coarsely chopped
• Salt, black pepper and cayenne, to taste
• ½ pound Gruyere or Fontina cheese, grated
Procedures:
1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
2. Brown the sausage pork in the oil over medium-high heat in a large saucepan. Add the onions and tomatoes with chilies, and cook, stirring often, for 10 minutes or until tomatoes are soft.
3. Add the cabbage and season with salt, black pepper and cayenne. Reduce the heat to low and simmer, covered, until the cabbage is tender, about 20 minutes.
4. Transfer to a casserole dish and top with the cheese. Bake until the cheese is melted and bubbly, about 15 minutes.
Caramelized Brussels Sprouts with Pancetta
Makes 10 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Scale
Measuring spoons
Measuring cups
Colander
Ingredients:
• 3 pounds Brussels sprouts, trimmed
• ½ cup extra-virgin olive oil
• 5 shallots
• 3 ounces thickly sliced pancetta, cut into 1/4-inch dice
• Kosher salt
• Freshly ground black pepper
• 1/4 cup oil-packed sun-dried tomatoes, drained and chopped
Procedures:
1. Bring a large pot of salted water to a boil.
2. Add the sprouts and cook until just slightly tender, about 5 minutes.
3. Drain, pat dry with paper towels and cut each in half lengthwise.
4. Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a large skillet over medium-low heat.
5. Add the shallots and cook, stirring, until lightly browned, about 10 10 minutes.
6. Transfer to a bowl.
7. Add the remaining oil and add the sprouts, cut-side down and the pancetta. Add the remaining 1/4 cup of oil to the skillet.
8. Add the Brussels sprouts, cut side down, and the pancetta.
9. Season with salt and pepper, and cook over medium-high heat, stirring occasionally until the spouts are lightly browned and tender, about 10 minutes.
10. Add the sun-dried tomatoes and the shallots, and cook, stirring, until warmed through, about 5 minutes. Adjust seasoning and serve warm.
Cauliflower Cheese and Macaroni
Makes 6 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Measuring spoons
Liquid measuring cups
Dry measuring cups
Colander
Ingredients:
• 3 tablespoons salted butter, plus more for greasing
• 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
• 1 tablespoon Dijon mustard
• 2 cups whole milk
• 1 cup shredded sharp cheddar cheese (or smoked Gouda)
• Salt
• Freshly ground black pepper
• 1 large head cauliflower (2 1/2 to 3 pounds), cut into small florets
• 10 ounces penne or large elbow macaroni
• 1/4 cup fresh bread crumbs
• Ground paprika for garnishing
Procedures:
1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees. Butter a large gratin dish.
2. Heat the 3 tablespoons of butter in a large saucepan over medium heat.
3. Add the flour and mustard and cook, stirring until smooth, about 1 minute.
4. Add the milk and cook over medium-low heat, stirring occasionally, until thickened, about 10 minutes.
5. Add the cheese and stir until melted and completely smooth.
6. Season the sauce with salt and pepper, and keep it warm over very low heat.
7. Meanwhile, bring a large saucepan of salted water to a boil.
8. Add the cauliflower and cook until crisp tender (about 5 minutes).
9. Check with the tip of your paring knife. Strain and set aside. Add the pasta to the boiling water and cook until al dente. Drain well.
10. Add the cauliflower and pasta to the cheese sauce and stir to coat completely.
11. Pour the mixture into the buttered gratin dish and top with the bread crumbs.
12. Sprinkle some paprika over the dish.
13. Bake until bubbling and golden, 20 to 25 minutes.
One-Skillet Hot Sausage and Cabbage Stir-Fry with Chives
Makes 4 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Skillet (preferably cast-iron)
Micro-grater
Garlic press
Scale
Measuring spoons
Ingredients:
• 1 (1-inch) piece ginger, peeled, finely grated
• 4 garlic gloves, pressed
• 1 pound sweet Italian sausage removed from casing
• 3 tablespoons vegetable oil
• ½ pound shiitake mushrooms, stemmed and thinly sliced
• cups very thinly sliced Napa cabbage
• 2 tablespoons seasoned rice vinegar
• 2 tablespoons soy sauce
• 1/3 cup thinly sliced chives
• 1 teaspoon toasted sesame oil
• 2 teaspoons sesame seeds
• large flour tortillas or mushu wraps, warmed
• Hoisin sauce and Sriracha (for serving)
Procedures:
1. Using your hands or a wooden spoon, work ginger and garlic into the sausage in a medium bowl.
2. Heat 2 tablespoons vegetable oil in a large skillet, preferably cast iron, over medium-high and cook sausage mixture, breaking up with a wooden spoon, until browned, crisp, and cooked through, 6 to 8 minutes.
3. Using a slotted spoon, transfer sausage mixture to a clean bowl.
4. Increase the heat to high and cook mushrooms in the fat in the skillet, tossing often, until browned and starting to release their juices, about 4 minutes (if skillet looks dry at any point, add a bit more oil).
5. Add half of cabbage and cook, tossing often, until cabbage is wilted and tender, about 4 minutes.
6. Drizzle in vinegar and soy sauce and cook, tossing, until liquid is mostly reduced and skillet is dry in spots, about 2 minutes.
7. Remove the skillet from the heat and mix chives, sausage, and remaining cabbage into stir-fry.
8. Drizzle with sesame oil and sprinkle with sesame seeds.
9. Serve stir-fry with tortillas, hoisin sauce, and Sriracha.
Haricots Verts with Toasted Almonds and Caramelized Shallots
Makes 6 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Scale
Measuring spoons
Ingredients:
1. 2 pounds haricots verts or regular green beans, trimmed
2. 1 tablespoon unsalted butter
3. 1 tablespoon plus 2 teaspoons olive oil
4. 4 shallots, thinly sliced
5. Freshly ground black pepper, to taste
6. 1/2 cup sliced almonds, toasted
7. Kosher salt, to taste
Procedures:
1. *Instructions for toasting almonds - put the almonds in a small skillet and spread out into one layer. Put the skillet over medium heat and shake the pan to allow the almonds to brown evenly.
2. Bring a pot of salted water to a boil over high heat. Add the green beans and cook for 2 to 3 minutes.
3. Drain and immediately transfer to a bowl of salted ice water to stop the cooking. When the beans are cool, drain, pat dry and set aside.
4. In a large sauté pan (or skillet) over medium heat, melt the butter with the 1 tablespoon olive oil.
5. Add the shallots and season with salt and pepper. Cook, stirring occasionally, until the shallots begin to brown, about 6 minutes.
6. Reduce the heat to medium-low and cook, stirring occasionally, until the shallots are caramelized, about 6 minutes more. Transfer to a paper towel-lined plate.
7. In the same pan over medium-high heat, warm 1 teaspoon of the olive oil.
8. Add half of the green beans, season with salt and pepper and cook, stirring occasionally, until they are heated through, 3 to 4 minutes.
9. Add half each of the shallots and almonds and stir to combine. Transfer to a bowl.
10. Repeat with the remaining olive oil, green beans, shallots and almonds.
11. Toss all of the beans together, then transfer to a serving bowl and serve immediately.
Mushroom and Leek Tart
Makes 8 tarts
(What is the difference between a tart, torte? – Research and tell me what you find)
Recipes
Equipment:
Measuring spoons
Scale
Rolling pin
Saucer or salad plate to use for a template
Sheet pan lined with parchment paper
Pizza cutter
Ingredients:
• 2 fluid ounces clarified butter (melted)
• 1 1/2 pounds leeks, white part only, cut crosswise into ¼-inch slices *be sure to clean the leeks – demo at lab
• 1 teaspoon minced garlic
• 1 pound white mushrooms, trimmed and sliced
• 1 pound shiitake mushrooms, trimmed and sliced
• 1 tablespoon salt
• 1/2 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
• ounces Havarti (Danish, semi-soft cows cheese), shredded
• 1 tablespoon chopped fresh thyme
• 1/2 teaspoon dried basil
• ounces heavy cream
• 2 sheets puff pastry (SIZE 10x15-inches)
• 1 egg lightly beaten with 1 teaspoon water (egg wash) to brush (or "wash") onto the pie dough's surface with a pastry brush.
• 4 ounces grated Parmesan cheese
*Shredded food is usually thought of as being a larger, coarse thread while grating creates a finer one (that can even be as fine as powder). Shredded cheese will melt much slower than grated cheese by virtue of the difference in surface area between a coarse and fine thread. For a recipe like Philly Cheese Steak, I prefer to use cheese that has been finely grated. For a recipe where the cheese should melt slowly – on top of a casserole for instance – use shredded cheese.
Procedures:
1. Preheat the oven to 400 degrees.
2. Heat the butter in a large skillet (over medium heat). Add the leeks, garlic and mushrooms and cook, stirring until tender.
3. Add the salt, pepper, Havarti, herbs and cream and bring to a boil. Reduce until the mixture has thickened. Adjust the seasonings.
4. Remove from the heat and cool. (To cool quickly, you can put the mixture into a bowl, then sit the bowl in a half hotel pan filled with ice.)
5. Roll the puff pastry about 1/4-inch thick and cut eight circles (you can use a saucer to make a templet) about 9 inches in diameter from the pastry.
6. Brush a 1-inch band of egg wash around the edge of each circle.
7. Fold the edge of the pastry in toward the center to form a 1-inch rim and crimp. (* Rustic fold)
8. Fill each tart shell with 6 ounces of the leek/mushroom filling.
9. Spread the filling to the edge of the tart and sprinkle the top with the Parmesan cheese.
10. Brush the edge of each tart with the egg wash and bake until the pastry is well browned, 10 to 12 minutes.
11. *The tarts can be cut into four equal slices to serve. *Use a pizza cutter.
Emeril’s Wild Mushrooms with Tasso and Angel Hair
This is one of Emeril’s most popular menu items. Makes 4 servings
Recipe
Equipment:
Measuring cups
Measuring spoons
Ingredients:
• 4 cups stemmed and sliced assorted fresh mushrooms such as shitake, white buttons and/or baby Bellas (small portabellas)
• ¼ cup olive oil
• 1 tablespoon (3 teaspoons) or more to taste Chef Paul’s Meat Magic or Emeril’s Rustic Rub * do NOT add all at one time
• 1/2 cup chopped tasso (small dice)
• 1/4 cup chopped green onions
• 2 tablespoons minced shallots
• 1 teaspoon minced garlic
• 2 cups heavy cream
• ½ pound angel hair pasta (drain and reserve 1 cup of the pasta water)
• Coarsely grated fresh Parmesan cheese for garnish
Procedures:
1. Place the mushrooms in a large bowl and toss with the oil and two teaspoons of the Meat Magic.
2. Heat a large heavy dry skillet over high heat until it is very hot. Add the mushrooms, cover and cook for two minutes. Uncover and cook, shaking and tossing the skillet, until the mushrooms throw off some of their liquid, about 2 more minutes. Add the tasso, green onions, shallots and garlic. Cook, stirring, until the garlic is aromatic, 30 to 45 seconds.
3. Stir in the cream and simmer until the mixture thickens slightly 3 to 5 minutes. Adjust seasoning. *Tasso is very well seasoned so you don’t want to over-season. (While someone in your group is tending to the sauce, someone should have the pasta going.) Bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. Break the pasta noodles in half and add to the pot. Turn off the heat, cover the pot and let stand for about 4 minutes. *Taste test before taking it off the heat.
4. Drain (*RESERVE ½ CUP PASTA WATER) in a colander and toss with tap water.
5. Add the pasta, a little at a time, to the sauce in the pot and using food tongs, toss to coat the pasta. Add the pasta in small batches, tossing to coat evenly with the sauce in the skillet.
6. *IF THE SAUCE THICKENS TOO MUCH, ADD A LITTLE OF THE RESERVED PASTA WATER TO THIN IT OUT.
7. Again, adjust seasoning if necessary using the Meat Magic or Rustic Rub.
8. Heat for about two minutes.
9. Transfer the pasta and sauce mixture to a large platter, garnish with grated Parmesan cheese before serving.
Spinach au Gratin
Makes 8 Servings
Au gratin means: Covered with bread crumbs and sometimes butter and grated cheese, and then browned in an oven.
Recipe
Equipment:
Measuring spoons
Measuring cups
Box grater
Colander
Small gratin dishes
Ingredients:
• 2 tablespoons clarified butter
• 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
• 1 pint half-and-half
• 1 1/2 pounds frozen chopped spinach, thawed
• Salt and black pepper
• Pinch of nutmeg
• ounces grated Gruyere or Fontina
• ¼ cup dry bread crumbs or panko
Gruyère is sweet but slightly salty, with a flavor that varies widely with age. It is often described as creamy and nutty when young, becoming with age more assertive, earthy and complex. When fully aged (five months to a year) it tends to have small cracks which impart a slightly grainy texture.
The original Fontina cheese from Italy is fairly pungent and has quite an intense flavor, although cheeses labeled Fontina that are produced in other countries can be much milder. The Swedish and Danish versions are often found in US grocery stores, and can be distinguished from Italian Fontina by the red wax rind (Italian Fontina has a natural rind due to aging, which is usually tan to orange-brown); Swedish and Danish Fontina is aged less and therefore semi-soft and much milder than its Italian counterpart.
Procedures:
1. Heat the butter in a medium saucepan over medium heat. Add the flour and cook, stirring, to make a blond roux. (barely brown)
2. Add the half-and-half, whisking to dissolve any lumps of the roux. Bring to a simmer and cook, stirring occasionally, for 15 minutes. The mixture should thicken.
3. Bring a pot of salted water to a boil. Drop the spinach into the boiling water and cook for 2 minutes. Remove from the heat and drain well in a colander. Remove excess water by mashing the spinach in the colander with the back of a spoon.
4. Add the spinach to the cream sauce in the saucepan and mix well. Season with salt and pepper. Add nutmeg and stir to blend.
5. Fill eight 10-ounce gratin dishes with the creamed spinach and top each with grated cheese and a sprinkling of breadcrumbs or panko.
6. Place under the broiler (salamander) until the cheese is melted and evenly browned. Serve hot.
Asparagus Alla Milanese
Makes one serving
Notes: (Asperges a la Milanese - term meaning "in the style of Milan," referring to food (usually meat) dipped in beaten egg, then into a bread crumb-Parmesan mixture and fried in butter. This a la Milanese is a little different – we will be blanching fresh asparagus, and topping them with a sunny-side-up egg.
Recipe
Truffle
Truffle oil is a modern culinary ingredient, used to impart the flavor and aroma of truffles (an exotic subterranean mushroom) to a dish. Most truffle oils are not made from actual truffles, but are a synthetic product that combines olive oil and odorants. Truffle oil can be produced using any oil. Common versions use olive oil, or a more neutral flavorless oil such as canola or grapeseed oil.
If the asparagus spears are tough/woody, they should be shaved with a vegetable peeler. If they are thin and young, shaving is not necessary.
Clarified butter is milk fat rendered from butter to separate the milk solids and water from the butterfat. Typically, it is produced by melting butter and allowing the components to separate by density. The water evaporates, some solids float to the surface and are skimmed off, and the remainder of the milk solids sink to the bottom and are left behind when the butterfat (which would then be on top) is poured off.
Difference between shallots and garlic: Both come from the genus Allium. Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a head composed of multiple cloves. The skin color of shallots can vary from golden brown to gray to rose red, and their off-white flesh is usually tinged with green or magenta.
Blanching is a cooking process wherein the food substance, usually a vegetable or fruit, is plunged into boiling water, removed after a brief, timed interval, and finally plunged into iced water or placed under cold running water (to shock) thereby halting the cooking process.
Ingredients:
• 5 asparagus, ends trimmed off and peeled (if necessary)
• 2 tablespoons clarified butter
• 1 teaspoon minced garlic
• 1 teaspoon minced shallots
• 1 sunny-side up egg (use a ring mold or do freestyle)
• Finely grated parmesan cheese for garnish
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• Drizzle of truffle oil
Procedure:
1. Blanch the asparagus in salted boiling water. When just tender, transfer the asparagus to an ice bath to cool. Remove the asparagus from the water bath and lay on paper towels on a plate to drain. Pat dry with paper towels.
2. Heat 1-tablespoon of the butter in a small skillet and add the garlic and shallots. Cook, stirring (sauté), just until they become fragrant, about 30 seconds. Add the asparagus and turn several times in the garlic/shallots/butter mixture until warmed through, about one minute. Season with salt and pepper. Set aside and cover loosely with foil to keep warm.
3. Heat the remaining tablespoon of clarified butter in another small skillet over medium heat. Place the ring mold in the center of the skillet. Add the egg (season with salt and pepper) and cook sunny-side up.
4. To serve, arrange the asparagus on a plate and top with the egg. Garnish with the Parmesan cheese and a drizzle of truffle oil.
Italian-Stuffed Artichoke
Makes 2 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2 large artichokes, trimmed
• 1 tablespoon olive oil
• 1/2 teaspoon dried basil leaves
• 1/2 teaspoon dried oregano leaves
• Kosher salt
• Freshly ground black pepper
Stuffing:
• 1/2 cup grated Parmesan cheese
• 1/4 cup minced fresh parsley
• 1 tablespoon minced garlic
• 1 teaspoon grated lemon zest
• 2 cups Progresso fine dried breadcrumbs
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 1 teaspoon dried oregano leaves
• 1 teaspoon dried basil
• ½ cup olive oil or more as needed
Procedure:
1. Cut the stem off to make artichoke sit level. Then cut about 1 inch off the top of the artichoke. Using kitchen shears, snip off the tips of the outer leaves. Stand the artichokes in a saucepan. Add enough water to come up about 3/4 up the sides of the artichoke.
2. Add the olive oil, lemon juice, basil, oregano and season with salt and pepper. Bring to a boil. Then reduce the heat to medium, partially cover and simmer until knife-tender, about 30 minutes - depending on the size of the artichoke.
3. Remove and drain upside down on paper towels. Remove the center and carefully scrape out the fuzzy center portions and discard.
4. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
5. Combine all of the filling ingredients in a mixing bowl. You will add olive oil, a little a time, until the mixture can be squeezed and it holds together.
6. Gently spread the artichoke leaves apart and fill each leaf (you can use a small spoon or your fingers) with the filling. Place the artichoke in a rimmed pan that has been lightly oiled. Bake, uncovered, until the filling is lightly browned, 15 to 20 minutes.
Baby Artichokes, hard to find at markets
Mashed Potatoes and Parsnips with Caramelized Onions and Blue Cheese
Makes 8 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 tablespoon olive oil
• 2 medium (or 1 large) white onions, thinly sliced
• 2 tablespoons light brown sugar
• 1 tablespoon kosher salt plus more as needed
• 3 baking potatoes (such as Yukon gold, about 2 pounds), peeled and cubed
• parsnips (about 1 pound), peeled and cut into 1-inch pieces
• 1 1/2 cups low-sodium chicken broth, heated
• 1/4 cup crumbled blue cheese
• 3 tablespoons chopped fresh thyme
Procedure:
1. Heat the oil in a large skillet over high heat; reduce to medium. Cook onions with sugar and salt, stirring occasionally, until onions brown, 20 to 25 minutes. Add a few tablespoons water as you cook to keep onions from sticking or burning.
2. Fill a large saucepan ¾ full with cold water and add 1-tablespoon kosher salt. Add potatoes and parsnips; bring to a boil over high heat. Reduce heat and simmer until potatoes and parsnips are fork-tender, 20 to 25 minutes, and then drain.
3. Beat 1/4 of potato parsnip mixture and 3 ounces broth in a mixing bowl with an electric mixer on medium speed until smooth. Repeat, alternating between potato-parsnip mixture and broth, until you have incorporated all.
4. Fold in onions, cheese and thyme, and serve. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.04%3A_Recipes_for_Vegetables.txt |
The Cucurbitaceous or gourd family includes almost 750 species; its members are found in warm regions worldwide. Gourds are characterized by large, complex root systems with quick-growing, trailing vines and large leaves. Their flowers are often attractive and edible. Although some members of the gourd family originated in Africa, chayotes and most squashes are native to the Americas.
Chayotes
The chayote, also known as the merliton or vegetable pear, is a food staple throughout Central America. The vine bears slightly lumpy, pear-shaped fruits with a smooth, light green skin and a paler green flesh. There is a single white, edible seed in the center. Chayotes are starchy and very bland and are usually combined with more flavorful ingredients. They may be eaten raw, but their flavor and texture benefit from roasting, steaming, sautéing or grilling.
• Select chayotes that have well-colored skin with few ridges. Avoid those with very soft spots or bruises. Their peak season is the late fall and winter.
Cucumbers
Cucumbers can be divided into two categories: pickling and slicing. The two types are not interchangeable. Pickling cucumbers include the cornichon, dill and gherkin. They are recognizable by their sharp black or white spines and are quite bitter when raw. Slicing cucumbers include the burpless, the seedless English (or hothouse), the lemon (which is round and yellow) and the common green market cucumber. Most have relatively thin skins and may be marketed with a wax coating to prevent moisture loss and improve appearance. Waxed skins should be peeled. All cucumbers are valued for their refreshing cool taste and astringency. Sliced cucumbers are usually served raw, in salads, or mixed with yogurt and dill, or mint as a side dish, especially for spicy dishes. Pickling cucumbers are generally served pickled, with no further processing.
• Select cucumbers that are firm but not hard. Avoid those that are limp or yellowed or have soft spots. The common varieties are available all year, although peak season is from April through October.
Squashes
Squashes are the fleshy fruits of a large number of plants in the gourd family. Many varieties are available in a range of colors, shapes and sizes. Squashes can be classified as winter or summer based on their peak season and skin type. All squashes have a center cavity filled with many seeds, although in winter varieties the cavity is more pronounced. Squash blossoms are also edible; they may be added to salads raw, dipped in batter and deep-fried or filled with cheese or meat and baked.
• Select squashes with unbroken skins and good color for the variety. Avoid any squash with soft, moist spots.
Winter Squashes
Winter squashes include the acorn, banana, butternut, Hubbard, pumpkin and spaghetti varieties. They have hard skins (shells) and seeds, neither of which is generally eaten. The flesh, which may be removed from the shell before or after cooking, tends to be sweeter and more strongly flavored than that of summer squash. Winter squashes are rarely used raw; they can be baked, steamed or sautéed. Most winter squashes can also be pureed for soups or pie fillings. Their peak season is October through March.
Summer Squashes
Summer squashes include the patty pan, yellow crookneck and zucchini varieties. They have soft, edible skins and seeds that are generally not removed before cooking. Most summer squashes may be eaten raw, but are also suitable for grilling, sautéing, steaming or baking. Although summer squashes are now available all year, their peak season is April through September. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.05%3A_Gourds_and_Squashes.txt |
The term greens refers to a variety of leafy green vegetables that may be served raw, but are usually cooked. Greens have long been used in the cuisines of India, Asia and the Mediterranean and are an important part of regional cuisine in the southern United States. Most have strong, spicy flavors. The milder varieties of greens that are usually eaten raw include the lettuces.
Greens have an extremely high water content, which means that cooking causes drastic shrinkage. As a rule, allow 8 ounces (250 grams) per portion before cooking.
• Select young, tender greens with good color and no limpness. Avoid greens with dry-looking stems or yellow leaves. Most greens are available fresh all year, especially from November through June. The more popular greens are also available canned or frozen.
Collards
Collard greens, often simply referred to as collards, are a type of cabbage with loose, leafy heads of bright green leaves. Collards have a sharp, tangy flavor and 100k like a cross between mustard greens and kale. Considered a staple ingredient in poverty cooking of the American South, collards are typically slow simmered with ham hocks or bacon until very tender, then served with their cooking liquid. Collards are high in iron and vitamins A and C and are best if picked young or after the first frost of autumn.
Mustard
Mustard, a member of the cabbage family, was brought to America by early European immigrants. Mustard has large, dark green leaves with frilly edges. It is known for its assertive, bitter flavor. Mustard greens can be served raw in salads or used as garnish. They can also be cooked, often with white wine, vinegar and herbs.
• Select crisp, bright green leaves without discoloration.
Sorrel
Sorrel is an abundant and rather ordinary wild member of the buck- wheat family. Its tartness and sour flavor are used in soups and sauces and to accent other vegetables. It is particularly good with fatty fish or rich meats. Sorrel leaves naturally become the texture of a puree after only a few minutes of moist-heat cooking.
• Select leaves that are fully formed, with no yellow blemishes.
Spinach
Spinach is a versatile green that grows rapidly in cool climates. It has smooth, bright green leaves attached to thin stems. Spinach may be eaten raw in salads, cooked by almost any moist-heat method, microwaved or sautéed. It can be used in stuffing, baked or creamed dishes, soups or stews. Spinach grows in sandy soil and must be rinsed repeatedly in cold water to remove all traces of grit from the leaves. It bruises easily and should be handled gently during washing. Stems and large midribs should be removed.
• Select bunches with crisp, tender, deep green leaves; avoid yellow leaves or those with blemishes.
Swiss Chard
Chard- the reference to "Swiss" is inexplicable- is a type of beet that does not produce a tuberous root. It is used for its wide, flat, dark green leaves. Chard can be steamed, sautéed, or used in soups. Its tart, spinach-like flavor blends well with sweet ingredients such as fruit.
• Select leaves that are crisp, with some curliness or savoring. Ribs should be an unblemished white or red.
Turnip Greens
The leaves of the turnip root have a pleasantly bitter flavor, similar to peppery mustard greens. The dark green leaves are long, slender and deeply indent ed. Turnip greens are best-eaten steamed, sautéed, baked or microwaved. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.06%3A_Greens.txt |
Mushrooms
Mushrooms are members of a broad category of plants known as fungi. (Fungi have no seeds, stems, or flowers; they reproduce through spores.) Mushrooms have a stalk with an umbrella-like top. Although not actually a vegetable, mushrooms are used and served in much the same manner as vegetables.
Several types of cultivated mushroom are available. They include the common (or white), shiitake, crimini (also known as the Italian brown), straw, enokidake (also called enoki) and cloud ear (also known as wood ear or Chinese black). Button mushrooms are the smallest, most immature form of the common mushroom. The largest cultivated mushroom is the portabella, which is actually an overgrown crimini; it can grow up to 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter.
Mushroom safety. Some mushrooms are deadly; others can cause severe illness. Picking edible mushrooms in the wild is not sim ply a process of comparing specimens with photographs or illustration s in a guidebook. So do not gather mushrooms from the wild unless you are accompanied by a well-trained, experienced mycologist or guide. Always purchase wild mushrooms from reputable purveyors.
Many wild mushrooms are gathered and sold by specialty purveyors. Because wild mushroom spores are spread around the world by air currents, the same item may be found in several areas, each with a different common name. Wild mushrooms have a stronger earthy or nutty flavor than cultivated mushrooms, and should generally be cooked before eating.
Mushrooms, whether cultivated or gathered from the wild, are available fresh, canned or dried. Because mushrooms are composed of up to 80 percent water, dried products are often the most economical, even though they may cost hundreds of dollars per pound. Dried mushrooms can be stored in a cool, dry place for months. When needed, they are rehydrated by soaking in warm water until soft, approximately 10 to 20 minutes.
Choose fresh mushrooms that are clean, without soft or moist spots or blemishes. Fresh cultivated mushrooms are generally available all year; fresh wild mushrooms are available seasonally, usually during the summer and fall. Cultivated mushrooms with exposed gills (the ridges on the underside of the umbrella-like top) are old and should be avoided. Fresh mushrooms can be refrigerated in an open container for up to 5 days. Normally, it is not necessary to peel mushrooms; if they are dirty, they should be quickly rinsed (not soaked) in cool water just before use.
Truffles
Truffles are actually tubers that grow near the roots of oak or beech trees. They can be cultivated only to the extent that oak groves are planted to encourage truffle growth. The two principal varieties are the Perigord (black) and the Piedmontese (white). Fresh truffles are gathered in the fall and are rarely marketed outside their locale. Truffles, especially white ones, have a strong aroma and flavor, requiring only a small amount to add their special flavor to soups, sauces, pasta and other items. Black truffles are often used as a garnish or to flavor pates, terrines, or egg dishes. Because fresh imported truffles can cost several hundred dollars per pound, most kitchens purchase truffles canned, dried or processed.
Olives
Olives are the fruit of a tree native to the Mediterranean area. Green olives are those harvested unripened; black olives are fully ripened. The raw fruit is inedibly bitter and must be washed, soaked and cured or pickled before eating. Green olives should have a smooth, tight skin. Ripe olives will be glossy but softer, with a slightly wrinkled skin. Many varieties and flavors are available, from the tiny black French Nicoise to the large purplish Greek Kalamata. Ripe black olives are packaged in a range of seven sizes, from small to super-colossal. Unripe green olives are available in eleven sizes, from sub-petite to super-colossal. Both black and green olives are available whole (with the pit), pitted, sliced, halved or in pieces. Pitted green olives are often stuffed with strips of pimento, jalapeno pepper, almonds, or other foods for flavor and appearance.
Olives are used as a finger food for snacks or hors d'oeuvre, or added to salads or pasta. They may even be cooked in breads, soups, sauces, stews and casseroles. A paste made of minced ripe olives, known as tapenade, is used as a dip or condiment.
Onions
Bulb Onions
Common or bulb onions may be white, yellow (Bermuda or Spanish) or red (purple). Medium-sized yellow and white onions are the most strongly flavored. Larger onions tend to be sweeter and milder. Widely used as a flavoring ingredient, onions are indispensable in mirepoix. Onions are also prepared as a side dish by deep-frying, roasting, grilling, steaming or boiling. Pearl onions are small, about 1 / 2 inch (1.25 centimeters) in diameter, with yellow or white skins. They have a mild flavor and can be grilled, boiled, roasted or sautéed whole as a side dish, or used in soups or stews.
Sweet onion varieties include the Vidalia, Maui, Walla-Walla, Super Sweet and OSO Sweet. These bulb onions have a higher water content, more sugar and less sulfuric compounds than other onions. They are best for eating raw, making them good choices for sandwiches, salads, hamburgers and the like. Cooking destroys much of their perceived sweetness and special flavor. Each sweet onion variety is available for a brief period from January through August. All have a very short shelf life and should not be stored more than a few weeks.
• Select onions that are firm and dry and feel heavy. The outer skins should be dry and brittle. Avoid onions that have begun to sprout. Store onions in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area. Do not refrigerate onions until they are cut. With the exception of sweet onions, most varieties are available all year.
Onion Varietals
Garlic
Garlic is also used in almost all the world's cuisines. A head of garlic is composed of many small cloves. Each clove is wrapped in a thin husk or peel; the entire head is encased in several thin layers of papery husk. Of the three hundred or so types of garlic known, only three are commercially significant. The most common is pure white, with a sharp flavor. A Mexican variety is pale pink and more strongly flavored. Elephant garlic is app le -sized and particularly mild. Although whole bulbs can be baked or roasted, garlic is most often separated into cloves, peeled, sliced, minced or crushed and used to flavor a wide variety of dishes. When using garlic, remember that the more finely the cloves are crushed, the stronger the flavor will be. Cooking reduces garlic's pungency; the longer it is cooked, the milder it becomes.
• Select firm, dry bulbs with tightly closed cloves and smooth skins. Avoid bulbs with green sprouts. Store fresh garlic in a cool, well-ventilated place; do not refrigerate. Fresh garlic is available all year. Jars of processed and pickled garlic products are also available.
Leeks
Leeks look like large, overgrown scallions with a fat white tip and wide green leaves. Their flavor is sweeter and stronger than scallions, but milder than common bulb onions. Leeks must be carefully washed to remove the sandy soil that gets between the leaves. Leeks can be baked, braised or grilled as a side dish, or used to season stock s, soups or sauces.
• Select leeks that are firm, with stiff roots and stems. Avoid those with dry leave s, soft spots or browning. Leeks are available all year.
Scallions
Scallions, also known as green onions or bunch onions, are the immature green stalks of bulb onions. The leaves are bright green with either a long and slender or a slightly bulbous white base. Green onions are used in stir-fries and as a flavoring in other dishes. The green tops can also be sliced in small rings and used as a garnish.
• Select scallions with bright green tops and clean white bulbs. Avoid those with limp or slimy leaves. Scallions are available all year; their peak season is the summer.
Shallots
Shallots are shaped like small bulb onions with one flat side. When peeled, a shallot separates into multiple cloves, similar to garlic. They have a mild, yet rich and complex flavor. Shallots are the basis of many classic sauces and meat preparations; they can also be sautéed or baked as a side dish.
• Select shallots that are plump and well shaped. Avoid those that appear dry or have sprouted. Store shallots in a cool, dry, unrefrigerated place. Shallots are available all year. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.07%3A_Mushrooms_Truffles_and_Onions.txt |
Pod and seed vegetables include corn, legumes and okra. They are grouped together here because the parts consumed are all the seeds of their respective plants. In some cases, only the seeds are eaten; in others, the pod containing the seeds are eaten as well. Seeds are generally higher in protein and carbohydrates (starch and fiber) than other vegetables.
Corn
Sweet corn is actually a grain, a type of grass. Corn kernels, like peas, are plant seeds. (Dried corn products are discussed in Chapter 23, Potatoes, Grains and Pasta.) The kernels, which may be white or yellow, are attached to a woody, inedible cob. The cob is encased by strands of hair-like fibers called silks and covered in layers of thin leaves called husks. Shuck the ears (remove the silks and husks) prior to cooking; the husks may be left on for roasting or grilling. Shucked ears can be grille d, boiled, microwaved or steamed. The kernels can be cut off the cob before or after cooking. Corn on the cob is available fresh or frozen; corn kernels are available canned or frozen.
• Select freshly picked ears with firm, small kernels. Avoid those with mold or decay at the tip of the cob or brownish silks. Summer is the peak season for fresh corn.
Legumes
Beans and peas are members of the legume family, a large group of vegetables with double-seamed pods containing a single row of seeds. Of the hundreds of known varieties of beans, some are used for their edible pods, others for shelling fresh and some only for their dried seeds. Dried beans are actually several varieties of seeds or peas left in the pod until mature, then shelled and dried.
Fresh Beans
Beans used for their edible pods, commonly referred to as green beans, string beans, runner beans or snap beans, are picked when immature. Except for the stem, the entire pod can be eaten. This category includes the American green bean, the yellow wax bean and the French haricot vert, a long, slender pod with an intense flavor and tender texture. Any strings along the pod's seams should be pulled off before cooking. Beans may be left whole, cut lengthwise into thin slivers (referred to as French cut), or cut crosswise on the diagonal.
Shelling beans are those grown primarily for the edible seeds inside the pod. Common examples are flageolets, lima beans and fava (broad) beans. Their tough pods are not usually eaten.
All beans can be prepared by steaming, microwaving or sautéing. They can be added to soups or stews, and they blend well with a variety of flavors, from coconut milk to garlic and olive oil. Cooked beans can be chilled and served as a salad or erudite.
• Select beans that have a bright color without brown or soft spots. Large pods may be tough or bitter. The peak season for fresh beans is from April through December. Most bean varieties are available frozen or canned, including pickled and seasoned products.
Dried Beans
Anthropologists report that for thousands of years, cultures worldwide have preserved some members of the legume family by drying. Common dried beans include kidney beans, pinto beans, chickpeas, lentils, black beans, black-eyed peas and split green peas. Shape is the clearest distinction among these products: Beans are oval or kidney-shaped; lentils are small, flat disks and peas are round.
Beans and peas destined for drying are left on the vine until they are fully matured and just beginning to dry. They are then harvested, shelled, and quickly dried with warm air currents. Some dried legumes are sold split, which means the skin is removed, causing the seed's two halves to separate. Most dried beans need to be soaked in water before cooking. Soaking softens and rehydrates the beans, thus reducing cooking time. Lentils and split peas generally do not require soaking, however, and will cook faster than beans. After soaking, beans are most often simmered or baked in a liquid until soft and tender. One type maybe substituted for another in most recipes, although variations in color, starch content, and flavor should receive consideration.
Dried beans and peas are available in bulk or in 1-pound (450-gram) poly-bags. They should be stored in a cool, dry place, but not refrigerated. Many of these beans are also available fully cooked, then canned or frozen. Some dried beans may be fermented or processed into flour, oil or bean curd.
Shelling Peas
Of the shelling peas that are prepared fresh, the most common are green garden peas (English peas) and the French petit pois. Because they lose flavor rapidly after harvest, most shelling peas are sold frozen or canned. Shelling peas have a delicate, sweet flavor best presented by simply steaming until tender but still al dente. Peas may also be braised with rich meats such as ham, or used in soups. Cooked peas are attractive in salads or as garnish.
Choose small fresh pea pods that are plump and moist. Peak season is April and May. Fresh green soy beans (soya) (Japanese: edamame) are becoming a popular shelling pea in the United States. When picked before maturity, soybeans have a light green, fuzzy pod and a tender, sweet pea. Fresh green soybeans are delicious steamed in the pod, then chilled, popped open and eaten out of hand as a snack. Often served in sushi restaurants or with other Asian cuisines, they are extremely high in protein, fiber and phytochemicals. When allowed to mature and then prepared like other dried beans, however, soybeans become extremely tough, hard to digest and bitter. Mature soybeans are best used for processing into oil, tofu, sauce and other foodstuffs.
Edible Pea Pods
Snow peas, also known as Chinese pea pods, are a common variety of edible pea pod. They are flat and have only a few very small green peas. Snow peas have a string along their seams that can be removed by holding the leafy stem and pulling from end to end. The pods can be eaten raw, lightly blanched or steamed, or stir-fried.
Another variety of edible pea pod is the sugar snap pea, a cross between the garden pea and snow pea, which was developed during the late 1970s. They are plump, juicy pods filled with small, tender peas. The entire pod is eaten; do not shell the peas before cooking.
• Select pea pods that are firm, bright green and crisp. Avoid those with brown spots or a shriveled appearance. Pea pods are available all year; their peak season is in March and April.
Okra
Okra, a common ingredient in African and Arab cuisines, was brought to the United States by slaves and French settlers . It is now integral to Creole, Cajun, southern and southwestern cuisines. Its mild flavor is similar to that of asparagus. Okra is not eaten raw; it is best pickled, boiled, steamed or deep-fried. Okra develops a gelatinous texture when cooked for long periods, so it is used to thicken gumbos and stews. To avoid the slimy texture some find objectionable , do not wash okra until ready to cook, then trim the stem end only. Cook okra in stainless steel because other metals cause discoloration.
• Select small to medium pods (11 / 2 to 2 inches [3.75 to 5 centimeters]) that are deep green, without soft spots. Pale spears with stiff tips tend to be tough. Okra's peak season is from June through September. Frozen okra is widely available. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.08%3A_Pods_and_Seeds.txt |
Roots and Tubers
Taproots (more commonly referred to as roots) are single roots that extend deep into the soil to supply the above -ground plant with nutrients. Tubers are fat underground stems. Most roots and tubers can be used interchangeably. All store well at cool temperatures, without refrigeration.
Beets
Although records suggest that they were first eaten in ancient Greece, beets are most often associated with the colder northern climates, where they grow for most of the year. Beets can be boiled, then peeled and used in salad s, soups or baked dishes.
• Select small to medium -sized beets that are firm, with smooth skins. Avoid those with hairy root tips, as they may be tough. Beets are available all year; their peak season is March to October.
Carrots
Carrots, large taproots, are among the most versatile of vegetables. Although several kinds exist, the Imperator is the most common. It is long and pointed, with a medium to dark orange color and a mild, sweet flavor. Carrots can be cut into a variety of shapes and eaten raw, used for a mirepoix or prepared by moist-heat cooking methods, grilling, microwaving or roasting. They are also grated and used in baked goods, particularly cakes and muffins.
• Select firm carrots that are smooth and well-shaped, with a bright orange color. If the tops are still attached, they should be fresh-looking and bright green. Carrots are available all year.
Celery Root
Celery root, also known as celeriac, is a large, round root, long popular in northern European cuisines. It is a different plant from stalk celery, and its stalks and leaves are not eaten. Celery root has a knobby brown exterior; a creamy white, crunchy flesh; and a mild, celery-like flavor. Its thick outer skin must be peeled away; the flesh is then cut as desired. Often eaten raw, celery root can be baked, steamed or boiled. It is used in soups, stews or salads and goes well with game and rich meats. Raw celery root may be placed in acidulated water to prevent browning.
• Select small to medium -sized roots that are firm and relatively clean, with a pungent smell. Their peak season is October through April.
Jerusalem artichoke
Despite their name, Jerusalem artichokes are actually tubers from a variety of sunflower unrelated to artichokes. Consequently, growers are now marketing these vegetables as sun chokes. Their lumpy brown skin is usually peeled away (even though it is edible) to reveal a crisp, white interior with a slightly nutty flavor. While they may be eaten raw, it is preferable to cook them before serving to make them easier to digest. Jerusalem artichokes are eaten chopped or grated into salads, boiled or steamed for a side dish, or a soup.
Jicama
Jicama is actually a legume that grows underground as a tuber. It is becoming increasingly popular because of its sweet, moist flavor; crisp texture; low calorie content; and long shelf life. After its thick brown skin is cut away, the crisp, moist white flesh can be cut as desired. Jicama is often eaten raw in salad s, with salsa or as a erudite. It is also used in stir-fried dishes.
• Select firm, well-shaped jicamas that are free of blemishes. Size is not an indication of quality or maturity. They are available all year; their peak season is January through May.
Parsnips
Parsnips are taproots that look and taste like white carrots and have the texture of sweet potatoes. Parsnips should be 5 to 10 inches (12.5 to 25 centimeters) in length, with smooth skins and tapering tips. Parsnips, peeled like carrots, can be eaten raw or cooked by almost any method. When steamed until very soft, they can be mashed like potatoes.
• Select small to medium -sized parsnips that are firm, smooth and well-shaped; avoid large, woody ones. Parsnips are available all year; their peak season is December through April.
Radishes
Radishes are used for their peppery flavor and crisp texture. Radishes are available in many colors, including white, black and all shades of red; most have a creamy to pure white interior. Asian radishes, known as daikon, produce roots 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) in diameter and 6 to 20 inches (15 to 20 centimeters) long. Radishes can be steamed or stir-fried, but most often are eaten raw or in salads or used as garnish. Radish leaves can be used in salads or cooked as greens.
• Select radishes that are firm, not limp. Their interior should be neither dry nor hollow. Radishes are available all year.
Rutabagas
Rutabagas are a root vegetable and a member of the cabbage family. Their skin is purple to yellow, and they have yellow flesh with a distinctive starchy, cabbage-like flavor. Rutabagas and turnips are similar in flavor and texture when cooked and may be used interchangeably. Rutabaga leaves are not eaten. Rutabagas should be peeled with a vegetable peeler or chef's knife, then cut into quarters, slices or cubes. They are often baked, boiled and then pureed, or sliced and sautéed. They are especially flavorful when seasoned with caraway seeds, dill or lemon juice.
• Select small to medium-sized rutabagas that are smooth and firm and feel heavy. Their peak season is January through March.
Turnips
A root vegetable from the cabbage family, turnips have white skin with a rosy-red or purple blush and a white interior. Their flavor, similar to that of a radish, can be rather hot. Turnips should be peeled, then diced, sliced or julienned for cooking. They may be baked or cooked with moist-heat cooking methods, and are often pureed like potatoes.
• Select small to medium-sized turnips that have smooth skin and feel heavy. They should be firm, not rubbery or limp. Any attached leaves should be bright green and tender. Spring is their peak season.
Water Chestnuts
Water chestnuts are the tuber of an Asian plant that thrives in water. The brownish-black skin is peeled away to reveal a moist, crisp, white interior, which can be eaten raw or cooked. When cooked, water chestnuts retain their crunchy texture, making them a popular addition to stir-fried dishes. They are also used in salads and casseroles or wrapped in bacon for rumaki hors d'oeuvre.
Stalks
Stalk vegetables are plant stems with a high percentage of cellulose fiber. These vegetables should be picked while still young and tender. Tough fibers should be trimmed before cooking.
Artichokes
Artichokes are the immature flowers of a thistle plant introduced to America by Italian and Spanish settlers. Young, tender globe artichokes can be cooked whole, but more mature plants need to have the fuzzy center (known as the choke) removed first. Whole artichokes can be simmered, steamed or microwaved; they are often served with lemon juice, garlic butter or hollandaise sauce. The heart may be cooked separately, then served in salads, pureed as a filling, or served as a side dish. Artichoke hearts and leafless artichoke bottoms are both available canned.
• Select fresh artic hokes with tight, compact heads that feel heavy. Their color should be so lid green to gray-green. Brown spots on the surface caused by frost are harmless. Artichokes' peak season is March through May.
Asparagus
Asparagus, a member of the lily family, has bright green spears with a ruffle of tiny leaves at the tip. Larger spears tend to be tough and woody, but can be used in soups or for puree. Asparagus is eaten raw or steamed briefly, stir-fried, microwaved or grilled. Fresh spring asparagus is excellent with nothing more than lemon juice or clarified butter; asparagus with hollandaise sauce is a classic preparation.
• Select firm, plump spears with tightly closed tips and a bright green color running the full length of the spear. Asparagus should be stored refrigerated at 40°F (4°C) , upright in 1/z inch (1.25 centimeters ) of water or with the ends wrapped in moist paper toweling. The stalks should not be washed until just before use. Canned and frozen asparagus are also available. Peak season is March through June.
A European variety of white asparagus is sometimes available fresh, or readily available canned. It has a milder flavor and soft, tender texture. It is produced by covering the stalks with soil as they grow; this prevents sunlight from reaching the plant and retards the development of chlorophyll.
Bamboo Shoots
Stripped of their tough brown outer skins, the tender young shoots of certain varieties of bamboo are edible. They make excellent additions to stir-fried dishes or can be served like asparagus. Although fresh shoots are available in Asia, canned peeled s hoots packed in brine or water are more common in the United States. Canned shoots should be rinsed well before use.
Celery
Once a medicinal herb, stalk celery is now a common sight in kitchens worldwide. Stalk celery is pale green with stringy curved stalks. Often eaten raw in salads or as a snack, it can be braised or steamed as a side dish. Celery is also a mirepoix component.
• Select stalks that are crisp, without any sign of dryness. Celery is available all year.
Fennel
Fennel is a Mediterranean favorite used for thousands of years as a vegetable (the bulb), an herb (the leaves) and a spice (the seeds). The bulb (often incorrectly referred to as sweet anise) has short, tight, over-lapping celery-like stalks with feathery leaves. The flavor is similar to that of anise or licorice, becoming milder when cooked. Fennel bulbs may be eaten raw or grilled, steamed, sautéed baked or microwaved.
• Select a fairly large, bright white bulb on which the cut edges appear fresh, without dryness or browning. The bulb should be compact, not spreading. Fresh fennel's peak season is September through May.
Hearts of Palm
Hearts of palm are the tender interiors of stems from cabbage palm trees. They are ivory -colored and slender, with a delicate flavor similar to that of asparagus. Fresh hearts of palm are sometimes available in Florida (where they are grown); canned ones are widely available everywhere. Hearts of palm are gene rally used uncooked in salads or marinated in herb vinaigrette.
Nopales
The pads of a prickly pear cactus can be prepared as a vegetable known as nopales. Cactus pads have a flavor similar to that of green bell peppers. Their texture tends to be rather gelatinous or mucilaginous, making them good for stews or sauces. To prepare fresh nopales, hold the pad with tongs and cut off the thorns and "eyes" with a sharp knife or vegetable peeler. Trim off the edge all the way around. Slice the pad into julienne strip s or cubes. The pieces can be boiled or steamed and served hot, or chilled and added to salads. Nopales can also be sautéed with onions, peppers and seasoning s for a side dish or added to southwestern-style casseroles.
Some cultivated varieties have thin, thornless pads. Choose pads that are stiff and heavy without blemishes. They should not be dry or soggy. Fresh cactus pads are available all year, with peak season in the late spring. Canned and pickled nopales are also available.
Baby Vegetables
Many fine restaurants serve baby vegetables: tiny turnips, finger-length squash, miniature carrots and petite heads of cauliflower. First cultivated in Europe but now widely available throughout the United States, baby vegetables include both hybrids bred to be true miniatures as well as regular varieties that are picked before maturity. Baby vegetables are often marketed with blossoms or greens still attached. They tend to be easily bruised and are highly perishable. Many baby vegetables can be eaten raw, but they are usually left whole, then steamed or lightly sautéed and attractively presented as an accompaniment to meat, fish or poultry entrees.
Discussion Questions: Spinach, mushrooms, truffles, pods and seeds
1. When is the best time to pick collard greens?
2. Name two kinds of greens.
3. What type of mushrooms are most commonly used in cooking?
4. Describe shallots and green onions. Which one is commonly used in south Louisiana dishes?
5. Other than its use in gumbo – how else may okra be prepared/cooked? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.09%3A_Roots_Tubers_and_Stalks.txt |
Nutrition
Most vegetables are more than 80 percent water; the remaining portions consist of carbohydrates (primarily starches) and small amounts of protein and fat. The relative lack of protein and fat makes most vegetables especially low in calories.
Much of a vegetable's physical structure is provided by generally indigestible substances such as cellulose and lignin, also known as fiber. This fiber produces the characteristic stringy, crisp or fibrous textures associated with vegetables.
Vegetables are also a good source of vitamins and minerals. Care must be taken during preparation to preserve their nutritional content, however. Once peeled or cut, vegetables lo se nutrients to the air or to any liquid in which they are allowed to soak. Vitamins are concentrated just under the skin, so peel vegetables thinly, if at all.
USDA Organic Designation
Great strides in agriculture have been made during the past two centuries. Pesticides, fungicides and herbicides now eliminate or control pests that once would have devoured, ruined or choked crops. Chemical fertilizers increase yields of many of the world's staples. However, not everyone has greeted these developments with open arms.
During the past few decades, scientific and medical investigators have documented, or at least suggested, health risks associated with certain synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and other products. These findings have led to a renewed interest in a now multibillion-dollar-a-year back-to-the-basics approach to farming organic farming. Specialty farms, orchards and even wineries now offer organically grown products (or, in the case of wineries, wines made from organically grown grapes). These products come with few, if any, intentional additives and should be free of any incidental additives. Proponents argue that these products are better for you and better for the health of the farm workers.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture regulates the production and labeling of organically grown foods. It requires that any natural food labeled "100 percent organic" must contain only organic ingredients-that is, those grown and manufactured without the use of added hormones, pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, and so on; soil cannot have been treated with unapproved synthetics for three years for a crop to be called organic. To be labeled organic, or to display the USDA organic seal, processed foods must contain at least 95 percent organic ingredients by weight. Processed foods with 70 to 95 percent organic ingredients may be labeled "made with organic ingredients"; processed foods with less than 70 percent organic ingredients may list those ingredients on the information panel but may not use the term organic anywhere on the front of the package.
Purchasing and Storing Fresh Vegetables
Fresh vegetables should be selected according to seasonal availability. Using a vegetable at the peak of its season has several ad vantages: Price is at its lowest, selection is at its greatest and the vegetable's color, flavor and texture are at their best.
Grading
The USDA has a voluntary grading system for fresh vegetables traded on wholesale markets. The system is based on appearance, condition and other factors affecting waste or eating quality.
Grades for all vegetables include, in descending order of quality, U.S. Extra Fancy, U.S. Fancy, U.S. Extra No. 1 and U.S. No.1. There are also grades that apply only to specific vegetables, for example, U.S. No. 1 Boilers for onions. Consumer or retail grading is currently required only for potatoes, carrots and onions. It uses alphabetical listings, with Grade A being the finest.
Purchasing
Fresh vegetables are old by weight or count. They are packed in cartons referred to as cases, lugs, bushels, flats or crates. The weight or count packed in each of these containers varies depending on the size and type of vegetable as well as the packer. For example, celery is packed in 55-pound cartons containing 18 to 48 heads, depending on the size of each head.
Some of the more common fresh vegetables (for example, onions, carrots, celery and lettuces) can be purchased from wholesalers trimmed, cleaned and cut according to your specifications. Although the unit price will be higher for diced onion s than for whole onions, for example, the savings in time, labor, yield-loss and storage space can be substantial. Processed vegetables may suffer a loss of nutrients, moisture and flavor, however.
Ripening
Although vegetables do not ripen in the same manner as fruits, they do continue to breathe (respire) after harvesting. The faster the respiration rate, the faster the produce ages or decays. This decay results in wilted leaves and dry, tough or woody stems and stalks.
Respiration rates vary according to the vegetable variety, its maturity at harvest and its storage conditions after harvest.
Ripening proceeds more rapidly in the presence of ethylene gas. Ethylene gas is emitted naturally by fruits and vegetables and can be used to encourage further ripening in some produce, especially fruit-vegetables such as tomatoes. Items harvested and shipped when mature but green (unripe) can be exposed to ethylene gas to induce color development (ripening) just before sale.
Storing
Some fresh vegetables are best stored at cool temperatures, between 40°F and 60°F (4°C and 16°C), ideally in a separate produce refrigerator. These include winter squash, potatoes, onions, shallots and garlic. If a produce refrigerator is not available, store these vegetables at room temperature in a dry area with good ventilation. Do not store them in a refrigerator set at conventional temperatures. Colder temperatures convert the starches in these vegetables to sugars, changing their texture and flavor.
Most other vegetables benefit from cold storage at temperatures between 34°F and 40°F (2°C and 4°C) with relatively high levels of humidity. Greens and other delicate vegetables should be stored away from apples, tomatoes, bananas and melons, as the latter give off a great deal of ethylene gas.
Preservation techniques are designed to extend the shelf life of vegetables. These methods include irradiation, canning, freezing and drying. Except for drying, these techniques do not substantially change the vegetable's texture or flavor. Canning and freezing can also be used to preserve cooked vegetables.
Irradiated Vegetables
The irradiation process uses ionizing radiation (usually gamma rays of cobalt 60 or cesium 137) to sterilize foods. When foods are subjected to radiation, parasites, insects and bacteria are destroyed, ripening is slowed and sprouting is prevented. Irradiation works without a noticeable increase in temperature; consequently, the flavor and texture of fresh foods are not affected. Some nutrients, however, may be destroyed. Irradiated vegetables do not need to be sprayed with post-harvest pesticides, and they have an extended shelf life.
The FDA classifies irradiation as a food additive. Although irradiation is not yet approved for all foods, grains, fruits and vegetables may be treated with lowdose radiation. Irradiated foods must be labeled "Treated with radiation" or "Treated by irradiation."
Hydroponics: Working Water
Hydroponics is the science of growing plants without soil in water. Plants are grown in an inert medium such as gravel, peat, sand or other sterile material.
Nutrients are distributed in water that is circulated over the plant's roots. In a hydroponic farm, the temperatures and light are controlled to maximize production. Because hydroponic farm s are indoors, plants can be grown in any climate; both Canada and Holland are major producers of vegetables grown under these conditions.
Canned Vegetable
Canned vegetables are the backbone of menu planning for many food service operations. In commercial canning, raw vegetables are cleaned and placed in a sealed container, then subjected to high temperatures for a specific period. Heating destroys the microorganisms that cause spoilage, and the sealed environment create d by the can eliminates oxidation and retards decomposition. However, the heat required by the canning process also softens the texture of most vegetables and alters their nutritional content; many vitamins and minerals may be lost through the canning process. Green vegetable s may also suffer color loss, becoming a drab olive hue.
Canned vegetables are graded by the USDA as U.S. Grade A or Fancy, U.S. Grade B or Extra-Select, and U.S. Grade C or Standard. U.S. Grade A vegetables must be top quality, tender and free of blemishes. U.S. Grade C vegetables may lack uniformity or flavor, but can be used in casseroles or soups if cost is a concern.
Combinations of vegetables as well as vegetables with seasonings and sauces are available canned. For example, corn kernels are available canned in water, in seasonings and sauces, combined with other vegetables or creamed. Canned vegetables are easy to serve because they are essentially fully cooked during the canning process.
Canned vegetables are purchased in cases of standard-sized cans. Canned vegetables can be stored almost indefinitely at room temperature. Once a can is opened, any unused contents should be transferred to an appropriate storage container and refrigerated. Cans with bulges should be discarded immediately, without opening.
Frozen Vegetables
Frozen vegetables are almost as convenient to use as canned. However, they often require some cooking, and expensive freezer space is necessary if an inventory is to be maintained. Regardless, freezing is a highly effective method for preserving vegetables. It severely inhibits the growth of microorganisms that cause spoilage without destroying many nutrients. Generally, green vegetables retain their color, although the appearance and texture of most vegetables ma y be somewhat altered because of their high water content: Ice crystals form from the water in the cells and burst the cells walls.
Some vegetables are available individually quick-frozen (IQF). This method employs blasts of cold air, refrigerated plates, liquid nitrogen, liquid air or other techniques to chill the vegetables quickly. Speeding the freezing process can greatly reduce the formation of ice crystals.
Combinations of vegetables as well as vegetables with seasonings and sauces are available frozen. Some frozen vegetables are raw when frozen; others are blanched before freezing so that final cooking time is reduced. Many others are fully coo ked before free zing and need only to be thawed or heated for service. Frozen vegetables generally do not need to be thawed before being heated. Once thawed or cooked, they should be stored in the refrigerator and reheated in the same manner as fresh vegetables. Do not refreeze previously frozen vegetables.
Frozen vegetables are graded in the same manner as canned vegetables. They are usually pack d in cases containing 1- to 2-pound (450- to 900-gram) boxes or bags. All frozen vegetables should be sealed in moisture-proof wrapping and kept at a constant temperature of 0°F (-18°C) or below. Temperature fluctuations can draw moisture from the vegetables, ca using poor texture and flavor loss. Adequate packaging also prevents freezer burn, an irreversible change in the color, texture and flavor of frozen foods.
Dried Vegetables
Except for beans, peas, peppers, mushrooms and tomatoes, few vegetables are commonly preserved by drying. Unlike other preservation methods, drying dramatically alters flavor, texture and appearance. The loss of moisture concentrates flavors and sugars and greatly extends shelf life.
Acid/Alkali Reactions
The acid or alkali content of the cooking liquid affects the texture and color of many vegetables. This is of greater concern with moist-heat cooking methods, but it is also a consideration with city-heat cooking methods, as they often call for blanched or parboiled vegetables.
Texture
The acidity or alkalinity of the vegetable's cooking liquid influences the finished product's texture. If an acid such as lemon juice, vinegar or wine is added to the liquid for flavoring, the vegetable will resist softening and will require a longer cooking time. On the other hand, an alkaline cooking medium will quickly soften the vegetable's texture and may cause it to become mushy. Alkalinity also causes nutrient loss (especially thiamin) and may impart a bitter flavor. Alkalinity can be caused by tap water, detergent residue on utensils or the addition of baking soda (a base) to the cooking liquid. (You could add, for example, 1/8 teaspoon [0.6 milliliter) baking soda per cup [225 milliliters] of beans to speed the softening of dried beans.)
Color
The acidity or alkalinity of the liquid also affects the plant's pigments, causing both desirable and undesirable color changes. There are three principal pigment categories: chlorophyll, carotenoid and flavonoid. A plant's unique color is the result of a combination of these pigments. Chlorophyll pigments predominate in green vegetables such as spinach, green beans and broccoli. Carotenoid pigments predominate in orange and yellow vegetables such as carrots, tomatoes, reel peppers and winter squashes. Flavonoid pigments predominate in reel, purple and white vegetables such as red cabbage, beets and cauliflower.
Initially, as vegetables are cooked, their original colors intensify. Exposure to heat makes pigments, especially chlorophyll, appear brighter. Exposure to acids and bases affects both chlorophyll and flavonoid pigments. Acids will gradually turn green vegetables an olive-drab color, while a slight alkalinity promote s chlorophyll retention. The opposite occurs with vegetables containing flavonoids: They retain desirable colors in a slightly acidic environment while losing colors in an alkaline one. (Carotenoids are not affected by either acidity or alkalinity.) Color changes alone do not affect flavor, but the altered appearance can make the product so visually unappealing as to become inedible.
Colors also change as the naturally occurring acids in vegetables are released during cooking. If the cooking pan is kept covered, the acids can concentrate, creating richer flavonoid pigments but destroying chlorophyll pigments.
Thus, if color is the one and only concern, vegetables with a high amount of chlorophyll should be cooked in an alkaline liquid, and vegetables, with a high amount of flavonoids should be cooked in an acidic liquid. Remember, the improvement in color usually comes at the expense of texture and nutrients.
Acid & Alkali Reactions
Effects of Acid on: Effect of Alkali on:
VEGETABLE PIGMENT FAMILY COLOR TEXTURE COLOR TEXTURE COOK COVERED
Spinach, broccoli chlorophyll drab olive green firm bright green mushy no
Carrots, rutabagas carotenoid no change firm no change mushy no difference
Cauliflower flavonoid white firm yellow mushy yes
Red cabbage flavonoid red firm blue mushy yes
*Alkalinity always causes a loss of thiamin and other nutrients
Guidelines for Vegetable Cookery
The following general guidelines for vegetable cookery should be considered regardless of the cooking method used:
1. Vegetables should be carefully cut into uniform shapes and sizes to promote even cooking and provide an attractive finished product.
2. Cook vegetables for as short a time as possible to preserve texture, color and nutrients.
3. Cook vegetables as close to service time as possible. Holding vegetables in a steam tab le continues to cook them.
4. When necessary, vegetables may be blanched in advance, refreshed in ice water and refrigerated. They can then be reheated as needed.
5. White and red vegetables (those with flavonoid pigments) may be cooked with a small amount of acid such as lemon juice, vinegar or white wine to help retain their color.
6. When preparing an assortment of vegetables, cook each type separately, and then combine them. Otherwise, some items would become overcooked in the time required to properly cook others.
Doneness
There are so many types of vegetables, with such varied responses to cooking, that no one standard for doneness is appropriate. Each item should be evaluated on a recipe-by-recipe basis. Generally, however, most cooked vegetables are done when they are just tender when pierced with a fork or the tip of a paring knife. Leafy vegetables should be wilted but still have a bright color.
Avoid overcooking vegetables by remembering that some carryover cooking will occur through the residual heat contained in the foods. Always rely on subjective tests-sight, feel, taste and aroma- rather than the clock.
Dry-Heat Cooking Methods
Broiling and Grilling
Broiling and grilling use high heat to cook vegetables quickly. This preserves their nutritional content and natural flavors. The radiant heat of the broiler or grill caramelizes the vegetables, creating a pleasant flavor that is not generally achieved when vegetables are cooked by other methods.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Broil or Grill
Broiling is often used to cook soft vegetables such as tomatoes or items that might not rest easily on a grill rack. Broiling is also used to warm and brown items just before service. If necessary, the vegetables can be basted to prevent them from drying out under the broiler's direct heat. Sometimes a cooked vegetable is napped with sauce or clarified butter and placed briefly under the broiler as a finishing touch at service time.
A large range of vegetables can be grilled. Carrots, peppers, squashes, eggplants and similar vegetables should be cut into broad, thin slices. They can then be placed on the grill in the same manner as a portion of meat or fish to create attractive crosshatchings. Smaller vegetables such as mushrooms, cherry tomatoes and pearl onions can be threaded onto skewers for easy handling. (Bamboo or wooden skewers should be soaked in cold water for 15 minutes before using to help prevent them from burning on the grill.)
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Broiled or Grilled
Vegetables contain little fat and therefore benefit greatly from added fat when being broiled or grilled. The added fat can be a brushing of clarified butter or a marinade such as one made from olive oil and herbs. Some vegetables may be brushed with butter and coated with breadcrumbs or Parmesan before broiling.
Roasting and Baking
The terms roasting and baking are used interchangeably when referring to vegetables. Roasting or baking is used to bring out the natural sweetness of many vegetables while preserving their nutritional value s. The procedures are the same as those for roasting meats.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Roast or Bake
Hearty vegetables such as winter squash and eggplant are especially well suited for roasting or baking. Vegetables such as onions, carrots and turnips are sometimes cooked alongside roasting meats or poultry. The vegetables add flavor to the finished roast and accompanying sauce, and the fats and juices released from the cooking roast add flavor to the vegetables.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Roasted or Baked
Vegetables may be seasoned with salt and pepper, and rubbed with butter, or oil, before baking, or they may be seasoned afterward with a wide variety of herbs and spices. Some vegetables, such as winter squashes and sweet potatoes, may be seasoned with brown sugar or honey as well.
Sauteing
Sautéed vegetables should be brightly colored and slightly crisp when done and show little moisture loss. When sautéing vegetables, all preparation must be complete before cooking begins because timing is important and cooking progresses rapidly. Have all vegetables, herbs, spices, seasonings and sauces ready before beginning.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Sauté
A wide variety of vegetables can be sautéed. Whatever vegetables are used, they should be cut into uniform-sized pieces to ensure even cooking. Quick-cooking vegetables such as summer squashes, onions, greens, stalks, fruit-vegetables and mushrooms can be sautéed without any preparation except washing and cutting. Other vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, green beans, winter squashes, broccoli, cauliflower and most root vegetables are usually first.
Pan-Frying
Pan-frying is not as popular as other techniques for cooking vegetables. Green tomatoes, however, are sometimes seasoned, floured and pan-fried; eggplant slices are seasoned, floured, pan-fried and used for eggplant Parmesan.
Deep-Frying
Deep-frying is a popular method of preparing vegetables such as potatoes, squashes and mushrooms. They can be served as hors d'oeuvre, appetizers or accompaniments to a main dish. Vegetables can also be grated or chopped and incorporated into fritters or croquettes. Any deep-fried item should have a crisp, golden exterior with a tender, non-greasy center.
Selecting and Seasoning Vegetables to Be Deep-Fried
Except for potatoes, most vegetables are breaded or battered before deep -frying. Slow cooking vegetables such as broccoli and cauliflower should be blanched in boiling water before breading or battering. Blanching speeds cooking and allows the interior to cook completely before the surface bums.
Although vegetables that will be deep-fried can be marinated or seasoned directly, it is more common to season the batter or breading that will cover them. Additional flavors come from the sauces and accompaniments served with the deep-fried vegetables. Creamy herb dressings, spicy tomato, or soy-based dipping sauces.
Moist-Heat Cooking Methods
Blanching and Parboiling
Blanching and parboiling are variations on boiling; the difference between them is the length of cooking time. Blanched and parboiled vegetables are often finished by other cooking methods such as sautéing.
Blanching is the partial cooking of foods in a large amount of boiling water for a very short time, usually only a few seconds. Besides preparing vegetables for further cooking, blanching is used to remove strong or bitter flavors, soften firm foods, set colors or loosen skins for peeling. Kale, chard, snow peas and tomatoes are examples of vegetables that are sometimes blanched for purposes other than preparation for further cooking.
Parboiling is the same as blanching, but the cooking time is longer, usually several minutes. Parboiling is used to soften vegetables and shorten final cooking times. Parboiling is commonly used for preparing root vegetables, cauliflower, broccoli and winter squashes.
Boiling
Vegetables are often boiled. Boiled vegetables can be served as they are, or they can be further pre pared by quickly sautéing with other ingredients, pureeing or mashing. Boiled vegetables are also chilled and used in salads.
Starchy root vegetables are generally not boiled but rather simmered slowly so that the heat penetrates to their interiors and cooks them evenly. Green vegetables should be boiled quickly in a large amount of water in order to retain their color and flavor.
Refreshing
Unless the boiled, blanched or parboiled vegetables will be eaten immediately, they must be quickly chilled in ice water after they are removed from the cooking liquid. This prevents further cooking, preserves, and maintains their colors. This process is known as refreshing or shocking the vegetables. The vegetables are removed from the ice water as soon as they are cold. Never soak or hold the vegetables in the water longer than necessary, or valuable nutrients and flavor will be leached away.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Boil
Nearly any type of vegetable can be boiled. Carrots, cabbages, green beans, turnips and red beets are just a few of the most common ones. Vegetables can be large or small, but they should be uniform in size to ensure even cooking. Some vegetables are cooked whole and require only washing before boiling. Others must be washed, peeled, and trimmed, or cut into smaller sizes.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Boiled
Often vegetables are boiled in nothing more than salted water. Lemon juice, citrus zest, wine and other acidic ingredients are sometimes added to white and red vegetables; if so, they should be added to the liquid before the vegetables. Herbs and spices in a sachet or a bouquet garni are often used to add flavor to boiled vegetables and should be added according to the recipe. After boiling, vegetables are sometimes finished with herbs, spices, butter, cream or sauces.
Steaming
Vegetables can be steamed in a convection steamer or by placing them in a basket or on a rack and suspending them over boiling liquid in a wok, saucepan, or hotel pan. Vegetables can also be pan-steamed by cooking them in a covered pan with a small amount or liquid; most of the cooking is clone by steam because only a small portion of the food is submerged in the liquid. Steamed vegetables can be eaten plain, partially cooked and sautéed lightly to finish, incorporated into casseroles or pureed. If they are not served immediately, they must be refreshed and refrigerated until used.
Properly steamed vegetables should be moist and tender. They generally retain their shape better than boiled vegetables. Vegetables cook very rapidly in steam, and overcooking is a common mistake.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Steam
Nearly any vegetable that can be boiled can also be steamed successfully. All vegetables should he washed, peeled and trimmed if appropriate and cut into uniform-sized pieces. Pan-steaming is appropriate for vegetables that are small or cut into fairly small pieces such as peas and beans or broccoli and cauliflower florets.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Steamed
Steaming produces vegetables with clean, natural flavors. Foods cooked in convection steamers can be seasoned with herbs and spices; convection steamers use plain water to produce steam, so the foods being coo ked do not gain flavor from the cooking liquid. Vegetables steamed over liquids or pan-steamed in small amounts of liquids can be flavored by using stocks or court bouillon as the cooking liquid. Herbs, spices and aromatic vegetables can be added to any liquid for additional flavor.
Combination Cooking Methods
Braising and Stewing
Braised and stewed vegetables are cooked slowly in a small amount of liquid. The liquid, including any given off by the vegetables, is reduced to a light sauce, becoming part of the finished product. Generally, a braised dish is prepared, with only one vegetable; a stew is a mixture of several vegetables. The main ingredients are sometimes browned in fat before the liquid is added in order to enhance flavor and color.
Both braises and stews can be exceptionally flavorful because they are served with their entire coo king liquid. (Boiled vegetables lose some of their flavor to the cooking liquid.) Braised and stewed vegetables generally can be held hot for service longer than vegetables prepared by other cooking methods.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Braise or Stew
Various lettuces, especially romaine and Boston, are often braised. Cabbages, Belgium endive, leeks and many other vegetables are also commonly braised. Stews may contain a wide variety of vegetables such as summer squashes, eggplant, onions, peppers, tomatoes, carrots, celery and garlic. Leafy green vegetables and winter squashes are less commonly braised or stewed.
The vegetables should be washed and peeled or trimmed if appropriate. Vegetables to be braised may be left whole, cut into uniform pieces or shredded, as desired. Lettuces are usually cut into halves or quarters; cabbage is usually shredded.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Braised or Stewed
Both braises and stews usually include flavoring ingredients such as garlic, herbs, bacon or mirepoix. The liquid may consist of water, wine, stock or tomato juice. Vegetables can even be braised in butter and sugar or honey to create a glazed dish. Both braises and stews can be seasoned with a variety of herbs and spices. Acid the seasonings before cove ring the pot to finish the cooking process. Strongly flavored vegetables such as celery root and turnips are usually parboiled.
Microwaving
Fresh vegetables are among the few foods that can be consistently well prepared in a microwave oven. Often microwave cooking can be accomplished without any additional liquid, thus preserving nutrients. With microwaving, colors and flavors stay true, and textures remain crisp.
Microwave cooking is actually a form of steaming. As explained in Chapter 10, Principles of Cooking, microwaves agitate water molecules, thus creating steam. The water may be the moisture found naturally in the food or may be added specifically to create the steam. Cooking time depends on the type or microwave oven as well as on the freshness, moisture content, maturity and quantity or vegetables being prepared.
Selecting and Preparing Vegetables to Microwave
Any vegetable that can be steamed successfully can be microwaved with good results. Because typical microwave ovens are relatively small, they are impractical for producing large quantities of food. They are most useful for reheating small portions of vegetables that have been blanched or partially cooked using another cooking method.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Microwaved
Microwaving, like steaming, brings out the natural flavors of food. Herbs and spices can be added to the vegetables before they are microwaved. Alternatively, after microwaving, the vegetables can be tossed with butter, herbs and spices or combined with a sauce.
Pureeing
Pureeing is a technique often used with vegetables. Cooked vegetable purees can be served as is, or they can be used as an ingredient in other preparations such as pumpkin pie, mashed potatoes or vegetable soufflés. Purees can also be bound with eggs or seasoned and used to make vegetable timbales and terrines.
Pureed vegetables are generally first cooked by baking, boiling, steaming or microwaving. White, red and yellow vegetables should be cooked until quite soft. They are more easily pureed when hot or warm; this also helps ensure a smooth finished puree. For most preparations, green vegetables must be refreshed after cooking and pureed while cold, or they will overcook and become discolored.
Seasoning Vegetables to Be Pureed
Vegetables for purees can be seasoned before they are pureed following the guidelines for the cooking procedure used. They can also be seasoned after they are pureed with a wide variety of ingredients such as herbs, spices, cheese, honey or brown sugar.
Applying Various Cooking Methods
Vegetables are cooked in order to break down their cellulose and gelatinize their starches. Cooking gives vegetables a pleasant flavor; creates a softer, tenderer texture; and makes them more digestible. Ideally, most vegetables should be cooked as briefly as possible in order to preserve their flavor, nutrients and texture. Unfortunately, sometimes one must choose between emphasizing appearance and maintaining nutrition because cooking methods that preserve color and texture often remove nutrients.
3.11: Classroom Preparation Assignment - Vegetables
Discussion Questions
1. List three vegetables that are in season in Fall/Winter
2. Give two examples of Brassica vegetables
3. What two peppers are popular in south Louisiana cuisine?
4. What is another name for mirliton?
5. Why is it important to cut vegetables in uniform shapes? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/03%3A_Vegetables/3.10%3A_Vegetable_Nutrition_Storage_and_Preparation.txt |
Potatoes are one of the few vegetables native to the New World, probably originating in the South American Andes. Botanically, potatoes are succulent, non-woody annual plants. The portion consumed is the tuber, the swollen fleshy part of the underground stem. Potatoes are hardy and easy to grow, making them inexpensive and widely available. Americans eat nearly 50-pounds of potatoes annually, making potatoes one of the top 20 vegetables in the United States.
Thumbnail: Potatoes (Unsplash License; Lars Blankers via Unsplash)
04: Potatoes
Potatoes are one of the few vegetables native to the New World, probably originating in the South American Andes. Botanically, potatoes are succulent, non-woody annual plants. The portion consumed is the tuber, the swollen fleshy part of the underground stem. Potatoes are hardy and easy to grow, making them inexpensive and widely available. Americans eat nearly 50-pounds of potatoes annually, making potatoes one of the top 20 vegetables in the United States.
Identifying Potatoes
Discussed here are some of the more commonly used types of potatoes. Other varieties are regularly being developed or rediscovered and tested in the market place. New potatoes are small, immature potatoes (of any variety) that are harvested before their starches develop. Although red potatoes can be "new," not all new potatoes are necessarily red-skinned. Conversely, not all reel-skinned potatoes are new. True new potatoes are waxy with a high moisture content and a thin, delicate skin.
Select potatoes that are heavy and very firm with clean skin and few eyes. Avoid those with many eyes, sprouts, green streaks, soft spots, cracks or cut edges. Most varieties are available all year. When ordering potatoes, note that size A is larger than size B, which must be between 1 1/2 and 2 1/4 inches (3.75 and 5.5 centimeters) in diameter.
Fingerlings
Fingerling potatoes are typically heirloom varieties, related to the original potato varieties from the Andes. They are generally small, long and finger-shape d or oblong with good flavor. The Russian Banana look s like a small banana and has a firm texture and rich, buttery flavor. The reel-streaked French Fingerling has a nutty flavor while the red Ruby Crescent has a strong, earthy flavor. All fingerling varieties tend to be low in starch and are good for roasting and in potato salads.
Purple Potatoes
Purple (or blue) potatoes have a deep purple skin. The flesh is bright purple, becoming lighter when cooked. They are mealy, with a flavor and texture similar to russets. The most common varieties are All Blue and Caribe, which were also quite popular in the mid-19th century.
Red Potatoes
Red potatoes have a thin red skin and crisp, white, waxy flesh, best suited to boiling or steaming. They do not have the dry, mealy texture that successful baking requires. Red potatoes are round, instead of long or oblong; popular varieties are Red Pontiac and Norland.
Russet (Burbank) Potatoes
Russet potatoes, commonly referred to as Idaho potatoes, are the standard baking potato. They are long with rough, reddish-brown skin and mealy flesh. Russets are excellent baked and are the best potatoes for frying. They tend to fall apart when boiled. They are marketed in several size categories and should be purchased in the size most appropriate for their intended use.
White Potatoes
White potatoes are available in round or long varieties. They have a thin, tender skin with a tender, waxy yellow or white flesh. Round white potatoes are also referred to as all-purpose potatoes. White potatoes are usually cooked with moist heat or used for sautéing. White Rose and Finnish Yellow (or Yellow Finn) are popular varieties.
Another variety of white potato known as the Yukon Gold is a medium-sized, slightly flattened, oval potato. They have a delicate pa le yellow skin with shallow pink eyes. Their pale yellow flesh has a creamy texture and rich, buttery, nutty flavor. Yukon Gold potatoes are suitable for most cooking methods and will retain their yellow color when baked, boiled or fried. First bred by botanists in Canada, Yuk on Golds are now grown throughout the United States. Other lesser-known gold-fleshed varieties include Michigold, Donna, Delta Gold, Banana, and Saginaw Gold.
Sweet Potatoes
Sweet potatoes are from a different botanical family than ordinary potatoes, although they are also tuber s that originated in the New World. Two types are commonly available. One has yellow flesh and a dry, mealy texture; it is known as a boniato, white or Cuban sweet potato. The other has a darker orange, moister flesh and is high in sugar; it is known as a reel sweet potato. Both types have thick skins ranging in color from light tan to brownish red. (Sometimes dark-skinned sweet potatoes are erroneously labeled yams.) Sweet potatoes should be chosen according to the desired degree of sweetness. They are best suited for boiling, baking and pureeing, although the less sweet varieties can be deep-fried. The coo ked flesh can also be used in breads, pies and puddings. Sweet potatoes are available canned, often in a spiced or sugary sauce.
Yams
Yams are a third type of tuber, botanically different from both sweet and common potatoes. Yams are less sweet than sweet potatoes, but they can be used interchangeably. The flesh of yams ranges from creamy white to deep red. Yams are Asian in origin and are now found in Africa, South America and the southern United States.
Nutrition
Potatoes contain a high percentage of easily digested complex carbohydrates and little or no fat. They are also a good source for minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin B6, vitamin C and potassium, although much of the vitamin C can be destroyed when potatoes are cooked in liquid such as for boiled or mashed potatoes. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Potatoes/4.01%3A_Identifying_Potatoes.txt |
Purchasing and Storing Potatoes
Mealy versus Waxy
One of the most important considerations in selecting potatoes is choosing between the mealy and waxy varieties. It is important to understand the differences and purchase the type of potatoes best suited to the type of dish being prepared. Mealy potatoes (also known as starchy potatoes) have a high starch content and thick skin. They are best for baking and are often ordered from suppliers simply as "bakers." Their low sugar content also allows them to be deep-fried long enough to fully cook the interior without burning the exterior. Mealy potatoes tend to fall apart when boiled, making them a good choice for whipped or pureed potatoes.
Waxy potatoes have a low starch content and thin skin. They are best for boiling. They will not develop the desired fluffy texture when baked. They tend to become limp and soggy when deep-fried because of their high moisture content.
Grading
Like other vegetables, potatoes are subject to the voluntary USDA grading system. Although U.S. Fancy is the highest grade, most potatoes sold on the wholesale market are U.S. No. 1. Potatoes sold on the retail market can also be graded as either U.S. Gracie A or U.S. Gracie B.
Purchasing
Potatoes are usually packed in 50-pound cartons. Count s vary depending on average potato size. For example, in a 100-count carton, each potato would weigh an average of 8 ounces. Eighty-, 90- and 100-count cartons are the most common. Generally, larger-sized potatoes (that is, smaller counts) are more expensive. Size does not affect quality, however, so the size selected should be determined by intended use.
Storing
Temperatures between 50°F and 65°F (10°C and 18°C) are best for storing potatoes. Do not store potatoes in the refrigerator. At temperatures below 40°F (4°C), potato starch turns to sugar, making the cooked product too sweet and increasing the risk that the potato will turn gray or streaky when cooked. Potatoes with a high sugar content also burn more easily when fried.
Potatoes should be stored in a dark room, as light promotes chlorophyll production, turning them green and bitter. A green patch indicates the possible presence of solanine; a toxin harmful if eaten in large amounts, and should be peeled away. Solanine is also present in the eyes and sprouts, and they should be removed and discarded before cooking.
Under proper conditions, fresh baking or general-purpose potatoes should last for two months; new potatoes will keep for several weeks. Do not wash potatoes until ready to use, as washing promotes spoilage.
Once peeled, potatoes should be stored cove red in water and refrigerated to prevent enzymatic browning.
***Cooked potato dishes, especially those with cream, butter or custard, are potentially hazardous foods. They must be held for service at l 35°F (57°C) or higher. Be sure to reheat potato dishes to l 65°F (74°C) or higher.
Applying Various Cooking Methods
Potatoes have a relatively neutral flavor, making them a perfect accompaniment to many savory dishes. They can be prepared with almost any dry- or moist-heat cooking method: baking, sautéing, pan-frying, deep-frying, boiling or steaming. They can be combined with other ingredients in braises and stews. Potatoes are used in soups (vichyssoise), dumplings (gnocchi), breads, pancakes (latkes), puddings, salads and even vodka.
Many potato dishes, both classic and modern, employ more than one cooking method. For example, hash browns require parboiling, then sautéing. Even French fries are best when first blanched in hot oil before final deep-frying.
Determining Doneness
Most potatoes are considered done when they are soft and tender or offer little resistance when pierced with a knife tip. Fried potatoes should have a crisp, golden-brown surface; the interior should be moist and tender.
Roasting and Baking
Potatoes are often roasted with meat or poultry, becoming coated with the fat and drippings released from the main item as it cooks. Either mealy or waxy potatoes, peeled or unpeeled, can be roasted successfully.
Mealy potatoes such as russets are ideal for baking. The skin is left intact, although it may be pierced with a fork to allow steam to escape. A true baked potato should not be wrapped in foil or cooked in a microwave; this changes the cooking method to steaming and prevents a crisp skin from forming. A properly baked potato should be white and fluffy, not yellowish or soggy. Once baked, potatoes can be eaten plain (or with butter, sour cream and other garnishes) or used in other recipes.
Procedure for Baking Potatoes
1. Scrub the potatoes well.
2. Using a fork, pierce the potato skins.
3. Rub the potatoes with oil and salt if desired. Do not wrap them in foil.
4. Bake the potatoes until clone. A paring knife should penetrate them easily.
Twice-Baked Potatoes (Yield: 16 Servings) - Cut baked potatoes in half lengthwise. Carefully scoop out the flesh, leaving the skins intact. Whip the potato flesh with 8 ounces (240 grams) sour cream, 2 ounces (60 grams) butter and 2 ounces (60 grams) cooked, crumbled bacon and then add salt and pepper to taste. Thin with hot milk if necessary. The mixture should be light and fluffy, not lumpy. Pile the filling back into the skins, mounding the tops. Brush the mounded potatoes with clarified butter and sprinkle with Parmesan. Arrange on a sheet pan and bake at 425°F (220°C) until thoroughly reheated and lightly browned.
Baking en Casserole
Many classic potato dishes require baking either raw or parboil e d potatoes with sauce, cheese, meat or other seasonings in a baking dish or casserole. Wellknown examples include scalloped potatoes , which are baked in béchamel sauce, and potatoes au gratin, which are topped with cheese and baked. These dishes usually develop a crisp, brown crust, which is part of their appeal. The casserole should hold its shape when cut; the potatoes should be tender, and the sauce should be smooth, not grainy. Potato casseroles can be fully baked then held loosely covered in a steam table for service. Portions can be reheated or browned briefly under a broiler or salamander at service time.
Procedure for Baking Potatoes En Casserole
1. Prepare the potatoes by washing, peeling, slicing or partially cooking as desired or as directed in the recipe.
2. Add the potatoes to the baking pan in layers, alternating with the sauce, cream, cheese or other ingredients. Alternatively, combine the potatoes with the other ingredients and place in a buttered baking pan.
3. Bake the potatoes until done.
Sauteing and Pan-frying
Waxy potatoes, such as red- and white-skinned varieties, are best for sautéing or pan-frying. Often they are first parboiled or even fully cooked - a convenient way to use leftover boiled potatoes. They are then cooked in fat following the general procedures for sautéing and pan-frying. The fat can be clarified butter, oil, bacon fat or lard, depending on the desired flavor of the finished dish. The fat must be hot before the potatoes are added so that they will develop a crust without absorbing too much fat. Sauteed potatoes should have a crisp, well-browned crust and tender interior. They should be neither soggy nor greasy.
Potatoes can be sautéed or pan-fried by two method: tossing and still-frying. The tossing method is used to cook relatively small pieces of potatoes in a small amount of fat. The potatoes are tossed using the pan's sloped sides so that they brown evenly on all sides. The still-frying method is used to create a disc-shaped potato product. The shredded or sliced potatoes are added to the pan, usually covering its bottom, and allowed to cook without stirring or flipping until they are well browned on the first side. The entire mass is then turned and cooked on the second side. When the potatoes are done, they can be cut into wedges for service.
Deep Frying
Potato chips and French fries are extremely popular in a variety of shapes, sizes and seasonings. Although a wide range of shapes, sizes and pre-seasoned frozen products are available, fresh fried potatoes can be a delicious, economical menu item.
Top-quality russet potatoes are recommended for deep- frying. The peel may be removed, or left attached. If peeled, the potatoes should be soaked in clear, cold water until ready to cut and cook. This keeps them crisp and white by leaching some of the starch that might otherwise make the potatoes gummy or cause smaller cuts to stick together when cooked.
Deep-fried potatoes are usually blanched in oil ranging in temperature from 250°F to 300°F (120°C to 150°C) until tender and translucent. They are then drained, and held for service, at which time they are finished in hotter oil, usually at a temperature between 350°F and 375°F (180°C and 190°C).
Deep-frying is also used to finish cooking several classic potato dishes such as croquettes and dauphine, in which fully cooked potatoes are pureed, seasoned, shaped and fried. Deep-fried potatoes should be drained on absorbent paper briefly and served immediately.
Procedure for Deep-frying Potatoes
1. Wash, peel or trim the potatoes as desired.
2. Cut the potatoes into uniform-sized pieces.
3. Using the basket method, blanch the potatoes in deep fat at 250°F (121°C) for 2 to 3 minutes, depending on the size of the pieces.
4. Drain the potatoes and spread them out in a single layer on a baking sheet or in a hotel pan.
5. Just before service, submerge the potatoes in deep fat at 350°F- 375°F ( l 77°C- 191°C), using the basket method.
6. Cook until golden brown. Remove from the fat, drain, salt to taste and serve immediately.
More than a french fry
Thanks to the genius of Careme, Escoffier and others, few vegetables have as extensive a classic repertoire as potatoes. Some of these dishes begin with the duchesse potatoes mixture; in this regard, duchesse potatoes can be considered the mother of many classic potato preparations. For example,
Duchesse + Tomato concassee = Marquis
Duchesse + Chopped truffles + Almond coating + Deep-frying = Berny
Duchesse + Shaping + Breading + Deep-frying = Croquettes
Duchesse + Pate a choux = Dauphine
Dauphine + Grated Parmesan + Piped shape + Deep-frying = Lorette
Other classic potato preparations not based on duchesse potatoes include the following:
Anna - Thin potato slices are arranged in several circular layers in a round pan coated with clarified butter; additional butter is brushed on, and the potatoes are baked until crisp, and then cut into wedges for service.
Boulangere - Onions and potatoes are sautéed in butter, then transferred to a baking pan or added to a partially cooked roast in a roasting pan; stock is added, and the potatoes are cooked uncovered until done.
Chateau - Tourneed potatoes are sautéed in clarified butter until golden and tender.
Parisienne - Small spheres are cut from raw, peeled potatoes with a Parisienne scoop; they are seasoned and sautéed in clarified butter then tossed with a meat glaze and garnished with chopped parsley.
Rosti - Potatoes are shredded, seasoned and pan-fried in the shape of a pie, then cut into wedges for service.
Boiling
Waxy potatoes are best for all moist-heat cooking methods. Boiled potatoes (which are actually simmered) may be served ‘as is’, or used in multi-step preparations such as purees, salads, soup s and baked casseroles. Potatoes are usually boiled in water, although stock may be used or milk added for flavor. Always begin cooking potatoes in cold liquid to ensure even cooking. Unlike other vegetables, potatoes should not be refreshed in cold water; it makes them soggy.
Procedure for Boiling Potatoes
1. Wash, peel or trim the potatoes as desired.
2. Cut the potatoes into uniform-sized pieces to promote even cooking. The pieces should not be too small, or they will absorb a large amount of water as they cook, making the final product soggy.
3. Add the potatoes to enough cool liquid to cover them by several inches. Bring to a boil, reduce to a simmer and cook until done. If a slightly firm finished product is desired, remove and drain the potatoes when they are slightly underdone and allow carryover cooking to fin is h cooking them.
4. Drain the potatoes in a colander and serve or use for further preparation. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Potatoes/4.02%3A_Purchasing_storing_and_preparing_potatoes.txt |
Alton Brown's Mashed Potatoes
Makes 4 to 6 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2 pounds Yukon gold potatoes
• 1/2 cup heavy cream
• ounces unsalted butter, cut into pieces
• 1 teaspoon kosher salt
• 1/4 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
Procedure:
1. Peel the potatoes and cut into uniform 1/2-inch pieces.
2. Place into a 4-quart saucepan and cover with cold water by at least 1-inch. Cover, set over high heat and bring to a boil. Once boiling, remove the lid, decrease the heat to maintain a simmer and cook until the potatoes can easily be crushed with a pair of tongs, approximately 15 to 20 minutes. Drain in a colander.
3. Put the cream, butter, salt and pepper into the now empty 4-quart saucepan and place back over the heat until the butter has melted.
4. Remove from the heat and set a food mill fitted with the smallest die, on top of the pot.
5. Add 1 cup of potatoes at a time to the mill. Once all of the potatoes have passed through the mill, stir to combine.
6. Taste and adjust the seasoning, if necessary. Serve immediately.
Basic Mashed Potatoes
Makes about 6 servings
*fresh herbs, cream cheese, other grated cheese, baby spinach can be added to this basic recipe
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2 ½ pounds mealy potatoes (like russets)
• 2 teaspoons salt (or more to taste)
• 2 ounces (1/4 cup) melted whole butter
• ounces (1/2 cup) whole milk (warmed with the butter)
• Salt and white pepper to taste
• Garnish of minced parsley or chives
Procedures:
1. Wash and peel the potatoes.
2. Cut into large dice (uniform size).
3. Place the potatoes in a pot, cover with water and season the water with two teaspoons of salt. Bring to a boil, reduce the heat to medium-low and simmer until the potatoes are tender. DO NOT OVER COOK THE POTATOES. Test for doneness with the tip of your paring knife.
4. Drain the potatoes well in a colander set in the sink. Transfer the potatoes to a bowl of an electric mixer fitted with wire whip.
5. Whip the potatoes for 30 to 45 seconds. Scrap the sides and bottom of the bowl and whip for another 15 seconds – or until they are smooth and free of lumps.
6. Add the butter and milk and season with salt and pepper. Whip on low speed to incorporate, scraping the bottom and sides of the mixing bowl.
7. Adjust seasonings if necessary before serving.
8. Garnish the plate.
*The secret is to work quickly when whipping the potatoes so that the potato mixture does not get cold.
*Note: after adding the butter and milk, if you think it is too dry, add more milk.
Duchesse Potatoes
Makes about 6 servings
Recipe
Duchesse potatoes are often used to decorate platters for buffets, or for tableside preparation for chateaubriand (a recipe of a particular thick cut from the tenderloin, which according to Larousse Gastronomique, was created by personal Chef Montmireil for Francois Rene Chateaubriand, the author and diplomat who served Napoleon as an ambassador and Louis XVIII as Secretary of State for two years.)
Ingredients:
• 2 pounds mealy potatoes (like Russets)
• 1 ounce (2 tablespoons butter)
• Pinch of nutmeg
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 1 egg
• 2 egg yolks
• Clarified butter
The trick to this recipe is to work quickly to get the potato mixture into the piping bags before the mixture gets cold.
Procedures:
1. Preheat the oven to 375 degrees.
2. Peal and quarter the potatoes. Place them in a pot large enough to accommodate them loosely. Add water to cover and season the water with salt.
3. Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat to medium, cover the pot, and cook until fork-tender.
4. Drain and immediately turn them out onto a sheet pan lined with parchment paper (spread evenly) to allow the moisture to evaporate.
5. While still warm, press the potatoes through a grinder or food mill (ricer).
6. Blend in the butter (warmed slightly) and season with nutmeg, salt and pepper.
7. Mix in the eggs and egg yolks, blending well.
8. Transfer the potato mixture to a piping bag fitted with a large star tip.
9. Line a sheet pan with parchment paper and pipe single portion spirals onto the parchment paper.
10. Brush with clarified butter and bake until the edges are golden brown, 8 to 10 minutes.
Gnocchi Al Pesto (Potato Dumplings with Pesto)
PLEASE CHECK OUT THESE VIDEOS (FOR TECHNIQUE – NOT RECIPE) ON MAKING POTATO GNOCCHI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCTGmbAnn44
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_47FQRlGy9w
Recipe
To make the gnocchi:
• 3 pounds potatoes Russet (small russets work best)
• 2 cups all-purpose flour
• 1 large egg
• 1/8 teaspoon salt
1. Put in a large pot. Add cold water and fill pot so that water fills about 1 inch above potatoes.
2. On medium-high heat, bring to a boil and cook until potatoes are fork-tender.
3. When the potatoes are cooked, remove them from the water but reserve the water. (You will use it to boil gnocchi) and immediately peel and pass through a potato ricer.
4. Place riced potato on a clean counter surface. Sprinkle flour all over potato. Make a well in the center of the potato and flour mixture. Place egg in center of well. Using a fork, scramble the egg and blend into potato and flour mixture. Once egg is mixed it, use your hands to incorporate the rest of the potato and flour mixture until a smooth ball forms.
5. Cut dough in 8 sections. Grabbing one section at a time, roll into a long log, about 2 feet long. Cut log into 1-inch pieces. Roll each piece into an oval to form the dumpling. Repeat with 7 other sections. Add a little flour to surface if the dough gets too sticky.
6. Boil (in the reserved water) gnocchi until it floats to the top (about 1 minute). Do not over-crowd the pot with gnocchi. Only place enough dumplings to make one layer of gnocchi.
While potatoes boil, you can work on making the pesto (see instructions below).
To make the pesto cream sauce:
• 3/4 cup fresh basil leaves
• 3/4 cup Parmesan cheese freshly grated
• 3 tablespoons pine nuts
• 2 garlic cloves
• 1/3 cup extra virgin olive oil
• 1/2 cup heavy cream
• 2 tablespoons butter
• Kosher salt and freshly ground black pepper
1. Toast the pine nuts and garlic (still in peel) in a small non-stick skillet over medium heat for 1 minute.
2. Remove garlic. Continue toasting pine nuts until they get golden brown, about 2 more minutes. Be careful! Pine nuts toast quickly so you must watch them closely.
3. Remove the garlic from peel and place into food processor with basil leaves, Parmesan cheese, pine nuts, and salt and pepper to taste. Begin processing, drizzling in olive oil while it mixes. Set aside.
4. Add cream and salted butter to small saucepan over medium-low heat and bring to a simmer,
5. Add pesto and whisk to blend. Heat through for a minute or so until hot.
6. To serve, arrange half of the cooked gnocchi to a medium-size skillet with the pesto sauce.
7. Gently stir together and cook until warm, about 2 minutes. Serve warm.
***You will have excess gnocchi – we can use it for another dish.
Gratin Dauphinoise
Makes 8 to 10 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 3 pounds russet potatoes
• 3 to 4 tablespoons butter (softened)
• Salt and white pepper
• Pinch of nutmeg
• ½ pound (8 ounces) grated Gruyere cheese
• 2 cups (24 ounces) half-and-half
• 3 egg yolks
Procedures:
1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.
2. Peel the potatoes and thinly slice using a mandolin. (Put the potatoes in a bowl of water to prevent discoloration.)
3. Generously butter a baking dish (ask Chef – these are in her office).
4. Arrange the potatoes in the baking dish in a single layer. Season with salt, white pepper and a pinch or two of nutmeg. Sprinkle with a thin layer of cheese.
5. Repeat the process with the potatoes, salt, pepper, nutmeg and cheese. *Reserve about 1/3 of the cheese and set aside.
6. Heat the half-and-half to a simmer.
7. Whisk the egg yolks together in a bowl, then gradually add to the half-and-half, whisking constantly.
8. Pour the mixture over the potatoes and sprinkle with the remaining cheese.
9. Bake until the potatoes are tender and golden brown, 30 to 45 minutes.
Potato Onion Upside Down Pie
Makes 4 servings
Recipes
Ingredients:
• 2 1/2 tablespoons butter
• sprigs thyme, strip the leaves from the stems
• 1 large onion, sliced somewhat thickly (a tad more than 1/4 inch thick) (keep the onions together – do NOT separate into rings)
• 1 pound red potatoes, washed and very thinly sliced
• 2 tablespoons olive oil
• Sea salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 2 cup grated gruyere
• 1/2 cup crumbled feta
• 1 cup grated mozzarella
Procedures:
1. Preheat oven to 400 degrees.
2. Melt the butter in a 9-10 inch cast-iron skillet over medium heat. Add the thyme and onion and cook for 5 minutes, being careful not to break up the onion.
3. Place the potato, oil, cheeses, salt and pepper in a bowl and toss to combine.
4. Arrange the potato mixture gently on top of the onions in the skillet.
5. Transfer the skillet to the oven, and bake for 45 minutes or until golden brown and cooked through.
6. Turn upside down on a serving platter to serve.
4.3: Classroom Preparation Assignment - Potatoes
Discussion Questions:
1. What method of cooking is best for red potatoes?
2. Briefly describe Yukon gold potatoes.
3. What is the best use for Russet potatoes?
4. What kind of potatoes does Alton Brown use for his mashed potatoes?
5. How long has sweet potatoes been grown in Louisiana? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/04%3A_Potatoes/4.04%3A_Potatoe_Recipes.txt |
Botanically, grains are grasses that bear edible seeds. Corn, rice and wheat are the most significant. Both the fruit (that is, the seed or kernel) and the plant are called a grain.
Most grain kernels are protected by a hull or husk. All kernels are composed of three distinct parts: the bran, endosperm and germ. The bran is the tough outer layer covering the endosperm. Bran is a good source of fiber and B-complex vitamins. The endosperm is the largest part of the kernel and is a source of protein and carbohydrates (starch). It is the part used primarily in milled products such as flour. The germ is the smallest portion of the grain and is the only part that contains fat. It is also rich in thiamin. The bran, endosperm and germ can be separated by milling.
This section presents information on corn, rice and wheat as well as several minor grains that are nutritionally significant and gaining popularity.
Some products are available in a stone-ground form. This means that the grains were ground with a stone mill rather than by the steel blades typically used for cracking, grinding, hulling and pearling. Stone grinders are gentler and more precise, so they are less likely to overgrind the grain. Stoneground products will always be labeled as such and are usually more expensive than steel-ground ones.
Corn
Corn is the only grain that is also eaten fresh as a vegetable. Its use as a dried grain dates back several thousand years in Central America and long preceded its use as a vegetable.
Cornmeal
Cornmeal is made by drying and grinding a special type of corn known as dent, which may be yellow, white or blue. Cornmeal is most often used in breads, as a coating for fried foods or cooked as polenta or mush. Products made with cornmeal have a gritty texture and a sweet but starchy flavor.
Hominy
Hominy, also known as ‘posole’ or ‘samp’ is dried corn that has been soaked in hydrated lime or lye. This causes the kernels to swell, loosening the hulls. The hulls and germs are removed and the kernels dried. These white or yellow kernels resemble popcorn, but with a soft, chewy texture and smoky-sour flavor. Hominy is available dried or cooked and canned. It may be served as a side dish or used in stews or soups. Masa harina, a finely ground flour made from dried hominy, is used for making breads, tortillas, tamales and other Mexican and southwestern dishes.
Grits
Grits are traditionally made by grinding dried hominy. These tiny white granules may be used in baked dishes but are most often served as a hot breakfast cereal, usually topped with butter or cheese. Quick-cooking and instant grits are available.
Rice
Rice is the starchy seed of a semiaquatic grass. Probably originating on the Indian subcontinent or in Southeast Asia, rice is used as a staple by more than half the world's population.
Rice can be incorporated into almost any cuisine, from Asian to Spanish to classic French. Its flavor adapts to the foods and seasonings with which the rice is cooked or served. Its texture adds an appealing chewiness to meat and poultry dishes, salads, breads and puddings. Rice is not limited to a side dish, but may be used in stews or curries; for stuffing vegetables or game birds; and in puddings, salads, beverages (such as Mexican horchata) and breads.
Rice is divided into three types based on seed size: long-grain, medium grain and short-grain. Long-grain rice is the most versatile and popular worldwide. The grains remain firm, fluffy and separate when cooked. (Long grain rice can, however, become sticky if overcooked or stirred frequently during cooking.) Short-grain rice has more starch and becomes quite tender and sticky when cooked. Italian risotto, Japanese sushi and Spanish paella are all traditionally made with short-grain rice. The appearance and starch content of medium-grain rice falls somewhere in between. Medium-grain rice becomes sticky when cool, so it is best eaten freshly made and piping hot.
Long Grain Rice
Long-grain, medium-grain and short-grain rice are available in different processed forms. All rice is originally brown. The grains can be left whole, with the bran attached, for brown rice. On the other hand, they can be pearled for the more familiar polished white rice. Both brown rice and white rice can be processed into converted rice and instant rice.
Converted rice is parboiled to remove the surface starch. This procedure also forces nutrients from the bran into the grain's endosperm. Therefore, converted rice retains more nutrients than regular milled white rice, although the flavor is the same. Converted rice is neither pre-cooked nor instant; in fact, it cooks more slowly than regular milled white rice.
Instant or quick-cooking rice is widely available and useful if time is a concern. Instant rice is created by fully cooking and then flash freezing milled rice. Unfortunately, this processing removes some of the nutrients and flavor.
Arborio Rice
Arborio is a round, short-grain rice used primarily in Italian dishes such as risotto. It is very sticky, with a white color and mild flavor.
Basmati Rice
Basmati is one of the finest long-grain rice in the world. It grows in the Himalayan foothills and is preferred in Indian cuisine. It is highly aroma tic, with a sweet, delicate flavor and a creamy yellow color. Basmati rice is usually aged to improve its aromatic qualities and should be washed well before cooking. Jasmine rice is another aromatic long-grain rice. Similar to basmati, it is grown in Thailand and used throughout Southeast Asia.
Brown Rice
Brown rice is the whole natural grain of rice. Only the husk has been removed. Brown rice has a nutty flavor; its chewy texture is caused by the high-fiber bran. Brown rice absorbs more water and takes longer to cook than white rice.
Sticky Rice
Sticky rice is a short-grain rice used in many Asian cuisines. The short grains are fat and round with a high starch con tent and a pearly white color. When cooked, the grains tend to clump together, forming a sticky mass. Sticky rice must be soaked for several hours before being cooked. Also known as glutinous rice or sweet rice, it can be ground into flour and used for dumplings and pastries. Japanese sake and mirin and Chinese ‘Shaoxing’ are made from fermented sticky rice, as is rice vinegar.
Wild Rice
Wild rice is prepared in the same manner as traditional rice, although it is actually the seed of an unrelated reed-like aquatic plant. Wild rice has lo ng, slender grains with a dark brown to black color. It has a nuttier flavor and chewier texture than traditional rice. Three grades are available: giant (the best quality, with very long grains); fancy (a medium-sized grain, suitable for most purposes); and select (a short grain, suitable for soup s, pancakes or baked goods). Cultivated in California, Idaho and Washington, it is generally served with game, used as a stuffing for poultry, or, combined with regular rice for a side dish. Wild rice is expensive, but small quantities are usually sufficient.
Guidelines for Cooking Rice
Rice may be rinsed before cooking to remove dirt and debris, but doing so also removes some of its nutrients. It is not necessary to rinse most American-grown rice, which is generally clean and free of insects.
Rice may also be soaked before cooking. Soaking softens the grains, removes some starch and speeds cooking. The standard ratio for cooking rice is two parts liquid to one part rice. The actual ratio varies, however, depending on the type of rice.
Note: Once cooked, rice is highly perishable. Because of its neutral pH and high protein content, cooked rice is a potentially hazardous food. To avoid the risk of food-borne illnesses, be sure to hold hot rice at 135° F (57°C) or higher. Leftover rice must be quickly cooled and stored at 41°F (S°C) or below Leftover rice must be reheated to 165°F (74°C) or higher.
Cooking Rice
RICE TYPE RATIO RICE:WATER PREPARATION COOKING TIME (SIMMERING) YIELD FROM 1 CUP RAW RICE
Arborio 1:2.5-3 Do not rinse or soak 15-20 min 2 1/2-3 c. (560-675 ml)
Basmati 1:1.75 Rinse well; soak 15 min 2 c. (675 ml)
Brown, long-grain 1:2.5 Do not rinse; may soak 45-50 min 3-4 c. (675-900 ml)
Converted 1:2.5 Do not rinse 20-25 min 3-4 c. (675-900 ml)
White, long-grain (regular milled) 1:2 Do not rinse 15 min 3 c. (675 ml)
Wild 1:3 Rinse 35-60 min., depending on grade 3-4 c. (675-900 ml)
Wheat
Wheat is most often milled into the wide range of flours. Wheat and products derived from it are also used as starchy side dishes or ingredients in so ups, salads, ground meat dishes and breads. These products include cracked wheat, bulgur and couscous. When cooked, they are slightly chewy with a mild flavor. All should be fluffy; none should be soggy or sticky.
Wheat germ and wheat bran are widely available and highly touted for their nutritional values. Bran and germ are not gene rally used plain, but may be added to bread or other cooked dishes.
Cracked Wheat
Cracked wheat is the whole-wheat kernel (known as a berry) broken into varying degrees of coarseness. It is not precooked, and the kernel's white interior should be visible. The bran and germ are still intact, so cracked wheat has a great deal of fiber but a short shelf life. Whole-wheat berries must be soaked for several hours before cooking. Cracked wheat can be fully cooked by long, gentle simmering.
Bulgur
Bulgur is a wheat berry that has had the bran removed; it is then steam cooked, dried and ground into varying degrees of coarseness. Bulgur has a nutlike flavor and texture; it is a uniform golden-brown color (uncooked cracked wheat is not) and requires less cooking time than cracked wheat. Generally, cracked wheat and bulgur cannot be substituted for one another in recipes.
Bulgur needs only to be soaked in water, then drained, for use in salads, or briefly cooked when used in stews or pilafs. Bulgur is good with grilled meats and as an alternative to rice in stuffing and other dishes. The fine grind is most often used in packaged mixes such as tabouli; the medium grind is most often available in bulk.
Couscous
Couscous is made by removing the bran and germ from durum wheat berries. The endosperm is then steamed, pressed to form tiny pellets and dried. Couscous is available in varying degrees of coarseness; medium-fine is the most popular. Couscous is prepared by steaming over water or stock in a pot called a couscousiere. Couscous, traditionally served with North African stews, can be used or served like rice.
Buckwheat
Buckwheat is not a type of wheat; it is not even a grain. Rather, it is the fruit of a plant distantly related to rhubarb. Buckwheat is included here, however, because it is prepared and served in the same manner as grains. The whole buckwheat kernel is known as a groat. The product most often sold as buckwheat is actually kasha, which is a hulled, roasted buckwheat groat.
Buckwheat Plant
Buckwheat Groat
Kasha
Kasha is reddish brown with a strong, nutty, almost scorched flavor. It is available whole or ground to varying degrees of coarse ness. Whole kasha remains in separate grains after cooking; the finer grinds become rather sticky. Kasha can be served as a side dish, usually combined with pasta or vegetables, or it can be chilled and used in salads.
Raw buckwheat groats are ground into flour typically used in pasta, blini and other pancakes. Buckwheat flour contain s no gluten-forming proteins, and it tend s to remain grainy, with a sandy texture. Therefore, it should not be substituted for all the wheat flour in breads or baked goods.
Millet
Millet is a high-protein cereal grain with a bland, slightly nutty flavor and a white color. Used principally as animal fodder in the United States, millet can be cooked and eaten like rice or toasted like buckwheat and cooked like kasha. It can also be ground for flour (when used for baking, it is best combined with wheat flour). Millet is usually sold hulled, as the husk is extremely hard.
Oats
After rice, oats are probably the most widely accepted whole-grain product in the American diet. Oats are consumed daily as a hot breakfast cereal (oatmeal) and are used in breads, muffins, cookies and other baked goods.
An oat groat is the whole oat kernel with only the husk removed. It contains both the bran and germ. Steel cut oats, sometimes known, as Irish oats, are groats that are toasted and then cut into small pieces with steel blades. Rolled oats, marketed as "old-fashioned oats," are groats that have been steamed, then rolled into flat flakes. Quick-cooking oats are simply rolled oats cut into smaller pieces to reduce cooking time. Instant oats are partially cooked and dried before rolling so that they need only to be rehydrated in boiling water. Rolled oats and quick-cooking oats can be used interchangeably, but instant oats should not be substituted in most recipes. Oat bran is the outer covering of a hulled oat. It is available as a separate product, although rolled and cut oats do contain some oat bran.
The term oatmeal is commonly used to refer to both processed groats and the cooked porridge made from them. The processed groats known as oatmeal are a gray-white color with a starchy texture and sweet flavor. They cook into the soft, thick porridge with a robust flavor called oatmeal.
Rolled Steel Cut
Quinoa
Quinoa is native to the South American Andes and was a common food of the Incas, who referred to it as the "mother grain." Although not botanically a true grain, quinoa's tiny seeds are treated as such. The grains (seeds) are small, flattened spheres, approximately 1/16 inch (15 millimeters) in diameter, ringed with the germ. They become translucent when cooked and have a slightly smoky or sesame-like flavor. Several varieties of quinoa are available, ranging in color from dark brown to almost white. The larger whiter varieties are most common and are considered superior.
Quinoa seeds have a natural, bitter-tasting coating, which protects them from birds and insects. Consequently, they should be placed in a fine-meshed colander and rinsed well with cool water for several minutes before use. Quinoa can then be cooked like rice, and will absorb about twice its volume of water. For a nuttier taste, toast the grain in a hot dry pan for about 5 minutes before adding the liquid. Quinoa can also be eaten as a hot breakfast cereal served in lieu of rice. It also finds use as a thickener for soups, stews, and in salads, casseroles, breads and desserts. Quinoa flour, ground from whole seeds, has a delicate nutty flavor. A gluten-free product, it is suitable for anyone bothered by wheat allergies. Quinoa is marketed as the world's "super grain" because the seeds form a complete protein (with all of the essential amino acids) and contain important vitamins and minerals as well as carbohydrates and fat. Quinoa should be kept in the refrigerator or freezer for long-term storage. The leaves of the quinoa plant are similar to spinach and can be eaten as a vegetable.
Nutrition
Grains are an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, proteins and fiber. The amount of milling or refining and the method of preparation affect their nutritional values, however. Unrefined and less-refined grains are excellent sources of dietary fiber. Rice is also quite nutritious: It is low in sodium and calories and contains all the essential amino acids. Some grains, especially white rice and oats, are usually enriched with calcium, iron and B-complex vitamins. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Grains/5.01%3A_Corn_Rice_and_Wheat.txt |
Purchasing
When buying grains, look for fresh, plump ones with a bright, even color. Fresh grains should not be shrive led or crumbly; there should be no sour or musty odors. Grains are sold by weight. They come in bags or boxes ranging from one to 100 pounds. Ten-, 25-and 50-pound units are usually available.
Storing
All grains should be stored in airtight containers placed in a dark, cool, dry place. Airtight containers prevent dust and insects from entering. Airtight containers and darkness also reduce nutrient loss caused by oxidation or light. Coolness inhibits insect infestation; dryness prevents mold. Vacuum-sealed packages will last for extended periods. Whole grains, which contain the oily germ, can be refrigerated to prevent rancidity.
Cooking Methods
Three basic cooking methods are used to prepare grains: simmering, risotto and pilaf. Unlike simmered grains, either those cooked by the ‘risotto’ or the ‘pilaf’ method are first coated with hot fat. The primary distinction between the pilaf and risotto methods is the manner in which the liquid is then added to the grains. When grains are used in puddings, breads, stuffings and baked casseroles, they are usually first fully cooked by one of these methods.
Determining Doneness
Most grains should be cooked until tender, although some recipes do require a chewier (al dente) product. Doneness can usually be determined by cooking time and the amount of liquid remaining in the pan. Some grains, such as wild rice, are fully cooked when they puff open.
In general, grains will be fully cooked when almost all the cooking liquid has been absorbed. This is indicated by the appearance of tunnel-like holes between the grains. Grains can be cooked until almost all of the liquid is absorbed, then removed from the heat and left to stand, covered, for 5 to 10 minutes. This allows the cooked grains to absorb the remaining moisture without burning.
Simmering
The most commonly used method for preparing grains is simmering. To do so, simply stir the grains into a measured amount of boiling salted water in a saucepan on the stovetop. When the liquid returns to a boil, lower the heat, cover and simmer until the liquid is absorbed and the grains are tender. The grains are not stirred during cooking. The grains can be flavored by using stock as the cooking liquid. Herbs and spices can also be added.
Procedure for Simmering Grains
1. Bring the cooking liquid to a boil.
2. Stir in the grains. Add herbs or spices as desired or as directed in the recipe.
3. Return the mixture to a boil, cover and reduce to a simmer. Simmer the grains until tender and most of the liquid is absorbed. Remove the grains from the heat.
4. Drain if appropriate or keep covered and allow the excess moisture to evaporate, approximately 5 minutes. Fluff the grains with a fork before service.
Risotto Method
Risotto is a classic northern Italian rice dish in which the grains remain firm but merge with the cooking liquid to become a creamy, almost puddling-like dish. True risotto is made with a short-grain starchy rice such as Arborio, but the risotto method can also be used to cook other grains such as barley and oats.
The grains are not rinsed before cooking, as this removes the starches needed to achieve the desired consistency. The grains are coated, but not cooked, in a hot fat such as butter or oil. A hot liquid is then gradually added to the grains so that the mixture is kept at a constant simmer. The cooking liquid should be a rich, flavorful stock. Unlike simmering and the pilaf method, the risotto method requires frequent, sometimes constant, stirring.
When finished, the grains should be creamy and tender, but still ‘al dente’ in the center. Grated cheese, heavy cream, cooked meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, herbs and vegetables can be added to create a flavorful side dish or a complete meal.
Risotto Cooking Method Procedure
Bring the cooking liquid (usually a stock) to a simmer.
1. Heat the fat in a heavy saucepan over moderate heat. Acid any onions, garlic or other flavoring ingredients and sauté for 1 to 2 minutes without browning.
2. Add the grains to the saucepan. Stir well to make sure the grains are well coated with fat. Do not allow the grains to brown.
3. Add any wine and cook until it is fully absorbed.
4. Begin to acid the simmering stock, 4-fluid ounces (120 milliliters) at a time, stirring frequently. Wait until each portion of cooking liquid is almost fully absorbed before adding the next
5. Test for doneness after the grains have cooked for approximately 18 to 20 minutes.
6. Remove from heat and stir in butter, grated cheese, herbs or other flavoring ingredients as directed. Garnish and serve immediately.
Pilaf Method
For the pilaf method, the raw grains are lightly sautéed in oil or butter, usually with onions or seasonings for additional flavor. Hot liquid, often a stock, is then added. The pan is covered and the mixture is left to simmer until the liquid is absorbed.
Pilaf Cooking Method Procedure
1. Bring the cooking liquid (either water or stock) to a boil.
2. Heat the fat in a heavy saucepan over moderate heat. Add any onions, garlic or other flavorings and sauté for 1 to 2 minutes without browning.
3. Add the grains to the saucepan. Stir well to make sure the grains are well coated with fat. Do not allow the grains to brown.
4. All at once, add the hot cooking liquid to the sautéed grains.
5. Return the liquid to a boil; reduce to a simmer and cover.
6. Allow the mixture to simmer, either in the oven or on the stovetop, until the liquid is absorbed. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Grains/5.02%3A_Purchasing_Storing_and_Cooking_Grains.txt |
How to Cook Rice on the Stove
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 cup rice
• 2 cups water
• 1/2 teaspoon salt
• 1 tablespoon butter or oil (optional)
Equipment:
• Small (2-quart or so) saucepan with a lid
• Stirring spoon
Pre-cooking: It's good practice to rinse your rice in a strainer before cooking. This is not strictly necessary, but it will rinse off any dusty starch on the surface of the rice along with any leftover chaff or stray particles. (Some forms of rice have a more starchy coating than others do.)
1. Measure the Rice and Water: For most rice, use a 1:2 ratio of one cup of rice to two cups of water. Some rice varieties will need a little less or a little more water as it cooks, so check the package for specific instructions.
2. Combine the water and the rice in the saucepan. Add the salt and butter or oil. Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat to medium-low, place a lid on the pot (Do not take off the lid while the rice is cooking — this lets the steam out and affects the cooking time.) and cook until all liquid has evaporated, 18 to 20 minutes. Remove from the heat and allow sitting for a few minutes before fluffing it with a fork. Rice expands as it cooks, so use a saucepan large enough to accommodate. A 2-quart saucepan for one to two cups of uncooked rice is a good size.
Creamy Polenta
Make 6 servings
Polenta is coarsely or finely ground yellow or white cornmeal boiled with water or stock. It can be eaten ‘as is’, or baked, fried, and grilled. Polenta is an Italian word, derived from the Latin for hulled and crushed grain, especially barley-meal. Crème Fraiche is a soured cream containing about 28% butterfat. It is less sour than U.S. - style sour cream and has a lower viscosity and a higher fat content.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• cups (1 quart) chicken broth (or water)
• 2 teaspoons minced garlic
• 1 cup yellow cornmeal or polenta
• 1 tablespoon Kosher salt
• 1 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
• 1 cup plus 2 tablespoons grated Parmesan cheese
• ¼ cup crème fraiche
• 2 tablespoons butter
Procedure:
1. Heat the chicken stock (or water) in a large saucepan over medium-high heat. Add the garlic and bring the stock to a boil.
2. Reduce the heat to medium-low, and very slowly whisk in the cornmeal or polenta and continue whisking to avoid lumps from forming.
3. Add the salt and pepper and simmer, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon until the mixture thickens, 8 to 10 minutes. Gently scrape the bottom of the pan while stirring to prevent sticking.
4. Remove the saucepan from the heat, stir in the Parmesan, crème fraiche and butter. Adjust seasoning and serve hot with extra Parmesan sprinkled on top.
Rice Pilaf with Peas and Herbs
Makes 4 to 6 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 3 tablespoons unsalted butter
• 1/3 cup chopped yellow onions
• 1 teaspoon minced garlic
• 1 1/2 cups basmati rice
• 1/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/4 teaspoon ground black pepper
• 2 3/4 cups chicken stock
• 1 cup frozen peas (thawed)
• 2 tablespoons minced flat-leaf parsley
• 1 tablespoon minced fresh mint
Procedure:
1. Melt the butter in a medium saucepan over medium-high heat.
2. Add the onions and cook, stirring, for 3 minutes. Add the garlic and cook, stirring, for 30 seconds or until aromatic. Add the rice, salt, and pepper, and cook, stirring, until the rice is glassy, about 2 minutes.
3. Add the stock and bring to a boil. Reduce the heat to low, cover, and cook until almost all the liquid is absorbed, about 10 minutes.
4. Add the peas without stirring. Cover and continue to cook until the liquid is absorbed, about 4 minutes.
5. Remove from the heat and let sit covered without stirring for 15 minutes.
6. Fluff with a fork. Add the parsley and mint and gently stir to combine.
7. Adjust seasoning to taste and serve.
Tabbouleh My Way
Makes 8 servings
This is a salad of Lebanese origin consisting chiefly of cracked wheat, tomatoes, parsley, mint, onions, lemon juice, and olive oil.
Recipe
This is a salad of Lebanese origin consisting chiefly of cracked wheat, tomatoes, parsley, mint, onions, lemon juice, and olive oil.
Ingredients:
• 1 cup fine bulgur (No. 1)
• 1 1/3 cups fresh lemon juice, 5 to 6 large lemons
• 3 bunches scallions, trimmed and chopped
• 3 cups minced flat-leaf parsley (about 2 bunches)
• 3 large ripe tomatoes, chopped
• 1/3 cup extra virgin olive oil
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Procedure:
1. Put the bulgur into a large glass or ceramic dish and sir in 1 cup of the lemon juice and 2 cups water. Cover the bowl and set aside at room temperature until most of the liquid has been absorbed and the bulgur is tender, about 45 minutes.
2. Drain the bulgur in a sieve, gently pressing to remove excess liquid.
3. Transfer to a clean glass bowl and add the scallions, parsley, tomatoes, olive oil and the remaining 1/3 cup lemon juice.
4. Season to taste and stir to blend. Can be served at room temperature or chilled.
5.4: Classroom Preparation Assignment - Grains
Discussion Questions:
1. Name three products of corn
2. Name the three types of rice based on seed size.
3. Describe Arborio rice.
4. Name two aromatic forms of rice.
5. Other than rice, what other grain is popular in the American diet? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/05%3A_Grains/5.03%3A_Recipes_for_Grains.txt |
Pasta is made from an unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with a liquid. The liquid is usually egg and / or water. The flour can be from almost any grain: wheat, buckwheat, rice or a combination of grains. The dough can be colored and flavored with pureed vegetables, herbs or other ingredients, and it can be cut or extruded into a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
Pasta can be cooked fresh while the dough is still moist and pliable, or the dough can be allowed to dry completely before cooking. Pasta can be filled or sauced in an endless variety of ways. It can stand alone, or used in salads, desserts, soups, or casseroles.
Pasta is widely used in the cuisines of Asia, North America and Europe. In Italy, pasta dishes are usually served as a separate course, often referred to as the minestre; in other European countries , Asia and the United States , pasta dishes may be served as an appetizer, entree or side dish.
Identifying Pastas
The better-known pastas are based on the Italian tradition of kneading wheat flour with water and eggs to form a smooth, resilient dough. This dough is then rolled very thin, and cut into various shapes before boiling in water, or dried for longer storage.
Commercially prepared dried pasta products are usually made with semolina flour. Semolina flour, ground from hard durum wheat and available from specialty purveyors, has a rich cream color and produces a very smooth, durable dough. Semolina dough requires a great deal of kneading, however, and bread flour is an acceptable substitute when preparing fresh pasta by hand.
Asian pasta, generally known as noodles, is made from wheat, rice, bean, or buckwheat flour. It is available fresh or dried from commercial purveyors and at specialty markets.
Italian-Style Pasta
Although all Italian-style pasta is made from the same type of dough, the finest commercial pastas are those made with pure semolina flour, which gives the dough a rich, yellow color. Gray or streaked dough probably contains softer flours. Dried pasta should be very hard and break with a clean snap. The surface should be lightly pitted or dull. (A smooth or glossy surface will not hold or absorb sauces as well.)
Dried pasta, both domestic and imported, is available in a wide range of flavors and shapes. In addition to the traditional white ( plain ), green (spinach) and red (tomato) pastas, manufacturers are now offering flavor combinations such as lemon-peppercorn, whole wheat-basil and carrot-ginger. Small pieces of herbs or other flavorings are often visible in these products.
There are hundreds of recognized shapes of pasta, but only two or three dozen are generally available in the United States. When experimenting with unusual flavors and shapes, be sure to consider the taste and appearance of the final dish after the sauce and any garnishes are added.
Italian-style pasta can be divided into three groups based on the shape of the final product: ribbons, tubes and shapes. There is no consistent English nomenclature for these pastas; the Italian names are re cognized and applied virtually worldwide. (A specific shape or size may be given different names in different regions of Italy, however. These distinctions are beyond the scope of this text.)
Ribbons
Pasta dough can be rolled very thin and cut into strips, or ribbons, of various widths. All ribbon shapes work well with tomato, fish and shellfish sauces. Thicker ribbons, such as spaghetti and fettuccine, are preferred with cream or cheese sauces. Sheets of fresh pasta dough can be filled and shaped to create ravioli, cappelletti and tortellini. Filled pasta is usually served with a light creamer tomato-based sauce that complements the filling's flavors.
Tubes
Cylindrical forms or tubes are made by extrusion. The hollow tubes can be curved or straight, fluted or smooth. Tubes are preferred for meat and vegetable sauces and are often used in baked casseroles.
Shapes - Additional Ribbons
The extrusion process can also be used to shape pasta dough into forms. The curves and textures produced provide nooks and crevices that hold sauces well. Shaped pastas, such as conchiglie, farfalle and fusilli, are preferred with meat sauces and oil-based sauces such as pesto. Larger shaped pastas can be cooked, then stuffed with meat or cheese fillings and baked or served as a casserole.
Gnocchi
Spaetzle
Cooked Spaetzle Batter passes through device
Asian Noodles
Asian noodles are not cut into the same wealth of shapes and sizes as Italian-style pasta, nor are they flavored or colored with vegetable purees, herbs or other ingredients.
Virtually all Asian noodles are ribbons some thin, some thick-folded into bundles and packaged. Differences arise because of the flours used for the dough. Most dried Asian noodles benefit by soaking in hot water for several minutes before further preparation. The water softens the noodle strands; the bundles separate and the noodles cook more evenly.
Wheat Noodles
Wheat noodles, also known as egg noodles, are the most popular and most widely available of the Asian noodles. They are thin, flat noodles with a springy texture; they are available fresh or dried. Dried egg noodles can be deep-fried after boiling to create crisp golden noodles (chow mein) used primarily as a garnish. Japanese wheat noodles, known as somen (if thin) and udon (if thick), may be round, square or flat. They are eaten in broth or with a dipping sauce.
Rice Noodles
Rice noodles are thin dried noodles made with rice flour. They should be soaked in hot water before coo king and rinsed in cool running water after boiling to remove excess starch and prevent sticking. Rice noodles are often served in soups or sautéed.
Rice vermicelli, which has very fine strands, can be fried in hot oil without presoaking. In only a few seconds, the strands will turn white, puff up and become crunchy. Mounds of crunchy rice noodles can be used as a base for sautéed dishes or for presenting hors d'oeuvre.
Bean Starch Noodles
Bean starch noodles are also known as spring rain noodles, bean threads, bean noodles or cellophane noodles. They are thin, transparent noodles made from mung beans. Dried bean noodles can be fried in the same manner as rice vermicelli. Otherwise, they must be soaked in hot water before using in soups, stir-fries or braised dishes.
Buckwheat Noodles
Buckwheat flour is used in the noodles of northern Japan and the Tokyo region, known as soba noodles. Soba noodles are available fresh or dried and do not need soaking before cooking. They are tradition ally served in broth or with a dipping sauce, but may be substituted for Italian-style pasta if desired.
Dumplings
A dumpling is a small mound of dough cooked by steaming or simmering in a flavorful liquid. Dumplings are found in many cuisines: Italian gnocchi, Jewish matzo balls, German spaetzle, Chinese wontons, Belorussian pelmeni and Polish pierogi Dumplings can be sweet or savory, plain or filled.
Plain or drop dumplings are made with a bread-like dough, often leavened with yeast or chemical leavening agents. They should be light and tender, but firm enough to hold their shape when cooked. Drop dumplings may be served with stews or broths, or coated with butter or sauce as an appetizer or side dish. Filled dumplings are made by wrapping noodle dough around seasoned meat, vegetables, cheese or fruit. These parcels are then steamed, fried or baked and served as a snack food, appetizer or side dish. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/06%3A_Pasta/6.01%3A_Identifying_Pasta.txt |
Nutrition
Pastas are very low in fat and are an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, proteins and carbohydrates. In addition, the processed products are sometimes enriched with additional nutrients.
Purchasing and Storing Pasta Products
Pasta products are purchased by weight, either fresh or dried. Tubes and shapes are not generally available fresh. Dried products, by far the most common, are available in boxes or bags, usually in 1-, 10- and 20-pound units. They can be stored in a cool, dry place for several months. Fresh pasta can be stored in an airtight wrapping in the refrigerator for a few clays or in the freezer for a few weeks.
Preparing Fresh Pasta
Making Fresh Pasta
Fresh pasta is easy to make, requiring almost no special equipment and only a few staples. The basic form is the sfoglia, a thin, flat sheet of dough that is cut into ribbons, circles or squares.
Although pasta dough can be kneaded by hand, stretched and rolled with a rolling pin and cut with a chef's knife, pasta machines make these tasks easier. Pasta machines are either electric or manual. So me electric models mix and knead the dough, then extrude it through a cutting disk. An extrusion machine is most practical in a food service operation that regularly serves large quantities of pasta. The pasta machine more often encountered is operated manually with a hand crank. It has two rollers that knead, press and push the dough into a thin, uniform sheet. Adjacent cutting rollers slice the thin dough into various widths for fettuccine, spaghetti, capellini and the like.
Filling Pasta
Sheets of raw pasta dough can be filled or folded to create ravioli (squares), tortellini (round "hats" with a brim of dough), lunettes (circles of dough folded into half-moons), agnolotti (squares of dough folded into rectangles), cappelletti (squares of dough folded and shaped into rings) and other shapes. The filled pieces of dough are then cooked in boiling water using the procedure for cooking pasta ribbons discussed later. The filling can include almost anything cheese, herbs, vegetables, fish, shellfish, meat or poultry. It can be uncooked or precooked. Nevertheless, any meat filling should be fully cooked before the pasta is assembled, as the time it takes for the dough to cook may not be sufficient to cook the filling.
Cannelloni is a different type of filled pasta: A large square of cooked dough is wrapped around a meat or cheese filling and baked. Popular lasagna dishes are similar. Lasagna are wide, flat sheets of pasta that are cooked and then layered with cheese, tomato sauce and meat or vegetables as desired. The finished casserole is baked and cut into portions.
Some of the larger, commercially prepared pasta shapes such as large shells (conchigloni or rigate) or large tubes (manicotti) can be partially cooked in boiling water, then filled, sauced and baked as a casserole.
Asian noodle dough is also made into filled items such as dumplings, wontons, egg rolls (made with egg noodle dough) and spring rolls (made with rice paper). These items are usually steamed, pan-fried or deep-fried. When making filled pasta, consider the flavors and textures of the filling, dough and sauce. Each should complement the others.
Procedure for Preparing Ravioli
1. Prepare a basic pasta dough of the desired flavor.
2. Prepare and chill the desired filling.
3. Roll out two thin sheets of dough between the rollers of a pasta machine. Gently lay the dough flat on the work surface.
4. Using a piping bag or a small portion scoop, place small mounds of filling on one of the dough pieces. Space the filling evenly, allowing approximately 2 inches (5 centimeters) between each mound.
5. Brush the exposed areas of dough with water.
6. Gently place the second sheet of dough over the mounds and press firmly around each mound to remove air pockets and seal the dough.
7. Cut between the mounds with a chef's knife, pastry wheel or circular cutter.
Cooking Method
Determining Doneness
Italian - style pastas are properly cooked when they are al dente, firm but tender. Cooking times va1y depending on the shape and quantity of pasta , the amount of water used , the hardness of the water and even the altitude. Fresh pasta cooks rapidly, sometimes in seconds. Noodles and dried pasta may re quire several minutes.
Although package or recipe direction s offer some guidance, the only way to accurately test done ness is to bite into a piece. When the pasta is slightly firmer than desired, re move it from the stove and drain. It will continue to cook through residual heat.
Unlike Italian pasta, Asian noodles are not served al dente. Rather, they are either boiled until very soft or stir-fried until very crisp.
Boiling
All Italian-style pasta and most Asian noodles are cooked by just one method: boiling. The secret to boiling pasta successfully is to use ample water. Allow 1 gallon (4 liters) of water for each pound (450 grams) of pasta.
Use a saucepan or stockpot large enough to allow the pasta to move freely in the boiling water; otherwise, the starch released by the dough will make the pasta gummy and sticky. The water should be brought to a rapid boil, then all the pasta should be added at once.
Salt should be added to the water. Pasta absorbs water and salt during cooking. Adding salt to the pasta after it is cooked will not provide the same seasoning effect.
Chefs disagree on whether to add oil to the cooking water. Purists argue against adding oil, on the theory that it makes the do ugh absorb water unevenly. Others think oil should be added to reduce surface foam. Another theory is that oil keeps the pasta from sticking, although this works only when added to cooked, drained pasta.
Asian noodles may be prepared by boiling until fully cooked, or they may be parboiled and then stir-fried with other ingredients to finish cooking.
Procedure for Cooking Pasta to Order
1. Bring the appropriate amount of water to a boil over high heat.
2. Add oil to the water if desired.
3. Add the pasta and salt to the rapidly boiling water.
4. Stir the pasta to prevent it from sticking together. Bring the water back to a boil and cook until the pasta is done.
5. When the pasta is properly cooked, immediately drain it through a colander. A small amount of oil may be gently tossed into the pas ta if de sired to prevent it from sticking together.
6. Serve hot pasta immediately, or refresh it in cold water for later use in salads or other dishes. (Do not rinse pasta that is to be served hot.)
Procedure for Cooking Dried Pasta in Advance
1. Fresh pasta is so delicate and cooks so rapidly (sometimes in as little as 15 seconds) that it should be cooked to order. Dried pas ta, however, can be cooked in advance for quantity service.
2. Follow the preceding directions for cooking pasta, but stop the cooking process when the pasta is about two-thirds done.
3. Drain the pasta, rinse it lightly and toss it in a small amount of oil.
4. Divide the pasta into appropriate-sized portions. Individual portions can be wrapped in plastic or laid on a sheet pan and covered. Refrigerate until needed.
5. When needed, place a portion in a china cap and immerse in boiling water to re heat. Drain, add sauce and serve immediately.
Accompaniments to Pasta
Pasta is widely accepted by consumers and easily incorporated in a variety of cuisines-from Italian and Chinese to Eastern European and spa. It is used in broths; as a bed for stews, fish, shellfish, poultry or meat; or tossed with sauce. Today's creative chefs are constantly developing nontraditional but delicious ways of serving pasta.
Pasta and Broths
Small shapes can be cooked in the broth with which they are served, or cooked separately, then added to the hot liquid at service time. Soups such as cappelletti in brodo and chicken noodle are examples of these techniques.
Pasta Sauces
There are hundreds of Italian pasta sauces as well as sauces for Italian-style pasta , but most can be divided into six categories: ragus, seafood sauces, vegetable sauces , cream sauces, garlic-oil sauces and uncooked sauces.
Sauce Description Pasta Shape Garnish
Ragu Braised dishes used as sauce; flavorings, meat or poultry are browned, then a tomato product and stock, wine, water, milk or cream are added Ribbons, tubes, shapes, filled Grated cheese
Seafood White seafood sauces are flavored
with herbs and made with white wine
or stock; red seafood sauces are tomato-based
Ribbons (fettuccine and capellini) Fish or shellfish
Vegetable Includes both traditional sauces made with tomatoes and stock, flavored
with garlic and red pepper, and
modern sauces such as primavera
Ribbons, tubes, filled Meatballs, sausage,
grated cheese
Cream Uses milk or cream and sometimes
roux; usually cheese is added
Thick ribbons
(spaghetti and fettuccine), filled
Ham, peas, sausage,
mushrooms, smoked
salmon, nuts, grated
cheese
Garlic-oil Olive oil flavored with garlic and
herbs; can be hot or cold, cooked or uncooked (pesto is an uncooked,
cold sauce)
Ribbons, shapes, filled Grated cheese
(if uncooked or cold),
herbs
Uncooked A variety of dressings and garnishes
such as fresh tomatoes, basil and olive
oil; or olive oil, lemon juice, parsley,
basil and hot red pepper flakes; capers, anchovies, olives, fresh herbs, fresh vegetables, flavored oils and cubed cheeses can also be used
Ribbons, shapes Cubed or grated cheese,
fresh vegetables, herbs
Terms
• cracking a milling process in which grains are broken open
• grinding a milling process in which grains are reduced to a powder; the powder can be of differing degrees of fineness or coarseness
• hulling a milling process in which the hull or husk is removed from grains
• pearling a milling process in which all or part of the hull, bran and germ are removed from grains
• extrusion the process of forcing pasta dough through perforated plates to create various shapes; pasta dough that is not extruded must be rolled and cut
• macaroni any dried pasta made with wheat flour and water; only in the United States does the term refer to elbow-shaped tubes
• al dente Italian for "to the tooth"; used to describe a food, usually pasta, that is cooked only until it gives a slight resistance when one bites into it. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/06%3A_Pasta/6.02%3A_Purchasing_Storing_and_Cooking_Pasta_Products.txt |
Creamed Orzo and Leeks
Makes 6 to 8 Servings
Orzo is shaped like a large grain of rice. Orzo can be served alone, as a soup accompaniment, as part of a salad, or baked in a casserole or tossed with vegetables and sauce.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• tablespoons butter
• 2 large leeks, cleaned and sliced thinly (both green and white parts)
• 1 cup chicken stock
• 1 cup orzo
• 1/2 cup heavy cream
• Salt and white to taste
• Ground nutmeg to taste
• 4 tablespoons grated Parmesan cheese
Procedure:
1. Bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. Add the orzo and cook until al dente, about 10 minutes.
2. In the meantime, melt the butter in large skillet over medium heat. Add the leeks and cook, stirring until slightly wilted. Add the chicken stock and simmer until the stock almost disappears.
3. Drain the orzo and set aside.
4. Add the cream to the pan with the leeks and reduce the heat to medium-low. Add the orzo and stir gently to mix. Season with salt, pepper and nutmeg. Just before serving, add the Parmesan and stir until it melts. Serve immediately.
Creamy One-Pot Spaghetti with Leeks
Makes 4 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil
• 1 tablespoon minced garlic
• 2 tablespoons minced green onions (scallions)
• 2 leeks, cleaned, trimmed and cut crosswise into ¼-inch slices
• 1 tablespoon minced shallots
• 1 anchovy fillet, mashed
• 1 pound thin spaghetti
• 3 3/4 cups chicken stock
• ¾ cup heavy cream
• 1/2 teaspoon kosher salt
• Freshly ground black paper to taste
• 2 tablespoons snipped chives
• ½ cup plus 2 tablespoons grated Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese
Procedure:
1. Heat the oil in a large saucepan over medium heat. Add the garlic, scallions, leeks, and shallots and cook, stirring occasionally, until the leeks are softened, about 6 minutes.
2. Add the anchovy, spaghetti, stock, cream, and the 1/2 teaspoon of salt and bring to a boil. Reduce the heat to low and cook, stirring, until the pasta is tender and a sauce forms.
3. Stir in the chives and 1 cup of the grated cheese, season with salt and pepper. Serve the pasta with extra cheese on the side.
Fettuccini Alfredo
Makes 4 Servings
Fettuccine Alfredo is a pasta dish made from fettuccine tossed with Parmesan cheese and butter. As the cheese melts, it emulsifies the liquids to form a smooth and rich coating on the pasta. It was named by an Italian restaurateur at his restaurant Alfredo on the Via della Scrofa in Rome in 1914.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• ounces fresh pasta
• 2 tablespoons butter
• ounces heavy cream
• 2 ounces grated Parmesan cheese
• Salt and white pepper
Procedure:
1. Boil the pasta, keeping it slightly undercooked. Refresh with cool water and drain. Reserve 1 cup of the pasta water.
2. To make the sauce, combine the butter, cream and Parmesan in a skillet over medium heat. Bring to a boil and reduce the sauce slightly – it should thicken a bit.
3. Add the pasta to the pan and boil the sauce and pasta until the sauce is thick and the pasta is cooked. Adjust the seasonings and serve.
Greek Pasta Salad
Makes 8 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• Kosher salt
• 1 pound farfalle
• 1/4 cup extra-virgin olive oil
• tablespoons red wine vinegar
• 2 teaspoons chopped fresh oregano (get from the garden)
• 1 cup halved cherry tomatoes
• 1/3 cup pitted and chopped Kalamata olives
• 1/2 cup thinly sliced red onions
• Freshly ground black pepper
• 2 tablespoons minced fresh dill
• 1/2 cup crumbled feta
Procedure:
1. Fill a large pot with water and generously salt the water. Bring to a boil, add the farfalle and cook until al dente, 12 – 15 minutes. Drain (reserving 1 cup of the pasta liquid) and transfer to a large serving bowl.
2. To make the dressing, whisk the olive oil, red wine vinegar, and oregano in a small bowl.
3. Add the tomatoes, olives and onions to the bowl of pasta. Add dressing and toss until evenly coated.
4. Season with salt and pepper and add dill, then top with feta.
5. COVER THE BOWL AND CHILL FOR 20 MINUTES BEFORE DOING A PRESENTATION PLATE.
Linguine with Onion, Bacon, and Parmesan
Makes 4 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1/2 pound sliced bacon, cut crosswise into 1/2-inch strips
• 2 onions, sliced thin
• 1/2 teaspoon dried thyme (or fresh thyme from the garden)
• 1/8 teaspoon dried red-pepper flakes
• 1 teaspoon salt
• 3/4 pound linguine
• 1/2 cup grated Parmesan cheese, plus more for serving
• 2 tablespoons minced flat-leaf parsley
• 1/2 teaspoon fresh-ground black pepper
Procedure:
1. Fry the bacon in a large skillet until crispy. Transfer the bacon to paper towels to drain.
2. Pour off all but 2 tablespoons of the bacon fat. Put the pan over medium heat, add the onions, thyme, red-pepper flakes, and 1/4 teaspoon of the salt. Cook, stirring occasionally, until the onions are golden, about 10 minutes. Remove from the heat.
3. In a large pot of boiling, salted water, cook the linguine until just done, about 12 minutes. Reserve 1 cup of the pasta water. Drain the linguine and toss with the bacon, onions, 3/4 cup of the reserved pasta water, the Parmesan, parsley, the remaining 3/4 teaspoon salt, and the pepper. If the sauce seems too thick, add more of the pasta water. Serve with additional Parmesan cheese.
Puttanesca Sauce
Makes 6 to 8 Servings
Spaghetti alla puttanesca (pronounced [spaˈɡetti alla puttaˈneska]; literally "spaghetti in the style of a whore" in Italian) is an Italian pasta dish invented in Naples in the mid-20th century. Its ingredients typically include tomatoes, olive oil, anchovies, olives, capers and garlic.
Prostitution has different connotations around the world, but there is only one place where it has inspired a sauce. That place is Italy and the stuff is puttanesca, which translates roughly to "lady of the night." Some sources call the sauce ‘Roman’ (The Oxford Companion to Italian Food), but it's more commonly associated with Naples, the country's third-largest city, the birthplace of pizza, and home of sirens so seductive that the only way to resist them is to ‘fill your ears with beeswax and be tied to the mast of a ship’. It is made by combining anchovies, capers, olives, and optional ingredients like garlic, red pepper flakes, chile peppers, and tomatoes into a truly tasty gravy.
Recipe
From Chef Amelie’s Stocks, Sauces & Soups class
Ingredients:
• tablespoons olive oil
• anchovy filets
• ¼ teaspoon red chili flakes
• 1 tablespoon minced garlic
• 2 cups diced tomatoes
• cups of tomato sauce ***See note below
• 1 cup pitted Kalamata olives
• 1 tablespoon capers, rinsed
• 2 tablespoons finely chopped Italian parsley
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
Procedure:
1. Heat the olive oil in a medium-size saucepan over medium-low heat. Add the anchovies, garlic and red pepper flakes, and stir until almost toasted DO NOT BURN
2. Add tomatoes and tomato sauce and simmer for 15 minutes or until sauce has thickened enough to coat the back of a wooden spoon.
3. Add olives, capers, and parsley and simmer for 5 minutes longer.
4. Season with salt and pepper to taste
Spaghetti alla Carbonara (Mario Batali)
Makes 6 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
• ounces pancetta or bacon, cut into small dice
• ½ pound spaghetti (thin)
• 1 1/4 cups grated Pecorino Romano
• eggs
• Freshly ground black pepper
Procedures:
1. Bring 6 quarts of water to boil in a large pot, and add 2 tablespoons salt.
2. Meanwhile, combine the olive oil and pancetta or bacon in a large skillet over medium heat. Cook until the pancetta (or bacon) has rendered its fat and is crispy and golden.
3. Remove from the heat and set the pancetta aside (do not drain the fat from the skillet).
4. Cook the spaghetti in the boiling water until just al dente. Scoop out ¼ cup of the pasta cooking water and set aside. Drain the pasta.
5. Add the reserved pasta water to the pan with the pancetta, and then toss in the pasta and heat, shaking the pan, for 1 minute.
6. Remove from the heat, add 1 cup of the Parmigiano, the egg whites, and pepper to taste, and toss until thoroughly mixed.
7. Divide the pasta among four warmed serving bowls. Make a nest in the center of each one, and gently drop an egg yolk into each nest.
8. Season the egg yolks with more pepper and sprinkle the remaining ¼-cup Parmigiano over the top. Serve immediately. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/06%3A_Pasta/6.03%3A_Pasta_Recipes.txt |
Vegetarianism is growing trend with more than six million in the United States choosing to forgo some or all animal products in their diets. A chef needs to understand that it is not necessarily enough to simply remove the meat from the center of the plate. Nor is it always sufficient to offer a plate composed of several starch and vegetable side dishes as if it were a balanced and inviting meal.
Variations on Vegetarianism
Although the term ‘vegetarian’ was not widely used until 1847, when England's Vegetarian Society first adopted it to describe people who excluded all animal products from their diets, millions of people have , for thousands of years , eaten little to no meat. Some have done so for religious or philosophical beliefs, others for environmental or health concerns. Still others have done so simply because they did not have regular access to meat.
One of the earliest known proponents of a vegetarian diet was the Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras. He believed that there was a kinship among all living creatures and therefore chose not to eat the flesh of slaughtered anima ls. Over the next two centuries or so, his beliefs were refined and his followers eventually adopted an ethical code that included vows not to kill living creatures (including anima ls traditionally sacrificed to the gods) and not eat meat. His teachings and those of his followers have been widespread for centuries.
Other than for small groups of Pythagoreans and some devout, ascetic religious (especially monastic) communities and sects, vegetarianism as a diet of choice never really caught hold in Europe or North America until the 19th and 20th centuries. And even then, until the 1970s, vegetarianism was more often than not chosen as part of a puritanical or spiritual lifestyle devoted to moderation and abstinence from liquor, caffeine and other stimulants.
Today there are many variations on the vegetarian diet. Some vegetarian diets (and lifestyles) exclude the consumption and use of all animal products (and even some plant products), while others allow the adherent to consume some animal or animal-based products. A person who follows a vegetarian diet can be any of the following:
Vegan - A person who eats no meat, fish or poultry or any products derived from animals such as milk, cheese, eggs, honey or gelatin; also referred to as a strict or pure vegetarian.
Raw foodist - Typically, a vegan who eats only raw or slightly warmed plant products (adherents believe that cooking foods to a temperature of 116°F [47°C] or above destroys enzymes and nutrients). A person on a raw foods diet, also referred to as a living foodist, may soak certain foods such as nut s and sprouts to soften them and increase nutrient absorption.
Fructarian or fruitarian - A person who eats only fruits, nuts, seed s and other plant products that ca n be gathered without harming the plant(so meat only plant matte that has already fallen off the plant).
Ovo – vegetarian - A vegetarian who eats eggs but not dairy products.
Ovo – lacto-vegetarian or lacto-ovo-vegetarian - A person who eats plant products as well as dai1y products and eggs (although some may not eat cheeses made with animal-based enzymes such as rennet, or eggs produced by facto1y farms) This diet is one of the most typical of vegetarian diets and these terms are often used interchangeably with the term vegetarian.
Lacto-vegetarian - A vegetarian who eats dairy products but not eggs.
Demi-vegetarian - A vegetarian or ovo-lacto-vegetarian who eats fish.
Macrobioticist - A person who follows a diet devised in the 1920s by a Japanese teacher who adhered to a simple meal plan of brown rice, miso soup and sea vegetables (seaweed). Derived from an ancient style of eating common in Asia, this dieta1y philosophy is based on Chinese concepts of balancing the opposite forces called yin and yang. Brown rice, whole grains, and vegetables form the basis of the diet. Fruits, nuts, refined sugars and refined foods are avoided, although fish is occasionally eaten.
The Vegetarian Diet
Vegetarianism has become more mainstream over the last century, evolving from a diet followed mainly clue to religious or philosophical beliefs to people who now choose a plant-based diet for health reasons. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, as well as recommendations from the major health groups (American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, and American Dietetic Association), stress the importance of fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole grains the foundation of a plant-based diet. Studies have shown that the incidence of chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer and Type 2 diabetes are lower for vegetarians than for non-vegetarians. It is important to note that other healthy lifestyle factors (not smoking, mode rate use or abstinence from alcohol, and exercise) that vegetarians typically follow might also be responsible for the lower disease rates. All of these factors together probably account for the decreased incidence of disease among vegetarians.
Many people who believe that a plant-based diet is associated with a reduced incidence of disease find it difficult to give up all animal foods. They adapt the principles of vegetarianism to their lifestyles by choosing a diet plan loosely based on vegetarianism - the "flexitarian" plan. Although it is not recognized as a conventional vegetarian diet, people who follow this eating pattern choose a plant-based diet augmented with lean fish and occasional servings of poultry.
Although plant-based diets offer many healthful qualities, careful planning is vital to ensure that the vegetarian is consuming adequate protein, minerals, vitamins and calories. The American Dietetic Association has determined that eating an assortment of plant foods over the course of a clay can provide all the essential amino acids required for good nutrition. However, the quality of plant protein and the ability of the body to absorb it may vary. Vegetarian protein needs can be met by consuming soy foods whose protein has been determined to be as effective a source as animal protein.
A vegetarian diet can meet calcium requirements when plant foods that are good sources of calcium such as greens and cruciferous vegetables are eaten. Vegetarians who elect to consume dairy and eggs do not need to be concerned with meeting adequate calcium intake requirements. Soy products that are fortified with calcium and other vitamins are also readily available. The type of iron found in plant foods may not be as readily absorbed as iron from animal sources; therefore, supplements are recommended.
There are no natural plant sources of Vitamin B12, which is crucial for good nutrition, especially for pregnant women and infants. Consumption of dietary supplements, fortified foods or dairy foods is necessary to provide an adequate amount of Vitamin B12 for vegetarians. Vegans have to be particularly mindful of their food choices, because they avoid all animal-based foods. Vegans usually supplement their diet with multivitamin mineral supplements and include fortified and enriched foods. Another area in which a vegetarian diet may be lacking are the fatty acids naturally occurring in fish such as salmon and mackerel. To compensate, dietitians advise that vegetarians consume a good quantity of linoleic acid in their diet. A diet rich in nuts, canola oil, flax and other seeds and soy products are recommended.
Vegetarians who consume dairy and/ or eggs generally have an easier time meeting their nutrient needs. All vegetarians must choose carefully to be certain to meet their calorie needs, however, if they are also attempting to eat a low-fat diet. High-fiber foods such as vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and fruits can reduce calorie intake because these foods tend to make people feel full sooner. Protein intake is not usually a concern for vegetarians who eat a variety of foods. Overall, a carefully planned plant-based diet is a healthy, satisfying way to eat.
Ingredients for Vegetarian Cooking
A diet rich in a variety of fruits, vegetables, starches and grains, well prepared and properly seasoned, will satisfy even those adhering to the more strict vegetarian diets. Chefs can prepare flavorful, visually stimulating dishes with a traditional range of ingredients available in most restaurant kitchens.
While the professional kitchen offers hundreds of foods appropriate for all vegetarian diets, chefs can use a number of ingredients to enhance the complexity of their vegetarian cooking. Some foods that replace the protein found in animal products are featured here, as well as other ingredients that may mimic more traditional animal-based foods.
Soybean-Based Ingredients
The versatile and protein-rich soybean forms the basis for a wide range of products use d in vegetarian and traditional ethnic cuisines worldwide. Soy-based foods have been favorites in Asian cooking for centuries. While there are brown, black and green varieties, most soybeans are yellow. Fresh green soybeans, called ‘eclamame’, are steamed and eaten as a snack. According to the United Soybean Board, soy protein is the only plant protein that is equivalent to animal protein; it is a rich source of phytochemicals, making soy an ideal ingredient for vegetarian cooking. Soy can be made into a diverse range of foods including flour, "milk," cheese and oil.
Soymilk is made from dried soybeans that are soaked and then finely ground and pressed to extract a milky liquid. (Soymilk can be made in any kitchen by soaking, then cooking dried soybeans in hot water before grinding, straining and simmering the liquid.) Soy milk is believe d to have originated in China, where it is traditionally served as a sweet or savory breakfast beverage or soup base with a distinct beany flavor. Soymilk comes in liquid or powdered form. Liquid soymilk resembles skin milk and has a slight nutty flavor. Most liquid soymilk is sold in aseptic packaging, giving it a one-year shelf life if unopened. Like other dairy products, once opened, liquid soymilk requires refrigeration and lasts from 5 to 7 days or according to recommendations of the manufacturer. Powdered soymilk is shelf-stable and lasts for a year at room temperature. Many dairy substitutes are made from soymilk, such as soy cheese, soy yogurt and flavored soy beverages.
Soymilk can be used measure-for-measure in all recipes that call for dairy milk. Manufacturing technologies have evolved to produce soymilk products with a richer texture and flavor, more suitable for enriching sauces. When cooking with soymilk, be aware that it can separate at high temperatures. Simmer foods with soymilk gently and acid the soymilk near the end of the cooking time to prevent it from separating.
Tofu, or bean curd is a staple of Japanese and Chinese cuisines and is gaining acceptance in American kitchens because of its high nutritional value, low cost and flavor adaptability. Tofu is made by processing soybeans into soymilk, which is then coagulated, or cultured and formed into a cake. The result is a soft, creamy-white sub stance similar to cheese. Tofu is easy to digest and is a good source of protein, low in fat and sodium with no cholesterol.
Tofu is an ancient foodstuff, probably created in China during the second century A.D. It was introduced to Japan by Buddhist priests during the eighth century and was "discovered" by Western travelers during the 17th century. Today, Japanese tofu is said to be the finest, perhaps because of the superiority of the soybeans grown in the Yamato region, near the city of Kyoto. Japanese cuisine values the natural flavor and texture of tofu and uses it in a tremendous variety of ways. Chinese cuisine uses it as an additive, not as a principal ingredient.
Tofu may be eaten fresh; added to soup, broth or noodle dishes; tossed in cold salads ; grilled , deep-fried or sautéed; or pureed to make a creamy spread. Its flavor is bland, but it readily absorbs flavors from other ingredients.
Two types of tofu are widely available: cotton (or traditional) and silken. Cotton tofu is the most common. The soymilk is coagulated (nowadays with calcium sulfate). The curds are then placed in a perforated mold lined with cloth and pressed with a weight to remove the liquid. Cotton tofu is solid, with an irregular surface caused by the weave of the cotton fabric in which it is wrapped for pressing this traditional tofu comes in three styles: soft, firm and extra firm, each style being progressively drier and firmer. Select the style of tofu suited to the preparation. Firmer tofu is solid enough to be grilled, or sautéed. It absorbs the favors of rubs and marinades. Softer tofu may be scrambled like eggs, or processed to form a smooth spread.
Silken tofu has a silky-smooth appearance and texture and a somewhat more delicate flavor than cotton tofu. Silken tofu is made in a process similar to the way yogurt is cultured. No curds are formed, nor is whey produced. This makes a tofu with a custard like texture suitable for processing into a creamy substance, good to use as a base for clips or in spreads or smoothies. Because the water has not been pressed out of silken tofu, it should not be cooked at high temperatures or for a long time, as it falls apart easily. Silken tofu can also be drained to make a thicker spread with a consistency similar to mascarpone or cream cheese.
Fresh tofu is usually packaged in water. It should be refrigerated and kept in water until used. If the water is drained and changed daily, the tofu should last for 1 week. Tofu can be frozen for several months, though its texture may be slightly altered after thawing. Weight down the firm tofu while it is thawing to create a denser, firmer product, suit able for grilling. Place a sheet pan on top of the tofu, then place a heavy object such as a #10 can on top of the sheet pan. Drain the liquid from the tofu before using.
Miso (MEE-so) is a thick paste made by salting and fermenting soybeans and rice or barley. After soaking, the soybeans are steamed, then crushed. The mixture is blended with water. Rice or barley is added along with salt before the mixture is inoculated with a living culture, koji or aspergillus mold. After fermenting and aging, often in large wooden barrels for as long as a year, the paste is ready to use. In Japan, where the manufacture of miso is a fine art akin to cheese making in France, there are countless styles of miso ranging in color from pale to rust and in taste from sweet to salty. In the United States, two types of miso are commonly available: sweet white miso (shiro miso) and dark or red miso. Creamy-colored white miso contains a high percentage of rice and has a mild, somewhat sweet flavor. Dark or red miso, which contains a higher percentage of soybeans, is aged longer and has a stronger, saltier flavor.
Miso can be used in cold and warm preparations but should never be boiled; it contains beneficial enzymes and bacteria that can be killed at high temperatures. A pungent seasoning, miso should be used judiciously so as not to overpower a dish. As little as 1-teaspoon (5 milliliters) per portion can be adequate to flavor a simple broth. With its high salt content, miso will keep indefinitely under refrigeration.
Tempeh is a type of bean cake made from fermented whole soybeans mixed with a grain such as rice or millet. The mixture is inoculated with rhizopus mold, which binds the grains into a firm cake . The traditional food of Indonesia, tempeh has a chewy consistency and a yeasty, nutty flavor. With its chunky texture, tempeh makes a pleasant meat substitute. It lends itself to being marinated for grilling or sautéing. When crumbled, tempeh can be added to soup soy stews to replace ground beef, poultry or pork. A firm cake, tempeh is easily sliced or cut into cubes. Because of the type of live culture used to make it, tempeh should be cooked prior to eating. Proper cooking also tempers its pronounced flavor. Tempeh is sold both fresh and frozen. It lasts for approximately 1 week in the refrigerator or several months when frozen.
Textured soy protein, also known as textured soy flour or TSP, a proprietary name, is a defatted soy protein that is dried and then compressed into granules or chunks or extruded into shapes. Food manufacturers use it as a mea t extender and in commercially produced meat replacements. Granulated texturized soy protein must be rehydrated before cooking which causes it to take on a texture similar to that of meat. Larger forms of texturized soy protein benefit from simmering after re hydration. Adding some vinegar or lemon juice to the simmering liquid helps speed rehydration. A shelf-stable city product, texturized soy protein can be stored for up to a year when tightly sealed at room temperature. Once it has been re hydrated, texturized soy protein must be refrigerated and should be used within a few days.
Other Popular Ingredients in Vegetarian Cooking
Seitan (SAY-tan), often referred to as "wheat meat", is a form of wheat gluten, the insoluble protein in wheat. A staple in the diets of Buddhist monks for centuries, seitan has a firm, chewy texture and a bland flavor. Seitan is made by preparing a dough from wheat gluten or wheat flour and water. The dough is repeatedly rinsed to remove any remaining starch or bran. The spongy pieces of seitan are then simmered in a broth of soy sauce or tamari with ginger, garlic and kombu (seaweed). Cooking tenderizes seitan and imbues it with the flavors of the cooking liquid. As it absorbs flavors, seitan can be flavored to mimic man y foods. Using seasonings associated with poultry such as thyme and sage brings out a more chicken-like flavor in the seitan, whereas using dark soy sauce and meaty mushrooms can give it a meat-like flavor. Seitan should be added to a dish near the end of cooking, as it is already fully cooked. Fully cooked fresh seitan is sold refrigerated in irregularly sized chunks. Once opened it should be consumed within a few days. Powdered seitan mix is also available.
Grain Beverages
Many grains and nuts can be used to produce beverages that can be used in place of stock or dairy products when making soups, sauces and custards. Almond, hazelnut, oat and rice milks are commercially available. These ingredients tend to be lower in fat but higher in carbohydrates than their counterparts and they are cholesterol-free.
Analogous Foods
Numerous products made from soy, wheat, grains, or other plant materials are designed to mimic the appearance and texture of popular animal-based products. These commercially prepared products offer a texture and appearance similar to that of their animal-protein-based counterparts. While their flavors are less successful in imitating the actual flavor of their fish, meat or poultry counterparts, many offer consumers the pleasure of eating familiar foods in traditional dishes.
Plant-based products are available in the form of "nuggets," "burgers," "sausage," "hot dogs," "ground meat," "bacon," "cold cuts" and even "pastrami." Soy protein extract and judicious use of appropriate seasonings, such as sage in a turkey-stuffing analogue, help mimic the flavor of their meat counterparts.
In most cases, these analogous food products may be prepared in the same way as their meat, poultry or fish counterparts. Steaming, sautéing, simmering, grilling and baking work well. Follow the manufacturer's directions, keeping in mind that these products are usually fully cooked, requiring only crisping and heating, and could suffer in overcooking.
Vegetarian Cuisine: Rebalancing the Center of the Plate
The principles of vegetarian cuisine are no different from those of the classic kitchen. When creating an appetizing and satisfying vegetarian dish, chefs use the same professional judgment as when preparing a roast or steak. Flavors must be in balance. Ingredients must be thoughtfully selected and skillfully pre pared. Only the ingredients themselves vary. Chefs need to understand the basic principles of cooking and work with the textures and flavors offered by plant-base d ingredients. Chefs also need to understand the unique role played by animal products in specific recipes they are considering adapting for a vegetarian diner. The muscle fibers in different cuts of meat, poultry and game yield foods with a chewy texture not easily mimicked by vegetable or soy analogues.
Well-marbled meat has fat throughout. When cooked, this fat melts, adding tenderness and flavor to the finished dish. It may be necessary to add fat to enhance flavor and acid moisture to dishes cooked without meats. Replacing animal protein in a main dish with an equal amount of tofu, texturized soy protein, grain, bean puree or plant food may not result in a dish with the same appearance and depth of flavor as the original made with meat. Chefs must carefully choose the ingredients they use. Vegetables should be chosen for their flavor and texture. The mouth feel each ingredient contributes to a finished dish should also be considered. Ripe avocados, for example, have a rich, creamy texture that can mimic the mouth feel of a soft cream cheese.
Baking without eggs poses a number of challenges because of the function eggs perform in many baked goods. Quick-bread formulas using chemical leavening may be better suited to adapting to vegetarian preparation than cream-style cakes. With these considerations in mind, here are some suggestions on how to plan and prepare to add vegetarian dishes to a restaurant menu.
Use or adapt items from the regular menu. Many items on existing me nus may be vegetarian or ca n easily be adapted for a vegetarian diner. Soups, salads, stir-fried vegetables and pasta dishes lend themselves to vegetarian ingredients.
Grains and beans add texture and satiation. Think about these versatile starches as the center-of-the-plate offerings when planning a vegetarian menu. Chewy grains such as cooked bulgur, barley and millet offer a good textural appeal that can be lacking in plant-based cuisine. Ensuring that a customer feels sufficiently full is another consideration, something that a plate of steamed vegetables might not offer.
Take advantage of meaty vegetables and soy products as main attractions in a vegetarian dish. Eggplant, mushrooms (especially portabellas), okra, sweet potatoes and parsnips have flavor and body that mimics that of meat. Pan-fried breaded eggplant slices or grilled whole portabella mushroom caps offer hearty vegetable alternatives to a slice of chicken or beef.
Compose dishes with an eye to balancing color. We eat with our eyes as well as our taste buds. When combining grains and bean s on a plate, consider using different colors, such as black beans and red rice or yellow lentils and black-eyed peas.
Balance textures on the same plate. Look for complementary and contrasting textures in a vegetarian plate. When serving a creamy puree, such as mashed sweet potatoes, for example, balance the texture with something crunchy or crisp such as fried zucchini or a risotto cake.
Layer flavors for complexity of taste. A dish prepared with few ingredients need not be bland or boring. Combine coo king method s in one dish to bring out a complex taste. Sun-dried tomatoes added to a fresh tomato sauce add a rich dimension of taste that might otherwise be lacking.
Create a vegetarian pantry stocked with ingredients that help enhance plant-based cooking. Without base flavor notes created from rich meat stocks, vegetarian dishes can lack depth of flavor. Varieties of fresh and dried mushrooms help enrich flavorful stocks, soups and stews. Dried seaweed such as kombu (sea kelp) adds a briny flavor mimicking seafood stock. Soy sauce and miso can give a vegetable broth a savory taste and appealing dark color, as can wine reductions. Richly flavored nut oils such as sesame oil, hazelnut oil and walnut oil can add complex tastes to dishes prepared without rich meat stocks or butter. Olives and dried fruit have intense flavors and pleasing textures that can add variety to a vegetarian dish. Toasted sesame and other seeds and nuts add bursts of flavor and a textural contrast to a dish.
Seek inspiration from ethnic cuisines in which vegetarian food is traditional. Asian, Indian, Mexican, Middle Eastern and South American cuisines offer many exciting vegetarian options.
Substitution Chart
Ingredient Cooking Method Substitution
Butter Sautéing Vegetable oil or vegetable oil spray Additional oil or liquid may be needed; thin nut butters with oil, fruit juices or nut, rice or soy milks
Flavoring Nut oil: hazelnut, pecan or walnut; nut butter: almond, cashew, peanut or sesame butter
Spreading Ground nut spread: almond, Cashew, peanut or sesame butter; vegetable purees: bean, roasted eggplant, red pepper
Baking Dried fruit or cooked
Quick breads, cookies and
vegetable purees
Quick breads, cookies and general baking; may affect color, taste and texture
Cream Hot soups, sauces Soy or rice milk; pureed
silken tofu
Add at last moment, heating gently to prevent separation
Cold creams or spreads Enriched soy milk Oil may be needed to improve mouth feel
Sour cream, yogurt Beverage or custard Soy coffee creamer
Cold creams or spreads Pureed silken tofu
Eggs Leavening Chemical leavening Consider loss of color from lack of egg yolk; texture will be denser than product containing eggs
Emulsifier in sauces such as mayonnaise Form a temporary emulsion; form emulsion using ground nuts or soaked bread
Beef, fish or poultry stock Sauces, soups, stews Vegetable stock; broth made from miso or seaweed
Demi-glace Sauces, stews Rich vegetable stock made with a larger proportion of
vegetables, reduced and thickened with starch
Gelatin Thickening, gelling Agar Gels more firmly than gelatin
Prepared sauces made
with fish such as
nuoc mam, oyster or Worcestershire
Flavoring Soy sauce, balsamic or red wine vinegar | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Vegetarianism/7.01%3A_Vegetarianism.txt |
Chipotle and Black Bean Burrito
Makes 6 burritos
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 tablespoon olive oil
• 1 garlic clove, minced
• 1/2 teaspoon chile powder
• 1/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/3 cup water
• 1 (15-ounce) can black beans, drained
• 1 (15-ounce) can kidney beans, drained
• 3 tablespoons salsa (recipe follows)
• (10-inch) reduced-fat flour tortillas (such as Mission)
• 1 cup (4 ounces) pre-shredded Mexican blend cheese
• 1 1/2 cups chopped plum tomato (about 3)
• 1 1/2 cups shredded romaine lettuce
• tablespoons thinly sliced green onions
• tablespoons sour cream
Procedure:
1. Heat the oil in a large nonstick skillet over medium heat. Add the garlic and cook, stirring frequently, until fragrant, about 30 seconds.
2. Add the chile powder and salt, and cook, stirring, for 30 seconds.
3. Add the water and beans, and stir to mix. Bring to a boil, and then reduce the heat to medium-low and simmer, stirring occasionally, for 10 minutes.
4. Remove from heat and stir in the **salsa. Partially mash bean mixture with a fork.
5. Warm the tortillas (in a non-stick skillet).
6. Spoon about 1/3 cup of the bean mixture into the center of each tortilla.
7. Top each serving with about 2 1/2 tablespoons cheese, 1/4 cup tomatoes, 1/4 cup lettuce, 1 tablespoon onions, and 1 tablespoon sour cream.
8. Roll up and serve immediately.
**MAKE SALSA AND CHILL IN FRIDGE.
Pico del Gallo Salsa
Makes about 2 1/2 cups
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2 tablespoons finely chopped green onions, both white and green parts
• ripe plum tomatoes, finely chopped
• 2 teaspoons chopped pickled jalapenos
• 2 tablespoons finely chopped fresh cilantro leaves
• 1 teaspoon salt, or more to taste
• 1/4 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
• 1/4 teaspoon hot sauce
• tablespoons fresh lime juice
Combine all of the ingredients in a mixing bowl and toss to mix. Cover and refrigerate for at least one hour before serving.
Epicurious Vegetable Burgers
Makes 4 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 ½ tablespoons olive oil
• (1/2-inch-thick) eggplant rounds
• (3- to 4-ounce) meatless patties
• tablespoons mayonnaise
• 2 tablespoons chopped fresh basil
• (3- to 4-inch square) hamburger buns or ciabatta bread, toasted
• large 1/2-inch-thick tomato slices
• Mixed baby greens
Procedure:
1. Heat oil in heavy large skillet over medium heat.
2. Sprinkle eggplant with salt and pepper.
3. Add eggplant to skillet; sauté until brown, about 3 minutes per side.
4. Add patties to same skillet. Sauté until patties and eggplant are cooked through, about 3 minutes per side.
5. Blend mayonnaise and basil in small bowl, and season with salt and pepper.
6. Spread the mayonnaise mixture on bottom half of each bread piece.
7. Top with patty, eggplant, tomato, greens and bread.
HBO Veggie Burger (From True Blood: Eats, Drinks and Bites From Bon Ton)
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 2/3 cup fine grind bulgur wheat
• ¾ teaspoon salt
• 1 cup boiling water
• teaspoons olive oil
• ounces white button mushrooms, wiped clean, stemmed and chopped
• 1 ½ cups chopped yellow onions
• 1 ½ tablespoons balsamic vinegar
• ¾ cup chopped pecans, toasted
• 1 egg, lightly beaten
• ½ cup fine dried breadcrumbs
• Cayenne pepper and Tabasco brand pepper sauce
• whole-wheat buns, warmed
Procedure:
1. Put the bulgur and the salt in a small bowl. Pour in the boiling water, cover and set aside until the water is absorbed, about 20 minutes. Drain in a sieve, pressing out any excess liquid.
2. Heat 2 teaspoons of the oil in a large non-stick skillet over medium heat.
3. Add the mushrooms, onions, balsamic vinegar, and the remaining ½ teaspoon salt.
4. Cook, stirring, until the vegetables are soft, 8 to 10 minutes.
5. Combine the vegetable mixture and the pecans in a food processor and pulse two or three times to blend.
6. Add the egg and the bulgur, and pulse again to blend.
7. Transfer the mixture to a large mixing bowl and add the breadcrumbs. Season with cayenne and Tabasco. Mix well.
8. With slightly damp hands, form the mixture into 8 patties.
9. Heat 2 teaspoons of oil in a large non-stick skillet over medium heat. Cook the patties, in batches of 4, for about 4 minutes on each side, using more oil for each batch.
10. Serve the burgers on the buns.
Portabella Burgers
Makes 4 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• medium portabella mushrooms, stems removed and wiped clean
• 1 medium onion, cut into ¼-inch slices
• tablespoons olive oil
• 3/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper
• 1 avocado, peeled and sliced
• 2 tablespoons low-fat yogurt
• 1/2 teaspoon minced garlic
• hamburger buns, lightly toasted
• 1 large red bell pepper (roasted, seeded and sliced)
Procedure:
1. Brush the mushrooms and the onions with oil and season with ½ teaspoon salt and 1/4 teaspoon black pepper.
2. Heat a large non-stick or cast-iron skillet over medium heat. Add the mushrooms (do not crowd – cook in two batches if necessary) and cook until just tender, about 4 minutes. Transfer the mushrooms to a place, cavity side up, and cover to keep warm.
3. In the same skillet, cook the onion slices until golden, 6 to 8 minutes, turning occasionally.
4. Meanwhile, combine ½ of the sliced avocados with the yogurt, garlic and remaining ¼ teaspoon salt and ¼ teaspoon black pepper. Mash well with a fork until fairly smooth.
5. Spoon equal amounts of the onions and roasted peppers into the mushroom caps.
6. Spread equal amounts of the avocado mixture on the bottom of each bun top each with the stuffed mushrooms.
7. Top with the remaining sliced avocados. Cover with the tops of the buns.
Tofu Stir-Fry with Fried Rice
Make 6 servings
Recipe
For the Tofu Marinade
Combine the tofu with a pinch of red chili flakes, a tablespoon or two of soy sauce and a sprinkle of rice wine vinegar. Toss to make sure tofu is coated – let marinate for 10 minutes or longer.
For the Rice
Ingredients:
• 1 cup rice
• 2 cups water
• 1 teaspoon salt
• 2 teaspoons olive or vegetable oil
Procedure:
1. In a medium saucepan, combine the rice, water, salt and oil.
2. Bring to a boil, reduce heat and cover the pot. Simmer until the rice is tender and the water is absorbed, about 20 minutes.
3. Remove from the heat and fluff the rice with a fork before serving.
For the Stir-Fry
Ingredients:
• tablespoons sesame oil
• 1 package firm tofu, cut into 1-inch cubes, marinated
• ½ cup quartered white button mushrooms
• 1 medium carrot, julienned
• 1 cup chiffonade of Napa cabbage
• ½ yellow bell pepper, julienned
• scallions (green onions), julienned
• 3 tablespoons soy sauce
• 3 teaspoons oyster sauce
• 2 eggs, lightly beaten
• *Splash of soy sauce for garnish of each serving
Procedure:
1. Place a wok over medium heat. Add 2 tablespoons sesame oil. Once it’s hot, add the mushrooms, carrots, Napa cabbage, yellow bell pepper and scallions. Stir-fry quickly.
2. Add the tofu, the soy sauce and oyster sauce. *Try not to break up the cubes of tofu. Toss to mix. Within 5 minutes, stir-fry should be cooked.
3. Transfer the mixture to a platter and keep warm.
4. In the same wok, add the remaining tablespoon sesame oil and add the lightly beaten eggs.
5. Scramble the eggs, then add the cooked rice and fry.
*Note that this recipe makes 6 servings – so for plate up – put 1 serving of the egg and rice mixture on a warm dinner plate an arrange a portion of the stir-fried vegetables and tofu on top. Splash with a little soy sauce before serving.
Golden Quinoa Salad with Radish, Dill & Avocado
Serves 4 to 6 as a side dish
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 cup organic quinoa
• 1 3/4 cups vegetable stock
• small red radishes, well-cleaned and tops removed, brunoise
• 1/3 seedless English cucumber, about 4 oz, unpeeled, brunoise
• 1 large shallot, minced
• ½ cup chopped dill fronds
• 1/2 lemon, zested and juiced, about 1 1/2 tablespoons
• tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
• 1/2 tablespoon balsamic vinegar
• 1/8 teaspoon smoked paprika
• 1/2 cup sliced raw almonds
• 1/2 cup pitted dates, roughly chopped
• 1/2 cup grated Parmesan cheese (omit for a vegan adaptation)
• Kosher salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 1 ripe avocado, for garnish
Procedure:
1. Rinse the quinoa for 2 to 3 minutes in a fine mesh strainer, rubbing vigorously. Drain.
2. Heat a 2-quart saucepan over medium-high heat and add a drizzle of olive oil. When the oil is hot, add the quinoa and cook, stirring, for 1 minute.
3. Pour in the stock, bring to a boil, cover, and turn the heat down to low. Cook for 15 minutes. Turn off heat and let sit, covered, for 5 minutes.
4. Line a large baking sheet with parchment and spread the cooked quinoa over it in an even layer and cool.
5. Combine the radishes, cucumber, shallots and dill, and toss in a bowl with the cooled quinoa.
6. Zest the lemon right into the bowl and fold in the zest. Juice the lemon half and whisk the juice together with the olive oil, balsamic vinegar, and smoked paprika until emulsified and thick. Toss this with the quinoa.
7. Fold in the almonds, chopped dates, and Parmesan. Taste and season to taste with salt and pepper. CHILL FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES BEFORE SERVING. When ready to serve, top with chopped avocado. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/07%3A_Vegetarianism/7.02%3A_Vegetarian_Recipes.txt |
Oils
Oils are a type of fat that remains liquid at room temperature. Cooking oils are refined from various seeds, plants and vegetables. When purchasing oils, consider their use, smoke point, flavor and cost. Fats, including oils and shortenings, are manufactured for specific purposes such as deep-frying, cake baking, salad dressings and sautéing. Most food service operations purchase different ones for each of these needs. Fats break clown at different temperatures. When fats break down, their chemical structure is altered - the triglyceride molecules that make up fat are converted into individual fatty acids. These acids add undesirable flavors to the fat and can ruin the flavor of the food being cooked. The temperature at which a given fat begins to break down an d smoke is known as its smoke point. Select fats with higher smoke points for high-temperature cooking such as deep-frying and sautéing.
The flavor and cost of each oil must be considerations. For example, both corn oil and walnut oil can be used in a salad dressing. Their selection may depend on balancing cost (corn oil is less expensive) against flavor (walnut oil has a stronger, more distinctive flavor).
Terms
• smoke point the temperature at which a fat begins to break down and smoke.
• flash point the temperature at which a fat ignites and small flames appear on the surface of the fat.
• shortening (1) a white , flavorless, solid fat formulated for baking or deepfrying; (2) any fat used in baking to tenderize the product by shortening gluten strands.
When fats spoil, they go rancid. Rancidity is a chemical change cause d by exposure to air, light or heat. It results in objectionable flavors and odors. Different fats turn rancid at different rates, but all fats benefit from refrigerated storage away from moisture, light and air. (Some oils are packaged in colored glass container s because certain tints of green and yellow block the damaging light rays that can cause an oil to go rancid.) Although oils may become thick and cloudy under refrigeration, this is not a cause for concern. The oils will return to their clear, liquid states at room temperature. Stored fats should also be covered to prevent them from absorbing odors.
Vegetable oils are extracted from a variety of plants, including corn, cottonseed, peanuts, grape seeds, sesame seeds and soybeans, by pressure or chemical solvents. The oil is then refined and cleaned to remove unwanted colors, odors or flavors. Vegetable oils are virtually odorless and have a neutral flavor. Because they contain no animal products, they are cholesterol-free. If a commercial product contains only one type of oil, it is labeled "pure" (as in "pure corn oil") Products labeled "vegetable oil" are blended from several sources. Products labeled "salad oil" are highly refined blends of vegetable oil.
Canola oil is processed from rapeseeds. Its popularity is growing rapidly because it contains no cholesterol and has a high percentage of monounsaturated fat. Canola oil is useful for frying and general cooking because it has no flavor and a high smoke point.
Nut oils are extracted from a variety of nuts and are usually packaged as a "pure" product, never blended. A nut oil should have the strong flavor and aroma of the nut from which it was processed. Popular examples are walnut and hazelnut oils. These oils are used to give flavor to salad dressings, marinades and other dishes. Heat diminishes their flavor, so nut oils are not recommended for frying or baking. Nut oils tend to go rancid quickly and therefore are usually packaged in small containers.
Olive oil is the only oil that is extracted from a fruit rather than a seed, nut or grain. Olive oil is produced primarily in Spain, Italy, France, Greece and North Africa; California produces a relatively minor amount of olive oil. Like wine, olive oils vary in color and flavor according to the variety of tree, the ripeness of the olives, the type of soil, the climate and the producer’s preferences. Colors range from dark green to almost clear, depending on the ripeness of the olives at the time of pressing and the amount of subsequent refining. Color is not a good indication of flavor, however. Flavor is ultimately a matter of personal preference. A stronger-flavored oil may be desired for some foods, while a milder oil is better for others. Good olive oil should be thicker than refined vegetable oils, but not so thick that it has a fatty texture.
The label designations - extra virgin, virgin and pure refer to the acidity of the oil (a low acid content is preferable) and the extent of processing used to extract the oil. The first cold pressing of the olives results in virgin oil. (The designation "virgin" is used only when the oil is 100% unadulterated olive oil, unheated and without any chemical processing.) Virgin oil may still vary in quality depending on the level of free acidity, expressed as oleic acid. Extra virgin oil is virgin oil with not more than 1% free acidity (oleic acid); virgin oil may have up to 3%. Pure olive oil is processed from the pulp left after the first pressing using heat and chemicals. Pure oil is lighter in flavor and less expensive than virgin oil.
Flavored oils, also known as infused oils, are an interesting and increasingly popular condiment. These oils may be used as a dip for breads, a cooking medium or a flavoring accent in marinades, dressings, sauces or other dishes. Flavors include basil and other herbs, garlic, citrus and spice. Flavored oils are generally prepared with olive oil for additional flavor or canola oil, both considered more healthful than other fats.
Top-quality commercially flavored oils are prepared by extracting aromatic oils from the flavoring ingredients and then emulsifying them with a high-grade oil; any impurities are then removed by placing the oil in a centrifuge. Using the aromatic oils of the flavoring ingredients yields a more intense flavor than merely steeping the same ingredients in the oil. Flavored oils should be stored as you would any other high-quality oil.
Condiments
Strictly speaking, a condiment is any food added to a dish for flavor, including herbs, spices and vinegars. Today, however, condiments more often refer to cooked or prepared flavorings, such as prepared mustards, relishes, bottled sauces and pickles served to accompany foods. We discuss several frequently used condiments here. These staples may be used to alter or enhance the flavor of a dish during cooking, or added to a completed dish at the table.
Chutney (from the Hindi word for catnip) is a pungent relish made from fruits, spices and herbs and is frequently used in Indian cooking.
Fermented black bean sauce is a Chinese condiment and flavoring ingredient made from black soybeans that have been heavily salted, then fermented and either slightly mashed (whole bean sauce) or pureed (paste). Both versions are usually mixed with hoisin, chile sauce or minced garlic to produce a sauce that has an intense, pungent, salty flavor. Yellow bean sauces are similar, but milder and sweeter.
Fish sauce is the liquid drained from fermenting salted anchovy-like fish. It is a thin, golden to light brown liquid with a very pungent odor and salty flavor. There is no substitute for the savory richness that it acids to food and it is considered an essential flavoring and condiment throughout Southeast Asia, where it is used in and served with most every sort of dish.
Ketchup (also known as catsup or catchup) originally referred to any salty extract from fish, fruits or vegetables. Prepared tomato ketchup is really a sauce, created in America and used worldwide as a flavoring ingredient or condiment. It is bright red and thick, with a tangy, sweet-sour flavor. Ketchup can be stored either in the refrigerator or at room temperature; it should keep well for up to four months after opening. Ketchup does not turn rancid or develop mold, but it will darken and lose flavor as it ages.
Prepared mustard is a mixture of crushed mustard seeds, vinegar or wine and salt or spices. It can be flavored in many ways- with herbs, onions, peppers and even citrus zest. It can be a smooth paste or coarse and chunky, depending on how finely the seeds are ground and whether the skins are strained out. Prepared mustard gets its tangy flavor from an essential oil that forms only when the seeds are crushed and mixed with water. Prepared mustard can be used as a condiment, particularly with meat and charcuterie items, or as a flavoring ingredient in sauces, stews and marinades.
Dijon mustard takes its name from a town and the surrounding region in France that produces about half of the world's mustard. French mustard labeled as "Dijon" must by law, be produced ‘only’ in that region. Dijon and Dijon-style mustards are smooth with a rich, complex flavor.
English and Chinese mustards are made from mustard flour and cool water. They are extremely hot and powerful. American or "ballpark" mustard is mild and vinegary with a bright yellow color. Unless it contains a high percentage of oil, mustard never really spoils; its flavor just fades away.
Vinegars
Vinegar is a thin, sour liquid used for thousands of years as a preservative, cooking ingredient, condiment and cleaning solution. Vinegar is obtained through the fermentation of wine or other alcoholic liquid. Bacteria attack the alcohol in the solution, turning it into ace tic acid. No alcohol remains when the transformation is complete. The quality of vinegar depends on the quality of the wine or other liquid on which it is based. Vinegar flavors are as varied as the liquids from which they are made.
Vinegars should be clear and clean looking, never cloudy or muddy. Commercial vinegars are pasteurized, so an unopened bottle should last indefinitely in a cool, dark place. Once opened, vinegars should last about three months if tightly capped. Any sediment that develops can be strained out; if mold develops, discard the vinegar.
Wine vinegars are as old as wine itself. They may be made from white or red wine, sherry or even Champagne, and should bear the color and flavor hallmarks of the wine used. Wine vinegars are preferred in French and Mediterranean cuisines.
Malt vinegar is produced from malted barley. Its slightly sweet, mild flavor is used as a condiment, especially with fried foods.
Distilled vinegar, made from grain alcohol, is completely clear with a stronger vinegary flavor and higher acid content than other vinegars. It is preferred for pickling and preserving.
Cider vinegar is produced from unpasteurized apple juice or cider. It is pale brown in color with a mild acidity and fruity aroma. Cider vinegar is particularly popular in the United States.
Rice vinegar is a clear, slightly sweet product brewed from rice wine. Its flavor is clean and elegant, making it useful in a variety of dishes, especially those of Japanese or Asian origin.
Flavored vinegars are simply traditional vinegars in which herbs, spices, fruits or other foods are steeped to infuse their flavors. They are easily produced from commercial wine or distilled vinegars, using any herb, spice or fruit desired. Inferior flavored vinegars are made by adding the desired flavoring to lowgrade vinegar. The use of flavored vinegars is extremely popular but definitely not new. Clove, raspberry and fennel vinegars were sold on the streets of Paris during the 13th century. Making fruit-flavored vinegars was also one of the responsibilities of American homemakers during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Balsamic vinegar is newly popular in the United States, though it has been produced in Italy for more than 800 years. To produce traditional balsamic vinegar, reel or white wine made from specially cultivated grapes (white Trebbiano and red Lambrusco grapes among others), is reduced, then aged in a succession of wooden barrels made from a variety of woods-oak, cherry, locust, ash, mulberry and juniper- for at least 4, but sometimes up to 50, years. The resulting liquid is dark reddish-brown and sweet. Balsamic vinegar has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tart flavor, making it very mellow. True balsamic is extremely expensive because of the long aging process and the small quantities available. Most of the commercial products imported from Italy are now made by a quick carmelization and flavoring process. Balsamic is excellent as a condiment or seasoning and has a remarkable affinity for tomatoes and strawberries. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Oils_Vinegars_and_Salads/8.01%3A_Oils_and_Vinegars.txt |
There are all types of salads:
• the small plate of crisp iceberg lettuce with tomato wedges,
• cucumber slices and ranch dressing;
• the dinner plate of sautéed duck breast fanned across bright red grilled radicchio and toothy green arugula, sprayed with a vinaigrette dressing;
• the scoop of shredded chicken, mango chutney and seasonings, bound with mayonnaise; and the bowl of artichokes and mushrooms marinated in olive oil and lemon juice.
Each of these dishes fits the definition of a salad: a single food or a mix of different foods accompanied or bound by a dressing. A salad can contain meat, grains, fruits, nuts or cheese and absolutely no lettuce. It can be an appetizer, a second course served after the appetizer, an entree (especially at lunch), and a course following the entree in the European manner or even dessert.
The color, texture and flavor of each salad ingredient should complement those of the others, and the dressing should complement all the ingredients. Harmony is critical to a salad's success-no matter what type of salad is being prepared.
Identifying Salad Greens
Salad greens are not necessarily green: Some are red, yellow, white, or brown. They are all, however, leafy vegetables. Many are members of the lettuce or chicory family.
Lettuce
Lettuce has been consumed for nearly as long as people have kept records of what they and others ate. Archaeologists found that Persian royalty were served lettuce a t their banquets more than 2500 years ago. Now grown and served worldwide, lettuces are members of the genus Lactuca. The most common types of lettuce are butter head, crisp head, leaf, and romaine.
Boston Bibb
Boston and bibb are two of the most popular butter head lettuces. Their soft, pliable, pale green leaves have a butter y texture and flavor. Boston is larger and paler than bibb. Both Boston and bibb lettuce leaves form cups when separated from the heads; these cups make convenient bases for holding other foods on cold plates.
Iceberg
Iceberg lettuce is the most common of all lettuce varieties in the United States; it outsells all other varieties combined. Its tightly packed spherical head is composed of crisp, pale green leaves with a very mild flavor. Iceberg lettuce remains crisp for a relatively long time after being cut or pre pared. Select heads that are firm but not hard and leaves that are free of burnt or rusty tips.
Leaf
Leaf lettuce grows in bunches. It has se par ate, ruffle-edged leaves branching from a stalk. Because it does not grow into a firm head, it is easily damaged during harvest and transport. Both red and green leaf lettuce have bright colors, mild flavors and tender leaves. Good quality leaf lettuce should have nicely shaped leaves free of bruises, breaks, or brown spots.
Romaine
Romaine lettuce, also known as ‘cos’, is a loosely packed head lettuce with elongated leaves and thick midribs. Its outer leaves are dark green and although they look coarse, they are crisp, tender and tasty without being bitter. The core leaves are paler and tenderer but still crisp. Romaine has enough flavor to stand up to strongly flavored dressings such as the garlic and Parmesan cheese used in a Caesar salad. A good-quality head of romaine has dark green outer leaves that are free of blemishes or yellowing.
Baby Lettuces
Innovative chefs are always loo king for new and different foods to acid a twist or flair to their dishes.
This has led to the popularity of baby lettuces and other specialty greens. Baby greens have similar but more subtle flavors than their mature versions. They are often less bitter and are always more tender and delicate. Because of their size and variety, they are perfect for composed salads. Mesclun is a mixture of several kinds of baby lettuces.
Micro greens are even smaller than baby lettuces. They are the first true leaves of virtually any edible greens, such as lettuce, spinach, kale and so on. Micro greens are very fragile and must be handpicked and carefully packaged for delivery. Chefs enjoy using them as garnish, especially on entree and appetizer plates.
Chicory
Chicories come in a variety of colors, shapes and sizes; most are slightly bitter. Chicories are quite hearty and can also be cooked, usually grilled or braised.
Belgian Endive
Belgian endive grows in small, tight heads with pointed leaves. It is actually the shoo t of a chicory root. The small sturdy leaves are white at the base with yellow fringes and tip s. (A purple-tipped variety is sometimes available.) Whole leaves can be separated, trimmed and filled with soft butters, cheeses or spreads and served as an hors d'oeuvre, or they can be use d for composed salads. The leaves cut or whole can also be added to cold salads. Heads of Belgian endive are often braised or grilled and served with meat or poultry. As the name suggests, Belgian endive is imported from Belgium but a commercial crop is now produced in California as well.
Curly Endive
In the United States, curly endive is often called by its family name, chicory, or its French name, frisee. The dark green outer leaves are pointed, sturdy and slightly bitter. The yellow inner leaves are more tender and less bitter. Curly endive has a strong flavor that goes well with strong cheeses, game and citrus. It is often mixed with other greens to add texture and flavor.
Escarole
Escarole, sometimes called broadleaf endive, has thick leaves and a slightly bitter flavor. It has green outer leaves and pale green or yellow center leaves. Escarole is very sturdy and is often mixed with other greens for added texture. Its strong flavor stands up to full-flavored dressings and is a good accompaniment to grilled meats and poultry.
Radicchio
Radicchio resembles a small reel cabbage. It retains its bright reddish color when cooked and is popular braised or grilled and served as a vegetable side dish. Because of its attractive color, radicchio is popular in cold salads, but it has a very bitter flavor and should be used sparingly and mixed with other greens in a tossed salad. The leaves form cups when separated and can be used to hold other ingredients when preparing composed salads. Radicchio is quite expensive and availability is sometimes limited.
Other Salad Greens and Ingredients
Leafy vegetables besides lettuce and chicory, as well as other ingredients, are used to ad d texture, flavor and color to salads. A partial listing follows.
Arugula
Arugula, also known as ‘rocket’, is a member of the cabbage family. Arugula leaves are somewhat similar to broad dandelion leaves in size and shape. The best are 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) long. Arugula has a very strong, spicy, peppery flavor so strong, in fact, that it is rarely served by itself. It is best when used to acid zip to salads by combining it with other greens.
Dandelion
Dandelion grows as a weed throughout most of the United States. It has long, thin, toothed leaves with a prominent midrib. When purchasing dandelion for salads, look for small leaves; they are tenderer and less bitter. Older, tougher leaves can be cooked and served as a vegetable.
Mache
Mache or lamb's lettuce is very tender and very delicately flavored. Its small, curved, pale to dark green leaves have a slightly nutty flavor. Because its flavor is so delicate, Mache should be combined only with other delicately flavored greens such as Boston or Bibb lettuce and dressed sparingly with a light vinaigrette dressing.
Sorrel
Sorrel, sometimes called sour grass, has leaves similar to spinach in color and shape. Sorrel has a very tart, lemony flavor that goes well with fish and shellfish. It should be used sparingly and combined with other greens in a salad. Sorrel can also be made into soups, sauces and purees.
Spinach
Like sorrel, spinach can be cooked or used as a salad green. As a salad green, it is popularly served tossed with hot bacon dressing. Spinach is deep green with a rich flavor and tender texture. Good-quality spinach should be fairly crisp. Avoid wilted or yellowed bunches.
Sprouts
Sprouts are not salad greens but are often used as such in salads and sandwiches. Sprouts are very young alfalfa, daikon or mustard plants. Alfalfa sprouts are very mild and sweet. Daikon and mustard sprouts are quite peppery.
Watercress
Watercress has tiny, dime-sized leaves and substantial stems. It has a peppery flavor and adds spice to a salad. Good-quality fresh watercress is dark green with no yellowing. To preserve it freshness, watercress must be kept very cold and moist. It is normally packed topped with ice. Individual leaves are plucked from the stems and rinsed just before service.
Edible Flowers
Many specialty produce growers offer edible, pesticide-free blossoms. They are used for salads and as garnishes wherever a splash of color would be appreciated. Some flowers such as nasturtiums, calenclulas and pansies are grown and picked specifically for eating. Others, such as yellow cucumber flowers and squash blossoms, are by-products of the vegetable industry.
Squash blossoms and other very large flowers should be cut in julienne strips before being added to salads. Pick petals from large and medium-sized flowers. Smaller whole flowers can be tossed in a salad or used as a garnish when composing a salad. Very small flowers or petals should be sprinkled on top of a salad so that they are not hidden by the greens.
Note: Many flowers and blossoms are toxic, especially those grown from bulbs. Even flowers that would otherwise be edible may contain pesticides that can be harmful if ingested. Use only flowers grown specifically for use as food; purchase edible flowers only from reputable purveyors.
Nasturtium Pansies
Fresh Herbs
Basil, thyme, tarragon, oregano, dill, cilantro, marjoram, mint, sage, savory and even rosemary are used to acid interesting flavors to otherwise ordinary salads. Because many herbs have strong flavors, use them sparingly so that the delicate flavors of the greens are not overpowered. Leafy herbs such as basil and sage can be cut chiffonade. Other herbs can be picked from their stems or chopped before being tossed with the salad greens. Flowering herbs such as chive blossoms are used like other edible flowers to add color, flavor and aroma. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Oils_Vinegars_and_Salads/8.02%3A_Salads.txt |
Nutrition
Salad greens are an especially healthful food. Greens contain virtually no fat and few calories and are high in vitamins A and C, iron and fiber. But when greens are garnished with meat and cheese and tossed with a dressing (many of which are oil based), fat and calories are added. In an attempt to maintain the healthful nature of greens, low-fat or fat-free dressings should be available to customers.
Purchasing and Storing Salad Greens
Purchasing
Lettuces are grown in nearly every part of the United States; nearly all types are available year -round. Other important salad greens such as spinach are available all year; many of the specialty greens are seasonal.
Lettuce is generally packed in cases of 24 heads with varying weights. Other salad greens are packed in trays or boxes of various sizes and weights. Because salad greens are simply washed and eaten, it is extremely important that they be as fresh and blemish-free as possible. Try to purchase salad greens daily. All greens should be fresh looking, with no yellowing. Heads should be heavy, with little or no damage to the outer leaves.
Many types of salad greens are available precut and prewashed. These greens are often vacuum pa ked to increase shelf life, although delicate greens are sometimes loosely packaged in 5- to 10-pound (2-to 5-kilogram) boxes. Precut and prewashed greens are relatively expensive, but can reduce labor costs dramatically.
Storing
Although some types of salad greens are hearty enough to keep for a week or more und e r proper conditions, all salad greens are highly perishable. Generally, softer-leaved varieties such as Boston and bibb tend to perish more quickly than the crisper-leaved varieties such as iceberg and romaine. Frequently, greens that have wilted slightly can be revived by soaking them in chilled water for up to an hour. The greens should then be drained and refrigerated until crisp.
Greens should be stored in their original protective cartons in a specifically designated refrigerator. Ideally, greens should be stored at temperatures between 34°F and 38°F (1 °C and 3°C). (Most other vegetables should be stored at warmer temperatures of 40°F to 50°F [4°C to 10°C].) Greens should not be stored with tomatoes, apples or other fruits that emit ethylene gas, which causes greens to wilt and accelerates spoilage.
Do not wash greens until needed as excess water causes them to deteriorate quickly.
Preparing Salad Greens
Unless salad greens are purchased precut and prewashed, they will need to undergo some preparation before service, principally tearing, cutting, washing and drying.
Tearing and Cutting
Some chefs want all salad greens torn by hand. Delicate greens such as butter head and baby lettuces look nicer, and it is less likely they will be bruised if hand-torn. Nevertheless, often it is not practical to hand-tear all greens. It is perfectly acceptable to cut hardy greens with a knife. In addition, it can be more practical to snip small lettuce leaves and fresh herbs with kitchen scissors.
Washing
All lettuces and other salad greens should be washed before use. Even though the y may look clean, greens may harbor hidden insects, sand, soil and pesticides. All greens should be washed after they are torn or cut. Whole heads can be washed by repeatedly clipping them in cold water and allowing them to drain. However, washing whole heads is not recommended because it will not remove anything trapped near the head's center, and water trapped in the leaves can accelerate spoilage.
Drying
Salad greens should be dried after washing. Wet greens do not stay as crisp as thoroughly dried ones. In addition, wet greens tend to repel oil-based dressings and dilute their flavors. Greens may be dried by draining them well in a colander and blotting them with absorbent cloth or paper towels, or, preferably, they can be dried in a salad inner, which uses centrifugal force to remove the water.
Salad Dressings
A dressing is a sauce for a salad. Just as sauces for hot foods should complement rather than mask the flavor of the principal food, the sauce (dressing) for a salad should complement rather than mask the flavors of the other ingredients. Although a great many ingredients ca n be use d to make salad dressings, most are base d on either a mixture of oil and vinegar, called a vinaigrette , or a mayonnaise or other emulsified product.
Vinaigrette-style dressings can be made without oil; creamy dressings similar to mayonnaise-based dressings can be made with sour cream, yogurt or buttermilk instead of mayonnaise. Nevertheless, for all practical purposes these dressings are still prepared like vinaigrettes and mayonnaise-based dressings and they are treated that way here.
Vinaigrette Dressings
The simple vinaigrette also known as basic French dressing is a temporary emulsion of oil and vinegar seasoned with salt and pepper. The standard ratio is three parts oil to one part vinegar. The ratio can vary, however. When using strongly flavored oils, less than three parts oil to one part vinegar generally suffices. In some recipes, all or part of the vinegar is replace d with citrus juice, in which case it may take more than one part vinegar and citrus juice to three parts oil to achieve the proper acidity level. Mild or sweet vinegars such as balsamic may require less oil to balance the flavors in the dressing. The best way to determine the correct ratio of oil to vinegar is to taste the dressing, preferably on the food it will dress.
Oils and vinegars have unique flavors that can be mixed and matched to achieve the correct balance for a particular salad. Olive oil goes well with red wine vinegar; nut oils go well with white wine or sherry vinegars. Neutral-flavored oils such as canola, com or safflower can be mixed with a flavored vinegar.
Oil and vinegar repel each other and will separate almost immediately when mixed. They should be whisked together immediately before use.
Oils
Many types of oil can be used to make salad dressings. Light, neutral-flavored oils such as canola, corn, cottonseed, soybean and safflower are relatively low-priced and used extensively for this purpose. Other oils can be used to add flavor. Olive oil is very popular; both mild -flavored pure olive oil and full-flavored extra virgin o live oil are used. Nut oils such as hazelnut and walnut are expensive, but they add unique and interesting flavors. Infused oils are also popular.
Vinegars
Many different vinegars can be used to make salad dressings. Red wine vinegar is the most common because it is inexpensive and its flavor blends well with many foods. However, other vinegars such as cider, balsamic and white wine are also used. Fruit-flavored vinegars (particularly raspberry) are extremely popular and widely available, as are herb- and garlic-flavored ones.
Flavored vinegars are easy to make. Fruit, herbs or garlic are added to a wine vinegar (either red or white) and left for several days for the flavors to blend. The vinegar is then strained and used as desired. Acidic juices such as lemon, orange, and lime are sometimes substituted for all or part of the vinegar in a salad dressing.
Other Flavoring Ingredients
Herbs, spices, shallots, garlic, mustard and sugar are only a few of the many flavoring ingredients used to enhance a vinaigrette dressing. Items such as herbs, shallots and garlic should be minced or chopped before being added to the dressing. If dried herbs are used, the dressing should rest for at least 1 hour to allow the flavors to develop. Other ingredients may be added at any time.
Mayonnaise
Although most food service operations buy commercially made mayonnaise, every chef should know how it is made to more fully understand how to use it and why it reacts the way it does when used. Knowing how to make mayonnaise also allows the chef to create a mayonnaise with the exact flavorings desired.
Mayonnaise is an emulsion. An emulsion, or emulsified sauce, is formed when two liquids that would not ordinarily form a stab le mixture are forced together and held in suspension. To make mayonnaise, oil is whisked together with a very small amount of vinegar. (It is the water in the vin e gar that does not normally mix with oil.) As the oil and vinegar are whisked together, the oil breaks into microscopic droplets that are separated from each other by a thin barrier of vinegar. If left alone, the droplets would quickly regroup, forming a large puddle of oil and a small puddle of vinegar. To prevent the oil droplets from regrouping, an emulsifier is added. For mayonnaise, the emulsifier is lecithin, a protein found in egg yolks. (The acid in the vinegar also helps form the emulsion.) Lecithin has the unique ability to combine with both oil and water. It surrounds the oil droplets, pre venting them from coming in contact with each other and regrouping.
The balance of vinegar, oil, lecithin and agitation (whipping) is crucial to achieve a proper emulsion. The higher the proportion of oil to vinegar, the thicker the sauce will be. The higher the proportion of vinegar to oil, the thinner the sauce will be. (For example, the Emulsified Vinaigrette Dressing on page 882 is a thin emulsion.) Some chefs add 1/2 fluid ounce (15 milliliters) boiling water to each 7 ounces (200 milliliter) finished mayonnaise to help maintain the emulsion.
There is a limit to how much oil each egg yolk can emulsify, however. One yolk contains enough lecithin to emulsify approximately 7 ounces (200 milliliters) of oil. If more than that amount of oi l per egg yolk is added, the sauce will break; that is, the oil and vinegar will separate, and the mayonnaise will become very thin. Often mayonnaise that has broken can be repaired by beating the broken mayonnaise into additional egg yolks or prepared mayonnaise until the emulsion reforms. To repair a broken mayonnaise, slowly beat 7 fluid ounces (210 milliliters) broken mayonnaise into one egg yolk or 4-fluid ounces (120 milliliters) prepared mayonnaise. Adjust the amount of egg yolk or prepared mayonnaise to be used according to the batch that has broken.
Mayonnaise Ingredients
1. A neutral-flavored vegetable oil is most often used for a standard mayonnaise. Other oils are used to contribute their special flavors. For example, olive oil is used to make a strong garlic mayonnaise called aioli.
2. Wine vinegar is used for a standard mayonnaise. Flavored vinegars such as tarragon vinegar are often used to create unique flavors.
3. Seasonings vary according to the intended use but typically include dry mustard, salt, pepper and lemon juice.
Procedure for Preparing Mayonnaise
1. Gather all ingredients and hold at room temperature. Room-temperature ingredients emulsify more easily than cold ones.
2. By hand or in an electric mixer or food processor, w hip the egg yolks on high speed until frothy.
3. Add the seasonings to the yolks and whip to combine. Salt and other seasonings will dissolve or blend more easily when added at this point rather than to the finished mayonnaise.
4. Add a small amount of the liquid (for example, vinegar) from the recipe and whip to combine.
5. With the mixer on high or whisking vigorously by hand, begin to add the oil very slowly until an emulsion forms.
6. After the emulsion forms, the oil can be added a little more quickly but still in a slow, steady stream. The mayonnaise can now be whipped at a slightly slower speed.
7. The mayonnaise will become very thick as more oil is added. A small amount of liquid can be added if it becomes too thick. Alternate between oil and liquid two or three times until all the oil is added and the correct consistency is reached. Import ant: A large egg yolk can emulsify up to 7- fluid ounces (200 milliliters) of oil; adding more oil may cause the mayonnaise to break.
8. Adjust the seasonings and refrigerate immediately.
Mayonnaise-Based Dressings
Mayonnaise-based salad dressings are salad dressings that use mayonnaise as a base, with other ingredients added for flavor, color and texture. These ingredients include dairy products (especially buttermilk and sour cream), vinegar, fruit juice, vegetables (either pureed or minced), tomato paste, garlic, onions, herbs, spices, condiments, capers, anchovies and boiled eggs.
Emulsified Vinaigrette Dressings
An emulsified vinaigrette is a standard vinaigrette dressing emulsified with who le eggs. An emulsified vinaigrette dressing is thinner and lighter than a mayonnaise based dressing and heavier than a basic vinaigrette. Its flavor is similar to a basic vinaigrette, but it will not separate and it clings to greens quite easily.
Procedure for Preparing an Emulsified Vinaigrette Dressing
1. Gather all ingredients and hold at room temperature. Room-temperature ingredients emulsify more easily than cold ones.
2. Whip the eggs until frothy.
3. Add the dry ingredients and any flavorings such as garlic, shallot s and herbs.
4. Add a small amount of the liquid from the recipe and whip to incorporate the ingredients.
5. With the mixer on high or whisking vigorously by hand, begin adding the oil very slowly until the emulsion forms.
6. After the emulsion is formed, acid the oil a little more quickly, but still in a slow, steady stream.
7. Alternate between oil and liquid two or three times until all the oil is added. The dressing should be much thinner than mayonnaise. If it is too thick, it can be thinned with a little water, vinegar or lemon juice. Determine which to use by first tasting the dressing.
Green Salads
Tossed Salads
Tossed salads are made from leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, watercress, arugula or dandelion greens. They may consist only of greens and dressing, or they can be garnished with fruits, vegetables, nuts, or cheese. They can be dressed with many different types of dressings, from a light oil and vinegar to a hearty hot bacon. It is import ant that salad dressings be added at the last possible moment before service. Acidic dressings cause most greens to wilt and become soggy.
Matching Dressings and Salad Greens
There is a simple rule to follow when choosing dressings for salads: The more delicate the texture and flavor of the greens or other ingredients, the lighter and more subtle the dressing should be. Vinaigrette- based dressings are much lighter than mayonnaise -base d or similar dressings and should be use d with butter head lettuces , Mache or other delicate greens. Crisp head lettuce such as iceberg and hardy lettuce such as romaine can stand up to heavier, mayonnaise-based or similar dressings.
Salad Garnishes
It is impossible to make a complete list of the garnishes that can be combined with salad greens for a tossed salad. The following is a partial list:
• Vegetables - nearly any vegetable (raw, blanched or fully cooked) cut into appropriate sizes and uniform shapes
• Fruits - citrus segments, apples or pears; dried fruits such as raisins, currants or apricots
• Meats, poultry, fish, and shellfish - cooked meats and poultry sliced or diced neatly and uniformly; poached, grilled or cured fish, diced or flaked; small, whole cooked shellfish such as shrimp and scallops; lobster or crab sliced, diced or chopped
• Cheeses - grated hard cheeses such as Parmesan, Romano or Asiago; semi-hard cheeses such as Cheddar or Swiss, cut julienne or shredded
• Nuts - nearly any are appropriate, roasted, candied or smoked
• Croutons - assorted breads, seasoned in various ways and toasted
Composed Salads
Composed green salads usually use a green as a base and built by artistically arranging other ingredients on the plate. There are usually four components: the base, body, garnish and dressing.
1. The base is usually a layer of salad greens that line the plate on which the salad will be served. Depending on the desired effect, the leaves can be cupshaped or flat.
2. The body is the main ingredient. It can be lettuce or other greens, or another salad made from cooked or blended ingredients, such as chicken salad or fruit.
3. The garnish is added to the salad for color, texture and flavor. It can be as substantial as a grilled, sliced duck breast or as simple as a sprinkling of chopped herbs; it can be warm or cold. The choice is unlimited, but whatever is used should always complement and balance the flavor of the body.
4. The dressing should complement rather than mask the other flavors in the salad. If the body already contains a dressing, such as a bound salad, additional dressing may not be necessary.
Composed green salads are usually dressed by ladling the dressing over the salad after it is plated. Alternatively, the individual ingredients can be dressed before they are arranged on the plate. A third method that may be limited by the intricacy of the salad but will save precious time during a busy period is to prepare individual salads on a sheet pan. Then, just before service, mist them with dressing using a spray bottle designated for this purpose; then transfer them to chilled plates using a spatula.
Bound Salads
The creative chef can prepare a wide variety of salads by combining cooked meats, poultry, fish, shellfish, potatoes, pasta, grains and /or legumes with a dressing and garnishes. Although the combinations vary greatly, these salads are grouped here because their ingredients are all bound. That is, each salad consists of one or more ingredients held together in a cohesive mass. The binding agent can be either a vinaigrette or a mayonnaise-based or similar dressing. The ingredients should be evenly distributed throughout, and the degree of cohesiveness can range from tightly packed to flaky and easily separated.
The foods that can be used to produce bound salads are so varied that it is impossible to list them all. Generalizing preparation techniques is also very difficult. There are as many ways to prepare a bound salad, as there are ingredients, dressings and garnishes.
Bound salads can be used as the body of a composed salad (for instance, a serving of egg salad on a bed of greens). Some are used in sandwiches but not ordinarily as side dishes - for example, tuna or chicken salad. Some are served as side dishes but not in sandwiches - for example, potato or pasta salad. Follow specific recipes and traditional uses for each salad to build confidence. Then use these skills and imagination for new creations.
Steps for Making Bound Salads
Preparing a salad from cooked foods is a good opportunity to use leftovers, but be sure they are fresh and of good quality. The finished salad can be only as good as each ingredient in the salad.
1. When making a bound salad, choose ingredients whose flavors blend well and complement each other.
2. Choose ingredients for color; a few colorful ingredients will turn a plain salad into a spectacular one.
3. To improve appearance, cut all ingredients the same size.
4. All ingredients should be cut into pieces that are small enough to be eaten easily with a fork.
5. Be sure all meats, poultry, fish and shellfish are properly cooked before using them. Improperly cooked foods can cause food-borne illness and spoilage.
6. Always chill cooked ingredients well before using them. Warm ingredients promote bacterial growth, especially in mayonnaise-based salads.
7. Always use dressings sparingly. They should enhance the flavors of the other salad ingredients, not mask them.
Vegetable Salads
Vegetable salads are made from cooked or raw vegetables or a combination of both. They can be served on buffets, as an appetizer or as a salad course. As with other salads, vegetable salads must successfully combine color, texture and flavor. Some vegetable salads such as coleslaw and carrot-raisin salad are made with mayonnaise. Most, however, are made by either marinating the vegetables or combining them in a vinaigrette dressing.
Almost any vegetable can be success fully marinated. The amount of time depends on the veg tab les and the marinade, but several hours to overnight is usually sufficient for flavors to blend. Soft vegetables such as mushrooms, zucchini and cucumbers can be added directly to a cold marinade. Hard vegetables such as carrots and cauliflower should be blanched in salted water, refreshed, drained and then added to a cold marinade. Carrots, artichokes, mushrooms, cauliflower, zucchini, pearl onions and the like are sometimes simmered quickly in a marinade flavored with lemon juice and olive oil, and then served cold. This style is called a la grecque.
Many marinated salads will last several days under proper refrigeration. As the salads age in the marinade, they will change in appearance and texture. This may or may not be desirable. For example, mushrooms and artichokes become more flavorful, while the acids in the marinade discolor green vegetables. If marina ted salads are prepared in advance, c heck their appearance as well as their seasonings carefully at service time.
Procedure for Preparing Vegetable Salads
1. Gather and wash all vegetables.
2. Trim, cut, shred or otherwise prepare the vegetables as desired or as directed in the recipe.
3. Blanch or cook the vegetables if necessary.
4. Combine the vegetables with the marinade or dressing. Adjust the seasonings.
Fruit Salads
There are so many different fruits with beautiful bright colors and sweet delicious flavors that preparing fruit salads is easy work. Fruit salads are a refreshing addition to buffets and can be served as the first course of a lunch or dinner. A more elaborate fruit salad can be served as a light lunch.
Always prepare fruit salads as close to service time as possible. The flesh of many types of fruit becomes soft and translucent if cut long before service. Other fruits such as apples, bananas and peaches turn brown in a matter of minutes after cutting. If a fruit salad is dressed at all, the dressing is usually sweet and made with honey or yogurt mixed with fruit juices or purees. Alternatively, Grand Marnier, crème de menthe or other liqueurs sprinkled over the salad can serve as a dressing. Fruit salads can be tossed or composed. Either should offer the diner a pleasing blend of colors, shapes, sizes, flavors and textures.
Be Creative with Salads
A salad can be a small part of a meal or the entire meal. There are many styles of salads, and a seemingly endless variety of foods can be used to prepare them. Salads are extremely popular, especially with those interested in lighter dining alternatives. Chefs can tempt these diners by determining the appropriate style of the salads and skillfully combining the main ingredients and dressing to achieve a delicious and appealing balance of colors, textures and flavors. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Oils_Vinegars_and_Salads/8.03%3A_Purchasing_and_Storing_Salads.txt |
Quiz on Salads
1. What are the two most popular lettuces used for salads?
2. What is another name for the leaf lettuce arugula?
3. Name two edible flowers.
4. At what temperature should greens be stored?
5. What lettuce is used in Caesar salad?
Quiz on oils/Vinegars
1. What is the only oil extracted from a fruit?
2. Describe the flavor of Dijon mustard – where did it originate?
3. What is the minimum time balsamic vinegar should be aged?
4. In what cuisine is rice vinegar primarily used?
5. Name two kinds of bound salads.
Quiz on Culinary Herbs
1. In what two cuisines is basil used?
2. Cilantro is also known as _____?
3. Lemongrass is also known as _____?
4. Give me two uses for mint.
5. What kind of parsley is popular in south Louisiana cuisine?
8.05: Recipes for Salads
Caesar Salad with Parmesan Tuiles
Makes 6 to 8 servings
The salad's creation is generally attributed to restaurateur Caesar Cardini, an Italian immigrant who operated restaurants in Mexico and the United States. Cardini was living in San Diego but working in Tijuana where he avoided the restrictions of Prohibition. His daughter Rosa (1928–2003) recounted that her father invented the dish when a 4th of July 1924 rush depleted the kitchen's supplies. Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of the tableside tossing "by the chef."
A number of Mr. Cardini's staff have claimed to have invented the dish. Julia Child claimed to have eaten a Caesar Salad at Cardinin's restaurant when she was a child in the 1920s. Nonetheless, the earliest contemporary documentation of Caesar Salad is from a 1946 Los Angeles restaurant menu, twenty years after the 1924 origin asserted by the Cardinis.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 garlic clove, smashed with a pinch of salt and a little olive oil
• anchovy fillets
• 2 egg yolks
• 1 tablespoon Dijon mustard
• to 4 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
• ½ cup vegetable oil or more TO THICKEN
• ¼ cup freshly grated Parmesan cheese
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 2 heads Romaine lettuce
• Croutons
To make dressing:
1. Put the garlic, anchovies, egg yolks, mustard, and lemon juice in a blender and process for 30 seconds until the mixture is smooth.
2. With the blender running, pour the oil in a steady stream to emulsify.
3. Stir in the Parmesan cheese and season with salt and pepper.
4. Refrigerate if not using right away – raw egg yolks.
To make croutons:
• 2 1/2 cups cubed white bread, (3/4-inch cubes) (about half of a French bread)
• Olive oil
• Salt and fresh ground black pepper
1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F.
2. Place bread cubes in a medium bowl and drizzle with olive oil, tossing to coat. Season croutons generously with salt and pepper, and toss to coat. Place croutons on a small baking sheet and bake for 10 to 12 minutes, or until croutons are completely crisp. Cool completely.
Garnish: Parmesan Tuiles
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 3/4 cup (3-ounces) grated Parmesan
Procedure:
1. Heat a nonstick skillet over medium-high heat and sprinkle the cheese, by the tablespoon, into the skillet.
2. Cook until lacy and slightly set; about 1 minute.
3. Flip and cook until crisp, about 2 minutes more.
4. Transfer to a rolling pin to allow to cool.
Classic Southern Chicken Salad Garnished with Tarragon
Makes 4 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• boneless, skinless chicken breasts
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
• 3⁄4 cup finely chopped celery
• 3⁄4 cup sweet pickle relish
• hard-boiled eggs, finely chopped
• 3⁄4 cup finely chopped green onions
• 3⁄4 cup mayonnaise
• Hot sauce to taste
Garnish: tarragon leaves
Party crackers or rolls to serve
Procedure:
1. Put the chicken breasts in a medium-size saucepan and add enough water to cover the breasts. Season with salt and freshly ground black pepper.
2. Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat to medium-low and simmer until juices run clear, about 15 minutes.
3. Remove the breasts and drain on paper towels. Set aside to cool.
4. When cool enough to handle, cut into ½-inch dice or shred.
5. Combine all ingredients except mayonnaise in a large bowl.
6. Add the mayonnaise in increments, until the chicken salad reaches the desired consistency: rich, but not too creamy.
7. Add salt and pepper to taste.
Serve with crackers, or on soft rolls or white toast.
Hearts of Palm Salad with Vinaigrette
Makes 2 Servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• cups baby salad greens
• 1 can hearts of palm, drained and cut crosswise into ½-inch slices
• cherry tomatoes, cut in half
• ¼ cup olive oil
• 2 tablespoons Dijon or Creole mustard
• 1 tablespoon apple cider vinegar
• Freshly ground black pepper, to taste
• Parmesan shavings for garnish
Procedure:
1. Arrange equal amounts of the greens on dinner plates.
2. Arrange the hearts of palm on top of the greens and garnish with the tomatoes.
3. Make the dressing by combining the olive oil, mustard, vinegar and black pepper in a small jar fitted with a lid. Shake for a few seconds to mix. Set aside for up to 2 hours before using.
4. Shake again just before drizzling the salads with the mixture.
5. Garnish with Parmesan cheese to serve.
Salade Nicoise
Makes 4 servings
Contemporary Salad Nicoise Composed Traditional Salad Nicoise
The well-known Nicoise Salad, or Salade Nicoise in French, is a delicious, refreshing and traditional salad from France in which fresh produce of the market are complemented with typical Provencal seasonings. Originating from Nice in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, this mixed salad has definitely made the Mediterranean traditional gastronomy transcend borders!
The tasty and colourful Nicoise Salad can be served on its own as a main Provencal dish, but it is also common to order it in the typical French Brasseries as a garnish for meat or fish dishes. Bringing into your plate the warmth of France’s sunny Côte d’Azur, this crudités salad usually includes tomatoes, anchovies, black olives, capers, French beans and lemon juice.
Respecting the traditional Provencal gastronomy, the seasoning is made with olive oil, basil and garlic, but it can also include parsley or mustard to get a French vinaigrette dressing.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• 1 head butter lettuce
• pints assorted colored cherry tomatoes, depending on size - cut each in half
• 1 medium green bell pepper, seeded and julienned
• 2 (6 1/2-ounce) cans Albacore tuna packed in water
• hard-boiled eggs, quartered
• ½ pound blanched haricot verts
• radishes, thinly sliced
• 1/2 cup Nicoise or Mediterranean-type olives (or black or green olives - pitted)
• 6-8 anchovy filets
• 1 tablespoon finely chopped chives or green onions
• tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
• 1 tablespoon Balsamic vinegar
• 1 teaspoon Dijon mustard
• Salt and freshly ground black pepper
Procedure:
1. Divide each ingredient into 4 equal parts, and then arrange them on 4 salad plates. I layer then in the order listed.
2. Combine the olive oil, balsamic vinegar, and Dijon mustard in a small jar with a lid. Shake until blended.
3. Season to taste with salt and freshly ground black pepper. Put the lid back on the jar and shake to blend.
4. Drizzle equal amounts of the vinaigrette over the salads and chill for 15 minutes before serving. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/08%3A_Oils_Vinegars_and_Salads/8.04%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignment_-_Oils_Vinegar_and_Salads.txt |
A fruit, botanically, is an organ that develops from the ovary of a flowering plant and contains one or more seeds. From a culinary perspective, a fruit is the perfect snack food, the basis of a dessert, colorful sauce or soup or an accompaniment to meat, fish, shellfish or poultry. No food group offers a greater variety of colors, flavors and textures than fruit.
Fruits, whether fresh, frozen, canned or dried, are one of the most versatile and popular of foods. Fruits can be used uncooked or incorporated into a soup, salad, bread, meat dish or dessert. When selecting fresh fruits, it is important to consider seasonal availability, storage conditions and ripeness. When using them, it is important that they be at their peak of ripeness for the best flavor, texture, aroma and appearance.
This fruit presentation is according to the ways most people view them and use them, rather than by rigid botanical classifications. Fruits divide into eight categories:
1. Berries
2. Citrus
3. Exotics
4. Grapes
5. Melons
6. Pomes
7. Stone fruits
8. Tropical varieties
The category separations are according to either their shape, seed structure or natural habitat. Botanically, tomatoes, beans, eggplant, capsicum peppers and other produce are fruits. However, in ordinary thinking, they are not; they are vegetables. A fruit may have several names, varying from region to region or on a purveyor's choice. Botanists are also constantly reclassifying items to fit new findings. The names give n here follow generally accepted custom and usage.
9.2: Berries and Citrus
Berries
Berries are small, juicy fruits that grow on vines and bushes worldwide. Thin skins and many tiny seeds that are often so small they go unnoticed characterize berries. Some of the fruits classified here as berries do not fit the botanical definition (for example, raspberries and straw berries), while fruits that are berries botanically (for example, bananas and grapes) are classified elsewhere. Berries may be eaten plain or used in everything from bread to soup and sorbet. They make especially fine jams and compotes.
Berries must be fully ripened on the vine, as they will not ripen further after harvesting. Select berries that are plump and fully co lo red. Avoid juice-stained containers and berries with whitish-gray or black spots of mold. All berries should be refrigerated and used promptly. Do not wash berries until just before they are needed, as washing removes some of their aroma and softens them.
Blackberries
Blackberries are similar to raspberries, but are larger and shinier, with a deep purple to black color. Thorny blackberry vines are readily found in the wild; commercial production is limited. Their peak season is mid-June through August. Loganberries, Marionberries, olallie berries and boysenberries are blackberry hybrids.
Blueberries
Blue berries are small and firm, with a true blue to almost black skin and a juicy, light gray-blue interior. Cultivated berries (high-bush varieties) tend to be larger than wild (low-bush) ones. Blueberries are native to North America and are grown commercially from Maine to Oregon and along the Atlantic seaboard. Their peak season is short, from mid-June to mid-August.
Cranberries
Cranberries, another native North American food, are tart, firm fruit with a mottled reel skin. They grow on low vines in cultivated bogs (swamps) throughout Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and New Jersey. Rarely eaten raw, they are made into sauce or relish or are used in breads, pies or pastries. Cranberries are readily available frozen or made into a jelly-type sauce and canned. Although color does not indicate ripeness, cranberries should be picked over before cooking to remove those that are soft or bruised. Their peak harvesting season is from Labor Day through October, leading to the association of cranberries with Thanksgiving dinner.
Currants
Currants are tiny, tart fruits that grow on shrubs in grapelike clusters. The most common are a beautiful, almost translucent red, but black and golden (or white) varieties also exist. All varieties are used for jams, jellies and sauces, and black currants are made into a liqueur, crème de cassis. Although rarely grown in the United States, currants are very popular and widely available in Europe, with a peak season during the late summer. (The dried fruits called currants are not produced from these berries; they are a special variety of dried grapes.)
Raspberries
Raspberries are perhaps the most delicate of all fruits. They have a tart flavor and velvety texture. Red raspberries are the most common, with black, purple and gold en berries available in some markets. When ripe, the berry pulls away easily from its white core, leaving the characteristic hollow center. Because they can be easily crushed and are susceptible to mold, most of the raspberries grown are marketed frozen. They grow on thorny vines in cool climates from Washington State to western New York and are imported from New Zealand and South America. The peak domestic season is from late May through November.
Strawberries
Strawberries are brilliant red, heart-shaped fruits that grow on vines. The strawberry plant is actually a perennial herb; the berry's flesh is cove red by tiny black seeds called achenes, which are the plant's true fruits.
Select berries with a good red color and intact green leafy hull. (The hulls can be easily removed with a paring knife.) Avoid berries with soft or brown spots. Huge berries may be lovely to look at, but they often have hollow centers and little flavor or juice. Although strawberries are available to some extent all year, fresh California strawberries are at their peak from April through June.
Citrus
Citrus fruits include lemons, limes, grapefruits, tangerines, kumquats, oranges and several hybrids. They are characterized by a thick rind, most of which is a bitter white pith (albedo) with a thin exterior layer of co lore d skin known as the zest. Their flesh is segmented and juicy. Citrus fruits are acidic, with a strong aroma; their flavors vary from bitter to tart to sweet.
Citrus fruits grow on trees and shrub s in tropical and subtropical climates worldwide. All citrus fruits are fully ripened on the tree and will not ripe n further after harvesting. They should be refrigerated for longest storage. Select fruits that feel heavy and have thin, smooth skins. Avoid those with large blemishes or moist spots.
Grapefruits
Grape fruits are large and round with a yellow skin, thick rind and tart flesh. They are an 18th-century hybrid of the orange and pummelo (a large, coarse fruit used mostly in Middle and Far Eastern cuisines). Two varieties of grape fruit are widely available all year: white-fleshed and pink- or ruby-fleshed. White grapefruits produce the finest juice, although pink grapefruits are sweeter. Fresh grapefruits are best eaten raw or topped with brown sugar and lightly broiled.
Kumquats
Kumquats are very small, oval-shaped, orange-colored fruits with a soft, sweet skin and slightly bitter flesh. They can be eaten whole, either raw or preserved in syrup, and may be used in jams and preserves.
Lemons
The most commonly used citrus fruits, lemons, are oval-shaped, bright yellow fruits available all year. Their strongly acidic flavor makes them unpleasant to eat raw but perfect for flavoring desserts and confections. Lemon juice is also widely used in sauces, especially for fish, shellfish and poultry. Lemon zest is candied, or used as garnish. Rubbing the skin of a lemon or other citrus fruit with a sugar cube extracts much of the aromatic oil. The cube can then be crushed or dissolved to use in formulas calling for citrus flavor.
Limes
Limes are small fruits with thin skins ranging from yellow-green to dark green. Limes are too tart to eat raw and are often substituted for lemons in prepared dishes. They are also juice d or used in cocktails, curries or desserts. Lime zest can be grated and used to give color and flavor to a variety of dishes. Limes are available all year; their peak season is during the summer. The key lime is a small tart lime variety native to South Florida and used to make key lime pie.
Oranges
Oranges are round fruits with a juicy, orange –colored flesh and a thin, orange skin. They can be either sweet or bitter.
Valencia oranges and navel oranges (a seed less variety) are the most popular sweet oranges. They can be juiced for beverages or sauces, and the flesh may be eaten raw, added to salads, cooked in desserts or use d as a garnish. The zest may be grated or julienned for sauces or garnish. Sweet oranges are available all year; their peak season is from December to April.
Blood Oranges
Blood oranges are also sweet but are small, with a rough, reddish skin. Their flesh is streaked with a blood-red color. Blood oranges are available primarily during the winter months and are eaten raw, juiced or used in salads or sauces. When selecting sweet oranges, look for fruits that feel plump and heavy, with unblemished skin. The color of the skin depends on weather conditions; a green rind does not affect the flavor of the flesh.
Bitter oranges include the Seville and bergamot. They are used primarily for the essential oils found in their zest. Oil of bergamot gives Earl Grey tea its distinctive flavor; oil of Seville is essential to curacao, Grand Marnier and orange flower water. Seville oranges are also used in marmalades and sauces for meats and poultry.
Tangerines
Tangerines, sometimes referred to as mandarins, are small and dark orange. Their rind is loose and easily removed to reveal sweet, juicy, aromatic segments. Tangerines are most often eaten fresh and uncooked, but are available canned as mandarin oranges. Tangelos are a hybrid of tangerines and grapefruits. They are the size of a medium orange; they have a bulbous stem end and few to no seeds. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.1%3A_Identifying_Fruits.txt |
Exotics
Improved transportation has led to the increasing availability (although sporadic in some areas) of exotic or unusual fresh fruits such as:
• Figs
• Persimmons
• Pomegranates
• Prickly pears
• Rhubarb
• Star fruits
Other exotic fruits, such as breadfruit, durian, feijoa and loquat, are still available only on a limited basis from specialty purveyors.
Figs
Figs are the fruit of ficus trees. They are small, soft, pear-shaped fruits with an intensely sweet flavor and rich, moist texture made crunchy by a multitude of tiny seeds. Fresh figs can be sliced and served in salads or with cured meats such as prosciutto. They can also be baked, poached, or used in jams, preserves, or compotes.
Dark-skinned figs, known as Mission figs, are a variety planted at Pacific Coast missions during the 18th century. They have a thin skin and small seeds and are available fresh, canned or dried. The white-skinned figs grown commercially include the White Adriatic, used principally for drying and baking, and the all-purpose Kadota. The most important domestic variety, however, is the Calimyrna. These large figs have a rich yellow color and large nutty seeds. Fresh Calimyrna figs are the finest for eating out of hand; they are also available dried.
For the best flavor, figs should be fully ripened on the tree. Unfortunately, fully ripened figs are very delicate and difficult to transport. Most figs are in season from June through October; fresh Calimyrna figs are available only during June.
Gooseberries
Several varieties of gooseberry are cultivated for culinary purposes. One well-known variety is the European gooseberry, a member of the currant family that grows on spiny bushes in cool, moist regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Its berries can be relatively large, like a small plum, but are usually less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. The skin, which is firm and smooth or only slightly hairy, can be green, white (actually gray-green), yellow or red. The tart berries contain many tiny seeds. They are eaten fresh or used for jellies, preserves, tarts and other desserts or as a traditional accompaniment to rich or fatty dishes, such as goose and mackerel. North American gooseberry varieties are smaller, perfectly round, and pink to deep red at maturity. Although more prolific, these varietals lack flavor and are generally considered inferior to European gooseberries.
Cape gooseberries, also known as ‘physalis’, ground cherries and ‘poha’, are unrelated to European and American gooseberries. Native to Peru, they became popular during the 19th century along the African Cape of Good Hope, for which they are named. Australia and New Zealand are currently the largest producers. Cape gooseberries are covered with a paper-thin husk or calyx. About the size of a cherry, they have a waxy, bright orange skin and many tiny seeds. Their flavor is similar to coconut and oranges, but tarter. Cape gooseberries may be eaten raw, made into jam or used in desserts. Fresh, they make an especially striking garnish.
Guava
Guava are a small, oval or pear-shaped fruit with a strong fragrance and a mild, slightly grainy flesh. They are excellent in jams and preserves, and guava juice is available plain or blended with other tropical fruit juices. Guava paste, a thick, sliceable gel, is a popular treat throughout Central America and the Caribbean. Guava will ripen if stored at room temperature and should be slightly soft and fully ripened for the best flavor.
Lychees
The lychee, also spelled litchi or leechee, is the fruit of a large tree native to southern China and Southeast Asia. The fruits, which grow in clusters, are oval to round, red and about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. The tough outer skin encloses juicy, white, almost translucent flesh and one large seed. Neither the skin nor the seed are edible. The fruit travels well and is now cultivated in Florida and Hawaii, so supplies are relatively stable. Lychees are eaten fresh out of hand or juiced, and are widely available canned or dried. Fresh lychees are mild but sweet with a pleasant aroma.
Mangosteens
The mangosteen, another native of Southeast Asia, is cultivated in Java, Sumatra and the Philippines. Mangosteens (no relation to mangos) are the size of a small orange, with flattened ends. They have a thick, hard, deep reddish-purple rind with hard white petal-shaped protrusions at the stem end. The interior flesh is snow-white and segmented, looking something like a mandarin orange. The texture is juicy and delicate with a slightly astringent flavor. Because the fruit must ripen on the tree and keeps only a short time. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh, although canned fruit and mangosteen juice is available.
Persimmons
Persimmons, sometimes referred to as kaki or Sharon fruits, are a bright orange, acorn-shaped fruit with a glossy skin and a large papery blossom. The flesh is bright orange and jelly-like, with a mild but rich flavor similar to honey and plums. Persimmons should be peeled before use; any seeds should be discarded. Select bright orange fruits and refrigerate only after they are completely ripe. When ripe, persimmons will be very soft and the skin will have an almost translucent appearance.
Ripe persimmons are delicious eaten raw; halved and topped with cream or soft cheese; or peeled, sliced and added to fruit salads. Persimmon bread, muffins, cakes and pies are also popular. Under-ripe persimmons are almost inedible, however. They are strongly tannic with a chalky or cottony texture.
Persimmons are tree fruits grown in subtropical areas worldwide, although the Asian varieties- now grown in California-are the most common. Fresh persimmons are available from October through January.
Pomegranates
An ancient fruit native to Persia (now Iran), pomegranates have long been a subject of poetry and a symbol of fertility. Pomegranates are round, about the size of a large orange, with a pronounced calyx. The skin forms a hard shell with a pinkish-red color. The interior is filled with hundreds of small, red seeds (which are, botanically, the actual fruits) surrounded by juicy reel pulp. An inedible yellow membrane separates the seeds into compartments. Pomegranates are sweet-sour, and the seeds are pleasantly crunchy. The bright red seeds make an attractive garnish. Pomegranate juice is a popular beverage in Mediterranean cuisines, and grenadine syrup is made from concentrated pomegranate juice.
Select heavy fruits that are not rock-hard, cracked, or heavily bruised. Whole pomegranates can be refrigerated for several weeks. Pomegranates are available from September through December; their peak season is in October.
Prickly Pears
Prickly pear fruits, also known as cactus pears and Barbary figs, are actually the berries of several varieties of cactus. They are barrel- or pear-shaped, about the size of a large egg. Their thick, firm skin is green or purple with small sharp pins and nearly invisible stinging fibers. Their flesh is spongy, sweet and a brilliant pink-red, dotted with small black seeds. Prickly pears have the aroma of watermelon and the flavor of sugar water.
Once peeled, prickly pears can be diced and eaten raw, or they can be pureed for making jams, sauces, custards or sorbets, to which they give a vivid pink color. Prickly pears are especially common in Mexican and southwestern cuisines.
Select fruits that are full-colored, heavy and tender, but not too soft. Avoid those with mushy or bruised spots. Ripe prickly pears can be refrigerated for a week or more. Prickly pears are grown in Mexico and several southwestern states and are available from September through December.
Rambutans
Rambutans, the fruit of a tree in the soapberry family, are closely related to lychees. Native to Malaysia, they are now cultivated throughout Southeast Asia. The bright red, oval fruit is about the size of a small hen's egg, and is covered with long, soft spines, hence the name "hairy" lychees. The interior has a white, lightly acidic pulp. Rambutans darken with age, so select brightly colored fruit with soft, fleshy spines. Rambutans are eaten fresh, used in preserves, and ice cream; they are also available canned.
Rhubarb
Although botanically a vegetable, rhubarb is most often prepared as a fruit. A perennial plant, rhubarb grows well in temperate and cold climates. Only the pinkish-red stems are edible; the leaves contain high amounts of oxalic acid, which is toxic.
Rhubarb stems are extremely acidic, requiring large amounts of sugar to create the desired sweet-sour taste. Cinnamon, ginger, orange and strawberry are particularly compatible with rhubarb. It is excellent for pies, cobblers, preserves, or stewing. Young, tender stalks of rhubarb do not need peeling. When cooked, rhubarb becomes very soft and turns a beautiful light pink color.
Fresh rhubarb is sold as whole stalks, with the leaves removed. Select crisp, unblemished stalks. Rhubarb's peak season is during the early spring, from February through May. Frozen rhubarb pieces are readily available and are excellent for pies, tarts or jams.
Star Fruit
Star fruits, also known as carambola, are oval, up to 5 inches (12.5 centimeters) long, with five prominent ribs or wings running their length. A cross-section cut is shaped like a star. The edible skin is a waxy orange-yellow; it covers a dry, paler yellow flesh. Its flavor is similar to that of plums, sweet but bland. Star fruits do not need to be peeled or seeded. They are most often sliced and added to fruit salad or used as a garnish. Unripe fruits can be cooked in stews or chutneys.
Color and aroma are the best indicators of ripeness. The fruits should be a deep golden-yellow and there should be brown along the edge of the ribs. The aroma should be full and floral. Green fruits can be kept at room temperature to ripen, then refrigerated for up to 2 weeks. Star fruits are cultivated in Hawaii, Florida and California, though some are still imported from the Caribbean. Fresh fruits are available from August to February.
Grapes
Grapes are the single largest fruit crop in the world, due, of course, to their use in wine making. This section, however, discusses only table grapes, those grown for eating. Grapes are berries that grow on vines in large clusters. California is the world's largest producer, with more than a dozen varieties grown for table use. Grapes are classified by color as white (which are actually green) or black (which are actually reel). White grapes are generally blander than black ones, with a thinner skin and firmer flesh. The grape's color and most of its flavor are found in the skin. Grapes are usually eaten raw, either alone or in fruit salads. They are also used as a garnish or accompaniment to desserts and cheeses. Dried grapes are known as raisins; usually made from Thompson Seedless or Muscat grapes), currants (made from Black Corinth grapes and labeled Zante currants) or sultana s (made from sultana grapes).
Grapes are available all year because the many varieties have different harvesting schedules. Look for firm, unblemished fruits that are firmly attached to the stem. A surface bloom or dusty appearance is caused by yeasts and indicates recent harvesting. Wrinkled grapes or those with brown spots around the stem are past their prime. All grapes should be rinsed and drained prior to use.
Red Flame Grapes
Red Flame grapes are a seed less California hybrid, second only in importance to the Thompson Seedless. Red Flame grapes are large and round with a slightly tart flavor and variegated red color.
Thompson Seedless Grapes
The most commercially important table grapes are a variety known as Thompson Seedless, which are pale green with a crisp texture and sweet flavor. Their peak season is from June to November. Many are dried in the hot desert sun of California's San Joaquin Valley to produce dark raisins. For golden raisins, Thompson Seedless grapes are treated with sulfur dioxide to prevent browning, and then dried mechanically.
Other Table Grapes
Of the table grapes containing seeds, the most important varieties are the Concord, Ribier and Emperor. They range from light red to deep black, and all three are in season during the autumn. Concord grapes, one of the few grape varieties native to the New World, are especially important for making juices and jellies.
Virtually all the fine wine made in the world comes from varieties of a single grape species, Vitis vinifera. It is grown in the United States, Europe, South Africa, South America, the Middle East, Australia, and wherever fine wine is made. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.3%3A_Exotics_and_Grapes.txt |
Melons
Like pumpkins and cucumbers, melons are members of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). The dozens of melon varieties can be divided into two general types: sweet (or dessert) melons and watermelons. Sweet melons have a tan, green or yellow netted or furrowed rind and dense, fragrant flesh. Watermelon has a thick, dark green rind surrounding crisp, watery flesh.
Melons are almost 90 percent water, so cooking destroys their texture, quickly turning the flesh to mush. Most are served simply sliced, perhaps with a bit of lemon or lime juice. Melons also blend well in fruit salads or with rich, cured meats such as prosciutto. Melons may be pureed and made into sorbet or chilled, uncooked soup.
Melons should be vine-ripened. A ripe melon should yield slightly and spring back when pressed at the blossom end (opposite the stem). It should also give off a strong aroma. Avoid melons that are very soft or feel damp at the stem end. Ripe melons may be stored in the refrigerator, although the flavor will be better at room temperature. Slightly under-ripe melons can be stored at room temperature to allow flavor and aroma to develop.
Cantaloupes
American cantaloupes, which are actually muskmelons, are sweet melons with a thick, yellow-green netted rind, a sweet, moist, orange flesh and a strong aroma. (European cantaloupes, which are not generally available in this country, are more craggy and furrowed in appearance.) As with all sweet melons, the many small seeds are found in a central cavity. Cantaloupes are excellent for eating alone and are especially good with ham or rich meats.
Avoid cantaloupes with the pronounced yellow color or moldy aroma that indicates over-ripeness. Mexican imports ensure a year-round supply, although their peak season is summer.
Casaba Melons
The casaba melon is a teardrop-shaped sweet melon. It has a coarse, yellow skin and a thick, ridged rind; its flesh is creamy white to yellow. Casaba melons are used like cantaloupes. Casaba melons do not have an aroma, so selection must be based on a deep skin color and the absence of dark or moist patches. Their peak season is during September and October.
Crenshaw Melons
Crenshaw (or cranshaw) melons have a mottled, green-yellow ridged rind and orange-pink flesh. They are large pear-shaped sweet melons with a strong aroma. The flesh has a rich, spicy flavor and may be used like cantaloupe. Crenshaws are available from July through October; their peak season is during August and September.
Honeydew Melons
Honeydew melons are large oval sweet melons with a smooth rind that ranges from white to pale green. Although the flesh is generally pale green, with a mild, sweet flavor, pink-or gold-fleshed honeydews are also available. Like casaba melons, honeydew melons have little to no aroma. They are available almost all year; their peak season is from June through October.
Santa Claus Melons
Santa Claus or Christmas melons are large, elongated sweet melons with a green-and-yellow-striped, smooth rind. The flesh is creamy white or yellow and tastes like casaba. They are a winter variety, with peak availability during December, which explains the name.
Watermelons
Watermelons are large (up to 30 pounds or 13.5 kilograms) round or oval-shaped melons with a thick rind. The skin may be solid green, green-striped or mottled with white. The flesh is crisp and extremely juicy with small, hard, black seeds throughout. Seedless hybrids are available. Most watermelons have pink to reel flesh, although golden-fleshed varieties are becoming more common. Watermelons are of a different genus from the sweet melons described earlier. They are native to tropical Africa but grow commercially in Texas and several southern states.
Pomes
Pomes are tree fruits with thin skin and firm flesh surrounding a central core containing many small seeds called pips or carpels. Pomes include apples, pears and quince.
Apples
Apples, perhaps the most common and commonly appreciated of all fruits, grow on trees in temperate zones worldwide. They are popular because of their convenience, flavor, variety and availability.
Apples can be eaten raw out of hand, or they can be used in a wide variety of cooked or baked dishes. They are equally useful in breads, desserts or vegetable dishes and go well with game, pork and poultry. Classic dishes prepared with apples are often referred to as a la Normande. Apple juice (cider) produces alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages and cider vinegar.
Of the hundreds of known apple varieties, only 20 or so are commercially significant in the United States. Most have a moist, creamy white flesh with a thin skin of yellow, green or red. They range in flavor from very sweet to very tart, with an equally broad range of textures, from firm and crisp to soft and mealy.
In Europe, apples are divided into distinct cooking and eating varieties. Cooking varieties are those that disintegrate to a puree when cooked. American varieties are less rigidly classified. Nevertheless, not all apples are appropriate for all types of cooking. Those that retain their shape better during cooking are the best choices when slices or appearances are important. Varieties with a higher malic acid content break down easily, malting them more appropriate for applesauce or juicing. Either type may be eaten out of hand, depending on personal preference.
Varieties of Apples
Variety Skin Color Flavor Peak Season Use
Fiji Yellow-green with red highlights Sweet-spicy All year Eating, in salads
Gala Yellow-orange with red stripes Sweet August - March Eating, in salads, sauce
Golden Delicious Glossy, greenish-gold Sweet September - October In tarts, with cheese, in
salads
Granny Smith Bright green Tart October - November Eating, in tarts
Jonathan Brilliant red Tart to acidic September - October Eating, all-purpose
McIntosh Red with green background Tart to acidic Fall Applesauce, in closed pies
Pippin (Newton) Greenish-yellow Tart Fall In pies, eating, baking
Red Delicious Deep red Sweet but bland September - October Eating
Rome Red Sweet-tart October - November Baking, pies, sauces
Winesap Dark red with streaks Tangy October - November Cider, all-purpose
Although not native to North America, apples are now grown commercially in 35 states, with Washington and New York leading in production. Apples are harvested when still slightly under-ripe, then stored in a controlled atmosphere (temperature and oxygen are greatly reduced) for extended periods until ready for sale. Modern storage techniques make fresh apples available all year, although their peak season is during the autumn.
When selecting apples, look for smooth, unbroken skins and firm fruits, without soft spots or bruises. Badly bruised or rotting apples should be discarded immediately. They emit quantities of ethylene gas that speed spoilage of nearby fruits. (Remember the saying that "one bad apple spoils the barrel.") Store apples chilled for up to 6 weeks. Apple peels (the skin) may be eaten or removed as desired, but in either case, apples should be washed just prior to use to remove pesticides and any wax that was applied to improve appearance. Apple slices can be frozen (often with sugar or citric acid added to slow spoilage) or dried.
Pears
Pears are an ancient tree fruit grown in temperate areas throughout the world. Most of the pears marketed in the United States are grown in California, Washington and Oregon.
Pear Varieties
Variety Appearance Flavor Peak Season Use
Anjou (Beurre d'Anjou) Greenish-yellow skin; egg- shaped with short neck; red variety also available Sweet and juicy October - May Eating, poaching
Bartlett (Williams) Thin yellow skin; bell-shaped; red variety also available Very sweet, buttery, juicy August - December Eating, canning, in salads
Bose Golden-brown skin; long tapered neck Buttery September - May Poaching, baking
Cornice Yellow-green skin; large and chubby Sweet, juicy October - February Eating
Sekel Tiny; brown to yellow skin Spicy August - December Poaching, pickling
Although thousands of pear varieties have been identified, only a dozen or so are commercially significant. Pear varieties vary widely in size, color and flavor. They are generally eaten out of hand, baked, or poached. Pears are delicious with cheese, especially blue cheeses, and can be used in fruit salads, compotes or preserves. When selecting pears, look for fruits with smooth, unbroken skin and an intact stem.
Asian pears, also known as Chinese pears or apple-pears, are of a different species than common pears. They have the moist, sweet flavor of a pear and the round shape and crisp texture of an apple. They are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, particularly those known as Twentieth Century or Nijisseiki.
Pears will not ripen properly on the tree, so they are picked while still firm and should be allowed to soften before use. Under-ripe pears may be left at room temperature to ripen. A properly ripened pear should have a good fragrance and yield to gentle pressure at the stem end. Pears can be prepared or stored in the same ways as apples.
Quince
Common quince resemble large, lumpy yellow pears. Their flesh is hard, with many pips or seeds, and they have a wonderful fragrance. While too astringent to eat raw, quince develop a sweet flavor and pink color when cooked with sugar. Quince are used in meat stews, jellies, marmalades and pies. They have a high pectin content and may be added to other fruit jams or preserves to encourage gelling.
Fresh quince, usually imported from South America or southeast Europe, are available from October through January. Select firm fruits with a good yellow color. Small blemishes may be cut away before cooking. Quince will keep for up to a month under refrigeration. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.4%3A_Melons_and_Pomes.txt |
Stone Fruits
Stone fruits, also known as drupes, include apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and plums. They are characterized by a thin skin, soft flesh and one woody stone or pit. Although most originated in China, the shrubs and trees producing stone fruits are now grown in temperate climates worldwide.
The domestic varieties of stone fruits are in season from late spring through summer. They tend to be fragile fruits, easily bruised and difficult to transport, and have a short shelf life. Do not wash them until ready to use, as moisture can cause deterioration. Stone fruits are excellent dried and are often used to make liqueurs and brandies. (The kernel inside the pits of many stone fruits contains amygdalin, a compound that has a bitter almond flavor. Eating the raw kernel can cause digestive discomfort or more serious side effects and should be avoided. When cooked it is harmless and can add flavor to jams and creams.)
Apricots
Apricots are small, round stone fruits with a velvety skin that varies from deep yellow to vivid orange. Their juicy orange flesh surrounds a dark, almond-shaped pit. Apricots can be eaten out of hand, poached, stewed, baked or candied. They are often used in fruit compotes or savory sauces for meat or poultry, and are also popular in quick breads and fruit tarts or pureed for dessert sauces, jams, custards or mousses.
Apricots have a short season, peaking during June and July, and do not travel well. Select apricots that are well shaped, plump and firm. Avoid ones that are greenish-yellow or mushy. Fresh apricots will last for several days under refrigeration, but the flavor is best at room temperature. If fresh fruits are unavailable, canned apricots are usually an acceptable substitute. Dried apricots and apricot juice (known as nectar) are readily available.
From the northern states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Michigan and New York, come the two most important types of cherry: the sweet cherry and the sour (or tart) cherry. Sweet cherries are round to heart-shaped, about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter, with skin that ranges from yellow to deep red to nearly black. The flesh, which is sweet and juicy, may vary from yellow to dark red. The most common and popular sweet cherries are the dark red Bings. Yellow-red Royal Ann and Rainier cherries are also available in some areas.
Cherries
Sweet cherries are often marketed fresh, made into maraschino cherries or candied for use in baked goods. Fresh sweet cherries have a very short season, peaking during June and July. Cherries will not ripen further after harvesting. Select fruits that are firm and plump with a green stem still attached. There should not be any brown spots around the stem. A dry or brown stem indicates that the cherry is less than fresh. Once the stem is removed, the cherry will deteriorate rapidly. Store fresh cherries in the refrigerator and do not wash them until ready to use.
Sour cherries are light to dark reel and are so acidic they are rarely eaten uncooked. The most common sour cherries are the Montmorency and Morello. Most sour cherries are canned or frozen, or cooked with sugar and starch (usually cornstarch or tapioca) and sold as prepared pastry and pie fillings.
Both sweet and sour varieties are available dried.
Peaches and Nectarines
Peaches are moderate-sized, round fruits with a juicy, sweet flesh. Nectarines are a variety of peach, the main difference between the two being their skin. Peaches have a thin skin covered with fuzz, while nectarines have a thin, smooth skin. The flesh of either fruit ranges from white to pale orange. Although their flavors are somewhat different, they may be substituted for each other in most recipes.
Peaches and nectarines are excellent for eating out of hand or in dessert tarts or pastries. They are also used in jams, chutneys, preserves and savory relishes, having a particular affinity for Asian and Indian dishes. Although the skin is edible, peaches are generally peeled before use. (Peaches peel easily if blanched first.)
Peaches and nectarines are either freestones or clingstones. With freestones, the flesh separates easily from the stone; free stone fruits are commonly eaten out of hand. The flesh of clingstones adheres firmly to the stone; they hold their shape better when cooked and are the type most often canned.
Select fruits with a good aroma; an overall creamy, yellow or yellow-orange color; and an unwrinkled skin free of blemishes. Red patches are not an indication of ripeness; a green skin indicates that the fruit was picked too early and it will not ripen further. Peaches and nectarines will soften but do not become sweeter after harvesting.
The United States, especially California, is the world's largest producer of peaches and nectarines. Their peak season is through the summer months, with July and August producing the best crop. South American peaches are sometimes available from January to May. Canned and frozen peaches are readily available.
Plums
Plums are round to oval-shaped fruits that grow on trees or bushes. Dozens of plum varieties are known, although only a few are commercially significant. Plums vary in size from very small to 3 inches (7.5 centimeters) in diameter. Their thin skin can be green, red, yellow or various shades of blue-purple.
Plums are excellent for eating out of hand. Plums can also be baked, poached or used in pies, cobblers or tarts; they are often used in jams or preserves, and fresh slices can be used in salads or compotes.
Fresh plums are widely available from June through October; their peak season is in August and September. When selecting plums, look for plump, smooth fruits with unblemished skin. Generally, they should yield to gentle pressure, although the green and yellow varieties remain quite firm. Avoid plums with moist, brown spots near the stem. Plums may be left at room temperature to ripen, and then stored in the refrigerator.
Tropicals
Tropical fruits are native to the world's hot, tropical or subtropical regions. Most are now readily available throughout the United States thanks to rapid transportation and distribution methods. All can be eaten fresh, without cooking. Their flavors complement each other and go well with rich or spicy meat, fish and poultry dishes.
Bananas
Common yellow bananas are actually the berries of a large tropical herb. Grown in bunches called hands, they are about 7 to 9 inches (17.5 to 22.5 centimeters) long, with a sticky, soft, sweet flesh. Their inedible yellow skin is easily removed. Baby bananas (Nino, Ladyfinger or Finger Bananas) measure 4 to 5 inches long (10 to 12.5 centimeters) with yellow or red skin. Their flesh is more dense and sweeter than larger banana varieties and their diminutive size makes them ideal for many dessert applications.
Properly ripened bananas are excellent eaten out of hand or used in salads. Lightly bruised or over-ripe fruits are best used for breads or muffins. Bananas blend well with other tropical fruits and citrus. Their unique flavor is also complemented by cherry, cinnamon, ginger, honey, and chocolate.
Fresh bananas are available all year. Bananas are always harvested when still green, because the texture and flavor will be adversely affected if the fruits are allowed to turn yellow on the tree. Unripe bananas are hard, dry and starchy. Because bananas ripen after harvesting, it is acceptable to purchase green bananas if there is sufficient time for final ripening before use. Bananas should be left at room temperature to ripen. A properly ripened banana has a yellow peel with brown flecks. The tip should not have any remaining green coloring. As bananas continue to age, the peel darkens and the starches turn to sugar, giving the fruits a sweeter flavor. Avoid bananas that have large brown bruises or a gray cast (a sign of cold damage).
Plantains
Plantains, also referred to as cooking bananas, are larger than but not as sweet as common bananas. They are frequently cooked as a starchy vegetable in tropical cuisines.
Dates
Dates are the fruit of the date palm tree, which has been cultivated since ancient times. Dates are about 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters) long, with a paper-thin skin and a single grooved seed in the center. Most are golden to dark brown when ripe.
Although dates appear to be dried, they are actually fresh fruits. They have a sticky-sweet, almost candied texture and rich flavor. Dates provide flavor and moisture for breads, muffins, cookies and tarts. Additionally, they can be served with fresh or dried fruits, or stuffed with meat or cheese as an appetizer.
Pitted dates are readily available in several packaged forms: whole, chopped, or extruded (for use in baking). Whole un-pitted dates are available in bulk. Date juice is also available for use as a natural sweetener, especially in baked goods. Although packaged or processed dates are available all year, peak season for fresh domestic dates is from October through December. When selecting dates, look for those that are plump, glossy and moist.
Kiwis
Kiwis, sometimes known as kiwifruits or Chinese gooseberries, are small oval fruits, about the size of a large egg, with a thin, fuzzy brown skin. The flesh is bright green with a white core surrounded by hundreds of tiny black seeds.
Kiwis are sweet, but somewhat bland. They are best used raw, peeled and eaten out of hand or sliced for fruit salads or garnish. Although kiwis are not recommended for cooking because heat causes them to fall apart, they are a perfect addition to glazed fruit tarts and can be pureed for sorbets, sauces or mousses. Kiwis contain an enzyme similar to that in fresh pineapple and papaya, which has a tenderizing effect on meat and prevents gelling.
Mangoes
Mangoes are oval or kidney-shaped fruits that normally weigh between 6 ounces and 1 pound (180 and 500 grams). Their skin is smooth and thin but tough, varying from yellow to orange-red, with patches of green, reel or purple. As mangoes ripen, the green disappears. The juicy, bright orange flesh clings to a large, flat pit.
A mango's unique flavor is spicy-sweet, with an acidic tang. Mangoes can be pureed for use in drinks or sauces, or the flesh can be sliced or cubed for use in salads, pickles, chutneys or desserts. Mangoes go well with spicy foods such as curry and with barbecued meats.
Although Florida produces some mangoes, most of those available in the United States are from Mexico. Their peak season is from May through August. Select fruits with good color that are firm and free of blemishes. Ripe mangoes should have a good aroma, and should not be too soft or shriveled. Allow mangoes to ripen completely at room temperature, then refrigerate for up to 1 week. Ripe mangoes should have a good aroma, and should not be too soft or shriveled. Allow mangoes to ripen completely at room temperature, then refrigerate for up to one week.
Papayas
The papaya is a greenish-yellow fruit shaped rather like a large pear and weighing 1 to 2 pounds (500 to 1000 grams). When halved, it resembles a melon. The flesh is golden to red dish-pink; its center cavity is filled with round, silver-black seeds resembling caviar. Ripe papayas can be eaten raw, with only a squirt of lemon or lime juice. They can also be pureed for sweet or spicy sauces, chilled soups or sorbets.
Papayas contain papain, which breaks down proteins, and therefore papayas are an excellent meat tenderizer. Meats can be marinated with papaya juice or slices before cooking. Papain, however, makes fresh papayas unsuitable for use in gelatins because it inhibits gelling. Unripe (green) papayas are often used in pickles, or chutneys, and can be baked, or stewed, with meat or poultry.
Papaya seeds are edible, with a peppery flavor and slight crunch. They are occasionally used to garnish fruit salads or add flavor to fruit salsa s and compotes. Papayas are grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas worldwide. Although they are available year-round, their peak season is from April through June. Select papayas that are plump, with a smooth, unblemished skin. Color is a better determinant of ripeness than is softness: The greater the proportion of yellow to green skin color, the riper the fruit. Papayas may be held at room temperature until completely ripe, then refrigerated for up to 1 week.
Passion Fruits
Passion fruits have a firm, almost shell-like purple skin with orange -yellow pulp surrounding large, black, edible seeds. They are about the size and shape of large hen eggs, with a sweet, rich and unmistakable citrusy flavor. The pulp is used in custards, sauces and ice creams.
Select heavy fruits with dark, shriveled skin and a strong aroma. Allow them to ripen at room temperature, if necessary, then refrigerate. Passion fruits are now grown in New Zealand, Hawaii and California and should be available all year, although their peak season is in February and March. Bottles or frozen packs of puree are readily available and provide a strong, true flavor.
Pineapples
Pineapples are the fruit of a shrub with sharp spear -shaped leaves. Each fruit is covered with rough, brown eyes, giving it the appearance of a pinecone. The pale yellow flesh, which is sweet and very juicy, surrounds a cylindrical woody core that is edible but too tough for most uses. Most pineapples weigh approximately 2 pounds (1 kilogram), but dwarf varieties are also available.
Pineapples are excellent eaten raw, alone or in salads. Slices can be baked or grilled to accompany pork, or ham. The cuisines of Southeast Asia incorporate pineapple into various curries, soups and stews. Pineapple juice is a popular beverage often used in punch or cocktails. Canned or cooked pineapple can be added to gelatin mixtures, but avoid using fresh pineapple; an enzyme (bromelin) found in fresh pineapple breaks down gelatin.
Pineapples do not ripen after harvesting. They must be left on the stem until completely ripe, at which time they are extremely perishable. The vast majority of pineapples come from Hawaii. Fresh pineapples are available all year, with peak supplies in March through June. Select heavy fruits with a strong, sweet aroma and rich color. Avoid those with dried leaves or soft spots. Pineapples should be used as soon as possible after purchase. Pineapples are also available canned in slices, cubes or crushed, dried or candied. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.5%3A_Stone_Fruits_and_Tropical_Varieties.txt |
Nutrition
Most fruits are quite nutritious. They have a high water content (usually 75 to 95 percent), low protein, and fat contents, all of which makes them low in calories. They are also an excellent source of fiber, and the sugar content of ripe fruits is a good source of energy. Some fruits, such as citrus, melons and strawberries, contain large amounts of vitamin C (which may be destroyed, however, by cooking or processing). Deep yellow and green fruits, such as apricots, mangoes and kiwis are high in vitamin A; bananas, raisins and figs are a good source of potassium.
Selecting Fresh Fruits
Fresh fruits have not been subjected to any processing (such as canning, freezing or drying). Fresh fruits may be ripe or unripe, depending on their condition when harvested or the conditions under which they have been stored. In order to use fresh fruits to their best advantage, it is important to make careful purchasing decisions. It is important to pay attention to the size of e ach piece of fruit, its grade or quality, its ripe ness on delivery and its nutritional content in order to serve fruit in an appropriate and cost-effective manner.
Grading
Fresh fruits traded on the wholes ale market may be graded under the USDA's voluntary program. The grades, based on size and uniformity of shape, color and texture as well as the absence of defects, are U.S. Fancy, U.S. No. 1, U.S. No. 2 and U.S. No. 3. Most fruits purchase d for food service operations are U.S. Fancy. Fruits with lower grades are suitable for processing into sauces, jams, jellies or preserves.
Ripening
Several import ant changes take place in a fruit as it ripens. The fruit reaches its full size; its pulp or flesh becomes soft and tender; its color changes. In addition, the fruit's acid content declines, making it less tart, and its starch content converts into the sugars fructose and glucose, which provide the fruit's sweetness, flavor and aroma.
Unfortunately, these changes do not stop when the fruit reaches its peak of ripeness. Rather, they continue, deteriorating the fruit's texture and flavor and eventually causing spoilage. Depending on the species, fresh fruits can be purchased either fully ripened or unripened. Figs and pineapples, for example, ripen only on the plant and are harvested at or just before their peak of ripeness, then rushed to market. They should not be purchased un-ripened, as they will never attain full flavor or texture after harvesting. On the other hand, some fruits, including bananas and pears, continue to ripen after harvesting and can be purchased unripened.
With most harvested fruits, the ripening time as well as the time during which the fruits remain at their peak of ripeness can be manipulated. For instance, ripening can be delayed by chilling. Chilling slows the fruit's respiration rate (fruits, like animals, consume oxygen and expel carbon dioxide). The slower the respiration rate, the slower the conversion of starch to sugar. For quicker ripening, fruit can be stored at room temperature.
Ripening is also affected by ethylene gas, a colorless, odorless hydrocarbon gas. Ethylene gas is naturally emitted by ripening fruits and can be used to encourage further ripening in most fruits. Apples, tomatoes, melons, and bananas give off the most ethylene and should be stored away from delicate fruits and vegetables, especially greens. Fruits that are picked and shipped unripened can be exposed to ethylene gas to induce ripening just before sale. Conversely, to extend the life of ripe fruits a day or two, isolate them from other fruits and keep them well chilled.
Fresh fruits will not ripen further once they are cooked or processed. The cooking or processing method applied, however, may soften the fruits or add flavor.
Purchasing Specifications
Fresh fruits are sold by weight or by count. They are packed in containers referred to as crates, bushels, cartons, cases, lugs or flats. The weight or count packed in each of these containers varies depending on the type of fruit, the purveyor and the state in which the fruits were packed. For example, Texas citrus is packed in cartons equal to 7/10 of a bushel; Florida citrus is packed in cartons equal to 1/s of a bushel. Sometimes fruit size must be specified when ordering. A 30-pound case of lemons, for example, may contain 96, 112, or 144 individual lemons, depending on their size.
Some fresh fruits, especially melons, pineapples, peaches and berries are available trimmed, cleaned, peeled or cut. Sugar and preservatives are sometimes added. They are sold in bulk containers, sometimes packed in water. These items offer a consistent product with a significant reduction in labor costs. The purchase price may be greater than that for fresh fruits, and flavor, freshness and nutritional qualities may suffer somewhat from the processing.
Purchasing and Storing Preserved Fruits
Preservation techniques are designed to extend the shelf life of fruits in essentially fresh form. These methods include irradiation, acidulation, canning, freezing and drying. Except for drying, these techniques do not substantially change the fruits ' texture or flavor. Canning and freezing can also be used to preserve cooked fruits.
Irradiated Fruits
Some fruits can be subjected to ionizing radiation to destroy parasites, insects and bacteria. The treatment also slows ripening without a noticeable effect on the fruits ' flavor and texture. Irradiated fruits must be labeled "treated with radiation," "treated by irradiation" or with the appropriate symbol.
Acidulation
Apples, pears, bananas, peaches and other fruits turn brown when cut. Although this browning is commonly attributed to exposure to oxygen, it is actually caused by the reaction of enzymes. Enzymatic browning can be retarded by immersing cut fruits in an acidic solution such as lemon or orange juice. This simple technique is sometimes referred to as acidulation. Soaking fruits in water or lemon juice and water (called acidulated water) is not recommended. Unless a sufficient amount of salt or sugar is added to the water, the fruits will just become mushy. However, if enough salt or sugar is added to retain texture, the flavor will be affected.
Canned Fruit
Almost any type of fruit can be canned successfully; pineapple and peaches are the largest sellers. In commercial canning, raw fruits are cleaned and placed in a sealed container, then subjected to high temperatures for a specific amount of time. Heating destroys the microorganisms that cause spoilage, and the sealed environment created by the can eliminates oxidation and retard s decomposition. However, the heat required by the canning process also softens the texture of most fruits. Canning has little or no effect on vitamins A, B, C and D because oxygen is not present during the heating process. Canning also has no practical effect on proteins, fats or carbohydrates.
In solid-pack cans, little or no water is added to the product. The only liquid is from the fruits ' natural moisture. Water-pack cans have water or fruit juice added, which must be taken into account when determining costs. Syrup-pack cans have a sugar syrup added: light, medium, or heavy. The syrup should also be taken into account when determining food costs, and the additional sweetness should be considered when using syrup-packed fruits. Cooked fruit products such as pie fillings are also available canned.
Canned fruits are purchased in cases of standard -sized cans (see Appendix II). Once a can is opened, any unused contents should be transferred to an appropriate storage container and refrigerated. Cans with bulges should be opened and discarded immediately.
Frozen Fruits
Freezing is a highly effective method for preserving fruits. It severely inhibits the growth of microorganisms that cause fruits to spoil. Freezing does not destroy nutrients, although the appearance or texture of most fruits can be affected because of their high water content. This occurs when ice crystals formed from the water in the cells burst the cells' walls.
Many fruits, especially berries and apple and pear slices, are now individually quick-frozen (IQF). This method employs blast s of cold air, refrigerated plates, liquid nitrogen, liquid air or other technique s to chill the produce quickly. Speeding the free zing process can greatly reduce the formation of ice crystals.
Fruits can be trimmed and sliced before freezing and are also available frozen in sugar syrup, which acids flavor and prevents browning. Berries are frozen whole, while stone fruits are usually peeled, pitted, and sliced. Fruit purees are also available frozen.
Frozen fruits are graded as U.S. Grade A (Fancy), U.S. Grade B (Choice or Extra Standard), or U.S. Grade C (Standard). The ''U.S." indicates that a government inspector has graded the product, but packers may use grade names without an actual inspection if the contents meet the standards of the grade indicated.
IQF fruits can be purchased in bulk by the case. All frozen fruits should be sealed in moisture-proof wrapping and kept at a constant temperature of 0°F (- 18°C) or below. Temperature fluctuations can cause freezer burn. Frozen berries such as blueberries and blackberries should not be thawed before adding to batters because their juice can easily discolor the batter.
Dried Fruits
Drying is the oldest known technique for preserving fruits, having been used for more than 5000 years. When ripe fruits are dried, they lose most of their moisture. This concentrates their flavors and sugars and dramatically extends shelf life. Although most fruits can be dried, plums (prunes), grapes (raisins, sultanas and currants), apricots and figs are the fruits most commonly dried. The drying method can be as simple as leaving ripe fruits in the sun to city naturally or the more cost-efficient technique of passing fruits through a compartment of hot, dry air to quickly extract moisture. Dried fruits actually retain from 16 to 26 percent residual moisture, which leaves them moist and soft. They are often treated with sulfur dioxide to prevent browning (oxidation) and to extend shelf life.
Dried fruits may be eaten out of hand; added to cereals or salads; baked in muffins, breads, pies or tarts; stewed for chutneys or compotes; or used as a stuffing for roasted meats or poultry. Before use, dried fruits may be softened by steeping them for a short time in a hot liquid such as water, wine, rum, brandy or other liquor. Some dried fruits should be simmered in a small amount of water before use.
Store dried fruits in airtight containers to prevent further moisture loss; keep in a dry, cool area away from sun light. Dried fruits may mold if exposed to both air and high humidity.
Juicing
Fruit juice is used as a beverage, alone, mixed with other ingredients, and as the liquid ingredient in other preparations. Juice can be extracted from fruits (and some vegetables) in two ways: pressure and blending.
Pressure is used to extract juice from fruits such as citrus that have a high water content. Pressure is applied by hand squeezing or with a manual or electric reamer. All reamers work on the same principle: A ribbed cone is pressed against the fruit to break do w n its flesh and release the juice. Always strain juices to remove seeds, pulp or fibrous pieces.
A blender or an electric juice extractor can be used to liquefy less- juicy fruits and vegetables such as apples, carrots, tomatoes, beets and cabbage. The extractor pulverizes the fruit or vegetable, then separates and strains the liquid from the pulp with centrifugal force.
Interesting and delicious beverages can be made by combining the juice of one or more fruits or vegetables: pineapple with orange, apple with cranberry, strawberry with tangerine and papaya with orange. Color should be considered when creating mixed-juice beverages, however. Some combinations can cause rather odd color changes. Although yellow and orange juices are not a problem, those containing red and blue flavonoid pigments (such as Concord grapes, cherries, strawberries, raspberries and blueberries) can create some unappetizing colors. Adding an acid such as lemon juice helps retain the correct red and blue hues. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.6%3A_Selecting_Purchasing_and_Storing_Fruits.txt |
Although most fruits are edible raw and typically served that way, some fruits can also be cooked. Commonly used cooking methods are broiling and grilling, baking, sautéing, deep-frying, poaching, simmering and preserving.
When cooking fruits, proper care and attention are critical. Even minimal cooking can render fruits overly soft or mushy. To combat this irreversible process, sugar can be added. When fruits are cooked with sugar, the sugar will be absorbed slowly into the cells, firming the fruits. Acids (notably lemon juice) also help fruits retain their structure. (Alkalis, such as baking soda, cause the cells to break down more quickly, reducing the fruits to mush.)
There are so many different fruits with such varied responses to cooking that no one standard for doneness is appropriate. Each item should be evaluated on a recipe-by-recipe basis. Generally, however, most cooked fruits are done when they are just tender when pierced with a fork or the tip of a paring knife. Simmered fruits, such as compotes, should be softer, cooked just to the point of disintegration. Avoid overcooking fruits by remembering that some carryover cooking will occur through the residual heat contained in the foods. Always rely on subjective tests such as sight, feel, taste, and aroma-rather than cooking time.
Broiling and Grilling
Fruits are usually broiled or grilled just long enough to caramelize sugars; cooking must be done quickly in order to avoid breaking down the fruits' structure. Good fruits to broil or grill are pineapples, apples, grapefruits, bananas, persimmons and peaches. The fruits may be cut into slices, chunks or halves as appropriate. A coating of sugar, honey or liqueur adds flavor, as do lemon juice, cinnamon and ginger.
When broiling fruits, use an oiled sheet pan or broiling platter. When grilling fruits, use a clean grill grate or thread the pieces onto skewers. Only thick fruit slices will need to be turned or rotated to heat fully. Broiled or grilled fruits can be served alone, as an accompaniment to meat, fish or poultry or as topping for ice creams or custards.
Procedure to Broil or Grill Fruit
1. Select ripe fruits and peel, core or slice as necessary.
2. Top with sugar or honey to add flavor and aid caramelization.
3. Place the fruits on the broiler platter, sheet pan or grill grate.
4. Broil or grill at high temperatures, turning as necessary to heat the fruits thoroughly but quickly.
Baking
After washing, peeling, coring or pitting, most pomes, stone fruits and tropical fruits can be baked to create hot, flavorful desserts. Fruits with sturdy skins, particularly apples and pears, are excellent for baking alone, as their skin (peel) holds in moisture and flavor. They can also be used as edible containers by filling the cavity left by coring with a variety of sweet or savory mixtures.
Combinations of fruits can bake together successfully; try mixing fruits for a balance of sweetness and tart ness (for example, strawberries with rhubarb or apples with plums).
Several baked desserts are simply fruits (fresh, frozen or canned) topped with a crust (called a cobbler), strudel (called a crumple or crisp) or batter (called a buckle). Fruits, sometimes poached first, can also bake in a wrapper of puff pastry, flaky dough or phyllo dough to produce an elegant dessert.
Procedure for Baking Fruit
1. Select ripe but firm fruits and peel, core, pit or slice as necessary.
2. Add sugar or any flavorings.
3. Wrap the fruits in pastry dough if desired, or directed in the recipe.
4. Place the fruits in a baking dish and bake uncovered in a moderate oven until tender or properly browned.
Sautéing
Fruits develop a rich, syrupy flavor when sautéed briefly in butter, sugar and, if desired, spices or liqueur. Cherries, bananas, apples, pears and pineapples are good choices. They should be peeled, cored and seeded as necessary and cut into uniform-size pieces before sautéing.
For dessert, fruits are sautéed with sugar to create a caramelized glaze or syrup. The fruits and syrup can be used to fill crepes or to top sponge cakes or ice creams. Liquor may be added and the mixture flamed (flambéed) in front of diners.
For savory mixtures, onions, shallots or garlic are often added. In both sweet and savory fruit sautés, the fat used should be the most appropriate for the finished product. Butter and bacon fat are typical choices.
Procedure for Sautéing Fruits
1. Peel, pit and core the fruits as necessary and cut into uniform-size pieces.
2. Melt the fat in a hot sauté pan.
3. Add the fruit pieces and any flavoring ingredients. Do not crowd the pan, as this will ca use the fruit to stew in its own juices.
4. Cook quickly over high heat.
Deep-Frying
Few fruits are suitable for deep-frying. Apples, bananas, pears, pineapples and firm peaches mixed in or coated with batter, however, produce fine results. These fruits should be peeled, cored, seeded, and cut into evenly-sized slices or chunks. They may also need to be dried with paper towels so that the batter or coating can adhere.
Fruit fritters are also a popular snack or dessert item. Fritters contain diced or chopped fish, shellfish, vegetables, or fruits bound together with a thick batter and deep-fried. Because frying time is very short, the main ingredient is usually precooked. Fritters are spooned or dropped directly into the hot fat; they form a crust as they cook. Popular examples are clam fritters, corn fritters, artichoke fritters and apple fritters.
Method for Deep-Frying Fruit Fritters
1. Cut, chop and otherwise prepare the food to be mad e into fritters.
2. Precook any ingredients if necessary.
3. Prepare the batter as directed.
4. Scoop the fritters into deep fat at 350°F (180°C), using the swimming method.
5. Cook until clone. The fritters should be golden brown on the outside and moist but set on the inside.
6. Remove the fritters from the fat and hold them over the fryer, allowing the excess fat to drain off. Transfer the food to a hotel pan either lined with absorbent paper or fitted with a rack. Serve hot.
7. If the fritters are to be held for later service, place them under a heat lamp.
Poaching
One of the more popular cooking methods for fruits is poaching. Poaching softens and tenderizes fruits and infuses them with additional flavors such as spices or wine. Poached fruits can be served hot or cold and used in tarts or pastries or as an accompaniment to meat or poultry dishes.
The poaching liquid can be water, wine, liquor or sugar syrup. (As noted earlier, sugar helps fruits keep their shape, although it takes longer to tenderize fruits poached in sugar syrup.) The low poaching temperature (185°F/85°C) allows fruits to soften gradually. The agitation created at higher temperatures would damage them.
Cooked fruits should be allowed to cool in the flavored poaching liquid or syrup. Most poaching liquids can be used repeatedly. If they contain sufficient sugar, they can be reduced to a sauce or glaze to accompany the poached fruits.
Procedure for Poaching Fruits
1. Peel, core and slice the fruits as necessary.
2. In a sufficiently deep, nonreactive saucepan, combine the poaching liquid (usually water or wine) with sugar, spices, citrus zest and other ingredients as desired or as directed in the recipe.
3. Submerge the fruits in the liquid. Place a circle of parchment paper over the fruits to help them stay submerged.
4. Place the saucepan on the stovetop over a medium-high flame; bring to a boil.
5. As soon as the liquid boils, reduce the temperature. Simmer gently.
6. Poach until the fruits are tender enough for the tip of a small knife to be easily inserted. Cooking time depends on the type of fruit used, its ripeness and the cooking liquid.
Simmering
Simmering techniques are used to make stewed fruits and compotes. Fresh, frozen, canned and dried fruits can be simmered or stewed. As with any moist heat cooking method, simmering softens and tenderizes fruits. The liquid used can be water, wine or the juices naturally found in the fruits. Sugar, honey and spices may be added as desired. Stewed or simmered fruits can be served hot or cold, as a first course, a dessert or an accompaniment to meat or poultry dishes.
Method for Simmering Fruit
1. Peel, core, pit and slice the fruits as necessary.
2. Bring the fruits and cooking liquid, if used, to a simmer. Cook until the fruit is tender.
3. Add sugar or other sweeteners as desired or as directed in the recipe.
Preserving
Fresh fruits can be preserved with sugar if the fruit-and-sugar mixture is concentrated by evaporation to the point that microbial spoilage cannot occur. The added sugar also retards the growth of, but does not destroy, microorganisms.
Pectin, a substance present in varying amounts in all fruits, can cause cooked fruits to form a semisolid mass known as a gel. Fruits that are visually unattractive but otherwise of high quality can be made into gels, which are more commonly known as jams, jellies, marmalades and preserves.
The essential ingredients of a fruit gel are fruit, pectin, acid (usually lemon juice), and sugar. They must be carefully combined in the correct ratio for the gel to form. For fruits with a low pectin content (such as strawberries) to form a gel, pectin must be added, either by adding a fruit with a high pectin content (for example, apples or quinces) or by adding packaged pectin.
Terms
• Concentrate - also known as a fruit paste or compo und; a reduced fruit puree, without a gel structure, used as a flavoring
• Jam - a fruit gel made from fruit pulp and sugar
• Jelly - a fruit gel made from fruit juice and sugar
• Marmalade - a citrus jelly that also contains unpeeled slices of citrus fruit
• Preserve - a fruit gel that contains large pieces or whole fruits | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.7%3A_Applying_Various_Cooking_Methods.txt |
Quiz on Fruit
1. Describe a clafloutis.
2. When and where was Bananas Foster created?
3. What kind of liqueur and liquor is used in making Bananas Foster?
4. Describe the term macerate.
5. Describe brie cheese.
9.9: Recipes for Fruit
Pear or Apple Clafoutis
Makes 8 servings
Clafoutis, sometimes spelled clafouti in Anglophone countries, is a baked French dessert of fruit, traditionally black cherries, arranged in a buttered dish, and covered with a thick flan-like batter.
Recipe
Ingredients:
• cups milk
• 1 cup heavy cream
• 1 cup granulated sugar
• 1 ½ teaspoons pure vanilla extract
• 2/3 cup all-purpose flour
• large eggs
• Granny Smith apples or firm, ripe Anjou pears, peeled, cored, and thinly sliced
• tablespoons brandy
• Confectioners’ sugar
Procedure:
1. Preheat the oven to 375 degrees. Generously butter a gratin dish, about 12 inches in diameter and two to three inches deep. (In a pinch you can use a 10-inch deep-dish pie plate).
2. Combine the milk, cream, granulated sugar, and the vanilla in a medium-size saucepan.
3. Bring to a boil over medium-high heat, stirring to dissolve the sugar. Reduce the heat to medium and boil gently to cook slightly, two to three minutes. Remove from the heat and set aside.
4. Place the flour in a medium-size mixing bowl, and using an electric mixer, beat in the eggs one at a time, scraping the sides of the bowl often, to make a smooth batter.
5. Gradually beat in the warm milk mixture to form a smooth and thin batter.
6. Pour into the prepared gratin dish.
7. Toss the apple or pear slices with the brandy and arrange in layers over the top of the batter. They will sink as you work.
8. Bake the clafoutis until firm to the touch in the center and lightly golden on top, about 1 hour and 15 minutes.
9. Remove from the oven and let cool to lukewarm or room temperature. Serve by cutting into pie-like wedges, dusting each with the confectioners’ sugar.
Baked Apples with Cream Cheese Drizzle
Makes 6 servings
Recipe
Ingredients:
• gala apples
• 1 ½ cups water
Filling:
• 1 cup golden raisins
• 1 cup chopped pecans
• tablespoons maple syrup
• 1 ¼ teaspoons ground cinnamon
Cream Cheese Drizzle:
• ounces softened cream cheese
• 1¼ teaspoons vanilla extract
• Touch water
Procedure:
1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees
2. Pour the water into a baking dish large enough to accommodate the 6 apples. Set aside.
3. Core the apple using a melon baller or sharp knife, being sure to leave the bottom of the apple intact so that it will hold the filling without leaking!
1. Mix the filling ingredients together in a small bowl. Using a small spoon, scoop the filling into the apples.
1. Place the stuffed apples in the prepared casserole dish. Cover with a glass cover or foil.
2. Bake for about 45-50 minutes, removing the cover after 20 minutes.
3. Meanwhile, mix cream cheese drizzle ingredients in a small bowl. Once apples are cooked through, and tender, remove from the oven, place on a plate and drizzle with cream cheese mixture. Serve immediately.
Bananas Foster
Makes 4 Servings
We have Richard Foster, a regular at New Orleans' celebrated restaurant Brennan's, to thank for this delectable dessert. A combination of cooked bananas swimming in sugar, melted butter, and rum, which is often ignited tableside, the dessert was created in 1951 by Brennan’s chef for Mr. Foster. An owner of an awning company, Foster served on the New Orleans Crime Commission and was a good friend of restaurant owner Owen Edward Brennan.
Recipe
Ingredient:
• ¼ cup (½ stick) butter
• 1 cup brown sugar (packed)
• ½ teaspoon ground cinnamon
• ¼ cup banana liqueur
• 4 bananas, cut in half lengthwise, then halved
• ¼ cup dark rum
• 4 scoops vanilla ice cream
Procedure:
1. Combine the butter, sugar, and cinnamon in a flambé pan or skillet.
2. Place the pan over low heat either on a butane burner or on top of the stove, and cook, stirring, until the sugar dissolves.
3. Stir in the banana liqueur, then place the bananas in the pan.
4. When the banana sections soften and begin to brown, carefully add the rum.
5. Continue to cook the sauce until the rum is hot, then tip the pan slightly to ignite the rum.
6. When the flames subside, lift the bananas out of the pan and place 2 pieces over each portion of ice cream.
7. Generously spoon warm sauce over the top of the ice cream and serve immediately.
Daniel Boulud’s Trifle in a Jar (Fruit Verrines)
Yield 3 Cups
Recipe
Sweetened Whipped Cream
• 2 cups heavy cream
• 1/2 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
• 2 teaspoons sugar
1. Combine the cream, vanilla, and sugar in a medium-size mixing bowl and, using an electric mixer, whip until soft peaks form.
2. Cover and chill in the refrigerator until ready to use.
Filling
• Cut 1 pound cake into ½-inch cubes
• Macerate one-pint raspberries in 2-tablespoons Chambord for 15 minutes.
• (When you macerate something, you soften it by soaking it in a liquid, often while you're cooking or preparing food. To macerate strawberries, all you have to do is sprinkle sugar on them, which draws out their juices so they become soft and sweet and deliciously saucy. For this recipe we soaked the raspberries in a premium black raspberry liqueur).
• 1 cup shelled, salted pistachios – roughly chopped for garnish.
To Assemble
To build each verrine, place approximately 2 tablespoons of macerated berries, then some of the whipped cream, more cubes of cake, more berries, and sprinkle of pistachios.
Fruit Pizza
Recipe
Crust:
• Non-stick cooking spray
• 1 ¼ cups all-purpose flour
• ½ teaspoon baking powder
• ¼ teaspoon salt
• tablespoons unsalted butter, at room temperature
• ½ cup granulated sugar
• ¼ cup light brown sugar
• 1 large egg
• 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
1. For the crust: Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F. Spray a 10 to 12-inch tart pan or pizza pan with nonstick cooking spray.
2. In a medium bowl, whisk together the flour, baking powder and salt.
3. In a large mixing bowl, cream together the butter and sugars using a handheld mixer until smooth.
4. Add in the egg and vanilla and mix until incorporated.
5. Slowly incorporate the flour mixture into the creamed butter and mix until blended.
6. Remove the dough from the bowl and press into the prepared pan. (You may need to dust your hands with some flour to prevent the dough from sticking to them. It is wet dough when it comes together.)
7. Bake until the edges just start to brown, 10 to 12 minutes. Remove from the oven and let cool.
For the Spread:
• 1 (8-ounce) package cream cheese, softened
• 1/2 cup confectioners' sugar
• 1 1/2 teaspoons vanilla extract
• 1/2 teaspoon lemon zest
• Pinch salt
In a large mixing bowl, beat the cream cheese, sugar, vanilla, lemon zest and a pinch of salt until smooth. Spread evenly on the cooled crust.
Cook's Note: An offset spatula is a great tool for spreading the cookie dough. If the dough seems a little soft, flour your hands before you work with the dough or chill the dough in the refrigerator.
For the Glaze:
• 3 tablespoons orange marmalade
• 1 1/2 teaspoon herbs de Provence
Combine the marmalade, 2 tablespoons water and herbs de Provence to a small skillet and cook over medium heat until loosened and warm.
Fresh Fruit Topping:
• 1 cup blueberries
• 1 cup sliced kiwi
• 1 cup sliced nectarines
• 1 cup raspberries
• 1 cup strawberries, sliced
To assemble: Arrange the fresh fruit in the desired pattern on top of the pizza, brush the glaze over the fruit, slice and serve.
Grilled Brie with Apple Compote
Compote makes about 3 cups
Brie is a soft cow's-milk cheese named after Brie, the French region from which it originated
Recipe
Ingredients:
• pounds tart apples, peeled, cored and cut into small dice (toss with acidulated water to prevent discoloration)
• tablespoons fresh lemon juice
• 1 tablespoon brandy
• 1/4 cup sugar
• 1/4 teaspoon ground cinnamon
Combine the above ingredients in a large saucepan over low heat and cover. Stir occasionally until the apples are tender, about 30 minutes. Remove from the heat and cool completely.
To assemble:
• 1 cup chopped toasted pecans
• small wheels of brie cheese (grilled with hatch marks)
Place the grilled brie on a serving platter. Spoon the apple compote over the cheese and sprinkle with toasted pecans. Serve with party crackers. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/09%3A_Fruit/9.8%3A_Classroom_Preparation_Assignments_-_Fruits.txt |
Thumbnail: Boiling rice (unsplash license; Gaelle Marcel via Wikipedia)
10: Appendices
Product Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Winter Spring Summer Fall
Apples X X X X
Apricots X X
Artichokes X X X
Asparagus X X X
Avocados X X X X X X X
Beans, green X X X X X
Beets X X X
Blueberries X X X X
Broccoli X X X X X X X
Brussels sprouts X X X X X X
Cabbage X X X X X X X X X
Cantaloupe X X X X
Cauliflower X X X X X X X X X
Celery Root X X X X X X X
Cherries X X X X
Chestnuts X X X X
Citrus X X X X X X X X X X
Collards X X X
Corn X X X
Cranberries X X X X
Cucumbers X X X X
Dates X X X
Eggplants X X X X
Figs X X X X X
Grapes X X X X X X
Greens X X X X
Kohlrabi X X
Leeks X X X X X X
Lettuce X X X X X X X
Lychees X X
Mangos X X X X
Mush., morels X X X
Mushroom X X X X
Truffles
Okra X X X X X
Onions X X X X
Onions, sweet X X X
Papayas X X X X
Peaches X X X X
Pears X X X X X X X
Peas, English X X
Peas, field X X
Pecans X X
Peppers, bell X X X X
Peppers, chile X X X X
Persimmons X X X
Pineapples X X X X X X
Plums X X X X
Pomegranates X X X X
Potatoes X X X
Prickly Pears X X X X
Pumpkins X X X
Raspberries X X X X
Rhubarb X X X X
Spinach X X X X X X X X
Squash Su. X X X X X X
Squash, Wtr. X X X X X X
Strawberries X X X X X
Tomatoes X X X X
Turnips X X X X
Watermelons X X X
10.02: Cooking Vegetables
Artichokes
Look for: Tight, small heads without browning or bruising.
Prep: Snip off tough outer leaves; cut off top quarter and trim off woody stem.
• Braise: Heat 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet; add baby artichokes and cook for 1 minute, stirring constantly. Add 1 cup each white wine (or dry vermouth) and water and 1 teaspoon dried thyme (or rosemary or tarragon). Bring to a simmer; cover, reduce heat and cook until tender, about 15 minutes.
• Grill: Halve artichokes, scoop out the choke if necessary, then toss with 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil and 1/2 teaspoon kosher salt. Preheat grill. Place the artichokes over direct, medium-high heat and cook, turning once or twice, until tender, about 8 minutes.
• Microwave: Place artichokes in a large glass pie pan or baking dish, add 1/2 cup white wine (or dry vermouth), 1/2 teaspoon salt and 1 teaspoon dried thyme. Cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 8 minutes.
• Steam: Place artichokes in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, about 15 minutes.
Asparagus
Look for: Sturdy spears with tight heads; the cut ends should not look desiccated or woody. Fresh asparagus should snap when bent.
Prep: Trim off stem ends; shave down any woody bits with a vegetable peeler.
• Braise: Place a large skillet over high heat. Add asparagus, 1/2 cup water and a slice of lemon. Cover, bring to a simmer, and cook until tender, about 5 minutes.
• Grill: Preheat grill; lightly oil rack. Place asparagus over direct, medium heat; cook until browned, turning occasionally, about 6 minutes.
• Microwave: Place asparagus on a glass platter or pie pan; add 1/4 cup water, drizzle with 1- teaspoon extra-virgin olive oil, and cover tightly. Microwave on High until tender, about 3 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Spread asparagus on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold it in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until wilted and browned, about 10 minutes.
Beets
Look for: Small beets with firm, dark ruby or bright orange skins.
Prep: Peel.
• Microwave: Cut beets into 1/4-inch-thick rings; place in a large glass baking dish or pie pan. Add 1/4 cup water, cover tightly and microwave on High for 10 minutes. Let stand, covered, for 5 minutes before serving.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Cut beets into 11/2-inch chunks. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender, about 30 minutes.
• Sauté: Heat 1-tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat. Grate beets into the pan using the large-hole side of a box grater. Add 1 minced garlic clove. Cook, stirring constantly, for 1 minute. Add 1/3 cup water and bring to a simmer. Cover, reduce heat to low and cook until tender, about 8 minutes.
• Steam: Cut beets into quarters. Place in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, about 15 minutes.
Broccoli
Look for: Sturdy, dark-green spears with tight buds, no yellowing and a high floret-to-stem ratio.
Prep: Cut off florets; cut stalks in half lengthwise and then into 1-inch-thick half-moons.
• Microwave: Place stems and florets in a large glass baking dish. Cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 4 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 1-tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender and browned in places, about 10 minutes.
• Steam: Place stems in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water (with 1-tablespoon lemon juice added to it) in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam for 2 minutes. Add florets; cover and continue steaming until tender, about 5 minutes more.
Brussels Sprouts
Look for: Tight, firm, small deep-green heads without yellowed leaves or insect holes. Preferably, the sprouts should still be on the stalk
Prep: Peel off outer leaves; trim stem.
• Braise: Place sprouts and 1 cup dry white wine in a large skillet over medium-high heat. Cover and braise until tender, about 7 minutes. Remove sprouts with a slotted spoon; increase heat to high, add 1-teaspoon butter and reduce liquid to a glaze. Pour over sprouts.
• Microwave: Place sprouts in a large glass baking dish. Add 1/4 cup broth (or water), cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 6 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Cut sprouts in half. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 1-tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until browned and tender, about 20 minutes.
• Steam: Place sprouts in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, 6 to 8 minutes.
Carrots
Look for: Orange, firm spears without any gray, white or desiccated residue on the skin. The greens should preferably still be attached.
Prep: Peel; cut off greens.
• Microwave: Cut carrots into 1/8-inch-thick rounds. Place in a large glass baking dish or pie pan. Add 1/4 cup broth (or white wine). Cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 3 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Cut carrots in half lengthwise then slice into 11/2-inch-long pieces. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until beginning to brown, about 15 minutes.
• Sauté: Cut carrots into 1/8-inch-thick rounds. Melt 1-tablespoon butter in a large skillet over medium-low heat. Add carrots; stir and cook until tender, about 4 minutes. Add 1-teaspoon sugar; stir until glazed.
• Steam: Cut carrots into 1/8-inch thick rounds. Place in a steamer basket over 1 inch of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam for 4 minutes.
Cauliflower
Look for: Tight white or purple heads without brown or yellow spots; the green leaves at the stem should still be attached firmly to the head, not limp or withered.
Prep: Cut into 1-inch-wide florets; discard core and thick stems.
• Braise: Place florets in a large skillet with 1/2 cup dry white wine and 1/2 teaspoon caraway seeds. Bring to a simmer, reduce heat, cover and cook until tender, about 4 minutes.
• Microwave: Place florets in a large glass baking dish. Add 1/4 cup dry white wine (or dry vermouth). Cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 4 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Spread florets on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 1-tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender and beginning to brown, about 15 minutes.
• Steam: Place florets in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam for 5 minutes.
Corn
Look for: Pale to dark green husks with moist silks; each ear should feel heavy to the hand, the cob filling the husk well.
• Grill: Pull back the husks without removing them; pull out the silks. Replace the husks; soak the ears in water for 20 minutes. Preheat grill. Place corn (in husks) over high heat and grill, turning occasionally, until lightly browned, about 5 minutes. Remove husks before serving.
• Microwave: Husk corn and cut ears in thirds; place in a large glass baking dish or microwave-safe container. Cover tightly and microwave on High until tender, about 4 minutes.
• Sauté: Remove kernels from cobs. Melt 2 teaspoons butter in a large skillet over medium heat. Add corn kernels; cook, stirring constantly, until tender, about 3 minutes. Stir in 1/2 teaspoon white-wine vinegar before serving.
• Steam: Husk corn, then break or cut ears in half to fit in a steamer basket. Set over 2 inches of water in a large pot over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, about 4 minutes.
Eggplant
Look for: Smooth, glossy skins without wrinkles or spongy spots; each eggplant should feel heavy for its size.
Prep: Slice into 1/2-inch-thick rounds (peeling is optional).
• Braise: Cut eggplant slices into cubes. Mix with an 8-ounce jar of salsa. Pour into a pan and place over medium heat. Cover and cook, stirring often, until thick, about 15 minutes.
• Grill: Preheat grill. Brush eggplant slices lightly with extra-virgin olive oil. Place over medium-high heat and grill, turning once, until browned, about 8 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Brush both sides of eggplant slices with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil and arrange on a baking sheet or pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender, about 15 minutes.
• Sauté: Cut eggplant slices into cubes; mix with 2 teaspoons salt. Let stand for 5 minutes, then blot dry with paper towels. Heat 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat. Add the eggplant; cook until tender, stirring often, about 4 minutes.
Fennel
Look for: Small, white, unbruised bulbs with brilliant green stalks and feathery fronds.
Prep: Cut off the stalks and fronds where they meet the bulb, remove any damaged outer layers, cut 1/4 inch off the bottom and remove the core.
• Braise: Slice bulb into 1-inch pieces. Heat 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat. Add fennel and 2 teaspoons dried rosemary, crushed. Cook 1 minute, stirring constantly. Add 1/2 cup dry white wine (or dry vermouth). Cover, reduce heat and cook until tender, about 15 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Slice bulb into 1/4-inch pieces. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender and beginning to brown, 18 to 20 minutes.
• Steam: Slice bulb into 1-inch pieces. Place in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water (with 1 teaspoon mustard seeds and bay leaves added to it) in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, about 15 minutes.
Green Beans
Look for: Small, thin, firm beans.
Prep: Snip off stem ends.
• Microwave: Place beans in a large glass baking dish. Add 1/4 cup broth (or water). Cover and microwave on High for 4 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Spread beans on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender and beginning to brown, about 10 minutes.
• Sauté: Heat 2 teaspoons walnut oil in a large skillet. Add beans; cook, stirring constantly, for 2 minutes.
• Steam: Place beans in a steamer basket over 1 inch of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam for 5 minutes.
Leeks
Look for: Long, thin stalks that do not bend and are not bruised; the outer layers should not be wrinkly or dried out.
Prep: Trim off the thick green leaves, leaving only the pale green and white parts; pull off damaged outer layers, leaving the root end intact. Split in half lengthwise. Under cold running water, fan out inner layers to rinse out grit and sand.
• Braise: Place leeks in a large skillet with 1/2 cup vegetable (or chicken broth), 1 sprig fresh rosemary (or 6 juniper berries and 6 black peppercorns). Bring to a simmer over high heat. Cover, reduce heat and cook until tender, about 12 minutes. Serve warm or cold with a vinaigrette dressing.
• Grill: Preheat grill. Brush leeks with 1-tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Place over direct, medium heat and grill, turning occasionally, until lightly browned, about 8 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Trim off root ends of leeks, slice in half crosswise and then into 1/4-inch-thick slices lengthwise. Spread on a baking sheet or pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, stirring once halfway through cooking, until browned and tender, 10 to 15 minutes.
• Sauté: Thinly slice leeks into half-moons. Heat 1-tablespoon butter in a large skillet over medium heat. Add leeks; cook, stirring often, until softened and very aromatic, about 5 minutes.
Peas
Look for: If fresh, look for firm, vibrant green pods without blotches and with the stem end still attached.
Prep: If fresh, zip open the hull, using the stem end as a tab. If frozen, do not defrost before using.
• Microwave: Place peas in a glass baking dish or microwave-safe bowl; add 2 tablespoons broth (or unsweetened apple juice). Cover tightly and microwave on High for 2 minutes.
• Sauté: Heat 2 teaspoons butter in a large skillet over medium heat. Add peas; cook, stirring often, until bright green, about 3 minutes.
• Steam: Place peas in a steamer basket over 1 inch of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam for 2 minutes.
Potatoes, red-skinned or yellow-fleshed
Look for: Small potatoes with firm skins that are not loose, papery or bruised.
Prep: Scrub off any dirt (peeling is optional; the skin is fiber-rich and the nutrients are clustered about 1/2 inch below the skin).
• Braise: Cut potatoes into 1/2-inch pieces. Place in a large skillet with 1/2 cup each vegetable broth and nonfat milk and 1 teaspoon butter. Bring to a simmer, cover, reduce heat and cook until tender and most of the liquid has been absorbed, about 20 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Halve potatoes then cut into 1/2-inch wedges. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, stirring once halfway through cooking, until crispy and browned on the outside and tender on the inside, 20 to 25 minutes.
• Sauté: Peel potatoes (if desired), then shred using the large-hole side of a box grater. Heat 1 tablespoon canola oil in a large skillet over medium heat. Add potatoes; reduce heat. Cook, pressing down with the back of a wooden spoon, for 6 minutes. Flip the cake over and continue cooking until browned, about 5 minutes more.
• Steam: Place potatoes in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender when pierced with a fork, about 10 minutes.
Spinach & Chard
Look for: Supple, deeply colored leaves without mushy spots.
Prep: Rinse thoroughly to remove sand; remove thick stems and shred leaves into 2-inch chunks. Rinse leaves again but do not dry.
• Braise: Heat 2 teaspoons walnut oil (or canola oil) in a large skillet over medium heat. Add spinach or chard and toss until wilted. Add 1/2 cup dry white wine or dry vermouth. Cover, reduce heat and cook until wilted, about 5 minutes. Uncover and cook until liquid is reduced to a glaze. Sprinkle 2 teaspoons balsamic vinegar (or rice vinegar) over the greens.
Squash
Look for: Green, orange or white varietals with firm, smooth skins and no spongy spots.
Prep: Cut in quarters and scoop out the seeds.
• Braise: Place squash in a pot with 2 cups unsweetened apple juice. Set over medium-high heat and bring to a simmer. Cover, reduce heat and cook until tender when pierced with a fork, about 20 minutes.
• Microwave: Place squash in a large glass baking dish; add 1/2 cup water. Cover and microwave on High for 15 minutes; let stand, covered, for 10 minutes.
Zucchini Squash
Look for: No breaks, gashes or soft spots; smaller squash (under 8 inches) are sweeter and have fewer seeds; do not peel, but scrub off any dirt.
Prep: Cut off stem ends.
• Grill: Cut squash lengthwise into 1/4-inch strips. Preheat grill; brush strips lightly with 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil. Place over direct, medium heat; grill, turning once, until marked and lightly browned, 3 to 4 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Cut squash lengthwise into 1/4-inch-thick slices. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender, about 10 minutes.
• Sauté: Cut squash into 1/4-inch-thick rings. Heat 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat. Add 1 minced garlic clove and squash; cook, stirring frequently, until tender, about 7 minutes.
• Steam: Cut squash into 1/2-inch-thick rings. Place in a steamer basket with a small onion, thinly sliced. Place over 1 inch of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cook until tender, about 5 minutes.
Sweet Potatoes
Look for: Taut if papery skins with tapered ends.
• Braise: Peel sweet potatoes and cut into 1-inch pieces. Place in a large skillet with 1 cup vegetable broth, 1 teaspoon honey and 1/2 teaspoon dried thyme. Bring to a simmer over high heat; reduce heat, cover and cook until almost tender, about 15 minutes. Uncover, increase heat and cook until the liquid is reduced to a glaze, about 2 minutes.
• Microwaving: Place 2 to 3 medium sweet potatoes in a large glass baking dish; pierce with a knife. Microwave on High until soft, 8 to 12 minutes. Let stand for 5 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Halve sweet potatoes, then slice into 1/2-inch wedges. Spread on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until browned and tender, 20 to 25 minutes.
• Steam: Peel sweet potatoes and cut into 1-inch pieces. Place in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a pot set over high heat. Cover and steam until tender, about 20 minutes.
Turnips
Look for: Smaller turnips with firm, white skins; they should feel heavy to the hand. The greens should preferably still be attached.
Prep: Cut off the root end and the greens; peel, then cut into thin slices.
• Grill: Steam turnip slices (see below) for 5 minutes; meanwhile, preheat grill. Place slices over direct, medium-high heat and grill, turning once, until lightly browned and tender, about 8 minutes.
• Roast: Preheat oven to 500°F. Spread turnip slices on a baking sheet or in a pan large enough to hold them in a single layer. Coat with 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil. Roast, turning once halfway through cooking, until tender, about 15 minutes.
• Sauté: Cut turnip slices into matchsticks. Heat 1 teaspoon each butter and extra-virgin olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat; add slices and cook, stirring frequently, until tender, about 12 minutes.
• Steam: Place turnip slices in a steamer basket over 2 inches of water in a large pot set over high heat. Cover and cook until tender when pierced with a fork, about 12 minutes. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Appendices/10.01%3A_Produce_Availability.txt |
Formulas for Exact Measurement
WHEN YOU KNOW: MULTIPLY BY: TO FIND:
Mass (weight) Ounces 28.35 grams
Pounds .45 kilograms
Grams 0.035 ounces
Kilograms 2.2 pounds
Volume (capacity) Teaspoons 5.0 milliliters
Tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
Fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters
Cups 0.24 liters
Pints 0.47 liters
Quarts 0.95 liters
Gallons 3.785 liters
Milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces
Temperature Fahrenheit 5/9 (after subtracting 32) Celsius
Celsius 9/5 (then add 32) Fahrenheit
Rounded Measurement for Quick Reference
1 oz = 30 g
4 oz = 120 g
8 oz = 240 g
16 oz = 1 lb. = 480 g
32 oz = 2 lb. = 960 g
36 oz = 2 1/4 lb = 1000 g (1 kg)
1/4 tsp = 1/24 fl. oz. = 1 ml
1/2 tsp = 1/12 fl. oz. = 2 ml
1 tsp = 1/6 fl. oz. = 5 ml
1 Tbsp = 1/2 fl. oz. = 15 ml
1 C. = 8 fl. oz. = 240 ml
2 c. (1 pt.) = 16 fl. oz. = 480 ml
4 c. (1 qt.) = 32 fl. oz. = 960 ml
4 qt. (1 gal.) = 128 fl. oz. = 3.75 It
32 F = 0 c
122 F = 50 c
212 F = 100 c
Conversion Guidelines
1 gallon 4 quarts
8 pints
16 cups (8 fluid ounces)
128 fluid ounces
1 fifth bottle Approximately 1 ½ pints or exactly 26.5 fluid ounces
i measuring cup 8 fluid ounces (a coffee cup generally holds 6 fluid ounces)
1 large egg white 1 ounce (average)
1 lemon 1 to 1 ¼ fluid ounces of juice
1 orange 3 to 3½ fluid ounces of juice
Scoop Sizes
Scoop Number Level Measure
6 2/3 cup
8 1/2 cup
10 2/5 cup
12 1/3 cup
16 1/4 cup
20 3 1/5 tablespoons
24 2 2/3 tablespoons
30 2 1/5 tablespoons
40 1 3/5 tablespoons
*The number of scoop determines the number of servings in each quart of a mixture: for example, with a No. 16 scoop, one quart of mixture will yeild 16 servings
Ladle Sizes
Size Portion of a Cup Number per Quart Number per Liter
1 fl. oz. 1/8 32 34
2 fl. oz. 1/4 16 17
2 2/3 fl. oz. 1/3 12 13
4 fl. oz. 1/2 8 8.6
6 fl. oz. 3/4 5 1/3 5.7
Canned Goods
SIZE NO. OF CANS PER CASE AVERAGE WEIGHT AVERAGE NO. CUPS PER CAN
No. ¼ 1 & 2 doz. 4 oz. 1/2
No. ½ 8 8 oz. 1
No. 300 1 & 2 doz. 14 oz. 1 3/4
No. 1 tall (also known as 303) 2 & 4 doz. 16 oz. 2
No. 2 2 doz. 20 oz. 2 1/2
No. 2½ 2 doz. 28 oz. 3 1/2
No. 3 2 doz. 33 oz. 4
No. 3 cylinder 1 doz. 46 oz. 5 2/3
No. 5 1 doz. 3 lb. 8 oz. 5 1/2
No. 10 6 6 lb. 10 oz. 13
10.04: Types of Rice
White Rice has been milled to remove the outer husk, the bran, and the germ. Though less nutritious, white rice has some advantages over brown rice: it stores longer and cooks faster. White rice comes in short-, medium-, and long-grain varieties.
Brown rice has been given the lightest touch in terms of processing. It is the whole grain version with just the outer husk removed, leaving the nutrient-rich bran and germ. It is nutty, chewy, and more nutritious than white rice. Brown rice comes in short-, medium-, and long-grain varieties. Sweet brown rice is a short-grain, starchy brown rice that becomes very soft and sticky when it's cooked, and is popular in Asian cuisines.
Black rice is a highly nutritious source of iron, vitamins, antioxidants, and fiber. It actually turns purple when you cook it.
Aromatic rice have a distinctive perfumy aroma when cooked. Popular examples are basmati (India) Jasmine (Thailand), Texmati (Texas), and Wehani and pecan wild rice (both from Louisiana).
Arborio rice is a medium-short-grain, starchy white rice, used most famously to make risotto. Continuously stirring risotto helps the rice give up starch that helps thicken the dish. Arborio rice is most easily found in the market, but other risotto rice varieties include Carnaroli, Vialone Nano, and Baldo.
Sticky rice, or “glutinous rice,” is a short-grained rice that is typically used in Asian specialties such as sushi. In addition, no, there is no gluten in glutinous rice.
Wild rice is actually the seed of a grass plant, and so not a "true" rice, though it is often found in rice blends and pilaf mixes. Wild rice has a nutty flavor and a chewy bite.
Instant or quick rice is cooked before being dehydrated and packaged. While it is fast, it lacks the flavor and texture of regular rice. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Appendices/10.03%3A_Measurement_and_conversion_charts.txt |
Dried Beans Cooked Beans
1/3 cup = 1 cup
1/2 cup = 1 1/2 cups
2/3 cup = 2 cups
1 cup = 3 cups
2 cups (1 lb) = 6 cups
Dried Bean Varieties
ADZUKI (or aduki) beans are a Japanese favorite and have a flavor similar to red beans. Sweet and relatively easy to digest. Delicious in soups, rice dishes and salads. Substitutes: red, pinto or cranberry beans.
ANASAZI beans are excellent soup beans for their flavor and appearance. Sweet and fast cooking; they have been used in southwestern recipes for hundreds of years. Great for making refried beans. Substitutes: pinto or cranberry beans.
BLACK-EYED PEAS are a traditional dish in the southern states, usually cooked with ham bones or bacon and served with hot sauce. Also called cowpeas, they are also used in soups, salads, fritters, casseroles and in the dish Hoppin' John.
BLACK TURTLE beans have a strong, earthy flavor and are a staple of Latin American and Caribbean cuisine, where they are used to make side dishes, soups, bean dips and salads. Substitutes: appaloosa or calypso beans.
CANNELLINI beans, also called white kidney beans, are often used in Italian recipes including minestrone soup and bean salads. They have a smooth texture and nutty flavor. Substitutes: red kidney, great northern or navy beans.
CRANBERRY beans are known for their creamy texture with a flavor similar to chestnuts. These beans are a favorite in northern Italy and Spain. Substitutes: cannellini, great northern and pinto beans.
FAVA beans are meaty and strongly flavored, and work well in side dishes, soups and salads. The skins must be removed from the beans after soaking and before cooking . Substitutions: lima, garbanzo or soy beans.
GARBANZO beans, also known as chickpeas, combine perfectly with a variety of seasonings to produce Mediterranean falafel, hummus, creative soups and nutritious salads.
GREAT NORTHERN beans have a delicate, distinctive flavor, and are often used in cassoulets and stews. Substitutes: navy, cannellini or lima beans.
KIDNEY beans are versatile and delicious, and are often used in chili, refried beans, soups and salads. Substitutes: cannellini, navy, red or pinto beans.
LENTILS come in a variety of colors, including brown, green and orange. They are a staple in much of the Middle East and India, and can be used in side dishes, soups, stews and salads.
LIMA beans are sometimes called butter beans, due to their starchy yet buttery flavor. They are used alone as a side dish and in soups . In the South they are served with corn as succotash. Substitutes: soy, navy or fava beans.
MUNG beans are small and green, and they're often sprouted to make bean sprouts. When skinned and split, the beans are flat and yellow, and called moong dal. Substitute: adzuki.
NAVY beans are the common bean in commercially canned pork and beans. They make wonderful soups, salads and chili, and are used for making Boston baked beans. Substitutes: great northern, lima or cannellini beans.
PINTO beans are great in chili and as refried beans, and make a terrific filling for burritos. They are often served with rice and are popular in Spanish-speaking countries. Substitutes: red kidney or cranberry beans.
SOY BEANS are very nutritious, and are used to make vegetable oil, tofu, soy sauce, meat alternatives, soy milk and cheese. Use in soups, stews and casseroles.
SPLIT PEAS can be green or yellow, and are varieties of field peas that split when dried. They are most commonly used in thick soups and stews. Yellow split peas have a milder flavor.
10.06: Kitchen Weights and Measures
Kitchen Weight and Measures
1 pinch = 1/8 teaspoon
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon (teaspoon - tsp/Tablespoon - tbsp.)
2 tablespoons = 1 ounce
1 cup = 8 ounces/16 tbsp.
¾ cup = 6 ounces/12 tbsp.
½ cup = 4 ounces/8 tbsp
¼ cup = 2 ounces/4 tbsp.
16 ounces = 1 pound
2 cups = 1 pint/16 oz
4 cups = 1 quart/32 oz
16 cups = 1 gallon/128 oz
2 quarts = ½ gallon/64 oz.
4 quarts = 1 gallon
Metric Conversions
1 gram = 0.03527 oz.
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
28.35 grams = 1 ounce / 2 tbsp.
453.6 g. = 1 pound
5 milliliters = 1 teaspoon
15 milliliters = 1 tablespoon
240 milliliters = 1 cup
0.4732 liters = 1 pint
0.951 liters = 1 quart
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
Food Quantity Needed
(1) Number to be served X portions size = number of ounces needed
Number of ounces needed / 16 (ounces per pound) = pounds needed
EXAMPLE: 25 hamburgers, 8 oz. each. SO…. 8oz X 25 = 200 ounces needed. So….200oz. / 16oz (1 lb.) = 12.5 pounds of hamburger needed.
Recipe Conversion
Must know: (1) number of servings – recipe yield, and (2) # of servings needed.
• More servings than the recipe - recipe yield divided into number of servings needed is the amount needed.
• Fewer servings needed than the recipe yields - divide number of servings needed divided by recipe yield is the percentage to reduce the recipe by.
EXAMPLE:
(1) Recipe yields 6 servings – you need 24 servings SO… 24 / 6 = 4 times the recipe amounts.
(2) Recipe yields 24 servings and you need 6 servings So…. 6 servings / 24 servings = 25% of recipe ingredients. Or – 6/6 = 1 24/6 = 4 = ratio 1 to 4 or 25%
10.07: Cooking Grains
1 Cup of Grain Water Cook Time Cooked Amount
Amaranth 2 cups 25–25 minutes 3½ cups
Barley, hulled 3 cups 45–60 minutes 3½ cups
Buckwheat 2 cups 20 minutes 4 cups
Bulgur 2 cups 10–12 minutes 3 cups
Cornmeal 4 cups 25–30 minutes 2½ cups
Couscous 2 cups 10 minutes (heat off) 3 cups
Millet, hulled 2½ cups 20 minutes 4 cups
Oats, steel cut 4 cups 20 minutes 4 cups
Pasta 6 cups 8–12 minutes varies
Quinoa 2 cups 12–15 minutes 3+ cups
Brown Rice 2½ cups 45 minutes 3–4 cups
Rye berries 4 cups Soak 45–60 minutes 3 cups
Sorghum 4 cups 25–40 minutes 3 cups
Spelt berries 4 cups Soak 45–60 minutes 3 cups
Teff 3 cups 15–20 minutes 3 cups
Wheat berries 4 cups Soak 45–60 minutes 3 cups
Wild Rice 3 cups 45–55 minutes 3½ cups | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Appendices/10.05%3A_Cooking_Guide_for_Beans.txt |
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
10.9: Industry Resources
Meats
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood
National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Association www.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soyfoods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co.
www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Fruits_Vegetables_and_Farinaceous_Products_(Bienvenu_and_Thibodeaux)/10%3A_Appendices/10.08%3A_Professional_Associations.txt |
Thrust yourself back in time to the days of castles prior to the French Revolution of 1789. You are the Garde Manger or “Keeper of the Food”. You began as a lowly apprentice of the Guild until reaching the level of journeyman and after years of proving your acumen, you have risen to Master. There is no modern convenience of refrigerated storage or even air conditioning for that matter. You must make the most of the coolest part of the lower levels of the castle, perhaps insulated by the cool waters of the moat surrounding the fortress to keep the meats at the coolest temperature possible. Beyond that, you must put into place all of the preservation methods taught to you by Guild master throughout your training in order to add satiety, shelf life, and value to the pig, deer, rabbit and fowl from the nearby forests.
Today we can appreciate the ease that modern convenience offers us if we only take a moment to place ourselves in the shoes of those who went before us to develop a lasting profession with methods and technical skills still practical yet requiring great demand upon the chef in time and energy. In the days of Marie Antoine Careme ice was cut from lakes in the winter with large saws and stored with straw and dirt below ground for keeping. We have it pretty easy today if you think about it.
Barbant, Le Garde-Manger, U Froid.
This Guild system regulated raw materials and finished products in any number of classifications such as baked goods, charcuterie (literally meaning - cooked flesh), soups, and more. It lasted until the latter part of the sixteenth century until the French Revolution ended the nobility class, forcing the chefs to open restaurants as a matter of survival. Along the way, Monsieur Boulanger, owner of an Inn served his guest a “restorative” dish of sheep’s trotters in a sauce. He was sued by the guild of soups for infringing on their protected category. Their efforts were to no avail as the judge declared the dish beyond the scope of a soup and instead a meal unto itself. Many look to this historical moment as the beginning of a renaissance of the restaurant and the end of the guilds. Over the next few years, the 50 established restaurants in Paris grew to over 500 in number.
Today we see a great resurgence in the old becoming new again. New chefs are discovering charcuterie at a fantastic rate and learning the skill sets to bring it to life on the menu via charcuterie and cheese boards. Others are pressing the envelope to include various aspects of aspic in the creation of layered and bound salads or adding texture and sensory appeal to cold dishes with a gelee which melts in the mouth providing moisture and satiety in new ways. The alchemy of the modernist kitchen is a trend for many of these chefs who are finding a welcomed kinship in the marriage of new and old.
There is something for everyone in the art of the Garde Manger. It is inescapable from the simplicity of the cold preparations we take for granted each day to the rare cold platters of culinary competitions and all the way to the science of molecular gastronomy. The journey from the old to the new is necessary as a means of foundation building and as lofty as you are driven by your passion to take it. Punch your ticket; choose your own destination. All aboard!
Equipment of the Garde Manger
Shown: Food Processor by Robot Coupe®
Commonly referred to by its brand name, Robot Coupe, this is a vital part of the cold kitchen providing a tool for blending, pureeing, slicing, grating and more. It is imperative to understand its operation, assembly, disassembly, cleaning, reassembly, and storage. The most common error is to force the bowl off before removing the lid. This will result in breaking the pin housed in the bowl handle that engages the motor. Caution: Pay close attention to the demonstration of this equipment’s use and be careful to follow the proper procedure each time it is used.
Shown: Table top mixer by Hobart®
Mixers come in various sizes and for our purposes; we will use both 5 and 20-quart mixers for such things as blending sausage meats, fats, and spices. Be educated on this item’s operation, assembly, parts, cleaning and reassembly. Caution: Always use care in the operation of this as well as any electric tool in the kitchen.
Shown: Meat slicer by Hobart®
The meat slicer is a valuable tool to achieve evenly sliced charcuterie such as bacon, Salami, speck, etc. It can be dangerous so pay extreme attention, wear proper gloves when using, and always clean and sanitize the machine completely and at proper intervals.
Shown: Buffalo Chopper by Hobart®
A vital express chopping machine for high volume chopping indeed, however the primary purpose in Garde Manger is in the making of emulsified meats for sausages like frankfurters. The constant rotation of the bowl in conjunction with the turning blade create the paste like consistency necessary in hot dogs while the addition of ice keeps the cold emulsion from breaking. Use extreme caution and follow all demonstrated procedures when using this machine. Always sanitize before use and clean, sanitize, and reassemble after use.
Shown: Vacuum Pressure Sealer by VacMaster®
A pressure seal is used in Sous Vide canning, and packaging products for storage, curing, freezing and other uses. It is important to learn how it operates and to check it for lubrication on a regular basis.
Shown: Sausage stuffer with attachments by F. Dick®
You will become proficient at creating fresh and cured sausages as you learn the assembly and use of the tools for stuffing the sausages. Varieties of tube sizes are available for different sized casings and various sausage types.
Shown: Meat grinder by Hobart® and attachments
Before stuffing sausages, we must first learn the grinder and its assembly. The worm or auger turns the meat pieces along it screw like surface to the blade and through the die to grind the meat into various sized grinds. Chill the parts beforehand to create a good cold emulsion and assemble them correctly. Use caution and follow proper grinding procedures relating to the desired outcome of the style sausage you wish to produce.
Cheese making is a tremendous amount of fun as requires a great deal of patience and care. Learning these principles can bring a lifetime of enjoyment to you and your guests.
Time to tour the Kitchen - In class
Learning what the equipment is and where the equipment resides is key to running an efficient kitchen operation for many standpoints. It allows for a smoother workday and a stress free environment that is so important in today’s kitchen. An organized kitchen lends itself to lower labor costs, happier customers and greater profits.
We will tour the kitchen now, but it is your responsibility to familiarize yourself with where your tools and food reside and to put them in their proper place once finished with them so both you and others can easily find them when needed.
Kitchen Policies
Be in your complete uniform at the line up for roll call. This includes all uniform policies listed in the syllabus.
1. After roll call and briefing, enter the class, placing kits and bags on the proper table and wash your hands.
2. Set up your stations according to the supplied diagram from the chef and sanitize your work area, knives and cutting board. Prepare your game plans under plastic overlay for ease of checking off procedural steps.
3. After any chef demo, gather ALL mise en place necessary to complete any and all recipes for which you are responsible. Use pans to gather food.
4. Refrain from using cell phones and all unnecessary conversation as you focus on production. Put into practice all sanitation rules learned in Servsafe®.
5. Before leaving to go to the restroom, please notify the chef.
6. Wash dishes as you go; do not drop dishes at the sink without washing them.
7. Focus on the task at hand; think of the next step and prepare. Warm plates for hot food- cold plates for cold food. Think ahead.
8. Work toward meeting your deadlines in preparation for your career as a chef; now is the time to prepare - not later. We become what we practice.
9. Work together as a team to accomplish the goal of cleaning. A list is provided. Leave the kitchen better that you found it.
10. Ask questions; be prepared. Game plans are a prerequisite to attending class. If you are unprepared, it will show and reflect on your grade.
11. Keep a good attitude. We all make mistakes. Better here than in the restaurant. Take criticism well. It’s harder and harsher in the real world, though we are working to “Be the Change”.* 2018 ACF National Convention Theme
Preparing for Class
This is your new textbook for Garde Manger. It is solid yet concise. Moodle, the learning management system, is replete with resources. Note taking in lecture has no substitute. These are the bare minimums. The university library and beyond has much on the subject that will help you to gain knowledge and sharpen your memory. Young Chefs who are alumni and own their own restaurants practiced these principles.
The game plans have been developed to train you to prepare your mind for production through the practice of writing the ingredients and equipment necessary to complete the recipe along with the steps of the recipe. It makes you ready for class and keeps you from wasting precious time reading a recipe. Studies show that if you visualize your steps in your mind’s eye in addition to practice, you’ll have greater success in the competition of a task. Education is expensive- wisdom even more so. Make the most of your class time by preparing ahead.
Look too at the big picture. Culinary education is cumulative. Put into practice the principles from each class; make them ‘part and parcel’ of the way you operate in the kitchen. Do not forget the suc or fond in the pan is necessary for building flavor in a dish and too quickly wash it all away because you forgot how to braise. The same goes for sanitation. Keep putting into practice all those principles that will pay off at health inspection time and daily with healthy happy guests.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Introduction to Garde Manger
1. Garde manger (literally “______ ___ ___ ______”) was the term used to identify this storage area. It is still used to indicate a larder or pantry—a place for cold food storage.
2. The preservation of food in 1700’s was largely a sign of wealth and most popular among nobility. This time was the golden age of the guilds but still many chefs who were not part of the guilds as they worked for the wealthy in the castles. What event lead to the rise of restaurants and the fall of the guilds in the latter part of the 1700’s in France?
3. According to Kitchen Tour section of the Introduction, to what three things does an organized kitchen lend itself?
4. Why do we place kitchen small wares back in their proper place after we use and clean them?
5. What is the most common error when using the Robot Coupe? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.01%3A_The_Professional_Garde_Manger.txt |
History and Development
It has been postulated that Nomads in the desert carried excess milk with them in skins made from the goats stomach and that the resulting curds came about during the exposure to the rennet inside the skins. Plausible perhaps, but only a myth. Cheese making can be traced, however to the fertile crescent of Mesopotamia around the same time as the first known fermentation of beer between 7000- 6000 B.C.E. How is that for coincidence? Two fermented foods still popular today, rising to the anthropological forefront of man’s culture around 8000 years ago; fascinating.
Milk itself is a highly nutritive food which nature developed for the sustenance of new bourns. Man is the only mammal know to continue consuming milk after weening. Around 2000 B.C.E. man drank most of his milk after fermentation in a beverage similar to thin yogurt. We see such products today emerging as new in our grocer’s dairy isle. Climate and terroir influenced the cheese making as land suitable for goats and sheep proved less hospitable for cows. Thus, regional differences in both type production and styles began. As their popularity grew via trade routes, so the need for developing means of safe transport and the development of bandaging, pressing and aging of cheeses ensued.
Moving forward to the middle ages of Christendom, religious orders made good use of cheese as both a substitute for meat and a revenue stream to sustain the abbey’s, monasteries, and convents throughout Europe. Scientific discoveries of the 19th century offer the cheese industry and the home cheese maker the opportunity to create wholesome consumable cheeses that can be enjoyed around the world.
Shown: Figure 2a.
Two hoops of Camembert-photo Marshall Welsh CEC
How Cheese Relates to the Garde Manger
Remembering that food preservation is a key part of the Garde Manger, we can naturally see that cheese making fits comfortably within the scope of the cold kitchen. Cheese is, after all a means of preserving excess milk. In fact daily milking of cows is required for the cows to continue to produce milk. This never ending cycle of milk production feeds the wide variety of products we enjoy today from the dairy business including milk, cream, ice cream, yogurt, cheese and a host of products that rely on dairy in their ingredients.
Now more than ever Chefs are tuned in to the cottage industry of micro dairies and the farm to table movement is fueling consumer demand. By gaining knowledge of cheese production, chefs can draw upon a wealth of information for purchasing decisions and even in house cheese production to meet the needs of the customer and satisfy the quest for niches of expertise that is driving the modern chef to push the boundaries higher. In a day where margins are squeezed and prices are increasing, the opportunity for you to affect your costs while adding the value and uniqueness of house aged cheeses can be the difference in profitability, guest satisfaction, and notoriety.
For a nominal investment of around five hundred dollars, a chef can start making at least six different cheeses. Here is a list of the basics:
1. A double boiler - You likely have this already or can use a saucepan and a stockpot. (See figure 2b).
2. An accurate thermometer - You should have this already.
3. A Curd cutting knife - A flat cake-icing spatula works well.
4. Cheese cloth - Needed to strain the curds and whey.
5. Plastic draining mats - Sushi mats work well.
6. Stainless steel mixing bowls and ladles - You should have these already in the kitchen.
7. Plastic totes with lids - To ripen cheese in the cold room.
8. Cheese cultures and molds - based upon the type of cheese and recipe. (Example: mesophilic culture, Penicillium candidum, and Roqueforti.)
9. Calcium Chloride - for a stronger setting of curds due to losses in pasteurization.
10. Rennet - to aid in the separation of the curds and whey.
11. Kosher salt or cheese salt - without the addition of anti-caking agents and iodine.
12. Various cheese molds, baskets, and presses or weights - necessary for further draining of whey and shaping of the cheese.
Figure 2b:
Double boilers in the preparation of four cheese varieties
Figure 2c: Assorted baskets, molds, and cheese presses
Figure 2d:
Camembert cheese draining in baskets on sushi mats
Figure 2e:
Camembert on mats inside a plastic “cheese cave” ready for covering and aging at 60ºF for white mold growth.
Figure 2f:
Derby cheese and Cheddar cheese ready to age on mats in the “cheese cave”.
Figure 2g: Cheese waxed for storage and aging.
Making Cheese- raw milk vs. pasteurized milk
Raw milk by definition is newly obtained milk from the source that has not yet undergone pasteurization. Some states allow the consumption of raw milk products while others do not. Be aware of regulatory concerns where you operate. If you can imagine the stark difference in richness between the tastes of skim milk compared to whole milk then you can imagine the a similar difference between raw milk and pasteurized. The raw milk is by far richer in flavor and creaminess. It is also important to know if using raw milk for cheese making to do so right away and if possible while still warm from the cow. Under U.S.D.A. guidelines, raw milk must be processed no more than three days after harvesting. By doing so, the process of raising the temperature during the processing actually pasteurizes the milk and kills any harmful bacteria such as coliform bacteria such as E.coli.
Simply put, cheeses are made by using one of several methods to separate the milk solids from the milk serum. This separation of what is commonly referred to as curds and whey leaves us with a usable by product (whey) and the curds that consist of the milk solids, sugars, fat, and protein. The whey of sweet cheeses (low acid) can be used in a variety of ways such as food for animals and plants, or even to make other cheeses like ricotta.
Simple cheeses like ricotta, mascarpone, and crème fraiche utilize acid to set the curd at high heat and have no need for bacteria cultures. We refer to them as “quick” or “kitchen cheeses”. They hold no less importance to the Garde Mange because, for example, caviar goes magnificently with buckwheat blinis and a dollop of crème fraiche. The patisserie would do well to lighten a cheesecake with the addition of ricotta. There would be no cannoli without it either and how would you ever create a decadent Tiramisu without mascarpone.
We also use enzymes to coagulate cheeses. They come in liquid, powder, or tablet form and from plant, animal, or synthetic origins. Rennet is an enzymatic coagulant found in the stomach of ruminant animals; in the lab, we have a liquid form that comes from calves and must remain refrigerated. Farmer’s cheese and Cheddar cheese are two varieties we create using rennet.
Inoculation
Inoculation of the milk is an important step by which we use a direct set method of introducing various bacterial strains at certain temperatures to ripen the milk in its journey to become cheese. The cultures are sprinkled over the milk and allowed to hydrate for several minutes before stirring gently using up and down strokes. At this point, there is a resting period to allow ripening and the conversion of lactose into acid. After acidification, rennet is added to aid in the coagulation. Your recipe will guide you in the steps and time between them. Be patient. We are waiting on a process called flocculation in which the casein in the milk will bind together and if left undisturbed will form a clean break. The clean break is the point where you can gently press your finger straight down into the coagulation and gently lift it out horizontally as the curd “breaks over each side of your finger. Once this point has been reached, the curds can be cut.
Cutting the Curds
After testing for the “Clean Break”, you are ready to accelerate the acidification by cutting the curds and allowing them to rest for five minutes. This is accomplished by inserting a thin knife or flat cake spatula and cutting first vertically through the entire batch, then horizontally. Refer to the recipe to determine the size of the curd cuts prior to starting.
Now, allow the curds to rest for five minutes. It is important to remember that the size of the curd relates to amount of moisture in the cheese. The larger the curd, the more whey will be in the cheese. Follow the recipe recommendations.
It is also important to note that some lactic-set curds are so delicate that they are not cut but rather ladled in the baskets to drain. You will see this when making camembert cheese.
Once the curds have rested, they often fall and the yellowish whey rises to the surface. For rennet set curds, we often cook the curds and our whey allowing the curds to form a cake in the bottom of the pan as with cheddar. Other cheese simply go into a holding pattern while they sit in the whey at a target temperature.
Depending on the style of cheese, they may at this point be milled (broken or cut into pieces) and salted then hooped or pressed to release more whey. After this, the cheeses are flipped in a timed sequence and sometimes salted later whole.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Introduction to Wine and Cheese Making
1. True or False: Nomads developed cheese by carrying milk around in a goat skin bag made from the stomach of the goat. Circle one.
2. What form was most milk consumed in around 2000 B.C E.?
3. Cheese is a means of preserving what?
4. What does becoming familiar with cheeses and cheese making do for the modern chef?
5. In cheese making we separate the proteins in milk into what two things?
6. What is Rennet?
7. When making cheese, what does flocculation cause and what occurs during the milling process?
8. Name five categories of cheese according to your Cheese Power Point.
9. When discussing cheese, what does ripening refer to?
10. Name four great cheeses from around the world from your Power Point. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.02%3A_Introduction_to_Wine_and_Cheese_Making_and_Aging.txt |
History and Development
Garde Manger largely deals with the preservation of foods and quite likely, the first foods to be preserved were proteins. Whether this was by accident, trial and error or by natural occurrences is up for debate still. One thing we do know is that protein, and minerals from meat were a much-needed source of nutrition for early man, and today we benefit from modern technique when returning to the age-old art of Garde Manger.
Early man likely dried proteins before the advent of fire, which could then be used to add smoke in addition to roasting for immediate consumption. Drying and smoking could have aided in the reduction of harmful bacteria and this reduction of moisture was quite probably the first step made in today’s concept of food safety.
Salt played a great roll in preservation as Strabo, the Greek geographer and historian of the first century noted in his writings of the fish salting houses of ancient Greece and Rome. This use of salt minimized microbes, lowered water content, and ensured a steady supply of much needed protein in an era devoid of refrigeration.
Today we still are concerned with eliminating harmful bacteria in the process of preservation, but do so more to enjoy the wonderful and increasingly popular products of charcuterie rather than an effort to stockpile protein in a life or death struggle.
Photo of Blackstrap Molasses Cured Country Ham in the aging process
The Scientific Processes Underlying Curing and Brining
First of all, salts, sugars and spices (of course today chemicals like nitrates and nitrites too) are the pathways to curing proteins. With these adjuncts science wealds its processes, which are:
• Osmosis
• Dehydration
• Denaturing
• Fermentation
Osmosis
Think back to an early science class you have had. Remember that osmosis refers to the movement of something through the semi-permeable membrane of a cell wall. In our case, this often means water, salt, and flavorings entering a cell wall and moisture in the way of water, albumen, and blood being drawn out. Which leads us to the next step.
Dehydration
When the curing agents are carried into the cell walls, they tend to dehydrate the protein by leeching out harmful pathogens and moisture. One good example is when we make duck confit by applying salt and quatre espices; it does not take long to see the dripping of water and blood from the duck legs into the pan below.
Denaturing
Think of this as “cooking without heat”. Have you ever marinated a piece of fish or shrimp in Italian dressing before you cooked it? Did you notice the protein turn from a translucent color to a white opaque color? What is happening here is a cooking process called denaturing. In the simplest form, it means that the acid is changing the protein into a form that in many cases is edible. Ceviche is a perfect example of this. We can marinate fish, shrimp, scallops, and more in lemon and lime juice; add tomato concasse, onions, cilantro and seasonings. Toss it and serve it with tortilla chips and you are ready to enjoy a wonderful Latin dish.
Fermentation
The biggest trend in food today is fermentation. Examples are Kombucha, yogurts, Sauer krauts, and cured meats. There are enzymes present in foods which feed on the proteins and break them down into gases and organic compounds. Salt keeps this in check otherwise the food would simple decay. As meats age these enzymes add tenderness as they break down the protein. As we increase the acid levels during fermentation we also help to preserve the foods.
How Curing and Brining Relate to the Garde Manger
It is important to think back to the acronym ‘FATTOM’ from your food safety class. Food safety is an extremely important element in curing and brining due to the nature of the process.
• Food
• Acidity
• Time
• Temperature
• Oxygen
• Moisture
When making charcuterie the Garde Manger is concerned with eliminating the chances of microorganisms and the circumstances that give them quarter in the foods we prepare. Bacteria love proteins and if we can control the factors that allow them growth we can preserve a product that is not only wholesome but also delicious and in great demand. We accomplish this in several ways. We can preserve with fat, as in the case of confit of duck breast. The duck is cooked in its own fat and allowed to cool creating a layer of fat that envelopes the protein and keeps out oxygen - thus preserving the meat. We see this fat preservation also in making rillettes- a preserve of stewed boned meats that are beaten with a mixer and paddle to a paste consistency, and mixed with and covered by melted fat to be eaten on toast points. Tuna can be preserved in a similar way with oil. Today modernist chefs are preserving other products in fat or oil as in the case of tomatoes and red onion, making the wave on condiment usage remain on trend since the 1990’s.
Salts aide in pulling moisture out of the meat and we know that bacteria need moisture to grow and survive. Curing agents make food unpalatable to bacteria, lessening their harmful effects. When discussing Curing it is important to distinguish between the following:
• Dry Cure - dry salt and sugar cures
• Wet Cure - also known as brines
Dry Cures are not to be confused with rubs, which are very popular today in the growing popularity of barbecuing. Dry cures are often used to bury the protein and can last for days depending on the thickness of the animal or primal cut being cured. In Europe, it is common to bury wild boar legs in salt for nearly two weeks. As with any cure or brine, it is very important that the Garde Manger take great care to check the product to insure that it is evenly cured and not left too long so as to render the product inedible. Below is a table for Curing and Brining found in a highly recommended textbook - Garde Manger- the art of the cold kitchen 4th edition.
Figure 3a: Curing Table
Item Time
¼ in thick 1 to 2 hours
1 in (lean meat) 2 to 8 hours
1 ½ in (pork belly) 7 to 10 days
Ham, bone in (15 - 18 lbs) 40 to 45 days
*Curing table from Garde Manger, 4th edition
Figure 3b: Brining Table
Item Not pumped Pumped
Chicken breast 24 - 36 hours n/r
Chicken, whole 24 - 36 hours 12 - 16 hours
Pork Butt Lion (boneless) 5 - 6 days 2 ½ - 3 days
Turkey, whole 5 - 6 days 3 days
Corned Brisket 7 - 8 days 3 - 5 days
Ham, w/o 6 days 4 days
Ham, bone 20 - 24 days 6 - 7 days
*Brining table from Garde Manger 4th edition
Brining is a curing medium usually consisting of salts, sugars, spices and water. Often the ingredients are boiled to enhance the flavor extraction of spices such as cloves, cinnamon sticks, allspice and others. It is most important to chill the brine before adding protein so that cooking does not begin and to avoid the temperature danger zone. Many recipes, especially older ones use more salt than sugar at about a 60/40 salt to sugar ratio. Today I and many other chefs are reversing the ration and using more sugar than salt in recipes where both are used. I do this in brines for pork barbecue. Remember that there is country ham and city ham. In most cases country ham is a salt cured product and city ham one the other hand is primarily sugar cured. My recipe for one such ham includes some salt but primarily blackstrap molasses and sugars.
Four Other Types of Curing Agents
• Unrefined Salt
• Salt Peter/ Potassium Nitrate- banned in 1975 to combat hypertension
• Prague Powder I/ also known as TCM (tinted curing mix) or Pink Powder
• Prague Powder II
There are also flavor enhancers known as Sodium Erythorbate and Ascorbate; however, these are not curing agents.
Tinted Curing mix, also known as Pink salt is commonly used in hot smoking (185°F- 285°F). It is a blend of 94% sodium chloride and 6% sodium nitrite. Be judicious with its use as it only takes 4 ounces to cure 100 pounds of meat. This is why it has a pink color so as not to mistake it for regular salt. This is a favorite cure for sausages, forcemeats, deli meats and bacon as it helps to retain the meats natural red color. It also fights against botulism, but is considered a carcinogen and today you can see a trend in the market for products that are marketed without curing agents as in “uncured pepperoni”.
Prague Powder II is necessary when the meats being cured will undergo no cooking as in the case of hard salami. The curing agent here protects against botulism while the meat hangs and dries at various temperatures and humidity levels throughout its aging process. Prague Powder II is a blend of 90% sodium chloride, 6% sodium nitrite, and 4% nitrate and takes up to six weeks to break down under controlled conditions.
Of course, sugars remain an important resource for curing and can include many forms other than granulated sugars. Molasses, honey, maple syrup and even corn syrups are at your disposal.
During the Curing Process
We mentioned denaturing as one of the scientific processes earlier. During this process, the meat’s natural structure undergoes changes. What was once soft becomes more firm as it loses its moisture. As we reach this stage especially in the case of bacon and ham production, we must begin our discussion of smoking. Here is where the rubber meets the road and we begin to see the fruits of our labor.
Smoking - a little physics, a little chemistry, a whole lot of happy
Smoking meats accomplish flavor enhancement or can be part of a plan to extend the life of foods as with country hams. It is important to note that if you have an operation that wishes to make and sell these types of smoked goods you may be required by your local food safety authority to obtain a variance.
Once the brining or curing has taken place, there may be more steps prior to smoking. Check your recipes for guidance. For example in the case of blackstrap molasses cured hams. The recipe calls for soaking the ham for 8 hours in water while in the cooler to remove some salts. After this, the ham is patted dry and left in the cooler for several hours or up to overnight in order to form a pellicle. The pellicle is a thin layer if film that is tacky or sticky. It forms a protective barrier and its tackiness allows for a better penetration of smoke into the meat. Otherwise, if the meat were placed in the smoker wet there would simply be a layer of soot on the meat that would be easily wiped away with your finger.
By now, you may begin to understand the lengthy process by which these smoked delicacies make it to the table and the care we must give the product for it to turn out right. This is part of the justification for the price of your labors.
Now let us address the smoke ring. The smoke ring is already within the meat in the form of myoglobin. It is the protein that makes raw meat red or pink. As the meat cooks, myoglobin turns brown, but if enough nitric oxide (NO) from the wood smoke condenses on your meat, it will bind with the still-red myoglobin and allow it to retain its color. *Feb 3, 2016, Texas Monthly.
Moisture present during the smoking process by way of spritzing or use of a water pan helps the condensation of nitric oxide on the meat’s surface, providing a better chance of development of the smoke ring. Smoke rings are nice and often responsible for guest delightful comments but in some competitive barbecue organizations are not only unrequired, but also offer no points advantage to the competitor.
Examples of competition barbecue plates for judging, from left to right are: Chicken thighs, pulled pork butt with “money meat”, pork ribs, and beef brisket with “burnt ends”. Note that the products are resting on beds of parsley.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Curing Brining and Smoking
1. According to the Power Point Presentation, what are the four types of preservation?
2. The text describes what was likely to be the first step in the concept of food safety. What was it?
3. Who wrote of the first fish salting houses and where were they? You must have both answers.
4. What are the four scientific processes underlying Curing and Brining?
5. What does the acronym FATTOM stand for?
6. What color is TCM?
7. TCM is also known as?
8. Which curing mix is used in hot smoking?
9. What is a pellicle?
10. Why do we need a pellicle? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Curing_Brining_and_Smoking.txt |
The word “charcuterie” refers to the art of making sausages both fresh and dried, rillettes and various forms of terrines, pates and galantines. It may also refers to makers of such meats. The word itself comes from the French, ‘Chair’- meaning flesh and ‘Cuite’ meaning cooked, thus “cooked flesh.
For the purpose of following a progression of the classroom production schedule, we shall concentrate this chapter on dry curing meats and sausages that will benefit from the time remaining in the semester to cure, ferment, and age. The products discussed here will be ready for your final “Charcuterie Board” project on the final lab day before deep cleaning and final examinations.
Charcuterie Production in Various Forms
Sausages
The term refers to a mixture of minced or ground seasoned products (usually meat). As is most often the case chefs use the “lesser” cuts which normally include the less tender, less prized, and less expensive cuts of the animal. If you have ever heard the saying, “eating high off the hog”, know that this refers to the more expensive and tender cuts that are found higher on the animal. The lesser and tougher cuts are found lower on the animal. They lend themselves to braising (low and slow) or grinding to help them become palatable.
Our word “sausage” comes from the Latin word “Salsus” meaning salted. Early Greeks and Romans were among the first to make sausages.
Six basic components of sausage
• Main ingredient
• Fat
• Seasonings and cure mixtures
• Spices
• Herbs
• Aromatics
Sometimes animal or synthetic casings are used to hold sausages in a link or tube shape, but casing are not considered as a basic component because many sausages today are made into patties or packaged in a bulk form.
Main ingredient
Usually a tough cut of meat from the leg or shoulder
Figure 4a.
An example of meat after the grinding process - Wikimedia Commons
Fat
Two common forms of fat in the sausage process are pork fat and heavy cream. Fat is an essential ingredient that has three distinct purposes in the making of good sausage. Fat provides moisture, satiety, and flavor.
Photo: Max Pixel
Seasonings and cure mixes
As discussed earlier in Topic Three, sugars (in many forms), salts (likewise), and various curing agents are necessary in the charcuterie process. These help to prevent food borne illness, add flavor, and lastly where hot smoking is concerned, sugar helps to act as a browning agent in the cooking process. The curing agents are especially useful when seasoning with herbs and garlic due to the opportunity for microbe contamination found in the soil. Often chefs cook the garlic and herbs or otherwise sterilize them prior to adding them to the raw meats. This is especially a good idea if the curing process will be done without cooking.
Figure 4 c.
Prague powder I, known as TCM or Pink Salt- Wikimedia Commons
Spices and Herbs
Spices may be toasted or untoasted and can vary form product type and style. They may be whole, ground, or from a prepared mix. Herbs may be fresh or dried. Italian sausage can be sweet or hot but usually has whole fennel seed in the recipe. Merguez is a Mediterranean sausage from North Africa that utilizes ground spices from the pantry of Tunisia. The French are known for a mixture of spices called Quatre Espices that can be found in anything from pate to confit of duck. One popular recipe for Quatre Espices is one part ground cinnamon, one part ground cloves, one and one-half part ground nutmeg, and two parts ground black pepper.
Figure 4d.
Spices common used in Quatre Espices- Commons Wikimedia.org
Aromatics
Aromatics include wine, liquors, and zests, prepared sauces such as Worcestershire and Tabasco, and vegetables that as stated before as often cooked first. In Cajun country, we are very familiar with Boudin, a sausage of rice and pork (primarily liver). Our beloved trinity of celery, onions, and bell pepper place a big role in the making of all our dishes especially Boudin. During crawfish season, you can find Crawfish Boudin and I have seen red bell pepper used here over the normal green pepper found in the pork version.
Figures 4d and e. Examples of aromatics used in sausage making.
Natural and Synthetic Casings in Sausage Making
We shall only use natural casing for the purpose of our beginning foray into charcuterie but let us discuss what is available to chefs who want to pursue this line of work. Synthetic casings are made for a variety of food grade materials, some of which are non-edible. Natural casing come from the intestines of sheep, pork, and cattle and should be washed in water and vinegar.
Figure 4f. Natural casing example
Synthetic casings can be made from cotton, cellulose, or collagen that comes from the corium layer of split beef hide. Be careful to remove such casings prior to serving to guests.
Figure 4g. Synthetic casing examples
Sheep Casings
Often referred to as “sheep hanks”, these casing provide the smallest of the three intestines used in sausage making. Merguez is traditionally made with sheep hanks for a slender sausage of 24-26 millimeters up to 30mm.
Figure 4h. Sheep offal relating to sausage making from INSCA
Hog Casings
Hog casings are referred to as “Hanks” also and we will use the intestine for many sausage preparations. The intestines are larger than sheep hanks, and come threaded on rings and shipped in a salt mixture to fight bacteria. They are washed and threaded into a stuffing tube to be filled. Middles are even larger and used for specialty sausages such as the Saucisson Sec, a dried pork and garlic sausage.
Figure 4i. Hog offal relating to sausage making from INSCA
Beef Runners and Middles
Beef offers the largest size intestine up to 65 millimeters and is best suited for Cajun Andouille Sausage. They are often shipped in plastic buckets in a salt medium, and should be washed and threaded onto the largest of the stuffer tubes when making sausage.
Figure 4j. Beef offal relating to sausage making from INSCA
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Charcuterie Production and Aging
1. What does Charcuterie mean in the French language?
2. What Latin word do we derive our word for sausage from and what does it mean? Both answers are needed.
3. What are the six basic components of sausage?
4. What does fat give to sausage?
5. The French are noted for a spice blend called?
6. Aromatics include what 5 things?
7. We use casings from which three animals?
8. Casings are also referred to as…?
9. We use middles for larger sausages like Andouille. T or F. Circle one.
10. What is the temperature range for cold smoking? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.04%3A_Charcuterie_Production_and_Aging.txt |
Condiments continue to take center stage in culinary trends as they have since their popularity rose in the late 1990’s. Often there are preserved by canning or sous vide methods popularized in France decades ago. We may look to our agrarian past to see that canning began as a way of preserving foods that were too plentiful to consume totally fresh or as a means of extending their shelf life into the next season past their natural growing time. Today we still do the same but often we do so to add textures, colors, and even acidity to dishes in a planned way to get the most complimentary nuances from their pairings. Condiments are the “building blocks” of the Garde Manger- offering tastes of tart, salty, spicy, or piquant to enhance the flavor of dishes with which they are pared. Examples include mustards, ketchups, chutneys, relishes, pickles, and compotes.
Rather than attempt a comprehensive course on canning, we are going to touch on the high spots and focus on recipes and sanitation methods to ensure safe canning for our project purposes. For those who wish to delve more deeply into canning later there are a number of books and free web based resources available.
• The book- Fool Proof Preserving by America’s Test Kitchen ISBN 978-1-940352-51-0
• National Center for Home Food Preservation- https://nchfp.uga.edu/
• Garde Manger The Art of the Cold Kitchen- 4th edition ISBN 978-0-470-58780-5
Figure 5a.
Canned Tomato Sauce from oversupply of end of semester stock in 2017.
Photo credit: Marshall Welsh
Condiments
Condiments are boldly flavored supporting actors for the plate. They are often served on the side to be used at the will of the guest. In the Deep South many people like to garnish there black-eyed peas with chow-chow- a relish of tomato, onion, bell pepper and cabbage. Condiments are also spreads and dips either slathered on bread like remoulade sauce or mayonnaise on a Po-Boy in New Orleans or horseradish and chili sauce based cocktail sauce to dip fried shrimp in at any of a hundred places up and down the bayou. The point being that a condiment adds a little lagniappe to any dish.
Relish
I remember once that Chef Steven Jilleba, CMC said that he liked the combination of hot and cold food. Relishes offer a perfect opportunity for such. They are most often served cold and placed with or on a hot food item, like pickle relish on a hot dog or chow-chow on black-eyed peas. Relishes liven up and add pizzazz. Some examples are listed below.
• Cranberry relish
• Curried onion relish
• Red onion confit
• Chow-Chow
Mustard
Mustards are a must have pantry staple and are as varied as there are uses for this condiment. They can act as a coating on lamb before topping with breadcrumbs and roasting, an emulsifier when making vinaigrettes and mayonnaise, a dipping sauce, and simply a sauce to add flavor and moisture to sandwiches and hotdogs. In America, we often use a bright yellow prepared mustard but mustards vary from culture to culture. Some are sweet and smooth while others can be hot and grainy with whole mustard seeds. Some mustards we have available to make include:
• Heywood’s Mustard - a zesty cooked mustard that tastes as if it has horseradish
• Swedish mustard Sauce - especially good with cured salmon
• Beer Mustard with Caraway Seeds - a favorite of bratwurst
Ketchup
Though the origin of ketchup is open to debate, one thing for sure is that today it has morphed into a primarily tomato based sauce and is ubiquitous in our culture. Many chefs prepare their own unique iteration of ketchup to have an air of specialty on the menu. I’ve always made my own cocktail sauce with a good quality ketchup as a base and added horseradish sauce and lemon juice at the very least.
Compotes
These are made often by cooking fruits in a syrup and serving them with other sweet desserts. As this relates to the Garde Manger, you could choose a savory item and cook as you would a salpicon to serve with a pate or terrine.
Chutney
You may be familiar with Major Grey’s Chutney. It is a sweet and sour tasting condiment with fruit, ginger, and spices that accompany meats that are often served with a gastrique, like duck and lamb. Chutney is a gift to the world form the culture of India where they also make vegetable based chutney to accompany their diet that is primarily plant based.
Pickles
Pickles are found in cultures around the world and also include many varied ingredients in their preparation from vegetables to eggs, to fruits as in Italy’s Mostardo, to pig’s feet. The cucumbers we most often associate with pickles can be made sweet with sugars and sweet spices or hot and spicy or even sour. They may be whole, sliced or made into a relish. The relish is called dill relish if made sour and sweet relish if made sweet. Sour pickles are loved by many but too sour for me. In the Deep South a favorite is the beloved Bread and Butter Pickle. Some of the forms we may make in class include:
• Cajun Pickled Okra
• Bread and Butter Pickles
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Kerr ® and Ball canning jar lids and seals- Wikipedia
Seals have a rubber seal that fit snuggly to the jar top and are not reusable. Ring lids may be reused until rust shows. Boiling the jars and lids will sterilize the containers and boiling after filling and sealing eliminate bacteria growth.
How Canning Preserves Foods
The high percentage of water in most fresh foods makes them very perishable. They spoil or lose their quality for several reasons:
1. growth of undesirable microorganisms-bacteria, molds, and yeasts,
2. activity of food enzymes,
3. reactions with oxygen,
4. moisture loss.
Microorganisms live and multiply quickly on the surfaces of fresh food and on the inside of bruised, insect-damaged, and diseased food. Oxygen and enzymes are present throughout fresh food tissues.
Proper canning practices include:
1. carefully selecting and washing fresh food,
2. peeling some fresh foods,
3. hot packing many foods,
4. adding acids (lemon juice or vinegar) to some foods,
5. using acceptable jars and self-sealing lids,
6. processing jars in a boiling-water or pressure canner for the correct period of time.
Collectively, these practices remove oxygen; destroy enzymes; prevent the growth of undesirable bacteria, yeasts, and molds; and help form a high vacuum in jars. Good vacuums form tight seals that keep liquid in and air and microorganisms out.
Ensuring Safe Canned Foods
Growth of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum in canned food may cause botulism—a deadly form of food poisoning. These bacteria exist either as spores or as vegetative cells. The spores, which are comparable to plant seeds, can survive harmlessly in soil and water for many years. When ideal conditions exist for growth, the spores produce vegetative cells, which multiply rapidly and may produce a deadly toxin within 3 to 4 days of growth in an environment consisting of:
• a moist, low-acid food
• a temperature between 40° and 120°F
• less than 2 percent oxygen
Botulinum spores are on most fresh food surfaces. Because they grow only in the absence of air, they are harmless on fresh foods.
Most bacteria, yeasts, and molds are difficult to remove from food surfaces. Washing fresh food reduces their numbers only slightly. Peeling root crops, underground stem crops, and tomatoes reduces their numbers greatly. Blanching also helps, but the vital controls are the method of canning and making sure the recommended research-based process times found in the USDA's Complete Guide to Home Canning are used. The processing times in this book ensure destruction of the largest expected number of heat-resistant microorganisms in home-canned foods. Properly sterilized canned food will be free of spoilage if lids seal and jars are stored below 95°F. Storing jars at 50° to 70°F enhances retention of quality.
Food acidity and processing methods
Whether food should be processed in a pressure canner or boiling-water canner to control botulinum bacteria depends on the acidity of the food. Acidity may be natural, as in most fruits, or added, as in pickled food. Low-acid canned foods are not acidic enough to prevent the growth of these bacteria. Acid foods contain enough acid to block their growth, or destroy them more rapidly when heated. The term "pH" is a measure of acidity - the lower its value, the more acidic the food. The acidity level in foods can be increased by adding lemon juice, citric acid, or vinegar.
Low-acid foods have pH values higher than 4.6. They include red meats, seafood, poultry, milk, and all fresh vegetables except for most tomatoes. Most mixtures of low-acid and acid foods also have pH values above 4.6 unless their recipes include enough lemon juice, citric acid, or vinegar to make them acid foods. Acid foods have a pH of 4.6 or lower. They include fruits, pickles, sauerkraut, jams, jellies, marmalades, and fruit butters.
Although tomatoes are usually considered an acidic food, some are now known to have pH values slightly above 4.6. Figs also have pH values slightly above 4.6. Therefore, if they are to be canned as acid foods, these products must be acidified to a pH of 4.6 or lower with lemon juice or citric acid. Properly acidified tomatoes and figs are acid foods and can be safely processed in a boiling-water canner.
Botulinum spores are very hard to destroy at boiling-water temperatures; the higher the canner temperature, the more easily they are destroyed. Therefore, all low-acid foods should be sterilized at temperatures of 240° to 250°F, attainable with pressure canners operated at 10 to 15 PSIG. PSIG means pounds per square inch of pressure as measured by gauge. The more familiar "PSI" designation is used hereafter in this publication (the Complete Guide to Home Canning). At temperatures of 240° to 250°F, the time needed to destroy bacteria in low-acid canned food ranges from 20 to 100 minutes.
The exact time depends on the kind of food being canned, the way it is packed into jars, and the size of jars. The time needed to safely process low-acid foods in a boiling-water canner range from seven to 11 hours; the time needed to process acid foods in boiling water varies from five to 85 minutes.
For Safety Purposes
Pressure canning is the only recommended method for canning meat, poultry, seafood, and vegetables. The bacterium Clostridium botulinum is destroyed in low-acid foods when they are processed at the correct time and pressure in pressure canners. Using boiling water canners for these foods poses a real risk of botulism poisoning.
If Clostridium botulinum bacteria survive and grow inside a sealed jar of food, they can produce a poisonous toxin. Even a taste of food containing this toxin can be fatal. Boiling food 10 minutes at altitudes below 1,000 feet altitude should destroy this poison when it is present. For altitudes at and above 1,000 feet, add 1 additional minute per 1,000 feet additional elevation. Boiling means that you are able to see the liquid in the food actively forming large foamy bubbles that break all over the surface. Note that as of July 2013 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommendation is to discard any home canned food that might contain botulism toxin. (http://www.cdc.gov/features/homecanning/)
Caution: To prevent the risk of botulism, low-acid and tomato foods not canned according to the recommendations in the USDA Complete Guide to Home Canning (2015rev) or according to other USDA-endorsed recommendations should be boiled as above, in a saucepan before consuming, even if you detect no signs of spoilage.
All low-acid foods canned according to the approved recommendations may be eaten without boiling them when you are sure of all the following:
• The food was processed in a pressure canner operated according to the procedures in the USDA guidelines.
• The gauge of the pressure canner was accurate.
• Up-to-date researched process times and pressures were used for the size of jar, style of pack, and kind of food being canned.
• The process time and pressure recommended for sterilizing the food at your altitude was followed.
• The jar lid is firmly sealed, and indicates a vacuum seal is present.
• Nothing has leaked from jar.
• No liquid spurts out when jar is opened.
• No unnatural or “off” odors can be detected. No mold is present.
Equipment and Methods Not Recommended
Open-kettle canning and the processing of freshly filled jars in conventional ovens, microwave ovens, and dishwashers are not recommended, because these practices do not prevent all risks of spoilage. Steam canners are not currently recommended because processing times for use with current models are still being researched. It is not recommended that pressure processes in excess of 15 PSI be applied when using new pressure canning equipment. So-called canning powders are useless as preservatives and do not replace the need for proper heat processing. While jars with wire bails and glass caps make attractive antiques or storage containers for dry food ingredients, they are not recommended for use in canning. Neither one-piece zinc porcelain-lined caps nor zinc caps that use flat rubber rings for sealing jars are recommended any longer.
The language above is from the USDA "Complete Guide to Home Canning" (2015 revision). You may also want to read our National Center Burning Issue: Using Atmospheric Steam Canners. The National Center collaborated with the University of Wisconsin to have research conducted on appropriate use of atmospheric steam canners. As long as certain critical controls can be maintained at various steps in the canning process, there are many products appropriate for canning in atmospheric steam canners.
Ensuring High-Quality Canned Foods
Begin with good-quality fresh foods suitable for canning. Quality varies among varieties of fruits and vegetables. Examine food carefully for freshness and wholesomeness. Discard diseased and moldy food. Trim small diseased lesions or spots from food.
Can fruits and vegetables picked from your garden or purchased from nearby producers when the products are at their peak of quality—within 6 to 12 hours after harvest for most vegetables. For best quality, apricots, nectarines, peaches, pears, and plums should be ripened 1 or more days between harvest and canning. If you must delay the canning of other fresh produce, keep it in a shady, cool place.
Fresh home-slaughtered red meats and poultry should be chilled and canned immediately. Do not can meat from sickly or diseased animals. Ice fish and seafood after harvest, eviscerate immediately, and can them within 2 days.
Maintaining color and flavor in canned food
To maintain good natural color and flavor in stored canned food, you must:
• Remove oxygen from food tissues and jars,
• Quickly destroy the food enzymes,
• Obtain high jar vacuums and airtight jar seals.
Follow these guidelines to ensure that your canned foods retain optimum colors and flavors during processing and storage:
• Use only high-quality foods that are at the proper maturity and are free of diseases and bruises.
• Use the hot-pack method, especially with acid foods to be processed in boiling water.
• Do not expose prepared foods to air without reason. Can them as soon as possible.
• While preparing a canner load of jars, keep peeled, halved, quartered, sliced, or diced apples, apricots, nectarines, peaches, and pears in a solution of 3 grams (3,000 milligrams) ascorbic acid to 1 gallon of cold water. This procedure is also useful in maintaining the natural color of mushrooms and potatoes, and for preventing stem-end discoloration in cherries and grapes.
You can get ascorbic acid in several forms:
Pure powdered form — seasonally available among canners' supplies in supermarkets. One level teaspoon of pure powder weighs about 3 grams. Use 1 teaspoon per gallon of water as a treatment solution.
Vitamin C tablets — economical and available year-round in many stores. Buy 500-milligram tablets; crush and dissolve six tablets per gallon of water as a treatment solution.
Commercially prepared mixes of ascorbic and citric acid — seasonally available among canners' supplies in supermarkets. Sometimes citric acid powder is sold in supermarkets, but it is less effective in controlling discoloration. If you choose to use these products, follow the manufacturer's directions.
1. Fill hot foods into jars and adjust headspace as specified in recipes.
2. Tighten screw bands securely, but if you are especially strong, not as tightly as possible.
3. Process and cool jars.
4. Store the jars in a relatively cool, dark place, preferably between 50° and 70°F.
5. Can no more food than you will use within a year.
Advantages of hot packing
Many fresh foods contain from 10 percent to more than 30 percent air. How long canned food retains high quality depends on how much air is removed from food before jars are sealed.
Raw packing is the practice of filling jars tightly with freshly prepared, but unheated food. Such foods, especially fruit, will float in the jars. The entrapped air in and around the food may cause discoloration within 2 to 3 months of storage. Raw packing is more suitable for vegetables processed in a pressure canner.
Hot packing is the practice of heating freshly prepared food to boiling, simmering it 2 to 5 minutes, and promptly filling jars loosely with the boiled food. Whether food has been hot-packed or raw-packed, the juice, syrup, or water to be added to the foods should also be heated to boiling before adding it to the jars. This practice helps to remove air from food tissues, shrinks food, helps keep the food from floating in the jars, increases vacuum in sealed jars, and improves shelf life. Preshrinking food permits filling more food into each jar.
Hot packing is the best way to remove air and is the preferred pack style for foods processed in a boiling-water canner. At first, the color of hot-packed foods may appear no better than that of raw-packed foods, but within a short storage period, both color and flavor of hot-packed foods will be superior.
Controlling headspace
The unfilled space above the food in a jar and below its lid is termed headspace. Directions for canning specify leaving 1/4-inch for jams and jellies, ½-inch for fruits and tomatoes to be processed in boiling water, and from 1- to 1¼-inches in low acid foods to be processed in a pressure canner. This space is needed for expansion of food as jars are processed, and for forming vacuums in cooled jars. The extent of expansion is determined by the air content in the food and by the processing temperature. Air expands greatly when heated to high temperatures; the higher the temperature, the greater the expansion. Foods expand less than air when heated.
Recommended Jars and Lids
Food may be canned in glass jars or metal containers. Metal containers can be used only once. They require special sealing equipment and are much more costly than jars.
Regular and wide-mouth Mason-type, threaded, home-canning jars with self-sealing lids are the best choice. They are available in ½ pint, pint, 1½ pint, quart, and ½-gallon sizes. The standard jar mouth opening is about 2-3/8 inches. Wide-mouth jars have openings of about 3 inches, making them more easily filled and emptied. Half-gallon jars may be used for canning very acid juices. Regular-mouth decorator jelly jars are available in 8 and 12-ounce sizes. With careful use and handling, Mason jars may be reused many times, requiring only new lids each time. When jars and lids are used properly, jar seals and vacuums are excellent and jar breakage is rare.
Most commercial pint- and quart-size mayonnaise or salad dressing jars may be used with new two-piece lids for canning acid foods. However, you should expect more seal failures and jar breakage. These jars have a narrower sealing surface and are tempered less than Mason jars, and may be weakened by repeated contact with metal spoons or knives used in dispensing mayonnaise or salad dressing. Seemingly, insignificant scratches in glass may cause cracking and breakage while processing jars in a canner. Mayonnaise-type jars are not recommended for use with foods to be processed in a pressure canner because of excessive jar breakage. Other commercial jars with mouths that cannot be sealed with two-piece canning lids are not recommended for use in canning any food at home.
Jar Cleaning
Before every use, wash empty jars in hot water with detergent and rinse well by hand, or wash in a dishwasher. Unrinsed detergents may cause unnatural flavors and colors. These washing methods do not sterilize jars. Scale or hard-water films on jars are easily removed by soaking jars several hours in a solution containing 1 cup of vinegar (5 percent acidity) per gallon of water.
Sterilization of Empty Jars
All jams, jellies, and pickled products processed less than 10 minutes should be filled into sterile empty jars. To sterilize empty jars, put them right side up on the rack in a boiling-water canner. Fill the canner and jars with hot (not boiling) water to 1 inch above the tops of the jars. Boil 10 minutes at altitudes of less than 1,000 ft. At higher elevations, boil one additional minute for each additional 1,000 ft. elevation. Remove and drain hot sterilized jars one at a time. Save the hot water for processing filled jars. Fill jars with food, add lids, and tighten screw bands.
Empty jars used for vegetables, meats, and fruits to be processed in a pressure canner need not be pre-sterilized. It is also unnecessary to pre-sterilize jars for fruits, tomatoes, and pickled or fermented foods that will be processed 10 minutes or longer in a boiling-water canner.
Lid Selection, Preparation, and Use
The common self-sealing lid consists of a flat metal lid held in place by a metal screw band during processing. The flat lid is crimped around its bottom edge to form a trough, which is filled with a colored gasket compound. When jars are processed, the lid gasket softens and flows slightly to cover the jar-sealing surface, yet allows air to escape from the jar. The gasket then forms an airtight seal as the jar cools. Gaskets in unused lids work well for at least 5 years from date of manufacture. The gasket compound in older unused lids may fail to seal on jars.
Buy only the quantity of lids you will use in a year. To ensure a good seal, carefully follow the manufacturer's directions in preparing lids for use. Examine all metal lids carefully. Do not use old, dented, or deformed lids or lids with gaps or other defects in the sealing gasket.
When directions say to fill jars and adjust lids, use the following procedures: After filling jars with food and adding covering liquid, release air bubbles by inserting a flat plastic (not metal) spatula between the food and the jar. Slowly turn the jar and move the spatula up and down to allow air bubbles to escape. (It is not necessary to release air bubbles when filling jams, jellies or all liquid foods such as juices.) Adjust the headspace and then clean the jar rim (sealing surface) with a dampened paper towel. Place the preheated lid, gasket down, onto the cleaned jar-sealing surface. Uncleaned jar-sealing surfaces may cause seal failures. Then fit the metal screw band over the flat lid. Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines enclosed with or on the box for tightening the jar lids properly.
Do not retighten lids after processing jars. As jars cool, the contents in the jar contract, pulling the self-sealing lid firmly against the jar to form a high vacuum.
• If rings are too loose, liquid may escape from jars during processing, and seals may fail.
• If rings are too tight, air cannot vent during processing, and food will discolor during storage. Over tightening also may cause lids to buckle and jars to break, especially with raw-packed, pressure-processed food.
Screw bands are not needed on stored jars. They can be removed easily after jars are cooled. When removed, washed, dried, and stored in a dry area, screw bands may be used many times. If left on stored jars, they become difficult to remove, often rust, and may not work properly again.
Recommended Canners
Equipment for heat-processing home-canned food is of two main types—boiling-water canners and pressure canners. Most are designed to hold seven-quart jars or eight to nine pints. Small pressure canners hold four-quart jars; some large pressure canners hold 18-pint jars in two layers, but hold only seven-quart jars. Pressure saucepans with smaller volume capacities are not recommended for use in canning. Small capacity pressure canners are treated in a similar manner as standard larger canners, and should be vented using the typical venting procedures.
Low-acid foods must be processed in a pressure canner to be free of botulism risks. Although pressure canners may also be used for processing acid foods, boiling water canners are recommended for this purpose because they are faster. A pressure canner would require from 55 to 100 minutes to process a load of jars; while the total time for processing most acid foods in boiling water varies from 25 to 60 minutes. A boiling-water canner loaded with filled jars requires about 20 to 30 minutes of heating before its water begins to boil. A loaded pressure canner requires about 12 to 15 minutes of heating before it begins to vent; another 10 minutes to vent the canner; another 5 minutes to pressurize the canner; another 8 to 10 minutes to process the acid food; and, finally, another 20 to 60 minutes to cool the canner before removing jars.
Boiling-water canners
These canners are made of aluminum or porcelain-covered steel. They have removable perforated racks and fitted lids. The canner must be deep enough so that at least 1 inch of briskly boiling water will be over the tops of jars during processing. Some boiling-water canners do not have flat bottoms. A flat bottom must be used on an electric range. Either a flat or ridged bottom can be used on a gas burner. To ensure uniform processing of all jars with an electric range, the canner should be no more than 4 inches wider in diameter than the element on which it is heated.
Follow these steps for successful boiling-water canning:
1. Before you start preparing your food, fill the canner halfway with clean water. This is approximately the level needed for a canner load of pint jars. For other sizes and numbers of jars, the amount of water in the canner will need to be adjusted so it will be 1 to 2 inches over the top of the filled jars.
2. Preheat water to 140°F for raw-packed foods and to 180°F for hot-packed foods. Food preparation can begin while this water is preheating.
3. Load filled jars, fitted with lids, into the canner rack and use the handles to lower the rack into the water; or fill the canner with the rack in the bottom, one jar at a time, using a jar lifter. When using a jar lifter, make sure it is securely positioned below the neck of the jar (below the screw band of the lid). Keep the jar upright at all times. Tilting the jar could cause food to spill into the sealing area of the lid.
4. Add more boiling water, if needed, so the water level is at least 1 inch above jar tops. For process times over 30 minutes, the water level should be at least 2 inches above the tops of the jars.
5. Turn heat to its highest position, cover the canner with its lid, and heat until the water in the canner boils vigorously.
6. Set a timer for the total minutes required for processing the food.
7. Keep the canner covered and maintain a boil throughout the process schedule. The heat setting may be lowered a little as long as a complete boil is maintained for the entire process time. If the water stops boiling at any time during the process, bring the water back to a vigorous boil and begin the timing of the process over, from the beginning.
8. Add more boiling water, if needed, to keep the water level above the jars.
9. When jars have been boiled for the recommended time, turn off the heat and remove the canner lid. Wait 5 minutes before removing jars.
10. Using a jar lifter, remove the jars and place them on a towel, leaving at least 1-inch spaces between the jars during cooling. Let jars sit undisturbed to cool at room temperature for 12 to 24 hours.
Pressure canners
Pressure canners for use in the home have been extensively redesigned in recent years. Models made before the 1970's were heavy-walled kettles with clamp-on or turn-on lids. They were fitted with a dial gauge, a vent port in the form of a petcock or counterweight, and a safety fuse. Modern pressure canners are lightweight, thin-walled kettles; most have turn-on lids. They have a jar rack, gasket, dial or weighted gauge, an automatic vent/cover lock, a vent port (steam vent) to be closed with a counterweight or weighted gauge, and a safety fuse.
Pressure does not destroy microorganisms, but high temperatures applied for an adequate period of time do kill microorganisms. The success of destroying all microorganisms capable of growing in canned food is based on the temperature obtained in pure steam, free of air, at sea level. At sea level, a canner operated at a gauge pressure of 10.5 lbs. provides an internal temperature of 240°F.
Parts of a Pressure Canner
Two serious errors in temperatures obtained in pressure canners occur because:
1. Internal canner temperatures are lower at higher altitudes. To correct this error, canners must be operated at the increased pressures specified in this publication (USDA's Complete Guide to Home Canning) for appropriate altitude ranges.
2. Air trapped in a canner lowers the temperature obtained at 5, 10, or 15 pounds of pressure and results in under processing. The highest volume of air trapped in a canner occurs in processing raw-packed foods in dial-gauge canners. These canners do not vent air during processing. To be safe, all types of pressure canners must be vented 10 minutes before they are pressurized.
To vent a canner, leave the vent port uncovered on newer models or manually open petcocks on some older models. Heating the filled canner with its lid locked into place boils water and generates steam that escapes through the petcock or vent port. When steam first escapes, set a timer for 10 minutes. After venting 10 minutes, close the petcock, place the counterweight, or weighted gauge over the vent port to pressurize the canner.
Weighted-gauge models exhaust tiny amounts of air and steam each time their gauge rocks or jiggles during processing. They control pressure precisely and need neither watching during processing nor checking for accuracy. The sound of the weight rocking or jiggling indicates that the canner is maintaining the recommended pressure. The single disadvantage of weighted-gauge canners is that they cannot correct precisely for higher altitudes. At altitudes above 1,000 feet, they must be operated at canner pressures of 10 instead of 5, or 15 instead of 10, PSI.
Check dial gauges for accuracy before use each year. Gauges that read high cause under-processing and may result in unsafe food. Low readings cause over-processing. Pressure adjustments can be made if the gauge reads up to 2 pounds high or low. Replace gauges that differ by more than 2 pounds. Every pound of pressure is very important to the temperature needed inside the canner for producing safe food, so accurate gauges and adjustments are essential when a gauge reads higher than it should. If a gauge is reading lower than it should, adjustments may be made to avoid over-processing, but are not essential to safety. Gauges may be checked at many county Cooperative Extension offices or contact the pressure canner manufacturer for other options.
Lid safety fuses are thin metal inserts or rubber plugs designed to relieve excessive pressure from the canner. Do not pick at or scratch fuses while cleaning lids. Use only canners that have the Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) approval to ensure their safety. Replacement gauges and other parts for canners are often available at stores offering canning equipment or from canner manufacturers. When ordering parts, give your canner model number and describe the parts needed.
Follow these steps for successful pressure canning:
1. Put 2 to 3 inches of hot water in the canner. Some specific products in this Guide require that you start with even more water in the canner. Always follow the directions with USDA processes for specific foods if they require more water added to the canner. Place filled jars on the rack, using a jar lifter. When using a jar lifter, make sure it is securely positioned below the neck of the jar (below the screw band of the lid). Keep the jar upright at all times. Tilting the jar could cause food to spill into the sealing are of the lid. Fasten canner lid securely.
2. Leave weight off vent port or open petcock. Heat at the highest setting until steam flows freely from the open petcock or vent port.
3. While maintaining the high heat setting, let the steam flow (exhaust) continuously for 10 minutes, and then place the weight on the vent port or close the petcock. The canner will pressurize during the next 3 to 5 minutes.
4. Start timing the process when the pressure reading on the dial gauge indicates that the recommended pressure has been reached, or when the weighted gauge begins to jiggle or rock as the canner manufacturer describes.
5. Regulate heat under the canner to maintain a steady pressure at or slightly above the correct gauge pressure. Quick and large pressure variations during processing may cause unnecessary liquid losses from jars. Follow the canner manufacturer’s directions for how a weighted gauge should indicate it is maintaining the desired pressure.
IMPORTANT: If at any time pressure goes below the recommended amount, bring the canner back to pressure and begin the timing of the process over, from the beginning (using the total original process time). This is important for the safety of the food.
1. When the timed process is completed, turn off the heat, remove the canner from heat if possible, and let the canner depressurize. Do not force-cool the canner. Forced cooling may result in unsafe food or food spoilage. Cooling the canner with cold running water or opening the vent port before the canner is fully depressurized will cause loss of liquid from jars and seal failures. Force-cooling may also warp the canner lid of older model canners, causing steam leaks. Depressurization of older models without dial gauges should be timed. Standard-size heavy-walled canners require about 30 minutes when loaded with pints and 45 minutes with quarts. Newer thin-walled canners cool more rapidly and are equipped with vent locks. These canners are depressurized when their vent lock piston drops to a normal position.
2. After the canner is depressurized, remove the weight from the vent port or open the petcock. Wait 10 minutes, unfasten the lid, and remove it carefully. Lift the lid away from you so that the steam does not burn your face.
3. Remove jars with a jar lifter, and place them on a towel, leaving at least 1-inch spaces between the jars during cooling. Let jars sit undisturbed to cool at room temperature for 12 to 24 hours.
Cooling Jars and Testing Jar Seals
Cooling jars
When you remove hot jars from a canner, do not retighten their jar lids. Retightening of hot lids may cut through the gasket and cause seal failures. Cool the jars at room temperature for 12 to 24 hours. Jars may be cooled on racks or towels to minimize heat damage to counters. The food level and liquid volume of raw-packed jars will be noticeably lower after cooling. Air is exhausted during processing and food shrinks. If a jar loses excessive liquid during processing, do not open it to add more liquid. Check for sealed lids as described below.
Testing jar seals
After cooling jars for 12 to 24 hours, remove the screw bands and test seals with one of the following options:
Option 1. Press the middle of the lid with a finger or thumb. If the lid springs up when you release your finger, the lid is unsealed.
Option 2. Tap the lid with the bottom of a teaspoon. If it makes a dull sound, the lid is not sealed. If food is in contact with the underside of the lid, it will also cause a dull sound. If the jar is sealed correctly, it will make a ringing, high-pitched sound.
Option 3. Hold the jar at eye level and look across the lid. The lid should be concave (curved down slightly in the center). If center of the lid is either flat or bulging, it may not be sealed.
Reprocessing unsealed jars
If a lid fails to seal on a jar, remove the lid and check the jar-sealing surface for tiny nicks. If necessary, change the jar, add a new, properly prepared lid, and reprocess within 24 hours using the same processing time. Headspace in unsealed jars may be adjusted to 1-½ inches and jars could be frozen instead of reprocessed. Foods in single unsealed jars could be stored in the refrigerator and consumed within several days.
Storing Canned Foods
If lids are tightly vacuum-sealed on cooled jars, remove ring bands, wash the lid and jar to remove food residue without disturbing the sealed lid; then rinse and dry jars. There may be food or syrup residues you might not notice with your eye. These residues can support the growth of molds (which are airborne) outside the jar during storage. Wash and dry ring bands to protect them from corrosion for future use; be sure to protect from moisture where they are kept. It is recommended that jars be stored without ring bands to keep them dry as well as to allow for easier detection of any broken vacuum seals. However, if you choose to re-apply the ring bands, make sure all surfaces are clean and thoroughly dry first.
If jars are stacked in storage, be careful not to disturb vacuum seals. It would be a good idea to not stack jars too high directly on top of each other; one manufacturer recommends no more than two layers high. It would be best to provide support between the layers as a preventive measure against disturbing the seals on the lower jars. Jars could be placed in boxes to be stacked, or use some type of a firm solid material across the jars as a supportive layer in between them.
Label and date the jars and store them in a clean, cool, dark, dry place. For best quality, store between 50 and 70 °F. Also for best quality, can no more food than you will use within a year unless directions for a specific food provide other advice.
Do not store jars above 95° F or near hot pipes, a range, a furnace, in an uninsulated attic, or in direct sunlight. Under these conditions, food will lose quality in a few weeks or months and may spoil. Dampness may corrode metal lids, break seals, and allow recontamination and spoilage.
Accidental freezing of canned foods will not cause spoilage unless jars become unsealed and re-contaminated. However, freezing and thawing may soften food. If jars must be stored where they may freeze, wrap them in newspapers, place them in heavy cartons, and cover with more newspapers and blankets.
Identifying and Handling Spoiled Canned Food
Do not taste food from a jar with an unsealed lid or food that shows signs of spoilage. You can more easily detect some types of spoilage in jars stored without screw bands. Growth of spoilage bacteria and yeast produces gas that pressurizes the food, swells lids, and breaks jar seals. As each stored jar is selected for use, examine its lid for tightness and vacuum. Lids with concave centers have good seals.
Next, while holding the jar upright at eye level, rotate the jar and examine its outside surface for streaks of dried food originating at the top of the jar. Look at the contents for rising air bubbles and unnatural color.
While opening the jar, smell for unnatural odors and look for spurting liquid and cotton-like mold growth (white, blue, black, or green) on the top food surface and underside of lid.
Spoiled low-acid foods, including tomatoes, may exhibit different kinds of spoilage evidence or very little evidence. Therefore, all suspect containers of spoiled low-acid foods, including tomatoes, should be treated as having produced botulinum toxins, and handled carefully in one of two ways:
• If the swollen metal cans or suspect glass jars are still sealed, place them in a heavy garbage bag. Close and place the bag in a regular trash container or dispose in a nearby landfill.
• If the suspect cans or glass jars are unsealed, open, or leaking, they should be detoxified before disposal.
Detoxification process: Wear disposable rubber or heavy plastic gloves. Carefully place the suspect containers and lids on their sides in an 8-quart volume or larger stockpot, pan, or boiling-water canner. Wash your hands with gloves thoroughly. Carefully add water to the pot and avoid splashing the water. The water should completely cover the containers with a minimum of a 1-inch level above the containers. Place a lid on the pot and heat the water to boiling. Boil 30 minutes to ensure detoxifying the food and all container components. Cool and discard the containers, their lids, and food in the trash or dispose in a nearby landfill.
Cleaning up the area: Contact with botulinum toxin can be fatal whether it is ingested or enters through the skin. Take care to avoid contact with suspect foods or liquids. Wear rubber or heavy plastic gloves when handling suspect foods or cleaning up contaminated work surfaces and equipment. A fresh solution of 1 part unscented liquid household chlorine bleach (5 to 6% sodium hypochlorite) to 5 parts clean water should be used to treat work surfaces, equipment, or other items, including can openers and clothing, that may have come in contact with suspect foods or liquids. Spray or wet contaminated surfaces with the bleach solution and let stand for 30 minutes.
Wearing gloves, wipe up treated spills with paper towels being careful to minimize the spread of contamination. Dispose of these paper towels by placing them in a plastic bag before putting them in the trash. Next, apply the bleach solution to all surfaces and equipment again, and let stand for 30 minutes and rinse. As a last step, thoroughly wash all detoxified counters, containers, equipment, clothing, etc. Discard gloves when cleaning process is complete. (Note: Bleach is an irritant itself and should not be inhaled or allowed to be exposed to the skin.)
Temperatures for Food Preservation
Temperature(s) Effect
240 to 250°F Canning temperatures for low acid vegetables, meat, and poultry in a pressure canner.
212°F Temperature water boils at sea level. Canning temperature for acid fruits, tomatoes, pickles, and jellied products in a boiling-water canner.
180 to 250°F Canning temperatures are used to destroy most bacteria, yeasts, and molds in acid foods. Time required to kill these decreases as temperatures increase.
140 to 165°F Warming temperatures prevent growth, but may allow survival of some microorganisms.
40 to 140°F DANGER ZONE. Temperatures between 40°F - 140°F allow rapid growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds.
95°F Maximum storage temperature for canned foods.
50 to 70°F Best storage temperatures for canned and dried foods.
32°F Temperature water freezes.
32 to 40°F Cold temperatures permit slow growth of some bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
-10 to 32°F Freezing temperatures stop growth of microorganisms, but may allow some to survive.
0 to -10°F Best storage temperatures for frozen foods.
Water Boils at Lower Temperatures as Altitude Increases
Altitude (in feet) Altitude (in feet) Temperature at which Water Boils
10,000 194°F
8,000 197°F
6,000 201°F
4,000 204°F
2,000 208°F
0 (Sea Level) 212°F
Causes and Possible Solutions for Problems with Canned Foods
Problem Cause Prevention
Loss of liquid from glass jars during processing. Do not open to replace liquid. (Not a sign of spoilage) 1. Lowering pressure in canner suddenly, after processing period. 1. Do not force pressure down by placing canner in a draft, opening the vent too soon, running cold water over the canner, etc. Allow pressure to drop to zero naturally; wait 10 minutes before opening after weight is removed from canner lid.
2. Fluctuating pressure during processing in pressure canner. 2. Maintain a constant temperature throughout processing time.
3. Failure to work out air bubbles from jars before processing. 3. Remove by running a plastic spatula or knife between food and jar before applying lids.
4. Imperfect seal. 4. Use new flat lids for each jar and make sure there are no flaws. Pretreat the lids per manufacturer’s directions. Use ring bands in good condition – no rust, no dents, and no bends. Wipe sealing surface of jar clean after filling, before applying lid.
5. Ring bands not tight enough. 5. Apply fingertip-tight over flat lid, but do not overtighten.
6. Jars not covered with water in boiling water canner. 6. Jars should be covered with 1 to 2 inches of water throughout processing period.
7. Starchy foods absorbed liquid. 7. Make sure dried beans are completely rehydrated prior to canning. Use hot pack for other starchy foods. Otherwise, none
8. Food packed too tightly in jars cause boil over during processing. 8. Leave the appropriate headspace.
Imperfect seal (discard food unless the trouble was detected within a few hours) 1. Chips or cracks in jar sealing surface. 1. Examine carefully before applying lid by observing and carefully rubbing finger around the mouth of the jar.
2. Failure to properly prepare flat lids. 2. Follow manufacturer's directions.
3. Particles left on mouth of jar. 3. A clean, damp cloth should be used before applying flat lids to remove any seeds, seasonings, etc.
4. Using bad ring bands. 4. Use ring bands in good form – no rust, dents, or bends.
5. Ring bands not applied to correct tightness. 5. Apply fingertip-tight over flat lid, but do not overtighten.
6. Inverting jars after processing or lifting jars by tops while hot. 6. Use jar lifter for removing jars from canner, placing below ring band. Leave jars in upright position.
7. Fat on jar rim. 7. Trim fat from meats. Add no extra fat. Wipe jar rim well.
Product dark at top of jar (not necessarily a sign of spoilage) 1. Air left in the jars permits oxidation. 1. Remove air bubbles before sealing jars. Use recommended headspace.
2. Insufficient amount of liquid or syrup to cover all food in jar. 2. Cover product completely with water or syrup.
3. Food not processed after filling jars and applying lids. 3. Process recommended length of time.
Color changes that are undesirable 1. Contact with minerals such as iron, zinc or copper in cooking utensils or water. 1. Avoid these conditions by using carefully selected cooking utensils. Use soft water.
2. Over processing. 2. Follow directions for processing times and operation of canners.
3. Immature or over mature product. 3. Select fruits and vegetables at optimum stage of maturity.
4. Exposure to light. 4. Store canned foods in a dark place.
5. May be a distinct spoilage. 5. Process by recommended method and for recommended time.
6. Natural and harmless substances in fruits and vegetables (pink or blue color in apples, cauliflower, peaches, or pears) 6. None.
Cloudy liquid (sometimes denotes spoilage) 1. Starch in vegetables. 1. Select products at desirable stage of maturity. Do not use over mature vegetables. If canning potatoes, use fresh boiling water to cover and not cooking liquid from preparing hot pack.
2. Minerals in water. 2. Use soft water.
3. Additives in salts. 3. Use pure refined salt (pickling or canning salt) without additives.
4. Spoilage. 4. Prepare food as directed with published canning process. Process by recommended method and for recommended time.
1. Starch in vegetables. 1. Select products at desirable stage of maturity.
2. Minerals in water. 2. Use soft water.
3. Additives in salts. 3. Use pure refined salt (pickling or canning salt) without additives.
4. Yellow sediment in green vegetables or onions. 4. None (natural occurrence).
5. White crystals in spinach. 5. None (natural occurrence).
6. Spoilage. 6. Prepare food as directed with published canning process. Process by recommended method and for recommended time.
Spoilage 1. Poor selection of fruits and vegetables. 1. Select product of suitable variety and at proper stage of maturity. Can immediately after harvest if possible.
2. Incorrect processing temperature used. 2. Low acid vegetables and meats must be pressure canned for safety. Most fruits and pickles can be canned in boiling water. Process jams and jellies in a boiling water canner after filling jars.
3. Incorrect process time. 3. Follow our research-based recommendations for canning foods. Follow directions for operation of canners and timing of processes. Do not overfill jars.
4. Incorrect pressure. 4. Dial gauges should be checked every year for accuracy. Follow directions for operation of canners.
5. Imperfect seal on jar. 5. Check jars and lids for defects before using. Wipe jar rim before closing. Do not overfill jars.
Floating (especially some fruits) 1. Fruit is lighter than sugar syrups. 1. Use firm, ripe fruit. Heat before packing. Use a light to medium syrup instead of heavy syrup.
2. Air trapped in food pieces. 2. Use hot packs.
3. Improper packing. 3. Pack fruit as closely as possible without crushing it. Release trapped air bubbles and readjust liquid level before applying lids. Make sure liquid covers food pieces completely.
Causes and Possible Solutions for Problems with Canned Fruit Juices
Problem Cause Prevention
Fermentation or Spoilage 1. Failure to process adequately. 1. Filled jars of juices should be processed in a boiling water canner long enough to destroy spoilage organisms.
2. Imperfect seal. 2. Use recommended canning methods and processing times. Use new flat lids for each jar and make sure there are no flaws. Pretreat the lids per manufacturer’s directions. Use ring bands in good condition – no rust, no dents, and no bends. Wipe sealing surface of jar clean after filling, before applying lid. Filled jars should be processed in a boiling water canner long enough so a vacuum seal will form after cooling the jars.
3. Air left in jars. 3. Proper application of two-piece canning lids and boiling water processing will exclude air from jars before the lid seals.
Cloudy sediment in bottom of jar 1. Solids in juice settle. 1. Minimize by straining juice before canning. Canned juice may be strained and made into jelly. Shake juices if used as a beverage.
2. See spoilage, above.
Separation of tomato juice 1. Enzymatic action after cutting of raw tomatoes. 1. Heat tomatoes quickly to a simmering temperature immediately after they have been cut. To prevent juice from separating, quickly cut about 1 pound of fruit into quarters and put directly into saucepan. Heat immediately to boiling while crushing. Continue to slowly add and crush freshly cut tomato quarters to the boiling mixture. Make sure the mixture boils constantly and vigorously while you add the remaining tomatoes.
Poor flavor 1. Immature, overripe, or inferior fruit used. 1. Use only good quality, firm, ripe fruit or tomatoes for making juice.
2. Use of too much water for extracting fruit juice. 2. Use only amount of water called for in directions. No water is added to tomatoes.
3. Improper storage. 3. Stores jars in cool, dark, and dry storage area.
References:
Adapted from the "Complete Guide to Home Canning," Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 539, NIFA-USDA (Revised 2015). Page reviewed February 2, 2017.
This document was extracted from the "Complete Guide to Home Canning," Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 539, USDA (Revised 2015).
Adapted from the "Complete Guide to Home Canning," Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 539, USDA (Revised 2015), Guide 1, pp. 1-25 to 1-27, and "So Easy to Preserve", 6th ed., p. 34.
This document was adapted from "So Easy to Preserve", 6th ed. 2014. Bulletin 989, Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Georgia, Athens. Revised by Elizabeth L. Andress. Ph.D. and Judy A. Harrison, Ph.D., Extension Foods Specialists.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Condiments and Canning
1. Explain how condiments are the building blocks of the Garde Manger?
2. Give four examples of these building blocks.
3. The text describes condiments as “boldly flavored supporting actors for the plate. Describe two ways they are used
4. Give three examples of relishes from the text
5. Swedish mustard sauce goes especially well with?
6. Are compotes always sweet?
7. Chutney’s are India’s gift to the culinary world where they primarily eat a _____________ based diet.
8. The two pickles we will concern ourselves with in the text are ________and ________.
9. Which part of the jar lids must be discarded after the contents are used?
10. Why do we boil the jars when canning? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.05%3A_Condiments_and_Canning.txt |
Cold Sauces
What do sauces do for a dish? In short, sauces add color, texture, sheen (shine), moisture, and flavor. Sauces should complement rather than clash with the food; likewise, they should not overpower the food. If you cannot taste the dish because the treatment is overwhelming, it is a failure. Here is an example. We know that white pepper is strong and a little bit goes a long way. If you make a béchamel sauce and go too heavily on the white pepper, you have a white pepper sauce. Your tongue cannot taste the smoothness of the cream or the sweetness of the onion pique. The challenge we face in Cajun and Creole cooking is to balance the spices to accentuate the food and not mask it.
Sauces Relating to the Garde Manger
• Cold emulsion sauces- vinaigrettes and mayonnaise
• Dairy based sauces and dressings
• Contemporary sauces- foams and international
• Salsas
• Coulis and purees
• Coating sauces - aspics and chaud-froid
• Miscellaneous sauces - Cumberland, horseradish, mignonette
Cold Emulsion Sauces
When we make an emulsion sauce, we are combining two polar opposites that do not blend easily. Think of oil and vinegar; they separate right? We need something to stabilize the two so that they can mix. We often do this with Dijon or whole grain mustard, honey, and spices. When making mayonnaise, a little mustard in the vinegar agitated by the whisk will begin the basis of an emulsification allowing minute amounts of oil to be taken in by the vinegar. The same thing happens with a vinaigrette.
There are two types of emulsions- temporary and permanent. If you walk down the grocery isle where the salad dressing are, you will see vinaigrettes and Italian dressing that seem separated into two distinct levels. Shake one up and see that it combines for a while and then separates again. This is a temporary emulsion. Others seem to stay homogenous the entire time. These are known as permanent and have adjuncts like agar or guar gum to keep the ingredients in suspension.
Making a Basic Vinaigrette
As a general rule use one part acid to two or three parts oil when making vinaigrettes. The acid can come from vinegar, apple cider vinegar, red wine vinegar, white wine vinegar, champagne vinegar, sherry vinegar, and or citrus juices. The key is to find a balance of flavor where the oil does not overpower the acid with richness. Sometimes this is achieved aside from the simple ratio by adding stock, water, or sugar.
Once the dressing is made dip a bite of lettuce in and taste until you have the right combination. As with all salads presented in fine dining, dress the greens prior to service and lightly so all the greens are coated but without dressing pooling on the plate.
Making an Emulsified Vinaigrette
Use the same ratios as with basic vinaigrettes, but create a stable emulsion with the addition of adjuncts that will help to keep the emulsion in suspension. Chefs often use egg yolks, mustards, purees, garlic, herbs, honey, or even glace to achieve this. Follow these simple steps when making an emulsified vinaigrette.
• Place the acid, emulsifier (egg yolk, mustard, etc.), seasoning (salt, pepper, dry herbs) in the mixing bowl. (If using fresh herbs wait until service time to add).
• Whisk these ingredients to dissolve the salt and start the emulsion.
• Slowly drip the oil in as you whisk. As the emulsion forms, you may increase the stream gradually but only whisk while adding oil. Whisking alone does no good to the dressing and can cause graying from bowl friction.
• Add any garnishes and check for seasoning by tasting. Refrigerate for service.
Making Mayonnaise
Exercise care when making mayonnaise to avoid cross contamination and time temperature abuse. Remember that each yolk can handle 6-8 ounces of oil. The addition of a little water to the yolks can facilitate the absorption of the oil by the yolks. As with vinaigrettes, add the seasonings before the oil to help with the dissolving of the salt. Follow these steps.
• Select your mise en place- oil, yolks, lemon juice, Dijon, water, oil and salt.
• Place the yolk or yolks into the mixing bowl with a teaspoon of water per yolk.
• Add the salt and a squeeze of lemon juice and a teaspoon of Dijon mustard.
• Whisk this until an emulsion starts.
• Slowly drizzle the oil as you whisk.
Tips: The ingredients should all be the same temperature. A wet towel, spun like a whip and tied into a circle will hold the bowl still while you use one hand to whisk and the other to drizzle oil. The more water you add, the whiter the mayonnaise will turn and the more oil will absorb for larger quantities. If the mayonnaise is too thick for your purpose, it can be thinned with acid or water. Mayonnaise can serve as a base and can be varied by the addition of a wide variety of flavors. Store mayonnaise under refrigeration and keep on longer than seven days.
Other sauces such as chaud froid and aspic will be covered later when the subject of terrines, pates, and galantines are made in lab.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Salads - Green Salads, Side salads, and Composed Salads
Green Salads
Just as the word ‘sausage’ comes from the Latin, salsus, so too we owe the Romans for our word for salad. If fact salads made classically are always salted. Today we enjoy a great diversity of salad greens and styles. Commercially cut, bagged, and mixed salad greens have dominated the market for years. Just remember to rehydrate these greens in a chilled water bath and spin them before holding in the cooler. This will refresh the greens and make for a crisp salad verses a limp dull one. Still there are options for chefs today.
• Delicate or mild greens- red leaf lettuce, green leaf lettuce, iceberg, Boston, and romaine lettuce
• Bitter greens- escarole, frisée, arugula, watercress, mache, radicchio and endive
• Peppery or spicy greens- watercress, mizuno, tot-soi, amaranth, and mustard greens
• Prepared mixed greens- Mesclun mix, Field Mix (baby mix), Romaine and iceberg blends with or without color (the addition of shredded carrots and red cabbage) Oriental mix
• Herbs and flowers (edible)
• Micro greens- especially used for garnish
Caring for Salad Greens
• Wash lettuce greens, but be careful. Often gently plunging them into a chilled water bath will allow dirt and grit to fall away to the bottom. Be certain to remove any remaining ice particles left behind so they do not melt in the plate of bowl later.
• Dry the greens completely to remove excess water and aid the dressing in clinging to the greens. Use the large spinners for sturdy hearty greens and the smaller hand spinners for the delicate greens.
• Store in the cooler with a moist covering to stay crisp, being careful not to weight down. Keep fluffy and use within two days.
• Remember that cutting often leads to discoloration, especially with commercial cutters. Tearing is preferred but is a matter of preference.
Dressing Salads for your Guests
Mise En Place - Mixing bowl, salt, greens, garnish, dressing, serving vessel
• Place a portion of salad greens in the mixing bowl and lightly season with salt.
• Drizzle a small amount of dressing over the greens- 2oz. greens to ½ or ¾ oz. dressing.
• I prefer to use gloved hands to lift and toss the greens so that all the leaves are lightly coated with the dressing. Place on the serving vessel.
Garnish Options
• Seasonal vegetables
• Textured components like crackers or croutons or baked vegetable chips
• Toasted nuts and or dried fruits
• Shaved cheese
• Micro greens
Side Salads
Side salads are made with a wide variety of ingredients from legumes, grains, pastas, fruits, and vegetables. They offer the chef a palate to create choices that can cater to international flavors or offer a direction into nutritional requirements.
Side Salad example: Flickr
Legume Salads
It is important to note that different bean varieties cook at different rates and you should account for this by cooking beans separately. Cook them until they are tender and have a creamy center when tasted. Try to dress legume salads no more than a few hours before cooking, as they tend to become tougher in vinaigrette dressings. Perhaps you could use a batch method and prepare smaller quantities of dressed legumes as needed so that if any are leftover they may be used the next day without ill effect of resting in the dressing too long.
Potato Salads
In the Deep South, we enjoy an American style creamy potato salad made with copious amounts of mayonnaise and or mustard. Often boiled eggs, pimentos, and sometimes finely diced onions and celery can be found in potato salad. It is a favorite in the Bayou Region of Louisiana with gumbos and stews served also with rice. Remember when boiling the potatoes that waxy varieties hold their shape better than starchy varieties so monitor their doneness during the cooking process.
Be open to trying recipes for potato salad that have their roots in Europe also because they offer a variety of delicious options to expand your palate and culinary repertoire. Most of these utilize a vinaigrette, are dressed, served warm, and are especially delicious with German dishes.
American and German Potato Salads- Commons.Wikimedia.org
Pasta and Grain Salads
Grains and pastas should always be fully cooked but not overcooked. Al dente is good when making a pasta dish but not a salad. Pastas and grains will absorb the dressing readily and therefore you may need to re-dress the salad if serving leftovers later.
Pasta salad and grain salad of couscous and bulgur- commons.wikimedia.org
Fruit Salads
Use care when making fruit salads. Certain fruits oxidize and turn brown; avoid this by using acidulated water or lemon juice on fruits like apples once they are sliced. Learn the supreme cut when using citrus so that the flesh of the fruit gives its best presentation and is absent of pith. Remember that fruit salads are highly perishable so the batch production method will avoid loss of product and food cost.
Several herbs are complimentary with fruit; they include basil, tarragon, lemongrass, and lemon verbena. Taste and create your own dish.
Fruit Salad-commons.wikimedia.org
Composed Salads
Composed salads are carefully arranged salads that often have a protein element. We see them mostly as entrée salads today and a favorite seen all the time is a grilled chicken salad. Above the Salad Nicoise features tuna that is lightly seared and served with blanched haricot verts, tomatoes, olives, boiled eggs, potatoes and a vinaigrette. Be careful to utilize color well, offer complimentary components, and make you composition pleasing to the eye.
A composed salad classic- Salad Nicoise (French) Commons.wikimedia.org
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Sandwiches
John Montague, the Fourth Earl of Sandwich- Wikipedia
We owe the sandwich to John Montague, the fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-1782). The Earl was an infamous gambler who in an effort to keep his winning streak going, ordered his servant to fill some bread with meat. Webster’s Dictionary defines a sandwich as two or more pieces of bread with a filling in between. Today the sandwich has come a long way from salted meat between two pieces of bread. We now see a sandwich as an edible encasement, usually starchy in nature and filled, keeping the fingers clean while holding the other components together.
At the very base of ‘sandwich types’ there are hot sandwiches, cold sandwiches, and finger or tea sandwiches. Today, we have a modern approach to sandwiches that includes:
• Multi-decker sandwiches- like the classic Club Sandwich
• Open faced sandwiches- like the Kentucky Hot Brown Sandwich
• Tea of Finger sandwiches
• Wraps
• Mini or Slider sandwiches
Examples of sandwiches by type- Wikipedia and Flickr
Sandwich Components
Sandwiches, for our discussion, concentrate on these primary ingredients: bread, spread or flavoring base, filling, and garnishes that harmonize with the filling. Above all else follow this rule. Use Quality Ingredients!
Breads
Today we enjoy a tremendous array of breads to use in sandwich making. Many are specific to sandwich styles. Pullman loafs are wonderful for most cold sandwiches including tea sandwiches because they are sturdy breads which can be sliced thinly. Similarly, prepared sliced moist sandwich breads can easily be separated from their crusts and used to make delightful finger and tea sandwiches. One of my most fond memories from childhood was when my mother would bring home a little box of tea sandwiches from one of her teas or luncheons. Some were finger sized and narrow while others were in tiny circles with chicken salad or ham salad fillings. Here are some choices available to the chef today:
• Pullman loaves - shaped like a railcar and normally unsliced
Pullman loaf, Wikipedia.org
• Rolls, hard, soft, hot dog, hamburger, Po boys
• Ciabatta
• Whole wheat
Whole wheat bread- Wikipedia.org
• Rye and Pumpernickel
Rye bread- Wikipedia.org
• Pita bread
Pita bread- Wikipedia.org
• Focaccia
Focaccia Bread- Wikipedia.org
• Nut and fruit breads
Banana Bread- Wiki commons
Best practices for breads
• purchasing daily when possible
• keeping soft breads tightly wrapped
• avoiding wrapping of hard breads (but serve one day only)
• store at room temperature if used in one day
• may be frozen but not refrigerated
Sandwich Spreads and Their Purposes
• Spreads add flavor and harmony to the sandwich
• Spreads compliment the ingredients used in the sandwich
• Spreads add moisture and mouthfeel
• Spreading soft butter prior to the spread keeps the bread from becoming soggy if making ahead of service.
Popular Spreads in Sandwich Making
• Pesto
• Flavored Mayonnaise varieties
• Tapenade - Muffaletta
• Hummus
• Guacamole
• Romesco
• Various mustards
• Liver Pate- the authentic Bahn Mi
Muffaletta-Wikimedia.org, Bahn Mi- Wikimedia.org
Sandwich fillings should be the focal point of the sandwich. Today chefs let their imagination run wild when picking ingredients for sandwich making. Many popular focal points include cheeses, meat, seafood, poultry, fish, salads, and vegetables. Communities around the country have special contests for prize winning sandwiches. Decatur, Georgia hosts the best Grilled Cheese Sandwich cook-off among local chefs each fall season.
Popular Protein Fillings
• Roast beef
• Small steaks
• Corned beef/Pastrami
• Ham, Bacon
• Roast pork
• Barbeque Meats or seafood
• Roast Turkey
• Chicken breast
• Cured meats
• Liverwurst
The now famous “Media Noche” or “Cuban” utilizes both ham and roasted pork with pickle and mustard on a hoagie style bread.
Popular Cheeses
• Cheddar
• Swiss
• Provolone
• Cream cheese
• Mascarpone
• Process cheese
• Cheese spreads
Fish and Shellfish
• Tuna
• Shrimp
• Fried fish such as Clams or Soft Shell Crab
• Grilled fish
• Sardines
• Smoked Salmon
Shrimp Po Boy- Wikimedia.org
Bound Salad Sandwiches
• Tuna salad
• Egg salad
• Chicken, or Turkey salad
• Ham salad
• Shrimp salad
• Lobster Salad
Tuna Salad Sandwich-Wikimedia.org
Garnishes add flavor, texture, and moisture to a sandwich, setting it far apart from John Montague’s first sandwich of salted meat and bread. Popular ones include bacon, lettuce, tomatoes, sprouts, avocados, pickles, and pickled vegetables. Vegetarian options are very popular today and one could create a terrific such sandwich from most of the ingredients above.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Cold Sauces, Salads, and Sandwiches
1. What four things do sauces do for a dish?
2. When making cold emulsion sauces we are combining polar opposites, therefore we need something to ________________________ the two.
3. A moist towel that is spun and tied into a circle allows you to do what?
4. Describe the steps in “Caring for Salad Greens”.
5. Name three bitter salad greens
6. When making salads from legumes it is important to do what two things?
7. Which type of potatoes fold their shape better when boiled for salads, waxy or starchy?
8. Because pasta salads tend to absorb dressing, what can we do to help it before serving the next day?
9. What do we call a carefully arranged salad that often has a protein element?
10. Whom do we owe the sandwich too?
11. Name five types of sandwiches.
12. Above all else, follow this rule when making sandwiches
13. Pullman loaves are normally
14. What does a soft butter spread do for a sandwich?
15. Name three bound salad fillings. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.06%3A_Cold_Sauces_Salads_and_Sandwiches.txt |
What is the difference between appetizers and hors d’oeuvre? Here is the best way to distinguish between the two. Think of appetizers as the first course of a meal. Hors d’ oeuvre on the other hand are typically small bites that are served during a cocktail hour before the meal seating. Hors d’ oeuvre are typically “passed” or served on trays carried by butlers throughout a room of guests who have a glass of wine or a cocktail in one hand and a delightful hors d’ oeuvre in the other.
Translated from the French, hors d’ oeuvre means “outside the work”. Though English has no equivalent to this, I have always explained it, so or not, that we think of it as something outside of the chef’s normal day to day tasks. If you think of it, not every day do we have an event that requires such attention to passed hors d’ oeuvre. There is a phrase the French use that I love when thinking of small bites – ‘amuse bouche’. It means, “Excite the palate” or quite literally, “happy mouth”. Many restaurants offer one of these bite sized hors d’ oeuvre when you are seated and when done with thought it should offer a window into the chef’s style or that evening’s offerings.
Appetizers are part of a meal vs. Hors d’ oeuvre, which are apart from the meal.
Types of Hors d’oeuvre
• Hot- sausages, smoked fish or meat, Potato Napoleon with caviar and sour cream etc.
• Cold- Pates, oysters, cheeses, crudités etc.
• Finger food- empanadas, wontons, deviled quail eggs, tea sandwiches
• Canapés- 1 or 2 bites- always consists of four parts
• Base
• Spread
• Primary ingredient
• Garniture
Finger sandwiches and canapés- commons.wikimedia.org
We’ve all heard of parties where the host serves “heavy hors d’ oeuvre” and today this can encompass selections which go beyond the one or two bite norm which we have always thought of regarding hors d’ oeuvre. At such receptions, these can be served from a stationary location with plates and utensils.
Hors D’ Oeuvre Service Styles
• Passed- Butler Style
• Stationary Buffet
Passed - commons.wikimedia.org, Buffet- photo courtesy of Keith Hand Bridge Catering, Atlanta Georgia
International Interpretations
• England- Starters
• France- Hors d’ Oeuvre
• Spain- Pinchos or tapas
• Greece- Mezzes
• Italy- Antipasti
• Russia- Rakuski
Composed Hors d’oeuvre are built from two or more ingredients that are more often than not made ahead in preparation for an event. Some common vehicles for presentation include barquettes, canapés, profiteroles, tartlets, bouchees, and spoons (either non-edible or edible).
Barquettes and Tartlets
Barquettes are small boat shaped pastry shells (usually neutral in flavor) that hold various hors d’oeuvres, especially mousses. Tartlets are very similar except for their more rounded and often fluted shape. Barkettes should always have a fish or shellfish component because the boat shape signifies such.
When using the basic pate dough recipe it is important to roll the dough very thinly and invert the mold on top of the dough. Cut around the mold allowing some extra dough around the edge. This will allow room for the dough to fill the mold inside and reach the top of the sides. Press another mold inside the dough to contour the dough to the first mold.
Tartlet molds Fruit tartlet Commons. Wikimedia.org Commons.wikimedia.org
Profiteroles
These are small hollow ball shaped puffs of baked pate a choux. They can be filled with sweet or savory ingredients.
Profiteroles. Goodfreephotos.com
Bouchees
Bouchees are made of puff pastry into tiny bowls with straight and often fluted sides. The tops can be cut away for garnish and the cylindrical bowl filled with a delicious filling. The photo shown is of a mini bouchees filled with crawfish etouffee and garnished with chives.
Mini-bouchees
Canapés
Canapés, Photo credit: Marshall Welsh CEC Emeritus
One of the most common forms you will see in catering hors d’ oeuvre is the canapé. Think of it as a miniature open-faced sandwich with four parts.
• Base - usually a toast point
• Spread - this adds flavor, moisture, and helps the next part adhere to the base
• Main ingredient - meat, vegetable, mousse, cheese etc.
• Garnish - a must have to dress up the offering
Bases can also be a vegetable or fruit but must be strong enough to support the other ingredients. Today the use of Asian style soup spoons are popular and add the ability to use sauces that otherwise would create a mess. Lately the use of edible spoons made with a cracker dough have been introduced so the novelty of a completely edible delivery mechanism.
Spreads can made from compound butters, flavored cream cheeses or mayonnaises, and bound salads such as chicken, ham, tuna, or egg. It is helpful to finely cut the ingredients for a miniature presentation.
Main ingredients can carry the load of the primary flavor presented or can accompany another part. Perhaps your base is a truffle mayonnaise with earthy flavor; the main ingredient should complement the base in this case. Main ingredients should harmonize with other flavors in the recipe. In some cases, the primary ingredient could be a charcuterie item as in smoked fish or meat; either could be presented as a mousse. At other times cheese, vegetables, and fruits are used and at times together for variety among your guest’s choices.
Garnishes must be proportional and consistent in size and placement when making canapés. They are however, little artful creations that “Wow” the guests. Some common garnishes include caviar, capers, chives, salmon roe, nuts, fruits, and herbs.
In conclusion, remember that completion of organized mise en place is essential to success when making all of these types of hors d’ oeuvre. Store the ingredients at proper temperatures. Toast points should be wrapped and at room temperature, while spreads and main ingredients usually at 41°F or below. Always plan ahead, and adhere to a strict production schedule.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Caviar
As mentioned earlier, caviar can be used as an accompaniment for many hors d’ oeuvre. Be open-minded if you have never tasted caviar. I love it; others not so much but one thing I have witnessed in years of teaching is that I am often surprised that many students who never had it like it when they approach it with an open mind. After all, we are in this together to become chefs; are we not? So here we go; let us learn about caviar.
What is caviar?
Caviar is the roe or “eggs” of the fish and only the roe from sturgeon fish is legally considered caviar. The roe can be 10-50% of the fish’s weight and traditionally the Caspian Sea is where we harvest the most caviar in the entire world. Of the roe harvested in the Caspian, Russia produces 90% while Iran produces around 10%. It is important to note that California has White Sturgeon farms producing caviar here in America.
Caspian Sea- commons.wikimedia.org
The Acipenser or White Sturgeon- commons.wikimedia.org
Are there other Caviars?
Yes, you will see other fish roes labeled with the word caviar on the jars just as you see tomato bisque on a menu even though you know a bisque requires shellfish in the ingredients. When we go to a sushi restaurant, we often see “flying fish roe” and “salmon roe”. On the grocery store dry shelf, we can find jars of “lump fish” labeled caviar. In the Bayou Region of South Louisiana, we have a unique player in the market for a prehistoric fish known at Choupique. Louisianans have long eaten this fresh fish in fried and fishcake forms. The fish must be kept alive, processed and eaten, or frozen right away or loses its goodness. The roe from the Choupique is harvested in winter months, and salted before canning in jars. It has a shiny jet-black color and is typically saltier that most sturgeon caviar.
The Choupique or “Bowfin”- commons.wikimedia.org
Caviar Quality
Caviar is graded several factors including consistency of grain (size), color, firmness, fragrance, flavor, gleam, and the vulnerability of the roe skin. Sizes and graded 000, 00, medium and small. Lighter colors are more favored and graded higher.
Caviar Preservation for Market
The addition of salt preserves the product for sale. Normally 5-8 % of the product’s weight in salt is added but if the end-product is labeled “Malossol” it has only 2-3% salt by weight and is excellent. Malossol means “little salt.
Russian Malossol Osetra Caviar, commons.wikimedia.org
The Three True Caviars
• Beluga
• Osetra
• Sevruga
Beluga, Osetra, and Sevruga caviars- commons.wikimedia.org
Beluga Roe
Beluga is the largest but the most fragile roe. Its characteristics are soft, clear, and glossy eggs that are heavy and well separated. The color ranges from light silver-gray to black and is noted for a smooth creamy taste. The eggs have a dark eye, which is the embryo itself. As with most caviars, beluga is usually handled with a caviar spoon made of mother of pearl, bone, or other nonmetallic material. Metal utensils tend to impart an unwelcome metallic taste to the delicate and expensive roe. Beluga caviar is usually served by itself on toast, unlike other less expensive caviars that can be served in a variety of ways, including hollowed and cooked new potatoes, on a blini, or garnished with sour cream, crème fraiche, minced onion, or minced hard-boiled egg whites. These items can, however, be served with beluga as palate cleansers. Beluga caviar is the most expensive and always has a blue colored tin or jar lid.
Beluga Caviar-commons.wikimwdia.org
Osetra Roe
Osetra roe is dark brown to gray in color and has medium sized grain to the eggs. It is notably more nutty and oily in flavor than Beluga. Osetra caviar is one of the most prized and expensive types of caviar eclipsed in price only by Beluga caviar. It is obtained from the Osetra sturgeon that weighs 50-400 pounds and can live up to 50 years.
Osetra caviar varies in color from deep brown to gold. Lighter varieties are in greater demand as they have the richest flavor and come from the oldest of sturgeon. Golden Osetra is a rare form of Osetra caviar, and is golden-yellow in color with a very rich flavor. As with other caviars, Osetra is traditionally served on blinis with crème fraiche. Lower-grade varieties of caviar are used as stuffing in many seafood dishes, and some meat dishes. Caviar is often an addition to salads as well. Osetra caviar is always sold in tins or jars with yellow lids.
Sevruga Roe
The smallest of the true caviar roes, Sevruga is dark brown to gray in color, as is the Osetra. However, Sevruga has the strongest flavor of the three. It is also the least expensive and always sold in tins or jars with red lids. The starry sturgeon also known as stellate sturgeon or Sevruga is native to the Black, Azov, Caspian and Aegean Sea basins, but it has been extirpated from the last, and it is predicted that the remaining natural population will follow soon due to overfishing. The starry sturgeon is an anadromous species, which migrates up rivers to spawn.
Imperial Caviar
The most expensive caviar is beluga-albino caviar often called "Almas". Almas is produced from the eggs of a rare albino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old, which swims in the southern Caspian Sea where apparently less pollution exists. Very few of the albino variety are left in the wild since the lack of melanin is a genetic disorder that only affects a few members of the species. A kilogram (2 lb. 3 oz.) of this almost white "black gold" is regularly sold for greater than \$30,000. Any additions by producers diminish the value of the roe, and the caviar usually reaches the market without any additions or processing whatsoever.
Other forms of Caviar
Payusnaya - Russian meaning “Pressed”
This caviar is made from broken skins and is pressed into a marmalade type roe. It is a favorite of Russians who like to spread this on toast.
Kaluga
This is a farm-raised product from Siberia and China. The Kaluga (Huso dauricus) is a large predatory sturgeon found in the Amur River basin. Also known as the river beluga, they are claimed to be the largest freshwater fish in the world, with a maximum size of at least 1,000 kg (2,205 lb.) and 5.6 m (18.6 ft.). The Kaluga is one of the biggest of the sturgeon family. Like the slightly larger beluga, it spends part of its life in salt water. Unlike the beluga, this fish has five major rows of dermal scutes, nail-like teeth in its jaws, and feeds on salmon and other fish in the Amur. They have gray-green to black backs with a yellowish green-white underbelly.
The Kaluga has been hunted to near extinction for its valuable roe. Despite constant anti-poaching patrols, poachers continue to catch the fish. Fishing for Kaluga anywhere in the Amur River is an offense punishable by law. However, Kaluga’s are known to have an aggressive nature and instances of them toppling fishing boats and drowning anglers have been reported, although no concrete evidence exists of them assaulting or hunting people.
Kaluga caviar - caviarstar.com
When purchasing caviar, use a reputable supplier. Store at 28-32°F unopened for up to 4 weeks. After opening use within 2-3 days.
Buffet Service
What are Buffets?
Buffets are self- service food presentations where the guests choose their selections from platters, chafers, and action stations. The goal of a buffet is three fold.
• Encourage the guests to “stock up” from economically produced foods
• Keep the guests moving
• To encourage the perception of sumptuous abundance
The arrangement and appearance of a buffet rest on two key factors.
• Lavishness
• Abundance
The appearance of an abundance of food beautifully laid out is exciting and stimulating to the appetite.
There are ways to create this look:
• Color
• Height
• Full platters and bowls
• Proper spacing
• Simplicity- design is important; the trick is not to overdesign. Below is a great example.
• Orderliness- simple yet beautifully arranged food with a consistent style
Photo courtesy of Keith Hand owner of Bridge Catering- Atlanta, Georgia
Menu and Service Sequence
Consider the following when arranging the buffet:
• Hot food are best served last.
• The most expensive items are usually placed after the lesser expensive ones.
• Place sauces and dressings adjacent to the items they go with.
• A separate dessert table is a good idea.
• Plates, of course, must be the first item on the buffet.
Photo courtesy of Keith Hand owner of Bridge Catering- Atlanta, Georgia
The Cocktail Buffet
• Tasty, well-seasoned, appetizer foods work best.
• Stacks of small plates at the start of the service point.
• Make the table easy to approach from all sides.
Photo courtesy of Keith Hand owner of Bridge Catering- Atlanta, Georgia
Determining the number of tables needed for your guests
Things to consider are the number of guests expected, the length of the serving time, the amount and type of service equipment needed, the type of menu, the style of service, the amount of décor desired, and the total floor space available for the function.
How to determine table space
Allocate approximately two running feet of buffet table for each food container or chafer. For three cold offerings, three hot offerings, and a condiment basket, you should set up a buffet table 14’ to 16’ long.
If you are setting up two 8’ rectangular tables, you will need 48 square feet of floor space and approximately 150 square feet of standard 3’ aisle space around the table for guests to serve themselves. For this setup, the total space needed is 200 square feet.
For each 50 people you need a single sided buffet. For each 75 people you need a double-sided buffet.
If the group has 150, you must have two double sided buffets and so on.
Double-side buffet line – commons. Wikipedia
Centerpieces
Floral arrangements of cut flowers, potted plants, or foliage combined with candles, lights, and even ice carvings are excellent centerpieces. Avoid flowers with bold aromas as they interfere with the palate. Centerpieces should not interfere with the guest line of sight. For height use an “epergne”- a container with a slender center portion that obstructs less. Consider the state of the flower’s usable lifespan on the day needed. If using roses in full bloom order” funeral roses, as they are in peak bloom. Store flowers between 38 and 45°F. If using ice sculpture be certain to have the proper drainage arrangement with the piece and a bucket hidden under the table skirting to catch melting.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Hors D’ Oeuvres, Caviar, and Buffet Presentation
1. Explain the difference between hors d’ oeuvres and appetizers.
2. Name the four types of hors d’ oeuvres.
3. What are the four parts of a canapé?
4. Since barquettes are boat-shaped, they should always include what? ______or___________.
5. Bouchees are made from what?
6. The essential key to successful completion of hors d’ oeuvres is
7. What fish can be considered as true and legal caviar?
8. What sea is the largest producer of this caviar?
9. What caviar is the pride of Cajun and Creole country?
10. Name three of the factors in grading caviar.
11. What is Malossol caviar?
12. List three characteristics of Beluga caviar.
13. How does the flavor of Osetra caviar differ from Beluga caviar?
14. Which has the strongest flavor of the three true caviars?
15. Which caviar is golden or olive in color (2 names)?
16. What is the definition of a buffet?
17. What is the threefold goal of a buffet?
18. In what ways does a chef create lavish abundance in the look of a buffet? (Six ways)
19. Should you put the most expensive food at the beginning of the buffet?
20. You will be serving 150 people at the buffet. How many buffets, and how many ‘sides’ do you need to conduct a smooth service? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.07%3A_Hors_d_Oeuvre_Caviar_and_Buffet_Presentation.txt |
This week you will put into practice the concepts of Buffet Presentation in the creation of a Caviar and Hors d’ oeuvre Event. You will present an elegant buffet consisting of canapés and caviar complete with a Buckwheat Bellini and caviar station. After the event, you will break down the event, clean, and take your written midterm examination.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Midterm Tips
1. Read and review the entire text up to this point.
2. Review any class notes that you took during lecture and review alone with the power point presentations that are in the LMS (Moodle®).
3. You may find it helpful to join or create a study group. If you have read the material prior to each class, completed any CPAs (classroom preparation assignments), and reviewed each week’s learning outcomes after each class, then preparation for the midterm will be a breeze.
This will be your first buffet of the semester. One tool that will help you to organize and meet your time requirements is a “load list”. Using a load list ensures that you have all the materials, equipment, and food necessary to put on the buffet. Make the list by analyzing each item you are serving and ask yourself, “What do I need to show, serve, and eat this with? Example: Crawfish empanadas need:
1. The empanadas,
2. A pan to house them,
3. A chaffer to keep them hot,
4. A pitch to pour hot water in the chafer,
5. Sterno to light under the chafer,
6. A serving utensil,
7. Plates,
8. Napkins and so on.
Do not forget the tables, tablecloths, and skirting. Think about all of the things necessary for the event’s preparation and service. You cannot just show up in class and pull this off. You must plan your work and work your plan.
Think about your product and presentation; I will provide access to the things you need, but it is your practical exam. If you put in the work and execute well you will do well.
1.09: Terrines Galantines Forcemeats and Pates
Introduction
All of Europe and especially France have made the most significant pioneering developments in the storied categories of terrines, pates, galantines, and forcemeats. They run the gamut from country style and rustic to haute, grand and luxurious. It can be argued that these forms are the heart and soul of the art in the cold kitchen. Though rarely seen in ordinary eateries, there has been an indisputable movement in recent years concentrating on skills and technique that have brought this and many other long forgotten masterpieces back into the repertoire of kitchens across the greatest food hotspots in the world. The techniques are being broadened as this movement grows as in the example of salad creations utilizing aspic to bind layers and add intrigue and elevating the simplistic to new heights. In this chapter, we will explore forcemeats, which are the basis for making most of the items discussed.
Chef Welsh’s Turkey and Cranberry Aspic En Croute, photo by Marshall Welsh CEC
Forcemeats
Think of forcemeats as the elemental ingredient in the preparation of most charcuterie creations of the Garde Manger. It is a lean meat emulsified with fat by grinding or processing in a food processor; often they are sieved and sometimes even pureed. The desired end result will dictate the procedures to use. Some products like a country pate may need to be rustic, therefore more toothsome and may simply require grinding while others may desire a smooth texture and benefit for processing, pureeing, and sieving. Using cold equipment and tasting prior to cooking are necessary to achieve a good product.
Forcemeats can be used for stuffing the centers of galantines, the making of sausages, quenelles to garnish platters, pates, terrines, roulades, and jabonnettes. Each forcemeat category has its own texture profile and we codify them into four categories.
Straight Forcemeats
These is made by combining pork meat and pork fat to another meat in equal parts. The meats and fat are cut into cubes, seasoned, cured, rested under chilled conditions, and processed via progressive grinding with cold equipment. Progressive grinding means to begin grinding with a coarse die and again with a smaller die.
Formula for Straight Forcemeats: Pork and Fat + Dominant Meat + Seasonings/Cure
Pork and Fat plus an equal amount of the dominant meat is the ratio.
Another way to create a forcemeat is to grind the parts above with a medium die and further process in a mixer or a food processor. At times, the binding is enhanced at this point by the addition of raw egg to the forcemeat. If a smoother texture is desired, the addition of heavy cream will accomplish this and add a richness to the end product.
An example of a terrine with the straight forcemeat method from class
During this process, take care to use ice baths to keep the emulsion chilled and test for consistency. Always cook a small amount to check for taste so that you may adjust seasonings prior to completion. Use a cooking method that is close to the one in your recipe. For example, if your galantine is poached, roll a small portion of the forcemeat in plastic wrap and form a tiny sausage; tie the ends and poach it. The flavor will not be changed due to caramelization that you will encounter if you pan fry the tasting sample. These straight forcemeats can be used to fill a pate en croute, terrines, and galantines.
Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
Country Style Forcemeats
These are more rustic, coarse in texture, bolder in flavor, and usually made with pork, pork fat, liver, and other garnish ingredients. I have also seen a country style pate that was made primarily of mushrooms. One technique when making country style forcemeats is to make the first grind with the coarse die and reserve some of the mixture while grinding the rest again through the medium die.
The twice ground portion is then added to a panada (a binder made of a starch and a liquid) and mixed before combining the two grinds together. The panada helps to bind the two grinds throughout and after the cooking process. This method could work very well with Cajun Andouille as traditionally we use a coarse die to achieve large chunks of smoked pork meat in the sausage.
An example of a Country Style forcemeat pate (Rabbit and Pistachio)
commons.wikimedia.org
Gratin Forcemeats
These forcemeats are a close cousin to straight forcemeats, but require a light searing of the meat that adds color and depth of flavor to the product. To do this work in small batches and use a hot pan. Sear the meats (usually a liver) lightly without cooking all the way through. Keep the fond on the pan and reserve the meat on a pan on the side after each batch. Cool before processing.
Some recipes call for aromatics such as finely diced shallots or onion and a flambé with brandy after caramelizing in the fond left behind by the meats. Chill this with the meats and process as you would a straight forcemeat. Progressive grinding and processing with the use of a panada will bind the product.
An example of the gratin consistency once processed- www. Flicker .com
Mousseline Forcemeats
These very lightly textured forcemeats used primarily with lean white fish, chicken, veal, and or shellfish. In most cases, the use of cream and eggs allows mousselines to have a light and airy texture. Below is a standard ration though you should always consult your recipe.
Lean white protein (1 lb.) + Salt (1 tsp.) + Egg or whites (1ea.) + Cream (8 oz.)
The procedure is to dice the protein and possibly grind if needed before processing. Process the meat and salt to a paste consistency. Note that certain shellfish as scallops may retain more water so be careful with the cream. Process with the egg white then follow with the cream. Scrape down the bowl during the process to reach a homogeneous blend for a consistent product. This process does not take long so do not over work the mousse. Very fine forcemeats maybe worked through a sieve or Tamis for the best consistency. This is especially true for rabbit as it has a sinew that should be worked out by the screen of the Tamis.
An example of various Sieves or Tamis- commons Wikimedia.org
Terrines
Terrines refer to pates that are made in an earthenware mold. They can be baked in a water bath (Bain Marie), or made in layered aspic as in the case of a cold vegetable terrine. Any style of forcemeat can be made into a terrine. Some can be enrobed in plastic wrap to help remove it from the mold while others are wrapped in bacon, ham, or vegetable for flavor and visual appeal. Still others are made in the style “En Croute” meaning to enrobe in a pastry crust while baking.
Terrines can be sliced from a loaf, or presented as an individual serving as in the case of rillettes. They normally are served as a course in a meal and can be a salad itself or accompanied by a salad.
A liver pate course served with a salad- commons. Wikimedia.org
CMC Rosendale cutting a vegetable terrine bound in aspic-
commons.wikimedia.org
Basic steps for building a terrine include the following:
• Line the terrine mold. Traditional lining include thinly sliced fat back, bacon, ham, blanched and shocked green leeks, prosciutto, caul fat or even plastic wrap. When using plastic wrap gently mist the inside of the mold with water and lower the film inside using a towel or brush to press out the edges. Be certain to avoid air pockets between the mold and the lining.
• Fill the lined mold. With fine mousses, use a pastry bag. With country pates, you may wish to scoop some into your hand and throw it in to compress and avoid air gaps. A spatula in a good choice. After filling fold over the liner to encase the pate and tap the mold on the table to release any unwanted air. Cover with the lid before cooking.
• Cook the terrine in a Bain Marie. By placing the terrine in a water bath, we protect the product from heat extremes. Place a towel into a hotel pan. Place the filled and covered terrine mold on the towel and pour simmering water into the pan until it reaches most of the way up the side of the mold. Maintain the water temperature at 165°F. An oven temperature of 300°F should be fine.
• Cook the terrine until you reach the correct internal temperature. Here is the range below:
• Fish, shellfish, and pork- 145°F
• Beef, venison, lamb, and veal- 155°F
• Poultry- 165°F
• Cool, press and refrigerate the terrines. Remove the fully cooked terrine from the water bath and cool on the table until the pate falls to 90°F. Place a wrapped press plate on the product with a 2-pound weight. Place in the refrigerator for several days to allow flavor to mature. The terrine may then be coated in aspic if desired or sliced and dipped in aspic as in the classic cold platter form. (More about aspic in chapter ten.)
CJFCI student Taylor Mason’s Pulpo in Aspic Terrine
Aspic bound terrines
Important things to remember when using this technique is first to season the main ingredients as they are the starring cast members. Select a richly flavored stock to use as the aspic. Take care in their preparations; avoid cloudiness, and use only the amount necessary between layers. Speaking of layers, use an ice bath for the terrine mold and thoroughly chill each layer’s aspic before the addition of subsequent layers to avoid the sliding of unbound layers. Think of the aspic as the mortar between layers of masonry.
Galantines
In most every case, a galantine is made with chicken and refers to chicken white meat stuffed with a dark meat (and often pork and fat) forcemeat rolled into a tube shape and enrobed in the skin of the very chicken just fabricated for the technique. The galantine is wrapped again in plastic or cheesecloth, poached to 165°F, chilled, sliced and coated with aspic, then served on a decorative chemise coated platter.
An example of a Chicken Galantine prepared by a student at CJFCI
Setting up for Galantine Production
1. Begin with good organization Mise En Place
1. Remove the skin from the bird, starting with an incision along the back.
1. Square up the skin with the inside facing upward
1. Bone out the bird. Remove the tenders, breast and debone the legs.
1. Reserve the bones for stock and remove tendons from tenders.
1. Pound the tenders to and even thickness of ¼”.
1. Arrange the breast, but along the long side. Rotate ¼ turn left from shown.
1. Combine ground chicken with spices and pork. Mix and chill.
1. Make an emulsion of the forcemeat with some ice in the processor.
1. Place some of the forcemeat over the breast; add tenders for garnish then more forcemeat.
1. Another layer of forcemeat over the garniture.
1. Wrap and transfer the galantine to plastic wrap.
1. Roll up the galantine. Press out the air and roll and twist ends. Tie the ends and poach to 165⁰F.
Pictorial by Marshall Welsh CEC
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
1. List the four categories of forcemeats
2. T or F. Circle one. Straight forcemeats combine pork and fat with a dominant meat in equal parts.
3. T or F. Circle one. Country style forcemeats are coarse in texture, bold in flavor, and usually have pork and liver in its ingredients.
4. What is a primary difference in gratin forcemeat that is not done with any other forcemeat?
5. What two ingredients allow mousselines to have a light and airy texture?
6. What is the technical term for the water bath used when baking a terrine?
7. Name three things that we can use as the liner in a terrine mold.
8. What should the internal temperature be for the following types of terrines?
1. Fish _______________. Beef ________________ Poultry________________.
9. What should you do when the temperature is reached in the terrine process?
10. Use of an _______ __________ helps to set the aspic layers in the aspic terrine process | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.08%3A_Midterm_Exam_and_Caviar_Buffet_Practical.txt |
Historically, meat aspics were made before fruit- and vegetable-flavored aspics or 'jellies' (UK) and 'gelatins' (North America). By the middle Ages at the latest, cooks had discovered that a thickened meat broth could be made into a jelly. A detailed recipe for aspic is found in Le Viandier, written in or around 1375.
In the early 19th century, Marie-Antoine Carême created chaud froid in France. Chaud froid means "hot cold" in French, referring to foods that were prepared hot and served cold. Aspic was used as a chaud froid sauce in many cold fish and poultry meals. The sauce added moisture and flavor to the food. Carême invented various types of aspic and ways of preparing it. Aspic, when used to hold meats, prevents them from becoming spoiled. The gelatin keeps out air and bacteria, keeping the cooked meat fresh.
Aspic came into prominence in America in the early 20th century. By the 1950s, meat aspic was a popular dinner staple throughout the United States as were other gelatin-based dishes such as tomato aspic. Cooks show off aesthetic skills by creating inventive aspics.
Uses
Aspic can also be referred as aspic gelée or aspic jelly. Aspic jelly may be colorless (white aspic) or contain various shades of amber. Aspic can be used to protect food from the air, to give food more flavor, or as a decoration.
There are three types of aspic: delicate, sliceable, and inedible. The delicate aspic is soft. The sliceable aspic must be made in a terrine or in an aspic mold. It is firmer than the delicate aspic. The inedible aspic is never for consumption. It is usually for decoration. Aspic is often used to glaze food pieces in food competitions to make the food glisten and make it more appealing to the eye. Foods dipped in aspic have a lacquered finish for a fancy presentation. Aspic can be cut into various shapes and be used as a garnish for deli meats or pâtés.
Aspics were once more popular than as of late. Developed by the early Grade Manger in France for the purpose of creating a “chemise” or shirt- a coating for the lead platters and used to coat terrines, pates, and galantines, these aspics served as a flavorful gel turning to a sauce in one’s warm mouth. Aspics added flavor and protected the product from drying. During WWII in America, aspics were popularized because of rationing and the need to support the war effort. Thus, tomato aspics were a part of the menu when proteins were in short supply.
Coating sauces and Chaud-froids are the primary concerns of our discussion regarding cold platter creation. Aspics are made by adding gelatin to a flavorful stock while Chaud-froids are made by adding gelatin to warm sauces like béchamel, demi-glace, and veloute.
Aspics rely on stocks that are clarified as you would a consommé to avoid cloudiness. The addition of gelatin based on the required strength for the task at hand is done while the stock is warm. It is then cooled over an ice bath to reveal a thickened state. If allowed to set cold it can be used itself as a garnish or later warmed to coat a serving platter or cold pate.
Aspic used to bind Headcheese- commons.wikimedia.org
The galantine on the left above is coated in Chaud-froid; the terrine in the center is En Croute - Commons.wikimedia.org
Aspic Ratio Concentrations
• 2oz. per gallon for delicate coating
• 4 oz. per gallon for edible Chaud Froid
• 8 oz. per gallon for sliceable/moldable
• 12 oz. per gallon / tough non-edible (i.e. Chaud Froid platter)
Once the terrine or galantine is made, it can be divided with equally sized slices as illustrated in the photos. The slices are coated in aspic and a portion of the terrine is reserved to be the “grosse piece”. The grosse piece is the focal point of the platter and is coated likewise in aspic. The coated slices are arranged from the edge of the grosse piece, and shingled over each other. The purpose is to convey movement, and draw the eye to the centerpiece or focal point. Of course, the platter should have some decorative aspect under the aspic. This is achieved by brushing aspic on the platter, attaching garnish, and covering with slightly tempered aspic on a level and cold platter. Allow the gel to strengthen before placing the grosse piece and slices.
A decorated platter with chemise by a student at CJFCI
Working with gelatin
Bloom powdered gelatin in cool water first then warm it to dissolve the granules before adding to the stock. Refer to the power point in the LMS (Moodle®) for more do’s and don’ts about gelatin.
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Aspic and Cold Platter Creation
1. Aspics add _____________ and protect terrine items from ______________________.
2. It is best to clarify a stock as you would a ________________________ before making the aspic.
3. What are the following ratios for gelatin to one gallon of stock or chaud froid?
1. Delicate coating _________________. Edible Chaud Froid ________________.
2. Sliceable/ moldable gelatin _____________. Durable non-edible ______________.
4. True or False. Circle one. The first step when working with gelatin is to bloom it in cool water.
5. Do you need to warm the bloomed gelatin to dissolve the granules?
6. What animal materials are used to create gelatin
7. Name three other form of gelatin.
8. List the five cardinal rules for aspic.
9. What is the base sauce for Chaud Froid?
10. Give three examples of natural coloring for Chaud Froid. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.10%3A_Aspic_and_Cold_Platter_Creation.txt |
The origins of meat preservation are lost to the ages but probably began when humans began to realize the preservative value of salt. Sausage making originally developed as a means to preserve and transport meat. Primitive societies learned that dried berries and spices could be added to dried meat. The procedure of stuffing meat into casings essentially remains the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art.
Sausages come in two main types: fresh and cured. Cured sausages may be either cooked or dried. Most cured sausages are smoked, but this is not mandatory. The curing process itself changes the meat and imparts its own flavors. An example is the difference in taste between a pork roast and a ham.
All smoked sausages are cured. The reason is the threat of botulism. The bacterium responsible, Clostridium botulinum, is ubiquitous in the environment, grows in the anaerobic conditions created in the interior of the sausage, and thrives in the 4 °C (39 °F) to 60 °C (140 °F) temperature range common in the smoke house and subsequent ambient storage. Thus, for safety reasons, sausages are cured before smoking.
Sausage Classifications
Classification Examples Storage and Handling
Fresh sausage Fresh pork sausage Keep refrigerated. Cook bratwurst, bockwurst thoroughly before eating. Consume within 3 days or freeze
Uncooked smoked sausage Smoked, country style, mettwurst, kielbasa. Keep refrigerated. Cook thoroughly before eating. Consume within 7 days or freeze.
Cooked smoked sausage Frankfurter, bologna, cotto salami Keep refrigerated. Consume within 7 days of opening vacuum package
Dry sausage Genoa salami, pepperoni Does not require refrigeration.
Semi-dry sausage Lebanon bologna, cervelot, summer sausage, Thüringen For best quality, keep refrigerated.
Cooked meat specialties Loaves, head cheese, scrapple Keep refrigerated. Consume within 3 days after opening vacuum package
Some of the information discussed here will be familiar as it was touched on in Chapter Four - Charcuterie Production and Aging. It will do you well to have the opportunity to review and delve deeper into the growing trend technique that is driving the modern chef. So before you go further re-read the brief section in Chapter Four dealing with sausage.
Equipment Mise En Place
• Safety first. Make certain the grinder is unplugged and that the proper parts are gathered and in good working order, cleaned, sanitized, and free of rust. This will prevent cross contamination from rust and other protein sources.
• Chill the assembly parts. The grinder housing, the auger or worm, blade, the die plates, the cutter, and collar should all be chilled in an ice bath. This helps to keep the fat from melting which aids in a good emulsion for the sausage. If this step is skipped, the end product will become mealy and crumbly leading to dry sausage that bursts when grilled.
• Take care in grinding. Assemble the machine properly or the product will show poorly immediately. Do not cut the meat too big to fit down the grinder housing. Do not force it down too fast. Take your time to do it right, but get along with it to be efficient.
Manual meat grinder- commons.wikimedia.org
Once the housing is mounted and the order of assembly begins with the insertion of the worm. The blade fits over the end of the worm with the flat side outward toward you. The die (with the holes) goes on next and usually has a notch to be lined up on the housing. After this screw on the collar snuggly and plug in the machine.
Some sausages benefit from mixing the seasonings and cures with the diced meats and fats then resting before grinding. Others are ground first with meat and fat ground separately then seasoned and mixed. As always follow your recipe and thoroughly know your game plan before starting. The following describes a basic technique in sausage grinding.
Basic Grinding Technique
1. Chill the meat and fat to a temperature as close to freezing as possible, 30-32°F. Cut the meat into 1 or two inch pieces so that they easily fit the tube in the grinder housing. If the meat is cut into the proper size, it will go along smoothly when pulled in by the worm. If it is too big, the machine will strain to cut it. If the meat does not come out looking like ground beef leaving the die, if torn or has a fat pasty smooth texture, the assembly may be off. This is an indication that the blade may be on backwards. If you have a problem, stop the machine immediately; unplug it and disassemble the parts to see where the problem is. Your chef instructor will gladly help you back on track.
2. Mix the ground sausage product in an electric mixer on medium speed for a minute or so. This will help to evenly distribute the seasonings and fat throughout the mixture. Be sure the parts are chilled and that you do not over load the bowl when mixing.
3. Test the sausage for tasting before filling into casings. Try to cook the sausage in a manner that will be closest to the final product so that you get a true flavor. Poach a small portion if it is a poached sausage, Grill if grilled and so on.
Fermented Sausages
These dry and semi dry sausages, though ancient, are in great demand today with the resurgence in modernist movement. The lactic acid produced during the long curing time adds a tanginess that offers a palate for the chef to show other preservation skills through condiment and cheese pairings. The charcuterie board today is almost necessary for the menu today. Some examples or semi dry offerings are summer sausage or Lebanon Bologna (my father ordered Weavers brand when I was a child). A dry type would be our Saucisson Sec- a garlic and pork dry sausage cured in pork middles.
Important Tips for Fermented Sausages
1. Use salts and curing agents like nitrates, nitrites, and sugars like sucrose and dextrose with a ratio of roughly 65% meat to fat. The salts ward off bad bacteria and the sugars help in curing along with feeding the good bacteria. Some recipes call for an additive to help feed the good bacteria.
2. Mix the meat well to distribute the salts and sugars for a few days at very cold temperatures before adding the remaining seasonings and subsequent grinding. The temperature should be as close to freezing as possible.
3. Stuff the sausage with careful attention to avoid air pockets where bacteria can grow. Also, take care to keep the humidity around 60% in the storing chamber to allow the moisture inside to dry and prevent green mold growth on the surface of the casings. Semi dry sausages will lose around 15% of their weight through the process while dry sausages will lose up to 30%. If a white mold develops this is good. It is called Mycelium and is not harmful. A trip to the grocer will show many such dried sausages covered in this harmless mold.
Saucisson Sec- commons.wikimedia.org
Emulsion Sausages
These sausages include frankfurters, bologna, and mortadella among others. The process utilizes a ratio of 5-4-3 forcemeat meaning that five parts of the recipe is made of trimmed raw meat. Four parts are pork fat from the belly, jowl, or plate. Three parts are water and usually comes from ice that is ground into the sausage using a buffalo chopper. This ensures a very cold emulsion and a final paste texture to the protein for stuffing.
1. Trim, cure, and grind the meat. Progressive grinding is good; just make certain that the final grind is very fine. Keep the meat cold through this process.
2. Grind the chilled fat and keep this cold.
3. Place the chilled ground meat into the buffalo chopper and process with the ice in stages allowing the ice to form an emulsion as you go. The goal temperature is 30°F.
4. Allow the temperature to rise to 40°F and add the ground fat to the mixture and process further until a rich smooth fluffy texture is reached.
5. At this point, add any remaining seasonings, powdered milk if necessary, and process again until the product temperature rises to 58°F. You are now in the temperature danger zone so quickly test the product and adjust seasonings before final casing, packaging, and refrigeration.
Stuffing with casings
1. Gather sausage stuffer mise en place. Clean the casing by running water through the casings and soak them in acidulated water prior to putting them on the stuffer. With the water running slowly open the end of the casing and thread it over the spigot. Wet the spigot and continue to feed the casing over it. When finished slide the casing back over the end of the tube, keeping the tube moist until full of casing. Attach the tube to the stuffer.
2. Fill the stuffer cylinder with sausage. Assemble the piston with “O-ring and place the stuffer cylinder on the base. Turn to press out any air from the machine and when sausage reaches the end of the tube pull the casing out and tie the end.
3. Turn and fill the casing without too much pressure on the size casing or they may burst. Make one continual sausage and form into a large ring around itself. You may later twist into desired lengths.
4. Go back over your product and pop out air bubbles with a needle of knife.
Stuffed casings, Fen.Wikipediam.org.
Filling casings, Fen.Wikipediam.org
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Sausage Making
1. T or F. Circle one. When making sausages, we should use the lesser and tougher cuts.
2. What does the Latin word “Salsus” mean?
3. What are the six basic components of sausage?
4. What three things does fat provide for sausage?
5. Salts and curing agents do three things for sausage; what are they?
6. What is the name of the spice we associate with Italian sausage?
7. Name the five aromatics used in sausage making.
8. What are the three Equipment Mise En Place categories noted in Topic 11?
9. After the housing is mounted on the grinder, what part goes on next?
10. What part is assembled after the worm or auger?
11. When mounting the blade, which side faces out?
12. Describe the progressive grinding technique.
13. What is produced inside fermented sausage to make the tangy flavor?
14. What do the salts and sugars do during sausage fermentation?
15. What is the white mold on fermented sausage called? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.11%3A_Sausage_Making.txt |
Performing a Catered Tailgate Event
In this class you will call upon the your new skill sets and the knowledge gained in Chapter Seven and Chapter Eight to plan and execute a Tailgate Themed Event. Key concepts used in preparation for this event include:
1. requisition,
2. room diagram,
3. load list,
4. game plan, and
5. fire schedule.
This is a graded practical examination.
Review Topic 7 regarding Catering and Buffet presentation. Refer to course handouts and or recipes provided by your instructor via the LMS (Learning Management System) ex. Moodle®.
1. You will be tasked with developing your menu first.
2. After this, you should create a requisition for any groceries you need from the commissary. Before communicating with the commissary, fill out a load list (the entire list of equipment needed to execute the event).
3. From the load list add any items the storeroom handles to the requisition. For example, Sterno for the chaffers.
4. Next, create a game plan for the team to use in preparation and execution of the buffet.
5. A leader should keep track of firing schedule for the food and banquet set up.
The requisition
This is an excel spreadsheet provided in the LMS. It is a list of all the necessary ingredients from the storeroom to complete this practical. Some items on this list could be food, utensils, Sterno, chaffers, etc. and should be found on the load list you prepare.
1. The load list - All the things you need to do the event. Pretend you cannot go back to the kitchen to get it once you are there.
2. The game plan - This will keep you on schedule; remember you cannot be late to a catered event. If you make a mistake here, it is only points on a grade; if you do it in real life, it could cost you the profit in discounts to the customer or worse- you could be in court.
3. The room diagram or set up plan - Someone should be in charge of the banquet staff element of the event and be responsible for this part and its success.
4. This practical will require collaboration between your instructor and team. It will also require a significant amount of preparation.
Sausage buffet platter from CJFCI student-
Photo by Chef Marshall Welsh CEC
Classroom Preparation Assignment \(1\)
Buffet and Catering Tailgate Event
1. Name the five key concepts used in preparation for the event.
2. What is a requisition?
3. Why is a load list important?
4. Why should you create a room diagram?
5. What is a fire schedule?
1.13: Charcuterie Board Event Planning
This day is the planning day for the Final Project Event. Today the products are ready for production next week and here you are tasked with creating the plan for a successful catered event utilizing all the skill sets from previous topics in the course just as you did with the tailgate event.
Utilize the recipes provided in the LMS to create crackers for the charcuterie boards. Utilize the cheeses and cured meats you have aged and the condiments from canning day.
A charcuterie board from a CJFCI student 2019
Remember as with any platter the B.U.F.F. principle.
• Balance - Be sure the food and garnish on the platter is balanced in size, food types, and flavor.
• Unity - The food should all play for the same team. Do not mix desserts with savory on the same platter.
• Focal point - The foods should have enough motion to the concept to bring the eye to the gross piece or “focal point”.
• Flavor - Utilize components that complement each other and enhance each other’s flavors.
A charcuterie board from a CJFCI student 2019
1.14: Final Presentation Event Recap Final Review
Topic 14
Final Presentation Event - Off site catering for Charcuterie Project
This topic is the culmination of your semester long production of cheese, wine, and cured meats. Today you will execute your final buffet of the semester. Other items used here include crackers learned in Topic Seven and the skill sets and knowledge learned in Buffet Presentation. This is your final project grade as set forth in the syllabus.
Topic 15
Recap and review for Final Exam
In our last class, we will review the depth of knowledge gained over the semester as you prepare for the final exam. After this, you will deep clean the kitchen in preparation for the next class of students which you will lead in the Bistro A la Carte course.
Topic 16
Final Exam
A comprehensive examination of all topics covered in the course- Questions will come from a variety of sources including the OER, lecture notes taken by you in class, power points, reading assignments available at our campus library, and any other source provided in class or on Moodle. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.12%3A_Theme_Catering_Event.txt |
Notes
Ehr, I. J. "Home Sausage Making Second Edition". FACT SHEET. Department of Animal Science University of Connecticut. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
Garde Manger: The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004.
Ruhlman, Michael and Polcyn, Brian. Charcuterie: The Craft of Salting, Smoking and Curing. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008.
Marchello, Martin. "The Art and Practice of Sausage Making" (PDF). FN-176. NDSU Ext. Ser. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
Mohan, Ph.D., Anand. "Basics of Sausage Making Formulation, Processing & Safety" (PDF). Bulletin 1437. UGA Extension. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
Image Notes
Creative commons, “wooden cheese press easy design”, by Pinterest is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Investigations in the manufacture and curing of cheese: Directions for making the Camembert type of cheese" (1907)”, by Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
Creative commons, “Cheese curds”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Ground beef”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Liver, Pig, Pigs, Cook, Fresh, Food, Meat”, by Max pixel is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
Creative commons, “Prague powder No 1”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Speculaaskruiden”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Avocado halves”, by Kat Jordan, Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
Creative commons, “Potato salad”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Pasta salad closeup”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “салата табуле с киноа”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Fruit Salad with Cacao Nibs”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Salade nicoise”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Club sandwich”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Hot Brown”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “finger sandwiches”, by Flickr is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
Creative commons, “Wrap (food)”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Pullman loaf”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Assorted Rolls and Bread”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Ciabatta”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Whole wheat bread”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Ryebread”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Flatbread”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Focaccia Genovese”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Banana bread without nuts plus strawberries”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Banh mi at Eden Center”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Napoleon house muffaletta insides”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Shrimppoboy”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Tuna salad sandwich”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Canapes and finger sandwiches. High Tea at the Savoy Hotel”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Butler style service”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Three tartlet forms”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Fruit tartlet with kiwi, raspberries, and blueberries”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Cream Puff Dessert”, by Goodfreephotos is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “White Sturgeon - Acipenser tranmontanus Joseph R. Tomelleri”, by Wikipedia Commons
Creative commons, “Caspianseamap”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “White Sturgeon - Acipenser tranmontanus Joseph R. Tomelleri”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Markys-caviar-karat-osetra”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Caviar tins (Russian and Iranian)”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Beluga Caviar”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Kaluga Caviar”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Tamis”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Terrine de lapin aux pistaches dans l'Ubaye”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Rosendale Cutting Vegetable Terrine”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Sulze”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Modern Charcuterie”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Fleischwolf-zerlegt”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Saucisson”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Blood sausage”, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Creative commons, “Sausage making, by Wikipedia Commons is licensed under CCO public domain.
Garde Manger the art and craft of the cold kitchen fourth edition- CIA ISBN9780470587805
The International Natural Sausage Casing Association (INSCA), INSCA, About Casings Archived December 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Meat
Aidells, Bruce, and Denis Kelly. The Complete Meat Cookbook. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.
Ellis, Merle. The Great American Meat Cookbook, New York: Knopf, 1996.
Knox, Luc, and Keith Richmond. The World Encyclopedia of Meat, Game and Poultry. New York: Lorenz Book s, 2000.
The Meat Buyers Guide. Reston, Va.: National Association of Meat Purveyors, 1990. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.01%3A_Notes_and_Image_Notes.txt |
Professional Associations
American Culinary Association (ACF), www.acfchefs.org
American Dietetic Association (ADA), www.eatright.org
American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA), www.ahla.org
American Institute of Baking (AIB), www.aibonline.org
American Institute of Wine and Food (AIWF), www.aiwf.org
American Personal Chef Association (APCA), www.personalchef.com
American Society for Healthcare Food Service Administrators (ASHFSA), www.ashfsa.org
Black Culinarian Alliance (BCA), www.blackculinarians.com
Bread Bakers Guild of America, www.bbga.org
Club Managers Association of America (CMAA), www.cmaa.org
Confrerie de la Chaine des Rotisseurs, www.chaineus.org
Dietary Managers Association (DMA), www.dmaonline.org
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), www.fcsi.org
Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI), www.feni.org
Food Truck Operation, Foodtruckoperators.com
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), www.ift.org
International Association of Culinary Professionals (IACP), www.iacp.com
International Caterers Association, www.icacater.org
International Council of Cruise Lines, www.iccl.org
International Council on Hotel and Restaurant Institutional Education (ICHRIE), www.chrie.org
International Food Service Executives Association (IFSEA), www.ifsea.com
International Foodservice Manufacturers Association (IFMA), www.ifmaworld.com
International Inflight Food Service Association (IFSA), www.ifsanet.com
Les Dames d’Escoffier International, www.ldei.org
National Association of College and University Foodservice (NACUFS), www.nacufs.org
National Association of Foodservice Equipment Manufacturers (NAFEM), www.nafem.org
National Association for the Specialty Food Trade (NASFT), www.fancyfoodshows.com
National Food Processors Association, www.nfpa-food.org
National Ice Carving Association (NICA), www.nica.org
National Restaurant Association, www.restaurant.org
National Society for Healthcare Foodservice Management (HFM), www.hfm.org
Research Chefs Association (RCA), www.culinology.com
Retailer’s Bakery Association (RBA), www.rbanet.com
School Nutrition Association (SNA), www.schoolnutrition.org
Societe Culinaire Philanthropique, www.societeculinaire.com
Society for Foodservice Management (SFM), www.sfm-online.org
United States Personal Chef Association (USPCA), www.uspca.com
Women’s Foodservice Forum (WFF), www.womensfoodserviceforum.com
Women Chefs and Restaurateurs, www.womenfhefs.org
Industry Resources
Meat
Agri Beef www.agribeef.com/education/
American Lamb Board www.americanlamb.com/chefs-corner/curriculamb/
Butterball Foodservice www.butterballfoodservice.com
Maple Leaf Farms www.mapleleaffarms.com
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association
National Pork Board www.porkfoodservice.org
National Turkey Federation www.eatturkey.org
North American Meat Institute www.meatinstitute.org
Seafood
Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute www.alaskaseafood.org
Bureau of Seafood and Aquaculture www.freshfromflorida.com/Recipes/Seafood
National Aquaculture Association thenaa.net
Produce
American Egg Board www.aeb.org
Apricot Producers of California www.califapricot.com
Avocados from Mexico foodservice.avocadosfrommexico.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Cling Peach Board www.calclingpeach.com
California Avocado Commissionwww.californiaavocado.com
California Dried Plum Board www.californiadriedplums.org
California Endive www.endive.com
California Fig Advisory Board www.californiafigs.com
California Kiwifruit Commission www.kiwifruit.org
California Pear Advisory Board www.calpear.com
California Raisin Marketing Board * Dietary Tool Kit www.calraisins.org
California Strawberry Commission www.calstrawberry.com
California Table Grape Commission www.tablegrape.com
Cherry Marketing Institute www.choosecherries.com
Concord Grape Association www.concordgrape.org
Cranberry Institute www.cranberryinstitute.org
Cranberry Marketing Committee*Tool Kit www.uscranberries.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Florida Dept. of Citrus www.floridajuice.com
Hass Avocado Board *Tool Kit www.avocadocentral.com
Idaho Potato Commission *Cost & Sizing Guides www.idahopotato.com
Leafy Greens Council www.leafy-greens.org
Leaf Greens Marketing Association www.lgma.ca.gov/ Louisiana Sweet Potato Commission www.sweetpotato.org
Mushroom Council www.mushroomcouncil.org
National Honey Board *Teacher Guide www.honey.com
National Mango Board *Lesson Plans www.mango.org
National Onion Association*Lesson Plans www.onions-usa.org
National Processed Raspberry Council www.redrazz.org
National Watermelon Promotional Board www.watermelon.org
NC Sweet Potato Commission www.ncsweetpotatoes.com
New York Apple Association www.nyapplecountry.com
North American Blueberry Council www.blueberry.org
Northwest Cherry Growers www.nwcherries.com
Olives from Spain olivesfromspain.us/
Oregon Raspberries and Blackberries www.oregon-berries.com
Pacific Northwest Canned Pear Service www.eatcannedpears.com/
Pear Bureau Northwestwww.usapears.com
Pomegranate Council www.pomegranates.org
Potatoes USA www.PotatoGoodness.com
Produce for Better Health Foundation www.5aday.com
The Soyfoods Council www.thesoyfoodscouncil.com
U.S. Apple Association www.usapple.org
USA Rice Federation www.menurice.com
Washington Red Raspberry Commission www.red-raspberry.org
Washington State Apple Commission www.bestapples.com
Washington State Potato Commission www.potatoes.com
Wheat Foods Council *Tool kits and classroom materials www.wheatfoods.org
Wild Blueberry Assn. of North America www.wildblueberries.com
Oil, Spices and Seasonings
North American Olive Oil Association *Classroom materials www.aboutoliveoil.org
Nuts and Legumes
Almond Board of California*Tool Kit www.almonds.com/food-professionals
American Pistachio Growers www.americanpistachios.org/
California Walnut Board www.walnuts.org
National Peanut Board www.nationalpeanutboard.org
Dairy Products
Emmi Roth USA *Pairing information us.emmi.com/en
Real CA Milk www.realcaliforniamilk.com/foodservice/
Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Pairing guides www.wisdairy.com
Specialty Foods
New York Wine & Grape Foundation www.nywine.com
Popcorn Boardwww.popcorn.org
Baking Ingredients
Guittard Chocolate Company www.guittard.com
Bay State Milling Co. www.baystatemilling.com
Manufacturing/Distributors
Barilla America www.barilla.com/en-us
Bay State Milling Co.
www.baystatemilling.com
Dole Packaged Foods *Cost Savings Calculator www.dolefoodservice.com
Knouse Foods www.knousefoodservice.com
SYSCO www.sysco.com
Unilever Food Solutions www.unileverfoodsolutions.us
Verterra Dinnerware www.verterra.com
2.03: Measurement and conversion charts
Formulas for Exact Measurement
WHEN YOU KNOW: MULTIPLY BY: TO FIND:
Mass (weight) Ounces 28.35 grams
Pounds 0.45 kilograms
Grams 0.035 ounces
Kilograms 2.2 pounds
Volume (capacity) Teaspoons 5.0 milliliters
Tablespoons 15.0 milliliters
Fluid Ounces 29.57 milliliters
Cups 0.24 liters
Pints 0.47 liters
Quarts 0.95 liters
Gallons 3.785 liters
Milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces
Temperature Fahrenheit 5/9 (after subtracting 32) Celsius
Celsius 9/5 (then add 32) Fahrenheit
Rounded Measurement for Quick Reference
1 oz. = 30 g
4 oz. = 120 g
8 oz. = 240 g
16 oz. = 1 lb. = 480 g
32 oz. = 2 lb. = 960 g
36 oz. = 2¼ lb. = 1000 g (1 kg)
1/4 tsp. = 1/24 fl. oz. = 1 ml
½ tsp. = 1/12 fl. oz. = 2 ml
1 tsp. = 1/6 fl. oz. = 5 ml
1 Tbsp. = 1/2 fl. oz. = 15 ml
1 C. = 8 fl. oz. = 240 ml
2 c. (1 pt.) = 16 fl. oz. = 480 ml
4 c. (1 qt.) = 32 fl. oz. = 960 ml
4 qt. (1 gal.) = 128 fl. oz. = 3.75 It
32°F = 0°c
122°F = 50°c
212°F = 100°c
Conversion Guidelines
1 gallon 4 quart
8 pints
15 cups (8 fluid ounces)
128 fluid ounces
1 fifth bottle approximately 1 ½ pints or exactly 26.5 fluid ounces
1 measuring cup 8 fluid ounces (a coffee cup generally holds 6 fluid ounces)
1 large egg white 1 ounce (average)
1 lemon 1 to 1 ¼ fluid ounces of juice
1 orange 3 to 3½ fluid ounces of juice
Scoop Sizes
Scoop Number Level Measure
6 2/3 cup
8 1/2 cup
10 2/5 cup
12 1/3 cup
16 1/4 cup
20 3 1/5 tablespoons
24 2 2/3 tablespoons
30 2 1/5 tablespoons
40 1 3/5 tablespoons
*The number of the scoop determines the number of servings in each quart of a mixture: for example, with a No. 16 scoop, one quart of mixture will yield 16 servings.
Ladle Sizes
Size Portion of a Cup Number per Quart Number per Liter
1 fl. oz. 1/8 32 34
2 fl. oz. l/4 16 17
2 2/3 fl. oz. l/3 12 13
4 fl. oz. 1/2 8 8.6
6 fl. oz. 3/4 5 1/3 5.7
Canned Goods
SIZE NO. OF CANS PER CASE AVERAGE WEIGHT AVERAGE NO. CUPS PER CAN
No.¼ 1 & 2 doz. 4 oz. 1/2
No.½ 8 8 oz. 1
No. 300 1 & 2 doz. 14 oz. 1 3/4
No. 1 tall (also known as 303) 2 & 4 doz. 16 oz. 2
No. 2 2 doz. 20 oz. 2 1/2
No. 2½ 2 doz. 28 oz. 3 1/2
No.3 2 doz. 33 oz. 4
No. 3 cylinder 1 doz. 46 oz. 5 2/3
No. 5 1 doz. 3 lb. 8 oz. 5 1/2
No. 10 6 6 lb. 10 oz. 13 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Garde_Manger%3A_A_Guide_to_the_Cold_Kitchen_(Thibodeaux)/02%3A_Appendices/2.02%3A_Professional_Associations_and_Industry_Resources.txt |
Human resources managers, especially within the tourism industry, are currently facing some major issues. The continued growth in tourism in British Columbia, and the impacts of that growth on the workforce, are outlined in the 2012 Tourism Labour Markey Strategy (TLMS) prepared by go2HR, BC’s Tourism Human Resource organization. For more information on go2HR and the TLMS, visit the go2HR website.
One major issue is the expected tourism labour shortages over the 10-year period of 2012-2022, especially for cooks and chefs (go2HR, 2012). When tourism operators are unable to find enough staff, they typically react by either cutting back on services for visitors or working longer hours themselves. Service cutbacks can result in lower visitor satisfaction, fewer repeat visits, and a decline in positive word-of-mouth advertising. Working longer hours might keep visitors happy, but doing so can leave operators exhausted, stressed, and questioning their career choice. As well, customers may be less satisfied if workers are too tired to provide efficient, friendly service or if the quality of the food is not up to standard due to a shortage of kitchen staff.
Another issue currently facing human resources managers today is the changing demographics of the labour force in British Columbia. Tourism has historically relied heavily on young people to fill positions in the industry, but Canadian-born youth are declining in proportion to other sources of labour. As noted in the report British Columbia 2022 Labour Market Outlook, “Given the aging population challenge facing B.C. and the decreasing number of new entrants to the labour market over the forecast period, B.C. will rely more on migrants as a source of new labour supply. Migrants to B.C. that arrive during the forecast period are expected to fill one-third of the total projected job openings in the province to 2022” (WorkBC, n.d.). These trends indicate that tourism operators will increasingly need to tap into the labour supply represented by migrants (including migrant youth), older workers, and other non-traditional labour sources in order to find the workers they need.
1.02: Planning Process
Human resources planning is an essential function that, if done properly, can result in the increased effectiveness, efficiency, and profitability of your business. The planning process aims to look ahead and forecast future HR requirements and determine how the different HR functions will be employed to ensure sufficient human resources are available.
The first and most important step in the planning process is understanding the needs of your business. To do this, you must identify your business’s values, mission, goals, and objectives and aim to align your plans with these. The mission and values are the foundation of what you are trying to achieve, and they provide direction for decision making and problem solving. The goals and objectives should have both a short- and long-term perspective. Short-term goals and objectives are usually established annually and support your business to achieve the long-term goals.
Whether you manage a small breakfast café or operate a 200-seat high-volume restaurant, you need the right employees with the right combination of attitude, skills, knowledge, and abilities for your business. The right employees will complement your existing business culture and positively impact your bottom line. This is another example of how the needs of your business provide direction for decision making, as the business culture is a product of the business’s values and mission.
The consequences of poor hiring practices and planning are profound. Employees who are not the right fit for your business are unlikely to stay long and can negatively impact your business in the long-term. Staff turnover is expensive and results in lost customer service, increased training time, low productivity, poor team morale, and the expenditure of valuable time and resources spent searching and interviewing to fill vacant positions. Making poor hiring decisions can cost you the equivalent of 6 to 18 months of a new employee’s annual salary.
Whether vacancies arise from the departure of staff or newly created positions that are required to meet business demands, determining the need for new employees is just the beginning of the process. The secret to successful hiring is being continually prepared for the hiring process.
Both short-term and long-term planning are essential for hiring. Asking yourself the following six questions before hiring can help with the process. Your answers will increase your success rate, save you valuable time and resources, and provide you with employees who can quickly fit well into your company.
1. How many new employees do I need?
2. How much should I budget for a new employee? What dollar amount do you need to allow for salary, training, and benefits?
3. What type of employee do I need? Do you require full-time, part-time, long-term, or seasonal employees? What skills do they need? What level/length of previous experience is important for the employees to have? Should they have supervisory experience?
4. What do I need my new employee to do? What specific duties will employees be responsible for? Are there any responsibilities outside the role?
5. When do I need the employee to start?
6. Where can I find my ideal candidate? What resources to find candidates have you used or do you know of? Who can you ask to learn about new resources? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/01%3A_Human_Resources_Management_in_the_Hospitality_Sector/1.01%3A_HR_Management_Issues.txt |
The job analysis is a crucial first step. It’s the foundation of the recruitment and selection process.
Job analysis is the process of collecting information about the specifics of each job in the organization. A job analysis answers the question “What does the job involve?” It is a list of behaviours and skills required to do the job.
But how do you really know what the job involves? There are many ways to gather this job information depending on the size and scope of your operation. Methods can include:
• Surveys completed by current employees
• Managers interviewing employees who are currently doing the job
• General observation
It is important that all key stakeholders participate in the job analysis process to ensure the information is accurate and for employee buy-in. No one knows the job better than the person who does it, and both manager and employee perspectives are important so that the analysis captures all relevant duties and responsibilities in a non-biased way.
Once the job analysis is complete, you will have a sound base of information to move on to the next step of developing a meaningful job description that will be consistent with everyone’s understanding of the position.
2.02: Job Description
A great job description is your road map to successful hiring, training, and evaluation. A job description summarizes the duties, responsibilities, and qualifications required for the position. A clear job will not only make every step of the hiring process easier, it will also make other human resources functions easier and more streamlined. (See Appendix 1 for an example of a job description.)
Here are some guidelines for creating an effective job description.
1. Identify the main duties and responsibilities of the position.
• Summarize the most critical or important functions.
• List the daily, weekly, monthly, and annual tasks or responsibilities of the position. Use descriptive verbs to identify the skills required (e.g., manage serving staff, resolve customer complaints, coordinate shift schedules, complete food orders).
2. Be specific about the qualifications, skills, and experience required.
• Consider requirements for education, work experience, technical skills, and “soft” skills (i.e., interpersonal skills, attitude) that an employee must have to succeed in the position.
• Identify the specific skills that you require (e.g., ability to solve problems with staff and guests tactfully and efficiently).
• Specify to what degree the candidate needs to possess the skills you require (e.g., for keyboarding skills, specify the speed and accuracy expected).
• Include the level of education and training needed to meet the requirements of the job.
• Be sure to include any specific training prerequisites (e.g., Red Seal, WorldHost, FOODSAFE, Serving It Right certificates), as well the number of years of experience in a similar position (e.g., minimum two years’ experience working in a high-volume restaurant).
• Determine which skills are essential for the position and which are an asset but not absolutely necessary.
• Be clear to what degree you are willing to train successful candidates once they are hired (such as offering an apprenticeship).
• Be realistic. Asking for too much may prevent suitable applicants from applying; asking for too little may attract too many underqualified applicants.
• Identify to which position this position reports.
• List which positions report to this position. In both these cases, the people in the positions may change but the reporting structure would not necessarily change.
3. Date the document.
• Job descriptions are not static documents. As positions within the organization and the needs of the organization change, so do the job requirements. Therefore the job description needs to reflect these changes, and knowing the date the job description was last reviewed is very helpful.
In short, be sure to include the following components when creating a job description:
• Job title
• Main duties and responsibilities
• Skills, qualifications, and experience required
• Equipment and tools required
• Training requirements
• Working conditions (e.g., any travel requirements, heavy lifting expectations, hours of work, whether inside or outside work)
• Reporting structure
• Date | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/02%3A_Employee_Recruitment_and_Selection/2.01%3A_Job_Analysis-_A_Crucial_First_Step.txt |
Hiring the wrong person can be frustrating and ultimately very costly for the company. Instead, you want to attract employees who respect and will uphold your business values. This simple principle is essential to your business success.
Remember that values are the principles, beliefs, and standards of excellence that guide how you run your business and how you interact with your employees, suppliers, and customers. Reviewing your business values and mission along with the job description before you post the position will help to attract the right employee, and will allow you to clearly identify your expectations to new employees. This hiring approach is often referred to as “hiring for the right fit” or “hiring for attitude.” Keep in mind that the hiring process has to be a win-win situation. You want the right person for the job and the future employee wants to work for the right organization that supports and is in line with his or her own values.
When to start the hiring process
To prepare a hiring timeline, work backwards from when you need a position filled. Doing this will help you determine when you need to start recruitment activities. In your calculation, it is important to factor in orientation and training time (e.g., does the new employee need to start training by June 1, or should the person be ready and trained as a sous-chef by this date?). Note that training periods can vary greatly depending on the complexity of the job and the experience of the employee.
Keep in mind that you may need to allow time to re-advertise if you do not find a suitable candidate right away. Other factors that can affect the hiring timeline are your location (are you in a favourable geographic area?) and the number of qualified candidates available with the expertise you are looking for (is the job market particularly competitive?).
Planning for the job ad/posting
Before you post the job opening, ask yourself these five questions
1. From what demographic or geographic pool am I trying to draw? For example, are you identifying as possible recruits local residents, youth, career changers, Aboriginal people, seniors, new immigrants, foreign workers?
2. How do I reach my ideal candidates? Where do your ideal candidates spend their time (e.g., school, sporting events, religious groups, industry networking events, career fairs)? What do your ideal candidates regularly read and in what format (e.g., local, community or regional newspapers, trade journals, online job boards, social media sites)?
3. Is there anyone within our organization who may know of someone, either personally or professionally, who would be suitable for the position? For example, does your sous-chef know another chef who is looking for a job?
4. What benefits will an employee receive besides wages? For example, do you offer flexible hours, seasonal work, a fun environment, a chance to give back to the community, an opportunity to work outdoors?
5. Do I have an existing employee who would be interested and qualified for this position or could be trained for the job? For example, is one of your line cooks ready to be trained as a sous-chef?
Where to find your ideal recruit
You have a variety of options available to help you locate potential job candidates, both internally and externally. Some of these options are free while others require a financial investment, and each has different advantages and disadvantages that you will want to consider.
Identifying potential employees internally (including through word of mouth, friends, and family) can offer many benefits, including being typically the cheapest method of recruitment. Additionally, internal recruitment can help with team morale as they see the possibility of promotion from within. This can be a huge motiving factor for many employees. Internal recruiting can also provide consistency as the applicants know the organization, systems, values, etc.
However, internal recruiting may lead to having a stagnant workforce. Hiring from within may not provide the fresh approach you are looking for. Also, sometimes the right person for the job is just not available internally. Existing employees may not have the right mix of education, skills, or experience.
External recruiting through newspapers, appropriate Internet sites, radio, schools, and professional organizations can be effective, but can also yield a huge number of applications to sift through, both good and bad, which is very time consuming. Additionally, external recruiting can be expensive; job ads in prominent places such as online job boards and newspapers can cost hundreds or even thousands of dollars.
You will want to choose the recruitment tools that will bring you the greatest return on your investment and are most appropriate to targeting your profile recruits. Here are some tips for various recruitment options:
• Word of mouth: Ask for referrals from high-performing employees, business contacts, service providers, friends, and family.
• Internet: The Internet offers several options for finding employees. These include posting job openings on your company’s own website or on job search sites; looking for job seekers on resumé-posting sites; including information on available job openings as part of company blogs and on other social media sites (e.g., LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook); and creating a virtual job fair. A key advantage of using the Internet to post job openings is the potential to reach a large job-seeking audience for little, if any, cost. However, be sure you have both the capability to receive a potentially large volume of online applications, as well as the staff resources required to properly review these applications for suitable candidates.
• Hospitality job search sites: A number of hospitality specific websites cover all aspects of the tourism industry, enabling employers to advertise positions in specific fields. Useful hospitality and tourism websites include go2HR, Hcareers, and Workopolis (hospitality and tourism sections). The B.C. government has also recently invested a great deal into a provincial job board and other tools such as an apprentice job match at its WorkBC website.
• Professional associations and special interest groups: Trade associations and other industry organizations are a helpful source for finding qualified and motivated talent. Examples include:
• Schools: High schools, colleges, universities, and trade schools are all potential sources of employees, and many provide job-posting services for their students. Students tend to be highly motivated and eager to learn. Many schools also organize co-ops, practicums, or work experience placements for students, which are an excellent source of temporary or seasonal employees.
• Newspaper and other print advertising: Newspaper advertising remains a good way of raising awareness of all levels and types of job openings, and most will have online sections to complement those in print. Typically, the more senior the position, the further afield you should consider posting a newspaper ad. A disadvantage of newspaper advertising is that you may receive applications from many unqualified candidates, and these will take time to review. If you do select newspaper advertising as a source for potential candidates, remember to think carefully about who will be reading the publication (i.e., a more senior position may be better advertised in a large business-oriented publication or in the business section, whereas an entry-level position may attract more suitable candidates when advertised in a local daily publication). Advertising in industry-sector member publications and newsletters is also a great way to reach your target audience.
• Recruitment agencies and search firms: These agencies can handle all aspects of recruitment, up to and including negotiating an employment offer, and they are particularly useful for finding short-term employees, senior level hires, or people for positions where qualified candidates are difficult to find. Note: Be sure to carefully review all contract details and requirements before signing with a recruitment agency.
• Job fairs and open houses: If you have, or anticipate having, a number of job openings, you may want to consider attending job fairs and hosting open houses as a way to introduce your company to potential candidates and raise awareness of available openings. Check with your local college or university to see when their job fairs are held and what is required to participate as an employer. Whether you participate in a job fair, or host an open house at your business, be prepared to have the appropriate resources available to talk to future candidates and screen resumés.
The labour market will continue to change quickly so it is important to be creative and keep an open mind on new and alternative methods to drawing in top performers. Stay open to the possibilities of changing the way you choose to recruit as well as changes to your internal policies with regards to perks and benefits that go along with the job. Stay current on what others are doing within the industry and be competitive; why would someone choose to work for you over the restaurant next door? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/02%3A_Employee_Recruitment_and_Selection/2.03%3A_Hiring_the_Right_Person_for_the_Job.txt |
Your job advertisement should reflect your company values and effectively communicate the various duties and responsibilities of the available position. For example, if your organization is free-spirited and encourages employees to show personal style, then depict that in your advertisement. Ultimately, the hiring process should be a “win-win” situation for both employer and employee.
You want individuals who want to come and work for you, so be sure to provide all the information in your advertisement that potential clients need. This includes:
• Qualifications required (professional qualifications/experience/skills and personal traits)
• How to apply (email, in person)
• Deadline for applications
• Company information and why a candidate would want to work for the company
2.05: Selecting the Best Person for the Job
During a busy working season, it is easy to hire less-than-ideal candidates. But if you do that, often the result is creating more work for everyone in the long run. Making a hiring decision is one of the most important decisions that a manager or business owner can make. In this section we consider the first step: how to screen resumés. The following sections discuss preparing for and conducting interviews, checking references, and making the employment offer
Effective resumé screening
The goal of screening resumés is to select the most qualified applicants to interview so that you do not waste your time interviewing people who are not suitable for the available positions. Until you reach the interview process and are able to talk with the candidates face-to-face, the resumé is generally your only source of information about the candidate’s abilities, knowledge, and skills, unless someone you know has recommended the person, or you have had prior experience in working with them.
To help you screen resumés efficiently and select the most qualified candidates to interview, use the following step-by-step procedure:
1. Make a checklist and compare resumés
Create a checklist of the “must-have” and the “nice-to-have” skills, qualifications, and experience from the job description for the available position. Read through each resumé to determine if any applicants possess all of the must-have skills. If there are none, you may need to consider continuing with your recruitment efforts. Eliminate those resumés that do not meet your minimum requirements. Be wary of changing the must-have list to accommodate the experience and background of the applicants. It is important to maintain the integrity of the position you are trying to fill; hiring a less-than-qualified applicant will likely result in a short-term placement.
2. Categorize each applicant
Based on your initial review of the resumés, separate them into “yes,” “maybe,” and “no” piles:
• Yes: Applicants have all must-have skills and most nice-to-have skills.
• Maybe: Applicants have all must-have skills and a few nice-to-have skills.
• No: Applicants lack must-have skills and maybe also lack the nice-to-have skills.
As you categorize the applicants, flag those resumés that show:
• Frequent changes in employers and short periods of time with a company
• Large gaps in employment
• Jumps between lateral level positions (versus changing jobs for career progression)
• No dates assigned to previous jobs listed on resumé
• Spelling and grammatical errors
• Vague descriptions of duties and responsibilities
• Seemingly over-inflated role descriptions.
These factors are not necessarily reasons to rule out a candidate, but you should address them during an interview if a candidate makes it that far in the process.
3. Select candidates for interviews
Select applicants to be interviewed from the “yes” pile first. If, following the interviews, you do not find the right candidate, you can then move to the “maybe” pile. If you still do not find the right candidate, you will need to re-advertise your position to attract more qualified candidates.
4. Communicate with applicants
Depending on the volume of applications and company preferences, you may decide to communicate with all applicants or only those you invite to an interview. When applications are limited you may find yourself in a position of wanting to keep some potential candidates “warm.” This means that you do not indicate to the “maybe” candidates right way that they have not been selected for an interview. In the meantime you conduct interviews with the best possible candidates. This way if your preferred candidates do not work out as planned, you can still go to your “maybe” pile without candidates feeling they’re a second choice.
When the time is right, contact the applicants to let them know where you are in your hiring process and when they can expect a decision. This is a good way to position your company in a professional manner and to reduce the number of calls or emails you need to respond to from candidates who are eager to follow up. You can contact applicants by sending a simple email thanking them for their applications and what to expect next (e.g., only applicants selected for interviews will be contacted following the closing date). | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/02%3A_Employee_Recruitment_and_Selection/2.04%3A_Preparing_the_Job_Advertisement.txt |
Interviews may be conducted by telephone or in person. Telephone interviews are often used as a first step to assess whether a candidate may be suitable for a further face-to-face meeting. They are also useful when a candidate lives too far away for a face-to-face meeting because of cost and time restraints. In this case, interviewing by Skype (or similar software) can bridge the gap between having a telephone interview and an in-person interview.
However, whenever possible, telephone interviews should not take the place of personal interviews. Some personality traits and behaviours may be more evident in person, and the more time you spend with a potential candidate in person, the better your hiring decision will be. In-person interviews are sometimes held in conjunction with a performance-based interview (see below for more information on performance-based interviews).
Telephone interviews
If you choose to conduct a telephone interview consider the following tips:
• Contact the candidate either by email or telephone to arrange a mutually convenient time to conduct the interview. Let the candidate know the estimated length of the interview and confirm the best number to call. This courtesy allows the candidate time to research the position and operation and arrange the time for the interview adequately. During the interview, you can then assess whether the candidate is adequately prepared.
• Call the applicant at the confirmed time and introduce yourself. As an interview is is a highly confidential process, be sure to confirm that he or she is available and feels comfortable to talk at this time. Once you and the candidate have agreed that the interview can continue, ask whether he or she is still interested in being considered for the position.
• Let the candidate know who else is in the room with you, especially if you are putting the call on speaker phone.
• Listen carefully for tone of voice, energy, and enthusiasm in the candidate’s answers.
• Ask qualifying questions to determine whether the candidate possesses the basic skills and experience necessary. Try to determine the person’s attitude, work ethic, professionalism, and telephone manner. Pick two to three key questions to ask all candidates, such as:
• What interested and motivated you to apply for this position?
• Can you tell me what you know about this company and what we do?
• What is your most memorable customer service experience?
• Avoid questions that allow yes/no answers. Using open-ended questions (questions that require more than just a yes or no or single word answer) will provide you with the information you will need to determine if you would like to move to the next step with the candidate. Starting questions with the word “what” will help you ask open-ended questions.
• Whenever possible, consider offering face-to-face interviews to all candidates who do well in a telephone interview.
Face-to-face interviews
Face-to-face interviews are an invaluable tool to determine if a candidate is a suitable fit for an organization and the best opportunity to ensure that the person’s characteristics, values, and experiences fit with your needs and overall corporate culture. Face-to-face interaction gives the interviewer the opportunity to properly communicate, read the applicant’s body language, and understand if the applicant uses professional mannerisms, seems sincere, and makes eye contact.
The interview process
Before you invite any candidate to an interview it is important to have a plan. You want to have developed your interview questions prior to the interview, and the questions should come from the job description you previously completed.
It is important to ask the same questions of each candidate, although some side questions may arise during conversation. Asking the same questions of each candidate will help you fairly compare candidates.
Spend time thinking about what you want to ask in an interview, and what answers you expect back. It may be helpful to make a list of some responses you are looking for to match with the responses of the candidates. Also, it is helpful if you determine the criteria for which responses exceed, meet, partially meet, or do not meet what you are looking for with the answers. It is helpful to create a template of the questions with some responses you are looking for and a space to indicate if the response meets those criteria. (An interview question template, including sample questions, is supplied in Appendix 3.)
Finally, consider what type of attitude and personality will fit with your team. For example, do you need someone with a new perspective to come in and shake things up in a positive way?
You may want to involve others within your organization in the interview and selection process. Having other managers and/or colleagues spend time with potential employees can complement your assessment and help further determine the qualifications and fit of individuals you are considering. Everyone’s perspective will be different, and a collective and collaborative approach to interviewing and selecting candidates can help assess suitability to both the job and the overall operation.
Once you have your plan, you need to prepare for the process of the interview:
• Introduction
• Questions
• Wrap-up
1. Introduction
To begin the interview, introduce yourself and any others who may be present and involved in the process. State your role(s) and make the applicant feel at ease. Let the applicant know how long you expect the interview to take and what to expect. For example, you might explain that there will be about 30 minutes of question followed by a short facility tour. Giving the applicant this kind or orientation to the interview will help make them more comfortable.
During the interview, let the candidate do the majority of the talking. The 80/20 rule is a good rule of thumb to follow (i.e., the candidate talks 80 percent of the time, and you ask questions, or answer the candidate’s questions, 20 percent of the time).
Tell the candidate about your company, your philosophies, the products, and the services offered. You can do this either at the start of the interview, or at the end. Some interviewers wait to describe these details of the position and organization until after they have asked all of the main interview questions to lessen the tendency of leading the candidate to the answers you may be seeking. For example, if you tell a candidate at the start of the interview that you are looking for someone who is very energetic, forward thinking, and embraces change, that may influence the person’s answers to your questions. However, you may reduce the risk of guiding the applicant’s responses by asking a behavioural descriptive question (see below).
2. Questions
The most effective type of interview question is one that encourages candidates to describe what they have actually done in the past, as opposed to focusing on hypothetical “what would you do if…” questions that are speculative at best, or closed questions requiring a simple yes/no answer.
A question asking how a candidate has done something in the past is a behavioural descriptive question. The principle behind this type of question is that the best indicator of a person’s future behaviour is his or her past behaviour. Additionally, behavioural descriptive questions give better insight into how well the candidate understands the situation and topic, as well as his or her knowledge base and learning abilities. You can formulate behavioural descriptive questions simply by asking about past behaviour instead of about hypothetical future behaviour. The following examples illustrate the difference between the two forms of questioning.
• Behavioural descriptive question: “Can you describe a situation where you dealt with a really angry customer who was waiting too long for food? Describe how you handled the situation, specifically what you did and said, and what the final outcome was.” (You might also ask, “What did your learn from this situation?”)
• Situational question: “How would you deal with a really angry customer who was waiting too long for food?”
The two questions are very similar, but can lead to very different answers. The first asks about a real situation and allows the candidate to explain something he or she actually did in the past, whereas the second question is situational and could be answered with any number of responses, depending on what the applicant thinks the interviewer wants to hear.
Not all questions need to be the behavioural descriptive type. Some issues do not lend themselves to this type of question, such as confirming education and experience qualifications. But keep in mind that the best indicator of a person’s future behaviour is their past behaviour.
Also remember that some of the questions may be difficult to answer, or if you ask about a situation in the past, it may take time for the candidate to recall a specific incidence. Let the candidate know that it is all right to take time to think of the answers before answering. This will make the person feel more comfortable if there is a moment of silence while he or she thinks. As an interviewer, do not be tempted to “help” candidates with answer or interrupt them.
3. Wrap-up
The best time to tell the candidate more about the job and what you are looking for is after asking all your predetermined questions. Lastly, but importantly, the candidate should be given the opportunity to ask questions. Encourage each candidate to ask any questions they may have about the specifics of the job and the company.
If a candidate has no questions, be sure to tell the person when you expect to make a decision. For example, if you have a week of interviews and then need approval from someone who is on vacation, say so. Nothing is worse for the candidate than waiting days for a phone call and not knowing when to expect it.
The interview is also a time when you can promote your company, encouraging candidates on the benefits of working there. But remember to stay professional; the interview provides a lasting impression of what the company is all about and will serve as a starting base for the impressions of your new hire. It can be helpful to consider that the candidate might be interviewing you, to determine if he or she wants to work for you, as much as you are interviewing the candidate.
Finally, always remember to thank all candidates for their time. Put yourself in a candidate’s shoes; interviews can be stressful and demanding.
Consider adding a performance-based part to the interview
Depending on the position available, it may be useful to ask the applicant to demonstrate his or her skills, knowledge, and attitude according to the comprehensive job description. Combining this performance-based interview with appropriate face-to-face questions greatly increases the chances of putting the right person in the right job.
For example, you might ask candidates for a cook position to demonstrate knife skills or to create a dish given some parameters. Or you might ask a server to demonstrate opening a bottle of wine table-side. Adding a performance-based component to an interview requires more time and effort to design, but it can pay off in the long run. If you are going to include a performance-based part to the interview, make sure to tell candidates ahead of time so they come well prepared.
Tips for effective interviewing
• Listen to your intuition, but do not settle on your first impression: Try to avoid basing your decision on a first impression without giving the candidate ample time to answer the questions. Another trap to avoid is having such a specific response in mind that it prevents you from considering a different response. As an interviewer, you must remain objective throughout the meeting, and even if the candidate makes a statement you disagree with, do not interrupt, dispute, or express judgment. Keep an open mind during the interview. Listen to your intuition, but ensure it is supported by what you have heard and seen during the interview. Avoid making a hiring decision simply based on “having a good feeling” about or liking a candidate.
• Be consistent: Use a consistent list of questions for all candidates to ensure you can make a fair comparison after the interviews are completed. Of course, you can still naturally follow a particular line of question based on the answers individual candidates provide to specific questions, but be sure to cover all the same basic lines of enquiry with each candidate. Take notes for every candidate so that you remember who said what during each interview. (It may help to have a designated note taker so you can concentrate on the candidate, or consider having several people on the interview panel who take turns with note taking.) As part of each interview, strive to identify candidates’ strengths and weaknesses as well as their plans and career aspirations.
• Practise active listening: Observe the 80/20 rule: the candidate talks 80 percent of the time. and you ask questions or answer the candidate’s questions the other 20 percent of the time. Give the candidate an opportunity to ask you questions about your company and business philosophies. The questions the candidate poses will give you insight into the person. When you are listening, be aware of how the candidate is responding. What is the tone of voice? What facial expressions and gestures is the candidate showing? Does the candidate sound excited about the experience and the opportunity to work in your organization, or does he or she seem to be just going through the motions of a job interview? Listen carefully to the words as well and ask for clarification of any points you don’t understand. The best way to get the best employee is to find out as much as you can about each candidate.
• Evaluate the interview after it is over: After each interview, evaluate each candidate based on his or her answers to your interview questions. For each question you asked, determine whether the response exceeded, met, partially met, or did not meet your criteria. Based on this rating, you can evaluate and compare the candidates more objectively. In addition to a candidate’s skills and experience, evaluate how well the individual would fit into the organization’s environment and culture. It is important that you are aware of what you are looking for in a candidate. Talk with others within your organization, such as the person who greets the candidates upon arrival, to get a sense of the candidate’s personality when not being formally interviewed. You can learn a lot about applicants by asking how they interacted with a front-line employee like the person at the reception area.
Always follow-up with each candidate interviewed, regardless of your final decision. This simple step will help leave a more positive lasting impression with the candidate and may prove beneficial in the event another employment opportunity arises in the future for which you may wish to consider a previously unsuccessful candidate. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/02%3A_Employee_Recruitment_and_Selection/2.06%3A_Conducting_the_Interview.txt |
Unfortunately, not everyone is totally honest, so doing reference checks is an integral part of the selection process. References should be professional or educational, not personal.
You may wish to consider conducting reference checks before interviewing candidates, particularly if there are any red flags on the resumé, as discussed above. This can save a lot of time if references don’t check out. Several hours and considerable expense can be incurred in interviews, travel, etc. only to find afterward that someone’s employment track record is poor.
When conducting a reference check, ask about:
• The applicant’s past performance on the job
• Position(s) held
• Duties and responsibilities completed successfully (and how these align with your detailed job description)
• Dates of previous employment
• Why the applicant left the job
• Whether the applicant would be rehired
When conducting the reference, remember that you are representing your company. Act professionally and respect the time of the person you are talking to. Whenever possible speak to the candidate’s direct supervisor as that person will know the most about the candidate’s day-to-day work habits and skills.
Be sure to document all information supplied by the applicant’s references. It, along with the interviewers’ feedback and impressions, will be important in making the hiring decision. Ensure all feedback is kept confidential; do not share it with others.
One of the shortcomings of the reference check is that it can put the previous employer in a difficult position. If he or she tells you the applicant was unreliable, moody, and difficult to get along with, and if the applicant finds out about these comments, the previous employer could be in a vulnerable legal position. For this reason some organizations refuse to give references and will only confirm dates of employment and position held, a policy that can make selection more difficult because you are denied information about previous behaviour.
Sometimes you may have to settle for the last question: “Would you hire the applicant again?” A simple “yes” or “no” speaks volumes. Sometimes you may have to read between the lines by listening to vague answers, tone of voice, hesitation, or silence.
Since some companies give only an applicant’s job title and the period the person was employed, it’s important to request references from every employer the person has had. Chances are you will find some previous employer who will provide useful information. When assessing candidate resumés, check for former employers that the applicant does not have a reference for; employment and reference gaps are worthy of follow-up. See Appendix 4 for a template that you may wish to use when checking references.
2.08: Making an Offer of Employment
After selecting the best candidate, you need to make a job offer. Remember, you are not obliged to hire any of the applicants if you are not satisfied with them. A verbal job offer must be followed by a formal written offer of employment; this ensures that you and the candidate are fully aware of the terms and conditions of employment.
When making a verbal offer, ensure you:
• Congratulate the person on being the successful candidate.
• Enthusiastically welcome the candidate to your team.
• Re-state the position for which the candidate is being hired.
• Inform the candidate of the starting wage you agreed upon, as well as hours/days of work, benefits, vacation time, and any other relevant information
• Confirm the start date and time.
• Inform the candidate of any training programs he or she will be attending on the first day, including length and expectations.
• Inform the candidate of dress code standards.
• Inform the candidate that this information will be put into a formal letter for signing.
Once you have made the verbal offer, provide the candidate with a reasonable time frame to consider the decision and the opportunity to clarify any of the terms of the offer. Be prepared to reconsider your terms and conditions if the candidate asks to negotiate something. Once these details are agreed upon, make sure they are clear in the written offer you provide. The written letter should ask for the candidate’s signature and contain a company representative’s signature. After both of you have signed the letter, give the employee the original and keep a copy in the employee’s file.
Common components of an letter of offer include:
• Position title (attach a copy of the job description)
• Basic duties and responsibilities
• Position status (part-time, full-time, seasonal, temporary full-time)
• Start date
• Performance review expectations
• Salary and overtime
• Work schedule
• Probationary period
• Benefits and insurance entitlement
• Vacation entitlement and statutory holidays
• Union contract (if applicable)
• Training programs
• Bonus plan information, if applicable, and eligibility requirements
• Notice period requirements for termination of employment or resignation
• Reference to an employee handbook and/or any other included attachments/schedules
Don’t forget to include the date the letter is written and the date it is valid until, who it needs to be returned to, in what format, and how. See Appendix 5 for a sample letter of offer.
Informing unsuccessful candidates
Once you have selected and informed the successful applicant, and both of you have signed the letter of offer, you must inform the unsuccessful applicants as quickly as possible so they hear the news from you and not on the street.
The successful applicant is probably ecstatic and might want to tell the world how great your company is without any prompting from you. The unsuccessful people will naturally be disappointed and, unless you handle the situation correctly, they can become very poor ambassadors. Because there are usually many more unsuccessful applicants than successful ones, the potential for spreading bad news about your company is significant.
When informing the unsuccessful applicants, take a forthright and understanding approach. The conversation should be short and to the point. Start by telling them that they were not the successful in their application. You might express the sentiment that they were really good, but the selected person was better qualified. This is true, of course, otherwise they would not have been on the shortlist. Wish the unsuccessful applicants well. For those candidates who stood out, consider asking if you can keep their resumé on file should a similar position become available it the future. Most importantly in every instance, treat the unsuccessful applicants with dignity, respect, and empathy.
2.09: Complying with Human Rights Laws
In Canada, human rights are guaranteed under the federal Charter of Human Rights, as well as under provincial legislation, such as the British Columbia Human Rights Code. The premise that forms the basis of these laws is that all people should be treated fairly, consistently, and in a dignified manner. In order to protect both your and your candidate’s rights in the hiring process, it is important to be familiar with the fundamental principles of human rights legislation and how it applies in the context of job interviews. You must also ensure that the questions you ask are not in any way as discriminatory.
A component of human resources management is the practice of legal discrimination. For example, you may decide to hire a person who has at least five years in marketing because the job requires that level of expertise. If two people apply for the job and only one has this qualification, you can legally discriminate. In other words, you have the right to offer the job to the best candidate.
However, there are areas in which you must not discriminate. The most familiar ones are race, sex, age, religion, and place of origin. (When hiring be sure to review the legislation for your jurisdiction.) Specifically the BC Human Rights Code sets out the following list of protected grounds that you cannot ask about or discriminate against:
• Race
• Colour
• Ancestry
• Religion
• Place of origin
• Age
• Sex
• Sexual orientation
• Marital status
• Family status
• Physical or mental disability
• Political belief
• Criminal or summary conviction offence that is unrelated to the employment or to the intended employment of that person
Interview questions should avoid these protected grounds and focus strictly on determining the applicant’s ability to perform the essential duties of the available position.
For more information on complying with human rights legislation, the following resources are available:
• Websites
• Fact sheets | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/02%3A_Employee_Recruitment_and_Selection/2.07%3A_Checking_References.txt |
Orientation is an event that is structured and organized to focus on all the information a new employee needs to get started in a new job. Orientation is the best time to influence and shape perceptions and attitudes in new employees.
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the word orient means “to acquaint with an existing situation or environment” (Encyclopedia Britannica Company, n.d.). Therefore one of the main objectives of an orientation program is to integrate employees into their new work environment. The goals of orientation are to:
• Familiarize new hires with your organization’s history, current undertakings, and future plans
• Inform them about relevant policies and procedures
• Outline desired workplace philosophy and behaviours when people are most receptive
Why orientation?
Orientation is well worth the time. With the focus on integrating into the organization, orientation allows a new employee to feel comfortable in the environment and with the new job. Effective orientation contributes to:
• An increase in employee commitment
• An increase in productivity
• A decrease in employee turnover
Orientation should emphasize people, procedures, and information. New employees should understand how the company is organized, what its history is, how it operates, and what’s expected of them. They should understand that they are welcome, valuable members of the organization, and that coaching and personal networks are there to help them to develop and learn.
Employees should have a chance to get to know other people in the organization and to witness the approaches and styles that form your corporate culture. This process helps to introduce employees to both information and people in a controlled manner. A note of caution: new employees can’t absorb everything at once, so be careful not to overwhelm them. To help employees remember information presented during orientation, provide as much written material as possible.
An orientation program
Start with the basics. Orientation should introduce employees to the company and to their jobs. People become more productive sooner if they are firmly grounded in the basic knowledge they need to understand their job.
• Provide employees with an introduction and education to your organization. This sets the stage for your employees to understand and integrate the core values, mission, philosophy, and goals of your organization.
• Create comfort and rapport. Provide an environment that encourages acceptance and belonging in your organization. Spread out and vary meetings and any training sessions. Offer refreshments, dinner, lunch, or informal conversation.
• Create a team spirit. Encourage camaraderie among employees as this enhances communication and openness across departments. It is important to provide opportunities for team members to get to know each other so that the workplace is professional and team members understand and care about each other, which will enhance the work environment and business.
• Show the big picture. Detail your organization’s past accomplishments, future goals, and current directions. What are your organization’s vision and goals? Where does your organization want to go? What is your current focus? Who are your customers? What is your market position? Demonstrate excitement for future directions.
• Explain job responsibilities and rewards. Clarify expectations from the beginning. Ensure your new employees are well versed in their job responsibilities and understand the levels of authority.
• Introduce the company culture. Let your employees know how things “really work around here.” New employees want to fit in and understand the culture and the informal rules of how to operate or behave in the organization. Don’t leave them guessing!
• Handle administrative tasks. There will always be paperwork to complete and detailed procedures to follow, such as knowing how to complete time sheets, requisitions, and incident reports (in the case of workplace accidents).
• Gain full participation. Give everyone a role to play; engage in talks, and use games or exercises. Have your new employees explore the company, research the competition, meet the customers, and/or generate their own questions for you.
• Explain what the employee can expect from the organization. If you have an employee handbook, ensure your employees receive a copy of it before they start. If possible, provide the handbook two weeks in advance so they have time to absorb information. Try to not overwhelm them with too much information on their first day: spread orientation over a period of days or weeks. Use the handbook during orientation to reinforce the information they have received and build identification with your company. If you don’t have an employee handbook, and want to create one, the list below provides topics that are usually included. Alternatively, you can use this as your orientation checklist:
Orientation Checklist
• Introduction to company and management
• Values, mission, goals, objectives
• Company history and culture
• Organizational structure (reporting hierarchy)
• Product and service descriptions
• Employee and employer expectations
• Comprehensive job description (if not provided with employment offer letter)
• Benefits: medical, dental, life insurance, employee assistance programs, etc.
• Payroll specifics
• Incentive programs
• Grooming policies
• Workplace health and safety (first aid and emergency procedures)
• Workplace harassment and discrimination policies
• How promotions and raises are handled
• Disciplinary procedures
• Probationary period
• Vacation details and pay specifics
• What to do if there are problems
• Work hours and statutory holidays
• How performance evaluations are scheduled and done
• Copies of communication vehicles (e.g., newsletters, annual reports)
• Personal comfort issues: staff room, restrooms, eating facilities, rest breaks, lockers, restricted areas, smoking policies
• Security issues during the day and after hours
• Keys
• Employee agreement (signed document stating they have read the employee handbook)
However you choose to present your orientation program, give it structure and provide a schedule or an agenda with everyone involved having clearly defined roles. See Appendix 6 for a sample orientation checklist. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/03%3A_Performance_Management/3.01%3A_Orientation.txt |
While employee orientation involves organizational information and expectations, employee training focuses on the acquisition of specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes. All new hires are not created equal, and a good training program can even out the differences significantly.
The problems that can potentially arise from lack of training, or from poor training, are numerous and serious:
• Low productivity
• Mistakes (often costly)
• Poor morale
• Employee grievances
• High waste
• Customer complaints
• Lost revenue
Properly trained employees deliver better service, are usually happier in their jobs, and are more motivated to accept new challenges and information (because they don’t feel overwhelmed).
Not only is training great for business, it’s also great for employees and employers —everyone is happier and more productive. As with most management concepts, training is most effective when it’s approached holistically and as a process—a series of steps designed to improve employee performance. Training should not be viewed as a cost either in time or money: it is one of the most important investments business managers can make because it dramatically increases the value of your key asset—your staff.
Understand the training process
The following steps outline a model training process:
• Review the job description and set training objectives.
• Select the trainees.
• Create a training plan.
• Determine the training methods and mode.
• Identify competent trainers.
• Choose a means of evaluating if your training was successful.
• Deliver the training.
• Evaluate the training.
It is important to document the training upon completion and to place notes in each employee’s file including what topics where covered, when, where, and how the employee was trained. You might also include the employee’s own evaluation of the training (if not anonymous or confidential) or other document demonstrating what the employee learned.
Use excellent trainers
Who actually conducts the training depends on the type of training needed and who will receive it. On-the-job training is typically conducted by supervisors or senior staff members. Off-the-job training can be conducted either by in-house personnel or outside instructors.
In-house training is the daily responsibility of supervisors and senior employees. Supervisors are ultimately responsible for the productivity and, therefore, the training of their subordinates. These supervisors should be taught the techniques of good training. They must be aware of the knowledge and skills necessary to make a productive employee. This information can be found in both the job analysis and the job description.
Trainers should be taught to establish goals and objectives for their training and to determine how these objectives can be used to influence the productivity of their departments. They also must be aware of how adults learn and how best to communicate with adults. Small businesses may need to develop their supervisors’ training capabilities by sending them to courses on training methods. The investment will pay off in increased productivity.
Train to the job description
Employee training isn’t always straightforward, particularly from the perspective of the employee. Employees don’t always make the connection between training and improved job performance. Using a job description as a base for training programs highlights the focus on job performance and ensures relevant training content.
Use employee training manuals
Most personnel problems are actually created by systems, procedures, and/or training problems. When job descriptions, procedure manuals, and adequate training are in place, many issues disappear.
As noted in previous sections, it all starts with planning, job analysis, and job descriptions for every employee. Comprehensive job descriptions break down duties, roles, and responsibilities into logical tasks. With those in place, you can then determine how to impart necessary information and instructions for each task employees need to master. Training manuals serve double duty as checklists for performance evaluations.
3.03: Employment Development Programs
A common misconception is that employee training only happens with new hires. This is certainly not the case, as one of the key strategies to maintaining a strong and productive workforce is to invest in employees and focus on internal promotion, succession planning, and employment development. Creating a well-thought-out employee development program will help improve your employee productivity and retention, as well as the reputation of your organization.
Employee development programs should be more than just sending your employees off to a one-day commercially advertised course or program. The development program should be aligned with your business goals and the skills that are important to provide a progressive skill base.
Creating an employee development program
The following points will help you to create an employee development program:
• Invite discussions on development and career improvement with your employees.
• Establish formal training opportunities using either in-house expertise or out-of-house-programs that fit into the skill base that you would like to achieve.
• Create a formal mentoring program within your organization, again providing training for the mentors.
• Recognize and reward employee participation. Find out what each employee considers rewarding, as different people will value different things (e.g., a gift card, time off, advancement, a special excursion).
• Support and encourage cross-training and movement within your organization.
A company that wants to strengthen its bond with its employees needs to invest in a development program. This involves creating opportunities for role enhancement within the company as well as training and skill development that allow employees to enhance their employability in the market. Well-trained employees perform better and have greater self-esteem and commitment toward work. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/03%3A_Performance_Management/3.02%3A_Training_Program.txt |
An employee’s development should be tailored to an individual’s personal goals, which are determined in a formal performance appraisal. Done well, the performance appraisal process can be extremely positive for both employees and supervisors. Too often performance appraisals are considered to be painful and time consuming, but if they are properly planned and executed they offer an important opportunity to provide employees with constructive feedback that can help them to define successful career paths for their work and careers in both the short- and long-term.
Providing employees with honest feedback and direction promotes efficiency and increases morale in the workplace, and is something an effective leader does on an ongoing basis. The many benefits of performance appraisal include:
• Improved performance and profitability
• The opportunity to open two-way communication
• Increased job satisfaction and motivation
• Better morale and teamwork
• Improved planning for employee development
• Assistance with possible hourly wage or salary increases
Effective employee performance involves many components. Before conducting a formal evaluation, it is a good idea to gather documents and think about the employee and his or her performance. It is also important to keep an open mind and ask the employee to comment on working in the organization, personal successes and challenges, and any general input. Including the employee in the whole process leads to increased commitment and engagement, and often the person will present observations, ideas, and insights that otherwise may not be addressed.
Steps in a performance review
1. Do background work for the performance review
• Clarify job description and responsibilities.
• Clarify employee development interests and needs with the employee.
• List specific development areas for concentration. Holding this conversation with the employee will ensure that the areas of development are those that really interest them and, at the same time, benefit the organization.
• Review performance objectives and performance standards. Again, including the employee will ensure that the objectives and standards are clear.
• Review progress toward objectives through ongoing feedback and periodic discussions.
• Decide on purposes. In all of the following purposes, although it is helpful to present your perspective, it is equally important to ask the employee for insights and ideas for direction. Typically, the purposes include:
• What the employee is expected to do
• How well the employee is doing
• What the employee’s strengths and weaknesses are
• How the employee can do a better job how he or she can contribute more
2. Prepare the employee
Employees should be told about the appraisal process during their hiring and orientation. When people know it is part of organizational policy, they don’t feel singled out. Schedule the meeting in advance, explain the process, and give the employee a copy of the evaluation form to review and complete prior to the meeting. Ask the employee to also give some thought to his or her performance over the period in question in order to come prepared with examples of successes and challenges, insights into trouble spots within the organization or systems for work, and ideas for improvements and areas for development.
3. Prepare the setting
Plan to conduct the interview in a location that is free from interruptions. Remember to schedule sufficient time; evaluations can take quite a bit of time in some cases.
4. Prepare yourself
Collect necessary information from all sources. This should include a careful review of the detailed job description, previous appraisals, commendations or warnings in the employee’s personnel file, evaluations from peers, subordinates, and customers, if applicable. Complete a draft of the appraisal form in advance. Plan what you are going to say, especially about particularly good or poor performance. Anticipate possible points of confrontation and likely reactions from the employee and maintain an open mind to hear what the employee has to say about points of possible contention.
5. Hold the meeting
In the meeting use the RAP approach: Review the past, Analyze the present, Plan for the future. At least 50 percent of the meeting time should be spent on the future.
• Start on a positive note. Ensure employees know that the purpose of the meeting is to help them perform their jobs better and that their input is valued—that they are to be active participants in the process.
• Describe specific behaviour in simple, direct language. Avoid commenting on intangibles such as attitude, personality, and motivations. Don’t say something such as, “You’re lazy.” Instead say, “I have observed that you frequently spend time chatting with co-workers when there is work to be done.”
• Compare behaviour to specific performance standards whenever possible. Don’t say, “You work too slowly.” Say, “You often take two minutes to chop an onion; it is typically done in one.”
• Encourage employees to participate. Ask how they feel about their own performance in each criterion and if there are other factors or procedures that might be getting in the way of their performance. Ask them to suggest methods and ideas for improvement.
• Try to balance positive and negative feedback. Even if the employee is an extremely low performer in one area, find something positive to maintain self-esteem and optimism for success in the job. For high performers, balance praise with discussion on ideas and areas for further development.
• Discuss reasons for low performance. Telling an employee that improvement is necessary without exploring the reasons for deficient performance will rarely result in improvement. It is very important to explore with employees what is hindering performance and what they can do and what supports or resources they might need to bring performance up to standard. These might include pairing the employee with a high performer, providing additional training, clarifying expectations, brainstorming ways for the employee to meet standards, etc.
6. Measure performance
Develop a performance review form to support your performance discussions. The main components to include are:
• Employee name and title
• Date of review and assessment period
• Annual objectives
• Major job duties and ratings on those duties
• Personal performance criteria and ratings on those criteria
• Strengths and development areas
• Performance action plan for developmental areas
• Career goals and training plan
• Narrative comments from both the manager and the employee
• Employee and manager signatures. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/03%3A_Performance_Management/3.04%3A_Performance_Evaluation.txt |
According to Indiana University Organizational Development “Progressive discipline is the process of using increasingly severe steps or measures when an employee fails to correct a problem after being given a reasonable opportunity to do so. The underlying principle of sound progressive discipline is to use the least severe action that you believe is necessary to correct the undesirable situation” (Indiana University Human Resources, n.d.).
There are usually two reasons for disciplining employees: performance problems and misconduct.
Misconduct is generally the more serious problem as it is often deliberate, exhibited by acts of defiance. In contrast, poor performance is more often the result of lack of training, skills, or motivation. Performance problems can often be solved through coaching and performance management, while misconduct normally calls for progressive discipline. Sometimes extreme cases of misconduct are grounds for immediate termination.
Managers often cite the following behaviour when identifying what they perceive to be poor worker performance or misconduct:
• Lack of skills or knowledge
• Lack of motivation
• Poor attitude
• Lack of effort or misconduct (working at a reduced speed, poor quality, tardiness, sleeping on the job, wasting time)
• Poor co-worker relations (arguing on the job, lack of cooperation)
• Poor subordinate-supervisor relations (insubordination, lack of follow-through)
• Inappropriate supervisor-subordinate relations (favouritism, withholding of key information, mistreatment, abuse of power)
• Mishandling company property (misuse of tools, neglect)
• Harassment or workplace violence (verbal or physical abuse, threats, bullying)
• Dishonesty
• Disregard for safety practices (not wearing safety equipment, horseplay, carrying weapons on the job, working under the influence of alcohol or drugs)
The steps of progressive discipline
Company policies on discipline should strive for fairness by adhering to these criteria:
• Develop clear, fair rules and consequences.
• Clearly communicate policies.
• Conduct a fair investigation.
• Balance consistency with flexibility.
• Use corrective action, not punishment.
When an employee must be disciplined, typically these steps are followed:
1. Verbal counselling
2. Written warning
3. Suspension without pay
4. Termination
After each step before termination, the employee should be given an opportunity to correct the problem or behaviour. If he or she fails to do so, the final step is taken: termination.
Step 1: Verbal counselling
Verbal counselling is usually the initial step. Verbal counselling sessions are used to bring a problem to the attention of the employee before it becomes so serious that it has to become part of a written warning and placed in the employee’s file.
The purpose of the initial discussion is to alleviate misunderstandings and clarify the direction for necessary and successful correction. Most discipline problems can be solved at this stage if the matter is approached constructively and if the employee can be engaged in seeking solutions. This is usually effective because most people don’t want the disciplinary process to escalate.
Tips for the verbal counselling discussion:
• Conduct the counselling session in private. Keep the tone low-key, friendly yet firm.
• Tell the employee the purpose for the discussion. Identify the problems specifically and ensure the employee understands expectations.
• Have documentation available to serve as a basis for the discussion, but try not to read from a list as this might lead the employee to feel defensive.
• Seek input from the employee about his or her perceptions of causes of problems.
• Where possible, identify solutions together. If this is not possible, clearly state your desired solution.
• Be sure the employee understands your expectations; ask them to describe the standard involved and how he or she will behave to correct the problem.
• Let the employee know that possible disciplinary action may follow if the problem is not corrected.
• Ask for a commitment from the employee to resolve the problem.
It isn’t necessary to complete a formal document of the counselling session as it is considered an informal step in progressive discipline. However, you may want to write a brief statement confirming the subject matter discussed and the agreed-upon course of action to correct the problem. This can be a useful reference later if further discipline is needed.
After an appropriate period, be sure to schedule a follow-up meeting with the employee. Provide opportunities for two-way feedback and discussion. Let the employee know how he or she is progressing and ask how the new procedures or behaviours are working.
Step 2: Written warning
If the problem is not resolved, you will need to prepare the written warning. Include in the warning information, responses, and commitments already made in the verbal counselling session.
The written warning has three parts:
• A statement that the verbal discussion has occurred, which reviewed the employee’s history with respect to the problem. Be sure to include the date the verbal discussion took place.
• A statement about the present, including a description of the current situation and including the employee’s explanation or response. Use the “who, what, when” model to be sure you include all necessary details.
• A statement of the future, describing your expectations and the consequences of continued failure to correct the problem. This step may be repeated in the future with stronger consequence statements, so be clear on what the next step is. For example, this statement might state that the situation “may lead to further disciplinary action” or, in a later warning, “this is a final warning and failure to correct the problem will lead to discharge.”
By documenting these conversations, you cover yourself in legal disputes that may arise from terminations. Here are some guidelines for documenting written warnings:
• Clearly identify the performance issue that needs to be resolved.
• Give the employee the opportunity to propose a solution to the issue with you.
• Agree on the solution, and document what is going to change. Include a section on how the employer will help the employee change the behaviour.
• If appropriate, agree on a date when you will review the situation together, and ensure that the performance issue has changed for the better.
• Ensure that the employee understands the repercussions if the behaviour does not change. This must also be documented on the progressive discipline form.
• Both the employee and the employer should sign this written record of the conversation that outlines the issue, the solution, and the timeline for the change.
• Give the employee a copy of the written documentation for his or her own records.
• Follow-up on the agreed-upon date.
Step 3: Suspension without pay
Depending on the situation there are times when it is appropriate to suspend an employee and times when it is not. The rules on suspending employees without pay may depend on the specific situation, and, therefore, it is advised that employers review the BC Employment Standards Act (or other provincial employment standards legislation) before carrying out a suspension without pay.
Step 4: Termination
If a problem is not resolved after appropriate warning, you may have to terminate an employee. As well, there may be cases when you want to terminate an employee immediately before going through steps 1 to 3.
Employment standards legislation in most provinces establishes a three-month probationary period during which an employee can be terminated for any reason, without notice. The only exceptions to termination within the probation period are any reason deemed discriminatory under human rights legislation, such as religious beliefs or nationality.
BC Employment Standards Branch’s video on Termination of Employment.
After the probationary period, the employer must have just cause for termination or otherwise provide sufficient notice or severance. It is recommended that you consult with your provincial labour regulations to confirm what is deemed “just cause.” Poor work performance is not normally considered just cause unless the progressive discipline process has been followed and the employee has been given sufficient time to improve. Just cause normally includes any of the following as grounds for immediate dismissal:
• Theft, fraud, or embezzlement
• Fighting
• Working while under the influence of drugs or alcohol
• Any conduct that threatens the safety of others
• Gross insubordination
Appropriate level of discipline
It is important to determine the proper level of discipline in each situation. In other words, “the punishment must fit the crime.”
First, consistency in discipline is important. How others have been treated for similar infractions should provide the primary basis for determining appropriate action, but there are several factors that may justify increasing or decreasing the level of discipline:
• The employee’s length of service
• Previous record of performance and conduct
• Whether the employee was provoked
• Whether the misconduct was premeditated or a spur-of-the-moment lack of judgment (i.e., was it with or without intent?)
• Whether the employee knew the rules and those rules have been consistently enforced on others
• Whether the employee acknowledges the mistake and shows remorse
After considering all of these factors, there still may be times when you believe it is best for the business to terminate an employee, particularly if you determine that a particular person or situation is likely to be a chronic problem. Paying the required severance, or termination pay, is a small cost compared to the damage a problem employee can cause.
How to terminate an employee
If you are going to terminate an employee, you must have all the pertinent documentation in order and follow all the rules. If you do not, you risk legal repercussions for wrongful termination.
If you have a human resources department, it is advisable to discuss the termination process with them beforehand. If your business is small and there is no formal human resources function, be sure you follow the employment standards regulations for your jurisdiction. If you feel unsure about any rule, you may want to contact a similar business that has a human resource department or the provincial Employment Standards Branch for advice.
Regardless of the specific rules for your jurisdiction, you should follow these general steps when terminating an employee:
• A discussion with the employee must occur before a final determination is reached. Inform the employee about the nature of the problem.
• The employee must be given an opportunity to explain his or her action and to provide information.
• If the employee provides pertinent information, you must investigate where appropriate.
• A written notice of termination must be prepared after the discussion and consideration of all available information.
• When you meet with the employee for the final termination meeting, hold it in a private location where the employee will not have to walk past co-workers afterwards.
• Have a witness or backup present in case the conversation gets heated.
• Explain how the employee has continued to perform below expectations. Refer to warnings given earlier.
• Announce the termination.
• Collect all property of the company, such as keys and uniforms.
• Ensure that the employee’s hours of work are sent to the payroll department, and final cheques and vacation pay are paid out according to the provincial regulations.
• Inform the employee of any information they need to know, such as when the final paycheque will be ready if not already available, where to hand in keys and uniform, and if and when there will be an exit interview.
In all termination cases, aim to preserve the dignity of the employee and to have them leave with the feeling of being treated fairly and with respect. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/03%3A_Performance_Management/3.05%3A_Progressive_Discipline_and_Termination_Processes.txt |
Total employee compensation is more than the sum of wages and benefits. It comprises three parts:
• Base wage and other monetary compensation
• Benefits
• Recognition and non-monetary compensation
Combined, these elements create a total package that keeps quality staff on board and happy, plus it ensures internal pay equity and external competitiveness, as well as fairness and adherence to laws and regulations. Your total compensation package is one of your most valuable employee retention tools. Each part of the total compensation package is discussed below.
Base wage and other monetary compensation
The base wage is the fixed and regular wage/salary paid to your employees for work they perform for you. The base wage can be paid at an hourly or annual rate, usually depending on the position (i.e., more senior positions are normally paid an annual salary, while entry-level and junior positions are often paid an hourly rate). Pay rates are assigned to jobs based on the responsibilities and requirements of the position, as well as the skills and competencies required of the individual doing the job.
To determine base pay, you need to have a thorough understanding of the job, so you should start the process by conducting a job analysis and then drafting a job description prior to hiring, as discussed in Part Two. Accurate job analyses and descriptions are important in determining things such as qualifications, job content, workload, training needs, salary ranges, and an employee’s perception of the job versus the job of another employee working for you.
There are many different methods used to decide rates of pay. The goal is to determine the worth of each job in relation to the other jobs in your organization, and then design an appropriate pay structure for each. In general, the factors that determine the base pay of jobs within any method include:
• Level of responsibility
• Qualifications
• Experience
• Working conditions
• Tasks
It is important to ensure internal equity within an organization as everyone wants to feel they are being paid fairly in relation to their co-workers. This is done by reviewing the job analysis and the job description. By comparing one job to another, looking at responsibility, qualifications, experience, working conditions, and tasks, you can separate jobs into different pay levels.
It is also important to identify the value of the same jobs in the external marketplace to ensure that wages are set competitively and are aligned with industry norms, making adjustments if required.
Once all the internal and external information is collected and jobs are graded, ranges for wages can then be determined. Typically, you should have a minimum, mid-point, and maximum rate within each range. You should also have a corresponding policy for the initial placement of employees, and how and why they would move through the range.
In addition to fixed wages your employee’s compensation package may include the following monetary benefits:
• Signing bonuses are a one-time cash payment provided when candidates accept job offers. Signing bonuses can be used to recruit employees who are critical to your operation.
• Retention bonuses are a one-time cash payment provided when an employee has worked for a specified period of time (e.g., one year). Retention bonuses can be offered to key positions to keep employees for a certain length of time.
• Gratuities/tips are cash payments provided by customers for services provided. Tips may be earned depending on the occupation/position of worker and the type of business that operate. Some tourism businesses (e.g., hotels, restaurants) have sharing policies for gratuities. Keep in mind that tips are not considered part of minimum wage, although some provinces (including B.C.) have different minimum wages for employees who normally receive gratuities as a part of their job.
• Performance-based bonus or commissions are additional compensation paid as a reward for achieving specific goals or predetermined targets.
Bonuses can also be used as incentives for individual performance or to motivate the staff to work together to achieve the overall goals of the business. Although bonus systems have traditionally been used mostly for managerial employees, it is now common to see this type of compensation at all levels within an organization. If you use a bonus program, ensure that the rules are fair and the bonuses are considered competitive within the industry.
Benefits
Benefits include compensation other than pay for work performed that are provided to employees and funded in whole or in part by the employer (e.g., health benefits, dental coverage, one free meal per work shift). Benefits are an integral part of an employee’s overall compensation package. Employers should be aware that the traditional “one-size-fits-all” approach to employee benefits no longer provides a competitive edge in terms of attracting and retaining top-performing employees or increasing productivity, reducing absenteeism and improving overall employee engagement. With the mix of generations within the workforce today, from baby boomers to millennials, companies of all sizes must be more creative than ever with their benefit plans to ensure they appeal to a wide employee demographic.
As an employer, you are required to provide certain benefits by law (e.g., vacation, maternity/parental leave, statutory holidays), while others are discretionary. You need to evaluate the established benefit norms for your industry, as well as other competitive industries, before selecting among various benefit plans. As benefits and plans can be expensive to offer and administer, consider using a good broker or benefits consultant to ensure you are getting the service and coverage that is most appropriate to the size and scope of your business. Additionally, benefits consultants can help to educate your employees about your benefit plan (e.g., through group presentations).
Typical benefits include:
• Provincial medical services plan (MSP) premiums payment
• Group extended health care
• Group dental insurance
• Group life insurance
• Group disability plans
• Extra vacation days
• Free/discounted meals
• Employee discounts
• Professional development
• Employee assistance programs
Recognition and non-monetary benefits
Finding the right mix to include in your total compensation package is complicated and should focus on what is important to your employees. Consider what will motivate them not only to stay with you, but to perform in a way that helps your business to succeed. Offering non-monetary benefits and recognition programs is an excellent way to complement your total compensation package in such a way that you have an easier time attracting and retaining top employees, often with minimal financial impact to your overall bottom line.
Today’s diverse employee base puts a high value on life-work balance, advancement and development opportunities, and recognition. Options in this area are endless and employers can be creative in developing programs and incentives that are in keeping with the vision, mission, culture, and operational strategy of the organization.
Some non-cash benefits you may consider include:
• Flexible work schedules
• Social activities (annual golf tournament, children’s Christmas party, movie nights)
• Transit passes
• Free or discounted meals
• Spot rewards (gift certificates, store discounts)
• Employee and family pricing for hotel rooms
• Service recognition awards
• Health and wellness allowances
As labour market conditions change and generations of workers enter and leave the workforce, there will continue to be changes in what should be included in an effective total compensation package. You need to understand what your employees really want and need in order to come to work for you, and subsequently remain motivated and engaged. Taking the time to develop a total compensation package that fits your organization and its employees will go a long way toward attracting, motivating, and retaining staff. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/04%3A_Compensation/4.01%3A_The_Total_Compensation_Plan.txt |
Payroll is the function of paying your employees in exchange for services rendered. The primary objective of your payroll system is to ensure that you pay your employees accurately and on time. Being paid is a basic expectation and right of your employees, so it is important to understand how important it is to have a timely and accurate payment system, and how not having one can negatively impact morale and ultimately the ability to retain your staff.
Employees and non-employees
It is important to classify the individuals who work for you as either employees or non-employees. Pay for employees is processed through your payroll system and includes required deductions, such as income tax and employment insurance premiums. You are required to remit any employee income taxes withheld at source to the government. In general, if someone regularly works at your place of business, and you direct the person’s work, he or she is an employee.
Non-employees, such as independent contractors and consultants, are not part of your payroll and you are not required to pay benefits or withhold taxes. Instead, contractors and consultants are considered to be independently employed and typically submit an invoice to cover the cost of services they have provided to your company.
If you have any doubts about the appropriate status of your workers, you should check with the Canada Revenue Agency website or the BC Employment Standards website.
How to pay wages
The government legislates a pay period that requires an employer to pay at least semi-monthly and within eight days after the expiration of each pay period. Under the Income Tax Act, every employer paying wages is required to withhold tax from these payments.
You are also legally responsible for making many other deductions from your employee’s paycheque, such as the income tax, Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Employment Insurance (EI). WorkSafeBC premiums are an additional cost, based on wages but are entirely an employer’s expense (see www.worksafebc.com).
Since some of these deductions have percentages that change, you will need to verify them each year. To ensure you are following the rules according to the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA), check their website.
Most software accounting packages that are used in industry also send updates with new tax rate information at the beginning of each year.
Employers also have payroll-related obligations under the British Columbia Employment Standards Act. For example, payroll records must include certain employee information, including name, date of birth, and occupation. These records must be kept at the employer’s principal place of business and be retained by the employer for two years after the employment terminates. These provincial record-keeping requirements should not be confused with CRA’s record-keeping requirements. Please refer to the following links for the most up-to-date information.
Ensuring accurate and timely payroll processing can be a time-consuming function. Given the time and expertise required, many smaller independent businesses find that outsourcing payroll to an independent bookkeeper can offer many advantages to their business and employees. In addition to processing your payroll, these experienced professionals can also be responsible for maintaining updated knowledge of all legislation, making technological changes to comply with legislative changes, and providing answers to any payroll-related questions from employees. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/04%3A_Compensation/4.02%3A_Payroll.txt |
Good health and safety practices should be a high priority within your organizational culture. In order to retain your staff, a safe and healthy work environment is key. Everybody values a safe work environment, especially young workers. According to WorkSafe BC, “in the past five years in British Columbia, more than 9,400 young workers in the tourism and hospitality industry suffered on-the-job injuries severe enough to keep them from working. The cost to the industry is staggering – almost \$20 million and 170,000 days lost from work” (WorkSafeBC, OHS Guidelines, n.d.).
According to WorkSafeBC (Young Worker Safety Can’t Wait, n.d.), it is up to the employer to ensure the health and safety of all employees. To guarantee a safe environment, everyone in your organization should be properly trained and oriented within the scope of the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Regulation. This should be a continuous process and part of your ongoing training culture.
Developing and maintaining a safe and healthy work environment can be a time-demanding task; however, the importance of keeping a safe work environment is worth the investment. There are formal regulations and many resources available to assist in the creation and continuation of health and safety within your workplace.
To begin developing an occupational health and safety program in your organization, begin with a risk assessment of your entire workplace, identifying all of the potential hazards to you and/or your employees. Elements in your program should include:
• A statement of the employer’s aims, and of the responsibilities of the employer, supervisors, and workers
• Provision for regular inspection of premises, equipment, work methods, and work practices, at appropriate intervals, to ensure that prompt action is taken to correct any hazardous conditions found
• Appropriate written instructions, available for reference by all workers, to supplement the OHS Regulation
• Provision for the prompt investigation of incidents to determine the action necessary to prevent their recurrence
• Records and statistics, including reports of inspections and incident investigations, with provision for making this information available to the joint committee or worker health and safety representative, as applicable and, on request, to a prevention officer, the union representing the workers at the workplace or, if there is no union, the workers at the workplace
• Provision by the employer for the instruction and supervision of workers in the safe performance of their work
• Provision for holding periodic management meetings to review health and safety activities and incident trends, and to determine necessary courses of action
An effective program will:
• Identify hazards in the workplace
• Control the hazards and eliminate or minimize the potential for workplace injuries or illness
• Be monitored to ensure the program meets its goals and WorkSafeBC requirements under the Workers Compensation Act and the OHS Regulation
For more information visit WorkSafeBC.
As part of the Workers Compensation Act, the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Regulation applies to all employers and workers within BC. The OHS Regulation contains legal requirements in which all workplaces must comply under the jurisdiction of WorkSafeBC. The OHS Regulation acts as a foundation upon which organizations can build to maintain an effective and safe work environment.
Follow the OHS Regulation Guidelines to determine the legal requirements for your organization. Typically the guidelines are based on the number of workers you have. Whichever situation you fall under within the regulations, it is essential you organize a formal OHS meeting every month, where there must be workers represented. The meeting should focus on existing health and safety matters and how any unsafe conditions and practices will be dealt with. Keep a record of the meetings including when they are held, who attends them, and the general nature of what is discussed. This record should be made available for inspection by a prevention officer when requested.
Research shows that there are clear links between well-thought-out OHS programs and long-term business efficiency. Benefits of a good, updated program include:
• Reducing workplace injuries and the costs associated with them
• Enhancing your organization’s reputation
• Retaining staff
• Having a measureable system to continuously verify your current safety practices
In addition to the above benefits, if you choose to participate in the Certificate of Recognition (COR) Program, and your company is in good standing, you could receive incentive payments from WorkSafeBC. The program rewards employers that go above and beyond the legal requirements of the Workers Compensation Act and OHS Regulation by looking at best practices to injury prevention in the workplace.
Here are a few helpful links for information on occupational health and safety: | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Human_Resources_in_the_Food_Service_and_Hospitality_Industry/05%3A_Part_Five-_Occupational_Health_and_Safety_in_Human_Resources/5.01%3A_Good_health_and_safety_practices.txt |
• 1.1: Baking and Pastry Equipment
As with anything, practice is the key to becoming proficient in any task and in the kitchen, the mastering of the tools is essential. Each tool is designed to perform a task. In order to master task the Pastry Chef need to understand the equipment and what each piece is used for. A keen understanding of the workings of the equipment is also important for the finished product to be its best.
• 1.2: Dry Ingredients
One of the most important ingredients in the baking process is flour. Almost every item made has some type of flour added. It is the main building block of breads, pastries and most cakes. The production of flour can be traced through the centuries to the beginning of civilization. An important fact for a baker to know is the difference between hard and soft wheat. This gives the baker the ability to know which type of flour to use for the application needed.
• 1.3: Quick Breads
These breads are an ideal solution to the bakers who love bread but do not have the time or resources to spend on yeast breads. These breads are relatively quick to makes as their name suggest. They are leaved with chemical leaveners that make them ready to bake in a short amount of time. These breads are usually tender with very little mixing time, which allows very little gluten formation. The mixing methods used for quick breads are usually just a few minutes and easy to do by hand.
• 1.4: Yeast Doughs
Bread is the one of the simplest and yet most complicated of items to make. Most doughs consist of flour, water, salt and yeast. The art of making simple and complex doughs is understanding the nature of the item and what affects the finished product – gluten development and the fermentation of the leavener, yeast.
• 1.5: Pastry Doughs
These doughs differ from the previous doughs in that they are not leavened. They have a more tender crumb and are usually used as a base to be filled such as tarts. The names of these are derived from the French and give indication to the texture of the finished product.
• 1.6: Custards
When you hear the word custards we all think of pudding. Pudding, however, is a word that can describe many different types of dishes in the culinary world. There are savory dishes such as blood sausage that are also knows as puddings. For the purpose of this chapter we are going to discuss the custards that are served in restaurants as dessert.
• 1.7: Cake and Buttercreams
To make a great cake the baker must take great care in creating the batter. The cake itself is a base for which the rest of the ingredients are built upon. The process starts with high quality ingredients. The rest is an art from that follows specific formulas and mixing methods to produce a light and delicious finished product.
• 1.8: Pie Doughs and Ice Cream
Pies gains popularity through out Europe with the first Cherry Pie credit going to Queen Elizabeth I. Pies came to the Americas with the English settlers but the thick crust was seen as a vessel for the fillings. As the pie evolved the crust went from vessel to part of the dish. Today Pies are a traditional American dessert.
• 1.9: Cookies
One of the most varied items in the pastry world is the cookie. They are made into various shapes, sizes and textures. From chewy to soft batch, crunch to bite size bits. Depending on where you are in the world the name cookie will not mean anything. Only in North American do we consider a cookie a cookie!
01: Chapters
The kitchen is filled with the tools that help a Pastry Chef create wonderful creations. The key is in the mastering of these tools to perform that task they are meant for. As with anything, practice is the key to becoming proficient in any task and in the kitchen, the mastering of the tools is essential. Each tool is designed to perform a task. In order to master task the Pastry Chef need to understand the equipment and what each piece is used for. A keen understanding of the workings of the equipment is also important for the finished product to be its best.
Stand Mixers
Commercial mixers are a big part of the commercial kitchen. They aid in making the mixing of ingredients easier and faster. While small batches of certain doughs can be mixed by hand there are many times when it is more beneficial in the interest of time to use.
Tabletop mixers: In the kitchen, the tabletop mixers are used for small soft batches of dough. This one can be easily moved. The attachments for this mixer include a dough hook, balloon whip, and paddle.
The mixer has three speeds. The “1” is the slowest and what is used to begin the mixing process. Once the ingredients combine then the mix can be moved to “2” medium and then to “3” high.
The front of the mixer has a small metal disk and black pin. This would allow for the use of other attachments.
Table Top Mixer
This mixer is larger than the stand mixer. The mixers vary in size depending on the kitchen / bakeshop that they are being used in most professional kitchens will have the 20 quart tabletop mixer seen the picture. The tabletop mixers sizes range from five to 20 quarts. The size is determined by the amount of product the bowl of the mixer can hold. The front is also allows for attachments that will allow for meat grinding and pasta cutting.
Both stand and tabletop mixers come with 3 different attachments.
Balloon Whip (a1)
The balloon whip is used to whisk air into ingredients. The whip is used for soft ingredients like heavy cream, meringues, and mousses.
Paddle (a2)
The paddle attachment is used to cream ingredients together or alone. Ingredients that are too hard for the whip to break down such as butter and cream cheese. It is also used for many batters that begin with the creaming method.
Dough Hook (a3)
This is used to mix doughs.
a1 a2 a3
Courtesy of Tammy Rink
Chef Instructor Chef John Folse Culinary Institute
Dough Cutters
Dough cutters are used to quickly and efficiently cut large amounts of dough into the required size. The dough cutter pictured is the Dutchess cutter. This cutter has the cutter surface that will cut 36 equal portions at once.
The dough is placed in the metal holding tray. The tray is returned to the Dutchess with the metal handle pointing outwards. The long handle is then pulled toward the front of the press. This allows for the dough to be tamped down and to assure that the dough covers the entire cutting surface. With the handle pressed down, the cut lever is released and the cutters are exposed to cut the dough. The handle is then raised, and the dough is left in 36 pieces. This tabletop version does not have a rounder. The dough for cutting will be made up according to specifications of the pastry chef.
Table 1 - Scaling Bread Dough for the Dutchess
Size needed Amount of Dough Used for
1.2 oz. each (35 to 40 grams) 1.2 x 36 = 43.2 /16 = 2.7 lbs. Bistro Dinner Rolls
.98 oz. each (28 grams) .98x36=35.28 /16 = 2.20 lbs. Russian Service Rolls
Dough Sheeter
Sheeters come in various sizes like other equipment. The type that is in your shop will depend on the space you have and what it is needed for. There are tabletop sheeters and standalone sheeters. The sheeter is used to quickly and uniformly, roll out dough to a desired thickness. The operator runs the sheet by decreasing the space between the rollers as the dough passes through them. The tabletop is done by feeding the dough through the rollers by hand.
Proofer
The proof box or proofing cabinet keeps a controlled heat and humidity that allows yeast doughs to finish its final rise before the baking process. The box operates by adding water to the well at the bottom that has a heating element in it.
Control settings allow the user to change the temperature and humidity for different types of bread dough.
Deck Oven
The four deck ovens are stacked into a single piece of equipment. They used conduction heat to bake products. The heat travels to the stone bottom of the oven (the baking surface) and then to the bread placed directly on the stone or the pan. The secondary heat source is radiant heat that penetrates the dough to assist in baking the bread. Deck ovens are necessary have for the artisan bread baker. They allow for the beautiful, crust bread loaves.
Deck ovens also have the option to inject steam, which aids in the formation of the crust. Each deck can be set at different temperatures, which allows for many different types of baked goods to be cooked at once.
Convection Oven
The stacked convection ovens are a great and versatile oven. What makes this oven a fantastic addition to a commercial kitchen is the range of heat that the oven can produce. The oven heats by fan forced heat, which gives an even heating source.
From drying out meringues to baking of breads the convection oven is the perfect oven for the task. This oven also allows for the addition of steam, which is important to give, rolls a shiny finish and the full rise of the bread dough.
Fryer
The double basket fryer is a gas heated fryer. Each fryer section allows for independent frying. The oil in each section is kept separated by a divider and thus allows for different foods to be fried without contamination of the oil.
Stove
The 6-burner gas stovetop allows commercial style cooking with a high BTU output. The range also has a storage cabinet. The locking wheels aid in keeping it in place while also allowing it to be moved for cleaning purposes. There is also a catch tray for any spills or overflows.
Ice Cream Machine
The Taylor ice cream machine is designed to turn your base into either soft serve ice cream or sorbet. The commercial machine adds just the right amount of overrun (air) to the mix to give you a smooth, creamy dessert.
The timer is set to the amount of spin time. The auto button is turned on that the machine automatically counts down the minutes of spin time. The blade inside the machine spins incorporating the air into the mix as well as scraping the barrel to assure an even smooth mix.
When the timer is done, the buzzer will go off. If the mix is at the desired texture, the extrude button is pressed and the machine will be expelled through the hopper (white knob).
Hand Held Kitchen Equipment
Spatula
Rubber spatulas are heat resistant. This means that they will not transfer heat or get hot when using while cooking. They will melt if left over a fire. They come in different sizes. Pictured are the small and large rubber spatulas.
Cake Spatulas (palette knife) these are metal spatulas that are used for cake decorating. They range in size from small to large. The size of the blade will determine which one you use. Each has a different feel in your hand.
Offset metal spatulas are used in cake decorating. The blade of the spatula is uneven which allows the user to spread batter in pans easily. Just like the cake spatula, they come in different sizes.
Miscellaneous Kitchen Tools
Bench Scraper
These are used to clean off the bench. The metal blade is hard and allows scraping dough that is stuck to the bench easily without cutting grooves into the wooden bench top. They are also used to cut dough evenly and quickly.
Pastry Brush
The pastry brush has a variety of uses. For cake decorating a dry brush is used to remove crumbs from the turntable and cake. It can also be used to add cake syrup to cake layers. When adding egg wash to doughs the brush allows for even application.
Cake Comb
This tool is used in decorating cakes. There are many different decorative types. They are used to add dimension to the sides of cakes by applying pressure to the comb as you turn the cake. The design left depends on the decorator and the comb used.
Courtesy of Chef Tammy Rink
Measuring Spoons
The measuring spoons are nested in a set. The set consist of 1 Tablespoon, 1 Teaspoon. ½ Teaspoon, ⅓ Teaspoon and ¼ Teaspoon. When measuring dry ingredients: scoop the spoon into the ingredients, using a straight edge scrape the top of the of the spoon to get an even amount.
Measuring Cups
The nested measuring cups are used for measuring dry ingredients. The amounts of each cup is printed on the inside bottom. The measurements are 1 cup, ½ cup, ⅓ cup and ¼ cup.
Metal Spoons
They come in slotted and un-slotted spoons. They are used in cooking dishes. They are excellent conductors of heat. If left in a pot over heat they will become very hot and will burn someone. Slotted will allow the liquid to drain through.
Tongs
These are used to handle hot food or ready to eat food.
Ladles
These come in various sizes. They are measured by ounces. When tempering hot liquids these are used
Peelers
Used to peel fruits and vegetables. The blade on this is very sharp. Most peelers have a pointed end to remove blemishes on fruit and vegetables.
Micropane
Small hand held graters used to zest fruits and shred hard cheese and other ingredients. The zest from fruits are in tiny pieces rather than long slivers.
Thermometer
Thermometers are used to find the correct temperature of items. When cooking, they can find the internal temperature of meat, and bread – useful information. The thermometer pictured is an infrared thermometer. These find the surface temperature of items. They are good when tempering chocolate. Types: pocket, candy, infrared. They come in both digital and dial. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.01%3A_Baking_and_Pastry_Equipment.txt |
Wheat Flour
One of the most important ingredients in the baking process is flour. Almost every item made has some type of flour added. It is the main building block of breads, pastries and most cakes. The production of flour can be traced through the centuries to the beginning of civilization. An important fact for a baker to know is the difference between hard and soft wheat. This gives the baker the ability to know which type of flour to use for the application needed.
There are six different types of wheat grown in North America.
1. Hard Red Winter - This versatile wheat can be used in a variety of baking applications as well as making Asian style noodles. The protein content of this milled wheat is between 10 to 15 %. This is a good choice for all purpose flour, hard rolls and flatbreads.
2. Hard Red Spring - this wheat has a higher protein content 12 to 18 % and is primarily used to mix into flours. As a standalone flour, it the gluten formed is very strong and often difficult to form into bread. It is often added to improve bread flours and is used in making the high-end breads such as: artisan breads, pizza crust, croissants and rolls.
3. Soft Red White - this flour has a weaker gluten formation due to a low protein content of only 8 to 11%. The weaker gluten makes this an excellent wheat for items such as cookies, crackers and pastries.
4. Soft White - this a wheat has a low moisture content as well as low protein content 8 to 11 %. It also produces a whiter product, which makes it ideal for cakes, pastries, and some Middle Eastern flatbreads.
5. Hard White - this is a newer type of wheat grown in the United States. It is used for making whiter wheat breads as well as Asian noodles, and flatbreads.
6. Durum - this is the hardest of all wheats. It has the highest protein content 14 to 16 % as well as the high gluten content. It is primarily used in the production of pastas, couscous and Mediterranean breads.
The Wheat Kernel
The wheat kernel is made up of three parts: bran, endosperm, and germ. During the milling process, the kernel is broken up and each part is milled and used.
1. Bran - this is the hard outer casing of the kernel. It is darker in color than the inside. When looking at flour the brown specks present is the milled bran. It is removed from white flour. The bran is high in fiber, vitamins, minerals, proteins and fat.
2. Germ - this is from where new wheat plants sprout. It has a very high fat content thus is will become rancid quickly. This leads to a very short shelf life of any flour that contains the germ.
3. Endosperm - this is the inside part of the kernel. It makes up about 83% of the kernel. This is the part that white flour is derived. It is also the starchiest part of the kernel with about 68 to 76% starch. It contains protein and carbohydrates alone with vitamin B, iron, minerals and soluble fiber.
Image Wheat Foods Council
Milling Process
The purpose for milling to separate the parts of the wheat kernel into usable material. Thus, the endosperm has to be separated from the bran and germ. The endosperm is the part that becomes flour that we use in baking. All parts can be purchased for use in today’s market.
In the early years of milling, the wheat kernels were milled by smashing or rolling them between two large stones. This process gave a course grind to the stone but allowed the parts to be sifted and separated. This was a very laborious process. You can still find stone ground products today in some European markets but most flours in the US are no longer process this way. The most common stone ground products are stone ground grits and cornmeal.
Modern milling of wheat occurs by way of the break system.
Types of Flour used in Bakery
Bread Flour - this is a strong flour made from hard wheat. It offers a good amount of protein and thus offers a good gluten formation. You can purchase this bleached or unbleached. This type is usually reserved for commercial bakeries.
High-Gluten – We use this flour in class. It is a high protein flour that offers a good gluten formation also.
Cake Flour – this is weak flour made from soft wheat. It is normally pure white. It has a soft and silky feel to it. The gluten formation is low with this flour, which makes it an excellent flour for delicate pastries.
Pastry Flour - a weak flour that is also low in protein and thus low in gluten formation. It is stronger than cake flour however. The color is a creamy yellowish color.
All-purpose – this flour is a general use flour. It can be used in the place of each of the above flour. Its protein content is lower but has enough form a good gluten structure for bread making. Usually this is the home baker’s flour of choice.
Self-rising - this flour has the leavener added to it. Baking powder and salt. This is not used in the professional kitchen. Leavener tend to weaken over time so this can be an issue also when scaling recipes most have a leavener added and the amounts vary so not enough could ruin the product.
Meals
Corn meal – this is made from the endosperm of the corn kernel. It can be purchased in a variety of styles. It contains no gluten.
Nut meals - various nuts are ground into “flours” that can be used in baking. Almond and Hazelnut are the two most common. These also contain no gluten due to the absent of wheat in the product.
Sweeteners
Sugar - refined graduated sugar is a common item in the bake shop. It is used in almost every recipe as the main sweeter ingredient. It can also act as a tenderizer in products. This has no molasses left in it after refining.
Sugar is hydroscopic which means it absorbs moisture in the air and its surrounding.
Light brown sugar - this is sugar that has not been refined as much. It still has some molasses left in it. This gives it a slight addition of acidity. It will feel a bit wet when touched. When measuring this sugar you want to make sure you pack in into the measuring cup tight. If done correctly it will hold its shape when removed.
Dark Brown Sugar - this is sugar that has the highest amount of molasses left in it during the refining process. This has a slightly higher acid content than light brown sugar.
Molasses - a byproduct from the process of refining sugar. It is a thick darn brown liquid. It added moisture to baked goods helping then stay fresher longer.
Honey - a natural sugar syrup made by bees. The type of honey varies depending on the diet of the bees and the area in which they are kept. It is the only food that does not spoil. It may crystalize as it sits but it can be put into warm water, or heated to melt the crystals.
Invert Sugars - These are liquid sugars that are used in the baking kitchen. They can be added to recipes as sweeteners, or used to prevent crystallization of the granulated sugar. Corn syrup and glucose are two of the most common we use.
Fats
Butter - is made from the processing of heavy cream. As the cream is agitated, the fat molecules pull together and separates from the whey. It can be purchased in stores salted and unsalted. In the kitchen, unsalted butter is preferred so that salt can be measure into the recipes in the correct amounts. Butter will become solid when cold but soft at room temperature. It also has a very low melting point (90 to 95oF).
Margarine - This is a fabricated product from hydrogenated animal and vegetable fats. It also contains flavorings, emulsifiers and dyes to give it color. There are different types that can be purchase. It is cheaper than butter while still maintaining some flavor of butter.
Shortening
Regular – this is the shortening are referred to as plastic shortenings. They have a tough waxy texture with small fat particles. They have a good creaming ability and work well in flaky pie doughs because of their texture. Crisco is an example.
High-ratio - they spread easily through a batter. They are creations for use in recipes that have a high ratio of liquid and sugar to flour.
High-ration liquid - they have less hydrogenation which makes them pourable. This add moisture to cakes and batters. It also allows for easy air incorporation, which will give cakes a better rise and texture.
Dairy
Milk - this can be purchased in whole, 2 %, low fat, and skim. Each of these describes the amount of fat this is in the product. Milk today is sold as homogenized which means it has been through a process that keeps the fat and liquid from separating.
Heavy Cream - this has a higher percentage of fat in it. It can be used as is or whipped up and sweetened to make whipped cream. As with milk you can buy heavy cream with different fat percentages.
Butter Milk – this is used often in recipes but contains an acid that is countered by the addition of Baking soda.
Evaporated Milk - also known as “pet “milk. Evaporated milk is milk that has a percentage of the water removed. It is sold in cans unrefrigerated due to sterilization.
Fat Amounts in Various Dairy Products
Whole Milk 8%
Skim Milk < 1%
Heavy Cream 30% to 40%
Half and Half 10% to 18%
Eggs
The egg is an essential ingredient used in the bake shop.
• The make of the egg is simple – yolk, white and shell. In the diagram you see how each in connected in the shell.
• The chalazae is the stringy white part you see when you crack the egg.
• The yolk is high in fat and protein. Lecithin is also found in the yolk and aid in thickening and emulsification of ingredients.
• The white is the lean part of the egg. It is used for meringues and coagulates when heated.
Grading and Weight of Eggs
The United States grading system for eggs is based on their quality but also size. There are 3 types of grades given to eggs AA, A and B.
Approximate of Weights of a Large Egg
One whole egg 1.67 oz
One egg white 1 oz.
One egg yolk .67 oz.
9 ½ whole eggs 1 lb.
16 egg whites 1 lb.
24 yolks 1 lb.
Yeast
The leavening agent in yeast doughs. It is a single cell fungi however there are many species and well as types. When fed the yeast will produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Types of Yeast
1. Fresh or Cake - this is sold in bricks similar to butter. It is moist and perishable. If treated properly it will last about 2 week in the refrigerator. It can be froze to extend the life if not used right away.
2. Active Dry - this must be rehydrated with warm water that is 4 times its weight. Yeast will die if the water temperature is 140oF or higher. Major issue with this yeast is that many of the yeast cells in the packet are dead and activing the rest can be problematic.
3. Instant dry yeast - this yeast does not need to be dissolved in water to use it. It can be added to the dry ingredients and mixed due to its ability to absorb water quickly. This makes it the preferred yeast product of most bakers today.
Chemical Leaveners
These leaveners work by releasing gases caused by a chemical reaction.
Types of Chemical leaveners
1. Baking Soda – sodium bicarbonate. The reaction for baking soda is done once liquid is added. Products that contain baking soda must be baked as soon as they are assembled. If allowed to sit the chemical reaction will take place and end causing the product to not rise once in the oven. They are generally used when acids are added to a recipe such as molasses, brown sugar, and some fruit juices and cocoa powder.
2. Baking Powder – this is a combination of baking soda and an acid. This allows for the majority of the leavening to take place in the oven. Heat is need to leaving products that contain baking powder. The preferred type found in stores and bakeries is double acting baking powder.
Cocoa Powder
This is the powder that is left once the cocoa butter has been removed during the production of chocolate.
Types of Cocoa Powder
1. Dutch-processed - the acid in this has been neutralized through a washing process. This gives the cocoa powder with a dark color, and smoother flavor.
2. Cocoa powder – this is somewhat acidic and lighter in color.
Vanilla
This is the fruit of the orchid plant Vanilla. The fruit is cut, and cured which dries the pod allowing for the intense flavor due to minimal loss of the essential oils.
• Vanilla extract is made from soaking the cut vanilla beans in alcohol. It is allow to macerate until the desired flavor profile is reached. The beans are then removed and the product is bottle.
• Once you use a bean, it can be dried and used to make vanilla sugar. This is done by enclosing the bean and sugar in a container and allowing the sit. The vanilla flavor is permeate through the sugar.
• Dried Vanilla beans can also be ground and made into vanilla powder. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.02%3A_Dry_Ingredients.txt |
These breads are an ideal solution to the bakers who love bread but do not have the time or resources to spend on yeast breads. These breads are relatively quick to makes as their name suggest. They are leaved with chemical leaveners that make them ready to bake in a short amount of time. These breads are usually tender with very little mixing time, which allows very little gluten formation. The mixing methods used for quick breads are usually just a few minutes and easy to do by hand.
Types of Doughs for Quick Breads:
1. Liquid or pourable batters – these are more fluid and not as thick. They can be poured into prepared pans. Drop batters are also part of this category they are not liquid but soft enough to be dropped with a spoon.
2. Soft doughs - this dough is soft and can be rolled out and cut into shapes. Biscuit dough is worked gently by hand and must be stiffer than what is need for muffins.
Mixing Methods of Quick Breads
Muffins Method
This method is used for batters that are low in fat and sugar. They tend to be a little drier because of this. These batters have a tendency to be over mixed thus making the product tough. In this method, the dry ingredients should only be mixed until moistened. Over mixing to the point where the batter is smooth will lend to a dry and tough finished product. The finished batter should have visible lumps in it that will disperse in the cooking process.
Creaming Method
This is used for batters that are higher in fat and sugar because it gives a more complete mix of the ingredients. This will give the finished product a more cake like texture. This is usually a cake mixing method but can be used to make some quick breads.
Biscuits Method
This is used to make biscuits, scones and other similar quick bread products. When making biscuits some kneading is required but over working the dough will cause it to become hard. The small amount of kneading lends to a flakier texture of the finished biscuit. The dough is soft and can be rolled out and cut into shapes depending the shape and size you want. If there is some kneading the biscuit will rise more. Dough that has not been knead will tends to spread more and the texture if more cake like.
Mixing Methods Procedures
Muffin Method
1. Add your dry ingredients to a bowl and then sift on parchment paper. Add this back to the mixing bowl and then set it aside.
2. In a bowl, add your liquid ingredients. You will also add any fat such as oil or melted butter.
3. The liquid ingredients are then added to the dry ingredients.
4. You will mix this until the dry ingredients are all moistened. Your batter should still have lumps in it. Be careful to not overmix the batter. If your batter is smooth and lump free it is overmixed.
5. Once the batter is mixed, pan it up and bake. Do no let the batter sit.
Creaming Method for Muffins
1. The sugar and fat are added to the bowl of a mixer. If spices are added, they will be added at this time also.
2. Using the paddle attachment, you will begin to cream the ingredients until they are light, white and fluffy.
3. Next, you will add the eggs in stages. Scraping down the sides and bottom of the bowl after each addition. This ensure even mixing of the ingredients.
4. Sift the dry ingredients onto parchment paper.
5. Mix the liquid ingredients until they are combined.
6. The dry and liquid ingredients are then added in an alternating pattern starting with ¼ of the dry. Remember to scrape the bowl between additions.
7. Once the mixture is combined, next add 1/3 of the liquid ingredients. Keep this up until all the ingredients have been added.
8. Once the mixture is smooth and all ingredients have been added, pan up and bake.
Biscuit Method
1. Scale out all of your ingredients.
2. In a mixing bowl, sift dry ingredients together.
3. Add the butter and using the paddle attachment (with mixer) or pastry blender or by hand until the mixture has pea size bits of butter in it. This adds to a flakier biscuit.
4. The liquid ingredients are then added and combined to form a soft dough. Be careful to not over mix it.
5. Turn the dough out on the bench and lightly knead the dough. Using the heel of your hand push into the dough and with your fingers fold it and turn it counter clockwise 90 degrees. Continue this for 3 to 4 more folds.
6. Pin the dough out to about 1-inch thickness. Cut the biscuits to your desired shape.
Creaming Method for Biscuits
1. The sugar and fat are added to the bowl of a mixer. If your recipe calls for milk powder, it would also be added at this time.
2. Using the paddle attachment, you will begin to cream the ingredients until they are just combined. Extra mixing will change the texture of the biscuits.
3. Next, you will add the eggs in stages. Scraping down the sides and bottom of the bowl after each addition. This ensure even mixing of the ingredients.
4. Sift the dry ingredients onto parchment paper.
5. Mix the liquid ingredients until they are combined.
6. The dry and liquid ingredients are then added in an alternating pattern starting with ¼ of the dry. Remember to scrape the bowl between additions.
7. Once the mixture is combined, next add 1/3 of the liquid ingredients. Keep this up until all the ingredients have been added.
8. Once the mixture is smooth and all ingredients have been added, then turn out onto a floured surface and roll out.
Tips for success with Biscuit making
1. Do not over handle the dough. Knead just enough to make them flaky. Over working makes for a tough biscuit.
2. When cutting press down with the cutter. Do not twist. Cut as close to the last cut to avoid excess scraps. Having to rework the dough will make the dough tough.
3. Placing the cut biscuits upside down allows for a better rise.
4. If you want a crust around the entire biscuit place then on a parchment lined sheet pan about ½ to 1 inch apart.
5. If you want soft sided biscuit then put the cut biscuits touching each other. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.03%3A_Quick_Breads.txt |
Bread is the one of the simplest and yet most complicated of items to make. Most doughs consist of flour, water, salt and yeast. The art of making simple and complex doughs is understanding the nature of the item and what affects the finished product – gluten development and the fermentation of the leavener, yeast.
Types of Doughs
Lean Doughs
These doughs are low in fat and sugars.
1. Hard and crusty breads – these are crust French breads, rolls, pizza doughs and hard rolls. These are the leanest of all doughs made.
2. White and Whole wheat breads – these breads may contain some fats and sugar. They are softer doughs and usually have soft texture and crust.
3. Grain breads - these types of bread are made from other types of flours and grains. They may contain additives that add acid and sweetness to the doughs i.e. rye, oat, flax seed and sprouted grains.
Rich Doughs
These doughs contain great amounts of fats and sugars, and also eggs. These additions give the breads a softer feel and richer taste. These types of doughs can be sweet or non-sweet depending on the amount of sugar that is added or toppings. Such breads include brioche, coffee cake, and dinner rolls.
Laminated Doughs
These types of doughs have the fat rolled into the dough to create layers. This is done by rolling or pinning in the fat and folding the dough to create the many layers that make up the doughs. This process gives the doughs a flaky and buttery texture. Although there is some sugar in the doughs, the majority of the sweetness comes from the added fillings and toppings. The two main types are croissants and Danish however, some other breads can be finished in this style.
The production of bread
As in everything, there are specific steps to making breads. It is much more complex than just adding the ingredients to a bowl and stir. The process is a building block of steps that cannot be rushed - or done out of order. Each step is necessary to insure that the bread comes out as desired.
The 12 Steps of Yeast Doughs
1. Scaling Ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Bulk Fermentation
4. Folding
5. Dividing (scaling or portioning doughs)
6. Preshaping or rounding
7. Bench-proofing
8. Makeup and Planning
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
Scaling Ingredients
The recipes or formulas used in baking are exact and getting the amount of each ingredient is necessary. This is done in the bakeshop by weighing out the ingredients. Liquid can be measured by volume but with large quantity, it is more accurate to scale out each and every ingredient. Pay special attention to spices and salt. Salt plays an important role in the fermentation of yeast.
Mixing
The purpose of mixing is to give even distribution of the ingredients and to form a smooth dough. This is also the beginning of the gluten formation. When mixing of the dough begins the flour, yeast and other dry ingredients are added to the bowl. Using the dough hook, they are mixed to distribute the yeast. The liquid is then added, and thus begins the development of the gluten. As the ingredients come together, they will begin to form a rough dough and pull away from the sides of the bowl. This is referred to as “take up”. The dough hook is mimicking the motion of hand kneading by folding and stretching the dough. This helps to from the gluten strands and align them into formation to aid in the rising of the dough.
Bulk Fermentation
This is the beginning of the fermentation of the yeast. They yeast will feed on the sugars and starches it will release carbon dioxide and alcohol. The gluten will work as a net to trap the gases and cause the dough to rise. During this time folding or punching of the dough will take place. The numbers of times the dough is folded will depend on the mixing stage used in the production of the dough. Longer mixing will have a shorter ferment and shorter mixing will have a longer ferment. The fermentation is part of the development of the dough. Improper fermentation time will affect the finished product. Over fermented dough will become hard and tough whereas under fermented dough will not have enough volume.
The dough is placed in a large container that will allow it to “grow” or expand. As it expands, the folds are then given to knock out the gases and allow the fermentation to continue. The dough is tempted to ensure that the ideal temperature is achieved which is normally 80 F. The dough is covered during this time to avoid air hitting it and forming a “skin” or crust that will ruin the texture of the dough. Some doughs can be oiled to avoid this.
Folding
As the dough ferments the yeast east and releases gases. These gases are what causes the expansion of the dough. The purpose of folding is to control this process and help further develop the gluten. Many things can affect the feeding of the yeast and too much carbon dioxide is just one. The folding releases the gases and allows the yeast to continue its process. During this release, the dough is folded thus realigning the gluten strands similar to the kneading of the dough. It also helps to keep the temperature of the dough constant.
Dividing or Scaling
This is done by cutting the dough and weighing them out to get and accurate size for the finished product. This is done in stages to ensure the integrity of the dough and finished product.
1. Using a bench scraper, you cut the dough as close to the amount you need. Once on the scale you can adjust by adding more or removing the scale and cutting excess off.
2. Rescaling the dough to check for accurate weight.
During the baking process, moisture is lost from the dough due to evaporation. This comes to about 10 to 13 % of the total weight of the finished product. To compensate for this you would add an extra 1 ½ to 2 ounces of dough for every pound of finished baked bread.
When using the Dutchess press (see chapter 1) the dough is divided and cut into 36 equal pieces. In this process, the loss moisture should be considered and made up as well.
Pre Shaping or Rounding
Once the doughs are scaled out, they need to be pre-shaped into a form that will allow for the next stage. Most bakers choose to pre-shape their doughs into round shapes. This round form allows for a smooth surface to the dough. The gluten strands are pulled tight and helps for continued fermentation. This also gives the baker the chance to feel the dough for texture and strength of the gluten strands. If the dough is slack or loose then you can give it a tighter shape. If the dough is tough and not to elastic give it a looser form. Try to get your pre-shaped dough as close to the final make up shape as possible.
Bench Proofing
Once the dough has been rounded, it needs to rest. This step can be anywhere from 10 to 20 minutes. This allows the gluten strands to relax and get ready for the final stages of the process. This is done on the bench or work area. The cough is covered with plastic warp but not tight. It will continue to ferment and rise.
Make up and panning
This is the point where the dough is shaped into the shape of the finished product. The shapes vary depending of the types of bread you are making: Rounds, oblongs, baguettes, dinner rolls. The way the dough is made up will depend on the desired crumb of the finished product. For a tight crumb make sure all gas bubbles are removed during this phase. If an open crumb is desired be gentle and to preserve the air holes. Any gas bubbles left in the dough will leave a hole in the finished product.
Proofing
This occurs in two ways: proof box or in a warm dry place. If you are using a proof box, the temperature and humidity must be set according the formula of the type of bread you are making. High fat breads usually proof at a lower temperature to avoid the butter melting and leaching out of the dough. The dough should double in volume and spring back lightly when touched. If you attempt to degas your bread after it is proofed it will NOT rise in the oven. This is the end of the fermentation and rising stages. The amount of time a dough proofs will vary from 30 minute to 2 hours depending on the dough.
Baking
This is the stage of cooking the bread. The oven is set for the conditions needed to produce the finished desired result. The ovens used in class are the convection oven and the deck oven. Each cooks differently due to the type of oven. Breads are finished in different ways before going into the oven. They can be washed with water, egg wash, heavy cream, as well as other types of washes. These will affect the finished products crust and look. Both class ovens have the ability to inject steam to help with crust formation allowing for rapid expansion without splitting the crust. It also helps in heat distribution and helping with oven spring. Oven spring is the final rise that occurs in bread once it begins to cook. This then sets the structure of the bread as the temperature of the dough rises the yeast dies at 140 F. Scoring is another useful techniques used to avoid the splitting of the dough as it rises in the oven. Slits are made to the top of the dough with a lame (curved razor tool) or sharp knife.
Cooling
Once the bread is cooked to the correct internal temperature (this varies for types of breads), then it is removed from the oven. The cooked bread is placed on a cooling rack. The cooling allows for many things to happen. Excess moisture is released from the bread as it cools and the alcohol created by the fermented yeast evaporates. Most breads are allowed to cool on the pan. Breads baked in loaf pans or other pans can be removed and set on its side so that moisture does not condense on the bottom causing the crust to become soggy.
Storing
The bread can be stored in moisture proof bags to prevent staling or wrapped tightly with plastic wrap in their pans. Before either occurs, the bread must be cooled completely.
• Wrapping or bagging hot or warm bread will cause moisture to form and thus making the bread wet and soggy.
• Once properly bagged, bread can be kept at room temperature if use occurs within a few hours or days, or frozen for longer periods.
• Putting breads in the refrigerator will increase the staling of the bread as will leaving them unwrapped on the rack.
• Breads that have a hard crust should not be wrapped, this will affect the texture of the finished crust. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.04%3A_Yeast_Doughs.txt |
These doughs differ from the previous doughs in that they are not leavened. They have a more tender crumb and are usually used as a base to be filled such as tarts. The names of these are derived from the French and give indication to the texture of the finished product.
Tart Doughs
Tarts are made in shallow fluted pans. The doughs that are used have a tender crust, are made with butter and add to the overall flavor of the tart.
The three main types are discussed below.
1. Pâté Brisée - the French translation is broken dough. This name is based on how the dough is put together. The fat is combined with the flour in the same fashion that you would put together a mealy pie dough. The fat is rubbed into the flour until the mixture resembles a coarse meal. There should be visible pieces of butter. This allows the flour particles to be surrounded by fat thus hampering the formation of gluten resulting in a tender pastry.
2. Pâté Scurée – the French translation is sugared dough. This dough has more sugar the pâté brisée. The extra sugar helps to keep this dough tender thus making it softer and harder to handle. It can be made using either the above method or the creaming method. The finished dough can be used for smaller tarts and pastries as well as a stand-alone cookie.
3. Pâté Sablée – the word sablée in French means ‘sand’, which describes the finished texture of this dough. The recipes usually have more fat than the brisée and less egg, which lends it its finished texture. The most common method for this dough today is the creaming method.
4. Short dough – this is a variation of the above doughs. These doughs are tender as well and that is because little gluten is formed during the making of the dough.
Puff Pastry – this dough is a versatile dough that is made in the same fashion as Danish and croissants meaning that is it a laminated dough. The main difference is that this dough has no leavening agent. This dough is cooked at a high temperature thus creating steam from the layers of fat and dough. The steam causes the dough to rise at least an inch more than is normal size. The preferred fat for puff pastry is butter due to its mouth feel and flavor. There are different methods to make puff pastry but the more layers added as well as higher fat content of the recipe will give you a better rise and product.
Makeup and Baking Puff Pastry
It is important to know the proper use of the dough. If you do not handle it properly the dough will not rise nor will it give you the desired finish.
1. Always used puff pastry when it is cool and firm. If it is soft the layers of the dough may stick together when cut thus inhibiting the dough from rising.
2. Use a sharp cutter or knife and always cut straight down. Do not twist the cutters.
3. Once the puff pastry is cut, transfer it to a baking sheet and flip it so that the cut edges are on the bottom. This allows for any layers that are stuck together to become the base of the puff and the remaining layers have the ability to rise.
4. If you are using egg wash, make sure that it is only applied to the top. Avoid anything that will interfere with the side becoming sticky.
5. It is wise to rest the dough once it has been cut to allow the gluten strands to relax and help prevent the dough from shrinking.
6. If you decide to reuse the excess dough the press them together and laminate them with the 3 fold, creating more layers.
7. Always bake the puff pastry at a temperature of 375 F to 400 F. The high heat is need to create the moisture that turns into steam that will cause the dough to rise.
8. If you are baking large pieces of puff, you can start them at a higher temperature and once they rise, you can lower the oven to finish the cooking process.
Éclair Paste
In the industry it is referred to by the French name pâte a choux which means “cabbage paste” because once baked they resemble little cabbages.
This is a cooked pastry dough that can be used in a variety of ways to create both sweet and savory baked goods. The way they are piped out will determine the name given to the finished product.
The dough can be made in a few minutes and is usually used as soon as made. It will form a skin if allowed to sit without being covered with a damp cloth. Once made it should not sit without being used for longer than an hour.
Procedure
1. Bring the liquid, fat, salt and sugar to a boil on the stovetop. Make sure that the mixture is at a rolling boil. This allows for even distribution of the ingredients and ensure a proper mixing of the dough.
2. Once at a rolling boil add all the flour at one time. Using a wooden spoon stir the flour until it has completely mixed with the liquid. As this happens, the dough will begin to pull away from the sides of the pot.
3. As it pulls away continue stirring. This will cook the raw flour taste out and create a thin film on the bottom. Once this happens, remove the pan from the heat.
4. Continue stirring the mixture. You will see the steam coming from the mixture. As it begins to cool, the steam will lessen. You are cooling the mixture to about 140oF. If you do not take the time to cool down the dough the eggs will scramble when added.
5. Once the dough has cooled down you will begin to add the eggs a few at a time. As the eggs are added to the dough it will look like the dough is breaking – streaks of liquid egg and clumps of dough will be seen. Do not add any more eggs until the dough has come back together. Continue adding the eggs and allowing the dough to comeback together until all eggs have been added.
6. The finished dough should be smooth and slightly slack but firm enough to hold its shape.
NOTE: Each recipe is formulated with a specific amount of eggs. There may be some instances when you will have to either add an egg or not use all of the eggs scaled out. It will depend on the conditions at the time the dough is being made.
Pastries made from pâte a choux:
1. Cream puffs – small or large pastries piped out using a round tip. The size is determined by the dessert you want to make.
2. Eclairs – can be made with the round tip also. They are piped out in a line and the size will depend on the tip and what they are needed for.
3. Paris-Brest – they are piped using a star tip. The shape represents a bicycle wheel. The shape was created to honor the bicycle race from Paris to Brest which begun in 1891.
4. Gougères – these are savory “cream puffs” while making the dough you can add herbs, spices and cheese to make it savory.
Strudel and Phyllo
These two types of dough are similar in structure. Once made they are very thin layers of pastry that is used for desserts by layering with fat that is melted and brushed on then layered with dough.
Strudel – this dough is made from flour, water and eggs. It is then stretched thin over a floured cloth. The dough is so thin that you can see through it. Learning to stretch the dough take time, patience and skill.
Phyllo - this is the Greek version of strudel dough. It is usually purchased commercially. The thin sheets of pastry are rolled together in a thin plastic covering. When working with you it is best to keep a slightly damp cloth over it to prevent it from drying out. The thin sheet is placed and then melted butter is gently brushed on covering the entire sheet. Another sheet then added and brushed with butter. This continues until the desired amount is reached.
Meringues
Egg whites and sugar are mixed into an airy batter. This is then piped out in various shapes depending on its use. Baked in the oven until dried. Although not a typical pastry it can be used in the same way as some pastries and as layers for cakes. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.05%3A_Pastry_Doughs.txt |
When you hear the word custards we all think of pudding. Pudding, however, is a word that can describe many different types of dishes in the culinary world. There are savory dishes such as blood sausage that are also knows as puddings. For the purpose of this chapter we are going to discuss the custards that are served in restaurants as dessert.
There are two types of main custards: cooked and baked.
Cooked Custards
These types are cooked and the liquid used is thickened by the coagulation of the egg proteins that are added.
Note
When cooking custards the internal temperature cannot be more than 185 F. Anything above this will cause the proteins in the egg to curdle.
• Syneresis is the sudden release of moisture contained within protein molecules, usually caused by excessive heat, which over-hardens the protein shell. Moisture inside expands upon heating. The hard protein shell pops, expelling the moisture.
Therefore, when a baked custard is over cooked, the water seeps through causing holes in the custard.
Stirred Custards
Stirred Custards – these custards are cooked over a heat source and are stirred to reach the desired level of thickness. It can then be poured into a pan, covered and refrigerated.
1. Crème anglaise – this is a stirred vanilla custard sauce.
2. Pastry Cream – a cooked custard that is thicken with both corn starch and egg. This is gives a much more stable and thicker product.
3. Blancmange – this a custard that is thickened with only cornstarch. Can be poured or molded depending on the amount of starch used.
4. Cream puddings – these are similar to pastry cream but with less starch. They take flavorings well and are suited to fillings for custard pies.
5. Gelatin set custards – ‘panna cotta’ – the milk and cream is heated, and sweetened with sugar then the bloomed gelatin is added to the hot liquid to melt it. The mixture is poured into mold and chilled until set.
6. Crémeux – In French, the word means “creamy”. The thickening agents are usually one of these three: gelatin, chocolate, or butter.
Baked Custards
Baked Custards – these custards are baked in the oven until the custard is firm. It is then removed, cooled and then covered and put under refrigeration.
The make-up is similar to that of the stirred custards. They contain dairy, sugar, and eggs (usually whole eggs). The whole egg gives the custard more stability and a thicker texture. While using just the yolks makes the custard richer with a softer texture. Baked custards are versatile. They can be stand-alone desserts, pie fillings, and as bases for other desserts. A good quality baked custard will hold a clean sharp edge when cut.
Baked Custard Procedure
1. The milk or cream is scaled, and slowly incorporated into the eggs. This aid is a reduced cooking time, and allows for a more evenly cooked product.
2. Once the base is finished mixing skim off the excess foam. Left in the when finished cooking they will mar the finished custards appearance.
3. Bake the custards at a 325 F. Lower temperature allows for less chance of overcooking and curdling the custards.
4. A water bath is usually used for most custards. This allows the custard to cook evenly as a whole. The outside edges cook evenly with the middle of the custard.
5. To determine if the custard is done, you can use a thin bladed knife. Insert it into the center of the custard and if it comes out clean, it is done. There will be come carry over cooking due to the residual heat of the custard. Therefore, if the center is set but not completely it will finish cooking once out of the oven.
Other types of baked custards
Some baked custards have additives such as pumpkin or sweet potato pies. These are still considered baked custards because of the additions of eggs, which are used to set the structure of the custard. They do not require a water bath to bake but the lower temperature aids in even cooking.
Cheesecakes also fall into this category. The custard is thicker but the eggs are still the ingredient that gives the cake structure. It is baked using the water bath due to the density of the product. Even cooking is need to produce a smooth finish once cooked. Over cooking will cause the cheesecake to crack. Once done you can turn off the oven, crack the over door and allow to cool in the oven.
Steamed Desserts
These puddings are cooked using steam. They can be done in a commercial steamer or by creating the steamer on the stovetop. There are a few varieties but the most common is the Christmas pudding also known as plum pudding. These then to be very dense and rich. They are usually served when the weather is colder to warm one up. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.06%3A_Custards.txt |
To make a great cake the baker must take great care in creating the batter. The cake itself is a base for which the rest of the ingredients are built upon. The process starts with high quality ingredients. The rest is an art from that follows specific formulas and mixing methods to produce a light and delicious finished product.
There are three main goals you to making a good batter:
1. Combining the ingredients into a smooth homogeneous batter.
2. Incorporating air into the batter.
3. Having the proper texture in a finished product.
The Batter
All cake batters are a basic emulsion of fat and water. As the two ingredients are mixed, the fat molecules encase the water droplets. Then, as the other ingredients are added, this emulsion can break. If so the batter will looked curdled. This happens when the fat separates from the water and they are then just mixed together with the other ingredients in the batter.
Issues that can lead to curdled batters:
1. Using the wrong type of fat – each recipe is formulated for a specific fat. Do not substitute fats. High ratio shortening cannot hold the same amounts as butter. Also butter has water in is so formulas that contain butter limit the water to what that product can hold and remain emulsified.
2. Temperature of the ingredients – the best emulsification happens at room temperature, which is about 70 F.
3. Mixing process – do not rush the process. The formation of the emulsification must be done correctly for it to hold. Higher speeds do not speed up the process. Air cell formation is accomplished at a lower speed.
4. Adding ingredients – if liquids are added to quickly, the other ingredients cannot adequately absorb them. They are usually added in stages and alternate with dry. This helps to keep a smooth homogeneous mix.
Air Cells
Proper procedure needs to be followed to obtain proper air cell formation. This is done by slowly incorporating the butter and sugar in the creaming method. Too high a speed will cause the mix to become warm and not allow for proper formation. In addition, the temperature of the ingredients play a part in this as well. Butter and granulated sugar combinations at low speed create the best air cells for a good cake texture.
Texture of the Batter
The finished texture of the baked cake depends on the ingredients, and how well they were put together. If the air cells were formed small and uniformed, the crumb will be smooth and fine. A coarse crumb will be because of large or irregular formation of the air cells. Unlike breads, you do not want a lot of gluten formed in the cake. Gluten will give a tough product. Cake flour, which is low in protein, is used to insure gluten formation is at a minimal. Also the way the ingredients are mixed together.
Mixing Methods for Cakes
I. Creaming Method
1. All of the ingredients are scaled out accurately and at room temperature.
2. The fat is placed into the mixing bowl fitted with the paddle attachment. On low begin to mix until it is smooth and creamy. There should be no lumps.
3. Scrape down the sides of the bowl and add the sugar. On a low/medium speed, you will begin the process of creaming the fat and sugar together. You will cream them until they are white, light and fluffy. This will take anywhere from 5 to 10 minutes. Notice the color change of the butter.
4. Stop and scrape down the bowl. The eggs will be added a little at time depending on how many you have. Before you add the next egg, make sure that each addition is completely absorbed into the mix. The mix will return to a light and fluffy texture.
5. The addition of the dry and liquid ingredients will begin once all the eggs have been added. Scrap down the bowl continuously to ensure proper mixing.
6. You will start with the dry and end with the dry. The patter for adding dry in liquid is:
• ¼ of the dry is added. The mixer is turned on, and you will mix until JUST incorporated. Turn off and scrape the down the bowl.
• 1/3 of the liquid is added. This is mixed until just blend. Again, scrape down the bowl.
• These steps are repeated until all the ingredients have been added. Scraping and alternating the ingredients ensure an even mixing of the batter.
NOTE: Vanilla and other spices can be added once the fat and sugar is creamed or to the liquid ingredients. Some bakers prefer to sift the spices into the dry ingredients. If adding melted chocolate to a batter it can be added to the creaming method paying attention to the temperature of the chocolate.
II. Chiffon Method
1. Scale out all ingredients accurately. All should be room temperature.
2. Sift all dry ingredients into the bowl of the stand mixer fitted with the paddle attachment. Add part of the sugar at this time as well.
3. With the mixer on low slowly steam in the oil. Next you will add the eggs yolks, followed by water and any flavorings. As this is being added you should stop the mixer and scrape down the bowl to ensure proper mixing of the batter.
4. In another bowl, you will begin to whip the egg whites to soft peak. Then add the cream of tartar and remaining sugar. Whip to stiff peak.
5. Fold the whipped egg whites into the batter.
6. Cake pans should only be greased, and lined on the bottom. If the sides are greased the cake will not rise. It needs to cling to the side of the pan to rise.
Types of Cakes
1. Butter Cakes – these are high fat cakes. The fat used for these cakes is butter. This gives the cake a better mouth feel. Butter melts at body temperature whereas shortening does not. Some bakers will prefer to use shortening because it is cheaper and easier to emulsify.
2. Chiffon or Angle food – these are egg foam cakes. For Chiffon cakes a leavener is added but for Angel food the air whipped into the egg whites is the primary leavener. These cakes also have little to no fat added.
Baking and Handling of Cake
The method of baking will ensure that your cake is at its best. To ensure this following the right guidelines are essential.
• Always preheat your oven.
• The oven and its shelves should be level. If they are not the batter will bake unevenly.
• Make sure the pans are spaced evenly apart. Proper air circulation will ensure even baking of each cake.
• Bake at the right temperature. Each cake requires different baking temperatures. This will affect the way the cake sets.
• Too high a temperature will cause the top to set before it is risen enough.
• Too low a temperature can lead to it not rising enough and falling
• Some ovens have steam. This can help delay the crusting of the layer and allow for a more even rise in some cakes: creamed, two-stage and one-stage cakes.
• Do not open the oven until the cake has fully risen and the structure has set. This can cause the cake to fall.
Signs of Doneness
• If the cake appears to be pulling away from the sides of the pan.
• When the top is lightly touched, it springs back.
• If you stick a cake tester in the center, it comes out clean.
Cooling and Removing from Pans
• Cakes should be cooled in their pans for 15 to 20 minutes or until warm to the touch. Removing the cake before can cause it to crack. Remember that they are fragile and soft.
• Remove cakes from the pan and place on a cooling rack to finish cooling.
• Sheet cakes can be turned out onto cake boards or another sheet pan. Top the cake with parchment, then the cake board. Flip the pan leaving the cake on the cake board. Another cake board is now put on the bottom and both are inverted leaving the bottom of the cake on the board. Remove the parchment and let cool.
NOTE: Angel Food and Chiffon cakes need to be cooled completely in their pans. The pan should be inverted but not touching the tabletop. There needs to be room for air circulation. This prevents the cake from falling in on itself. The cake will not fall out of the pan because it is clinging to the sides. Once they are cooled you can turn them over and with a knife remove them from the pan.
Buttercreams
Once the cake is baked and cooled it’s time to finish it. From the simple to the extravagant cakes can be finished in a variety of ways. Simple buttercreams, fondant, marzipan or poured ganache can be used to turn something simple into works of art.
Buttercreams
Light and fluffy frosting that can be used in decorating a cake. They range in simple to complex formulas that differ in texture and taste depending on the type you make.
3 Classical Butter Creams
These buttercreams all have a base that begins with a meringue. Each is done in a different style. These buttercreams are soft and smooth in texture.
1. Swiss Buttercream – the base for this is Swiss meringue. The egg whites and sugar are heated over a warm bain marie until the sugar melts. Once this happens whip on high speed until the meringue cools and doubles in size. Slowly the cold butter/shortening combination is incorporated. As this happens the mixture will get to a stage that it looks broken. Keep adding the butter. It will come together. Any flavorings can be added at this time.
2. Italian Buttercream – the base for this is Italian meringue. The sugar and water are cooked to 240oF. While this is happening whip the eggs whites to soft peaks. Pour the sugar into the whipping egg whites and whip until cool. Cut the butter into the mixture until it is all added. It will look curdled but continue to add the butter and mix until it is smooth and creamy.
3. French Buttercream - this buttercream has an egg yolk base. The sugar and water are cooked to 240oF. Egg yolks are whipped to ribbon stage (thick and light in color). Pour the cooked sugar into the whipping yolks. Continue whipping until the mixture has cooled off and is thick. The butter is added slowly allowing the mixture to absorb the butter before the next addition is added. Flavorings can be added at this time.
American Buttercream
This is a popular buttercream frosting that is primarily used in North American and “frosting” of choice for most people in the South. This buttercream is simple to make and requires no cooking. It has a sweet taste with a fluffy and creamy texture. It is easily flavored and when set has a dry sugar “crust” exterior. The recipes for it vary depending on the baker/user but main ingredients are the same.
• Plain American Buttercream – butter (shortening) is added to the bowl of a stand mixer fitted with the paddle attachment. It is creamed until smooth and fluffy. Powdered sugar is added and mixed in. Flavorings are added at this time. The mixture is thick and will be thinned out with cream or water to the desired consistency. This buttercream has a very low melting temperature. It is not a good use for outdoor cakes in the summer months.
Royal Icing
This type of frosting is used in decorative decorating of cakes, cookies and other edible pastries. It can be used as a thick frosting for drop string, outlines of shapes and for making edible flowers. When thinned out it can be used to fill in outlined shapes for a beautiful finishing touch. This frosting dries hard to the touch.
• Royal Icing – egg whites are added to the bowl of a stand mixer fitted with the paddle attachment. The whites are mixed to just break them up. Next cream of tart is added along with powdered sugar. The mixture is mixed until it is stiff and fluffy with soft peaks. To keep this useable while working it needs to be covered with a damp cloth.
Glazes
Some cakes are finished with a glaze a thin almost see through coating. This is a mixture of ingredients that is poured over a finished product to leave it with a beautiful shiny surface. The purpose is twofold in that it serves as a finish and protection to avoid the drying out of the product.
There are primarily two types of glazes:
1. Chocolate glazes – these consist of chocolate melted by pouring heated cream over mixed with either butter, glucose or corn syrup. Once cool to the touch it is poured over a cake. If cooled correctly, it can be whipped into a frosting to finish a cake as well.
2. Gelatin glazes - these are done with a combination of ingredients but the primary setting of the glaze is done with gelatin. Bloomed gelatin is melted, then added to other ingredients, mixed, and immediately used. If it is allowed to sit and cool, it will set.
Other Cake Coatings
1. Rolled fondant – can be made, or purchased commercially. A thick edible sugar paste that can be used to cover and decorate cakes. It can be molded into shapes, flowers, animals etc. It can be used as is, or colored for added garnish. This gives the outer layer protection and keeps it from drying out.
2. Marzipan – a decorative coating made from almond paste, sugar and corn syrup. It has a very sweet taste and can be used to make accent garnishes as well. It is also used to make marzipan candy, and used as a filling for truffles.
3. Modeling Chocolate – a paste that is made from melted chocolate and corn syrup. When done it is thick and easily molded. Texture is similar to thick playdough.
Cake Syrup
From scratch cakes, differ from box mix cakes. They lack the preservatives that are added to keep those moist as they sit. To add some moisture to your cake a cake syrup is used. It is brushed onto layers and allowed to soak it. It is a basic 1:1 ratio of water to sugar. Flavoring can be added as well as liquors or spirits.
Cake Decorating
One of the most important things you need to begin the decorating of a cake is the design of the cake. Nothing can really be done without this. The planning of how it is assembled, frosting, fillings and garnishes are all done based on the initial plan. Proper planning of the cake lends to easy assembly and beautifully finished product.
The Cake Layers
Once your layers are baked, de-panned, and cooled they need to be prepped for assembly.
1. All excess crumbs are removed with a dry pastry brush.
2. If tops are slightly mounded, they can be made even with the addition of buttercream. If there is a high rounded top, it needs to be leveled by cutting the top even.
3. Proper cake board is added under the layer.
4. Cake layers and be cut in half. This increases the amount of filling and frosting adding additional height to your finished cake as well as increasing the cake to filling/frosting ratio.
5. Cake layers are brushed with cake syrup excluding the top layer.
6. If there is a filling other than buttercream, a dam is created to lock the filling it. This is a circle of frosting piped around the perimeter of the layer.
7. The bottom of the cake is the straightest piece. It should always be used as the last layer added to the cake. This gives a straight and level surface to the finished cake.
8. Once the layers are assembled, the crumb coat is added. This is a very thin layer of frosting. Its purpose to lock in any extra crumbs that are on the cake. Once this is done, it is place in the refrigerator to set.
9. Once the crumb coat is set, the finishing frosting is added. This addition is the final buttercream coating unless a rolled coating will be used. Once finished this should not contain any crumbs. The cake is now ready for decorating.
Cake Cuts
There are three main cake cuts that see the most use for round cakes or pies are the ‘8’ cut, the ‘12’ cut and the ‘16’ cut.
1. The ‘8’ cut: The cake is cut in half. Each half is then cut in half. From there each quarter is then cut in half. Each slice should be the same size.
2. The ‘12’ cut: is a little more difficult. The cake is cut in half. Each quarter piece is then cut evenly into 3 pieces. Each piece should be the same size.
3. The ‘16’ cut: is the most difficult. Each cake is cut in half. Each quarter is then cut in half. Each eight is then cut in half. Each slice should be the size. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.07%3A_Cake_and_Buttercreams.txt |
Pie
The first recorded pie recipe was found to be written by the Romans. The first popular pies were traditionally meat pies. Today pies are filled with a variety of fillings such as meat, fruit, and custards. The first pies were not baked in the crust that we associate with pies. They were baked in “reeds” and only the fillings were made. Pies gains popularity through out Europe with the first Cherry Pie credit going to Queen Elizabeth I. Pies came to the Americas with the English settlers but the thick crust was seen as a vessel for the fillings. As the pie evolved the crust went from vessel to part of the dish. Today Pies are a traditional American dessert.
The Ingredients for Pie Crust
There are two types of pie crust flaky and mealy. Both use the same simple ingredients flour, fat, salt and water. The difference between the two are the way the fat and flour are put together.
1. Flour – the ideal flour for pie crust is pastry flour. It has just enough proteins to form a gluten structure that will give the dough structure but keep the gluten low enough to keep the dough flaky. Pie dough should be mixed until the ingredients are just combined.
2. Fat – hydrogenated shortening is the most popular fat to use for pie dough. It is soft enough to mix in but strong enough to produce a workable dough. Butter is also used but it has two down falls – it is expensive and has a low melting point. What makes it ideal is the mouth feel and flavor it adds to the curst.
3. Liquid – the cheapest and best liquid to add is water. Ice water is normally used because it keeps the fat at a stable temperature and helps prevent it from melting. Milk can be used but it will cause the crust to brown quickly.
4. Salt – this adds to the flavor of the crust. It is best to mix it with the flour or dilute in liquid to ensure even distribution.
Flaky Pie Dough
The fat for this dough is rubbed, or cut into the flour, until the pieces of butter are the size of a pea or hazelnut. This allows for some gluten formation when the water is added. As the dough comes together, the pieces of fat are flatten out with the dough thus giving it the flaky texture. Used often in pies that call for blind baking as well as the top for covered pies.
Mealy Pie Dough
The fat for a mealy dough is completely cut into the flour until the mix resembles a coarse cornmeal. There should be no lumps of fat in the mixture. The flour particles have been completely encased in fat and there less liquid is used to bind this one because the flour cannot absorb it. This type of dough has a few advantages over the flaky crust.
• This is a softer crust because gluten development is kept low due to the low absorption of water with the flour.
• Once baked this dough does not absorb much liquid so it will not become soggy from its filling.
NOTE: This is a popular crust for fruit and custard pies because it does not become soggy.
Ice Cream
Ice cream is simply a mixture of milk, cream, sugar, eggs, and flavorings that are combined and frozen in a machine that spins the mixture into a smooth and cream dessert. There are various names for the delectable treat but all are churned, and frozen. The constant movement of the machine ensure that the mixture does not freeze into a sold block. Most ice cream machines whether commercial or home style consist of the tube with a paddle that spins. A cooling system surrounds the tube freezing the mixture. As the paddle turns, it keeps the forming ice crystals in motion incorporating air into the ice cream, which leads to its texture.
Overrun is the name given to the air that is added to ice cream as it is mixed. This added air will increase the amount of finished product. Overrun is listed on packing in a percentage of the finished product. If you begin with a gallon of ice cream base and once spun, you finish with 2 gallons of ice cream then your overrun percentage is 100%.
Difference in the Names
1. Ice Cream – made from a combination of milk, cream, sugar, flavoring and eggs. Has a richness and smoothness to the finished product. Has a good fat content that adds to the mouth feel. If made correctly should have small ice crystals that were frozen quickly with a good amount of overrun thus allowing for a smooth even melt in the mouth.
2. Gelato – Italian style ice cream that is made usually from milk, sugars, and flavorings. They have a low fat content and, if made without fillers, will have a light texture and good melting quality. The overrun is usually low adding to the smoothest of the frozen dessert.
3. Sherbets – fruit purees, water and sugars. They are spun in an ice cream machine. They have not fat added.
4. Granita – fruit, water, flavorings and sugars. The fruit is puréed and flavorings can be added such as lemon juice and sugar. The mixture is place in a shallow pan and then placed in the freezer. As it begins to freeze a fork is used to flake the ice crystals into the mixture. This is done in stages until the mixture is completely flaked and frozen.
Success with Ice Cream
As with anything, you make in the kitchen a formula or recipe is used. At times, you can divert from the recipe and the product is the same or better. However, in the pastry world, the recipes are specific and deviations can ruin the outcome if not compensated for.
When it comes to ice cream this holds true. Too much fat and the mixture can have a grain texture when spun. Too much water and the ice crystals can become too big. Sugar is another ingredient that can be overused and thus ruin the final outcome of your frozen dessert.
When creating your own recipes for these items it helps to know how to determine how much sugar can be added. There are ways to do this using many different objects.
Brix – this is the sugar content of an aqueous solution. The brix meter can be used to test for the amount of sugar in your solution.
Hydrometer - this can also be used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid.
Egg – this is an easy way to measure the amount of sugar in a solution. If the water contains enough sugar in water then the egg will float. This happens because the egg will be less dense than the solution.
1.09: Cookies
One of the most varied items in the pastry world is the cookie. They are made into various shapes, sizes and textures. From chewy to soft batch, crunch to bite size bits. Depending on where you are in the world the name cookie will not mean anything. Only in North American do we consider a cookie a cookie!
As with cakes, the word cookie translates in “little cake” there are different methods used to make them. The most popular is the creaming method.
Creaming Method
1. Accurately scale ingredients at room temp
2. Sugar and fat are added to bowl with paddle attachment on low speed.
3. Scrape down bowl before each addition of ingredients
4. Cream fat and sugar. Amount of air will affect cookie texture.
5. Add liquid and eggs.
6. Sift dry ingredients and add. Mix until just combined. Over mixing will cause gluten formation.
Different types of cookies
1. Pipped – this dough is soft enough to be put into a piping bag fitted with a tip and piped out. The dough will hold its shape once piped.
2. Dropped – using a scoop or spoon this dough onto a prepared cookie sheet. These can usually have additions such as chocolate chips, nuts, and candies added.
3. Rolled – the dough is pinned out with a rolling pin onto a lightly floured surface. Cookie cutters are used to stamp them out.
4. Molded – the dough is molded either by hand or with a stamp into the desired shape.
5. Icebox - this dough is a bit stiffer. The dough is rolled into a log and then refrigerated. When ready to bake it is cut into equal sizes and placed on the prepared cookie sheet.
6. Bar - the dough is pined into a sheet pan, baked and cut into the desired shape. Another method is to make the dough into a log and bake. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Introduction_to_Baking_and_Pastries_(Rink_and_Thibodeaux)/01%3A_Chapters/1.08%3A_Pie_Doughs_and_Ice_Cream.txt |
Subsets and Splits