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Baking Powder
Baking powder is a dependable, high-quality chemical leavener. To be effective, all baking powders rely on the reaction between one or more acids on sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas. Just as with yeast leavening, the presence of carbon dioxide gas creates air bubbles that cause the product to rise.
There are two main types of baking powders available on the market:
• Continuous or single-action baking powder
• Double- or multiple-action baking powder
The difference between continuous- and double-action baking powders is simply the rate of reaction:
• Continuous-action baking powder uses one acid, which continuously reacts with the soda to release gas steadily throughout the baking process until all the gassing power is spent.
• Double-action baking powder contains two different acids, which react with soda at different stages of the baking process. One acid reacts to give off a small amount of gas at low temperature, and the other major acid reacts at baking temperatures to give off the bulk of the gas.
The Leavening Mechanism of Baking Powder
Before baking, approximately 15% of the CO2 gas is released in the cold stage. Eighty-five percent of the CO2 gas is released in the oven starting at approximately 40°C (105°F). Some leavening power is apparently lost in the cold stage, but there is usually still adequate gassing power in the remaining portion.
When the baking powder is activated through moisture and heat, the gas works its way into the many cells created by the mixing or creaming of the batter and starts to expand them. This process comes to a halt when the starch gelatinizes and the cells become rigid. This starts at about 60°C (140°F) and is more or less complete at around 75°C (167°F). After this point, some gas may still be created, but it simply escapes through the porous structure of the product.
Using Baking Powder
For even distribution throughout the batter, baking powder should be sifted with the flour or other dry ingredients. For most cakes, about 5% baking powder to the weight of the flour produces an optimum result. Accurate scaling is important, since a little too much may cause the product to collapse. (Note this is unlike yeast, where an “overdose” will usually simply cause a more rapid rise.)
4.06: Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Bicarbonate
When sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is moistened and heated, it releases carbon dioxide gas. If it is moistened and heated in the presence of sufficient acid, it will release twice as much gas as if it is moistened and heated without the presence of an acid.
Slightly acidic ingredients provide the mix with some of the necessary acids for the release of carbon dioxide gas. Examples are:
• Honey
• Molasses
• Ginger
• Cocoa
• Bran
For this reason, some of the mixes contain baking powder only while others contain a combination of baking powder and baking soda. If an excessive amount of baking soda is used in a cake batter without the presence of sufficient acid, the normally white cake crumb will have a yellowish-brown colour and a strong undesirable smell of soda.
The gas evolves very fast at the beginning of baking when the pH level is still on the acidic side (pH of around 5 to 6). Once the soda neutralizes the acid, the dough or batter quickly becomes alkaline and the release of gas is reduced. Mixes and doughs leavened with baking soda must be handled without delay, or the release of the gas may be almost exhausted before the product reaches the oven.
The darker colour of the crumb found on the bottom half of a cake or muffins is caused by the partial dehydration of the batter that is heated first during baking. In spiced honey cookies and gingerbread, baking soda is used alone to give them quick colour during baking and yet keep the products soft.
In chocolate cakes, baking soda is used in conjunction with baking powder to keep the pH at a desirable level. However, it is important to know whether the cocoa powder you are using is natural or treated by the Dutch process. In the Dutch process, some of the acid in the cocoa is already neutralized, and there is less left for the release of gas in the mix. This means more baking powder and less baking soda is used.
Baking soda in a chocolate mix not only counteracts the acid content in the baked cake but also improves the grain and colour of the cake. A darker and richer chocolate colour is produced if the acid level is sufficient to release all the carbon dioxide gas. On the other hand, the reddish, coarse, open-grained crumb in devil’s food cake is the result of using baking soda as the principal leavening agent.
The level of baking soda depends on the nature of the product and on the other ingredients in the formula. Cookies, for example, with high levels of fat and sugar, do not require much, if any, leavening.
Table 11 provides the recommended amounts of baking soda for different products. Note that the percentages appear small compared to the 5% level of baking powder suggested because baking powder contains both an acid agent and a leavening agent.
Table 11 Recommended Amounts of Baking Soda
Product Amount of Baking Soda (% of flour weight)
Cookies 0.4–0.6
Cakes 0.5–1.0
Cake doughnuts 0.7–1.0
Pancakes 1.4–2.0 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/04%3A_Leavening_Agents/4.05%3A_Baking_Powder.txt |
Cream of Tartar
Cream of tartar is a white crystalline compound that exists in grapes, tamarinds, and other fruits. It is prepared from the sediments in wine barrels and is called argol. The argol is dissolved in hot water, and the colouring matter is removed by means of clay or egg albumin. After being purified by crystallization, it is ready for the market.
Cream of tartar has no leavening capacity by itself, but can be used in combination with sodium bicarbonate to provide the acid necessary for leavening. It was formerly used for making baking powder but that practice has been largely discontinued because of cost and its too quick reaction time. In some recipes, it is used alone. Cream of tartar is also an excellent stabilizer for egg whites.
Further refining of cream of tartar will isolate the principal active ingredient, tartaric acid, which is clear and odourless. It is soluble in water and has a rapid reaction in a batter when mixed with baking soda. It is also used to make soft cheeses such as mascarpone.
4.08: Ammonium Bicarbonate
Ammonium Bicarbonate
Ammonium bicarbonate is a white crystalline powder used in flat, spiced cookies, such as gingerbreads, and in eclair paste. It must be dissolved in the cold liquid portion of the batter. At room temperature, decomposition of CO2 in the batter is minimal. When heated to approximately 60°C (140°F) decomposition is more noticeable, and at oven temperature, decomposition takes place in a very short time. Ammonium bicarbonate should only be used in low moisture-containing products that are not dense. Providing that these conditions are met, there will be no taste and odour remaining from the ammonium.
4.09: Handling Chemically Leavened Products
Handling Chemically Leavened Products
Mixes containing chemical leaveners can either be refrigerated or frozen as long as the temperature is below 5°C (41°F). Although some carbon dioxide is released during the first stages of refrigeration, moderately good results are obtained from mixes that have been refrigerated for a long period of time. Frozen mixes should be allowed to thaw slowly in the refrigerator before being used. To avoid moisture loss, the mix must be covered during refrigeration.
4.10: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Yeast is a living organism indispensable to bakers. It is the agent responsible for leavening most breads. It is made under carefully controlled factory conditions, using just one of many strains of yeast. It is available in two basic forms:
• Compressed or “fresh” yeast, with a moisture content of about 70% and a shelf life of a few weeks
• Instant active dry yeast, vacuum packed with a moisture content of about 4% and a shelf life of up to a year if unopened. Once opened, it is good for several weeks if properly handled.
• The conversion ratios for the many brands of dry yeast are shown on the packages. They are about 1:3, dry to compressed.
• The functions of yeast are twofold:
• To create carbon dioxide to make the bread rise
• To mellow or improve the gluten
• When handling yeast, avoid warm temperatures. Don’t combine yeast with salt. Keep yeast in a cool place, near the freezing temperature. Keep it well wrapped, but allow space for breathing.
• Chemical leaveners include baking powder, baking soda, cream of tartar, and ammonium bicarbonate | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/04%3A_Leavening_Agents/4.07%3A_Cream_of_Tartar.txt |
Grading
Fresh hen eggs are sold by grade in all provinces. All shell eggs that are imported, exported, or shipped from one province to another for commercial sale must be graded. In Canada, it is mandatory to have all eggs graded by the standards set by Agriculture and Agri-Foods Canada (AAFC). The grade name appears on cartons. The grades Canada A and Canada B bear the maple leaf symbol with the grade name inside, and Canada C and Nest Run eggs will have the grade name printed in block text. The grades indicate the quality of the egg and should not be confused with size. Only Canada A are available in different sizes. The average large size egg weighs about 56 g (2 oz.) as indicated in Table 12.
Table 12 Canada Grade A egg sizes
Size Weight (including shell)
Peewee Less than 42 g (1.5 oz.)
Small At least 42 g (1.5 oz.)
Medium At least 49 g (1.75 oz.)
Large At least 56 g (2 oz.)
Extra Large At least 63 g (2.25 oz.)
Jumbo 70 g (2.5 oz.) or more
The Canada grade symbol does not guarantee that the eggs are of Canadian origin, but it does guarantee that the products meet Canadian government standards. Agriculture Canada inspects all egg-processing plants to ensure that the products are wholesome and processed according to sanitary standards. The pasteurization of “packaged” egg product is also monitored.
The criteria for grading eggs are:
• Weight
• Cleanliness
• Soundness and shape of shell
• Shape and relative position of yolk within the egg
• Size of air cell free of abnormalities
• Freedom from dissolved yolk and blood spots
Canada A
Canada A eggs are clean, normal in shape with sound shells, and have the finest interior quality. They are ideal for all uses. The yolks are round and compact and surrounded by very thick, firm albumen. Canada A eggs are a premium quality and in limited supply on the retail market. If eggs are not sold within a limited time, unsold stocks are returned to the supplier. Eggs graded as A must meet the minimum weight for the declared size (see Table 12.) The size designation for Canada A eggs must appear on the label.
Canada B
Canada B eggs have very slight abnormalities. This grade is fine for baking, where appearance is not important. These eggs must weigh at least 49 g (1.75 oz.). There are no size designations on the label for Canada B eggs.
Canada C
Canada C is considered a processing grade and provides a safe outlet for the disposition of cracked eggs. Canada C eggs must be shipped to a federally registered processed egg station and pasteurized as a means of controlling the higher risk of salmonella or other microbial contamination that may be found in cracked eggs.
These eggs are suitable for processing into commercially frozen, liquid, and dried egg products. Sizes are not specified.
Canada Nest Run
Since Canada Nest Run eggs are generally sent for further processing, they are usually not washed, candled (a process discussed later in this chapter), or sized. However, nest run eggs must meet the minimum quality requirements prescribed by the Egg Regulations. This grade, as with other Canada grades, can only be applied to eggs in a federally registered egg station.
5.02: Composition and Nutrition
Composition and Nutrition
The three main components of eggs are the shell, the white, and the yolk. The average whole large egg, weighing 56 g (2 oz.) is composed of 12% shell, 58% white, and 30% yolk by weight. Protein is found in both the white and the yolk, but almost all of the fat is found in the yolk (see Figure 10 and Tables 13 and 14).
Table 13 Composition of Eggs by Percent of Weight
Component Whole Egg Yolk White
Moisture 73.0 49.0 86.0
Protein 13.3 16.7 11.6
Lipid 11.5 31.6 0.2
Note that traces of sugar and ash are also present in an egg.
Table 14 Nutritional Content of a Large Egg
Element Whole Egg Yolk White
Weight 50 g 17 g 33 g
Protein 6 g 3 g 3 g
Fat 5 g 5 g Trace
Cholesterol 216 mg 216 mg 0
Calcium 25 mg 2 mg 27 mg
Iron 1.0 mg 0.6 mg Trace
Sodium 63 mg 7 mg 54 mg
Potassium 60 mg 16 mg 47 mg
Vitamin A 96 RE 99 RE 0 RE
Note: B-complex vitamins, not itemized, are well represented in eggs, as are amino acids. “RE” stands for retinol equivalent, a term used in nutritional measurement.
Worth noting is the concentration of certain food elements in different parts of the egg. Note for example that all the cholesterol is in the yolk. The yolk is relatively rich in iron and the white is high in calcium.
In practice, when separating large eggs, one estimates the weight of the white as 30 g (1 oz) and the yolk as 20 g (0.7 oz). The colour of the shell, which is either a creamy white or brown, is relevant to the breed of the hen, and there is no other basic difference in the content of the egg or the shell.
The colour of the yolk depends on the diet of the hens. Bakers have a preference for eggs with dark yolks. Certainly the appearance of cakes made with such eggs is richer. Tests have found that, although eggs with darker yolks tend to produce moister sponge cakes, the cakes are somewhat coarser and less tender.
Image Descriptions
Figure 10 image description: Diagram demonstrates the components of an egg. First there is the outer shell (labelled “egg”), followed by the outer membrane, then fluid. The round yolk is at the centre of the egg. Beneath it is a strip called the chalaza, which leads to an air sac near the shell. At the top of the yolk is the germinal, and around the whole yolk is the vitelline membrane. [Return to Figure 10] | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/05%3A_Eggs/5.01%3A_Grading.txt |
Egg Products
A number of egg products besides whole shell eggs are used in the baking and food service industry. By law, all egg products other than shell eggs are pasteurized to protect them against salmonella, and the low temperature at which they are kept inhibits bacterial activity, although under certain conditions they may spoil very rapidly.
The chief categories of egg products available are:
• Liquid eggs (whole eggs and whole eggs with additional yolks)
• Frozen eggs (whole eggs, egg whites, and egg yolks)
• Dried and powdered eggs (whole eggs, egg whites, and meringue powder)
Liquid and Frozen Eggs
Liquid and frozen whole eggs are preferred in large bakeries where cracking and emptying of shells is not economical. They are also one of the most economical ways of purchasing eggs. Liquid and frozen whole eggs are sometimes “fortified” by the addition of egg yolks. Some bakers feel that liquid or frozen eggs don’t yield the same volume in sponge cakes as fresh eggs, and there is a certain bias in favour of shell eggs.
If stored in the freezer at -18°C (0°F) or lower, liquid and frozen eggs will keep for long periods with minimum loss of quality. Thawing should take place in the refrigerator or under cold water without submerging the container. Leaving frozen eggs at room temperature to thaw is a bad practice because the outside layers of egg can reach a temperature favourable to bacteria while the centre is still frozen. Heat should never be used to defrost eggs. Unused portions must be refrigerated and used within 24 hours.
Frozen egg yolks consist of 90% egg yolks and 10% sugar to prevent the yolk from gelling and to avoid separation of the fat.
Spray-Dried Whole Eggs and Egg Whites
Dried eggs are used by some bakers as a convenience and cost saver. As with frozen eggs, some bakers doubt their performance in products such as sponge cakes. But dried eggs produce satisfactory results because of the addition of a carbohydrate to the egg before the drying process, usually corn syrup, which results in foaming comparable to fresh eggs.
Dried whole eggs should be stored unopened in a cool place not over 10°C (50°F), preferably in the refrigerator. They are reconstituted by blending 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of powdered whole egg with 3 kg (6.6 lb) of cold water. The water is added slowly while mixing. Once reconstituted, dried eggs should be used immediately or refrigerated promptly and used within an hour.
In mixes such as muffins and cake dougnuts, dried eggs can be mixed in with the other dry ingredients and do not have to be reconstituted. In layer cake formulas, dried eggs are blended with the other dry ingredients before the fat and some water are added, followed by the balance of liquid in two stages.
Spray-dried egg whites are reconstituted by mixing 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of powdered egg white with 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of cold water, letting it stand for 15 minutes, and then adding 9 kg (20 lb.) of cold water. When used in cake mixes, the powdered egg white is blended with the other dry ingredients, but only 7 L (7 qt.) of cold water is used for every 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of powdered egg white.
Dry Egg Substitutes or Replacements
Egg substitutes are made from sweet cheese, whey, egg whites, dextrose, modified tapioca starch, sodium caseinate, and artificial colour and flavour. They are cost-cutters and can be used alone or in combination with fresh or dried eggs in cakes, cookies, and fillings. One kg (2.2 lb.) of powder is mixed with 4 kg (9 lb.) of water to replace powdered eggs.
Meringue Powder
While it is not a pure dehydrated egg white, meringue powder is widely used by bakers to make baked Alaska, royal icing, and toppings. It contains vegetable gums and starches to absorb moisture and make it whip better. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/05%3A_Eggs/5.03%3A_Egg_Products.txt |
The Function of Eggs
Eggs are a truly multifunctional ingredient and have many roles to play in the bakeshop. Their versatility means that product formulas may be adjusted once the properties of eggs are understood. For example, in French butter cream, egg whites may be substituted in the summer for whole eggs to give a more stable and bacteria-free product (egg white is alkaline, with pH 8.5). A yolk or two may be worked into a sweet short paste dough to improve its extensibility. Sponge cake formulas can be adjusted, for example, with the addition of egg yolks in jelly rolls to improve rolling up.
If a recipe is changed by replacing some or all of the eggs with water, two factors must be remembered:
1. Water replacement is about 75% of the egg content, since egg solids constitute about 25% of the egg.
2. Leavening ability is lessened and must be made up by the addition of chemical leavening.
Other uses of eggs are:
• Leavening: They will support many times their own weight of other ingredients through their ability to form a cell structure either alone or in combination with flour. The egg white in particular is capable of forming a large mass of cells by building a fine protein network.
• Moistening and binding: The fat in eggs provides a moistening effect, and the proteins present coagulate when heated, binding ingredients together.
• Thickening: Eggs are valuable thickeners in the cooking of chiffon pie fillings and custard.
• Emulsifying: Lecithin, present in the yolk, is a natural emulsifier and assists in making smooth batters.
• Customer appeal: Eggs enhance the appearance of products through their colour and flavour, and they improve texture and grain.
• Structure: Eggs bind with other ingredients, primarily flour, creating the supporting structure for other ingredients.
• Shelf life: The shelf life of eggs is extended through the fat content of the yolk.
• Nutrition: Eggs are a valuable food in every respect. Note, however, that 4% of the lipid in egg yolk is cholesterol, which may be a concern to some people. Developments in poultry feed claim to have reduced or eliminated this cholesterol level.
• Tenderizing: The fat in eggs acts like a shortening and improves the tenderness of the baked cake.
Keep these points in mind when using eggs:
• Spots in eggs are due to blood fragments in the ovary. Such eggs are edible and may be used.
• The albumen or egg white is soluble in cold water, congeals at 70°C (158°F), and remains insoluble from then on.
• Cover leftover yolks or whites tightly and refrigerate. Add a little water on top of yolks, or mix in 10% sugar, to prevent crusting. Do not return unused portions to the master container.
• Use clean utensils to dip egg products from their containers.
5.05: Storing Eggs
Storing Eggs
Whole eggs are the perfect medium for the development of bacteria and mould. Eggs with an undesirable odour may be high in bacteria or mould. While some of these odours disappear in baking, some will remain and give an off-taste to the product if the odour is concentrated and strong.
Store fresh eggs in the refrigerator in cartons to prevent moisture loss and absorption of odours. If refrigerator space is at a premium, eggs are stable for up to three weeks if kept at a temperature of 13°C to 15°C (55°F to 60°F). Naturally, this must be in a location with invariable conditions.
Food poisoning can result from using eggs held too long before using. Liquid or cracked eggs should be kept under refrigeration at all times.
Whole eggs can be checked for freshness with the candling or salt water method:
• Candling method: Hold the egg up to a light in a darkened room or positioned so that the content or condition of the egg may be seen. If the yolk is held firmly by the white when the egg is turned, and the egg is clean and not broken, then the egg is of good quality. Smell or odour is not readily revealed unless the shell is broken.
• Salt water method: Add 100 g of salt to 1 L (3.5 oz. to 1 qt.) of water. Allow to dissolve completely. When an egg is placed in this mixture, its level of buoyancy determines the age of the egg. An old egg will float to the surface, while a fresher egg will sink to the bottom.
5.06: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• The federal governments of both Canada and the United States have strictly defined standards for egg products. Great care must be taken in their handling because of the hazard of salmonella. Products other than shell eggs are pasteurized for this reason. Shell eggs have a limited shelf life and must be kept cool.
• Eggs are available in three broad categories:
• Shell eggs
• Liquid or frozen eggs
• Dried eggs
• The functions of eggs are many. Chief among these are structure, aeration, and tenderizing. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/05%3A_Eggs/5.04%3A_The_Function_of_Eggs.txt |
Milk
Homogenized milk is fresh milk in which the fat particles are so finely divided and emulsified mechanically that the milk fat cannot separate on standing. The milk fat is forced into tiny droplets. As soon as the droplets form, milk proteins and emulsifiers form a protective film around each one, preventing the fat from reuniting. The tiny droplets stay suspended indefinitely, and milk fat no longer separates and rises to the top as a cream layer. In other words, homogenized dairy products are stable emulsions of fat droplets suspended in milk. It is also said that homogenized milk is more readily digestible.
Pasteurization of milk was developed in 1859 by the French chemist Louis Pasteur. One method of pasteurization is to heat milk to above 71°C (160°F), maintain it at this temperature for a set time, then cool it immediately to 10°C (50°F) or lower. This kills all harmful bacteria that carry the potential threat of bovine tuberculosis and fever from cows to humans.
The two main types of pasteurization used today are high-temperature, short-time (HTST, also known as “flash”) and higher-heat, shorter time (HHST). Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processing is also used.
• High-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurization is done by heating milk to 72°C (161°F) for 15 seconds. Milk simply labelled “pasteurized” is usually treated with the HTST method.
• Higher-heat, shorter time (HHST) milk and milk products are pasteurized by applying heat continuously, generally above 100°C (212°F) for such time to extend the shelf life of the product under refrigerated conditions. This type of heat process can be used to produce dairy products with extended shelf life (ESL).
• Ultra-hgh-temperature (UHT) processing holds the milk at a temperature of 140°C (284°F) for four seconds. During UHT processing, milk is sterilized rather than pasteurized. This process allows milk or juice to be stored several months without refrigeration. The process is achieved by spraying the milk or juice through a nozzle into a chamber that is filled with high-temperature steam under pressure. After the temperature reaches 140°C (284°F) the fluid is cooled instantly in a vacuum chamber and packed in a pre-sterilized, airtight container. Milk labelled UHT has been treated in this way.
For more information on pasteurization, visit the Canadian Food Inspection Agency web page about HHST processing.
6.02: Milk Products
Cream
The usual minimum standard for cream is 10% fat content, though it ranges between 10% and 18%. Cream in this range may be sold as half and half, coffee cream, or table cream.
Whipping cream is about 32% to 36% in milk fat content. Cream with 36% or higher is called heavy cream. This percentage of fat is not a mandated standard; much less than this and the cream simply will not whip. For best whipping results, the cream should be 48 to 60 hours old and be cold. A stabilizer, some sugar, and flavour may be added during whipping. Before adding stabilizer, check the ingredients on the carton; some whipping creams nowadays have added agents such as carrageenan, in which case an additional stabilizer may not be necessary.
Canadian cream definitions are similar to those used in the United States, except for that of “light cream.” In Canada, what the U.S. calls light cream is referred to most commonly as half and half. In Canada, “light cream” is low-fat cream, usually meaning it is cream with 5% to 6% fat. You can make your own light cream by blending milk with half-and-half.
In Quebec, country cream is sold, which contains 15% milk fat. If you are using recipe that calls for country cream, you may substitute 18% cream.
If you have recipes from the UK, you might see references to double cream. This is cream with about 48% milk fat, which is not readily available in Canada, except in some specialty stores. Use whipping cream or heavy cream instead.
Table 16 lists some of the common cream types and their uses.
Table 16 Cream Types and Fat Content
Name Minimum Milk Fat Additional Definition Main Uses
Whipping cream 32% Heavy cream has at least 36% milk fat Whips well, can be piped; custards, cream fillings, confectionary products
Table cream 18% Coffee cream Added to coffee, poured over puddings, used in sauces
Half-and-half 10%–12% Cereal cream Added to coffee; custards and ice cream mixes
Light cream 5%–10% Added to coffee
Buttermilk
There are two methods to produce buttermilk:
• Inoculating milk with a specific culture to sour it
• Churning milk and separating the liquid left over from the butter
The second method is where buttermilk gets its name, but today, most of what is commonly called buttermilk is the first type. Buttermilk has a higher acid content than regular milk (pH of 4.6 compared with milk’s pH of 6.6).
The fermented dairy product known as cultured buttermilk is produced from cow’s milk and has a characteristically sour taste caused by lactic acid bacteria. This variant is made using one of two species of bacteria — either Lactococcus lactis or Lactobacillus bulgaricus, which creates more tartness in certain recipes.
The acid in buttermilk reacts with the sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to produce carbon dioxide, which acts as the leavening agent.
Sour Cream
Sour cream is made from cream soured by adding lactic acids and thickened naturally or by processing. Milk fat content may vary from 5.5% to 14%. The lactic acid causes the proteins in sour cream to coagulate to a gelled consistency; gums and starches may be added to further thicken it. The added gums and starches also keep the liquid whey in sour cream from separating.
Use sour cream in cheesecakes, coffee cakes, and pastry doughs. Low-fat and fat-free sour cream are available. Low-fat sour cream, which is essentially cultured half-and-half or light cream (and usually contains 7% to 10% milk fat), is often satisfactory as a substitute for regular sour cream in baking. These products are higher in moisture and less rich in flavour than regular sour cream.
Crème Fraîche
Crème fraîche (fresh cream) is a soured cream containing 30% to 45% milk fat and having a pH of around 4.5. It is soured with bacterial culture. Traditionally it is made by setting unpasteurized milk into a pan at room temperature, allowing the cream to rise to the top. After about 12 hours, the cream is skimmed off. During that time, natural bacteria in the unpasteurized milk ripens the cream, turning it into a mildly sour, thickened product.
An effective substitute can be made by adding a small amount of cultured buttermilk or sour cream to whipping cream and allowing it to stand in a warm spot for 10 hours or more before refrigerating. As the cream ripens from the growth of the lactic acid bacteria, it thickens and develops a sour flavour. This product is similar to sour cream, but it has a higher milk fat content.
Milk Substitutes
Milk substitutes are becoming increasingly popular as replacements for straight skim milk powders. Innumerable replacement blends are available to the baker. Their protein contents range from 11% to 40%; some are wet, some are dry-blended. Product types vary from all dairy to mostly cereal. All-dairy blends range from mostly dry skim milk to mostly whey. A popular blend is whey mixed with 40% soy flour solids and a small quantity of sodium hydroxide to neutralize the whey acidity.
Dough consistency may be a little softer if the milk in the replacement blend exceeds 3%, and this could dictate the need to increase dough mixing by at least half a minute. However, absorption and formula changes are seldom necessary when switching from dry milk to a blend, or from a blend to a blend.
For nutritional labelling, or when using a blend in a non-standardized product that must carry an itemized ingredient label, all blend components must be listed in their proper order on the label.
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency defines modified milk ingredients as any of the following in liquid, concentrated, dry, frozen, or reconstituted form:
• Calcium-reduced skim milk
• Casein: This a protein in milk and is used as a binding agent. Caseins are also used in wax to shine fruits and vegetables, as an adhesive, and to fortify bread. Caseins contain common amino acids.
• Caseinate: This protein is derived from skim milk. Bodybuilders sometimes take powder enriched with calcium caseinate because it releases proteins at an even, measured pace.
• Cultured milk products: These are milk products that have been altered through controlled fermentation, including yogurt, sour cream, and cultured buttermilk.
• Milk serum proteins
• Ultra-filtered milk: The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations define this type of milk as that which “has been subjected to a process in which it is passed over one or more semi-permeable membranes to partially remove water, lactose, minerals, and water-soluble vitamins without altering the whey protein-to-casein ratio and that results in a liquid product.”
• Whey: This is serum by-product created in the manufacture of cheese.
• Whey butter: Typically oily in composition, whey butter is made from cream separated from whey.
• Whey cream: This is cream skimmed from whey, sometimes used as a substitute for sweet cream and butter.
• Any component of milk that has been altered from the form in which it is found in milk.
Milk Powder
Milk powder is available in several different forms: whole milk, skim milk (non-fat dry milk), buttermilk, or whey. They are all processed similarly: the product is first pasteurized, then concentrated with an evaporator, and finally dried (spray or roller dried) to produce powder.
• Whole milk powder must contain no less than 95% milk solids and must not exceed 5% moisture. The milk fat content must be no less than 2.6%. Vitamins A and D may be added and the emulsifying agent lecithin may also be added in an amount not exceeding 0.5%.
• Skim milk powder (non-fat dry milk) must contain no less than 95% milk solids and must not exceed 4% moisture or 1.5% fat.
• Buttermilk powder must contain no less than 95% milk solids and must not exceed 3% moisture or 6% fat.
• Whey powder consists primarily of carbohydrate (lactose), protein (several different whey proteins, mainly lactalbumins and globulins), various minerals, and vitamins. Whey powder is a valuable addition to the functional properties of various foods as well as a source of valuable nutrients because it contains approximately 50% of the nutrients in the original milk.
Table 17 compares the composition of milk and two powdered milk products.
Table 17 Comparison of Fresh and Powdered Milk Products (% by weights)
Component Whole Milk Skim Milk Powder
(Non-fat Dry Milk)
Buttermilk Powder
Milk fat 3.25 0.7 5.0
Protein 3.5 36.0 34.0
Milk sugar (lactose) 4.9 51.0 48.0
Minerals 0.8 8.2 7.9
Water 87.0 3.0 3.0
Calcium 0.12 1.3 1.3
• To make 10 L (22 lb.) of liquid skim milk from skim milk powder, 9.1 L (2.4 gal.) of water and 900 g (2 lb.) of skim milk powder are required.
• To make 10 L (22 lb.) of whole milk from skim milk powder, 8.65 L (2.25 gal) of water, 900 g (2 lb.) of skim milk powder, and 450 g (1 lb.) of butter are needed.
When reconstituting dried milk, add it to the water and whisk in immediately. Delaying this, or adding water to the milk powder, will usually result in clogging. Water temperature should be around 21°C (70°F).
Evaporated Milk
Sometimes called concentrated milk, this includes evaporated whole, evaporated partly skimmed, and evaporated skim milks, depending on the type of milk used in its production. Canadian standards require 25% milk solids and 7.5% milk fat.
All types of evaporated milk have a darker colour than the original milk because at high temperatures a browning reaction occurs between the milk protein and the lactose. After 60% of the water is removed by evaporation, the milk is homogenized, cooled, restandardized, and canned. It is then sterilized by heating for 10 to 15 minutes at 99°C to 120°C (210°F to 248°F). Controlled amounts of disodium phosphate and/or sodium citrate preserve the “salt balance” and prevent coagulation of the milk that might occur at high temperatures and during storage.
Sweetened Condensed Milk
Sweetened condensed milk is a viscous, sweet-coloured milk made by condensing milk to one-third of its original volume, which then has sugar added. It contains about 40% sugar, a minimum of 8.5% milk fat, and not less than 28% total milk solids. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/06%3A_Dairy_Products/6.01%3A_Milk.txt |
Milk in Bread Baking
In the dough stage, milk increases water absorption. Consequently, dough made with milk should come softer from the mixer than dough made with water. Other aspects of milk in yeast doughs include:
• Dough may be mixed more intensively.
• Milk yields dough with a higher pH compared to water dough, and the fermentation will be slower.
• Fermentation tolerance (the ability of the dough to work properly in a range of temperatures) will be slightly improved.
• Bench time will be extended as the dough ferments more slowly at this stage. (Final proof times will be about the same, as by this time the yeast has adjusted to the condition of the dough.)
Bread made with milk will colour faster in the oven and allowance should be made for this. If taken out too early after a superficial examination of crust colour, it may collapse slightly and be hard to slice. The loaf should be expected to have a darker crust colour than bread made without milk.
In the finished product, milk will make bread that has:
• Greater volume (improved capacity to retain gas)
• Darker crust (due to the lactose in the milk)
• Longer shelf life (due partly to the milk fat)
• Finer and more “cottony” grain
• Better slicing due to the finer grain
If skim milk or skim milk powder is used, some of the above benefits will not be so evident (e.g., longer shelf life, which is a result of the fat in the milk).
The type of sugar found in milk, lactose, has little sweetening power and does not ferment, so in dough made with skim milk powder, sugar has to be added or the fermentation will be very slow. While lactose is not fermentable, it caramelizes readily in the oven and produces a healthy crust colour. The recommended amount of skim milk powder used in fermented dough is 2% to 8% based on flour, and up 15% in cakes.
Buttermilk and sour milk are used to make variety breads. They have a lower pH and require a shorter fermentation for good results.
6.04: Yogurt
Yogurt
Yogurt is a thick or semi-solid food made from pasteurized milk fermented by lactic bacteria. The milk coagulates when a sufficient quantity of lactic acid is produced. Yogurt is a rich, versatile food capable of enhancing the flavour and texture of many recipes. It is prepared sweetened or unsweetened, and is used in baking to make yogurt-flavoured cream cakes, desserts, and frozen products. Yogurt is an unstandardized product in Canada — that is, it does not have to conform to specific calorific requirements.
6.05: Lactose
Lactose
This milk sugar is a complex sugar (see sugar section). It is available commercially spray-dried and in crystalline form. There are many advantages to using it in various baking applications:
• Because of its low sweetening value compared to sucrose, it can lend texture and create browning while keeping the sweetness level at low values, which many consumers prefer. It can be used to replace sucrose up to a 50% level, or replace it entirely in products like pie pastry.
• Lactose improves dough handling properties and the colour of the loaf.
• In pie crusts, it gives good colour to top and bottom crusts, more tender crusts, and retards sogginess.
• In machine-dropped cookies, lactose can help the dough release better from the die.
• In cakes and muffins, it gives body without excessive sweetening and improves volume.
• Lactose binds flavours that are normally volatile and thus intensifies or enhances flavour. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/06%3A_Dairy_Products/6.03%3A_Milk_in_Bread_Baking.txt |
Cheese
Cheese is a concentrated dairy product made from fluid milk and is defined as the fresh or matured product obtained by draining the whey after coagulation of casein.
Cheese making consists of four steps:
1. Curdling of the milk, either by enzyme (rennet) or by lactic curdling (natural process)
2. Draining in which the whey (liquid part) is drained from the curd (firm part)
3. Pressing, which determines the shape
4. Ripening, in which the rind forms and the curd develops flavour
Cheese can be classified, with some exceptions, into five broad categories, as follows. Examples are given of specific cheeses that may be used in baking.
1. Fresh cheese: High moisture content and no ripening characterize these products. Examples: cottage cheese, baker’s cheese, cream cheese, quark, and ricotta.
2. Soft cheeses: Usually some rind, but with a soft interior. Example: feta.
3. Semi-soft cheeses: Unripened cheeses of various moisture content. Example: mozzarella.
4. Firm cheeses: Well-ripened cheese with relatively low moisture content and fairly high fat content. Examples: Swiss, cheddar, brick.
5. Hard cheeses: Lengthy aging and very low moisture content. Example: Parmesan.
In baking, cheeses have different functions. Soft cheeses, mixed with other ingredients, are used in fillings for pastries and coffeecakes. They are used for certain European deep-fried goods, such as cannoli. They may also be used, sometimes in combination with a richer cream cheese, for cheesecakes. All the cheeses itemized under fresh cheese (see above) are all more or less interchangeable for these functions. The coarser cheese may be strained first if necessary. The firmer cheeses are used in products like cheese bread, quiches, pizza, and cheese straws.
A brief description of the cheeses most likely to be used by bakers follows.
Dry Curd Cottage Cheese
This is a soft, unripened, acid cheese. Pasteurized skim milk is inoculated with lactic-acid-producing bacteria, and a milk-clotting enzyme (rennet) is added. Following incubation, the milk starts to clot, and it is then cut into cubes. After gentle cooking, the cubes or curds become quite firm. At this point, the whey is drained off, and the curd is washed and cooled with cold water.
Creamed Cottage Cheese
Creamed or dressed cottage cheese consists of dry curd cottage cheese combined with a cream dressing. The milk fat content of the dressing determines whether the final product is “regular” (4% milk fat ) or low fat (1% to 2% milk fat).
Baker’s Cheese
This is a soft, unripened, uncooked cheese. It is made following exactly the same process as for dry curd cottage cheese, up to and including the point when the milk clot is cut into cubes. This cheese is not cooked to remove the whey from the curd. Rather, the curd is drained through cloth bags or it may be pumped through a curd concentrator. The product is then ready to be packaged. The milk fat content is generally about 4%.
Quark
Quark (or quarg) is a fresh unripened cheese prepared in a fashion similar to cottage cheese. The mild flavour and smooth texture of quark make it excellent as a topping or filling for a variety of dishes. Quark is similar to baker’s cheese, except acid is added to it (it is inoculated with lactic-acid-producing bacteria), and then it is blended with straight cream to produce a smooth spread containing approximately 7% milk fat. Today there are low-fat quarks with lower percentage, and high-fat versions with milk fat adjusted to 18%. Quark cheese can often be used in place of sour cream, cottage cheese, or ricotta cheese.
Cream Cheese
Cream cheese is a soft, unripened, acid cheese. A milk-and-cream mixture is homogenized and pasteurized, cooled to about 27°C (80°F), and inoculated with lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The resulting curd is not cut, but it is stirred until it is smooth, and then heated to about 50°C (122°F) for one hour. The curd is drained through cloth bags or run through a curd concentrator. Regular cream cheese is fairly high fat, but much lighter versions exist now.
Ricotta
Ricotta is a fresh cheese prepared from either milk or whey that has been heated with an acidulating agent added. Traditionally lemon juice or vinegar was used for acidulation, but in commercial production, a bacterial culture is used. The curds are then strained and the ricotta is used for both sweet and savory applications.
Mascarpone
Mascarpone is a rich, fresh cheese that is a relative of both cream cheese and ricotta cheese. Mascarpone is prepared in a similar fashion to ricotta, but using cream instead of whole milk. The cream is acidified (often by the direct addition of tartaric acid) and heated to a temperature of 85°C (185°F), which results in precipitation of the curd. The curd is then separated from the whey by filtration or mechanical means. The cheese is lightly salted and usually whipped. Note that starter culture and rennet are not used in the production of this type of cheese. The high-fat content and smooth texture of mascarpone cheese make it suitable as a substitute for cream or butter. Ingredient applications of mascarpone cheese tend to focus on desserts. The most famous application of mascarpone cheese is in the Italian dessert tiramisu.
Table 18 provides the composition of various types of cheeses.
Table 18 Composition of Various Cheeses (% by weight)
Cheese Moisture Milk Fat Salt
Dry curd cottage cheese 80 0.4 n/a
Regular creamed cottage cheese 79 4 1
Low fat (1% and 2%) creamed cottage cheese 79 1–2 1
Baker’s cheese 79 4 1
Quark 72 5–7 n/a
Quark (high fat) 59 18 n/a
Cream cheese 54 (varies) 17–37 1
Ricotta 72–75 8–13 n/a
Mascarpone 46 60–75 1
6.07: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Milk and other dairy products are widely used in baking and desserts.
• Milk and milk products have an effect on bread doughs, by increasing water absorption and slowing fermentation time. The resulting doughs are also softer and richer than doughs made only with water.
• The most common types of cheese used by bakers and pastry chefs are soft and unripened cheeses. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/06%3A_Dairy_Products/6.06%3A_Cheese.txt |
From the Cocoa Bean to the Finished Chocolate
In North America, chocolate manufacturing started in Massachusetts in 1765. Today, in the factory, the beans get cleaned, and magnets take out metallic parts, and then sand, dust, and other impurities are removed. Some starch will be changed into dextrins in the roasting process to improve flavour. Machines break the beans and grind them fine until a flowing liquid is produced, called chocolate liquor. Through hydraulic pressure, cocoa butter is reduced from 55% to approximately 10% to 24% or less, and the residue forms a solid mass called press cake.
The press cake is then broken, pulverized, cooled, and sifted to produce commercial cocoa powder. The baking industry uses primarily cocoa powders with a low fat content.
At the factory, chocolate is also subject to an additional refining step called conching. Conching has a smoothing effect. The temperature range in this process is between 55°C and 65°C (131°F and 149°F). Sugar interacts with protein to form amino sugars, and the paste loses acids and moisture and becomes smoother.
Watch this video on the chemistry of chocolate to learn about the chemical reactions related to heat, melting point, and formation of crystal structures in chocolate.
7.02: Chocolate Produced for the Baking Industry
Chocolate Produced for the Baking Industry
True chocolate contains cocoa butter. The main types of chocolate, in decreasing order of cocoa liquor content, are:
• Unsweetened (bitter) chocolate
• Dark chocolate
• Milk chocolate
• White chocolate
Unsweetened Chocolate
Unsweetened chocolate, also known as bitter chocolate, baking chocolate, or cooking chocolate, is pure cocoa liquor mixed with some form of fat to produce a solid substance. The pure ground, roasted cocoa beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar in recipes, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
Dark (Sweet, Semi-Sweet, Bittersweet) Chocolate
Dark chocolate has an ideal balance of cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, and sugar. Thus it has the attractive, rich colour and flavour so typical of chocolate, and is also sweet enough to be palatable. It does not contain any milk solids. It can be eaten as is or used in baking. Its flavour does not get lost or overwhelmed, as in many cases when milk chocolate is used. It can be used for fillings, for which more flavourful chocolates with high cocoa percentages ranging from 60% to 99% are often used. Dark is synonymous with semi-sweet, and extra dark with bittersweet, although the ratio of cocoa butter to solids may vary.
• Sweet chocolate has more sugar, sometimes almost equal to cocoa liquor and butter amounts (45% to 55% range).
• Semi-sweet chocolate is frequently used for cooking. It is a dark chocolate with less sugar than sweet chocolate.
• Bittersweet chocolate has less sugar and more liquor than semi-sweet chocolate, but the two are often interchangeable when baking. Bittersweet and semi-sweet chocolates are sometimes referred to as couverture (see below). The higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate is.
Milk Chocolate
Milk chocolate is solid chocolate made with milk, added in the form of milk powder. Milk chocolate contains a higher percentage of fat (the milk contributes to this) and the melting point is slightly lower. It is used mainly as a flavouring and in the production of candies and moulded pieces.
White Chocolate
The main ingredient in white chocolate is sugar, closely followed by cocoa butter and milk powder. It has no cocoa liquor. It is used mainly as a flavouring in desserts, in the production of candies and, in chunk form in cookies. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/07%3A_Chocolate_and_Other_Cocoa_Products/7.01%3A_From_the_Cocoa_Bean_to_the_Finished_Chocolate.txt |
Compound Chocolate
Compound chocolate is the most commonly used chocolate in the baking industry today. It is also referred to in the trade as coating chocolate, confectionary coating, non-temper coatings, or baker’s chocolate. Note: It should not be confused with the Baker’s brand chocolate, easily obtained in supermarkets, which is generally pure chocolate.
A typical chocolate coating contains approximately 35% to 40% fat, which is a type of hard fat (usually hydrogenated palm kernel oil), 8% to 18% cocoa, approximately 2% milk solids, and a small amount of lecithin and flavour; the remainder is pulverized sugar. Since there is no cocoa butter (generally) present in compound chocolate, it offers a cost savings, and it eliminates the time spent needed in tempering.
Because of the replacement of cocoa butter, compound chocolates are not appropriate to use in moulding applications. With the other oils and fats in compound chocolate, it will not set as firmly as a cocoa butter chocolate, making it difficult if not impossible to remove from a mould. Another factor to consider is that properly tempered cocoa butter chocolate will shrink slightly, and this aids in the removal from moulds.
Compound chocolate melts at approximately 35°C to 37°C (95°F to 99°F) and is best for coating at approximately 40°C (104°F). If any liquefying agent is needed, palm kernel oil can be used. Most compound chocolate is thin enough for coating.
The shelf life of fresh bakery goods enrobed with compound coating does not present any problems with bloom because hard fat is used to adjust the melting point and carries enough seed to make tempering unnecessary. While temperature control is not as critical as when using true chocolate, heating coating to 50°C (122°F) and higher could destroy seed crystals and reduce the coating’s viscosity.
Coatings that are well adapted to freezing are produced. Here, ability to withstand the freeze/thaw cycle without brittleness and cracking is important. In any case, products going into the freezer should be tightly enclosed in plastic wrap. The wrap should not be removed until the product is defrosted.
7.04: Couverture
Couverture
The usual term for top quality chocolate is couverture. Couverture chocolate is a very high-quality chocolate that contains extra cocoa butter. The higher percentage of cocoa butter, combined with proper tempering, gives the chocolate more sheen, firmer “snap” when broken, and a creamy mellow flavour. Dark, milk, and white chocolate can all be made as couvertures.
The total percentage cited on many brands of chocolate is based on some combination of cocoa butter in relation to cocoa liquor. In order to be labelled as couverture by European Union regulations, the product must contain not less than 35% total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 31% cocoa butter and not less than 2.5% of dry non-fat cocoa solids. Couverture is used by professionals for dipping, coating, moulding, and garnishing.
What the percentages don’t tell you is the proportion of cocoa butter to cocoa solids. You can, however, refer to the nutrition label or company information to find the amounts of each. All things being equal, the chocolate with the higher fat content will be the one with more cocoa butter, which contributes to both flavour and mouthfeel. This will also typically be the more expensive chocolate, because cocoa butter is more valuable than cocoa liquor.
But keep in mind that just because two chocolates from different manufacturers have the same percentages, they are not necessarily equal. They could have dramatically differing amounts of cocoa butter and liquor, and dissimilar flavours, and substituting one for the other can have negative effects for your recipe. Determining the amounts of cocoa butter and cocoa liquor will allow you to make informed decisions on chocolate choices. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/07%3A_Chocolate_and_Other_Cocoa_Products/7.03%3A_Compound_Chocolate.txt |
Canadian Definitions and Regulations
The legislation for cocoa and chocolate products in Canada is found in Division 4 of the Food and Drug Regulations (FDR), under the Food and Drugs Act (FDA). The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for administering and enforcing the FDR and FDA. Here are some of the regulations governing cocoa and chocolate:
• Cocoa butter must be the only fat source. Chocolate sold in Canada cannot contain vegetable fats or oils.
• Chocolate must contain chocolate liquor.
• The only sweetening agents permitted in chocolate in Canada are listed in Division 18 of the Food and Drug Regulations.
• Artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, sucralose, acesulfame potassium, and sugar alcohols (sorbitol, maltitol, etc.) are not permitted.
• Milk and/or milk ingredients are permissible.
• Emulsifying agents are permissible, as are flavours such as vanilla.
Cocoa butter and sugar quantities are not defined in the regulations. Some semi-sweet chocolate may be sweeter than so-called sweet chocolate. And remember that bittersweet chocolate is not, as you might expect, sugarless. Only if the label states “unsweetened,” do you know that there is no sugar added.
Products manufactured or imported into Canada that contain non-permitted ingredients (vegetable fats or oils, artificial sweeteners) cannot legally be called chocolate when sold in Canada. A non-standardized name such as “candy” must be used.
Finally, lecithin, which is the most common emulsifying agent added to chocolate, is approved for use in chocolate in North America and Europe, but Canadian regulations state that no more than 1% can be added during the manufacturing process of chocolate. Emulsifiers like lecithin can help thin out melted chocolate so it flows evenly and smoothly. Because it is less expensive than cocoa butter at thinning chocolate, it can be used to help lower the cost. The lecithin used in chocolate is mainly derived from soy. Both GMO (genetically modified organism) and non-GMO soy lecithin are available. Check the manufacturer’s packaging and ingredient listing for the source of soy lecithin in your chocolate.
7.06: Dutch Process Cocoa
Dutch Process Cocoa
This Dutch process is a treatment of the chocolate product with alkali, usually potassium carbonate. Cocoa beans have a pH of approximately 5.2. The treatment with alkali raises the pH of the finished product to 6.8 and higher. The process affects the flavour and colour of the chocolate product. Alkaline solution is generally applied to the raw beans or nibs but not to the liquor. If alkali is used in the cocoa liquor, it tends to react and leaves a soapy flavour.
Dutch cocoa is generally more expensive than natural cocoa. Whether or not the cocoa powder is Dutch process has some importance for some recipes. The Dutch process:
• Lowers acidity
• Increases solubility
• Enhances colour
• Smooths flavour
Because Dutch cocoa has a neutral pH and is not acidic like natural cocoa, it cannot be used in recipes that use baking soda as the leavening agent, which relies on the acidity of the cocoa to activate it. Rather, Dutch process cocoa can be used in recipes that use baking powder for leavening. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/07%3A_Chocolate_and_Other_Cocoa_Products/7.05%3A_Canadian_Definitions_and_Regulations.txt |
Viscosity
Viscous means “sticky”’ and the term viscosity refers to the way in which the chocolate flows. Chocolate comes in various viscosities, and the confectioner chooses the one that is most appropriate to his or her needs. The amount of cocoa butter in the chocolate is largely responsible for the viscosity level. Emulsifiers like lecithin can help thin out melted chocolate, so it flows evenly and smoothly. Because it is less expensive than cocoa butter at thinning chocolate, it can be used to help lower the cost of chocolate.
Moulded pieces such as Easter eggs require a chocolate of less viscosity. That is, the chocolate should be somewhat runny so it is easier to flow into the moulds. This is also the case for coating cookies and most cakes, where a thin, attractive and protective coating is all that is needed. A somewhat thicker chocolate is advisable for things such as ganache and flavouring of creams and fillings. Where enrobers (machines to dip chocolate centres) are used, the chocolate may also be thinner to ensure that there is an adequate coat of couverture.
Viscosity varies between manufacturers, and a given type of chocolate made by one manufacturer may be available in more than one viscosity. Bakers sometimes alter the viscosity depending on the product. A vegetable oil is sometimes used to thin chocolate for coating certain squares. This makes it easier to cut afterwards.
Chips, Chunks, and Other Baking Products
Content and quality of chocolate chips and chunks vary from one manufacturer to another. This chocolate is developed to be more heat stable for use in cookies and other baking where you want the chips and chunks to stay whole. Ratios of chocolate liquor, sugar, and cocoa butter differ. All these variables affect the flavour.
Chips and chunks may be pure chocolate or have another fat substituted for the cocoa butter. Some high-quality chips have up to 65% chocolate liquor, but in practice, liquor content over 40% tends to smear in baking, so high ratios defeat the purpose.
Many manufacturers package their chips or chunks by count (ct) size. This refers to how many pieces there are in 1 kg of the product. As the count size number increases, the size of the chip gets smaller. With this information, you can choose the best size of chip for the product you are producing.
Other chocolate products available are chocolate sprinkles or “hail,” used as a decoration; chocolate curls, rolls, or decorative shapes for use on cakes and pastries; and chocolate sticks or “batons,” which are often baked inside croissants.
7.08: Storing Chocolate
Storing Chocolate
Chocolate will keep for up to a year at a temperature of 18°C to 20°C (64°F to 68°F) with a relative humidity level of 60%. These are the ideal storage conditions. It is not always possible in bakeries to meet the ideal, but in general, room temperature is all right. Chocolate must be kept safe from odours and humidity, and therefore the refrigerator is not the ideal place to store it.
These guidelines apply also to all pure chocolate products, such as chocolate chips, hail, and sticks. All must be protected from humidity and odours and kept cool and dry at room temperature in sealed containers or in the original packaging.
7.09: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Chocolate making, like sugar refining, takes place mainly in the importing countries. The process is quite detailed. Essentially the beans are broken down into cocoa mass (press cake) and cocoa butter and then reconstituted, along with other ingredients such as milk, sugar, lecithin, and flavour into tailor-made products for the commercial market.
• One exception is compound chocolate, which has another oil substituted for the cocoa butter. It therefore needs no tempering, which real chocolate does. This is the most popular chocolate product used by bakers for regular bakery work.
• One product, after most of the cocoa butter is extruded, is cocoa powder. Dutch process cocoa powder is made when the normally acidic cocoa mass is made slightly alkaline. Cocoa powder may come sweetened.
• The “stickiness” of chocolate varies with the intended purpose. This is called its viscosity. Chocolate should be stored at about 20°C (68°F) in a clean area free from foreign odours. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/07%3A_Chocolate_and_Other_Cocoa_Products/7.07%3A_Viscosity.txt |
Nuts and Nut-like Ingredients
Nuts are a very expensive ingredient in the baking industry and must be handled with care. Bakers require knowledge and understanding of how to use them in recipes and the potential hazards due to allergies. Awareness of cross-contamination is important, as food that should not contain the allergen could become dangerous to eat for those who are allergic.
Allergies are severe adverse reactions that occur when the body’s immune system overreacts to a particular allergen. When someone comes in contact with an allergen, the symptoms of a reaction may develop quickly and rapidly progress from mild to severe.
In Canada, peanuts and tree nuts (almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pine nuts, pistachio nuts, and walnuts) fall into the category of the priority food allergens. Note that peanuts are not true nuts; they are from the legume family. However, in some cases people with a tree nut allergy also react to peanuts.
Coconut and nutmeg are not considered tree nuts for the purpose of food allergen labelling in Canada and are not usually restricted from the diet of someone allergic to tree nuts. Coconut is a seed of a fruit and nutmeg is obtained from the seeds of a tropical tree. However, some people react to coconut and nutmeg. People with tree nut allergies should consult their doctor or allergist before trying coconut or nutmeg products.
Due to the severity of nut allergies, any product containing nuts, or that may have come in contact with nuts, should be identified in the bakery, on the package, and on the menu.
The more common types of nuts that are used in the bake shop are listed below.
Coconut
Coconut is the fruit of the coconut palm, consisting of a thick, fibrous brown oval husk under which there is a thin, hard shell enclosing a layer of edible white meat. Ninety-five percent of all commercial coconut grown comes from the Philippines and Sri Lanka. After harvesting, coconuts are shelled, pared, and the white pure coconut meat is washed and pasteurized. The coconut meat is then fed into the shredder. Because of the many uses for the finished product, the meat is cut in different sizes using appropriate cutting heads. Some of these cuts are coarse, medium, macaroon, and extra fine for granulated cuts, and flake, chip, and thread for fancy cuts. In baking, they are used in cookies, coloured for decorations, and roasted for coating cakes.
Cashews
Cashews are kidney-shaped nuts that come from a tropical evergreen tree. In baking they are used whole or broken in fruitcakes or sliced and roasted on cakes and fancy pastries.
Walnuts
Walnuts come from a tree native to the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. They are one of the most widely used nuts in baking, mainly because of their cost. They are halved to serve as decorations on fancy cakes, broken in fruit cakes, or flaked and roasted on the sides of butter cream cakes and fancy pastries.
Hazelnuts or Filberts
Hazelnuts, also called filberts, are the edible nuts of the cultivated European hazel tree, a member of the birch family. They are used for decorations on cakes and pastries, in nougat and praline paste, ground in macaroon-type cookies, or flaked and roasted on the sides of cakes and French pastries. Hazelnuts are the only commercially produced nut in British Columbia.
Almonds
Almonds are nut-like kernels of the small, dry, peach-like fruit of a tree growing in warm regions. Producing countries are Italy, France, Morocco, United States, Portugal, and Australia.
There are two distinct types of almonds: the sweet and the bitter almond. The former are the well-known edible almonds of the world’s market. Sweet almonds are eaten as nuts, or used in confectionery. Like hazlenuts, they are used ground as ingredients, flaked and roasted for decoration, and in paste form. The kernel of the bitter almond is as inedible as peach kernels. When freed from prussic acid, the oil of bitter almond is used in the manufacture of flavouring extracts. Almonds contain about 45% to 50% of a fixed oil.
Peanuts
Peanuts grow in brittle pods, ripening underground and containing one to three edible seeds. Ground or flaked, they are used roasted on the sides of cakes and pastries and as peanut butter in cookies.
Pecans
Pecans come from a North American tree of the walnut family. The edible nut is in a thin, smooth, olive-shaped shell. Fancy halves are used for decorations on cakes and on fruitcakes, or broken in Christmas cake, in pecan rolls made with sweet dough, and in tarts and pies.
Pistachios
Pistachios are the yellow-green seeds from the nut of the pistachio tree, a small tree of the cashew family. This precious nut is mostly used for decorations on fancy cakes and French pastries and for flavouring butter creams and ice creams.
Brazil Nuts
Brazil nuts are hard-shelled, three-sided, oily, edible seeds of a South American tree. They grow in clusters, like segments of an orange, in large, round, hard-shelled fruits. In baking they are used whole in fruitcakes, or flaked and roasted on cakes and pastries.
Chestnuts
Chestnuts are also called maroons. They are not to be confused with the ornamental horse chestnut, which is a different tree. The best quality chestnuts come from Italy and Spain. They are used mainly in ice cream desserts and cooking. Candied sweet chestnuts are called marrons glacés. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/08%3A_Nuts_and_Seeds/8.01%3A_Nuts_and_Nut-like_Ingredients.txt |
Other Nut Products
In the United States, walnut, pistachio, and pecan pastes are marketed. Pastes with a combination of nuts, including coconut and even sesame seeds, along with sugar are also available.
Many companies market macaroon paste under various patented names. Macaroon paste is similar in composition to almond paste, but whereas almond paste is bound with water, macaroon paste contains egg whites.
Many nut crunches can be bought for use as an ingredient, or for masking and decorating cakes and pastries. Again, they can be a combination of almonds, coconut, cashew nuts, peanuts, sugar, and flavours.
8.03: Nut Pastes and Butters
Nut Pastes and Butters
Nut pastes and butters are used widely in the baking and pastry industry. Pastes are generally products that are finely ground, and contain sugar and other ingredients. Nut butters are produced using primarily the nuts and nut oils, sometimes with sugar and emulsifiers added.
Almond Paste
Almond paste is a fine-ground mixture of half almond and half sugar, or two parts almonds and one part sugar. One type of almond paste is called marzipan. Marzipan is made by an addition of icing sugar, glucose syrup, or egg whites. It is believed that marzipan dates back to AD 24.
At one time, bakers made their own paste, which is a long, tedious job. Since special machines are required to make almond paste economically, it is produced today mainly in large factories.
The paste-making process consists of these steps:
• The almonds are first blanched and then soaked in cold water.
• The almonds are chopped and mixed with the sugar.
• The mixture is ground through a special cylinder-roller machine.
• The creamy mixture is boiled, with more sugar, to dissolve the sugar crystals. The sugar and almonds bind together to form a solid paste. The cooking also sterilizes the almond paste.
Almond paste is usually sold in an airtight container and should be kept in a cool place and properly over-wrapped. If refrigerated, it needs to be protected from humidity. Almond paste may be used for fancy cakes, to mask cakes, and in fillings and fancy cookies. It is considered the most versatile and decorative medium of all.
Working with almond paste requires extreme cleanliness in all parts of production, especially when hand modelling. When modelling, use icing sugar or cornstarch only. Keep free of flour at all times.
Kernel Paste
Kernel paste can serve as a substitute for almond paste. It is made from apricot kernels and peanuts and very few almonds — and therefore it is less expensive than almond paste.
Nougat Paste
Nougat paste, also called hazelnut paste, is made with the finest ingredients, such as hazelnuts and almonds, sugar and vegetable fats, cocoa powder and skim milk powder. Nougat paste is used in butter icing and cookies.
Peanut Butter
Peanut butter is widely used in cookies and other baking, such as fillings and bars. Natural peanut butter contains only peanuts and peanut oil, and may have a small amount of salt added, while processed peanut butters also contain sugar and emulsifiers. Due to allergy concerns, peanut products must always be labelled and handled with care.
8.04: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Nuts and seeds are nutritious and versatile ingredients. They are used whole, sliced, ground. In combination with sugar and other ingredients they can be used in paste form. Their functions are as ingredients and decorations. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/08%3A_Nuts_and_Seeds/8.02%3A_Other_Nut_Products.txt |
Cornstarch
Cornstarch is the most common thickening agent used in the industry. It is mixed with water or juice and boiled to make fillings and to give a glossy semi-clear finish to products. Commercial cornstarch is made by soaking maize in water containing sulphur dioxide. The soaking softens the corn and the sulphur dioxide prevents possible fermentation. It is then crushed and passed to water tanks where the germ floats off. The mass is then ground fine and, still in a semi-fluid state, passed through silk screens to remove the skin particles. After filtration, the product, which is almost 100% starch, is dried.
Cornstarch in cold water is insoluble, granular, and will settle out if left standing. However, when cornstarch is cooked in water, the starch granules absorb water, swell, and rupture, forming a translucent thickened mixture. This phenomenon is called gelatinization. Gelatinization usually begins at about 60°C (140°F), reaching completion at the boiling point.
The commonly used ingredients in a starch recipe affect the rate of gelatinization of the starch. Sugar, added in a high ratio to the starch, will inhibit the granular swelling. The starch gelatinization will not be completed even after prolonged cooking at normal temperature. The result is a filling of thin consistency, dull colour, and a cereal taste. Withhold some of the sugar from the cooking step in such cases, and add it after gelatinization of the starch has been completed.
Other ingredients such as egg, fat, and dry milk solids have a similar effect. Fruits with high acidity such as rhubarb will also inhibit starch setting. Cook the starch paste first and add the fruit afterward.
In cooking a filling, about 1.5 kg (3 1/3 lb.) of sugar should be cooked with the water or juice for every 500 g (18 oz.) of starch used as a thickener. Approximately 100 g (4 oz.) of starch is used to thicken 1 L of water or fruit juice. The higher the acidity of the fruit juice, the more thickener required to hold the gel. Regular cornstarch thickens well but makes a cloudy solution. Another kind of cornstarch, waxy maize starch, makes a more fluid mix of great clarity.
Pre-gelatinized Starches
Pre-gelatinized starches are mixed with sugar and then added to the water or juice. They thicken the filling in the presence of sugar and water without heating. This is due to the starch being precooked and not requiring heat to enable it to absorb and gelatinize. There are several brands of these starches on the market (e.g., Clear Jel), and they all vary in absorption properties. For best results, follow the manufacturer’s guidelines. Do not put pre-gelatinized starch directly into water, as it will form lumps immediately.
Note: If fruit fillings are made with these pre-cooked starches, there is a potential for breakdown if the fillings are kept. Enzymes in the uncooked fruit may “attack” the starch and destroy some of the gelatinized structure. For example, if you are making a week’s supply of pie filling from fresh rhubarb, use a regular cooked formula.
Arrowroot
Arrowroot is a highly nutritious farinaceous starch obtained from the roots and tubers of various West Indian plants. It is used in the preparation of delicate soups, sauces, puddings, and custards.
Agar-Agar
Agar-agar is a jelly-like substance extracted from red seaweed found off the coasts of Japan, California, and Sri Lanka. It is available in strips or slabs and in powder form. Agar-agar only dissolves in hot water and is colourless. Use it at 1% to make a firm gel. It has a melting point much higher than gelatin and its jellying power is eight times greater. It is used in pie fillings and to some extent in the stiffening of jams. It is a permitted ingredient in some dairy products, including ice cream at 0.5%. One of its largest uses is in the production of materials such as piping jelly and marshmallow.
Algin (Sodium Alginate)
Extracted from kelp, this gum dissolves in cold water and a 1% concentration to give a firm gel. It has the disadvantage of not working well in the presence of acidic fruits. It is popular in uncooked icings because it works well in the cold state and holds a lot of moisture. It reduces stickiness and prevents recrystallization.
Carrageenan or Irish Moss
Carrageenan is another marine gum extracted from red seaweed. It is used as a thickening agent in various products, from icing stabilizers to whipping cream, at an allowable rate of 0.1% to 0.5%.
Gelatin
Gelatin is a glutinous substance made from the bones, connective tissues, and skins of animals. The calcium is removed and the remaining substance is soaked in cold water. Then it is heated to 40°C to 60°C (105°F 140°F). The partially evaporated liquid is defatted and coagulated on glass plates and then poured into moulds. When solid, the blocks of gelatin are cut into thin layers and dried on wire netting.
Gelatin is available in sheets of leaf gelatin, powders, granules, or flakes. Use it at a 1% ratio. Like some of the other gelling agents, acidity adversely affects its gelling capacity.
The quality of gelatin often varies because of different methods of processing and manufacturing. For this reason, many bakers prefer leaf gelatin because of its reliable strength.
Gum Arabic or Acacia
This gum is obtained from various kinds of trees and is soluble in hot or cold water. Solutions of gum arabic are used in the bakery for glazing various kinds of goods, particularly marzipan fruits.
Gum Tragacanth
This gum is obtained from several species of Astragalus, low-growing shrubs found in Western Asia. It can be purchased in flakes or powdered form. Gum tragacanth was once used to make gum paste and gum paste wedding ornaments, but due to high labour costs and a prohibitive price for the product, its use nowadays is uncommon.
Pectin
Pectin is a mucilaginous substance (gummy substance extracted from plants), occurring naturally in pears, apples, quince, oranges, and other citrus fruits. It is used as the gelling agent in traditional jams and jellies. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/09%3A_Thickening_Agents/9.01%3A_Types_of_Thickening_Agents.txt |
Water Hardness and pH
Water is classified as either soft or hard:
• Soft water contains relatively few minerals and lathers easily.
• Hard water is rich in minerals such as calcium and magnesium, which is the cause of “scale” in kettles.
Water hardness is usually expressed as the number of parts per million (ppm) of calcium carbonate present in the water (see Table 19).
Table 19 Water hardness (in ppm of calcium carbonate)
Type of Water Hardness
Soft water 10–50 ppm
Slightly hard water 50–100 ppm
Hard water 100–200 ppm
Very hard water Over 200 ppm
Regions with soft water (1 ppm to 50 ppm) include the Pacific Northwest from Oregon up through British Columbia. The hard water regions (100+ ppm) include the Canadian Prairies, the U.S. Midwest, and the southwestern states of New Mexico and Arizona. In a sense, the hardness of water is the other side of the coin to alkalinity. In general terms, rainy climates such as the Pacific Northwest have acid water. Rain leaches out much of the mineral ions in the soil, replacing them with hydrogen ions. The result is that the water is rich in hydrogen and thus acidic (soft). The reverse is the case in the dry regions, where moisture evaporates, leaving the minerals intact. The result is water rich in minerals and thus alkaline (hard). Note that this explanation is a simplification as other factors such as the type of bedrock have an effect on water hardness as well.
The acidity or alkalinity of all substances, water in this case, is measured in terms of an index number and expressed as pH = hydrogen ion concentration. The scale ranges between 0 and 14. For baking, the ideal is water with a pH of just below 7.
pH above 7 = alkaline
pH of 7 = neutral
pH below 7 = acid
Effects on Baking
Most municipal supplies of water contain chlorine, which is used to ensure the purity of the water. Some cities add fluoride to their water supply to stop tooth decay. Neither chlorine nor fluoride is present in large enough quantities to affect dough in any way. In addition, most municipal water is treated to reduce excessive acidity, since this could be corrosive for the water lines. It is therefore unlikely that bakers using municipal water need to be concerned about extremely acidic water.
Soft water is another matter, as it can lead to sticky dough. An addition of yeast food, or a reduction in dough water, will help. Alkaline water tends to tighten the dough and retard fermentation, since enzymes work best in slightly acidic dough.
If there is a possibility of water problems, a sample should be forwarded to a laboratory for a complete analysis.
Image Descriptions
Figure 23 long description: A visual representation of pH with values indicated for common substances. The acidic range is the following: pH 0 is sulfuric acid (battery acid); pH 1 is stomach acid; pH 2 is lemon juice; pH 2.5 is carbonated beverages; pH 3 is vinegar; pH 3.5 is orange juice; pH 4 is tomatoes and acid rain; pH 4.5 is beer; pH 5 is coffee; pH 5.5 is pure rain and egg yolks; and pH 6.5 is milk. Saliva and freshly distilled water are neutral at pH 7. The alkaline range is the following: pH 7.2=5 is blood and tears; pH 8 is seawater; pH 8.2 is baking soda; pH 10.5 is milk of magnesia; pH 11.5 is household ammonia; pH 12.5 is household bleach; pH 13.5 is lye. [Return to Figure 23] | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/10%3A_Water/10.01%3A_Water_Hardness_and_pH.txt |
Functions of Salt in Baking
Salt has three major functions in baking. It affects:
• Fermentation
• Dough conditioning
• Flavour
Fermentation
Fermentation is salt’s major function:
• Salt slows the rate of fermentation, acting as a healthy check on yeast development.
• Salt prevents the development of any objectionable bacterial action or wild types of fermentation.
• Salt assists in oven browning by controlling the fermentation and therefore lessening the destruction of sugar.
• Salt checks the development of any undesirable or excessive acidity in the dough. It thus protects against undesirable action in the dough and effects the necessary healthy fermentation required to secure a finished product of high quality.
Dough Conditioning
Salt has a binding or strengthening effect on gluten and thereby adds strength to any flour. The additional firmness imparted to the gluten by the salt enables it to hold the water and gas better, and allows the dough to expand without tearing. This influence becomes particularly important when soft water is used for dough mixing and where immature flour must be used. Under both conditions, incorporating a maximum amount of salt will help prevent soft and sticky dough. Although salt has no direct bleaching effect, its action results in a fine-grained loaf of superior texture. This combination of finer grain and thin cell walls gives the crumb of the loaf a whiter appearance.
Flavour
One of the important functions of salt is its ability to improve the taste and flavour of all the foods in which it is used. Salt is one ingredient that makes bread taste so good. Without salt in the dough batch, the resulting bread would be flat and insipid. The extra palatability brought about by the presence of salt is only partly due to the actual taste of the salt itself. Salt has the peculiar ability to intensify the flavour created in bread as a result of yeast action on the other ingredients in the loaf. It brings out the characteristic taste and flavour of bread and, indeed, of all foods. Improved palatability in turn promotes the digestibility of food, so it can be said that salt enhances the nutritive value of bakery products. The lack of salt or too much of it is the first thing noticed when tasting bread. In some bread 2% can produce a decidedly salty taste, while in others the same amount gives a good taste. The difference is often due to the mineralization of the water used in the dough.
11.02: Types of Salt
Mined Rock Salt
In some countries, salt is mined from salt beds approximately 150 m to 300 m (490 ft. to 985 ft.) below Earth’s surface. Sometimes, impurities such as clay make it impossible to use rock salt without purification. Purification makes it possible to get the desired flavour and colour, thus making it edible. Edible salt is highly refined: pure and snow white.
Salt from Salt Brines
Salt can also be mined from natural salt beds by using water to extract the salt in the form of a brine, which saves having to construct a mine. Holes are drilled approximately 20 cm (8 in.) in diameter until the salt deposits are reached. A pipe is then driven into the salt beds and another pipe is driven inside the larger pipe further into the deposits. Pressurized water is forced through the outer pipe into the salt beds, and then pumped back out through the smaller pipe to the refineries. Through separation of the impurities, eventually all water in the brine will evaporate, leaving crystallized salt, which then can be dried, sifted, and graded in different sizes.
Ocean, Sea, and Lake Salt
In some countries, especially those with dry and warm climates, salt is recovered straight from the ocean or salt lakes. The salt water is collected in large shallow ponds (also called salt gardens) where, through the heat of the sun, the water slowly evaporates. Moving the salt solution from one pond to another until the salt crystals become clear and the water has evaporated eliminates impurities. The salt is then purified, dried completely, crushed, sifted, and graded.
11.03: Using Salt in Fermented Doughs
The average amount of salt to use in dough is about 1.75% to 2.25% based on the flour used. Some authorities recommend that the amount of salt used should be based on the actual quantity of water used in making the dough, namely about 30 g per L (1 oz. per qt.) of water.
During the hot summer months, many bakers find it advantageous to use slightly more salt than in the winter as a safeguard against the development of any undesirable changes in the dough fermentation. Salt should never be dissolved in the same water in which yeast is dissolved. It is an antiseptic and dehydrates yeast cells and can even kill part of them, which means that less power is in the dough and a longer fermentation is needed. In bread made by the sponge dough method and in liquid fermentation systems, a small amount of salt included in the first stage strengthens the gluten.
11.04: Storing Salt
Salt is very stable and does not spoil under ordinary conditions. However, it may have a slight tendency to absorb moisture and become somewhat lumpy and hard. Therefore, it is advisable to store it in a clean, cool, and dry place. Inasmuch as salt can absorb odours, the storage room should be free from any odour that might be taken up and carried by the salt.
11.05: Key Takeaways
• Salt is a naturally occurring substance and is mined, extracted from brines, or produced from evaporating seawater.
• Salt has many important functions in baking, such as:
• Enhancing flavour
• Controlling normal fermentation with manufactured yeast
• Controlling unwanted fermentation and acidity
• Improving fermentation tolerance
• Strengthening gluten
• Giving finer grain to bread
• Helping create good crust colour | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/11%3A_Salt/11.01%3A_Functions_of_Salt_in_Baking.txt |
• 12.1: Herbs
Herbs tend to be the leaves of fragrant plants that do not have a woody stem. Herbs are available fresh or dried, with fresh herbs having a more subtle flavour than dried. You need to add a larger quantity of fresh herbs (up to 50% more) than dry herbs to get the same desired flavour. Conversely, if a recipe calls for a certain amount of fresh herb, you would use about one-half of that amount of dry herb.
• 12.2: Seasoning and Flavouring
• 12.3: Elements of Taste
• 12.4: Flavourings in Baking
• 12.5: Condiments
• 12.6: Spices
Spices are aromatic substances obtained from the dried parts of plants such as the roots, shoots, fruits, bark, and leaves. They are sold as seeds, blends of spices, whole or ground spices, and seasonings. The aromatic substances that give a spice its particular aroma and flavour are the essential oils. The flavour of the essential oil or flavouring compound will vary depending on the quality and freshness of the spice.
• 12.7: Alcohol and Spirits
• 12.8: Key Takeaways
12: Spices and Other Flavourings
Herbs tend to be the leaves of fragrant plants that do not have a woody stem. Herbs are available fresh or dried, with fresh herbs having a more subtle flavour than dried. You need to add a larger quantity of fresh herbs (up to 50% more) than dry herbs to get the same desired flavour. Conversely, if a recipe calls for a certain amount of fresh herb, you would use about one-half of that amount of dry herb.
The most common fresh herbs are basil, coriander, marjoram, oregano, parsley, rosemary, sage, tarragon, and thyme. Fresh herbs should have a clean, fresh fragrance and be free of wilted or brown leaves. They can be kept for about five days if sealed inside an airtight plastic bag. Fresh herbs are usually added near the completion of the cooking process so flavours are not lost due to heat exposure.
Dried herbs lose their power rather quickly if not properly stored in airtight containers. They can last up to six months if properly stored. Dried herbs are usually added at the start of the cooking process as their flavour takes longer to develop than fresh herbs.
12.02: Seasoning and Flavouring
Many ingredients are used to enhance the taste of foods. These ingredients can be used to provide both seasoning and flavouring.
• Seasoning means to bring out or intensify the natural flavour of the food without changing it. Seasonings are usually added near the end of the cooking period. The most common seasonings are salt, pepper, and acids (such as lemon juice). When seasonings are used properly, they cannot be tasted; their job is to heighten the flavours of the original ingredients.
• Flavouring refers to something that changes or modifies the original flavour of the food. Flavouring can be used to contrast a taste such as adding liqueur to a dessert where both the added flavour and the original flavour are perceptible. Or flavourings can be used to create a unique flavour in which it is difficult to discern what the separate flavourings are. Spice blends used in pumpkin pies are a good example of this.
Knowing how to use seasonings and flavourings skilfully provides cooks and bakers with an arsenal with which they can create limitless flavour combinations.
Flavouring and seasoning ingredients include wines, spirits, fruit zests, extracts, essences, and oils. However, the main seasoning and flavouring ingredients are classified as herbs and spices.
Knowing the difference between herbs and spices is not as important as knowing how to use seasonings and flavourings skilfully. In general, fresh seasonings are added late in the cooking process while dry ones tend to be added earlier. It is good practice to under-season during the cooking process and then add more seasonings (particularly if you are using fresh ones) just before presentation. This is sometimes referred to as “layering.” When baking, it is difficult to add more seasoning at the end, so testing recipes to ensure the proper amount of spice is included is a critical process.
12.03: Elements of Taste
Essentially there are a handful of elements that compose all of the taste profiles found in the foods we eat. Western definitions of taste conventionally define four major elements of taste:
• Salty
• Sweet
• Sour
• Bitter
Asian cultures have added the following to the list:
• Umami (literally “pleasant savoury taste”)
• Spiciness
• Astringency
Foods and recipes that contain a number of these elements in balance are generally those that we think of as tasting good.
12.04: Flavourings in Baking
Flavours cannot be considered a truly basic ingredient in bakery products but are important in producing the most desirable products. Flavouring materials consist of:
• Extracts or essences
• Emulsions
• Aromas
• Spices
Note
Salt may also be classed as a flavouring material because it intensifies other flavours.
These and others (such as chocolate) enable the baker to produce a wide variety of attractively flavoured pastries, cakes, and other bakery products. Flavour extracts, essences, emulsions, and aromas are all solutions of flavour mixed with a solvent, often ethyl alcohol.
The flavours used to make extracts and essences are the extracted essential oils from fruits, herbs, and vegetables, or an imitation of the same. Many fruit flavours are obtained from the natural parts (e.g., rind of lemons and oranges or the exterior fruit pulp of apricots and peaches). In some cases, artificial flavour is added to enhance the taste, and artificial colouring may be added for eye appeal. Both the Canadian and U.S. departments that regulate food restrict these and other additives. The flavours are sometimes encapsulated in corn syrup and emulsifiers. They may also be coated with gum to preserve the flavour compounds and give longer shelf life to the product. Some of the most popular essences are compounded from both natural and artificial sources. These essences have the true taste of the natural flavours.
Aromas are flavours that have an oil extract base. They are usually much more expensive than alcoholic extracts but purer and finer in their aromatic composition. Aromas are used for flavouring delicate creams, sauces, and ice creams.
Emulsions are homogenized mixtures of aromatic oils and water plus a stabilizing agent (e.g., vegetable gum). Emulsions are more concentrated than extracts and are less susceptible to losing their flavour in the oven. They can therefore be used more sparingly.
12.05: Condiments
The wide variety of condiments available to flavour and season foods provides cooks and bakers with almost innumerable opportunities to create tasty and interesting dishes. It must be reinforced that the condiment is there to enhance the dish, not to overwhelm and mask the taste of poor quality or bad foods. Common condiments are hot sauces, Worcestershire sauce, etc. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/12%3A_Spices_and_Other_Flavourings/12.01%3A_Herbs.txt |
Spices are aromatic substances obtained from the dried parts of plants such as the roots, shoots, fruits, bark, and leaves. They are sold as seeds, blends of spices, whole or ground spices, and seasonings. The aromatic substances that give a spice its particular aroma and flavour are the essential oils. The flavour of the essential oil or flavouring compound will vary depending on the quality and freshness of the spice.
The aromas of ground spices are volatile. This means they lose their odour or flavouring when left exposed to the air for extended periods. They should be stored in sealed containers when not in use. Whole beans or unground seeds have a longer shelf life but should also be stored in sealed containers.
Allspice
Allspice is only one spice, yet it has a flavour resembling a blend of cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon. At harvest time, the mature (but still green) berries from the allspice trees (a small tropical evergreen) are dried in the sun. During drying they turn reddish-brown and become small berries. The berries are about 0.6 cm (1/4 in.) in diameter and contain dark brown seeds.
Allspice is grown principally in Jamaica and to a lesser degree in Mexico. Allspice is available whole or ground. Bakers usually use ground allspice in cakes, cookies, spices, and pies.
Anise
Anise is the small, green-grey fruit or seed of a plant of the parsley family. The plant grows to a height of 45 cm (18 in.) and has fine leaves with clusters of small white flowers. It is native to Mexico and Spain, with the latter being the principal producer. Anise seeds are added to pastries, breads, cookies, and candies.
Caraway
Caraway is the dried fruit or seed of a biennial plant of the parsley family, harvested every second year, primarily in the Netherlands. It is also produced in Poland and Russia. The many-branched, hollow-stemmed herb grows up to 60 cm (24 in.) high and has small white flowers. Caraway is a small crescent-shaped brown seed with a pleasant aroma but somewhat sharp taste. Although it is most familiar in rye bread, caraway is also used in cookies and cakes.
Cardamom
Native to India, Sri Lanka, and Guatemala, cardamom is the fruit or seed of a plant of the ginger family. The three-sided, creamy-white, flavourless pod holds the tiny aromatic, dark brown seeds. It is available in whole and ground (pod removed). Cardamom in ground form flavours Danish pastries and coffee cakes, Christmas baking, and Easter baking such as hot cross buns.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon comes from the bark of an aromatic evergreen tree. It is native to China, Indonesia, and Indochina. Cinnamon may be purchased in ground form or as cinnamon sticks. Ground cinnamon is used in pastries, breads, puddings, cakes, candy, and cookies. Cinnamon sticks are used for preserved fruits and flavouring puddings. Cinnamon sugar is made with approximately 50 g (2 oz.) of cinnamon to 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of granulated sugar.
Cassia
Cassia, sometimes known as Chinese cinnamon, is native to Assam and Myanmar. It is similar to cinnamon but a little darker with a sharper taste. It is considered better for savoury rather than sweet foods. It is prized in Germany and some other countries as a flavour in chocolate.
Cloves
Cloves are the dried, unopened buds of a tropical evergreen tree, native to Indonesia. The flavour is characterized by a sweet, pungent spiciness. The nail-shaped whole cloves are mainly used in cooking, but the ground version of this spice heightens the flavour of mincemeat, baked goods, fruit pies, and plum pudding.
Ginger
Ginger is one of the few spices that grow below the ground. It is native to southern Asia but is now imported from Jamaica, India, and Africa. The part of the ginger plant used is obtained from the root. Ground ginger is the most commonly used form in baking — in fruitcakes, cookies, fruit pies, and gingerbread. Candied ginger is used in pastries and confectionery.
Mace
Originating in the East and West Indies, mace is the fleshy growth between the nutmeg shell and outer husk, yellow-orange in colour. It is usually sold ground, but sometimes whole mace (blades of mace) is available. Mace is used in pound cakes, breads, puddings, and pastries.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg is the kernel or seed of the nutmeg fruit. The fruit is similar to the peach. The fleshy husk, grooved on one side, splits, releasing the deep-brown aromatic nutmeg. It is available whole or ground. Ground nutmeg is used extensively in custards, cream puddings, spice cakes, gingerbread, and doughnuts.
Poppy Seed
Poppy seed comes from the Netherlands and Asia. The minute, blue-grey, kidney-shaped seeds are so small they seem to be round. Poppy seeds are used in breads and rolls, cakes and cookies, and fillings for pastries.
Sesame or Benne Seed
Sesame or benne seeds are the seeds of the fruit of a tropical annual herb grown in India, China, and Turkey. The seeds are tiny, shiny, and creamy-white with a rich almond-like flavour and aroma. Bakers use sesame seeds in breads, buns, coffee cakes, and cookies.
Vanilla
The Spaniards named vanilla. The word derives from vaina, meaning pod. Vanilla is produced from an orchid-type plant native to Central America. The vanilla beans are cured by a complicated process, which helps explain the high cost of genuine vanilla. The cured pods should be black in colour and packed in airtight boxes. Imitation vanilla extracts are made from a colourless crystalline synthetic compound called vanillin. Pure vanilla extract is superior to imitation vanilla. Artificial vanilla is more intense than real vanilla by a factor of 3 to 4 and must be used sparingly.
To use vanilla beans, split the pod down the middle to scrape out the seeds. The seeds are the flavouring agents. Alternatively, the split pod can be simmered in the milk or cream used in dessert preparation. Its flavouring power is not spent in one cooking and it can be drained, kept frozen, and reused. A vanilla bean kept in a container of icing sugar imparts the flavour to the sugar, all ready for use in cookies and cakes.
Vanilla extract is volatile at temperatures starting at 138°C (280°F) and is therefore not ideal for flat products such as cookies. It is suitable for cakes, where the interior temperature does not get so high.
Vanilla beans and vanilla extract are used extensively by bakers to flavour a wide range of desserts and other items.
12.07: Alcohol and Spirits
Alcohol and Spirits
Alcohol itself does not contribute to the flavour of foods; only the main flavour component of the liquors or liqueurs does. Care should be taken to evaporate the alcohol fully or it may leave a bitter aftertaste in the dish.
Many bakers and pastry chefs use spirits to impart flavour. Two categories are of interest to the pastry chef: brandies and liqueurs. Their origin, the ingredients used to flavour them if any, the alcohol content, and the sugar content help differentiate these products.
• Brandy usually has an alcohol content ranging from a minimum of 40% to a maximum of 55%. Brandy derives from wine, usually white wine. Another classification of brandies made from fruits other than grapes is called eau-de-vie and includes Calvados (apple), Kirsch (cherry), and Williams (pear).
Liqueurs are mixtures of fine spirits, brandy, sugar, and flavouring. In Canada, they usually have an alcohol content ranging from 17% to 40% and at least 10% sugar. Because they are volatile substances that vaporize when heated, they should be used mainly for drenching cakes or flavouring creams and icings.
Note: Alcohol content is measured in Canada by volume. Water is 0%; pure alcohol is 100%. In the United States, the term proof is used. One degree proof is one-half a degree of alcohol by volume. Thus, 80 proof in the U.S. is equivalent to 40% by volume in Canada.
Since flavouring materials have a limited storage life, it is wise to buy a minimum at any one time. Protect all flavours from light and store in airtight containers. Flavourings lose their strength when stored too long. Protect liquid flavour from light, store in amber bottles, and keep bottle tops tight to avoid loss of flavour strength.
12.08: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Spices and flavours are essential to give interest to baked products. They must be used with discretion, as too much flavour is worse than no flavour at all.
• Different types of flavouring materials must be used in different dosages.
• All spices and flavourings are volatile and must be kept sealed and protected from light. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/12%3A_Spices_and_Other_Flavourings/12.06%3A_Spices.txt |
Fresh Fruit
The wide range of taste and colour makes fresh fruit appealing. What is more irresistible than a fresh strawberry tart? However, fresh fruit has its disadvantages:
• It requires more handling. Fruit such as kiwi and banana must be peeled and cut to size.
• It is prone to spoilage due to enzyme activity and moisture level.
Fresh fruit is used as:
• An ingredient (e.g., bananas or blueberries in cakes and muffins)
• A topping for fruit flans, tarts, and cakes
• A filling along with cream in jelly rolls, layer cakes, and mousse cakes
• In sauces or coulis to accompany cheesecakes or plated desserts
Here are some tips when using fresh fruit:
• Certain fruits such as pineapple have enzymes that counteract gelatin setting.
• Fresh fruit oxidizes and changes colour when exposed to air. Peeled apples may be immersed in slightly acidified water (lemon juice) to prevent this. Prolonged soaking leaches out nutrients.
• Some fruit is better broken into small pieces or puréed to minimize browning in baked products. Bananas fall into this category.
• Excess fruit, even bananas, can be frozen. In the case of bananas, freeze them in the skin, defrost and use in banana muffins or cakes; there will be some discoloration but not objectionably so in this type of product.
• When used as a topping on flans and tarts, fresh fruit is usually glazed thinly to prevent oxidation and impart a brilliant shine.
13.02: Frozen Fruit
Frozen Fruit
Many fruits freeze well and are convenient for the baker, with the disadvantage of having an associated energy cost.
• Frozen blueberries have less tendency to break down and discolour the batter when worked into quick bread recipes.
• Certain frozen soft fruit such as raspberries can be partly thawed in the cooler and used on fresh fruit flans and tarts. Strawberries, however, don’t work well, becoming too soft.
13.03: Canned or Bottled Fruit
Canned or Bottled Fruit
Canned or bottled fruit has the following advantages:
• Products have a long shelf life.
• Products are convenient. (Think of the time saved by using solid-pack apples.)
• They require no energy costs.
• Some juice may be beneficial, for example, in mixes leavened by sodium bicarbonate, where the acid in the juice/syrup reacts with the bicarbonate. Crushed pineapple in muffins is an example of this.
Keep in mind that if the canned or bottled fruit is packed in syrup, the syrup may have variable ratios of sugar. Most of today’s canning uses low sugar levels. When using fruit as a topping, be sure to drain it well.
13.04: Partially Dried Fruits
Partially Dried Fruits
Partially dried fruits have the advantages of long shelf life and reduced bulk. Care must be taken to seal well when not in use, as the fruit can go dry and hard when exposed to air.
Raisins are the dominant partially dried fruit in baking and are used in:
• Pies and squares
• Bread and buns
• Cakes and pastries
Raisin is the commercial name given to sun-dried or mechanically dried grapes. Drying reduces the moisture content, simultaneously resulting in increased sugar content. It is the greater sugar content that preserves the fruit against bacterial attack.
The United States accounts for about one-third of the world’s raisin production, heavily centred in the San Joaquim Valley in California. Well over 90% of these are the Thompson seedless variety.
Dark raisins are dried in the sun over a period of 8 to 14 days. Golden raisins undergo a different process and are never allowed to dry in the sun. The steps for golden raisins are:
• Dipping in caustic solution to remove the waxy bloom and cause cracks to form, speeding up the escape of moisture
• Washing to remove the caustic solution
• Travelling through ovens where sulphur dioxide treatment preserves the colour
• Going through a final oven drying to complete drying
• Inspecting and fumigating to prevent insect infestation
• Packaging
Conditioning Raisins
There are two methods of conditioning raisins:
• They are soaked in tepid water at about 27°C (80°F) for five minutes, and then drained for one hour
• They are covered with water at about 27°C (80°F) and immediately drained without soaking. They are then set aside, covered, and left for a few hours. The raisins will slowly take up the moisture.
The second method is preferred because no sugar is lost from the fruit. In both cases, there is a moisture gain of about 10%. Bakers may choose to condition batches of raisins sufficient for a few days’ or a week’s supply.
Raisin Varieties Used in Bakeries
There are four main varieties of raisins used in bakeries:
• Thompson: Seedless, thin-skinned, and available in suntan or golden yellow colour, they are a popular ingredient in the production of light fruitcakes.
• Sultanas: A lot like Thompson raisins except, but these are round in shape and have a trace of small edible seeds. They are firm with a tart flavour and are used in breads, buns, cakes, puddings, mincemeat, etc.
• Currants: Originating in Greece where they are called the “raisin of Corinth,” these raisins are now grown in California as the Black Zante currant. Currants are very small seedless raisins and have a very tangy flavour that is different from other raisins. (They are occasionally confused with black currants, which are a different berry, also with a tart flavour.) Bakers use them in buns, fruitcakes, and puddings.
• Muscats: Called “Muscat of Alexandria,” they were brought to California from Egypt in 1851. They are very large with a high sugar content and are famous for their flavour. They are sold as regular muscats or seeded muscats in which the seeds have been removed with special machines. They mush easily, don’t hold their shape well, and are therefore not well suited for use in bread and buns but are excellent for use in pie fillings, mincemeat, and puddings.
Storing Raisins
Natural raisins packed in bulk fibre cases can be stored for several months at room temperature without any noticeable loss in flavour or colour if protected against insects. The humidity level (ideally relative humidity of 50%) is important and the raisins should be sealed well between uses. If the humidity increases too much, raisins will start to “sugar”; that is, sugar crystals will develop on the exterior surface (similar to the sugar bloom on chocolate candies). This does not mean that the fruit is unusable.
Apart from raisins, other dried fruits are widely available and can be treated and used in much the same way.
13.05: Preserved Fruit
Preserved Fruit
Two forms of preserved fruit are available:
• Jams and jellies cooked with high ratios of sugar. They have the advantage of a long shelf life.
• Fruits that may by partly cooked, such as pie fillings, with relatively moderate levels of sugar and set with starch. These keep well in the cooler but will ferment over time if carelessly handled. They are used as:
• Fillings and toppings for cookies and flans (e.g., Linzer torte)
• Fillings in pies and tarts
• Fillings in puff pastry items
• Fillings in sponge cakes, for flavour and variety
• Toppings and/or fillings in sweet dough items
13.06: Candied Fruit
Glacé Cherries and Other Fruits
The steps for processing glacé fruit are as follows:
• Blanching (and bleaching in the case of cherries): Bleaching cherries is done mainly to give them a uniform colour and also to enable the manufacturer to offer different colours.
• Boiling in a sugar syrup consisting of 30% glucose and 70% sucrose: The sugar concentration is increased gradually, from a 14% sugar level to close to 70%.
• The presence of glucose in the syrup prevents crystallization in the finished product. The sugar content is responsible for preservation.
Glacé Peel
Glacé peel, which is made from the rind of oranges, lemons, and grapefruits, goes through the same process as glacé fruit. Glacé peel is a by-product in the manufacturing of fruit juices, and is sold as candied lemon or orange peel, or mixed candied peel.
There are many different varieties of glacé fruits under many different brand names on the market. They vary in price according to their mix, the more expensive ones consisting mainly of fruit and cherries while the cheaper ones containing a lot of peel and increasing amounts of candied rutabaga. The cheapest variety of “peel” consists entirely of diced rutabaga.
Other Candied Products
Angelika, used more in Europe than in North America, is the stem of a rhubarb-like plant. When fresh, the candied stem is a pleasant green and is cut into thin diamonds to simulate leaves on pastries and cakes. Mentioned earlier in this book was the marrons glacés, an expensive item and in the showcase of every fine pastry shop in Italy. Flower petals such as rose and violet have syrup dribbled over them to preserve them and to make a beautiful and unusual decoration on petits fours.
13.07: Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
• Bakers use fruits to increase the variety and appeal of their products. Fruits add colour and flavour, and are generally highly nutritious.
• When used as ingredients in cakes and quick breads, fruits retain moisture and prolong keeping quality.
• Raisins in particular improve the nutritional value of baked goods and have a mould-retarding effect in bread.
For more information on fruit, consult the following websites: | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Understanding_Ingredients_for_the_Canadian_Baker/13%3A_Fruit/13.01%3A_Fresh_Fruit.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe personal attributes and professionalism in the workplace
• Describe roles and responsibilities in the workplace
Working in the hospitality industry takes a certain kind of individual. The industry itself can be very rewarding and a lot of fun, but it also requires people who like to work with other people, enjoy a fast-paced environment, and enjoy a lot of variety in their routine, as things often change from day to day and week to week. Not all jobs in the industry require the same skills, so it is important for those who are interested in a career, either in the front or back of the house, to understand their own skills and interests, and then use that information to find the right “fit” when it comes to a job. If you don’t enjoy talking to new people and being outgoing, then likely a career in the front of the house isn’t for you. However, if you are creative, enjoy working with your hands, and find working as a team rewarding, then you might be the perfect candidate for a position in the kitchen.
1.02: Industry Expectations
The hospitality and food service industry has a longstanding tradition of quality of service and dedication to putting customer needs first. Though extremely diverse, the industry has an expectation of workers to be professional, productive, respectful, and responsive to customer needs. No matter which style of operation you are working in, it is important to remember why you chose this career path in the first place and always to respect your job and the other people you work with. The main attributes that will make you successful are commitment, dedication, and passion for what you do.
Additionally, people working in the industry often collaborate outside of their workplaces to drive the industry forward by joining and participating in local or national trade and professional associations, local food movements and events, and other activities that maintain a strong presence and voice in the community for the industry. By joining the food service industry, you should realize that your work is more than a job — some would describe it as a lifestyle — and being supportive of all the aspects of industry mentioned above will only enhance your experience.
The hospitality industry is also very connected through social media and other channels, and therefore as someone working in the trade, you are expected to be respectful of your peers, and when you are out on your own time, to treat your colleagues as you would like your customers to treat you.
1.03: Employer Expectations
Your employer pays you to do a job. The job involves performing the work you have been hired to do, whether it is cleaning, serving food, baking bread, or cooking on the line for a customer. Your employer expects you to act professionally and exhibit certain behaviours. Your job depends on your ability to assist your employer to make money. If the business loses money, your job may disappear. At the top of their list of expectations, most employers would include commitment, enthusiasm, dependability, honesty, and a willingness to learn and accept feedback. Table 1 details what is meant by these characteristics, which together would be considered professionalism.
Table 1. Employer expectations
Expectation Do’s Don’ts
Commitment
• Try to make the business look good
• Work hard for the organization
• Do your best
• Dress appropriately
• Criticize the organization to outsiders
• Be mostly concerned about what the organization can do for you
Enthusiasm
• Be interested in your work
• Share your ideas
• Be cheerful
• Give others help
• Do only enough to get by
• Do not care about the quality of the work
• Be uncooperative
• Complain about your job
Dependability
• Arrive at work on time
• Finish assigned work on schedule
• Call when you miss work due to illness
• Fulfill commitments
• Use sick days only for legitimate illness or injury
• Arrive at work late
• Do not finish assigned work
• Miss work without notifying the employer
• Be absent from work often
• Make excuses
• Do not follow through on commitments
Honesty
• Admit your mistakes
• Express your opinions
• Take tools or materials for your own use
• Try to get away with as much as you can
Willingness to Learn
• Listen carefully to instructions
• Ask questions when you do not understand
• Try new things
• Learn from your own mistakes
• Ignore instructions
• Dislike taking advice
Accept Feedback
• Be open to suggestions made by others
• Use constructive criticism to improve the quality of work
• Learn from suggestions
• Get angry or sulk when criticized
• Reject suggestions
• Be unreceptive to learning new things
• Tend to repeat mistakes | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/01%3A_Personal_Attributes_and_Professionalism/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Doing your job well means doing it correctly, working neatly, handling equipment and materials properly, and working safely.
Do the Job Correctly
When a job is done correctly, your customers will be happy and satisfied. A job done correctly means no complaints or call-backs, and could mean a compliment or recommendation from the customer or your supervisor.
Here are a few examples from the industry of the implications of not doing the job correctly:
Cleaning: If a restaurant worker assigned to clean up only drags a damp mop over the floor in areas where there is obvious dirt, he or she has not cleaned the floor properly. If the health inspector makes a surprise visit and finds that the floor looks relatively clean but has not been properly sanitized, there could be consequences for everyone. In extreme cases, the whole restaurant may be shut down until the inspector is sure the operation meets basic cleanliness requirements.
Rotation of food supplies in the kitchen: The employees who start to use the freshest items before perfectly good older items are consumed can cost the business money if the older items have to be thrown out the next day.
Serving meals: If one customer senses that another customer has received better service, the business may have just lost the first customer and maybe even more if that person shares the bad experience with friends and others, such as through an online review site. In fact, most people are more likely to share a story of a bad dining experience than they are a good one. Always strive to give the customer the very best possible experience you can!
Work Neatly
Neatness pleases customers and employers. Many people think that the condition of a work area reflects a person’s work habits. They figure that someone with a messy work area probably does messy work. Working neatly and in an organized way is also the key to working efficiently.
Neatness saves time and trouble. In a neat work area, you do not have to waste time looking for tools or equipment. Neatness is necessary for safety. A sloppy work area is usually a dangerous one as well. It is easy to trip over objects left on the floor, to slip on spilled liquids, or to get hurt on something sharp or hot that has been left lying around. Often, clutter hides other dangers, like a frayed electric cord or a broken container.
When you finish a task or leave for the day, clean the work area, replace tools in tool boxes, and stack materials in their designated location. It makes for a great start the next day.
Handle Equipment and Materials Properly
Employers supply their workers with equipment and materials needed to do the job. These supplies cost employers money, so they want to see that they are used properly. Abused equipment and wasted materials show an employer that you do not care about the job or the employer. Your employer has estimated the price for a menu item based on the amount of time and materials it should take to prepare the meal. If you take too long to prepare the item or waste expensive ingredients, you obviously do not share your employer’s concern for costs.
Some employees think the employer is too big or rich to notice some waste here and there. Or they feel that taking care of the employer’s property is not their responsibility. Knives and food go missing and these employees simply assume that it’s not their problem. Employees with this attitude do not realize that such waste hurts them as much as their employer.
Your job depends on the success of the business. Profits go down when the business must spend money replacing wasted, damaged, or stolen property. Lower profits can mean lower salaries or fewer pay raises. If the losses are too great and the restaurant closes, you could lose your job.
Work Safely
Part of any job is learning and following safety rules. All workers need to be concerned about careless or unsafe acts. When you start a job, learn the safety rules and special hazards (dangers) of the job. Find out where the fire extinguishers, fire exits, and first aid kit are located.
If you see an unsafe condition or a safety violation, you can prevent accidents by doing something about it immediately. If you find a safety hazard, take action in one or more of these ways:
• Try to correct the unsafe condition
• Warn others
• Inform your supervisor
• Inform those who caused the safety violation
• Inform the safety officer or repair staff
• Check to be sure the violation has been corrected
Time Management
Some workers think that a good attendance record is enough to satisfy the employer’s expectations. However, they arrive on time but then interrupt their workday by doing personal tasks. It is so easy to waste work time that many employees do not realize they are doing it. For example, some people take long lunch breaks or too many coffee breaks; others spend time on the phone with friends or handling personal business. Some waste time by socializing with co-workers when they should be working. This wastes twice as much time, since the co-workers also stop working.
Wasting company time, like missing work, costs the employer money. Employers must give you an unpaid meal break of half an hour after five hours of work. They do not have to give you coffee breaks, although many do. (Contracts and collective agreements may increase unpaid break times and stipulate paid breaks.) However, when break time is over, employers have the right to expect you to work.
Some tasks have assigned deadlines whereas others do not. For tasks that do not have assigned deadlines, employers expect you to set goals for yourself. To get your work done on time, try to figure out how long it will take to finish a certain amount of work. Depending on your position, you may be given tasks with a broader focus. You may be put in charge of a certain event for example. This requires you to establish deadlines for the scope of work (e.g., when the order of food must be placed, when certain components of the menu must be prepared, and ultimately the day, time, setup, and service of the food all become part of your work). Whatever the amount of responsibility you have at the time, consider the points regarding getting your work done as important tools for success.
Getting your work done on time helps you to keep your job. You need to:
• Set priorities
• Begin the job right away
• Keep working until the job is done
• Keep deadlines in mind and stick to them
• Use resources efficiently
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is influenced by a number of factors, such as:
• Pay
• Benefits
• Working conditions
• Opportunities for advancement
• Job security
These factors also seem to be the first things considered when people decide whether or not to take or change jobs. In addition, there are other factors that contribute to job satisfaction on an everyday basis. Recognition, appreciation, respect, courtesy, and good management-worker relations often have greater everyday importance than do the rate of pay and job security.
The working relationships you develop with others will be extremely important to your success and the satisfaction that you derive from your job. Studies reveal that people more frequently resign from a job because of how they have been treated or valued rather than dissatisfaction with their pay. A personal sense of worth and identity is very important. Sometimes people find themselves in jobs that are less than satisfying for any one of the reasons identified above, or because they are not suited to that particular job. Often quitting is not an option, especially in tough economic times when other opportunities are limited. It is important to recognize that working in an environment where you feel constantly frustrated or unhappy may cause physical or mental problems, some of which may be severe. Studies indicate that people unhappy in their jobs have more accidents. In some cases, people who are unhappy at work but cannot leave or change their jobs learn to separate their self-esteem from their work and find their primary satisfaction in family or leisure activities, while for others it may have the opposite effect, and they bring their work frustrations home with them.
Attendance and Punctuality
Employers get frustrated when their employees are not at work when they are scheduled to be. There is a job to be done and when workers do not show up, the business loses valuable time and money. When you take a job, it is up to you to arrange how to get to work every day on time. If you miss work or arrive late too often, you may:
• Be warned by your supervisor
• Be resented by your co-workers
• Receive a poor rating on your performance review
• Miss a promotion or raise
• Lose pay
• Be subject to a suspension or even lose your job
It is extremely important that you communicate any attendance or punctuality issues with your supervisor as soon as you become aware of them. If you know that you might be slightly late on a particular day and your supervisor knows in advance, he or she can schedule accordingly. However, if you arrive late without telling anyone, it shows a lack of respect for the schedule, your job, the business, and your co-workers. Communication is key.
Warnings
The first time you come in late your supervisor will probably not do much more than speak to you about it. If it happens again, you may be reprimanded and given a warning that continual lateness may cost you your job. Sometimes you cannot help being late or absent; in that case, you should let your supervisor know why as soon as possible. You may have a sudden sickness in your family or experience car trouble on the way to work, but even these reasons may not be acceptable if they happen too often.
Resentment
When you are late or absent, it usually makes things harder for your co-workers. They may have to do your share of the work until you arrive. If you are a part of a team, a whole crew may have to stand around waiting for you. Although most people do not mind helping in an emergency, they do not want to do your job or be delayed by you.
Ratings
Supervisors evaluate their workers on a regular basis, usually once or twice a year. If you are often late or absent, your attendance rating will be affected. A low rating affects not only your present job but also can impact you later when you apply for jobs with other businesses and they phone for a reference.
Promotions and raises
Your lateness and absence may cost you a raise or a chance for promotion. If you cannot be relied on to show up, you give your employer the impression that you do not take the job seriously.
Pay loss
If you are not putting in a full day’s work, why should you be paid for one? Employers lose money when workers do not put in their full time. If you are absent, you may lose a full day’s pay, and if you are late, your employer only has to pay you for the hours you worked.
Suspension or job loss
If you continue to be absent or late, you will lose your job. Most employers will give you a few warnings and then proceed to a suspension without pay. If your attendance does not improve, the employer has little choice but to let you go.
Employee evaluation
Employers want workers who have good work attitudes and who practise good work habits. They expect you to come to work on time, dress properly, follow rules and instructions, and get the job done correctly and on time.
Many employers use rating scales to evaluate workers’ job performance and work attitudes. These ratings are placed in your personnel file. When your supervisor is considering promoting or firing you, these files are used to help in the decision. The list below is typical of an employee evaluation.
• Has a good attendance record (is seldom late or absent)
• Makes good use of time (starts work promptly; does not waste time)
• Meets deadlines (plans ahead and sees that work is finished on time)
• Shows initiative (works hard without being told to)
• Does not give up easily (tries and tries again)
• Shows honesty (can be trusted; accepts the blame for own mistakes)
• Is dependable (always finishes the job)
• Does not waste materials (plans and works carefully so no goods are damaged or wasted; takes good care of tools and equipment)
• Obeys safety rules (prevents accidents by following all safety instructions)
• Follows instructions (pays attention to directions and follows them carefully)
• Is willing to learn (shows interest in improving job performance; follows suggestions)
• Works accurately (takes care to do things right; does not make careless mistakes, keeps good records)
• Gets along well with others (supervisors, co-workers, and customers; works cooperatively and is thoughtful and respectful of others)
• Shows loyalty (speaks well of the employer and its products; does not give out confidential information) | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/01%3A_Personal_Attributes_and_Professionalism/1.04%3A_Employees_Role.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe food service occupations
There are many careers in the food service industry for talented and well-trained individuals. Opportunities in this industry have been steadily increasing for the last several decades and the demand for skilled people, at times, has exceeded the number of suitable applicants. Currently, there is expected to be higher demand for jobs than there are available people to work, and shortages in the tourism and hospitality industry could be as high as 15,000 people by 2020 (go2HR, 2012).
Occupations in the industry generally fall into three categories: front of house; back of house, and administrative. Front of house occupations include those responsible for serving the food and the customers, such as waiters, hosts/hostesses, and bussers. Back of house occupations include those responsible for preparing the food, including cooks, chefs, and dishwashers. Administrative occupations are those which help grow the business or keep it running, including human resource and finance staff, and general managers and owners.
2.02: Skill Levels
Types of employment depend on skill levels. In the restaurant industry, employment opportunities can be sorted into three general categories based on training and experience. These job categories are entry level, skilled, and supervisory.
The first category of jobs is entry level. Entry-level employment usually requires no particular skills or experience. At this level, front of house employees will be working as hosts/hostesses or bussers, and back of house employees usually do routine jobs such as washing vegetables, preparing hamburgers or chicken orders in fast-food outlets, or even washing pots and pans. In the past, many chefs started working in the industry at this level. Even today, workers who have just completed professional cooking courses often find themselves in situations that do not require the training they have received and start in entry-level positions. However, these students probably will move on to more challenging industry jobs and advance quicker than their untrained co-workers.
The second category of jobs can be described as skilled and technical. Skilled workers in the hospitality industry are those who have taken professional cook training or apprenticeship programs and, for the front of house, hospitality training or bartending programs. These are the workers who actually carry out the tasks needed for a food service operation to be successful.
The third category of jobs is supervisory in nature. Individuals working in supervisory roles need to be experienced in the industry and can effectively organize and motivate other skilled workers. In addition to front line and skilled technical experience, the supervisor should be able to control costs, schedule production, manage budgets, and work well with other people even in the most pressure-packed situations.
2.03: Food Service Positions and Job Titles
Back of House
Efficient kitchens are well-organized kitchens. Most kitchens are organized into stations or sections, with each responsible for preparing different food or menu items. All the stations together form what is called the line. Usually, each station on the line has a separate name, but job titles often reflect the experience and the skills of the cook. This can be a bit confusing. For example, in larger establishments the positions of first cook, second cook, and third cook are common, but the skills and qualifications of people with these job titles can vary from restaurant to restaurant, and in some cases may be linked to salary structures within the collective agreement of a union. As well, many people call themselves a chef when they are in reality a cook in a restaurant or someone who has taken culinary training.
The traditional hierarchy of the kitchen is a system called the brigade, created in France in the 19th century by Auguste Escoffier. Although most modern restaurants do not follow the traditional brigade system to the letter, many of the positions in restaurants are still referred to using the French terminology. Read the full listing of job titles in the traditional brigade online.
Table 2 lists job titles from the brigade system that are still in common use and describes how they fit into the modern restaurant structure. Important titles to know are bolded.
Table 2. Kitchen positions
Traditional Title Modern Alternatives Duties
Chef, Chef de Cuisine Kitchen manager In charge of the whole kitchen
Sous-Chef, Executive Sous Chef None Second in command of the kitchen; supervises when the chef is absent
Chef de Partie Section cook In charge of a section or station
Entremetier Vegetable station Preparation of vegetables, starches, and accompaniments
Saucier Sauce or sauté station Preparation of sauces, hot appetizers, and finishing most entrées
Garde Manger Salad station, cold kitchen Preparation of cold kitchen items such as salads and cold appetizers
Tournant Swing cook Rotates between stations in the kitchen
Pâtissier Pastry cook/Pastry chef Preparation of desserts
Poissonier Fish station Preparation of fish and seafood
Grillardin Grill cook Preparation of grilled or broiled items
Cuisineur Cook, Line cook Preparation of a wide variety of foods
Commis Junior cook Preparation of a wide variety of foods
Front of House
A similar structure exists in the front of the house, with restaurant and dining room managers having their own teams of servers, hosts/hostesses, bussers, and bartenders to serve guests. The traditional brigade hierarchy also covered the front of house positions, and is still commonly used in France to this day, but only two have remained in common usage in Canada, namely maître d’hôtel (or maître d’ for short) and sommelier. Typical front of house positions and responsibilities are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Front of house positions
Title Alternatives Duties
Maître d’/Maître d’Hotel Dining room or restaurant manager In charge of the front of the house
Sommelier Wine steward Responsible for maintaining wine lists and the ordering and service of wine
Server Waiter/waitress Takes orders, leads service
Busser None Sets and clears tables
Host/Hostess None Seats guests and often processes payment
Bartender None Prepares drinks and beverages
Expediter Food runner Brings food to the table from the kitchen | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/02%3A_Food_Service_Occupations/2.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
The traditional way of advancing in the hospitality industry was to get an entry-level position and then work your way up to more skilled positions almost solely based on your work experience and learning from others. Today, formal training at a college or trade school is often needed if you are to advance in your chosen career, particularly if you wish to advance into supervisory or management positions. This training might be a post-secondary certificates, degree, or diploma; apprenticeship training; and industry certifications.
In any case, the industry still tends to promote people from within, and even with formal training, most people will start in entry-level positions and then work their way into positions with higher levels of responsibility over time. Advancement in the industry follows a logical series of progressive steps as you gain more experience, which is often referred to as the career ladder (Figure 1).
Post-Secondary Training
Many public and private colleges and trade schools, and also some high schools, offer training in the industry for both the culinary professionals and those looking for training in front of house occupations like bartending or wine service and hospitality management. Most post-secondary programs group training into certificates, diplomas, and degrees, based on the number of courses and length of time it takes to complete. Many of these programs also ladder into other training such as apprenticeship or industry certifications.
Apprenticeship Training
Apprenticeship is a system of training that has been around for hundreds of years. Before there were trade schools and colleges, if someone wanted to learn a trade that person would seek out an experienced tradesperson (called a journeyperson or master, depending on the level of experience) and learn the trade by working with the tradesperson until he or she had developed enough skill to perform the job alone. This system has evolved to include formal training at a college or trade school, but still has two main components: practical training (practising techniques and procedures while producing products) and technical training (learning new skills). Practical training is achieved on the job, supervised by a certified journeyperson, and technical training is delivered by accredited institutions.
In British Columbia, all apprenticeship and trades training falls under the authority of the Industry Training Authority (ITA). For a full list of ITA programs and certifications, visit the ITA website.
For trades that are offered in multiple provinces, the national Red Seal program is available, which is a national endorsement that is added to provincial qualifications upon the successful completion of the interprovincial Red Seal exam. There are 57 Red Seal trades in Canada, including Cook and Baker in the food service industry. For more information on the Red Seal programs, visit the Red Seal website.
In British Columbia, there are three levels of certification available through apprenticeship, as shown in Figure 2.
With the various certifications, there are a number of options for working in the industry, as outlined in Figure 3. For more information on the certification and career options at each level, visit the go2HR Tourism, Hospitality, and Foodservice Apprenticeships page.
Industry Certifications
emerit
The Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council (CTHRC) offers training and certification in over 40 tourism occupations from front line to management level, under the emerit brand. For a full list of training options, visit emerit’s website.
Canadian Culinary Federation certifications (Canadian Culinary Institute)
To progress beyond a provincial or Red Seal certification requires further training coupled with on-the-job experience. Much of the training is presently on an informal basis, but there are certifications offered by the Canadian Culinary Federation (CCFCC), Canada’s national occupational association for cooks and chefs, designed to fill this gap.
The CCFCC has two programs designed to certify chefs: Certified Chef de Cuisine (CCC) and Certified Master Chef (CMC). Candidates must take theory courses followed by written and practical examinations. Course components include theoretical and practical seminars and self-paced learning packages. For more information, see the Canadian Culinary Federation website.
In summary: There are many options, but the example below shows the different types of training and certification available in Canada for the culinary arts, and how they relate to each other. The interactive career map is available from the Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council.
Wine training and certifications
Additional certifications for restaurant staff include internationally recognized wine service certifications such as the Wine and Spirits Education Trust (WSET) courses and those offered by the International Sommelier Guild.
Long Descriptions
Figure 2 long description: Detailed description of each of the three certification levels of the professional cook certification program. The three levels are Professional Cook 1 (PC1), Professional Cook 2 (PC2), and Professional Cook 3 (PC3).
Professional Cook 1 lists workplace skills and products you can make from scratch.
PC1 Workplace Skills:
• Professionalism: personal hygiene, organization, teamwork and communication
• Workplace and food safety
• Use of tools and equipment
• Knife skills and common cuts
• Trimming and portioning meat, poultry, and seafood
• Following and adjusting recipes
• Basic terminology and nutrition
• Applying basic cooking and baking techniques
• Receiving and storage procedures
PC1 Products You Can Make From Scratch:
• Basic stocks, soups and sauces
• Common vegetables and fruits
• Basic potato, rice, and pasta dishes
• Basic meat, poultry and seafood dishes
• Salads, salad dressings, and sandwiches
• Eggs and breakfast items
• Basic pies and tarts, and cookies
• Fruit desserts and custards
• Basic quick and yeast breads
• Coffee and tea products
Professional Cook 2 lists workplace skills and products you can make from scratch.
PC2 Workplace Skills includes all PC1 skills plus:
• Preparing food for allergies and special diets
• Volume and banquet cooking
• Deboning meat, poultry and seafood
• Basic cost calculations
• Basic menu planning
• Taking inventory
PC2 Products You Can Make From Scratch includes all PC1 skills plus:
• Specialty soups and secondary sauces
• Specialty vegetables and vegetarian dishes
• Specialty potato, pasta and grain dishes
• Meat, poultry and seafood dishes for volume functions
• Specialty salads and dressings
• Hors d’oeuvre and appetizers
• Presentation platters
• Pastries, cakes and cheesecakes
• Laminated and specialty breads
Professional Cook 3 lists workplace skills and products you can make from scratch.
PC3 Workplace Skills includes all PC1 and PC2 skills plus:
• Specialty cooking methods
• Maintaining food safety systems
• Food and labour costing
• Basic teambuilding, leadership and supervision skills
• Buffet presentation and layout
• Basic wine knowledge and selection
PC3 Products You Can Make From Scratch include all PC1 and PC2 skills plus:
• Specialty and ethnic sauces
• Game and variety meats
• Specialty and classic meat, poultry and seafood dishes
• Pates, terrines, basic sausage making, curing and smoking
• Hot and specialty plated desserts
• Specialty cakes and tortes
• Frozen desserts, ice creams and sorbets
• Basic chocolate and sugar garnishes
[Return to Figure 2]
Figure 3 long description: A flowchart detailing career options related to the Professional Cook 3 certification. It list six different career paths, all of which have Certified Professional Cook 3 somewhere in the middle. The six paths are Restaurant (Casual/Family), Restaurant (Upscale Casual), Restaurant (Fine Dining), Hotel, Institutional and Camps, and Catering.
Restaurant (Casual/Family): One can progress from prep cook/kitchen helper, to line cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to supervisor, to kitchen manager, to general manager, to franchisee.
Restaurant (Upscale Casual): One can progress from cold kitchen (garde manger), to line cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to team leader, to kitchen leader, to regional chef.
Restaurant (Fine Dining): One can progress from prep cook/kitchen helper, to cold kitchen (garde manger), to cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to sous chef, to chef, to owner.
Hotel: One can progress from prep cook/kitchen helper, to third cook, to second cook, to first cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to chef de partie, to sous chef, to executive sous chef, to executive chef, to food and beverage manager/director.
Institutional and Camps: One can progress from prep cook/kitchen helper, to cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to supervisor/sous chef, to kitchen manager/chef, to regional chef.
Catering: One can progress from prep cook/kitchen helper, to cook, to certified Professional Cook 3, to team leader, to sous chef, to chef, to owner.
[Return to Figure 3]
Media Attributions
• Kitchen Career Ladder by go2HR. Used with permission
• Cook Certifications in BC by go2HR. Used with permission
• Professional Cook career options. by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/02%3A_Food_Service_Occupations/2.04%3A_Training_and_Certification.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe the B.C. Employment Standards Act
• Describe the B.C. Human Rights Code
This section offers a general introduction to the BC Employment Standards Act. The Employment Standards Branch also has posters and a Guide to the Employment Standards Act available free of charge for employers to display in the workplace. This Act, like all provincial legislation, is subject to periodic review by government. It is your responsibility as an employee or employer to keep up to date with your rights and responsibilities. If you require specific advice about a dispute related to employment standards, you should contact the Employment Standards Branch.
3.02: About the Employment Standards Act
The Employment Standards Act sets the minimum standards for wages and conditions of employment that apply in most workplaces in British Columbia. For those employees who are covered by a union collective agreement, the agreement supersedes the Act. However, most employees in the restaurant and food service industry are not unionized, and therefore you must know about these minimum standards whether you are working in the industry as an employee or an employer.
Human rights legislation such as the Canadian Human Rights Act and the B.C. Human Rights Code protect citizens of Canada from discrimination in their everyday lives and in employment. This legislation has an impact on the way food service employers recruit new employees and manage the workplace. Public services and facilities such as restaurants must also ensure that they do not discriminate through their practices or policies against their guests and customers.
The Employment Standards Act and the accompanying Employment Standards Regulations set the minimum standards for wages and conditions of employment in British Columbia. Employers are required to familiarize employees with their employment rights under the Act.
The Employment Standards Branch provides information to employers and employees about their responsibilities and rights under the Act through guides and brochures. It also handles inquiries by telephone, email, and through the Internet.
In larger organizations, the human resources department or payroll department may handle many of the issues related to employment standards. In smaller organizations, you may be responsible for some or all aspects of supervising and paying employees.
All supervisors, whether they work in large organizations or in small restaurants, need to know the implications of collective agreements and/or the Employment Standards Act for the scheduling of employees and the payment of overtime. Careful attention to these provisions can result in cost savings to the employer without jeopardizing the needs of the workplace or the rights of employees. This is a safer and more satisfactory approach than the “private deals” that are often worked out between supervisors and employees in the workplace.
Occupations Covered by the Act
The Employment Standards Act applies to most employees and employers in British Columbia. Federally legislated companies and their employees (e.g., federal government employees, employees of federal Crown corporations, banks, radio and television broadcasting companies, railways, and airlines) are covered by the federal Labour Code, which has similar provisions.
Some occupations are not covered under the Act. For example, doctors, lawyers, architects, insurance agents, chartered professional accountants, and realtors are not covered. Also excluded are babysitters working fewer than 15 hours a week, newspaper carriers attending school and working 15 hours a week or fewer, and persons receiving financial assistance from government while participating in certain government-sponsored employment programs.
Employees who belong to unions are covered by the collective agreements negotiated between their union and employer. Collective agreements must meet or exceed the minimum standards of the Act. If provisions of the collective agreement fall below those minimum standards, then the Act applies instead.
Agreements between employees and employers that do not meet the minimum standards set out in the Employment Standards Act are not enforceable. For example, a restaurateur cannot make an agreement with employees that they will not be paid overtime even when they work more than 40 hours per week. If the employee complained to the Employment Standards Branch, the employer could be forced to pay the wages owing. However, under certain conditions, the Employment Standards Branch may grant approval for variances to a given standard.
Other laws such as the B.C. Human Rights Code, the Labour Relations Code, and the Workers Compensation Act affect employees’ rights and employers’ obligations regarding conditions of work.
Hiring Employees
The Employment Standards Act does not require employers to follow specific procedures when recruiting and selecting employees. However, the B.C. Human Rights Code requires employers to ensure that their procedures do not discriminate on the basis of race, colour, ancestry, place of origin, political belief, religious belief, marital status, physical or mental disability, sex, sexual orientation, age, or criminal conviction unrelated to employment.
Employers may not misrepresent that a job is available, the type of work to be performed, or the terms of employment. They may not ask for or receive payment from a person in exchange for hiring that person. They also are prohibited from receiving payment from a third party to hire a person.
Employment Agencies
Employment agencies must be licensed under the Employment Standards Act. They may not charge a person for obtaining work for him or her or for providing information about employers seeking employees. Employment agencies are paid by the employer for their services.
Child Employment
An employer wishing to hire a child under the age of 15 must have prior approval from the Employment Standards Branch and must obtain the written permission from the child’s parent or guardian. If the child is a student, the permission of the school he or she attends must generally also be obtained. On approval, the Branch will issue a permit which identifies the condition of the child’s employment.
Variances
Employers and their employees may apply jointly to the Employment Standards Branch for a variance that changes or varies the application of the following provisions of the Act:
• The time period for a temporary layoff
• Paydays
• Special clothing
• Notice of a change of shift
• Minimum daily hours
• Maximum hours of work
• Hours free from work
• Overtime wages for employees not on a flexible work schedule
• Notice and termination pay requirements for group terminations
Variances may be granted if the Branch is satisfied that the requested change is consistent with the intent of the Act, and a majority of all affected employees are in favour. The Branch may attach conditions to the variance. All variances include an expiry date, but may be renewed. Employers must post a copy of the variance where all affected employees can read it.
Complaints and enforcement measures
If you feel that your employer has contravened the Act, you may file a complaint. The complaint must be in writing and must be submitted within six months of the alleged contravention. If you were terminated, you must deliver your complaint within six months of the last day you were employed. (Alleged contravention is a legal term for a violation of a law that has not been proved. All complaints are considered alleged until they have been investigated and proved.) Complaint forms are available from the Employment Standards Branch.
When you file a complaint, you can request that your identity be kept confidential. Your identity can be revealed only if it is necessary for a proceeding under the Act or if the Branch considers disclosure of your identity is in the public interest. An employer cannot fire or threaten to fire you for making a complaint. The employer cannot coerce, intimidate, or penalize you for an actual or potential complaint, investigation, or appeal under the Act.
Every complaint received by the Branch must be investigated unless the Act does not apply to the complaint, the complaint is trivial or frivolous, or there is not enough evidence to prove the complaint. The Branch is not required to investigate if a court, tribunal, or arbitrator is already hearing a complaint or has made a decision about the complaint. If the dispute that caused the complaint has been resolved, action is not required. Branch staff may conduct investigations without receiving a complaint and may assist parties in resolving a complaint. They may inspect company records and interview employers and employees in order to investigate a complaint.
Decisions of the Branch are called determinations. The determination must include the reasons for the decision, details of any amounts payable, and penalties imposed. Copies of the determination must be given to all parties named in it. The Branch can require:
• An employer to hire or reinstate a person or pay compensation in place of reinstatement
• The payment of wages lost by the contravention
• Payment of the person’s expenses incurred as a result of contravention
• Employers to reduce hours considered to be excessive
Employers may be liable for any unpaid wages in the 24 months before the complaint was filed or employment was terminated, whichever came first. They may also be required to pay interest on any unpaid wages.
Orders of the Branch may be enforced through monetary penalties, liens (legal claims) for unpaid wages, demands to third parties owing money to someone who owes money to the Branch, and court orders. The Branch may also seize personal and business assets of a person required to pay under a determination order.
Officers or directors of a corporation can be held personally liable for up to two months’ unpaid wages per employee if that person held office during the time the wages were earned. The Employment Standards Branch may compile and publish information about contraventions of the Act and Regulations that identifies the persons responsible.
The Branch may dismiss a complaint if it determines that the Act and Regulations have not been violated. It may also vary or cancel a determination that it has previously made.
A person served with a determination has the right to appeal the decision of the Branch to the Employment Standards Tribunal. Appeals must be filed in writing within eight days if the determination was personally served, and 23 days if it was served by registered mail. The appeal can request that the tribunal suspend a determination during the appeal period. The Tribunal may cancel, confirm, or vary a determination with or without a hearing. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/03%3A_Employment_Standards_for_B.C._Food_Service_Workers/3.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
The minimum wage in British Columbia applies to all workers, no matter what their age. The minimum wage is changed from time to time to reflect changes in the cost of living.
Employees must be paid at least twice a month. All money earned in a pay period must be paid within eight days after the end of the pay period. This does not include annual vacation pay and wages credited to an employee’s time bank. A pay period cannot exceed 16 days in length. For example, if a food server works the month of January, and the pay period is from January 6 to January 19, the server must be paid by January 27 (Figure 4). Wages can be paid by cash, cheque, direct bank deposit, bank draft, or money order. Payment by direct bank deposit must be authorized in writing by the employee or by a collective agreement.
Employers cannot make deductions from the employees’ wages without the written consent of the employee unless the deductions are permitted or required under provincial or federal law. For example, employers are required by federal law to deduct employee contributions for income tax, Canada Pension, and Employment Insurance.
Employees may request that the employer pay part of his or her wages to a third party. This is called assignment of wages. An employer must pay assigned wages to:
• A trade union under the Labour Relations Act
• A charitable or other organization
• A pension or superannuation plan
• An insurance company for medical or dental coverage
• A person to whom the employee is required to pay maintenance under the Family Maintenance Enforcement Act
Employers must also honour an assignment of wages authorized by a collective agreement. For example, many collective agreements include a group life insurance plan as a benefit. If the collective agreement calls for this, employers must deduct the premium from the employees’ wages. Employers may honour a written assignment by an employee to pay a debt, but they are not obliged to do so. Any wages assigned by an employee must be paid within one month of being deducted.
Employees wishing to cancel an assignment of wages or cancel the direct deposit of their wages must notify the employer and the person or organization receiving the money in writing.
Employers may not deduct wages as a result of damage, breakage, or loss. For example, a restaurant is not permitted to charge an employee for breakage of glassware or dishes.
An employee who has been fired or laid off must be paid in full within 48 hours. If an employee resigns or quits, he or she must be paid in full within six days. If the employee cannot be located, the employer must pay the wages to the Branch within 60 days. The funds are then held in trust for the former employee.
Wage Statements
On each payday, the employer must give employees a written wage statement (Figure 5) that includes:
• The employee’s name and address
• The hours worked by the employee
• The employee’s wage rate
• The overtime wage rate
• The hours worked at the overtime rate
• Any other payment to which the employee is entitled (e.g., a bonus)
• The amount and purpose of all deductions
• A statement of how the wages were calculated if the employee is paid other than by the hour or by salary
• A statement of the employee’s net and gross wages
• Any amounts withdrawn from the employee’s time bank and how much remains
Legend for Figure 5:
1. Employee information
2. Pay period information
3. Hours worked and rates of pay
4. Gross earnings
5. Statutory deductions
6. Net pay
Once an employer has been issued a wage statement, a new statement is not required if the information has not changed from the previous statement. For example, if a cook worked exactly the same number of hours as in the previous pay period, and the rates and deductions were unchanged, a statement is not required.
In practice, most employers will issue a wage statement with each and every payment. Often this includes additional information such as the employee number, gross wages for the year to date, total deductions for the year to date, and the amount of any taxable benefits received.
You should keep the wage statements you have been issued. They are useful in case there is a dispute about the amount you have earned in a year. They can also be used to establish that you have been employed and the amount you have earned if you are not issued a T-4 statement of earnings for income tax purposes, or a record of employment for employment insurance purposes, or if you need proof of income for any reason, such as applying for a mortgage or loan.
Payroll Records
Employers are required to keep detailed payroll records at their principal place of business in the province. These records must be kept in English. The information in the payroll records must include:
• Employee’s name, date of birth, occupation, telephone number, and residential address
• The date on which the employee began employment with that employer
• The employee’s wage rate
• The hours worked on each day
• The benefits paid to the employee
• The employee’s gross and net wages for each pay period
• The amount of and reason for each deduction from the employee’s pay
• The dates of statutory holidays taken by the employee and the amounts paid
• The dates of annual vacation taken, the amounts paid, and the days and amounts owing
• The dates and amounts paid from the employee’s time bank, and the balance remaining
As you can see, a considerable amount of information must be kept. This information must be collected at the workplace and entered into the payroll records. Some employers use an automated time clock which the employees use to “punch in” the time at which they began work. They also “punch out” to record the time at which they complete their work. The completed time cards are collected by the employer and used to calculate the hours of work. Other companies use a time sheet on which the employee records his or her hours. Typically, this sheet is signed by the supervisor before being used to calculate pay.
No matter what system is used in your workplace, you must ensure that you record the hours you work so that your pay records are complete and accurate. It is also useful to keep a brief log of your work hours on a daily basis in case there is an error in the time records or a dispute between you and your employer about the number of hours worked.
Payroll records must be kept for seven years after employment ends.
Long Descriptions
Figure 5 long description: Sample pay statement. At the top left is the employee name, ID, and address. On the right there is the pay period number, payroll ending date, pay date, and pay period type. The pay statement shows the regular pay rate, the current hours, and the gross earning hours. It also shows statutory deductions and net pay in the current period. [Return to Figure 5]
Media Attributions
• Pay Period Schedule by BC Cook Articulation Committee © CC BY (Attribution)
• Sample Payroll Statement by Canadian Payroll Association. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/03%3A_Employment_Standards_for_B.C._Food_Service_Workers/3.03%3A_Wages_and_Wage_Statements.txt |
Special Clothing (Uniforms)
Many employees in the restaurant and food service industry are required to wear uniforms when they are at work. If you must wear a uniform or a specific brand of clothing, the employer must provide, clean, and maintain it. For example, many cooks must wear white jackets and hats and checked trousers. Your employer must buy the uniform. You cannot be charged for the uniform or for damages to it. Your employer cannot require you to pay a deposit for the uniform or withhold your wages.
The majority of employees and the employer may agree that employees will clean and maintain the special clothing and be reimbursed by the employer for the expenses incurred. This agreement is binding on all employees in the workplace who are required to wear the special clothing.
If an employer and a majority of the employees have agreed that the employer will reimburse employees for the cost of cleaning and maintaining special clothing, the employer must keep records of the agreement and the amounts paid for two years.
Statutory Holidays
Restaurant and food service workers are often required to work when others are on holiday. Holidays such as Christmas and New Year’s Day are frequently the times that people want to go out for dinner, and so restaurants may be especially busy during these times. These days are known as statutory holidays. In British Columbia, the following days are statutory holidays:
• New Year’s Day (January 1)
• Family Day (third Monday in February)
• Good Friday (changes from year to year)
• Victoria Day (the third Monday in May)
• Canada Day (July 1)
• B.C. Day (the first Monday in August)
• Labour Day (the first Monday in September)
• Thanksgiving Day (the second Monday in October)
• Remembrance Day (November 11)
• Christmas Day (December 25)
Easter Sunday, Easter Monday, and Boxing Day are not statutory holidays, although some employers may provide paid time off on these days.
Eligibility
You are not automatically eligible to statutory holidays with pay as soon as you have begun work. You must have worked for the employer for at least 30 calendar days.
Managers (that is, those whose primary employment duties consist of supervising and directing other employees) or a person employed in an executive capacity are not entitled to statutory holidays. They may, however, have negotiated similar provisions in their terms of employment.
Calculating Statutory Holiday Pay
If you have a regular schedule of hours and if you have worked at least 15 days out of the last 30 calendar days prior to a statutory holiday, you are entitled to a regular day’s pay for the holiday. If you have worked irregular hours on at least 15 out of the last 30 calendar days, you are entitled to an average day’s pay for the holiday. This amount is calculated by dividing the employee’s total wages, excluding overtime, by the number of days worked.
An employee who has worked fewer than 15 days in the 30 calendar days before the holiday is entitled to pro-rated holiday pay. This amount is calculated by dividing the total pay during the period, excluding overtime, by 15.
For example, Meilin, Ming, and Steve are all employed in a local restaurant. Meilin is a regular employee who worked 20 eight-hour shifts over the 30 days prior to the holiday. She is entitled to eight hours of pay on the statutory holiday. Ming started work just two weeks before the holiday. He is not entitled to be paid for the holiday. Steve is a part-time employee who has been working for the restaurant for six months. He worked only 12 shifts during the 30 calendar days before the holiday and earned \$480 during that time. He is entitled to a payment of \$480 ÷ 15 = \$32.00 for the holiday.
But what would happen to an employee who is on paid vacation leave prior to the holiday? According to the Act, the vacation days and vacation pay are counted as days worked and wages earned when calculating statutory holiday pay.
Working on a Statutory Holiday
Cooks and other workers in the restaurant and food service industry often work on statutory holidays. It is no surprise that the legislation covers this situation. If you work on the holiday, you must be paid time-and-a-half for the first 12 hours you work and double time for hours beyond 12. You must also be given an alternate day off with pay. If you have a time bank, you may credit the wages for the alternate day.
The employer must schedule the alternate day of paid leave on the earliest of the following:
• Before the employee’s annual vacation
• Before the date the employment terminates
• Within six months of the statutory holiday if the wages were credited to a time bank
Employees not eligible for the statutory holiday who work on the holiday may be paid as if it were a regular workday. They are not entitled to the day off. If a statutory holiday falls on a day on which you are not normally scheduled for work, you are entitled to an alternate day off with pay. This day must be scheduled as if you had worked on the statutory holiday.
By agreement between the employer and a majority of affected workers, the employer may substitute another day off for a statutory holiday. For example, the employer and staff may agree to substitute Easter Monday for Good Friday. The Act and the Regulations will then apply to Easter Monday as if it were a statutory holiday. If the employer and a majority of employees have agreed to substitute another day for a statutory holiday, the employer must keep records of this agreement for two years.
Leave from work
Employers must grant employees periods of unpaid absence from work for the following:
• Pregnancy leave
• Parental leave
• Family responsibility leave
• Bereavement leave
• Jury duty
Employees are eligible for unpaid leave as soon as they have commenced employment. Employers are not required to give employees paid leave for illness. If sick leave is paid or allowed, it may not be deducted at a later date from any other entitlement to a paid holiday, vacation pay, or other wages. Employees who are ill for extended periods of time may be eligible for Employment Insurance.
Pregnancy leave
A pregnant employee is entitled to up to 17 consecutive weeks of unpaid pregnancy leave. This leave may start no earlier than 11 weeks before the expected birth date and end no earlier than six weeks after the birth period unless the employee requests a shorter period. If the pregnancy leave is first requested after the birth of a child or after termination of the pregnancy, an employee is entitled to up to six consecutive weeks of leave beginning on the date of birth or termination date.
An initial period of leave may be extended up to six weeks if an employee is unable to return to work for reasons relating to the birth or the termination of the pregnancy.
The employee must apply, in writing, to take a pregnancy leave. The request must be made at least four weeks before the proposed start date. If the employee wishes to return to work earlier than six weeks from the birth date, she must make the request to return at least one week before the proposed start date. The employer may require the employee to provide a doctor’s certificate in support of a request for leave or for a leave extension. Pregnancy and parental leaves are unpaid leaves, but you may be eligible for maternity and parental benefits under the Canada Employment Insurance Program.
Parental leave
Parental leave is available to a birth mother, a birth father, or an adopting parent.
A birth mother is entitled to up to 35 consecutive weeks of unpaid parental leave in addition to the pregnancy leave she has taken. If she has not taken pregnancy leave, the birth mother is eligible for up to 37 consecutive weeks of unpaid parental leave. A birth mother will commence her parental leave immediately after her pregnancy leave ends unless the employee and employer agree otherwise. A birth mother who is entitled to up to 37 weeks of leave will commence the leave after the child’s birth and within 52 weeks of that event. A birth father is entitled to up to 37 consecutive weeks of unpaid leave beginning after the child’s birth and within 52 weeks of the event. An adopting parent is entitled to up to 37 consecutive weeks of unpaid parental leave beginning within 52 weeks after the child is placed with the parent.
Parents must apply in writing for parental leave at least four weeks prior to the proposed start date of the leave. An employer may require an employee to provide a doctor’s certificate or other evidence that the employee is entitled to the leave or leave extension.
As soon as parental leave ends, the employer must place the employee into the position previously held by the employee or in a comparable position.
Family responsibility leave
An employee is entitled to up to five days of unpaid leave per employment year to meet responsibilities related to the care, health, or education of any member of the employee’s immediate family. Under the legislation, immediate family means the spouse, child, parent, guardian, sibling, grandchild, or grandparent of an employee, and any person who lives with the employee as a member of the employee’s family.
For example, Bart lives in a household with his mother-in-law and children. Bart’s mother-in-law has broken her hip and requires surgery. Bart is entitled to family responsibility leave in order to care for her. Susan and Pat live together. In the event of an illness, Pat would be entitled to leave to care for her partner.
Bereavement leave
Employees are entitled to up to three days of unpaid leave on the death of a member of the employee’s immediate family.
Jury duty
Jury duty is considered a responsibility of citizenship for all citizens of Canada. Individuals may be excused from jury duty only if a judge feels that the duty would impose undue hardship on the individual and his or her family. An employee who is required to attend court as a juror is considered to be on unpaid leave for the period of the jury duty.
Employment considered continuous
During the time an employee is on unpaid leave, employment is considered continuous for the purposes of calculating annual vacation and termination entitlements, as well as for pension, medical, or other plans of benefit for the employee. An employer must continue to make payments to any such plans unless the employee chooses not to continue with his or her share of the cost of the plan. The employee is also entitled to all increases in wages or benefits which he or she would have received if not on leave.
Conditions of employment
An employer cannot terminate an employee on leave or jury duty or change a condition of employment without the employee’s written consent. As soon as the leave or jury duty ends, the worker must be returned to his or her former position or a comparable one.
Consideration for the employer
Whenever possible, it is only considerate to inform the employer as soon as possible when leave is required. For example, if you have been called for jury duty, you will have been given a date on which to appear at the courthouse. Let your employer know so that alternate arrangements can be made for your replacement. Of course, there are times, such as the sudden illness or death of a family member, when it is not possible to notify your supervisor ahead of time. However, you should do your best to call as soon as you can and give the supervisor an idea of when you will return.
Annual vacation
After you have been employed for 12 consecutive months, you are entitled to two weeks of paid vacation. After five consecutive years of employment with the same employer, you are entitled to three weeks. During the first 12 months of employment, the Employment Standards Act does not require that you be granted an annual vacation. However, the terms of employment or a collective agreement may provide additional vacation benefits.
An employer must schedule an employee’s vacation in periods of one or more weeks, unless the employee requests otherwise. Vacation must be taken within 12 months of earning it. The employer may use a common date for calculating the annual vacation entitlement of all employees as long as no employee’s right to an annual vacation or vacation pay is reduced.
If the company is sold, leased, or transferred during the year, your period of consecutive employment is not interrupted. For example, the restaurant in which Sally works was purchased by another chain and subsequently closed, but she was transferred to another location operated by the purchasing company without any loss of employment. Her period of employment was not interrupted, even though her pay cheques were now issued by another company.
Vacation Pay
In the first four years of consecutive employment, the employer must pay vacation pay of at least 4% of all earning paid to the employee in the preceding year. In the fifth and subsequent years of employment, the employer must pay vacation pay of at least 6% of all wages paid in the preceding year. Any vacation pay received by an employee is counted as part of the total wages paid in a particular year. Employees who have worked five calendar days or less are not eligible for vacation pay.
If a statutory holiday falls during the period in which the employee is on annual vacation leave, the employee must be given an additional day of vacation leave in lieu of the statutory holiday. For example, Raj is on holiday for two weeks at the beginning of September. This period includes one statutory holiday, Labour Day. He must be given an additional day of holiday at another time or may have a day in lieu of the statutory holiday added to the beginning or end of his vacation period.
Vacation pay is payable at least seven days before the start of the annual vacation, or on regular pay days as agreed to by the employer and employee, or by a collective agreement.
An employer cannot reduce annual vacation or vacation pay because the worker was paid a bonus or sick pay, or was previously given a vacation more than the minimum. However, these vacation entitlements may be reduced if an employee took annual vacation in advance at the employee’s written request.
If your employment is terminated before you have taken your annual vacation or if you quit your job, you are entitled to be paid any vacation pay that has accrued since you started work or last took annual vacation. This payment must be made within 48 hours if your employment was terminated or within six days if you quit your job.
Hours of Work
The employer must post notices saying when work starts and ends, when each shift starts and ends, and when meal breaks will occur (Figure 6). For example, a restaurant may have a morning shift that begins at 6:00 a.m. and ends at 2:00 pm. The workers on that shift get a meal break at 9:30 am. These notices must be posted where they can be read by all employees.
Shift changes
In the food service industry, work schedules are often developed with different start and end times for different employees. In addition, the industry is sometimes subject to changes in the demand for service. A restaurant may be unexpectedly busy on a day that is normally quiet. Employees must be given 24 hours’ notice of a change in shift unless the employee is paid overtime for the time worked or the shift is extended before it ends. If the employee has not been given the required notice, he or she cannot be penalized for failing to show up for work.
This means, for example, that if a restaurant is extremely busy, you may ask Genevieve, the bus person, to stay for an additional two hours an hour before she finishes her five-hour shift without paying overtime. This assumes that she is not entitled to overtime because of the number of hours she has worked in this pay period or because of a collective agreement.
Meal breaks
After working for five hours in a row, employees are entitled to a half-hour meal break. An employee who is required to work or be available for work during a meal break must be paid for the break. In the food service industry, breaks are often taken between a rush of customers, and a cook may have to cut a break short to cope with new orders. If the cook must be prepared to cut a break short, she or he must be paid for the break, even if on that day the break was not interrupted.
Coffee breaks are not required by the legislation. Employers have the discretion to give coffee breaks. Some collective agreements may specify coffee breaks as part of the conditions of employment.
Split shifts
A split shift is a work pattern in which an employee works for several hours, is off for several hours, and then is asked to work for another period during the same day. When an employee is scheduled for a split shift, the employee must finish for the day within 12 hours of the time he or she began the shift. For example, you could not schedule a dishwasher to come in from 7:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m., and then again from 6:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. on the same day. You could, however, have the dishwasher work from 11:00 to 3:00 and then again from 6:00 to 10:00 for the same number of total hours.
Excessive hours
Employers must not require or allow an employee to work excessive hours or hours harmful to the employee’s health or safety. At present, what constitutes excessive hours is not specified in the Act or Regulations.
Minimum daily pay
An employee who starts work must be paid for at least two hours, even if the employee works for a fewer number of hours. If the work is suspended for reasons beyond the employer’s control, for example, a power failure due to a storm that cannot be repaired that evening, the employee must be paid for two hours of work or the actual number of hours worked, whichever is greater.
For example, a restaurant is experiencing a very slow night. Normally, this evening would be busy, but perhaps because of the cooler temperatures, people are staying home. You could be sent home early, but your employer would have to pay you for at least two hours.
If an employee has reported for work but has not actually started work, he or she must be paid for at least two hours if there is insufficient work. The exception is if the employee is unfit for work or does not comply with the health and safety provisions of WorkSafeBC regulations. For example, an employee who shows up for work under the influence of alcohol could be sent home without being paid for a minimum of two hours.
Hours Free from Work
Employees must have at least 32 hours in a row free from work each week. If an employee works during this period, the employer must pay one-and-a-half times the regular wage for the hours worked. An employee is also entitled to have eight hours off between shifts unless the employee is required to work because of an emergency.
For example, a cook has been working from 5:00 p.m. to midnight on a Thursday evening. The cook is due for a break of at least 32 hours. The earliest he or she could be scheduled after the break would be at 8:00 a.m. on Saturday morning.
Overtime
The standard work day is eight hours and the standard work week is 40 hours. If employees work over eight hours in a day or over 40 hours in a week, they must be paid overtime. The exception is when the employer has implemented a flexible work schedule or if the Employment Standards Branch has granted a variance. Depending on the schedule worked, an employee could be eligible for overtime on the basis of the hours worked in a day, the hours worked in the week, or both. Daily and weekly overtime are calculated separately.
An employer can require you to work overtime as long as the applicable overtime wage rates are paid. In addition, the hours worked should not be excessive or detrimental to the employee’s health or safety. Excessive is not defined in the Act or Regulations. In the case of a dispute, the Director of the Employment Standards Branch would be required to adjudicate what excessive hours are.
Daily and weekly overtime
After working eight hours in a day, an employee is entitled to time and a half for the next four hours worked, and double time for all hours worked in excess of 12 hours.
After working 40 hours in a week, employees must be paid time and a half for the next eight hours and double time for hours in excess of 48. In calculating the total hours worked for weekly overtime purposes, only the first eight hours worked on each day are counted.
For example, if Mohinder works 10 hours on Sunday, seven hours on Monday, seven hours on Tuesday, eight hours on Thursday, and eight hours on Friday, he has worked a total of 40 hours over the five days. He was also asked to work on Saturday. His employer gave the required 24 hours’ notice. For the purposes of calculating weekly overtime, only the first eight hours of each day would be counted. The first eight hours on Sunday would be counted as would all of his shifts on the Tuesday through Friday for a total of 38 hours. He would be paid regular time for the first two hours he worked on Saturday, and after that would receive time and a half. Of course, he would also receive one and a half time (daily overtime) for the extra hours he worked on the Sunday.
In a week with a statutory holiday, an employee who qualifies for the holiday must be paid weekly overtime and time and a half after 32 hours and double time after 40 hours. Any time worked by the employee on the holiday is not included in calculating weekly overtime.
Banking overtime
Employees may request in writing that the employer establish a time bank and credit the employee’s overtime wages to the bank instead of paying the wages as they are earned. An employee may at any time request the employer to pay out all or part of the wages in the time bank. The employee may also request time off with pay for some mutually agreed period.
An employee may request that the time bank be closed. If the employee quits, is laid off, is fired, or has requested that the time bank be closed, the employer must pay the full outstanding balance to the worker. All banked wages must be paid out within six months of being earned. If a number of employees have time banks, then the employer can set a common date for paying out the banked time as long as all wages are paid within six months of being earned.
Training
If the employer requires the employee to attend a training or orientation session or attend a meeting outside of the employee’s normal working hours, the employee must be paid. The employee may be eligible for overtime, minimum daily pay, or other provisions under the Act. For example, George was required by his employer to attend a one-hour training session on a day he was not scheduled for work. He must be paid for at least two hours (minimum daily pay). If he had already worked 40 hours in that week, then he must also be paid overtime.
Flexible Work Schedules
Flexible work schedules are schedules in which the employees may work more than eight hours on a given day or 40 hours in a given week without being paid overtime. For example, an employer may agree to a four-day work week in which employees work 10 hours each day.
This may be beneficial to both employers and employees. Employers may find that scheduling for their opening hours is easier and requires less overtime when a flexible work schedule is used. Employees may enjoy the extra day on which they do not work. Another example is the employer whose employees work nine 8.75 hours days in a two-week period. In one week, employees may work five days for a total of 43.75 hours, but the following week they work only four days (35 hours). The average number of hours per week over two weeks is just over 39 hours.
Workers not covered by a collective agreement
If the workers are not unionized, flexible work schedules must:
• Fit the models permitted by the Regulation
• Run at least 26 weeks
• Be approved by at least 65% of the affected employees
• Be submitted to the Employment Standards Branch within seven days of approval by the employees
Workers must be given an opportunity to hear about the proposed schedule and think about its implications. An information bulletin outlining the proposed schedule must be posted for at least 10 days prior to the approval by employees. Employers may cancel a flexible work schedule at any time. The Branch can also cancel a schedule if it is satisfied that the employer did not follow the procedures in the Regulation or that the employer forced any employees to approve the schedule. The Branch will act only after receiving a written complaint from one of the employees affected by the schedule. A schedule expires two years after it is approved, but may be renewed with the approval of 65% of the affected employees.
Where workers on a flexible work schedule work more than an average of eight hours a day or 40 hours a week over the shift cycle, overtime wages must be paid. For example, James normally works four 10-hour shifts per week. If on one of those days he is asked to work an additional three hours, he would be entitled to overtime for those hours. If he is brought in on a day he does not normally work, he would also be entitled to overtime wages.
Unionized employees
Where workers are covered by a collective agreement, the flexible work schedule must:
• Run for at least 26 weeks
• Consist of a shift cycle of days at work and days off work that repeats over a period of up to eight consecutive weeks
• Allow each affected employee to work an average of at least 35 hours and not more than 40 hours during the shift cycle at the regular rate of pay
• Be approved by the trade union representing the workers affected.
Overtime wages, as required by the collective agreement, must be paid when the employee works more than an average of eight hours per day or 40 hours a week over the shift cycle.
If your employer has a flexible work schedule, records relating to its approval must be kept for seven years.
Averaging Agreements
As opposed to a flexible or alternative work schedule, which is permanent, an employer may decide to use an averaging agreement for a short period of time when the employee’s schedule might vary. This could be used in the case of a business trip or an event that might require a few longer days one week and allowing extra time off the following week. As long as the total number of hours per week do not average more than 40, no overtime pay is required unless the employee works more than 12 hours in any one day, in which case regular daily overtime rates (double the usual hourly rate) will apply.
Averaging agreements can be for a term of one to four weeks and must be agreed to and signed by both the employee and employer in advance. They also must be accompanied by a schedule of anticipated hours over the entire period of the agreement and state the start and end dates of the agreement.
Layoff
Notice is also not required if an employee is laid off temporarily. A temporary layoff becomes a termination when a layoff exceeds 13 weeks in any period of 20 weeks, or a recall period covered by a collective agreement has been exceeded by more than 24 hours. A week of layoff is one in which the employee earns less than 50% of the regular weekly wages averaged over the previous eight weeks. If a temporary layoff becomes a termination, then the date of layoff becomes the termination date. The employee is entitled to the compensation for termination. Any layoff other than a temporary layoff is considered a termination.
Notice of termination
An employee who is terminated by an employer is eligible for compensation based on the length of her or his employment with the employer. The amount of compensation is as follows:
• After three months’ consecutive employment, one week’s pay
• After one year, two weeks’ pay
• After three years, three weeks’ pay, plus one week for each additional year of employment up to a maximum of eight years
If an employer substantially alters a condition of employment, the Employment Standards Branch may determine that the employee’s employment has been terminated. If the Branch decides that the employment was terminated, the employee is eligible for compensation.
A week’s pay is calculated by totalling the employee’s wages excluding overtime, earned in the last eight weeks of which the employee worked normal hours, and dividing by eight. As with calculations of annual vacation, the sale, transfer, or lease of the business does not interrupt an employee’s period of continuous employment.
Termination pay is required even if the employee has obtained other employment.
Compensation is not required if the employee is given advance written notice of the termination equal in number of weeks to the number of week’s pay for which the employee is eligible. An employee cannot be on vacation, leave, strike, or lockout, or be unavailable for work for medical reasons during the notice period. If employment continues after the notice period has ended, the notice is of no effect. Once notice has been given, the employer may not alter any condition of employment, including the wage rate, without the employee’s written consent.
An employer may give an employee a combination of notice and compensation equal to the number of weeks’ pay for which the employee is eligible.
For example, a hotel has just been sold to a developer who will turn the building into condominium units. The hotel owner employs 37 people including a number of cooks. The cooks have worked for the hotel for varying periods of time, ranging from five months to seven years. The owner has the option of giving the cooks notice of termination seven weeks before the closure of the hotel. One of the cooks was on three weeks’ holiday when the deal was signed. This employee, who had five years of continuous employment, could not be given notice. When the employee returned to work, four weeks before the closure, he was given four weeks’ notice and 1 week’s pay to compensate for the termination of employment. Alternatively, the employer could have provided compensation in lieu of notice for all of the employees.
Some examples of the appropriate compensation are as follows:
• Steve, five months of consecutive employment received one week’s pay
• Geoff, 13 months of consecutive employment received two weeks’ pay
• Anya, three years of consecutive employment received three weeks’ pay
• Lupe, seven years of consecutive employment received seven weeks’ pay
Notice of termination or pay compensation is not required if:
• The employee quits or retires
• The employee was dismissed for just cause
• The employee works on an on-call basis doing temporary assignments that may be accepted or rejected
• The employee was employed for a definite term provided that the employment was not extended for at least three months after the term was ended
• The employee was hired for specific work to be completed in 12 months or less
• Events or circumstances beyond the employer’s control (except bankruptcy, receivership, or insolvency) made it impossible to perform the work
• The employee refused reasonable alternative employment
Some employers in specific industries (e.g., construction) or those hiring persons in some occupations (e.g., teacher) may not be required to give notice or pay compensation on termination of employment.
An employer operating a seasonal resort would not have to give notice or pay compensation at the close of the regular season. The employees would be hired for a specific term ending on the closure date of the resort. If a fire destroyed the resort mid-way through the season, the employer would not be required to give notice or pay compensation because the fire is an event beyond the employer’s control. If, on the other hand, the resort was bankrupted during the regular season, while employees were still at work, notice or compensation would be required.
Temporary layoff
Notice is also not required if an employee is laid off temporarily. A temporary layoff becomes a termination when a layoff exceeds 13 weeks in any period of 20 weeks, or a recall period covered by a collective agreement has been exceeded by more than 24 hours. A week of layoff is one in which the employee earns less than 50% of the regular weekly wages averaged over the previous eight weeks. If a temporary layoff becomes a termination, then the date of layoff becomes the termination date. The employee is entitled to the compensation for termination. Any layoff other than a temporary layoff is considered a termination.
Group terminations
When an employer intends to terminate 50 or more employees at a single location within a period of two months, the employer must provide written notice of group termination to each employee affected. The employer must also notify the Employment Standards Branch and any trade union that represents the employees. The length of notice depends on the number of employees to be laid off:
• 50 to 100 employees, at least eight weeks before the effective date of the first termination
• 101 to 300 employees, at least 12 weeks before the effective date of the first termination
• 301 or more, at least 16 weeks before the effective date of the first termination
Employers must give termination pay or a combination of termination pay and notice if the employees are not given the notice by the group termination requirements. If an employee is not covered by a collective agreement, the notice and termination pay requirements are in addition to the requirements based on length of employment.
If the employer is in receivership, bankruptcy, or insolvency, the provisions for group termination do not apply. However, the employee is still entitled to the amount which is payable as a result of length of employment, or the amount payable for an individual termination under the collective agreement, whichever is greater.
Employees covered by collective agreements
If an employee covered by a collective agreement that includes individual termination and right of recall provisions is laid off, the employee must choose to be paid the amount of compensation required by the collective agreement or to maintain his or her right of recall under the collective agreement. If the employee chooses to be paid, then the employer must pay that amount within 48 hours. If the employee chooses to maintain the right of recall or does not make a choice after 13 weeks of layoff, the employer must pay the amount required by the collective agreement to the Employment Standards Branch, in trust. Amounts received in trust receive interest and are paid to the employer if the employee is recalled.
If the employee renounces the right of recall or is not recalled to employment during the period required in the collective agreement, the amount held in trust is paid to the employee. Employees who accept employment under the right of recall do not have the right to payment of the money held in trust.
Other laws
Even in cases where no compensation or notice is required under the Employment Standards Act, other laws such as the Human Rights Code and common law regarding termination and wrongful dismissal may apply to a particular termination. Employers are required by federal government legislation to provide employees with a Record of Employment when they quit or are terminated. They must also issue a T-4 to employees who have income tax, Canada Pension, and Employment Insurance premiums deducted from their pay cheques whether or not they were working for the employer at the end of the year. The T-4 must be issued by February 28 of the following year. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/03%3A_Employment_Standards_for_B.C._Food_Service_Workers/3.04%3A_Working_Conditions.txt |
Discrimination
Canada has signed international agreements that protect human rights. Within Canada, human rights are enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Section 15 of the Charter states that “every individual is equal before and under the laws and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination….” The Charter is supplemented by other legislation at the federal level, such as the Canadian Labour Code.
A few food services may be regulated federally (e.g., catering for railway work crews, cafeterias on military bases, or food services within federal penitentiaries). The provisions of the federal legislation are similar to provincial codes. Complaints related to federally registered organizations are handled by the Canadian Human Rights Commission.
In British Columbia, the Human Rights Code prohibits discrimination:
• In published notices, signs, symbols, and emblems
• In access to public services or facilities
• In purchase of property
• In lease or rental of premises
• In employment advertisements
• In wages
• In employment
• By unions or associations
The legislation also establishes the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal, which receives and handles complaints. The Tribunal has the authority to mediate agreements between the parties without going through a formal complaint process, investigate complaints, hold a hearing, and make a decision.
Types of discrimination covered
Discrimination based on race, colour, ancestry, place of origin, political belief, religion, marital status, family status, physical or mental disability, sex, sexual orientation, age, and criminal or summary conviction unrelated to employment is prohibited.
For example, you cannot refuse to hire a person who is qualified for the job because he or she comes from a particular ethnic group. Nor can you give preferential treatment to someone because she or he belongs to the same religion as you do.
Exemptions
Non-profit groups formed to promote the interests and welfare of an identifiable group or class of persons may be exempted from the provisions of the B.C. Human Rights Code. These groups may grant a preference to members of the identifiable group or class of persons. For example, an immigrant services society promoting the interests of Vietnamese immigrants to Canada could give preference to a member of that group when hiring staff.
In addition, the B.C. Human Rights Council may approve any program or activity that improves the conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups. Affirmative action or employment equity programs are examples of special programs that improve the employment of disadvantaged individuals or groups. These approved programs and activities will not be considered in contravention of the Code (that is, a violation of the law).
Some examples of exemptions might include:
• An Aboriginal housing society giving preference to First Nations applicants
• An employment equity program developed by a restaurant chain and approved by the B.C. Human Rights Tribunal that improves the employment rates of persons with mental disabilities
Implications for food service establishments
Food service establishments are affected by the legislation in two ways. First, employers must ensure that the terms and conditions of employment are not discriminatory. The terms and conditions of employment include policies and procedures for recruitment and selection, dismissals, layoffs, promotions, and transfers.
Second, food service establishments that are open to the public may not deny service to an individual or a group of persons without a genuine and reasonable justification. For example, an openly affectionate gay or lesbian couple may not be denied service because other guests are offended. An individual who is abusive to other patrons or to the staff, however, may be ejected from the premises because there is a genuine and reasonable concern that the safety and well-being of others is endangered.
A reasonable effort must be made to ensure that premises are accessible to persons with disabilities. In addition to the goodwill generated, improved accessibility will make it easier for all patrons to dine at your restaurant. If the business can show that it would cause undue hardship to renovate a building to make it accessible to wheelchairs, it may be exempted from this requirement.
Employers’ Rights
The B.C. Human Rights Code supports the principle that the best person should get the job. Employers have the right to hire, dismiss, promote, and establish conditions of employment that best serve their company’s goals. They have the right to:
• Identify specific employment needs and priorities
• Choose the most qualified person for a position
• Set standards for work
• Evaluate workers based on defined job descriptions and performance criteria
• Discipline, demote, or fire incompetent, negligent, or insubordinate employees
• Set employment terms and conditions
• Establish salary and wage scales
Should an employee or customer make a complaint to the B.C. Human Rights Tribunal, employers also have the right to a full and impartial investigation of the complaint.
Employees’ Rights
The Human Rights Code protects employees by ensuring that decisions affecting their employment are made based on valid job-related criteria. They have the right to:
• Be considered for any job for which they are qualified
• Be given a clear statement of the skills, experience, and education required for a job
• Be informed of all job duties and performance expectations
• Be given feedback regarding their shortcomings and an opportunity to improve job performance
• Work in an environment free from discrimination and harassment from supervisors, co-workers. or customers
• File a complaint without fear of reprisal
Complaint procedure
If you feel you have been discriminated against or harassed, you can take several forms of action. If you have been harassed, make it clear to the harasser that his or her actions are unwelcome. You may do this directly or in writing. Advise your employer, if possible. If you confront the harasser in person, take someone with you as a witness and for support.
If the harassment does not stop, or if you feel too threatened to confront the individual:
• Keep a record
• Talk to your fellow employees
• Get more information
• Lay a complaint within your company
• File a complaint with the appropriate Human Rights Tribunal or Commission
More information on bullying and harassment is found below.
Fair Recruitment Practices
Fair recruitment practices attract the widest selection of applicants to the position. If the recruitment practices are unfair or discriminatory, qualified candidates may be discouraged from applying for the job. By relying only on job-related considerations when recruiting and selecting staff, you have the best chance of finding the best person for the job.
Job analysis
Job analysis is a business procedure that companies use to present a clear picture of the nature of a job and the skills and qualifications required. An effective job analysis allows you to determine the skill, effort, and responsibility required of each job. This in turn assists you in recruiting the best person for the job and paying that individual a fair wage.
A job analysis should include:
• A list of all of the job duties and responsibilities an individual is expected to perform
• How frequently each task is performed
• A description of the working conditions and physical environment
• Skills, knowledge, and experience needed to perform the job competently
Bona fide occupational requirements
The process of recruiting staff begins with establishing the job duties and qualifications. When you identify the responsibilities of the job and the qualifications required of the successful candidate, you must ensure that these are bona fide (genuine) occupational requirements, which means those requirements that persons should have to enable them to perform a job adequately and safely.
For example, cooks must often work early mornings, weekends, or evenings in order to cover the opening hours of the food services establishment. The minimum qualifications might also include completion of the FOODSAFE course, a professional cook training program, or a Cook Red Seal. These qualifications are acceptable because they do not discriminate against an individual or group of people.
On the other hand, if you excluded an individual because he or she was a member of a particular religious group and you believed that the person would be unwilling to work on Saturday, a day your restaurant is normally open, your actions could be considered discriminatory. Similarly, if you refused to hire a parent of an infant because you believed that the individual would miss work due to lack of child care, this too could be considered discrimination. Such actions could leave you and your employer open to a complaint to the Human Rights Tribunal.
If a requirement might be discriminatory, there should be objective proof (that is, statistics or medical evidence) that the requirement is necessary. Any requirement must be imposed in good faith. In good faith means that the requirement is imposed only to meet the demands of the job, not to exclude persons from applying. Sometimes a job may have a requirement or qualification that prevents individuals or groups from participating. When the requirement or qualification meets certain strict guidelines, it is permitted by human rights law. If you believe that you have a bona fide occupational requirement that may be discriminatory, you should contact the Human Rights Tribunal for information on how best to proceed.
Guidelines for Employers: Applications and Interviews
When gathering information about an individual’s ability to perform the job, you should take note of the following guidelines. These guidelines suggest questions that will collect the type of information you require to make informed selection decisions. They also identify the types of questions you should avoid. Asking certain questions could lead to a complaint of discrimination if persons protected by the legislation are denied employment opportunities.
You should note that certain questions that would be considered discriminatory before hiring may be permitted after hiring for the purposes of benefit and insurance plan entitlements.
Age
Before hiring, you may ask whether the individual has reached legal working age. In B.C., the legal working age is 15 years. After hiring, an applicant’s age may be asked for benefit and insurance plans. Avoid asking about age in general, or requesting a copy of the person’s birth certificate.
Race, colour, ancestry, place of origin
You may ask “Are you legally entitled to work in Canada?” Anyone who is legally entitled to work must be given equal employment opportunity unless there is a legal restriction stating otherwise. Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and individuals who have received a work permit from the federal government are entitled to work. You should avoid asking questions about a person’s birthplace or nationality or that of his or her relatives or spouse. Once a person is hired, you may request the social insurance number for income tax, Employment Insurance, and benefit purposes.
Criminal or summary conviction
Inquiries about criminal or summary convictions are discouraged unless the question is directly related to the job duties of the position. If bonding is required, you may ask whether the person is eligible to be bonded.
Bonding means taking out an insurance policy to pay for any losses caused by an employee. In order to be bonded, an individual must have a reasonable record of financial stability and be able to provide at least three character references. A very high debt load on credit cards or an impending bankruptcy could jeopardize your application.
In some types of positions, particularly those where an individual may be working with children, the elderly, or individuals with disabilities, a criminal record check may be required. Permission must be received from the individual in order to conduct this check. However, if the responsibilities of the position require this, an applicant may be refused hiring if he or she does not consent to the check being made.
Education
Educational requirements should be directly related to the duties of the job.
Physical or mental disability
You may ask the applicant job-related questions concerning his or her ability to perform the essential components of the job. A disability is relevant to the job only if it prevents the person from effectively carrying out the essential job components. For example, you might ask applicants whether they are able to work standing for an entire shift if this is necessary. Do not ask the applicant for a general statement of disability, limitations, or health problems.
Political beliefs
Avoid asking for statements of political beliefs or philosophy.
Religious beliefs
You may ask job-related questions such as whether the individual is available to work for the required work time. For example, if your restaurant is open on Saturdays and Sundays, you may ask the applicant if he or she is able to work on those days. Employers must be reasonable in accommodating the religious needs of employees. Do not ask for statements concerning religious affiliations, religious belief, or church membership.
Sex, sexual orientation, marital/family status
If job mobility or travel is required for the job, you may ask whether the individual is willing to work under those conditions. For example, if you are hiring cooks for a job in a remote mining camp, where cooks typically work for three weeks in the camp and then are returned to their homes for time off, you could explain the arrangements and ask whether the applicant is willing to work in these conditions.
You should avoid questions about
• The applicant’s sex or sexual orientation
• Pregnancy and child-bearing plans
• Child care arrangements
• Marital status (single, married, divorced, engaged, separated, widowed, or living common law)
Once you have hired an individual, you may request the information about the person’s spouse, children, and dependants required for benefit and pension plans.
Handling Discriminatory Questions in Interviews
If an employer asks questions that are not directly related to bona fide occupational requirements and that relate to the prohibited grounds under the Human Rights Code, he or she may be open to complaints of discrimination by unsuccessful candidates. It should be noted that some questions that might be considered discriminatory before hiring may be asked afterward if there is a legitimate need for the information. For example, an employer may request information about marital status and dependants in order to enroll a person in employee benefit programs.
If you are asked questions that you believe are discriminatory during an interview, you may refuse to answer. Do not automatically assume that the question is threatening.
Consider the following when responding:
• Try to figure out why the question is being asked. Is the individual just being friendly or making conversation? Or has the employer made some assumption about you and your fitness for the job?
• If you are fairly certain you know why the question is being asked, you could say something like “If you are asking whether I can work on evenings and weekends, the answer is yes. In my past two jobs, I routinely worked till 10 at night and on weekends.”
• If you are uncertain why the question was asked, you could paraphrase the question in an attempt to clarify it. For example, you could say, “Are you asking whether I am willing to relocate?” You could also take a direct approach: “Could you explain why you are asking this question?”
• Keep calm and be assertive in your responses. Losing your temper could cost you a job if the employer was merely trying to make conversation.
Wage Discrimination
Sections of the Act prevent discrimination in the wages paid to employees. Employers who are found to have discriminatory wages may be required to pay employees the difference between the amount the employee was paid and the amount to which he or she was rightly entitled over a 12-month period.
Employers have the responsibility to ensure that sex, race, and other prohibited grounds of discrimination are not a factor in determining wage scales. The best tool in determining wages is the job analysis. This will allow you to assess what skill, experience, effort, and responsibility is required for each job.
Methods of Creating a Discrimination-Free Workplace
Everyone has the right to work in an environment that is free of discrimination and conducive to job performance. Workplaces in which workers are subject to harassment are unhappy places in which individuals do not perform to the best of their abilities.
Harassment creates a “poisoned” atmosphere that does not contribute to cooperation and productivity. The people targeted for harassment may become ill and over stressed. They may leave the department or workplace in order to escape the harassment. Co-workers may have reduced morale as a result of the lack of respect for others they witness. Ultimately, the effects of a less productive and cooperative workplace are felt by the customers and guests of the establishment. In addition, any mental illness that occurs as a result of workplace bullying or harassment may be considered a workplace injury and therefore subject to a WorkSafeBC claim.
Bullying and harassment
Any physical or verbal conduct by a co-worker, supervisor, or guest that is discriminatory in nature and that offends or humiliates you is bullying and harassment. Although people often think only of sexual harassment, bullying and harassment include any differential treatment of people on the basis of their gender, race, ethnic background, class, religion, sexual orientation, age, or disability.
Bullying and harassment is a type of discrimination. It can take many forms, including:
• Threats, intimidation, or verbal abuse
• Unwelcome remarks or jokes about subjects like your race, religion, disability, or age
• Displaying sexist, racist, or other offensive pictures and posters
• Disparaging names or comments
• Badgering and constant teasing
• Offensive remarks
• Unwanted touching
• Making someone the constant target of practical jokes
• Sexually suggestive remarks or gestures
• Stereotyping on the basis of the group to which a person belongs
• Unfair sharing of responsibilities
• Physical assault, including sexual assault
Bullying and harassment can consist of a single incident or several incidents over a period of time. It is considered to have taken place if a reasonable person ought to have known that the behaviour was unwelcome.
Inappropriate jokes are sometimes perceived as just having fun. However, even if the person about whom you are joking laughs, it does not mean that he or she enjoys the experience. Jokes of this type can be intimidating and make people ill at ease. They may make people less willing to talk to you because they expect that you will turn their communication with you into more intimidating jokes. Racist and sexist jokes exclude people from your group. They show a lack of respect. They are also harassment.
Constant use of racist or sexist expressions is also harassment. Comments like “he’s a male chauvinist pig” and “women should be kept at home” are unacceptable and may be considered harassment.
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment is harassment involving unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature. It can include a promise for reward in exchange for sexual favours. Or it might involve threats, either stated or unstated, that unfavourable consequences will result from not going along with the harassment. These consequences might include being demoted, losing a bonus, not getting the shifts you want, or being denied a promotion. Sexual harassment can also occur without promise of reward or threats. The harassment might make the workplace an intimidating, hostile, or offensive place where an employee cannot work comfortably.
You do not need to intend to harass a person for harassment to take place. Saying “it was just a joke” or “I just meant it as a compliment” are not excuses under the law.
Employers’ obligations
Employers are responsible for any harassment by supervisors, co-workers, or customers that occurs in the workplace. It is the employer’s responsibility to:
• Make it clear that harassment will not be tolerated
• Establish a harassment policy
• Make sure that every employee understands the policy and the procedures for dealing with harassment
• Inform supervisors and managers of their responsibility to provide a harassment-free work environment
• Investigate and correct harassment problems as soon as they come to light, even if a formal complaint has not been received
In a food service establishment, supervisors, managers, and owners also have a responsibility to intervene if a guest harasses workers. For example, if a guest attempts to pinch or fondle a food server, and the manager is aware of the situation as a result of a complaint or observing the customer’s behaviour, it is his or her responsibility to take action. Ignoring the behaviour or asking the server to ignore the behaviour is not acceptable and could leave the employer open to a complaint to the Human Rights Tribunal or to WorkSafeBC.
Company policies on harassment
A strong policy prohibiting harassment and decisive measures to deal with it are clearly in the corporate interest of the employer.
When a company has a strong policy on harassment and when it ensures that all employees know about the policy, employees get the message that the company means what it says. They also know exactly what to do if they are being harassed.
A typical harassment policy contains:
• A strong statement that the company will not tolerate harassment
• A definition of harassment
• Management responsibility
• Procedures for reporting harassment
• An explanation of the mediation and investigation procedures and the rights of all parties
• A discussion of the sanctions (discipline) that may be applied
• Time limits for complaints
Samples of policies on harassment which companies can use as models are available from the Human Rights Tribunal or from WorkSafeBC.
Checking your own behaviour
Discrimination and harassment in the workplace are serious They can cost you your reputation or even your job. To ensure that you treat your fellow employees fairly and equitably, you should:
• Monitor your own behaviour to check whether you are being fair or whether you are singling others out for different treatment
• Check for signs of nervousness or discomfort on the part of co-workers, especially subtle cues such as a nervous laugh, shifting eyes, or avoidance of contact
• Check out your observations in a non-threatening way (e.g., “I’ve noticed that you seem nervous around me. Am I doing something that you find uncomfortable?” said in a pleasant, non-confrontational way)
• Ask for honest feedback from your co-workers about your behaviour
• Be sensitive to the impact your authority or the environment can have on the impact of your words and actions (e.g., many women feel uncomfortable being alone with a man they do not know well)
• Never assume that you know what others think, feel, or how they will react
Physical or mental disability
People with physical or mental disabilities are protected under the Human Rights Code. This protection covers those individuals whose prospects of getting a job and advancing in that job are reduced or affected because of a disability. When hiring, you should evaluate all applicants on the basis of their ability to carry out the essential components of the job. You should:
• Concentrate on the person’s capabilities, not disabilities
• Assess persons as individuals, not as members of a group
• Avoid making generalizations about disabilities
• Consider reasonable modifications that people with disabilities need to perform the essential job tasks
Job Accommodations
Modifications to the job or facility to employ persons with disabilities are called job accommodations. For example, persons who are hearing impaired may require just a simple light system to alert them to new orders. Often, the person with a disability can tell you exactly what simple job accommodations are needed. Some government funding may be available for more extensive accommodations.
There is also a toolkit available from go2HR called Full Service (Figure 7) to assist food service employers in assigning modified duties for injured or disabled workers.
If an employee is already employed when he or she becomes temporarily or permanently disabled, the employer cannot fire, lay off, or demote the person because of the disability unless the individual can no longer perform the essential components of the job. The employer is required to reasonably accommodate the disability. This responsibility is sometimes called the duty to accommodate
Accommodations may include:
• Reassigning non-essential work duties
• Flexible work schedules
• Physical alteration of facilities
• Training
• Technical aids
The B.C. Human Rights Tribunal would look at such factors as how much the accommodation will cost, the size of the workforce, the impact of a collective agreement, and safety considerations.
In addition to the legal requirements of the Human Rights Code, accommodating employees who have been disabled makes sound business sense. If you have to replace an experienced cook, you will have to recruit, select, and orient a new employee. In the meantime, you may be paying overtime to other cooks in order to cover the shift. By the time that the new cook is thoroughly familiar with your kitchen, your investment may be thousands of dollars. In contrast, making job accommodations may cost relatively little and may inspire greater loyalty from all of your employees.
Requirements for public services and facilities
Persons with disabilities have the right to access facilities and to receive services from restaurants, public washrooms, stores, and other places of business. This means that you cannot deny service to a person with a disability. For example, people with physical disabilities that make it difficult for them to feed themselves cannot be denied restaurant service. You should also be careful about jumping to conclusions about the condition of your guests. For example, people with slurred speech or an unstable gait may not be drunk. They may have a disability that affects speech or balance. If you ask the person to leave thinking that he or she is drunk, you could be the subject of a complaint.
It is sound business practice, and may also be a requirement of your municipality and business licence, to ensure that your restaurant or food service establishment is accessible for persons with disabilities. When choosing a restaurant location or redesigning a facility, consider the following:
• Avoid stairs and unnecessary multi-level seating areas or provide ramps or elevators between areas.
• Space tables and seating far enough apart to allow persons with limited mobility or wheelchairs to pass.
• If the seating is largely fixed (e.g., banquettes), provide some tables with chairs that can be easily removed to accommodate wheelchairs.
• Provide accessible washrooms with lever-style door handles and faucets.
• Check the level of sinks, light switches, pay telephones, towel dispensers, elevator controls. and other items to ensure that they can be reached by a person in a wheelchair.
Advice on how to make your facility accessible and barrier-free is available from municipal engineering departments. If your restaurant is undergoing construction or renovations, you may also have to meet accessibility provisions of the British Columbia Building Code. The municipal engineering department can provide information about these requirements.
Media Attributions
• Full Service by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/03%3A_Employment_Standards_for_B.C._Food_Service_Workers/3.05%3A_The_B.C._Human_Rights_Code.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe the principles of effective communication
• Use interpersonal communication skills
• Working as a part of a team
No matter what your job is, you need to communicate with other people. To be effective at doing your job, you need to communicate in an effective manner. How do you communicate? Talking is the obvious answer. Much of human communication is talking, but not all. In this chapter you will learn the principles of effective communication, how to best use interpersonal communication skills, and how to work as a team.
4.02: Strategies for Effective Communication
First Impressions
Any business that provides customer service relies on good first impressions. When a guest enters your restaurant or food service establishment, the guest makes judgments about the business based on the appearance, grooming, posture, and courtesy of the staff, and the appearance of the business. In other words, these factors communicate a message to the guests about the business and its attitude to guests. These first impressions can colour the guest’s perception of the entire dining experience. Once the perception is formed, even if it is faulty, it is very hard to change. You only get one chance for a good first impression (Figure 8).
If guests come into your restaurant and see you replacing the hot vegetables on the buffet while dressed in a stained or torn uniform, they may immediately jump to the conclusion that the restaurant staff is sloppy. If the host does not greet them politely when they first come in the door, they may feel that customer service is not a priority. The appearance of the business itself is also part of creating a good first impression. Dirty windows, a tattered menu, untidy service areas, spills on the buffet table, and less than pristine washrooms can create a negative impression.
To create a good first impression of your business, you should:
• Keep all work areas tidy
• Greet guests as soon as they enter, even if seating guests is not your responsibility
• Make eye contact and smile at guests when in the dining room
• Ensure that uniforms are spotless when you enter a public area
• Maintain an erect posture and alert manner
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is an important component of effective communication. Non-verbal communication includes such things as tone of voice, voice quality (nasal, whiny, musical), making eye contact with the person to whom you are talking, paying attention when somebody else talks, body position, distance from the person, and body movement. It is easy to say one thing but to communicate the opposite with your non-verbal communication. When the non-verbal part of your communication is in conflict with the verbal message, others tend to trust the non-verbal message.
For example, if somebody tells you that he or she wants to hear your opinion and at the same time is doing something else, what is being communicated?
Working in the hospitality industry, you will need to communicate with:
• People who supervise you; for example, the executive chef
• People who you supervise, such as apprentices, helpers, and dishwashers
• People who are your co-workers in the kitchen
• Other workers in the hotel or restaurant such as servers, hosts, and bartenders
• Guests in the restaurant
• Suppliers
You will probably communicate differently with each of these groups of people. However, effective communication is much the same no matter with whom you are communicating.
Communication is a two-way process. You can talk as much as you want, but if nobody is listening there is no communication. When you first meet others, they will not know how you communicate or anything about you. They will probably expect you to be a reasonable person until you prove otherwise.
To start your relationship off right, and to build understanding with that person, you need to treat them with respect.
Show Respect
If you do not respect the person to whom you are speaking, your language and your non-verbal communication will communicate that. Showing disrespect for somebody will remove their respect for you. People who do not respect one another cannot communicate effectively and may reach the point where they cannot communicate with each other at all. Whatever personal feelings you have about co-workers, you need to communicate effectively with them in order to do your job efficiently and safely. Do not start off on the wrong foot by showing a lack of respect.
This applies to anybody in the company, whether it is your supervisor, somebody who works under you, or somebody who works in another area of the company.
Showing respect for somebody is not difficult. If you treat people how you would like to be treated, respectful communication will come naturally. Here are some additional guidelines to maintain respectful relationships:
• Acknowledge other people’s presence with a “hello” or a smile even when you do not need to speak with them
• Remember their names
• Listen when they speak
• Do not intimidate them or make them feel uncomfortable
• Show honesty and consistency
• Show agreement when possible
• Say thank you often
• Offer your help
• Ask advice
• Avoid status battles
A smile is powerful non-verbal communication. A smile welcomes people and makes them feel at ease. It suggests that you do not have bad feelings about them, and that you are willing to listen. A smile acknowledges the presence of others when you do not have time to ask how they are doing or if they are speaking to someone else while you pass by (Figure 9).
A person’s name is central to her or his identity. Greet people by name whenever you can. This will show that you have made the effort to remember who they are, and that you acknowledge their existence. If you have trouble remembering people’s names, get into the habit of repeating the name several times to yourself right after you first hear it. You can try to associate names with some aspect of appearance or with another person you know who has the same name. You can write the name down. You can concentrate only on the first name to make remembering it easier. If you know you have to go and see a person whose name you cannot remember, ask somebody what it is.
In Canada today, most people prefer to be called by their first name rather than by their last name or by a title. However, some people prefer more formality. If your boss wants to be called Ms. Lee or Mr. Johnson, then you should use that name. In many kitchens, it is still the policy to call your supervisor by his or her title; for example, “Good morning, Chef.”
Most people like to laugh. Telling harmless jokes is a good way of having fun together and can help to build a team atmosphere in your workplace. However, jokes that are in poor taste or make fun of people will probably have the opposite effect. Even if the person you are joking about laughs, it does not mean that he or she enjoys the experience. The person may feel awkward about saying anything, but you should know that jokes of this nature can be intimidating and make people feel ill at ease.
Get into the habit of thanking people. Say thank you when they do something for you or bring something to your attention. Thanking people encourages them to do more of the same and makes them feel good about talking with you. Not thanking people when they deserve it will have the opposite effect.
Showing agreement is a good way of making people feel good about talking with you. You do not need to agree with a person’s argument in order to agree with some of his or her statements. You can encourage a person to keep speaking by nodding your head or by saying “yes” to show that you are paying attention.
You will need the help of other people to do your job. Even if it is their job to help you, the way you communicate and establish a working relationship with them will influence how willingly they help you. It pays to help those people from whom you need help. In that way, the help is not all one way.
As long as a statement is a sincere offer of help, the other person will feel less imposed upon. For example, you need the skills of the hotel’s maintenance engineer to repair a faulty ventilation fan in the kitchen. The engineer can do the job alone. You could describe the problem and go do something else. Or you could describe the problem and offer your assistance. The second option shows that you are willing to help, and that you value the work enough to offer your time. You can make people who work for you feel appreciated by asking their advice. Even if you do not act on the advice, you will make that person feel like part of a team. They will be more likely to ask your advice when they need it.
One of the obstacles to communication is believing that the actions of others are attempts to get the better of you. With this kind of attitude, it is easy to interpret all communication in terms of motives and status battles. Keep in mind that the other people are probably as preoccupied with their own situations as you are; they probably do not think about you very much at all. If you find it difficult to accept people’s communication at face value, try going through a few days without assigning any motives to anybody. You will find that communications are much easier as a result.
Listening Skills
A person who talks a lot is not necessarily a good communicator. People who talk a lot may actually be poor communicators because they never stop to listen to you.
If the talker constantly interrupts you, or finishes your sentences for you, the communication is only one way. If somebody constantly interrupts you and tries to finish your sentences for you, you need to keep speaking through the interruption. If he or she continues to interrupt, you need to say, “Please let me finish” in a calm voice, and continue talking.
A good communicator talks about things that are of importance to you, and says them in a way that you can understand. When good communicators are telling you important information, they stop often to ask you whether you have understood so far. Good communicators avoid annoying mannerisms of speech, such as “you know” or “like,” or annoying gestures like playing with a pencil or looking at the clock. A good communicator is someone who practices active listening.
Active listening
You can listen about four times as fast as you can speak. It is easy to listen to your own thoughts at the same time as listening to somebody else speak. It is also easy to listen to only your own thoughts while somebody else is speaking. To be an active listener, you must deliberately resist this tendency to let your mind wander. Not only will you remember more of what the speaker is saying, but the speaker will feel that you are listening.
Others will know you are listening through your non-verbal communication, such as your eye contact and posture. You have probably experienced a situation when someone asks, “How are you?” and you reply, “Not too well,” and then you hear “That’s good.” You know you were heard because the response came at the right time. But you also know that you were not listened to. The difference between hearing and listening boils down to choice. You have no choice but to hear, but you do have a choice to listen.
You must be totally involved in listening. You cannot be doing other tasks at the same time. You must block out or overcome all distractions, including those that you generate in your own mind. Active listeners show a sincere attitude. They show attention by not speaking, by facing their body toward you, by leaning forward and by making eye contact at least part of the time. Active listeners have an open posture; their arms and legs are not crossed, and their hands are open. They wait until you have finished. Active listeners let you explain your problem fully and do not rush in with solutions.
When it is time for them to speak, they speak more slowly and softer than usual to show that they are considering what you said. Active listeners will ask for more details on something that you said, which shows that they were paying attention. Active listeners will show understanding by expressing what you have said in different words.
Practise being an active listener by focusing on what the speaker is saying.
Show that you are listening by facing the person and looking at her or his eyes at least part of the time. Tell yourself that you are interested in what others are saying and try to understand their point of view. Do not interfere with your listening by forming your opinions while they are still speaking.
Let the speakers finish their own sentences; do not help slow speakers by finishing their sentences for them. When a speaker has finished speaking or asks if you have understood, repeat what you heard in another way. You can say for example, “In other words, you are saying that…”
Stay focused when you listen
You may be an active listener, but what if the speakers are not good communicators? They may repeat themselves or go on and on about insignificant things. They may have a poor grasp of English or fill their talk with meaningless words. They may be too shy to come out and say what their real problem is.
Some people will repeat themselves because they want to emphasize what they are saying. Others repeat themselves as a cue for you to start speaking. This is a characteristic of some cultures where interrupting others is regarded as normal and not impolite. As an active listener you should keep speakers focused on their subject. If they start to repeat themselves, you can say, for example, “Yes, I understand that,” and ask a question that moves the conversation forward. If they go on about insignificant things, you will need to find out whether they just want to talk, or if they are having difficulty in saying what they need to. You could ask, for example, “How does this relate to the problem in the company?” or, “Is this part of the same problem that we were discussing, or a separate problem?”
When it is clear that the speaker just wants to talk for the sake of talking, you will have to judge whether you have time to chat.
If you do not have time, you will have to let the speaker know. You could say, for example, “I have to get back to work now, but let’s talk again later.” If you do have time, such conversations are a good opportunity to get to know the speaker and establish a better understanding of his or her personality and background. You can respond with similar information about yourself, so that the other person gets to know you better.
People will appreciate if you remember details of their personal life, such as the names of their children, or what sports they enjoy. They will not appreciate hearing detailed accounts of your personal problems. If a speaker is inclined to tell you too much of a personal nature, you should politely make it clear that you are not a willing listener. You could say, for example, “I’d rather not hear about your operation.”
Some people who are poor communicators may rarely speak. When they do speak, they may appear angry or disrespectful to you. Keep your focus. Ask yourself why this person has decided to speak to you now. They may seem angry or disrespectful, but they may still have a message. Ignore the poor communication skills and ask questions that help determine what they really want to say.
Let’s take an example of a restaurant manager who rarely speaks to you. The manager grabs your arm as you pass by and says, “What’s with the salad bar today; was there a special on wilted lettuce?” The communication is poor; you do not really know what the manager is talking about. You could take insult over this comment as a reflection on how you are doing your job. On the other hand, there may be valuable information to learn. Find out by asking, “Is there a problem with wilted lettuce in the salads?” It may be that the manager has noticed a problem that is reducing the quality of the lettuce in the salad bar.
By finding out what the comment is really about, you may be able to deal with a problem that you had not noticed. As you show your willingness to listen, the people you listen to will show a greater willingness to speak. They will tell you about problems that they notice sooner. On the other hand, if you take poor communications personally and respond by ignoring or insulting the person, those people are less likely to speak to you.
Other Languages and Cultures
Not all of the people who you work with will speak English well. They may be from other countries, or have little education, or both. Because a person does not speak English well, it does not mean that he or she is not intelligent. Think of situations where you did not understand the words being used, perhaps in school or while in another country.
When you speak with people who have a lower level of English than you, imagine trying to speak in their language if you were just learning it. Speak like you would want them to speak to you. Speak slowly. Choose simple words and pronounce them carefully. Watch the person’s non-verbal communication for signs of understanding. Ask simple questions that will give the person a chance to show understanding. Because expressions are usually based on cultural knowledge, avoid using them. Avoid using unnecessary jargon, but do use the jargon that is common in the company. Do not treat the person like a child but as a dignified adult whose knowledge of English is limited. Do not raise your voice. A lack of language is not a hearing problem.
When you adjust the way you speak so that people who do not speak English well can understand you, both they and you will benefit. Those people will be able to do their job better because they understood your instructions. They will work more safely because they understand the situation or procedure better. They will appreciate your effort to communicate with them and respond better to your demands.
The way that we communicate depends on our culture. Language is a big part of culture, and so is non-verbal communication. In some cultures, it is insulting to make eye contact or to stand in front of the person you are speaking to. In others, it is good manners to speak very loudly. Many cultures have different norms of communication for women, men, older people, and younger people. When speaking to people from different cultures (Figure 10), keep in mind that their norms of communication may be different from yours. What you think is a sign of disrespect may actually be the opposite — a sign of respect in that person’s culture. You may need to ask them what the meaning of certain non-verbal communication actions means to them, and explain the meaning in your culture.
Communicating in a Noisy Environment
A busy kitchen in the midst of meal service can be a noisy environment in which it is hard to understand speech.
You will need to speak more loudly, but avoid shouting because shouted words are more difficult to understand. Be sure to face in the direction of the person to whom you are speaking because the sounds you produce are loudest in front of you. Be sure that the person is looking at you so that the sound can easily reach both ears, and so your facial and body expressions can be read. Support what you are saying with appropriate gestures, such as pointing at the objects to which you are referring. Often there are specific gestures used in the company for certain actions: a kind of local sign language. Be sure to learn what these gestures mean and use them whenever you speak in a noisy location.
For longer conversations or when you must be sure that the listener has understood you, go to a place where there is less noise.
You may meet people who do not hear very well because of hearing damage. A person who is deaf in one ear may never tell you, but may always stand to one side during conversations. Be sure to give those people a chance to take their preferred position before speaking to them. Not all people who have hearing damage know that they do or want to be reminded of it. Be aware of how loudly they speak and adjust the volume of your voice to match theirs.
Making Oral Reports
You will need to make oral reports to other staff, such as the executive chef or restaurant manager (Figure 11). For example, you might have to report on the condition of some equipment or explain your actions regarding a problem with a restaurant supplier. You will also need to make oral reports to people who work under you, such as apprentices or salad preparation staff. For example, you might have to explain the preparation of a new menu item.
An effective oral report has the same parts as an effective written report, namely an introduction, a body (or explanation), and a conclusion.
In the introduction, you must get the listener’s attention and introduce the subject. For example, “I am having a problem with the appearance of the Caesar salads, and I could use your help.” The listener now knows what the conversation is going to be about, and that attention must be paid because he or she will need to get involved.
Compare the above with this opening line: “Why is there too much dressing on the Caesar salads?” The listener is being asked to find solutions for a situation that you have barely begun to describe. The listener does not know whether you are asking for help or just educating yourself on something that you have been wondering about.
In the body of your oral report, identify the key points or ideas of the subject matter. Put them in a sequence that makes sense, and join the key points in a logical manner that your listener can follow. The more points you try to make, the harder it is for the listener to follow you. In the case of an equipment breakdown, it would probably be most effective to describe the problem in the sequence that it came to your attention and what you have done about it so far. If the listener interrupts you to start offering solutions before you have finished, you could say “Let me explain what I’ve done so far to give you the whole picture.”
In the conclusion, summarize your main points. This is a chance to re-emphasize those points, but do not repeat everything you have already said. For example, “I do not know enough about this convection oven to know how to prevent the vol-au-vents from being lop-sided. Can you help me with it?”
Using the Telephone
Communicating on the telephone can be more difficult than speaking in person because many of the non-verbal cues are missing. When dealing with guests and other outsiders, it is particularly important to create a good first impression of your business. This first impression is created almost solely by your voice. For example, if you pick up the phone and bark “Yo” into the receiver, the caller is likely to be put off by your offhand manner and tone of voice. The caller may wonder whether he or she has reached the right number.
To communicate effectively on the telephone, follow these tips:
• Answer the phone quickly, within three rings.
• Use a pleasant tone of voice when answering telephone calls. Avoid sounding harried, angry, or distracted.
• Greet the caller and identify the business and yourself. For example, you could say “Pleasant Stay Hotel kitchen. Carl speaking.”
• Keep a message pad and pen handy when you take calls.
• Do not carry on a conversation with someone else while you are on the phone. If it is necessary to speak to someone else, excuse yourself or offer to call back at a more appropriate time.
• If there is an uncomfortable pause on the other end of the phone, ask for clarification: “Is there anything else I can help you with?”
• Summarize the conversation at the end. For example, if you have taken a reservation for dinner, you might say, “I’ve made a reservation for February 12 at 7:00 p.m. for eight people under the name of Smith.”
• If you have to put someone on hold, ask the person to hold and wait for a response.
• Return to calls placed on hold quickly, and thank the person for waiting.
• If you have to transfer the call to someone else, explain that you are transferring the call to a person who can help and state the name of the person to whom you are transferring the call. Give the person to whom you are transferring the call a brief summary of the caller’s request so that the caller does not have to repeat the request.
• Be prepared when you make calls. Have a plan of what you will say. Have everything you need for the call at your fingertips. For example, if you are phoning in an order to a supplier, make sure that you have the restaurant account number, a list of the items you require, order numbers, the quantity needed, and other information beside you when you call.
Giving Directions and Feedback
A form of oral report that you will have to make if you supervise other people feedback on others’ performance. Feedback can be constructive or destructive. As these words imply, only constructive feedback serves any useful purpose. When you must give feedback on someone’s work, keep these tips in mind:
• Focus on the work performance, not on the person
• Be objective and descriptive rather than too personal
• Start by mentioning things that the person is doing well
• Keep the feedback to the point
• Focus feedback on two or three things that the participant might be able to change in a short period of time
• Give feedback as soon as possible after an event
• Focus feedback on something a person can do something about
• Never criticize a person in front of guests or other staff
• Give the person a chance to comment
If you are responsible for the work of others, you will be checking that they do it correctly. You may find fault with some of their work even if they perform most of their job well. If you mention only the faults, the message is that they are doing everything wrong. By mentioning the things that they are doing right, they will better accept some things could be improved.
Take an example where the apprentice under your supervision is making pastries. Destructive feedback would be, “Are you stupid or something? The oven needs to be preheated before you put the pastries in to bake!” Do not use blaming words or indulge in name calling (“You are so…”). When people feel blamed, they often tune out of the discussion and do not hear your positive suggestions for improvement.
Less destructive, but still not constructive, feedback would be, “You did not preheat the oven before you baked the pastry. You must make sure the oven has reached…”
Now compare this constructive feedback: “Phil, you’re doing a good job with the pastry. They have a neat, attractive appearance and are well browned. I’m not sure you understand how critical the preheat time is. The quality of the finished product could be improved by…”
Tell people what they are doing right
Phil will feel good about your directions because he was told about the things he is doing right. It is a good idea to tell people about the things that they are doing right on a regular basis, not just when you are giving feedback. That way you encourage them to keep doing those things right. You also make such people feel good about speaking with you, so they will accept your directions easily when it is necessary. You do not need to say good things in private. Most people enjoy being praised in front of others.
Give feedback that is specific and descriptive
Give feedback that is concrete and specific. Your directions should tell the person exactly what she or he is doing well and what needs improvement. For example, saying, “You did a good job on the buffet tonight” may make the apprentices feel good, but it will not help them understand exactly what you feel was performed well. You could provide more information by saying, “You did a good job of serving the roast beef tonight. You sliced the beef thinly and evenly, and you always asked the guests for their preferences before serving.”
Focus on the behaviour that needs changing
Keep the discussion focused on the behaviour that needs changing. Often when people are uncomfortable about giving or receiving criticism, they change the subject or bring up the past. If you are uncomfortable, you might share your feelings. This may help put them at ease, and let them know that you are honestly struggling with being direct.
Give suggestions for improvement
Provide specific suggestions on what you would like done in future. For example, you might say, “In future, I would like you to consult me before you make changes in the recipe.” Or you might say, “Tomorrow, could you check that the vegetables are refilled promptly? Tonight, the line was slowed because there was no broccoli left in the steam trays.”
Give criticism in private
Always give criticism in private. When people are criticized in public, they may feel belittled or humiliated. It is especially important not to criticize staff in front of guests. Guests may be very embarrassed for the staff member. Their embarrassment may ruin their enjoyment of an excellent meal.
Provide opportunities for the person to respond
Ask the person for her or his reaction or comments about the criticism. There may be an explanation for the problem. For example, an equipment malfunction may be responsible. Treat the criticism as a problem that you and the employee will work on together. Do not treat the employee as the problem. Blaming will not give results.
Handling Criticism
It is often difficult to receive criticism. When your behaviour is criticized, it is easy to take it very personally, especially if the person giving the criticism is angry, frustrated, or blaming. Constructive criticism can provide you with feedback that can help you improve your skills, so it is important to pay attention to the criticism you receive.
Sometimes lack of feedback can create difficult situations at work. If your supervisor is reluctant to provide direction, you may not know that you are doing something poorly. You think that everything is all right with your work. At the same time, your supervisor may be getting more and more upset about your performance. Finally, the supervisor blows up. You cannot understand why the supervisor is so angry. You feel justifiably upset that nothing has been said before.
If you are not getting constructive criticism about your work, it is helpful to ask your supervisor for specific feedback. You might say, “I’m not sure that I am completing the mise en place in the way you would like. What suggestions do you have for me to improve my work?” By asking for feedback, you are indicating to the supervisor that you want to do a good job and constantly improve your skills.
The following tips will help you make best use of the suggestions you receive for improving your work:
• Relax and pay attention: Relax and listen carefully to what the other person is saying. Taking a few deep breaths may help you overcome your anxiety.
• Paraphrase the criticism: Repeat what you have heard in slightly different words so that the other person knows that you have heard and understood what was said. For example, you might say, “You would like me to pay more attention to the levels of the vegetables on the steam tray, and refill them before they are empty.”
• Decide whether the criticism is fair: Decide whether the criticism is fair or unfair. If you feel the criticism is unfair, question the matter of unfairness rather than the criticism itself. For example, you might say, “I know it is important to keep the buffet line moving, but so many people want roast beef that I find it difficult to refill the vegetables when it is needed.” In other words, treat the complaint like a problem to be solved by you and your supervisor, not as a personal attack.
• Ask for clarification: If the criticism is vague or unclear, ask for an explanation or specific examples. For example, if a server tells you that the soup does not taste right, you could ask, “Can you explain what you mean by ‘does not taste right’? Is it too salty or too highly spiced?”
• Ask for suggestions: If the criticism is fair, ask for specific suggestions or alternatives for improving your performance. For example, you might ask, “Can you suggest a better way for me to handle orders that are shorted?”
• Admit your mistakes: Do not go into long, self-critical, or rationalizing excuses. Admit your mistakes. For example, you might say, “Yes, I did not notice that today. I will do my best to watch for it tomorrow.”
• State your opinion if you disagree: If you disagree with the criticism, respond with statements that begin with “I” rather than “you.” I statements give an opinion, which may differ from the other person’s. They are less likely to be perceived as blaming. For example, you might say, “I think that you misinterpreted what I said.” If you say “You misinterpreted what I said again. You’re always doing that,” you are likely to get into a shouting match with the person that will leave hard feelings on both sides and not resolve the problem.
• Respond calmly: When responding to someone who is speaking loudly, quickly, or angrily, keep your voice low and speak slowly. The other person is more likely to slow down and become more reasonable. If you respond angrily or loudly, the confrontation is likely to escalate. This does not mean that you have to act in a humble or submissive manner. You just need to stay calm and focused on the problem.
• Share your feelings: If you find yourself getting angry or upset, take a few deep breaths before you respond. It can be helpful to share your feelings about the criticism. You could say, “It is not easy for me to take criticism,” or “I am feeling annoyed that you are bringing up this issue again.”
Media Attributions
• A Server Holding a Tray by go2HR. Used with permission
• A Cook Smiling at the Camera by go2HR. Used with permission
• Different Cultures by go2HR. Used with permission
• Oral Reports by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/04%3A_Workplace_Communication_and_Teamwork/4.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Assertive Behaviour
When you are assertive, you express your feelings, thoughts, and wishes clearly and directly. You stand up for your own rights without infringing on the rights of other people. You disagree when you think it is necessary. You are willing to modify your own behaviour in order to allow others to meet their needs. When you are treated badly by others, you are willing to set limits on the behaviour you will permit. An assertive person is cooperative and believes that compromise and communication will help all to reach their goals. Being assertive does not mean being aggressive.
Assertive behaviour is based on a set of rights and responsibilities that is a little different from what you might have learned within your family. For example, many people believe that it is selfish to put your needs before someone else’s. They may believe that it is shameful to make mistakes or admit to them. In contrast, assertive behaviour is based on a belief that you are an adult with these alternatives and legitimate rights:
• To act in your own interest
• To respect and stand up for yourself
• To express ideas, beliefs, and honest emotions
• To ask for what you want
• To be treated with respect and dignity
• To make mistakes
Of course, rights are also balanced with responsibilities. Assertive individuals:
• Respect and honour these rights for others
• Take responsibility for their own behaviour
• Take responsibility for their own mistakes
Components of Assertive Behaviour
Being assertive involves more than just what you say. It includes a set of non-verbal behaviours and a set of feelings about oneself.
Eye contact
Looking directly at a person when you are speaking shows that you are sincere, that you are interested in the conversation, and that you are sure of what you are saying. Looking away or down, or shifting your eyes constantly may convey the message that you lack confidence or are insincere. Staring or glaring at the person may indicate aggression.
Posture
An assertive individual stands or sits with an erect posture and maintains an appropriate distance from the person being addressed. Slumped posture, a hanging head, and moving away from the person being addressed may be interpreted as non-assertive. Moving in too close or leaning over the person may convey aggression.
Gestures
Threatening gestures such as a pointed finger or a clenched fist may intimidate the person being addressed. Conversely, gestures such as wringing hands, biting nails, or other nervous mannerisms may create the impression of passivity. When you are assertive, you either leave your hands by your sides or use appropriate gestures.
Facial expression and voice
A pleasant, steady, and strong speaking voice accompanied by facial expressions that are appropriate to the verbal message tells the other person that you mean what you say. A quivery, faltering voice that can barely be heard and an inappropriate expression may convey a message that will not be taken seriously even if the verbal part of the message is assertive.
“I” messages and observations
Assertive persons use “I” statements that indicate what they feel, think, and want. These statements begin with the word “I.” They include clear, direct observations about specific incidents and events. They do not make sweeping generalizations or vague, indirect statements that force the other person to guess the problem. They do not mislabel their inferences and conclusions about the behaviour of others as facts. They avoid laying blame or making judgments about the behaviour of others.
For example, James has come into work for three nights in a row and discovered that the kitchen was not thoroughly cleaned at the end of the previous shift. The next night, he makes a point of coming in a little early so that he can talk to the person who works on the previous shift.
Here are three possible approaches he could take:
• Aggressive: (shouting) “What an inconsiderate slob you are! The kitchen is always a pigsty when I come in to work.”
• Assertive: (calm) “I noticed the stove and countertops were not clean when I came in for work the last three nights. I felt very angry because I make a point of leaving the kitchen spotless each night.”
• Passive: (whining) “Is there some problem going on during the day that I should know about?”
Notice that the first approach is bound to lead to conflict, with someone winning the fight and the other person losing. It blames the other person for leaving the kitchen untidy, and assumes that the person is inconsiderate and a slob. It ignores the possibility that the restaurant was extraordinarily busy at lunch, that the kitchen was understaffed, or some other reasonable explanation. If there was a reasonable explanation (e.g., “My mother is dying and I’ve been rushing off to spend time with her”), James will likely feel like a heel for having been so judgmental.
The assertive approach is objective and informative. It allows James to express his feelings about what happened. It is more likely to get a positive response than the aggressive approach.
The passive approach (see below) forces the day staff to figure out what the problem is. James is not being clear and direct. By the time the problem is identified, everyone might be frustrated and angry.
One common approach that does not appear to fit into the above categories is to complain about the behaviour to others but not address the situation directly. For example, James might complain to the other staff working the evening shift. This may defuse some of his anger about the condition of the kitchen, but it does not solve the problem. It is also a passive approach. Over time, this approach leads to a build-up of hostility between the staff on the different shifts. Staff may indulge in various petty acts to get back at the other shift for their perceived shortcomings. In the end, the customer suffers. An active, assertive approach to solving conflict works best for everyone. It can be awkward to do but in the end it is the best approach for all parties involved.
Aggressive Behaviour
In contrast, some people behave aggressively. They pay little attention to the rights and needs of others. They achieve their goals at the expense of others. In communication, they may shout, threaten, and bluster to get their own way. They may humiliate other people by their communication and actions. They are highly competitive in their behaviour and believe that they can only win if others lose.
There are times when it is appropriate to be aggressive. For example, when your life is being threatened or when faced with an emergency, it is important to react swiftly and firmly. There is no time to think about consulting others and meeting their needs.
Passive or Non-Assertive Behaviour
Passive or non-assertive persons are not in control of their own destiny. They do not stand up for their own rights and may be taken advantage of by others. By allowing others to choose for them, they give up the opportunity to reach their own goals. In communication, non-assertive persons are often inhibited and indirect. They do not say what they feel or need, although they may try to express these needs indirectly. They often accommodate others or give in to others. They may feel frustrated, unhappy, or hurt in the process.
There may be times when it is appropriate to be passive. For example, if you have made a serious and costly error that could cost you your job, you should probably be prepared to hear out your supervisor without being assertive or aggressive.
No one is consistently assertive. You may be assertive with your co-workers, passive or non-assertive with your boss, and aggressive with your youngest brother or sister. Often people find it very difficult to be assertive when they are dealing with a stranger or someone in a position of authority. By learning and practising assertive behaviour, you can expand the number of situations in which you respond assertively. You can choose when to act assertively and when not to. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/04%3A_Workplace_Communication_and_Teamwork/4.03%3A_Work_Behaviours.txt |
The goal of restaurant and food service establishments is to provide high-quality meals and excellent service to customers while staying within food and labour costs so that the operation can make a profit. This goal can only be achieved with the cooperation and support of all of the staff. Just as a football franchise only succeeds when the players and staff form a cohesive team, so too does a restaurant succeed only when the staff forms a working team.
Teams invariably outperform individuals if they are working effectively. When groups come together to solve a problem, they come up with more creative and flexible solutions than could individuals. In a restaurant, excellent food and service is always a team effort. If the meal is not well prepared or if the service is poor, the customer may not enjoy the dining experience. All members of the team have a role in making the customers experience memorable.
Cooks often think only of the team in the kitchen. The kitchen staff members may think of themselves as a team (“us”) allied against the front of house staff (“them”). The kitchen staff on other shifts, management, and other components of the operation may also be considered “them.” This is not productive in a well-functioning restaurant. The staff may believe that if only “they” were more understanding, worked harder, or knew what it was really like, “we” could do the best job. Of course, this same thinking is prevalent in the other groups except in reverse.
The flaw with this thinking is that it pits one group against the other. It contributes to poor customer service. Petty jealousies and conflicts can lead to various schemes to get the better of the other group. This is an immature way of looking at your workplace and unfortunately the customer will suffer. Being part of a team means being respectful to all other members for their particular role and duties. When the entire group sees itself as having a common set of goals to achieve, and each member of the team understands his or her contribution to the overall team effort, the best results are achieved.
Characteristics of effective working groups
Groups that work effectively have the following characteristics:
• Group members share a sense of purpose or common goals that each member is willing to work toward. Members feel that they played a role in determining these goals and the methods used to achieve them. When a task is accomplished or the demands of the situation change, the group can change its focus or direction to meet the new goals.
• The group is concerned not only with the task, but also with its own processes and operating procedures. The group periodically evaluates its performance.
• The group members use one another as a resource. The group willingly accepts the influence and leadership of members whose resources are relevant to the immediate task. Roles are balanced and shared to ensure that the tasks are accomplished and that group cohesion and morale are enhanced.
• Communication is clear and direct. Group members continually try to listen to and clarify what is being said and show interest in what others say and feel. Differences of opinion are encouraged and freely expressed.
• The group focuses on problem solving rather than expending energy on competitive struggles or interpersonal issues. The group is willing to deal with conflict and focus on it until it is resolved or managed in a way that does not reduce the effectiveness of the group and its members. Confrontation is accepted as a challenge to examine one’s behaviour or ideas. It is not viewed as an uncaring personal attack.
• Mistakes are seen as sources of learning rather than reasons for punishment. This encourages creativity and risk taking.
• The group has a clear set of expectations and standards for the behaviour of group members.
• Developing a climate of trust underlies all of these elements. In order to trust one another, individuals in a group must understand and get to know one another.
Stages of group development
Groups go through a set of predictable stages of development. In 1965, Bruce Tuckman, who carried out research on group dynamics, identified the four stages as forming (getting to know each other); storming (initial confrontation as group members identify their differences); norming (coming together to work for the benefit of the team); and performing (working well together with a process to deal with any differences of opinion and reassessing to look for opportunities for improvement). (Tuckman, 1965)
• Forming: When a group is first formed, individuals wait and see what is going on. They are unsure of their role and concerned about how they will fit in. They want to belong to the group, feel accepted, and find out what the task is. If you think for a moment, you will probably remember feeling like this on your first day of work. The supervisor or leader can help at this stage by providing a comfortable and structured environment. Ensure that each person is introduced and there is an opportunity to get to know one another. Be clear about goals and expectations.
• Storming: During the confrontation stage, individuals in a group begin to struggle to establish their place in the group. They may challenge the leadership of the group or the group boundaries. They may also, for the first time, express disagreement or impatience with the task or group process. At first, the leader may wonder why the group, which seemed to be working well, now seems to be in trouble. This stage is healthy because group members feel comfortable and trusting enough to air conflicts which previously had been kept hidden. The supervisor needs to provide time to deal with issues as they arise and avoid the temptation to “put the lid on” the conflict. Healthy dissent leads to better problem solving and better cooperation. If you prevent conflict from being expressed, it may continue to fester under the surface, causing greater problems later on.
• Norming: At the working stage, groups have developed methods of dealing with task and process and can work effectively together. People become more tolerant of differences in the group and encourage self-expression. The group can accept and build on one another’s strengths, sharing tasks in the most productive way.
• Performing: During maturity, the group continues to cooperate to resolve issues and accomplish objectives. The group can stagnate and become less effective if new challenges and opportunities do not arise. Perhaps you have worked in a restaurant where the entire working group has been together for a couple of years. The group works together well, but unless there are new challenges, such as a new menu or an expansion, the situation can become boring. When group members are bored and unchallenged, their performance may decline and conflicts between members may start to dominate the working of the group.
During reassessment, members examine their performance and working processes. They begin to provide honest feedback which is not always positive and begin to share ideas that might create conflict. As a result of this examination, the group can continue to develop its effectiveness.
Work groups are constantly being formed and reformed as new staff members join and others leave. New members of the team have the same needs as new groups. Because the team has a different membership, the whole group may revert to an earlier stage of development. This is especially true if the new team member has a position of authority over other members. A good leader always watches for signs that the group needs more structure or a new challenge.
This sense of teamwork is not something that just happens; it is created through good communication, leadership, caring for individuals as people, and an understanding of group process.
Roles of group members
Members of a work group fall into two categories. Initiators are the people who speak up first and generate ideas. They contribute their knowledge of relevant information and experience and give opinions. Responders listen and respond to suggestions they have heard. They evaluate information, criticize proposals, and ask questions. They play an important role in developing the ideas put forward by initiators.
As the group process continues, members switch back and forth between the roles. Both roles are important for group function. Groups need a balance between these roles. If there is only idea generation, the result will be a contentious, unruly group that is too divided to make up its mind. If there is too much emphasis on criticism of contributions and evaluation of ideas, the group may not come up with any new and innovative ideas to try. Maintaining a balance is the role of the group leader.
Barriers to group performance
In an effective group, the purpose of the group takes precedence over the needs of individuals. When individuals place their needs ahead of those of the group, they act as a barrier to performance. These people can be classified as:
• Aggressors who want to win or exert power
• Defeatists who feel that the problem is insurmountable, and sometimes, demoralize the group and sabotage the group process
• Stars who have to be in the limelight all the time, even when not making a contribution
• Storytellers who keep lapsing into asides and irrelevant conversations
• Clowns who just want to get attention and laughs
• Dominators who want to run things more than they want to solve the problem
• Axe-grinders who relate everything to their pet peeve
Perhaps you can think of one or two people with whom you’ve worked who fit into these categories.
Good communication
Good communication always leads to better cooperation. Communication that is honest and assertive tells the listener what you need. It does not expect the listener to read between the lines. When appropriate, it also expresses feelings about the situation. When problems arise, honest communication allows them to be resolved in a mature way.
When you deal with problems in an aggressive manner, the situation may appear to be resolved in your favour initially, but the other person will likely have hard feelings and resentments. If you deal with problems by giving in to others even though you feel your position has some validity, or when you complain to others but not to the persons involved, you may also begin to feel resentments. Over time, hard feelings and resentments may continue to build over a series of small incidents.
Leadership
Leadership is important in a team. A good supervisor is a leader who can bring the group together and build an environment in which the team can work together effectively. A leader acts as a:
• Representative of management
• Role model
• Problem solver
• Motivator
• Manager of daily operations
A group leader does not have to perform all of these functions all of the time. Some of the most effective leaders lead from behind. They lead the group unobtrusively, sharing the responsibilities and rewards of leadership.
That does not mean that they do nothing. They work hard at “catching people doing it right” and acknowledging their efforts. They value the contributions of others and share decision making. They also recognize when it is important to step in and take charge.
A successful leader has the ability to influence employees by making suggestions and guiding discussion. Every supervisor has legitimate power, which is the authority associated with being a boss. In addition to this authority, effective leaders have a second type of power: the power to influence or persuade people. This power depends on the employee’s acceptance of the supervisor as a person who makes sound judgments and merits respect.
Influence is a very potent form of power (Figure 12). Employees may obey the requests of an authority, but they will go above and beyond the call of duty for someone with influence. Of course, a supervisor needs both authority and influence. If the supervisor has no authority to make decisions, he or she will be unable to create a climate in which work can be performed. In turn, he or she will not enjoy the respect and acceptance that creates influence.
Successful leaders combine a focus on task (getting the job done) with a commitment to helping employees achieve their personal goals. If a supervisor concentrates only on accomplishing tasks, he or she will be perceived to be uncaring and unsupportive. Employees may feel that they are not appreciated for their unique skills and interests.
If, on the other hand, the supervisor concentrates only on making employees feel comfortable and fostering a pleasant work environment, the tasks for which the group is responsible may not be accomplished. The owner of the company will not get the necessary job performance. Profits and customer service will suffer. Although you might expect employees to be satisfied, they will not have a sense of accomplishment in their work. Morale will suffer.
Leadership styles
The style of leadership that supervisors use can be categorized into four types:
• Authoritarian
• Passive
• Bureaucratic
• Participative
Authoritarian leaders plan, organize, coordinate, control, and direct in a very commanding manner. They make the decisions and expect their subordinates to obey. Most military units function under this type of leadership. This does not mean that the leader is not concerned about the welfare of the staff. This type of leader may be a caring individual, but may feel that he or she is in the best position to judge what is best for the staff being supervised. He or she may be like the wise and caring father in a traditional family.
Passive leaders do not want to face conflict. They avoid situations where decisions have to be made or they have to interact with others. They have little concern for either people or production. This style of leadership is seldom appropriate in the type of situations encountered in the food service industry.
A bureaucratic leader expects employees to put in an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay. He or she expects everyone to play by the rules. The results may be predictable, but this type of leadership does not foster creativity or initiative.
Participative leaders believe that participation in decision making is the key to achieving the company’s goals. In today’s world, where most people have a strong streak of individualism, this style may complement the personality and needs of employees well.
However, this does not mean it is appropriate in all situations. For example, an authoritarian style will likely be most effective in an emergency. If there is a fire in the restaurant and the customers and guests must be evacuated, someone needs to take charge quickly. There is no time to consult with staff and arrive at a consensus about what approach should be taken.
The style you choose should reflect the needs of a situation, taking into consideration your personality and the needs of your employees. When you have chosen a style (or one is imposed from above), do not attempt to disguise it. For example, authoritarian leaders sometimes wish to appear more participative. They make a pretense of consulting with others, when in fact a decision has already been made. This only angers and confuses their subordinates.
Here are some tips on being an effective leader:
• Be clear about your expectations of employees. Expect excellent performance and customer service. Let employees know that you have confidence in them.
• Share the responsibilities of the job and the credit for a job well done. Praise employees on work well done (Figure 13).
• Give honest feedback to help employees improve performance. See mistakes as an opportunity to grow and develop.
• Earn respect by modelling appropriate behaviour and exercising self-discipline.
• Be positive and encouraging about challenges the group faces. Introduce incentives to help your group achieve the desired level of productivity. Respond to your employees’ motivation and efforts by showing enthusiasm.
• Enhance your knowledge and skills so that you can answer employee questions and provide detailed information about specific processes and techniques employed by your business.
• When challenges arise, pitch in and help where help is needed. Encourage others to do so as well.
• Stand up for your staff when they need support. Listen to your employee’s side of the story before you make a decision.
• Do not be a gossip or a back stabber. Never say or repeat anything you are not prepared to acknowledge saying.
• Be consistent, firm, and fair.
Delegation
Some supervisors believe that if you want a job done, do it yourself. These individuals often work themselves so hard that they burn out. They may work long, hard hours and be admired by others, but inevitably something slips. Perhaps the supervisor becomes ill due to overwork. Because the junior staff have never been given the opportunity to learn the work performed by that individual, the performance of the whole team suffers. Junior staff may feel unappreciated and unchallenged because they have not been given the opportunity to learn new skills.
Delegation of tasks provides you with time to meet your responsibilities. It recognizes the abilities of others and provides them with opportunities to develop their skills and talents. It divides the work to be done among the team members, increasing effectiveness and efficiency (Figure 14).
When you delegate a task to a junior staff member, it is not enough to simply ask the person to do the job. You must ensure that you:
• Explain why the task is necessary and how it relates to the goals of the company
• Explain what is to be done
• Set performance standards
• Give a timeline for completion of the task
• Give the person the necessary resources, authority, and responsibility to carry out the task
• Provide adequate training
• Give support and guidance during the initial period
• Provide feedback on completion of the task
For example, you are planning changes to the menu. You need to test and cost the recipes for the new items. You decide that one of the apprentices you supervise could handle some of the breakfast items you are considering adding to the menu. You might proceed as follows:
“Kuldip, I would like your help in testing and costing the recipe for a new fruit waffle (what) that we are considering adding to our breakfast menu (why).
“You will need to prepare the recipe exactly as shown here. You will calculate the food cost and estimate a menu price based on a 35% food cost. You will prepare four portions that we will serve to some of the dining room staff to get their reactions. I want you to listen to their comments carefully and make notes regarding the flavour, presentation, and cost. I would also appreciate your suggestions on dealing with these comments (what, performance standards).
“Do you have any questions about what you will do?
“In order to test this item, I would like you to stay an extra half hour tomorrow. I will arrange the schedule with the restaurant manager. All the necessary supplies are available. The dining room staff knows that they will be working with you, but you will have to explain exactly what information you need (necessary resources, authority and responsibility).
“I would like your report by 2:30 tomorrow (timeline).
“Do you understand how to fill out the standard recipe costing form we use? This process was covered in your third-year apprentice technical training class. If you have any problems, review this material (handing apprentice an appropriate reading) or come to see me for help (provide training and offer support).”
On the following day, you would go over the report and provide feedback to Kuldip on what she did well and what she could improve.
Media Attributions
• Chefs Collaborating by go2HR. Used with permission
• 3-Person High-Five by go2HR. Used with permission
• A Chef Plating Food by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/04%3A_Workplace_Communication_and_Teamwork/4.04%3A_Working_as_a_Part_of_a_Team.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe stress management techniques
• Demonstrate the basic principles of organization and time management
• Describe conflict resolution techniques
• Describe effective problem solving and decision making
Food service and hospitality businesses can be stressful places to work. The pressure of producing high-quality meals in short periods of time can cause stress. Stress management techniques allow you to manage this stress. Part of managing stress is having an enjoyable job. An enjoyable job is one that fits into your personal goals. To feel in control of your life, you must be able to set personal goals and work toward them. For most people, work is an integral part of personal goals. In order to realize these goals, you must be able to conduct a job search, prepare resumés and cover letters, and participate in job interviews.
The success of food service and hospitality businesses depends on how effectively the entire staff of an operation can cooperate to create a well-prepared meal served in pleasant surroundings. The staff must work together as a team. A team does not just happen. It is created through the actions of supervisors who select the right staff, motivate them to do their best, build a sense of pride and common purpose, and resolve problems and conflicts that arise.
5.02: Stress Management Techniques
Working in the restaurant industry can be a hard, stressful job. The hours can be long and the work strenuous. During busy meal periods, you may feel a lot of pressure to prepare meals quickly without sacrificing quality. At times, your breaks may be postponed because of a rush of customers.
Stress is a normal part of life. It is defined as anything that puts pressure on a person. Everyone needs some stress in their lives. It is the force that encourages a person to develop and grow. Without any stress, you may become bored and dissatisfied with your life and your job.
Unhealthy Levels of Stress
Too much stress can damage your health and well-being. It affects a person emotionally, mentally, and physically. Too much stress can cause problems on the job.
Some signs of unhealthy levels of stress include the following:
• Emotional changes such as feeling sad, guilty, depressed, afraid, or tense or frequent swings in mood
• Behavioural changes such as crying often, withdrawing from others, becoming angry and aggressive, losing one’s temper easily
• Fatigue or restlessness
• Changes in sleep patterns
• Misusing alcohol, drugs, or food
• Inability to concentrate or make decisions
• Digestive problems, such as ulcers, stomach cramps, heartburn, diarrhea
• Headaches
• Nervous habits such as nail biting or teeth grinding
• Loss of hair
• Skin rashes
• Increased perspiration, dizziness, cold hands and feet
People vary in the amount of stress they can tolerate. Some people thrive on living on the edge, taking large amounts of risk in both their work and personal lives. Others do best when their lives are more stable and less stressful. Identify your capacity for stress and try to adjust your life to the optimal amount of stress you can manage.
Whatever your optimal stress level is, you can learn some techniques for managing stress. Some of these techniques can be used at work. Others relate to the way you manage your personal life. When you are experiencing high amounts of stress at work, it is helpful to reduce your stress levels in other parts of your life.
Life events, such as a death in the family, a divorce, or an illness, are stressful. What few people realize is that happy events such as marriage, a new job, or the birth of a child are also stressful. When you experience a number of closely spaced changes in your life or family situation, you can anticipate that your stress levels will rise. At these times in particular, it makes sense to pay particular attention to living a low-stress life.
Low-Stress Living
Everyone needs balance in their lives. Although work takes up a major part of each day, finding time to relax, enjoy leisure activities, and take care of your body is important in managing stress.
Here are some tips for leading a low stress life:
• Learn techniques for relaxing such as meditation or deep breathing
• Build physical exercise into each day, including at least three periods of 30 minutes each week
• Keep your body weight normal for your height and build
• Adopt healthy, sensible eating habits and avoid junk food
• Do not abuse alcohol or drugs
• Minimize or eliminate the use of drugs such as tranquilizers, sleeping pills, painkillers, antacids, laxatives, and cold remedies
• Have a yearly physical checkup to keep track of your health
• Get regular and adequate amounts of sleep
• Find a way to keep on doing those things that you find really enjoyable
• Find some time each and every day to be alone and away from work and the demands of others
• Make decisions promptly and then stop yourself from worrying about whether the decision was correct
• Bring humour into your life by watching comedies, reading cartoons, sharing jokes, and funny stories, etc.
• Share your feelings about work and the problems you face with a friend or your spouse
• Find time to be involved in the community
Managing Stress at Work
When you work at a job you enjoy, you seldom find it stressful. Different people find different environments enjoyable. One person may like working in a very formal, haute cuisine restaurant (Figure 15). Another may prefer the informal, friendly atmosphere of a busy bistro. Yet another cook may prefer an institutional setting where busy periods are more predictable. Think about what setting you prefer when you look for work.
Take Responsibility for Making the Job Enjoyable
Think about what makes your job enjoyable or not enjoyable. Take some responsibility for making it a good place to work. Suggest changes to your supervisor or co-workers in a positive, constructive manner. Be friendly and take an interest in your co-workers. In turn, they are more likely to act in a friendly manner toward you. If company policy permits, organize some off-duty or after-duty social activities to build friendship and morale. Share a funny story with the other staff. When your duties permit, help others who are rushed.
If you are currently in a job you don’t enjoy and you have tried to make it more enjoyable without success, consider looking for another job. If circumstances preclude an immediate change of job, give yourself a time limit to look for other work. If you know that you will only spend another six months in the job, you may find it easier to cope.
Media Attributions
• Formal Setting by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/05%3A_Organization_and_Self-Management/5.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Strategies for Staying on Top of Things
Arrive early
Arrive for work a few minutes ahead of time so that you are not rushed and so that you can spend a few minutes in social conversation with your co-workers. If you are having problems outside of work and are friendly with your co-workers, it may be helpful to acknowledge your feelings about these problems so that you can put them aside during the workday.
Plan your day
Take a few minutes at the start of every workday to plan your activities. If you know there will be a hectic period, minimize distractions during that time. Get phone calls, orders, and other business out of the way before you are busy. Do as much preparation as possible before the rush.
Plan to get a quick breather (even 30 seconds) prior to a busy period. Use this time to “psych” yourself up. Help others to get prepared. Have a plan for how you will cope, and convince yourself that you will meet the challenge. At the end of each workday, take a few minutes to identify the things that need to done the following day. Make a list and leave it in a conspicuous spot. You can then mentally put some of those duties off your mind knowing that it is already identified for the next time you are at work.
Focus on the tasks at hand
If you find yourself getting angry or upset during the day, take a few deep breaths and allow your body to relax as much as possible. Concentrate on the tasks you have at hand. When you are busy, do not permit yourself to worry about other issues or problems that do not have to be dealt with at that moment. For example, during a busy lunchtime when orders are coming in fast and furiously, do not plan tomorrow’s menus or the dairy order for next week. If necessary, write a brief reminder to yourself of tasks to be completed later.
Deal with issues of overwork
If you find yourself constantly working beyond your capacity, take a long hard look at your work. Consider whether:
• You are making the best use of your time
• You need additional training to do the job
• You could perform the tasks more efficiently
• Some tasks could be delegated to someone else
• The kitchen could be reorganized to reduce the amount of work required (e.g., by placing storage areas adjacent to the preparation area)
• Changes to the mise en place could reduce meal preparation time during busy periods
• More staff is needed during critical times
• Menu and purchasing decisions could reduce the overload
Depending on your work situation, you may be able to implement the changes suggested by the answers to these considerations. In many cases, you may have to consult your supervisor. Take time to plan your proposal to the supervisor. Define the problem, identify the options you have considered, and describe why your proposed solution is the most suitable.
Take a problem-solving approach
If you are feeling overstressed, the first thing to do is to become aware of the sources and effects of stress in your life. Identify what specific things at work and home you find stressful.
Next, decide the best way for you to handle this stress. In some cases, you may be able to remove the stress. For example, it may be possible to muffle the sound of a large and noisy fan. Finding another job is a more extreme example of removing the stress. In many cases, you can improve your ability to cope with stress through relaxation exercises, improved physical exercises, or through humour. Finally, you can change how you see a situation. Perhaps you are overreacting or taking offence when none was intended. Sometimes the mannerisms of a fellow worker can be irritating. If you accept that this is the way the person reacts to stress, you may find the mannerisms don’t bother you as much.
Once you have decided what to do, you need to be responsible for managing your own stress. Implement the solutions you have identified.
Stress relief
When your stress levels become too high, the following activities can help provide stress relief, and help you regain some balance:
• Learn to say no
• Ask for help
• Learn to deal with negative people
• Lose yourself
• Treat yourself
• Get your life in order
• Make a wish list
• Help others
• Stop negative or stressful thoughts
• Use relaxation exercises
• Congratulate yourself on successfully meeting challenges
Learn to say no
When you are under stress, decide whether you really want or need to do what you are being asked to do. If the answer is no, do not be afraid to say no.
Ask for help
Problems can be lightened by sharing them. Talking to a friend, spouse, or sympathetic co-worker may bring a different perspective to the issue. You may find a solution to a problem you think cannot be solved. In the work situation, you should not expect others to anticipate how busy you are or how stressful a situation is. If you need help, ask for it.
Learn to deal with negative people
People who constantly make negative remarks or are overly pessimistic can make you experience negative feelings that add to stress. Counter negative remarks with positive ones of your own. Commend others on a positive approach.
Lose yourself
When you are under stress, engage in some activity that causes you to lose track of time. Choose an activity you find especially enjoyable. During that time, you can forget about your worries and experience happy, calm feelings.
Treat yourself
Treat yourself to a present, a dinner, or a movie. Invite a friend to go along. However, do not make the treat something outrageously expensive, especially if financial worries are part of the stresses in your life.
Get your life in order
If you are off schedule, if your house and life are a mess, stop everything else and get organized. Make a list and tackle the items one at a time. Do not worry if it takes some time to get organized again.
Make a wish list
Decide how you would complete the sentence: “If only I had time, I would…” Make a list of the items you think of. When you are feeling stressed, do one of your wish list items.
Help others
Helping others can take your mind off what is worrying you. Not only will you feel good about being of assistance to someone else, but you will also have a new outlook on your problems and concerns.
Stop negative or stressful thoughts
Practise interrupting stressful thoughts by imagining a stressful situation. Allow yourself to experience both helpful and anxious thoughts about the situation. When anxious thoughts come to mind, shout, “Stop,” or snap your fingers. Let your mind empty of all but the helpful thoughts. Set a goal of 30 seconds. If upsetting thoughts return during that time, stop yourself again.
When you succeed in interrupting the thought several times, start interrupting the thought with a stop said in a normal voice. Gradually reduce the volume of the stop to a whisper and then an imagined command. Finally, make up several positive, assertive thoughts that you can use in stressful situations.
For example, you might say to yourself, “I am a capable cook,” or “I can handle this volume of orders and do a good job.” Substitute one of these statements for the negative thoughts. Once you have learned this skill, you can use it when stressful situations arise.
Use relaxation exercises
Relaxation exercises can either be short self-control techniques to deal with an immediate stress or can be a longer exercise intended to increase your ability to deal with stress in your life.
This first exercise or quieting response can be used at any time, at home or work, to deal with an immediate anxiety. When you become aware of the worry, annoyance, or anxiety, blink the left eye, then the right eye, then smile, inhale an easy, natural deep breath, exhale the deep breath and let the jaw, tongue, and shoulders go loose. Allow a feeling of limpness, heaviness, and warmth to flow to the toes as the breath is exhaled. Repeat a positive phrase such as “I can do it.” Then carry on with your task.
Longer relaxation exercises combine deep breathing with successive tightening and relaxation of all of the muscles of the body. To do this exercise, lie on your back or sit in a comfortable position. Take a deep breath, breathing in through the nose, with the breath filling the chest and stomach area. Hold the breath for a moment (up to a count of five), then release the air slowly (to a count of 10) through the mouth. Find a rhythm that is slow and natural. Repeat breathing five or six times. Then, while continuing to deep breathe, tighten and then relax successive muscle groups in the feet, legs, abdomen, chest, arms, neck, and head. Finally, tighten all of the muscles in the body and relax. Focus on the breathing and muscle tightening and relaxation, allowing all other thoughts to be submerged.
Relaxation exercises can be combined with visualization or meditation. Once the body is completely relaxed, picture a favourite place in your mind. Go to that place and feel how comfortable you are, enjoying the peace and quiet. Allow your mind to drift for several minutes. Then slowly and gently allow yourself to become aware of your body. Feel the energy in your feet and legs, arms, and hands. Then slowly feel the energy growing in your chest, neck, and shoulders, and then your head and face. Slowly open your eyes.
Congratulate yourself on successfully meeting challenges
Part of giving positive messages to yourself is to acknowledge when you have met a challenge or dealt with a stressful situation. Take a minute afterward to congratulate yourself and the other members of the team.
Reduce the stress of those you supervise
If you are the supervisor, you can play an important part in making the job satisfying and less stressful for the individuals you supervise. Encourage employees to help one another during busy times. Be willing to help others, even if the task falls outside of your job. After a hectic period, thank employees for pitching in.
If you notice tensions rising and tempers flaring, give a brief break to the employees involved if at all possible. If not, use a joke or funny story to break the tension. Acknowledge the stress levels when times are busy.
Be positive and upbeat about the challenges the team faces. However, do not minimize the challenge in such a way that group members feel unappreciated for their efforts. For example, you could say, “We have a real challenge coming up in preparing a banquet for the Olympic team. There will be a lot of hard work for several days and we will have to plan carefully. However, with our staff team, I am confident that we can do a first class job.” This is not the time to express your doubts about the capability of the staff members. Remember, people rise to expectations.
Workers whose contributions and suggestions are considered feel that they are valuable members of a team. Before busy events such as a Mother’s Day brunch, ask employees for their suggestions on how to handle the crowds. When workers bring concerns and suggestions to your attention, do not dismiss their comments. Although not every recommendation will be feasible, discussion of the idea will often develop a better idea that can be implemented. Taking comments seriously also lets employees know that you value their contributions. This will encourage them to open their minds more broadly and potentially increase the scope of their observations in the restaurant.
Care in scheduling staff can reduce stress and improve morale. Research has shown that frequent shift changes are stressful and disrupt sleep patterns. When possible, keep individuals on the same shift during a week (for example, from 6:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.). If a person must work different shifts during the week, it is usually easier to change from an early shift to a late shift than the reverse.
Consider the personal needs and preferences of employees. If the workers you supervise are able to manage their personal lives more easily and with less stress, they will be able to cope with more stress on the job. Of course, your ability to meet these needs will depend on the needs of the business, the conflicting needs of others, and the requirements of legislation and collective agreements.
A job is also more stressful if employees are confused about their role or expectations, are bored, and have no room for creativity and personal input. Be as clear as possible about your expectations of the employees you supervise. Provide opportunities for workers to take on new and interesting challenges. Give employees feedback about their performance, making sure that the feedback is constructive. Strive to keep the lines of communication open. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/05%3A_Organization_and_Self-Management/5.03%3A_Principles_of_Organization_and_Time_Management.txt |
Conflict is an inevitable and healthy part of life. Each person has a different set of values and beliefs that colours his or her perceptions of the world. Each person also has a different set of goals, wants, and needs. At work, each person may have a different opinion about what needs to be done to solve a problem. Too often, people assume that there has to be a winner in a conflict. They do not attempt to find a solution that is satisfactory to all. When you deal with conflict in a healthy, open manner, you often find a better solution.
People are frequently in conflict over resources, perceptions, and values. Conflicts over resources are easier to resolve than conflicts over perceptions and values. When the executive chef and the restaurant manager argue over budget for renovations, their conflict is about resources. The most difficult conflicts to resolve are over values and beliefs. For example, two managers may argue about the appropriate way to involve staff members in decision making. One may believe that it is better for the boss to make decisions rather than asking the opinions of others. Depending on how strongly both persons hold these beliefs, the conflict may be very difficult to resolve.
Not all conflicts and differences can be resolved. Sometimes, you have to learn to agree to disagree. When you can learn to respect one another’s point of view without feeling resentful, wanting revenge, or retaliating, you have handled the situation constructively.
Ineffective Ways to Deal with Conflict
At work, people may be afraid to express their disagreement. If you constantly avoid conflict when your views are different from those of others, you may become angry and resentful. Eventually, you may have so many negative feelings bottled up inside that you act inappropriately and can no longer be constructive.
Your lack of input can also reduce the effectiveness of the team’s efforts. You may have a valuable insight that could reduce the amount of work needed or see a problem with the proposed solution that no one else has identified. Contributing your ideas, even if initially they are contrary to the opinions of others, will help find the best solution to the problem.
Of course, if you air your differences in a way that belittles other people, you may create hard feelings in others. Similarly, if you are overly insistent on having your own way, you may badger and bully others into acceptance of your view. The other party may give in but will feel resentful.
Another often ineffective approach is a bargaining approach. While this is more effective than avoiding conflict or winning at all costs, it may not be the most creative approach. One party may offer something that he or she does not feel good about. In the end, both parties may not get what they need. For example, the two managers arguing over renovation funds may agree to share the funds equally. However, the chef may now not have the money to replace the inadequate grill. The restaurant manager also may not have the needed funds to accomplish the necessary renovation to the dining room.
By spending a little more time, identifying what the problem is and what each party wants and needs, a more creative solution might be found. Bargaining is often used as a quick-fix solution.
Effective Conflict Resolution
You can learn to deal with conflict in a positive and constructive manner that enhances decision making and contributes to effective working relationships. These skills are called conflict resolution skills.
Constructive conflict resolution is an opportunity for change, growth, and understanding. The most important quality in resolving a conflict is to shift from making judgments about other people and their statements to being curious. Instead of thinking, “Joe is a real fool. How can he expect anyone to buy that idea?” the constructive person thinks, “I wonder what Joe has in mind?”
When you make the shift from judgment to curiosity, following through with an appropriate question, others are not likely to feel defensive. They may be flattered that you are interested in their ideas. When people do not feel defensive, they are more likely to consider new ideas and cooperate.
Conflict resolution process
The steps in effective conflict resolution are:
1. Create an effective atmosphere
2. Clarify perceptions
3. Focus on individual and shared needs
4. Take a positive approach
5. Generate options
6. Develop a list of stepping stones to action
7. Make mutual benefit agreements
8. Part on good terms
Create an effective atmosphere
Conflicts cannot be resolved in the heat of the moment, in between preparing meals. If you have a conflict to resolve, arrange to meet at a convenient time when you will not be interrupted or distracted. Never deal with a conflict in front of customers and guests. Start the discussion of the problem in an open, positive way.
If you are angry, postpone the session until you can control your emotions. Sometimes, it can be useful to move the discussion to a more neutral place. For example, you might agree to meet for coffee with the person. A public location where you feel obliged to be polite can help you stay in control of your feelings. You will be less likely to really unload your anger on the other person. Because the one party may feel intimidated by being alone with the other, choose a location in which your conversation can be kept private, but neither party will feel unsafe.
Clarify perceptions
Make time at the beginning of the session for each person to state his or her views. Avoid using blaming statements such as, “You make me so angry.” Instead, state your observations and feelings about an event. For example, you might say, “I had asked for Saturday night off because my mother is visiting out of town. I’m upset because my request is not reflected in the new schedule.”
Avoid abusive or inflammatory remarks. If you say, “You are a rude and insensitive jerk!” or “You are always late,” the listener is likely to tune out. He or she becomes defensive and unwilling to listen further. If you say, “I was hurt by your jokes about death. My father is terminally ill and I am very worried about him,” the listener is more likely to be willing to engage in further conversation.
When it is your turn to listen, pay careful attention to what the person is saying. Use paraphrasing, summarizing, and questions to clarify what the person is saying and feeling. For example, you might say, “So what you are saying is that you were very angry when I asked you to work Saturday. You wanted the day off to spend with your mother. You thought that I ignored your request.” If the speaker uses blaming or inflammatory language, try to avoid taking the comments personally. Ask questions to determine exactly what the problem is.
Watch your language, tone of voice, and nonverbal gestures. Keep calm and centred.
Focus on individual and shared needs
Find out what each person wants and needs to resolve the situation. For example, in the scheduling conflict, Martine, the supervisor, needs a cook on staff on Saturday night. She does not want to pay overtime. She also wants to keep Bob, the cook, happy. He is an excellent, motivated employee and she would hate to lose him.
Bob wants time off to visit with his mother, but he likes this job and does not want to jeopardize it. Both Bob and Martine want to resolve the problem and continue their friendly working relationship. They share a concern for the smooth running of the restaurant. By identifying their shared needs, both parties are working toward a consensus. That is, they are attempting to find a decision that takes both parties needs and opinions into account.
Take a positive approach
To work toward a solution, you should take the attitude that together you can find a solution to the problem. This is not the time to think about failures to resolve problems in the past. Treat the agreement as if you are starting fresh. Forgive others for their mistakes in the past. Go on from today and work toward the goals you have set.
Generate options
Use the brainstorming approach to get out as many ideas as possible without evaluating or criticizing them. Treat each idea as new material to help solve the problem. Remember that ideas that you think are frivolous and silly may help you think about the problem a new way. If nothing else, they help build a bridge of laughter behind the two parties.
Develop stepping stones to action
Sort through the ideas to see which ones will work. Set goals and develop an action plan. Create short, achievable steps that work toward your overall goal.
Make mutual benefit agreements
This step may look like bargaining, but it starts from a different point. The point is to make sure that you both get what you need. Rather than finding a compromise, you are finding a way that both parties can win.
For example, the two managers discussed their renovation needs. Both managers agreed that the quality of food was important in maintaining the profitability of the restaurant. Because the grill was affecting service times, the restaurant manager agreed to support the executive chef’s request, and postpone work in the dining room. In turn, the executive chef agreed to support the restaurant manager in the next round of budgets.
Part on good terms
When you have dealt with a conflict, or if you have agreed to disagree, make a point of parting on good terms. Treat the other person with respect and dignity. Thank the person for discussing the issue with you. For example, you might say, “I really appreciated you explaining your point of view. Even though we might not agree on this issue, I respect your beliefs.” This creates a climate in which you can continue to work together harmoniously. It also means that the person will have a positive approach to resolving the problem when another conflict arises.
Dealing with Anger
Conflicts cannot be effectively resolved if you cannot control your anger. If you are feeling angry:
• Take a few deep breaths to calm down
• Say that you are angry and explain why (without becoming abusive)
• Postpone the discussion if you cannot calm yourself
• Write down your key points and concerns before going into another session
• Move your discussion to a neutral location
If the other person is angry, acknowledge his or her feelings. For example, you might say, “I can see that you were really upset and angry when I asked you to redo the banquet plan.” Acknowledging another person’s feelings does not mean that you have to agree with them. It simply says to the person that you recognize what he or she has said or felt. If the person is unable to regain calm, suggest postponing the discussion.
When one party thinks there is no conflict
Sometimes, you may feel upset or angry, and the other person does not see the problem. This can be very frustrating. You may be more successful in raising the issue if you are as specific as possible in describing the problem and how you are affected. If necessary, write your concerns down on paper.
When you feel nervous about confronting someone
You may feel very anxious about confronting someone with a problem. Perhaps you have had trouble dealing with this person before. Perhaps the problem is with a supervisor. It may be useful to role play the situation with a friend or co-worker and ask for feedback on how to handle the conflict more effectively. Think through exactly what you need for successful resolution beforehand. Arrange a meeting in a neutral location with the person.
When the other party does not seem to want a resolution
Sometimes it appears that the other party does not want a resolution. In this case, the best approach is to ask the person directly whether he or she wants to find a solution. If the person says yes, explain why you thought that a resolution was not wanted. Deal with these issues first. If the person does not want a resolution, you must decide whether you can live with the conflict or whether you need to take some other action.
For example, you may consider finding another job because you have been unable to resolve a serious conflict with a co-worker or supervisor. However, you may also decide that the assets of working with this individual or in this job outweigh the problems associated with the conflict. If you have gained some respect and understanding for the individual’s position, you may be able to agree to disagree.
Some people may not want to find a solution because they only want things their own way. You may be able to get beyond their defences by making a special effort to find out what they need. Ask them how you can help meet their needs while still meeting your own.
When conflicts are apparently unresolvable, it may be necessary to find a mediator to help you deal with the problem. Some communities have mediation services. You could also involve a person at work whom both partners in the conflict trust and respect.
When the other person has a complaint about your behaviour
If you have made a mistake and you think that the person’s complaint about you is fair, make an appropriate apology. Then attend to how to correct the problem in the future. Do not keep apologizing over and over again. Focus on making a decision that puts the matter right. Thank the person for bringing the concern to your attention.
If the complaint is unfair, make it clear that you think so. Attempt to deal with the misunderstanding that arose between you. Perhaps your communication has not been as clear as it should be. Try to close the matter in a way that allows you to part on good terms. Even though the complainant may have been wrong or misinformed, do not try to make him or her look foolish or argue about minor details. Find a way of giving thanks. For example, you might say, “Thanks for discussing this with me.”
Handling Customer Complaints
Handling customer complaints is a special application of conflict resolution skills. Dissatisfied customers can have a very negative impact on your business. Most food service businesses depend on repeat business and word-of-mouth advertising. When a customer is unhappy with a meal or with the service, you lose potential business in the future. You may also lose other customers who have heard about your customer’s bad experience, as people are more likely to share a bad experience than a good one. Especially today, with sites like TripAdvisor and Yelp, it has become very easy for the average person to post public feedback about his or her experiences.
Customers who have complained and whose complaints were satisfactorily addressed are more likely to become repeat customers than those who did not complain in the first place. This is because many dissatisfied customers simply walk away and never return. A complaint is an opportunity to find out what mistakes your company has made and to correct them, turning dissatisfied customers into satisfied ones. It is in your company’s interests to resolve customer complaints promptly and satisfactorily.
You may receive a complaint whether or not you were responsible for the problem. If you take the attitude “That’s not my responsibility; I cannot help you,” the customer will become even more angry and difficult to deal with. Customers who complain want to be taken seriously and treated with respect. They may want immediate action, compensation, or punishment for the person who wronged them. They may also want to clear up a problem so it does not happen again.
To handle a complaint, you have to be a problem solver. The skills required are:
• Diffusing anger
• Recognizing when to move to problem solving
• Problem solving
• Knowing the boundaries of authority
Diffusing anger
When a customer complains, he or she may react strongly and negatively to the situation. This may have been the last straw in a day filled with frustrations. You must deal with the emotion and upset before you can solve the problem. Until the emotions have been calmed, the person is unable to hear logical suggestions and solutions.
When someone is angry and complains, it is easy to become angry yourself. You need to stay calm and controlled. Keep eye contact and adopt a concerned body posture, voice tone, and facial expression.
Do not take the complaint personally. Take a few deep breaths to calm yourself if necessary. Encourage the person to blow off steam. Apologize and acknowledge the person’s feelings. Keep your apologies sincere and dignified. Do not apologize so abjectly (in a miserable, degraded manner) that the customer may begin to doubt your sincerity. Show empathy by nodding, encouraging the person to finish the story. Be sure to be an active listener. Reassure the person that you want to help solve the problem.
Solving the Problem
When the person is calm and able to discuss the situation fully, you can move to the problem-solving stage. Ask the customer what he or she would like done to resolve the situation. Offer solutions that are within the scope of your authority. Agree on a solution. If you are unable to offer a satisfactory solution, assist the person in taking the complaint to the manager or owner. If this is not immediately possible, take full information from the individual about the problem and promise to relay the information. Let the individual know when the owner or manager will respond. Always thank the person for bringing the complaint to your attention.
If you are in charge of staff, make sure that they understand effective complaint resolution procedures. Make sure that they know how you want complaints to be handled in your restaurant. Many companies have a policy of “no questions asked.” If customers return a menu item, the item is replaced free of charge or their money is refunded. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/05%3A_Organization_and_Self-Management/5.04%3A_Conflict_Resolution.txt |
Types of Decision Makers
Problem solving and decision making belong together. You cannot solve a problem without making a decision. There are two main types of decision makers. Some people use a systematic, rational approach. Others are more intuitive. They go with their emotions or a gut feeling about the right approach. They may have highly creative ways to address the problem, but cannot explain why they have chosen this approach.
Six Problem-Solving Steps
The most effective method uses both rational and intuitive or creative approaches. There are six steps in the process:
1. Identify the problem
2. Search for alternatives
3. Weigh the alternatives
4. Make a choice
5. Implement the choice
6. Evaluate the results and, if necessary, start the process again
Identify the problem
To solve a problem, you must first determine what the problem actually is. You may think you know, but you need to check it out. Sometimes, it is easy to focus on symptoms, not causes. You use a rational approach to determine what the problem is. The questions you might ask include:
• What have I (or others) observed?
• What was I (or others) doing at the time the problem occurred?
• Is this a problem in itself or a symptom of a deeper, underlying problem?
• What information do I need?
• What have we already tried to address this problem?
For example, the apprentice you supervise comes to you saying that the electric warming oven is not working properly. Before you call a repair technician, you may want to ask a few questions. You may want to find out what the apprentice means by “not working properly.” Does he or she know how to operate the equipment? Did he or she check that the equipment was plugged in? Was the fuse or circuit breaker checked? When did it last work?
You may be able to avoid an expensive service call. At the very least, you will be able to provide valuable information to the repair technician that aids in the troubleshooting process.
Of course, many of the problems that you will face in the kitchen are much more complex than a malfunctioning oven. You may have to deal with problems such as:
• Discrepancies between actual and expected food costs
• Labour costs that have to be reduced
• Lack of budget to complete needed renovations in the kitchen
• Disputes between staff
However, the basic problem-solving process remains the same even if the problems identified differ. In fact, the more complex the problem is, the more important it is to be methodical in your problem-solving approach.
Search for alternatives
It may seem obvious what you have to do to address the problem. Occasionally, this is true, but most times, it is important to identify possible alternatives. This is where the creative side of problem solving really comes in.
Brainstorming with a group can be an excellent tool for identifying potential alternatives. Think of as many possibilities as possible. Write down these ideas, even if they seem somewhat zany or offbeat on first impression. Sometimes really silly ideas can contain the germ of a superb solution. Too often, people move too quickly into making a choice without really considering all of the options. Spending more time searching for alternatives and weighing their consequences can really pay off.
Weigh the alternatives
Once a number of ideas have been generated, you need to assess each of them to see how effective they might be in addressing the problem. Consider the following factors:
• Impact on the organization
• Effect on public relations
• Impact on employees and organizational climate
• Cost
• Legality
• Ethics of actions
• Whether this course is permitted under collective agreements
• Whether this idea can be used to build on another idea
Make a choice
Some individuals and groups avoid making decisions. Not making a decision is in itself a decision. By postponing a decision, you may eliminate a number of options and alternatives. You lose control over the situation. In some cases, a problem can escalate if it is not dealt with promptly. For example, if you do not handle customer complaints promptly, the customer is likely to become even more annoyed. You will have to work much harder to get a satisfactory solution.
Implement the decision
Once you have made a decision, it must be implemented. With major decisions, this may involve detailed planning to ensure that all parts of the operation are informed of their part in the change. The kitchen may need a redesign and new equipment. Employees may need additional training. You may have to plan for a short-term closure while the necessary changes are being made. You will have to inform your customers of the closure.
Evaluate the outcome
Whenever you have implemented a decision, you need to evaluate the results. The outcomes may give valuable advice about the decision-making process, the appropriateness of the choice, and the implementation process itself. This information will be useful in improving the company’s response the next time a similar decision has to be made.
Creative Thinking
Your creative side is most useful in identifying new or unusual alternatives. Too often, you can get stuck in a pattern of thinking that has been successful in the past. You think of ways that you have handled similar problems in the past. Sometimes this is successful, but when you are faced with a new problem or when your solutions have failed, you may find it difficult to generate new ideas.
If you have a problem that seems to have no solution, try these ideas to “unfreeze” your mind:
• Relax before trying to identify alternatives.
• Play “what if” games with the problem. For example, What if money was no object? What if we could organize a festival? What if we could change winter into summer?
• Borrow ideas from other places and companies. Trade magazines might be useful in identifying approaches used by other companies.
• Give yourself permission to think of ideas that seem foolish or that appear to break the rules. For example, new recipes may come about because someone thought of new ways to combine foods. Sometimes these new combinations appear to break rules about complementary tastes or break boundaries between cuisines from different parts of the world. The results of such thinking include the combined bar and laundromat and the coffee places with Internet access for customers.
• Use random inputs to generate new ideas. For example, walk through the local shopping mall trying to find ways to apply everything you see to the problem.
• Turn the problem upside down. Can the problem be seen as an opportunity? For example, the road outside your restaurant that is the only means of accessing your parking lot is being closed due to a bicycle race. Perhaps you could see the bicycle race as an opportunity for business rather than as a problem. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/05%3A_Organization_and_Self-Management/5.05%3A_Effective_Problem_Solving_and_Decision_Making.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Describe effective goal setting
• Prepare a short and long-term career plan
• Prepare a resumé
This chapter focuses on effective goal setting techniques, how to prepare a short and long-term career plan, and how to prepare a resumé.
6.02: Setting Goals
To become successful, you must know what you want, set goals, and work toward those goals. Success can only be determined personally. What is success for one person may not be success for another.
Your definition of success is determined by your values and beliefs. Once you know what you want from life, there is a common set of skills that can be applied to reach those goals whether you wish to become a member of the national culinary team, own your own restaurant, or teach cooking in a developing country.
Once you have completed your apprenticeship, there are many career paths available to you. You may wish to open your own restaurant, which may mean saving money to purchase and develop the property. You will also have to acquire skills in business management. You may choose to work in large hotels, working your way up through a variety of positions and properties to become an executive chef. You may aspire to be an educator, to cater meals in a client’s home or on movie locations, or to work in an institutional setting such as a hospital or ferry. Other individuals are content to work under a well-known chef or in a particular restaurant chain. It all depends on what you want from your job and from life.
Setting goals gives your life direction. Goals give you something to work for and provide a sense of accomplishment. While this books focuses mainly on work-related goals, the same process can be used to set and work toward goals in any area of your life. Of course, once you have set a goal, this does not mean that you have to rigidly follow a set path. Often, opportunities may come up that create a means to shorten your path or change direction. For example, the bankruptcy of the restaurant in which you are working or a job shortage may cause you to create your own job or change your career direction.
Values and Beliefs
What you want in life depends on what you value and believe. The first step in setting goals is to think about what is important to you. If you simply base your goals on what others want or believe to be important, you may not be happy even though you achieve these goals. Your choices and decisions have to be based on what you think, feel, and believe.
Your values and beliefs come from your family and your experience of the world. For example, if you come from a close and loving family where parents and children spend a lot of time together, you are likely to place a strong value on family time. You may also develop this value if you feel that you were lacking in this closeness as a child.
Values and beliefs may shape:
• Where you want to live
• What hours you want to work
• How much money you want to have
• What kind of family life you want
• What kind of job and job responsibilities you want
• What kind of community involvement you choose
• How much leisure time you desire
• How important religion, altruism (generosity to others), and spirituality are to your life
These factors, in turn, will shape what type of job you want. For example, some people are willing to work long, hard hours in a remote mining camp away from friends and family in order to make more money and to spend time in a remote wilderness setting. Notice that there is seldom a way of having it all. You have to set priorities, deciding which values are more important than others. Sometimes these decisions are long term. A person whose long-term goals include making money and spending time hiking and fishing may spend many seasons working in a remote lodge setting.
For others, these goals may be short-term decisions that form a stepping stone to reaching another goal. For example, the attractive wages in an oil drilling camp might allow a person to save enough money to open a bistro or coffee shop. This person may be willing to spend two or three seasons working in a camp while saving as much as possible.
Before proceeding any further, think about your values and beliefs. What are your priorities in life? What is your current situation? What are your current responsibilities?
What Are Goals?
Goals are statements of what you want to achieve, do or be. They should be:
• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Realistic
• Timely
For example, “I want to qualify as a chef de cuisine within the next seven years” is a realistic goal for someone who is completing the Cook Apprenticeship program. At the end of seven years, you would be able to tell whether you had achieved this goal or not. Whether a goal is realistic depends on the your situation. For example, if you have not completed high school or begun a cooking apprenticeship, this goal may not be realistic.
“I want to live in a nice place” is not a measurable goal. You haven’t said when you want to achieve this goal, whether the place is a city or town, or a house or apartment. Does the statement mean that you own the place? You can’t tell from the way it is worded. The more specific you are about your goals, the more likely you are to achieve them.
Factors that prevent people from setting and achieving goals
At first thought, lack of money, education, and time seem to be important factors that prevent people from achieving their goals. However, the success of some people who lack all of these things and have family responsibilities as well suggests that other factors are more important. The most critical factors that prevent people from reaching their goals are fear of failure, lack of self-esteem, a fear of missing other opportunities, and a lack of confidence in their ability to meet their goals.
Keys to successful goals
The key to achieving goals is, first and foremost, to set a goal that you really want: a goal that you are passionate about and willing to work hard toward. You must believe that you can reach your goals. Your goal must be achievable. There is no point in setting an unattainable goal. You need to have timelines for achieving the goals. You must recognize that you need the support of others in reaching the goal. This may include your friends and family. You also need to recognize that some people will not be supportive and find ways to minimize your interaction with them.
Not enough time
Lack of time is a common complaint and a common excuse for not reaching goals. Everyone has just 24 hours a day. Some people have better time management skills. This allows them to get more done in a day than others can accomplish. Everyone finds time for those things that are most important to them. If you find lack of time a problem, consider how you manage your time. Do you waste a lot of time? Do you set priorities for your time? Could you delegate some chores to others? Are there some things you could drop or postpone in order to have time to achieve your goals?
Obviously, some people have more commitments than others. Some people also have lower energy levels or a higher need for sleep than others. This may mean that they must allow more time in order to achieve the same goals, or find other ways of achieving these goals. For example, you may only be able to attend one course per year rather than two or three while working full time if you are also a full-time parent. Perhaps a distance education course might be an option that allows you to achieve your goal.
Taking Stock
Once you have set a goal, you need to take stock of where you are. This means identifying your strengths related to the goal, and the barriers in the way of reaching your goal. Strengths include skills and experience related to the goal, any personal habits that make it easier to achieve success, the support of family and friends, and resources that you have such as access to a car, a special library, or a free babysitter. Barriers are all the things that get in the way of meeting your goals. They may be a lack of something, such as education, money, information, or experience. They may also be an existing financial or personal commitment that gets in the way of easily achieving the goal.
For example, Susan, who wants to own her own restaurant, might identify the strengths and barriers as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Sample list of strengths and barriers
Strengths
1. Will complete Cook Apprenticeship program this year
2. Three years’ experience working in a restaurant
3. Worked as a bus person and server during high school
4. Knowledge of wines as a result of my winemaking hobby
5. Have been promised a full-time job as a cook on completion of apprenticeship
6. Confident self-starter
7. Highly motivated
8. Need little sleep
9. Can work long hours
10. Supportive family
11. Uncle owns a restaurant
Barriers
1. Lack business management skills and experience
2. Have not developed a menu on my own
3. Do not know the market for new restaurants in this community
4. Do not know the legislation and legal requirements for opening a restaurant
5. Do not know how to mix drinks
6. Do not know how to deal with customers or sell
7. Lack the capital to start a business
8. Have a car loan of \$5,000
9. Make child support payments of \$200 a month
10. Work irregular shifts which make it hard to attend courses
Once you have assessed your skills, strengths, and barriers, you are ready to start the next step, planning. Planning must take into consideration the strengths and barriers you have identified. To begin, use cards or small pieces of paper to write down ideas about steps you can complete to bring you closer to your goal (Figure 16).
Once you have run out of ideas, arrange the papers or cards in time order. For example, Susan may want to rearrange her budget and move to a smaller apartment so that she can pay off her car loan more quickly and then begin saving money. She might also decide to sell her car and buy an older, used car so that she can pay off her loan right away.
Check to see that you have not missed any steps. Refer to your barriers to see whether you have found ways around each. Look at each card to see if there are any steps you need to complete before you complete this one. For example, in order to register for a distance education course, you may have to request high school transcripts from another province.
Each step should be something that you can complete in a short period of time, usually no more than several months. Each step should bring you a little closer to reaching your goal. Be realistic about the time it will take to complete a step. Make the steps a little smaller if they will take a year or more. The steps you will identify will be different from those for another person with a similar goal because you start with different skills, abilities, and strengths and face different barriers.
Once you think that you have all the necessary steps listed, ask a friend or family member for input. Add any new steps and reorder them if necessary. In Susan’s case, her uncle, who owns a restaurant, could provide valuable assistance. He may also be able to suggest ways in which he could help Susan, perhaps by acting as a mentor.
Finding a Mentor
A mentor is a person who is a trusted advisor, someone you can consult on an ongoing basis concerning your progress and problems. You could approach someone who has already achieved a goal similar to the one you have set for yourself. This could be a former supervisor, a chef you have met through the local chefs’ association, or a restaurant manager you know. You should try to find someone you like and trust, a person who is willing provide you with help and encouragement. This individual should also be prepared to give you constructive criticism when you need it.
A mentor can be very helpful in keeping you focused and working toward your goals. He or she usually has more experience and can help you tackle the problems that arise as you work through your action plan.
Setting a timeline and sticking to it
Next, set a time for completing each step in your plan. Be realistic about the amount of time it will take to complete the step and the amount of time you can devote to the step during a particular time period. Plan to accomplish something each week and month, even if these steps are very small. Promise yourself a small reward for accomplishing a certain number of tasks on time. Share your plan with others who will help keep you motivated and ask them for their continued support. For example, Susan’s uncle might offer to meet with her once a month to review her progress toward her goal.
Enlist the help of family members and friends when appropriate. For example, Susan knows someone who might be willing to share a house and who would be willing to have her four-year-old son (who lives with his father) visit on weekends. By sharing, both Susan and her friend might reduce their living costs.
Keep checking your action plan to see whether you are on target. Don’t get discouraged if you miss a deadline occasionally. Readjust your timeline to catch up with the steps. If some unexpected problems arise, take stock again, add new steps if necessary, and readjust. For example, Susan had a car accident that caused her to miss two months of work and undergo intensive rehabilitation. During that time, she was unable to complete a course. Once she had recovered, she reviewed her action plan and adjusted her dates as necessary.
Table 5 shows a partial list of the steps Susan identified in order to meet her goal and the timeline she prepared. She prepared this plan in March; you are looking at her progress in early May.
Table 5. Progress on Susan’s action plan
Step Planned Completion Date Actual Completion Date
Rework personal budget to save \$200 per month March 31 March 31
Give notice to present landlord March 31 March 31
Find new accommodation that fits new budget April 15 April 6
Sell car and pay off car loan April 15 April 18
Use proceeds to buy older car without loan (brother may have a lead on a good car) April 22 April 23
Move into new apartment May 1 May 1
Write Cook Red Seal exam May 15
Increase monthly savings to \$400 as a result of having no car loan June 1
Borrow Restaurant Operations Manual from uncle and study legal and legislative requirements section; rework action plan if necessary June 15
Register for a bartender’s course to start in September June 15
Note that Susan has not met all of her timelines. However, she is making steady progress toward her goal. With support from her uncle, other family members, and friends, she will achieve success. At the end of June, Susan had met all of her goals so far and gave herself a weekend camping trip as a reward.
Media Attributions
• Steps on Sticky Notes by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Setting Employment Goals
Previously, we talked about setting goals. The example given in the text was Susan’s goal of eventually owning her own restaurant. In this example, she was promised a job on completion of her apprenticeship. On completion of training, many graduates look for employment. Before applying for jobs, you need to decide what kind of a job you want and where you want to work. In other words, you have to focus your search. Ideally, the job you seek should relate to your long-term career and personal goals.
Some people simply want to have a job. They apply for jobs without considering their skills and experience, their interests, and their goals. This process is bound to be frustrating. You may apply for jobs at a much higher level than you are qualified for and be turned down so often that you get discouraged. Or you may apply for jobs for which you are overqualified. You may not be hired because the employer thinks you will not stay at the job long. Or you may be hired and become bored because of the lack of challenge in the work. If you work at a job you do not enjoy, you will likely suffer a lot of stress.
Making an Inventory of Your Skills, Abilities, and Interests
Many people believe that they do not have skills because they have limited job experience. Others think that because they are making a career change, they have few skills of relevance to their new goals. These beliefs are not true. You have acquired skills in a wide variety of ways during your life. Places where you may learn skills and examples of some skills you may have acquired are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Examples of places in which skills are acquired and examples of skills learned
Place to Acquire Skills Skills Acquired
Home
• Managed a personal budget
• Organized time
School
• Planned student association or club functions
• Operated a computer
• Worked as a part of a team during group projects
Church
• Public speaking experience
• Planned community celebrations or concerts
Clubs and community organizations
• Knowledge of wines as a result of membership in wine tasting club
• Ability to conduct meetings
• Planned and prepared fundraising dinner
Community
• Dependability as a result of delivering community newspaper
• Got jobs done on time
High school cafeteria
• FOODSAFE Level 1
• Prepared and garnished salads
• Established respectful working relationships with cooks and servers
An inventory of your skills is an initial first step in preparing to find a job. It provides a full list of your skills and abilities. You can then use this list to prepare your resumé.
Transferable Skills
Transferable skills are those skills that you have learned in one setting and that you can apply in a variety of situations. For example, you may have learned to plan a function or event when you were on the social committee for an association, but you can apply that skill in the hospitality industry. Similarly, you may have learned to supervise other employees when you worked at a fast-food restaurant, but you can transfer that learning to other jobs. You may have dealt with customers when you worked at the front desk of a hotel (Figure 17), but the essential skills of customer service are the same in other jobs.
When preparing your inventory, focus on transferable skills unless the skills are directly relevant to your present employment goal.
Identify Your Interests
You may have a wide variety of skills, but some of these skills may have been gained in jobs which you do not want to do again. This is why it is important to identify your interests. What kind of job do you want? What kind of skills do you want to use? What kind of work do you find satisfying? The answers to these questions will help you target the kind of job you want. Some people already know exactly what they want from a job. However, most people are not completely clear about their interests.
A good starting point is to make a list of all of the enjoyable accomplishments in your life (Table 6). These are things you did well and felt good about. Try to list at least 25 accomplishments from all parts of your life: school, work, volunteering, hobbies, and your personal life. Develop this list over four or five days. Write down the ideas as they occur to you.
Once you have a list, select the seven most important. Rank the accomplishments with the most important first. Write a paragraph about each accomplishment. Then identify what things are common to each of the stories. For example, you may find that your most important accomplishments all include elements of completing tasks against intense time pressure, preparing elegant and beautifully presented meals, dealing with people, and organizing activities. This suggests that these factors are ones you find important and should look for in your work.
Other exercises you can complete to discover your interests include:
• Identifying your work-related values
• Listing the things you really like to do
• Thinking about each job you have held and identifying what you found satisfying and dissatisfying
• Thinking about the qualities of supervisors or managers with whom you had a good relationship
• Imagining where you would like to be in your life in five or 10 years
• Inventing your ideal job
• Imagining the job you would have if you won the lottery, but still wanted to work
For each of the statements below, rank how important it is in terms of your overall career objectives. Use the following scale:
1. Not important at all
2. Somewhat important
3. Reasonably important
4. Very important in my choice of job
Career Objectives Test
__ ability to advance in the job
__ helping others
__ supervising others
__ helping society
__ meeting challenges
__ working for something you believe in
__ public contact
__ pleasant and friendly co-workers
__ competition
__ working alone
__ working with others
__ personal growth and development
__ minimal supervision
__ enjoyable work tasks
__ freedom from pressure
__ high pressure environment
__ being an expert
__ recognition from the community
__ ability to be creative
__ learning on the job
__ location of the workplace
__ tranquility on the job
__ predictable schedule
__ money earned
__ change and variety
__ fast pace
__ having time for personal life
__ power
__ adventure or risk-taking
__ prestige
__ recognition from supervisors and co-workers
__ job security
__ chance to make an impact
__ clear expectations and procedures
Once you have completed the exercise, circle those items you marked “4” and choose the five most important. Which would you give up if you were forced to compromise? Which would you be most reluctant to give up?
Identify Possible Jobs
There are many options and environments when it comes to finding the right fit for your skills and interests. To find the right situation for you, take the information you have gathered and start to think about the employers and places in your community where you could work. If you are not sure how your interests and skills match with the jobs you have identified, talk to your instructors, friends, or acquaintances who work with a particular employer or visit the restaurant or food service facility as a customer (Figure 19).
Plan Short- and Long-Term Career Goals
Remember Susan and the steps she took to plan her goals? Taking the goal-setting approach to your career is equally important. Think about the next 10 years and where you would like to be in your career at that time. Think of the skills and experience you will need to gain in order to accomplish those career goals. Writing down your career path and goals will help you accomplish them, and allow you to focus on each step at a time. Table 7 shows a completed table of timelines, career goals, and skills and experience.
Table 7. Planning sheet for short- and long-term career goals
Timeline Career Goal Required Skills and Experience
1–2 years Complete apprenticeship and obtain Red Seal
• Complete technical training and hours
• Gain experience on all stations
4–5 years Sous-chef position in leading restaurant
• 2–3 years’ experience in similar environment after Red Seal
• Supervisory training
6–7 years Chef position in leading restaurant
• 2–3 years’ experience as sous chef
• Additional management training
10 years Open own restaurant
• 2–3 years’ experience as Chef
• Additional business courses
As you can see, thinking of your end goal helps to plan the steps along the way. If your ultimate career goal is to be the executive chef of a large hotel, than spending a number of years working your way up in small bistros is likely not the best plan. However, if owning your own small restaurant is the goal, gaining experience in similar places will do you more benefit than working in a large hotel.
Of course things will change, and it is important to understand that sometimes if you decide to change direction, you will have to re-evaluate. If you have worked your way up to sous-chef in a small restaurant, and want to switch to the hotel environment, you will likely have to take a step back and take a job as a cook in order to learn how a large hotel operates.
Media Attributions
• Customer Service by go2HR. Used with permission
• A List by go2HR. Used with permission
• Restaurant by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.03%3A_Preparing_a_Short-_and_Long-Term_Career_Plan.txt |
A resumé (pronounced reh/zoo/may) is a summary of your skills, training, and experience. Its primary purpose is to interest the employer in you as a potential employee. A well-written, carefully planned resumé will help get you an interview that may lead to a job offer. It may be included with a letter of application, attached to an application form, or handed to a prospective employer when you are interviewed. Copies of your resumé may also be given to instructors, friends, or family members who have agreed to help you in your search.
Resumés and cover letters are essential tools for finding jobs. You can use these tools to sell a potential employer on your skills and abilities. In the past, resumés were used only in professional and management level jobs. However, today most employers require a resumé. Even when one is not required, a well-prepared resumé can help you get a job.
Parts of a Resumé
There are a variety of formats you can use to present your resumé. However, no matter which format you choose, all resumés usually contain the following (Figure 20):
Name, address, email, and phone number
Your name, address, email, and phone number should be given on your resumé so that you can be easily contacted for an interview or possible employment. Make sure you leave a number where messages may be left for you. Do not leave your current work number, as your present employer may not appreciate personal calls during work time.
Employment objective
The employment objective identifies the type of position you are seeking. If you are looking for a range of different jobs, leave the objective out or tailor each resumé to the situation. You could also include your employment objective in the cover letter.
Avoid using specific job titles. Be concise and specific. Concentrate on the job you are seeking right now, not 10 years from now. For example, you might say “a challenging position as a First Cook or Chef de Partie.” Do not include vague, self-gratifying statements such as “so I might become a better person.”
Education
Show educational qualifications, starting with the most recent and most relevant. There is no need to give the name of your secondary school if you have completed college or university. Identify any relevant training courses you have taken in high school or outside of a formal training institution if they are relevant to the work you are seeking. Take your cues from the job advertisement or the information you received from your contacts. For example, you might include first aid training if the job is in a remote camp.
Areas of knowledge and experience
Identify your skills and experience in past jobs and volunteer experiences. Keep the statements brief and to the point. Focus on the needs of the employer. Include your accomplishments from community activities and hobbies only if they are relevant to the job. If you are applying to a catering company, the statement “planned and catered a banquet for the regional soccer championship (100 guests)” would be relevant. An employer is not likely interested in whether you are a fly-tying expert. Be honest and be sure that you can back up every statement. Do not claim skills in any area in which you do not have practical experience, and don’t overstate your experience. Don’t claim to have managed the kitchen or created the menu if you have only assisted in these tasks.
Use verbs (action words) to describe your accomplishments. The following provides a list of verbs associated with different types of skills:
• adjusted
• altered
• arranged
• changed
• created
• demonstrated
• designed
• developed
• devised
• formulated
• generated
• improvised
• invented
• modified
• originated
• performed
• prepared
• produced
• predicted
• restructured
• simplified
• aided
• assisted
• advised
• advocated
• conferred
• consulted
• collaborated
• counselled
• encouraged
• facilitated
• guided
• helped
• interpreted
• interviewed
• implemented
• informed
• mentored
• recommended
• referred
• reassured
• served
• shared
• suggested
• supported
• trained
• advised
• commented
• communicated
• interpreted
• outlined
• promoted
• presented
• spoke
• summarized
• translated
• wrote
• administered
• advised
• analyzed
• authorized
• budgeted
• deliberated
• designated
• developed
• distributed
• drafted
• hired
• investigated
• implemented
• recorded
• managed
• marketed
• monitored
• organized
• planned
• proposed
• purchased
• recommended
• reported
• scheduled
• selected
• analyzed
• assessed
• appraised
• combined
• compared
• concluded
• contrasted
• deduced
• determined
• inferred
• interpreted
• evaluated
• monitored
• reviewed
• assigned
• coordinated
• delegated
• evaluated
• led
• motivated
• negotiated
• persuaded
• supervised
• supported
Achieving results
• adapted
• attained
• completed
• contributed
• decreased
• increased
• doubled/tripled
• eliminated
• established
• expanded
• implemented
• improved
• introduced
• maintained
• multiplied
• opened
• proposed
• provided
• realized
• recommended
• reduced
• revised
• revitalized
• risked
• saved
• simplified
• sold
• solved
• stimulated
• streamlined
• structured
• submitted
• succeeded
• unified
• upgraded
Professional activities
You should list any related activities, such as membership in professional or trade associations or volunteering that relates to your application. Be sure to list any responsibilities that you held in these positions as often these activities are great ways to demonstrate experience you have not gained in your work experience.
Chronological and Functional Resumé Formats
Chronological resumés list your experience and education from the most recent to the least recent. Under each position or employer, you should list the skills and experience gained at that employer. This style of resumé highlights a steady employment record. It emphasizes growth and development in employment history. However, it can expose drawbacks such as gaps in employment, frequent job changes, lack of related experience, or lack of career progression. This type of resumé is suitable if your most recent employment is directly relevant to the job for which you are applying. Below are examples of chronological resumés.
A chronological resumé for a person applying for a sous-chef position.
Suzanne Chung
345 Any Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
(250) 555-1234
[email protected]
Job Objective
To obtain a position as a sous-chef in a full-service restaurant
Experience
2009 to present
First Cook
Pleasant Stay Hotel
345 Seaview St.
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 2T7
• Prepared breakfasts, lunches, and dinners in a busy hotel coffee shop
• Prepared banquets for up to 300 people
• Supervised meal preparation in pub kitchen
• Operated cold kitchen and pastry station for main hotel dining room
• Assumed duties of sous-chef during vacations
2006–2009
Apprentice Cook
Mountainview Resort
Box 197
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
• Prepared menu items under supervision of First Cook
• Prepared banquet menu items
• Sliced and served meats at banquets and buffets
• Prepared pastries, cakes, and desserts
2004–2006
Kitchen helper and dishwasher (part-time)
Valley Resort
Box 181
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
• Assisted with preparation of salads, soups, and other menu items
• Scrubbed pots and assisted dishwasher
• Cleaned kitchen equipment and work stations
Education
2014
Selkirk College
HSP 321: Food and Beverage Cost Control
2006–2009
Camosun College
Attained Cook Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial endorsement
Professional Activities
Active Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently responsible for planning student culinary competitions
Member, BC Restaurant and Food Service Association
References
Available on request
***
A chronological resumé for a person just completing an apprenticeship.
David Peterson
1655 Frederick Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
(604) 587-3301
[email protected]
Job Objective
To obtain a position as a First Cook
Experience
2012–2014
Apprentice Cook
Freddy’s Restaurants
Kelowna, B.C.
• Prepared menu items under supervision of First Cook
• Prepared banquet menu items
• Sliced and served meats at banquets and buffets
• Prepared pastries, cakes and desserts
2010–2012
Kitchen helper
Valley Resort
Box 181
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
• Assisted with preparation of salads, soups and other menu items
• Scrubbed pots and assisted dishwasher
• Cleaned kitchen equipment and work stations
2009–2010
Crew chief
McDonald’s Restaurants
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
• Supervised crew
• Assessed inventory
• Prepared food and served customers
• Calculate wastage and promotional product sales
Education
2012–2015
Okanagan College, Kelowna, B.C.
Completing Professional Cook 3 Technical Training in May 2015
Will qualify for Professional Cook 3 Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial Red Seal endorsement
Professional Activities
Volunteer Camp Cook, Anytown Summer Camp for disadvantaged children, 2013
Junior Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently assisting with preparations for the Food Show
References
Available on request
***
A functional resumé shown below is a good way to display your most relevant skills and accomplishments. Under the heading “Experience” or “Skills and Accomplishments,” you list your capabilities under broad headings such as supervision, food and beverage cost control, menu planning, an so on. Under each heading, list all of the skills you have related to that topic without regard to where you acquired that skill. Your previous positions and employers are briefly listed under the heading “Work History.”
This resumé format minimizes drawbacks such as gaps in employment and lack of directly related experience. It is most useful when you have acquired a broad range of skills relevant to the job through many different employers. It can also be useful if your job titles did not adequately reflect the duties performed. It is harder to prepare a functional resumé. Functional resumés can be confusing to read if not well written.
A functional resumé for a person applying for an executive chef position.
ANGELO GUCCI
345 Princeton Street
(604) 587-8762
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
([email protected])
OBJECTIVE
To gain a position as an Executive Chef in a full-service hotel
EXPERIENCE
Menu planning
• Prepared banquet menus for a variety of functions
• Participated in creation of new menus for coffee shop, dining room, pub, and room service
• Developed standard recipes and procedures for new menu items
• Conducted yield tests
• Revised menus based on popularity and profitability of menu items
Food and beverage cost control
• Maintained inventory control procedures
• Purchased and received goods
• Developed purchase specifications for goods
• Used recipe management software to cost menu items
• Analyzed sales history information to project sales volumes and expense levels
• Used a computerized inventory management system to maintain stock levels and reduce waste.
Supervision of staff
• Selected and oriented new staff
• Trained apprentice cooks
• Prepared work schedules for kitchen and dining room staff
• Evaluated staff performance and provided constructive criticism
Food preparation
• Prepared high-quality menu items in Broiler/Grill, Cold Kitchen, Fry, Soup, and Pastry stations of a large hotel kitchen
• Gold Medal prize winner at Okanagan Chefs Association culinary competition in 2013 and 2014
WORK HISTORY
2005 to present
Sous-Chef
Crest Hotel
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
2002–2005
Sous-Chef
Tigh-na-mara Fishing Lodge and Resort
Canim Lake, B.C.
V0X 1R0
1999–2002
First Cook
Freddy’s Restaurants
Kelowna, B.C.
V0X 1R0
1996–1999
Apprentice Cook
Spruce Meadows Country Club
Mission, B.C.
V0X 1R0
EDUCATION
2014
Chef de Cuisine certificate
2011–2012
Tourism Supervisory Development Program: Food & Beverage Option
Okanagan College
1999
Cook Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial endorsement
Vancouver Community College
1995–1996
Professional Cook Certificate
Northern Lights College
Completed all three levels of the program with an A average
2014
In-house training on Squirrel Food and Beverage and Inventory Management packages
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Active Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently Membership Chairperson
Member, BC Restaurant and Food Service Association
REFERENCES
Available on request
***
Tips on Preparing a Resumé
There are several websites that offer free templates for building different styles of resumés. It is important that the presentation is professional and well laid out.
When preparing your resumé, keep the following points in mind:
• Use good quality 8.5″ x 11″ stationery in white or cream for print copies
• Use perfect grammar, spelling, and punctuation; check and recheck your resumé
• Use ample margins and white space to enhance the appearance and readability of your resumé
• Limit your resumé to two pages
• Label the second page with your name and page number as well in case the two pages get separated
• Staple your resumé pages together
• Print the resumé using a good quality printer
• Be clear and concise
• Be accurate; the employer may check on what you have written
• Be consistent in your format and style
• Be positive in tone; focus on results and accomplishments
• Tailor the resumé to the employer’s requirements
• Be complete; make sure that you include company names; do not abbreviate
• Use headings and paragraphing to organize the content
• Avoid company jargon when presenting accomplishments; they may not be readily understood
Media Attributions
• Resume by go2HR. Used with permission | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.04%3A_Preparing_a_Resume.txt |
Unless you are handing your resumé directly to the person who will read it and you have an opportunity to speak to that person about your skills and abilities, you should always include a cover letter. The cover letter acts as an introduction to the reader and encourages him or her to read the resumé carefully.
Today, employers receive many applications for each job, so they may never read beyond the cover letter. You have approximately 30 seconds to grab the employer’s attention and persuade him or her to read your resumé. Otherwise, your application may end up in the recycling bin.
Cover letters and resumés are often sent electronically. You can either type the content of the cover letter into an email, or attach it as a separate document along with your resumé. If you submit it this way, be sure to include a short email stating your interest in the position and that your cover letter and resume are attached. Be clear to identify your purpose for the email by using the subject line. For example, the subject line “D. PETERSON – Resumé” will clearly show the recipient the purpose of the email.
Cover letters have three parts: an introduction that explains why your resumé is sitting on the person’s desk, the benefits of hiring you for the job, and a closing that focuses on the outcome you want: asking the employer to contact you.
Writing Cover Letters
To write an appealing cover letter, keep in mind the following:
• Use standard, business letter format; start with your complete mailing address and the date the application will be mailed.
• Always address the cover letter to an individual; if you do not know the person’s name, call the company and inquire. Make sure that the information including the spelling of the person’s name, his or her title, the company name, and the address is correct.
• Use an appropriate salutation such as “Dear Ms Jones,” or “Dear Selection Committee” (ask when you call the company or refer to the job ad).
• Make sure that your opening gains interest and explains why you are sending this application. If you are responding to a job advertisement, give specific details (newspaper or website in which the ad appeared, title of job, date, posting number). A sample of a cover letter in response to a job advertisement is shown below. If you were asked to apply or were recommended by someone who knows the individual, say so.
• Briefly mention the qualities or experience you have that meet the company’s requirements. Show that you have done your homework. Be positive and realistic. Explain why you would be an asset to the company. Do not mention salary (unless specifically requested to) and don’t express any doubts about your ability to handle the job.
• Suggest a meeting to further discuss how you could benefit the company. You could indicate that you will follow up with an email or phone call, or ask to hear from the reader. Make it easy for the person to contact you; give your contact information in the form of email and a phone number.
• Sign your letter.
• Proofread your letter very carefully.
If sending in a hard copy:
• Use good quality stationery of the same type and colour as used for your resumé.
• Do not staple the letter to the resumé. Place the letter on top.
• Send your cover letter and resumé, unfolded, in an 8.5″ x 11″ envelope.
Sample Cover Letters
Example 1: When responding to a job advertisement
When responding to a job advertisement
1655 Frederick Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
May 28, 2015
Mr. Steve Cooke
Chef, Abby’s Restaurant
268 St. George Street
Anytown, B.C
V0X 1R0
Dear Mr. Cooke:
I believe that I have the skills and experience you require for the First Cook position you advertised on the go2HR website on May 27, 2015. I have just received my Professional Cook 3 Certificate of Qualification after completing a three-year apprenticeship with Freddy’s Restaurants in Kelowna, B.C. You will find me a hardworking and enthusiastic employee who works well in a team.
I have worked breakfast, lunch, and dinner shifts preparing a full range of menu items. My job at Freddy’s Restaurant was fast paced and taught me to prepare a high volume of menu items at a consistently high quality. I have had the pleasure of dining at Abby’s several times and have always been impressed with the quality of food and professional service.
I have assisted with preparing banquets on a regular basis for occasions such as weddings, birthday celebrations, conferences, and business meetings. I am available to work evenings and weekends. Further details of my work experience and education may be found in the attached resumé.
May I hear from you soon regarding an interview? You may contact me at 778-555-3301 or via email at [email protected].
Yours sincerely,
David Peterson
Enc.
***
Example 2: When looking for job leads (unsolicited)
When looking for job leads (unsolicited)
345 Any Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
June 21, 1996
Ms Alanna Stevens
Executive Chef
South Shore Resorts
Box 154
Sunny Acres, B.C.
V0T 1S3
Dear Ms. Stevens:
Are you looking for a motivated sous-chef to assist with the planned expansion of the South Shore Resorts food services described in the business section of the Anytown Times on June 19, 2014? I am looking for just such a challenge.
I have worked in all food service areas of a large hotel, including the coffee shop, dining room, and pub kitchens. I have prepared banquets for up to 300 people. During the absence of the sous-chef, I assumed all of his duties, receiving the commendation of the executive chef.
I have recently completed a distance education course in food and beverage cost control offered by the Open Learning Agency. As part of this course, I completed an analysis of the menu for the Pleasant Stay Hotel dining room. My report was implemented by the executive chef and has already led to increased revenues.
I will be visiting Sunny Acres during the week of July 10 to 17 and would like to discuss employment opportunities at South Shore Resorts with you. I will contact you to set up an appointment on July 2, 2014. In the meantime, if you have any questions about the qualifications I have outlined in the attached resumé, please contact me at (250) 555-1234 or by email at [email protected].
Yours truly,
Suzanne Chung
Enc.
***
Information to Leave Out of Cover Letters and Resumés
The Human Rights Code prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, colour, ancestry, gender, religion, place of origin, sexual orientation, political belief, marital status, family status, age, and criminal or summary conviction unrelated to employment. This includes information about your plans for marriage or child care, your date of birth, place of birth, height, or weight.
Employers are not allowed to ask you for a photograph that might identify your race and gender. Nor can they ask about present or previous health problems, WorkSafeBC claims, or any absence due to stress or mental illness. They cannot ask about military service outside Canada. Information related to these prohibited grounds should not be included in your resumé. Most employers will not request this information.
If you are asked for inappropriate information, you have three options:
• Fill in the information or answer the question even though it may be illegal.
• Write a dash or N/A (not applicable) in the application form.
• Send a copy of the application form or advertisement to the Human Rights Commission and make a complaint. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.05%3A_Cover_Letters.txt |
Visible and Hidden Job Market
Experts estimate that only 20% of jobs are ever advertised through a newspaper ad, job posting, or an employment agency. This 20% is the visible job market. It takes relatively little time to apply for advertised jobs. Be sure to search the visible job market as thoroughly as possible. An employer will not be impressed if you phone looking for a job, unaware of an advertisement.
Job Advertisements
Online job boards, classified ads, and newspapers are the main channels through which jobs are advertised. A number of hospitality-specific websites cover all aspects of the tourism industry enabling employers to advertise positions in specific fields. Useful hospitality and tourism websites include go2HR, Hcareers, and Workopolis (hospitality and tourism sections). The B.C. government has also recently invested a great deal of resources into a provincial job board and other tools such as an apprentice job match at its WorkBC website.
In smaller communities, check the local newspapers, or newspapers from the nearest metropolitan area as well as classified ad websites like Craigslist and Kijiji. Each ad usually includes the job title, qualifications, and experience needed, and how and where to apply for the job.
A job advertisement may also give you information about the company, the salary and some of the benefits offered. Read the ad very carefully to see what the job requires. Compare the requirements with your own qualifications. In the current job market, you will need to meet all of the requirements in order to be interviewed for the job.
Job Postings
Most companies will have a career section on their website that may include available positions and how to submit resumés. Many of these will also include an online application form that must be completed.
Job ads may also be posted in trade publications, websites, and newsletters. Professional associations and special interest groups such as trade associations and organizations are a helpful source and often have job postings.
Colleges, institutes, and universities often have student employment or placement offices that provide information about job postings and advice on job searches.
Positions with the provincial government (for example, a cook in a provincial penitentiary or provincially run hospital) may be listed on the B.C. government’s MyHR website.
Private Employment Agencies
If you choose to do your search through a private employment agency, be sure that it deals with employers in the hotel, restaurant, and food service industry. Employment agencies must register with the Employment Standards Branch. They are not permitted to charge you a fee for finding you a job or identifying possible employers. They receive payment from the employer who uses their services.
Hidden Job Market
Many jobs are filled without ever having been advertised. You can find these jobs by contacting employers directly or using your personal and business contacts to develop job leads. You can contact employers directly by email, mail, or in person. Usually, personal contacts are preferable.
To identify employers who might hire someone with your qualifications, consult an online search engine or a local business directory.
A good way to find job leads is to become involved in the local branch of the restaurant association or the Canadian Culinary Federation. Some associations offer student or junior membership. Volunteer to assist with fundraising and other events. When a chef or restaurant manager knows that you are interested in the trade and willing to volunteer, he or she may be more willing to help you find a job. Attend trade fairs, restaurant, and food shows. This will help you find out more about the businesses in which you could work and can be a source of job contacts.
Watch for news items in your local media that may identify job opportunities. For example, a local travel magazine may have an article on a resort that will be opening soon or a hotel that is expanding its dining room. You might also come across a website that caters to foodies that lists upcoming restaurant openings.
Another source of direct contacts for job leads comes from your family, friends, colleagues, and co-workers, as well as from former employers, customers, and suppliers. The wider the range of your contacts, the greater the likelihood of a successful lead. Let people know that you are looking for a job so that they can be on the lookout for possible opportunities. Social media is an increasingly popular way to identify the hidden job market. Posting your profile on LinkedIn or asking your contacts via social networking sites like Facebook or Twitter for leads can pay dividends.
Conducting an Information Interview
The process of exploring possible job leads is called information interviewing. There are five steps to keep in mind:
1. Make initial contact
Speak with people directly. Have a specific person’s name if possible. If not, ask to speak to the restaurant manager or the chef. In large hotels, ask to speak to the executive chef. If you are contacting someone you know well, you may leave a message if that person is out.
If you don’t know the contact well, try and find out the best time to reach that person. Take into account the schedule of the business that you are contacting. If a restaurant is open for dinner only, try in the early afternoon. If they are open for lunch, try before lunch service or after it ends. Be polite and thank the person to whom you are speaking.
Once you have reached the manager or chef, ask the person to meet with you briefly about job leads. Explain that you would like to speak with him or her even though the company is not hiring right now. Be clear and to the point as you describe your background, training, and experience. Prepare yourself for the call so that you can speak clearly and concisely. If the person agrees to meet with you, confirm the person’s name, address, and the time of the meeting. Thank the person for his or her time.
If the person is unwilling to meet with you, ask whether he or she has any suggestions for other persons or companies you can contact. Get the necessary information. Thank him or her for speaking with you and go on to the next contact.
2. Request assistance
Arrive for the meeting on time. Dress neatly and be well groomed. Treat this meeting as though it were a job interview. Be polite. Bring a copy of your resumé and references. Be prepared with the necessary information to fill out an application. Be prepared with specific questions. Some questions that you might ask include:
• How are new employees usually recruited and what strategies work best (e.g., dropping in on employers, going through an employment agency)?
• Where might a person with my skills and background fit in this field of employment?
• Who would you recommend I talk to about job opportunities?
Ask whether the person might be willing to make an introduction for you. Having your contact write or phone other prospects is always more effective than you making the contact. If you make the contacts yourself, use the initial contact’s name when you call. For example, you might say, “This is Peter Jones calling. I was referred to you by Mr. Goodhost, the manager of Jerry’s Good Eats.”
3. Record information
Make notes during each contact interview for later follow-up. When you contact any of the leads given to you by another source, make notes for each person. Be sure to update your files each time you contact someone. Also be sure that you keep copies of all letters, job ads, and other job search information.
4. Encourage contact
Leave your name, email, and telephone number to make sure that everyone you contact knows how to get in contact with you. Request that the person contact you if he or she thinks of a lead after you leave. Leave a copy of your resumé. This provides the person with the necessary information for talking about you to others. Write a brief thank-you note after the meeting. This provides you with another opportunity to remind the person of your name and goal.
5. Keep checking
Check regularly and briefly with all of the people on your list of contacts. This acts as a reminder for them and may also provide new information. It is especially important to check with those people who have agreed to put you in touch with someone else. You want to be able to make that new contact as soon as possible. When you get a job, send a brief thank-you note to the contacts who assisted you in finding the job. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.06%3A_Job_Search_Skills.txt |
Resumés and cover letters interest the employer in hiring you. However, most employers compile a short list of candidates using the applications they receive, and then interview the people on this short list. This is especially true in the food service and hospitality industry where personal suitability and presentation is a key ingredient in customer service.
Remember that when you drop off a resumé or application, or call regarding a job opening, employees of the company are forming an impression of you. Always be polite and friendly. If you visit the company, dress appropriately and pay attention to your grooming. The person with whom you speak may pass along her or his impressions of you to the person doing the hiring.
It takes a lot of work to get the stage where you are offered an interview, so it is important to make the interview count. When employers are asked why applicants interviewed for jobs are rejected, interpersonal skills and personal characteristics are often key factors.
Applicants may be rejected because of:
• Poor personal appearance and hygiene
• An overbearing, conceited attitude
• Poor communication skills
• Lack of clear career goals
• Lack of interest, commitment, and enthusiasm for the job
• Lack of confidence and poise
• Overemphasis on what the employer offers them (salary, benefits, vacation)
• Lack of tact, maturity, and courtesy
• Poor attitude about the job, previous employers, or school
• Failure to look interviewer in the eye and limp handshake
• Inability to relate skills and experience to the job
• Lack of knowledge about the company
• Obvious personal problems
• Lack of tolerance, strong prejudices, and narrow interests
Types of Interviews
Often you will be interviewed in person. However, in larger companies or when applying for a job in another province, you may also be interviewed by telephone. Today, it is quite common to have an interview via Skype. This allows the interviewer to see you and make an opinion on your appearance. It is important to look professional in this situation as well. Some companies conduct screening interviews as a way of reducing the number of applicants who are considered for a job. Screening interviews may be conducted by someone other than the person who is responsible for the actual hiring. These initial interviews may be a preliminary step to an in-depth personal interview.
Being Prepared
Before going to an interview, you should make sure that you have prepared carefully. You should research the company so that you know what the company sells and how your skills might fit their needs. When applying for a position as a cook, you might visit the restaurant, study the menu, and perhaps even order and eat a meal. Take a good look around. What does the restaurant look like? What is the general ambiance and tone? Do the staff appear to get along well? Do staff members work as a team? Is this a place where you would like to work? Do you feel that you would fit in? Doing your homework about the potential employer makes you look interested in the job and committed to the new employer.
Before going to an interview, you should:
• Be able to describe how your experience and skills would benefit the company.
• Anticipate possible questions you might be asked and have answers prepared.
• Plan transportation to arrive a few minutes early.
• Choose appropriate, business-like clothing and accessories to wear. Take a look at how the staff are dressed when you visit, and dress accordingly. A suit or sports jacket, tie, and dress slacks are appropriate for men. A suit or skirt and blouse are acceptable for women. Women may also wear dress slacks.
• Make sure that clothing is clean, well-pressed, and in good condition. Shoes should be freshly shined and in good condition.
• Be immaculately groomed (for men, freshly shaved or carefully trimmed beard or moustache; for women, simply styled hair and subdued makeup).
• Wear only simple, subdued jewellery and perfume.
• Make sure that you have a clean copy of your application letter, job ad, resumé and references and/or reference letters, and copies of transcripts or certificates relevant to the position to take to the interview.
• Take a pen and paper.
• Prepare questions to ask the interviewer and write them neatly or print them on a piece of paper.
Anticipating Questions the Interviewer May Ask
Employers use interviews to gauge whether you have the qualities to perform the job well. They are looking for ability and aptitude, a willingness to work and learn, a desire to help accomplish the organization’s goals, and maturity and compatibility. For the most part, the interviewer will already have established that you have the minimum training and experience for the job by reading your resumé.
Interviews use a question-and-answer format. You should be prepared to answer questions such as those listed below. Even if these are not the exact questions which will be asked, you should rehearse the subject matter so you have a well-rounded complete answer to give when the question is asked.
Can you tell me something about yourself?
This is usually an invitation to talk about yourself on a personal but not intimate level. Stress such points as your family background, length of time in the community, work with community groups, hobbies, and interests. End by focusing on your work experience, work values, aptitudes, and qualities and how these are relevant to the job in question.
What are your future plans?
Describe your specific career plans and how this job fits into these plans.
Why do you want to work here?
You want to emphasize how this position will use your existing skills and develop additional skills. You might also mention the company’s reputation as a leader in the industry, a fair employer, or a good corporate citizen, its reputation for providing high-quality training to staff, and other relevant considerations.
Can you work under pressure and deadlines?
This question usually indicates that pressure is a feature of the job. Use examples from your work, school, and personal life to illustrate your ability to handle pressure and deadlines.
Why did you leave your last employer? or Why do you want to leave your present employer?
Mention acceptable reasons for leaving a job such as lay-off, illness, relocation, or retraining, or wanting a new challenge. If you were fired, be honest about the reason and explain why you think you would be a good employee now (e.g., learned from mistakes, dealt with personal problems).
What are your strengths?
Your strengths should present you as an efficient and committed worker who can perform the job competently. Other strengths required in every job are honesty, dependability, enthusiasm, and cooperation. Mention them if appropriate.
What are your weaknesses or limitations?
This question may sometimes be phrased in more subtle ways, such as “What are some areas in which you can improve?” “How have you grown over the past few years?” or “Where do you see yourself needing to grow in the next few years?” It is not a good strategy to avoid mentioning shortcomings because you may come across as dishonest, defensive, or weak.
Mention one or two shortcomings in a way that is not damaging. You can do this by mentioning a weakness that is a mirror of one of your assets or by mentioning those that are easily remedied. For example, you might say, “I drive myself very hard and have to be careful not to assume that other staff have the energy that I have.” Or you might say, “I would like to take a course in menu planning. So far, I have some on-the-job experience and have done some reading on my own.” These type of responses indicate a willingness to be open, a knowledge of your shortcomings, and a willingness to address them. This will create a favourable impression on interviewers.
Why should I hire you?
Your answer should stress how your skills and experience benefit the company and help meet the company’s goals. If you are being hired to address a specific problem, explain how you have handled similar situations in the past.
Other things you might be asked about include:
• An explanation of any gaps in your resumé, poor grades, or a change in career direction
• How you might handle a specific problem on the job
• How you would describe your personality
• How you feel about overtime, working on holidays, or other job conditions
• How much you expect to be paid (be flexible; either indicate a range you would find acceptable, or invite the employer to make the decision based on your previous jobs, experience, and salary)
• What you value at work and in life, what you look for in a job, or what is your ideal job
• What you find difficult to do or who you find difficult to work with
When planning responses, be positive. Indicate how you have learned from experience, what benefits you have gained, and how this learning benefits the employer. Be honest and sincere. Some employers may ask about your leisure activities. Often these employers are looking for someone who is well rounded and contributes to the community.
Handling Discriminatory Questions in Interviews
The Human Rights Code prohibits discrimination in the recruitment of employees except in the case of bona fide (genuine) occupational requirements. Most employers avoid questions regarding these prohibited grounds in interviews because they know that otherwise they may be open to complaints of discrimination by unsuccessful candidates. Review the section earlier in the book on the B.C. Human Rights Code for more information.
Behaviour in the Interview
Interviews are short and interviewers have only a brief time to make a personal assessment. Small details can make a big impact. If you display confidence in yourself and in your ability to do the job, much of this confidence will be transmitted to the interviewer.
If you have not participated in an interview before, you can practise your responses with a friend or fellow student to build confidence and reduce nervousness. It can be very useful to videotape your mock interview. You will get useful feedback from watching yourself which can be used to improve your performance in interviews.
Be courteous and friendly in the interview, without being overly familiar. Interviewers respond to pleasantness and respect.
Some tips on coming across well in an interview include the following:
• Arrive alone and a little early for the interview.
• Remove sunglasses and coat before the interview.
• Get the interviewer’s correct name and use it during the interview.
• Smile and be ready to shake hands firmly.
• Look the interviewer in the eye. If there is more than one person conducting the interview, make sure you look at each of them when they are speaking with you, rather than only maintaining eye contact with the “lead” or more senior person.
• Remain standing until you are invited to sit.
• Do not bring your personal problems to the interview.
• Answer all questions clearly, specifically and honestly.
• Do not make jokes or wisecracks or get into arguments.
• Be poised and calm. Do not fidget, crack your knuckles, or engage in other nervous mannerisms.
• Ask a few pertinent questions about the job.
• Thank the interviewer for his or her time and shake hands.
Questions You Can Ask
Asking some questions yourself in the interview demonstrates that you have confidence in your abilities and that you are genuinely interested in the job and in the company. You can ask the following:
• Do you have any questions about my resumé?
• Can you tell me more about the responsibilities of this job?
• What possibilities are there for promotion and advancement if I do a good job?
• What are the future plans of the company (e.g., expansion, franchising)?
• When will you make your decision about this job?
• What training programs do you have for employees?
• What opportunities are there to transfer to other properties owned by the company (if your research indicates that the company is part of a chain)?
Following an interview, you should assess your performance so that you can improve your interviewing skills.
Activities
• Prepare a career plan for the next 10 years
• Prepare or update your resumé
• Create or update your profile on LinkedIn | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Working_in_the_Food_Service_Industry_(BC_Campus)/06%3A_Job_Search_Skills/6.07%3A_Preparing_for_an_Interview.txt |
The regulations related to workplace occupational health and safety in British Columbia are found on the WorkSafeBC website. It is very important that you know how and where to access the information and that you refer to the website for any updates or to ensure that you are complying with all the rules and regulations governing your industry.
The following five documents are essential to understanding and meeting the minimum requirements for occupational health and safety in B.C. These documents cover the legal obligations and regulations, and offer tools to help people understand how the regulations are applied and enforced.
Occupational Health and Safety Programs
Almost all businesses must be registered with WorkSafeBC and are required to have an occupational health and safety (OHS) program. Larger businesses require a formal program, while smaller businesses can have a less formal program. Regardless of the level of formality, the purpose of the program is the same in any organization.
An effective OHS program will:
• Identify hazards in the workplace
• Eliminate or minimize the potential for injuries, disease, or loss of life
• Limit financial losses resulting from injuries and disease
• Be monitored to ensure that it meets its goals and WorkSafeBC requirements
Details on OHS programs are available on the WorkSafeBC website.[6] All businesses must comply with WorkSafeBC requirements.
The most effective OHS programs are developed jointly by management and staff. There are different levels of responsibility in the organization of OHS. Everyone must understand both their own roles and the roles of others so they can work toward common health and safety goals.
1.03: Orientation and Training for Safety- An Essential Step
Did you know that more than half of workplace accidents involving young and new workers occur during their first six months on the job? Effective orientation and training is the best way to prevent accidents from happening. Employers are responsible for ensuring that their workers are prepared for the job before they start working.
The training must be specific to the workplace and should be ongoing. Even an experienced worker will require a new orientation if circumstances change or new hazards develop. For example, there may be a new work process or new equipment, or the worker may be moved to a new work location or assigned to a different task.
It is management’s responsibility to ensure that everyone is trained to follow safe work procedures. As an employee, your manager or supervisor should explain to you the safety rules and policies concerning the following:
• Job-specific hazards
• Your rights and responsibilities as a worker
• Your right to refuse unsafe work
• Violence in the workplace
• Bullying and harassment
• Working alone or in isolation
• Accident investigations
• Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)
• How to report potential hazards and unsafe work conditions
• First aid policies and procedures
• How to report injuries, accidents, and close calls
• Emergency and evacuation procedures
1.04: Roles and Responsibilities
Ensuring workplace safety is the shared responsibility of WorkSafeBC, employers, and employees. All three have different roles to play in ensuring workplace safety is a priority.
WorkSafeBC Responsibilities
WorkSafeBC is a provincial body set up to maintain a safe, healthful working environment at job sites throughout the province. In addition to providing employers and workers with guidance and assistance when they are setting up health and safety programs, WorkSafeBC, has specific workplace responsibilities.
Under the Workers Compensation Act, WorkSafeBC is responsible for:
• Inspecting places of employment
• Investigating accidents and the causes of industrial diseases
• Issuing orders and directions specifying means of preventing injuries and industrial disease
• Assisting and advising employers and workers in developing health and safety programs
• Educating workers about industrial health and safety
• Providing living allowances, rehabilitation, and retraining for workers injured on the job
• Collecting contributions to an accident fund from employers and distributing money from the fund to injured workers
WorkSafeBC is a regulatory body and can order unsafe job sites closed until they are made safe. It is also responsible for issuing fines and penalties to employers as a result of workplace accidents.
The Occupational Health and Safety Regulation (OHS Regulation),[1]contains all the rules, regulations, and responsibilities relating to WorkSafeBC, employers, and workers.
WorkSafeBC dictates that every employer must make a copy of the Regulation readily available at each place of employment so workers can refer to it. This may be done either by including a hard copy version with other safety information that is provided to employees as a part of their training, or by providing instructions on how to access the Regulation online. The Regulation begins with a general explanation of terms, the procedure for notification of injury, and first aid requirements.
Employer’s Responsibilities
The Act lists many, but not all, of the responsibilities of all employers. A few of these responsibilities are noted below. Additional conditions are noted in the OHS Regulation.
The employer must ensure that:
• All work is carried out without undue risk of injury or industrial disease
• Machinery and equipment are capable of safely performing the functions for which they are used
• All permanent and temporary buildings and structures are capable of withstanding any stresses likely to be imposed on them
• All buildings, excavation structures, machinery, equipment, tools, and places of employment are maintained in good condition so workers will not be endangered
• Regular inspections are made to prevent structures, grounds, excavations, tools, equipment, machinery, and work from becoming unsafe
• Any unsafe conditions are corrected without delay
• Each worker is supplied, at no cost, with all protective safety equipment required by WorkSafeBC regulations
• All workers are instructed in the safe performance of their duties
• An accident prevention program is set up
• There is a safe means of entry to and exit from the work area
• Firefighting equipment is provided and maintained
• Workers with physical or mental impairment are not assigned to work where their impairment endangers themselves or others
• No one enters or remains, or is permitted to remain, on the premises of any place of employment while that person’s ability to work is so affected by alcohol, drugs, or other substances as to endanger his or her health or safety, or that of any other person
Employee’s Responsibilities
Workers are responsible for their own safety on the job. This means that you have the right to refuse to do any act or operate any tool, appliance, or equipment when you have reasonable cause to believe that to do so would put you in danger.
It is your responsibility to wear proper clothing for the job site and to use the PPE provided by your employer or required for your job.
As a worker, you should keep the following personal responsibilities in mind:
• You must not remove any safety equipment from machines or equipment. This includes shields from grinders, mixers, etc.
• You must have had adequate instruction about a piece of machinery or equipment before you use it.
• You must make sure that no machine, equipment, or tool is used in a way that would cause injury to someone else.
• You must make sure that there are safe entrances to and exits from the workplace.
• You must make sure that the work area is safe for the movement of workers, equipment, and materials.
• You must wear protective eyewear when using grinders and other equipment that may be hazardous to the eyes.
Health and Safety Committees
The employer is responsible for setting up an accident prevention program. As part of the program, a health and safety committee must be established for any employer with more than 20 full-time employees. Employers with fewer than 20 full-time employees are not required to have a safety committee, but it is an industry best practice to do so.
This committee is required to have at least four members who are experienced in the workplace. The membership of the committee must represent both employers and workers, and the number of employer representatives must never outnumber the number of worker representatives.
It is the committee’s responsibility to help create a safe place to work, recommend actions that will improve the effectiveness of the health and safety program, and promote enforcement of WorkSafeBC regulations.
Contravention of Regulations
The OHS Regulation clearly defines contravention as well as the liability of contravening the Regulation.[2]
1. A contravention of this Regulation will be deemed to be a contravention by the employer and will make that employer liable for any penalty prescribed by the Workers Compensation Act.
2. A contravention of this Regulation by a supervisor or a worker will be deemed to be a contravention by the supervisor and will make that supervisor liable for any penalty prescribed by the Workers Compensation Act
3. A contravention of this Regulation by a worker will make that worker liable for any penalty prescribed by the Workers Compensation Act.
4. A contravention of this Regulation by a person working in or contributing to the production of an industry within the scope of the Workers Compensation Act will make that person liable for any penalty prescribed by the Act.
Reporting Accidents
According to the OHS Regulation, an employer must immediately notify WorkSafeBC whenever an accident occurs that:
• Results in serious injury to or the death of a worker
• Involves a major structural failure or collapse of a building, bridge, tower, crane, hoist, temporary construction support system, or excavation
• Involves the major release of a hazardous substance
• Is an incident required by regulation to be reported
Note that “near misses” occur more often than accidents. Near misses are incidents in which there is no visible injury or damage but that could have resulted in serious injury, in death, or property damage. They are generally more reflective of a business’s operating guideline than are actual accidents or injuries, and they should also be reported to WorkSafeBC.[3]Reporting near misses is a good way to prevent their recurrence. They should be seen as a learning opportunity and not as a reason to question the ability of the people involved.
Investigating incidents
Prompt investigation of incidents[4] should be conducted so that other employees will not get injured in the same way. Everyone in the business has a role to play, and you must report accidents and incidents to your supervisor.
According to the Regulation, an employer must immediately undertake an investigation into the cause of any accident or other incident that:
• Is required to be reported under the Act
• Results in injury to a worker requiring medical treatment
• Does not involve injury to a worker, or involves only minor injury not requiring medical treatment, but has a potential for causing serious injury to a worker
• Is an incident required by regulation to be investigated
This list does not apply in the case of a vehicle accident occurring on a public street or highway. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.02%3A_WorkSafeBC_Regulations_in_the_Workplace.txt |
WorkSafeBC, through its board of directors, is responsible for inspecting places of employment and subsequently with issuing orders and directions as needed to employers on how to prevent injuries and industrial diseases. Officers of the board are also responsible for investigating accidents and the causes of industrial diseases, for assisting and advising employers and employees to develop industrial health and safety programs, and for educating employees about industrial health and safety.
WorkSafeBC ensures that compensation is paid to a worker, or the worker’s dependants, if he or she is injured, disabled, or killed in the course of employment.
WorkSafeBC Registration and Workers’ Compensation Coverage
Most employers are required by law to register their business with WorkSafeBC and pay premiums. Registration of employers is legislated by the Workers Compensation Act,[1] but obtaining coverage is more than just a legislated requirement. An employer who is covered by WorkSafeBC insurance is protected against lawsuits from injured workers.
Generally, registration is mandatory for anyone who:
Workers cannot register for WorkSafeBC insurance coverage. Almost all workers are automatically protected under the Act. If a worker is injured or contracts an occupational disease while on the job during the course of employment, WorkSafeBC covers the worker’s medical and wage-loss costs.
There are some workers in B.C. who are not automatically covered by the legislation, including the following:
• Volunteers
• Professional athletes
• Self-employed individuals who work for two or more employers in a day
• Babysitters who work less than 15 hours per week
Personal Optional Protection
Personal Optional Protection (POP) is optional workplace disability insurance for individuals who are not automatically covered under the Workers Compensation Act. This includes people who are self-employed as well as partners, proprietors, and proprietors’ spouses in a non-limited company. POP protects you against wage loss and may provide medical and rehabilitation services if you are injured while on the job or if you contract a disease as a result of your work. For example, if you are doing work outside of your regular job, such as catering or freelance work as a self-employed individual, POP would provide coverage in the case of a workplace injury.
Remember: Coverage is the employer’s responsibility, and with very few exceptions all workers in British Columbia are covered by WorkSafeBC.
What Injuries and Job-related Illnesses are Covered?
Workers normally receive compensation if they are covered under the legislation and if, in the course of employment, they:
• Are injured or die
• Have a mental breakdown or illness (this may be caused by a single traumatic incident at the workplace, or repeated incidents over time, such as bullying and harassment)
• Contract a job-related illness (e.g., mercury or lead poisoning, silicosis, asbestosis and other lung ailments, heart attack, radiation sickness, cancers of various kinds, asthma, tendinitis and heat stress)
Note that the phrase “in the course of employment” does not mean the worker has to be at work at the time of the injury. It means the worker must be doing something that is connected with his or her employment.
In deciding if an injured worker is eligible to receive compensation for injury or illness, WorkSafeBC considers the following questions:
• Did the injury or illness occur on the employer’s premises?
• Did it occur in the process of the worker doing something for the employer?
• Did it occur during an activity done in response to instructions from the employer?
• Did it occur while using equipment or materials supplied by the employer?
• Did it occur while receiving payment or other consideration from the employer?
• Was the risk something a worker is normally exposed to?
• Did it occur during a time when the worker was being paid?
• Was it caused by some activity of the employer or a co-worker?
After considering these questions, WorkSafeBC may decide to allow a claim that is not directly related to “work” but is related to “employment.”
Working in other Provinces
In most provinces, all workers, whether permanent or casual, are covered by legislation specific to each province. (Casual workers are those not on the regular payroll or in steady employment with a particular industry.) If you plan to work outside of B.C., check the relevant provincial legislation to determine exactly which occupations are covered. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.05%3A_Compensation_and_Benefits.txt |
By recognizing and understanding the potential hazards in your work area, you can help prevent accidents from occurring. All accidents are preventable. Both employees and employers must take responsibility for making the workplace safe. Causing injury by failing to follow known safety procedures or knowingly allowing uncontrolled hazardous situations to develop are serious safety violations.
Workplace hazards include things such as slippery floors, loose floor mats, and sharp knives, as well as hazardous materials. It is important for all employees to be aware of hazards, even if they seem obvious. Employers should provide information and training on any safe work procedures related to the job site. Safe work procedures are specific directions for doing a task or operating equipment that may pose a risk or hazard to the worker. Workers should always ask their supervisor if there are any safe work procedures they need to be aware of and/or any written instructions they should be following.
One of the main hazards in any workplace are cleaning products, some of which are everyday products that a person may not regard as hazardous, such as sanitizers and household cleansers. Cleaning products and all other materials that are potentially hazardous are governed by the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)
The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) is Canada’s national system of classifying and communicating information about hazardous materials in the workplace. The key components of the system are the classification of materials, cautionary labels and symbols, material safety data sheets (MSDS) and workplace education and training programs.
WHMIS was first introduced in 1988, and in 2015 it was changed to include the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling for chemicals (GHS). Currently there is a transition period, until 2018, to allow for suppliers, employers, and workers, to adapt to the new requirements. During this transition period, manufacturers, distributors, and employers will be allowed to comply with either the former WHMIS 1988 requirements or the new WHMIS 2015 requirements to allow for a phased-in approach.[1]
Federal legislation, the Hazardous Products Act HPA[2] establishes which products are regulated under WHMIS and have been traditionally categorized as controlled products within the Controlled Product Regulation (CPR). Changes in 2015 to align with the GHS include a change in terminology, classifying substances as hazardous products, and replacing the CPR with a new Hazardous Product Regulation (HPR).[3]
Regardless of the changes in terminology, WHMIS covers the sale, distribution, and use of hazardous materials in the workplace.
WorkSafeBC regulations cover the use of hazardous materials in the workplace and identify employers’ responsibilities. Workers who work with hazardous products must know how to handle them safely, which requires being properly trained on their use.
WHMIS categorizes hazardous materials in six hazard classes. These classes are depicted by eight symbols that identify the specific hazards of controlled products. After a controlled product has been classified, the following three WHMIS elements are used to communicate health and safety information:
• WHMIS label
• Material safety data sheets (MSDS)
• WHMIS education and training programs
Hazardous (Controlled) Products
WHMIS defines a hazardous or controlled product as a pure substance or mixture that meets or exceeds criteria for inclusion in one or more of the WHMIS hazard classes. The six classes and eight hazard symbols from WHIMS 1988 are shown in Figure 1, and the symbols from the WHMIS 2015 program, which uses the GHS, are included in Figure 2. The appropriate symbol must appear on the applicable supplier labels.
WHMIS Education and Training Programs
Everyone who uses hazardous materials must be trained to use them properly and to use the personal protective equipment specified in the MSDS. It is the responsibility of the employer to provide WHMIS training as a part of an occupational health and safety program. If you have not received training in WHMIS, ask your employer to schedule a session for you as soon as possible.
Training must:
• Address any WHMIS requirements
• Be reviewed at least annually (more frequently if work conditions or hazards change)
• Provide for the periodic assessment of knowledge by testing or observation
1.07: Labels
Supplier Labels
When a supplier produces or imports a product for distribution and sale in Canada, that supplier must prepare a label that provides the following seven pieces of information:
1. Product identification
2. Supplier identification
3. Hazard symbols
4. Risk phrases
5. Precautionary statements
6. First aid measures
7. A statement advising that an MSDS is available
Figure 3 shows an acceptable format for a supplier label.
Workplace Labels
Often, hazardous materials are transferred to smaller containers in the workplace for use. An example is putting a cleaning solution into a spray bottle to be taken into the kitchen. Unless you are using the product immediately, using all of the amount you put in the smaller container, and no one else will be using it, a workplace label is required.
A workplace label must contain the following information:
• The product identifier
• The hazard information
• A statement indicating that an MSDS is available in the workplace
Workplace labels are not required to have hazard symbols, but there is nothing preventing the employer from including them.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
An MSDS is a technical bulletin that provides detailed hazard, precautionary, and emergency information on a controlled product. An acceptable format for a data sheet is shown here: View the Sample Material Safety Data Sheet
The data sheet is meant to supplement the alert information provided on labels. Any person or company that uses a controlled product may obtain an MSDS from the supplier of the product. You should obtain an MSDS if you are going to use a product with which you are not familiar.
Copies of supplier and employer MSDS must be accessible to employees. The sheets must be posted close to work areas and made available during each work shift. Workers must be taught what to look for in a data sheet, and they must be given an opportunity to become familiar with the information on the sheets.
The employer must ensure that there is an MSDS for each controlled product found in the workplace. The employer must get in touch with the supplier for an updated sheet when the data sheet is three years old. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.06%3A_Workplace_Hazards.txt |
Listed below are symbols used to identify hazardous materials, which all workers should be familiar with. The symbols in circles indicate hazard classes and divisions set by WHMIS. These are generally found on products that are usually sold in large quantities to manufacturers and contractors, and they must carry the correct labels. The hazard symbols in triangles are set by Consumer and Corporate Affairs. These are used on products that are usually sold to individual consumers in small quantities.
Class A – Compressed Gas
This class includes compressed gases, dissolved gases, and gases liquefied by compression or refrigeration (Figure 4).
Examples: Gas cylinders for barbeques, small blow torches, and butane lighters all contain compressed gas.
Although not a part of the WHMIS 1988 program, this symbol (Figure 5) is a part of the new WHMIS 2015 program and the GHS. The explosion symbol is often found on small consumer containers of products stored under pressure. Bottles of compressed gas, propane, and other gases must be handled with extreme care. Protective caps should be kept on the tanks when they are not in use. Whether the tank is full or empty, it still contains tremendous pressure.
Class B – Flammable and Combustible Material
In this class are solids, liquids, and gases capable of catching fire or exploding in the presence of a source of ignition (Figure 6).
There are six divisions within Class B:
• Division 1: flammable gases
• Division 2: flammable liquids
• Division 3: combustible liquids
• Division 4: flammable solids
• Division 5: flammable aerosols
• Division 6: reactive flammable materials
Examples: White phosphorus, acetone, and butane. Flammable liquids such as sterno is more easily ignited than combustible liquids such as lamp oil for fondues.
When concentrations of flammable liquids are present, there is a great risk of these fumes being ignited by an open flame or spark. Fire extinguishers should also be on hand and in operating order. Take the necessary precautions to ensure using these flammable liquids safely.
Class C – Oxidizing Material
In this class are unstable substances that combine with oxygen and increase the risk of fire if they come in contact with flammable or combustible materials (Figure 7).
Examples: Cleaning chemicals.
Class D – Poisonous and Infectious Materials
There are three divisions in Class D: Division 1, Division 2, and Division 3.
Division 1
This division covers materials that cause immediate and serious toxic effects (Figure 8). They can cause the death of a person exposed to small amounts.
Examples: Cleaning chemicals.
Division 2
In this division are materials that cause other toxic effects (Figure 9). Some cause immediate skin or eye irritation. Others can cause long-term effects in a person who is repeatedly exposed to small amounts.
Examples: Pesticides and rodenticides.
Division 3
Biohazardous infectious materials are in this division (Figure 10). It applies to materials that contain harmful micro-organisms.
Examples: Some foods that can support bacterial growth such as salmonella bacteria or E. coli.
Class E – Corrosive Material
This division covers caustic or acid materials, which can destroy the skin or eat through metals (Figure 11).
Examples: cleaning agents and degreasing agents.
Chemical burn
Chemicals that cause burns are identified by the symbol shown in Figure 12 and are also part of Class E, corrosive material.
Class F: Dangerously Reactive Material
These products may self-react dangerously (for example, they may explode) upon standing or when exposed to physical shock or to increased pressure or temperature, or they emit toxic gases when exposed to water (Figure 13).
1.09: Precautions When Using Hazardous Materials
Although the corrosive action of chemicals can vary, the safety precautions required for each should be the same when they are handled. The following are some important points to consider when working with any cleaning products or chemicals in the workplace:
• Many substances are harmless enough by themselves, but when combined, they release toxic fumes. For example, two common household cleaning agents, ammonia and bleach, will produce toxic chlorine gas when mixed together.
• Do not mix any chemicals found on the job site unless you are absolutely certain that the combined mixture will not be harmful.
• Sometimes chemical changes are triggered by heat or radiation. For example, many oven cleaners produce fumes that are toxic when heated.
• All chemicals should be stored in their original containers and the containers should be labelled and sealed.
• If you do need to transfer a cleaning product into a smaller container for use, ensure it has the appropriate workplace label.
• Whenever there is the slightest risk of being splashed by these substances, wear safety glasses.
• Wear rubber gloves if your hands are likely to come in contact with a chemical.
• Rinse off and neutralize any spills on your personal clothing. If the spill is large, the clothing affected should be taken off to prevent any injury.
• Corrosive chemicals and flammable substances should be used only in well-ventilated areas. Avoid breathing the fumes.
• Many cleaners and some food products come in aerosol cans that use pressure to release their contents. These cans should not be kept near heat or exposed to flames, as the containers are explosive and the residual contents are often highly flammable. When the contents are finished, the empty cans must be recycled appropriately. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.08%3A_Warning_Symbols_%28WHMIS_1988%29.txt |
All employers are obligated to ensure staff are trained in workplace emergency procedures. This may include what to do in case of a fire, earthquake, or other emergency; identifying locations of emergency exits; and processes to follow to evacuate the building in the case of an emergency. These procedures are site specific and should be a part of the training for all new employees. In addition, regular drills or reviews of procedures are important to ensure that if an actual emergency occurs, everyone is able to react accordingly and safely.
Orientation to any new job site, even if temporary, should always include the following information:
• Location of emergency exits
• Location of first aid supplies or the procedures to call for an attendant
• Location of fire extinguishers
• Evacuation procedures and muster stations
• Any hazards present on the site
First Aid Procedures
Providing access to first aid supplies or attendants is a requirement of employers under the OHS Regulation, but the required vary according to the size of the employer and many other factors. For example, in some cases it is required that a designated first aid attendant be on duty, while in others it is enough to provide a first aid kit stocked with a prescribed list of supplies. Many industrial settings and B.C. training institutions are equipped with a first aid station with a trained attendant. The person who staffs that station is able to perform a wide variety of services from bandaging minor cuts to stopping major bleeding and splinting broken bones.
All workers should know where the first aid station is, who staffs it, and what services are available. If you sustain an injury, no matter how minor, ensure that the incident is reported in the first aid station log. Minor irritations often develop into major problems, so report all injuries promptly.
Emergency Wash Station or Shower Locations
There may be times when you are working with acids or hazardous substances such as cleaning solutions which may burn your flesh or splash into your eyes. If you accidentally splash or spill a corrosive substance on your skin, you will want to wash the affected area very quickly with large amounts of water to dilute the acid and minimize burning. It is therefore necessary that you be aware of the location of your emergency eyewash stations, sinks, or showers throughout your work site.
Fire Safety Procedures and Regulations
Components that produce fire
Before a fire can occur, these three components must be present:
• Fuel (a combustible material such as wood, gasoline, paper, or cloth)
• Heat (sufficient to raise the fuel to its ignition temperature)
• Oxygen, usually in the form of air (to sustain combustion)
When these three components combine, as shown in the fire triangle (Figure 14), the result is rapid combustion (fire). Keeping these three components separated will prevent a fire from occurring. An existing fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the three components:
• Remove the fuel (combustible material) from the vicinity of the fire. For example, if you shut off the valve of a gas main, the result will be starvation.
• Remove the heat. For example, by applying water, the result will be cooling.
• Remove the oxygen. For example, if you cover the fire with a lid, a wet blanket, or some sand, or you use a carbon dioxide, foam, or dry chemical extinguisher, the result is smothering.
Remember, keeping these three components separated will prevent a fire from occurring. Likewise, an existing fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the three components.
Combustion speed
Fire, or combustion, is a form of oxidation (the union of a substance with oxygen). During the process of oxidation, energy is released in the form of heat — sometimes accompanied by light. Oxidation takes place at varying rates of speed. Table 1 shows examples of oxidation occurring at differing rates of speed.
Table 1. Combustion speeds
Speed Example
Very slow The rusting of iron
Slow The spontaneous heating of materials such as oil soaked rags
Fast The burning of paper or wood
Extremely fast The exploding of gunpowder upon ignition
First aid firefighting
First aid firefighting is best described as extinguishing a fire in its initial stages (before the fire can become too large) by using whatever is readily at hand. First aid extinguishers are designed to deal with fires in their infancy. These traditional fire extinguishers are still required on all work sites, even in areas protected by sprinkler systems.
Classes of fires
Fires are divided into five main classes: A, B, C, D, and K. The classification of a fire dictates the type of extinguisher required.
The symbols shown in Table 2 may be the only indication you have of the best use for a fire extinguisher. Please make note of the class letter and symbols for future reference.
Table 2. Classes of fires. (Fire class letter symbols by Andros 1337 is under CC BY SA 3.0. Pictograms by Renata3 is under Public Domain.)
Class letter and symbol Pictogram Description Extinguishing requirements
Fires involving ordinary combustibles (wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics) Require the heat absorbing (cooling) effects of liquids and certain chemicals that retard combustion
Fires involving flammable liquids or combustible vapours Require extinguishers that prevent these vapours from being released or that interrupt the combustion
Fires involving energized (live) electrical equipment Nonconductive extinguishing agents are required to provide safety to the operator
none Fires involving certain combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium or potassium Require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that is not reactive with the burning material
Fires involving commercial cooking appliances with oils or fats at high temperatures. A wet potassium acetate, low pH-based agent is used for this class of fire
Types of fire extinguishers
All businesses must have portable fire extinguishers. These come in many sizes and colours and have several markings on them. They may be divided into several types:
• Water extinguishers
• Dry chemical extinguishers
• Wet chemical extinguishers
• CO2 extinguishers
Although most of these extinguishers can be used on more than one class of fire, none can be successfully used for all types of fire situations.
Water-based extinguishers are to be used on Class A fires and may be either the pressurized or pump type. Plain water extinguishers are rarely found in the kitchen.
Dry chemical extinguishers are designed for Class B and C fires or Class A, B, and C fires, depending on the type of agent contained in the cylinder. Three of the most commonly used dry chemicals are:
• Triplex dry chemical, a multipurpose dry chemical agent effective in extinguishing Class, A, B, and C fires, is generally considered the best all-round fire extinguisher.
• Quick-aid dry chemical, a specially treated sodium bicarbonate dry chemical agent that is moisture-resistant and free-flowing, is effective and approved for use on Class B and C fires and offers the lowest cost per kilo of the three dry chemical agents.
• Purple K dry chemical, a specially treated potassium bicarbonate dry chemical agent, provides effective protection against Class B and C fires and is approximately twice as effective as the standard sodium bicarbonate dry chemical.
You can use dry chemical extinguishers to put out Class D fires. However, the type of extinguisher depends on the type of metal that is burning. If you are working with a particular combustible metal, ask your instructor for information about the most effective extinguisher.
Wet chemical fire extinguishers became mandatory after discovering that modern shortenings burn at a higher temperature than other frying oils making the automatic fire suppression systems unable to extinguish larger fryer fires. The extinguishers for Class K fires are grey in colour and contain a potassium acetate based, low PH agent. The Class K extinguisher is also the ideal choice for use on all cooking appliances including solid fuel charbroilers. The agent discharges as a fine mist that helps prevent grease splash and fire reflash while cooling the appliance.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers should be used on Class B and C fires. A CO2 extinguisher is recognized by its fibre horn. It is less effective than dry chemical extinguishers but has the advantage of not leaving a residue that must be cleaned.
It is important that you know the location of and how to operate each extinguisher in your workplace. Because each manufacturer uses a slightly different operating procedure, the best thing you can do is to look carefully at the markings and instructions on the extinguisher. They will tell you how to use the extinguisher and where it is most effective.
Fire extinguishing systems for commercial cooking equipment
Commercial cooking equipment that produces grease-laden vapours is considered to be a special fire hazard. To reduce the chance of fire, grease-extracting ventilation systems are equipped with automatic fire extinguishing equipment. A typical automatic extinguishing system fitted over a charbroiler and deep fat fryer is shown in Figure 15.
This automatic system may use a dry chemical, a wet chemical, carbon dioxide, or water from sprinklers as an extinguishing agent.
A large number of the fires in ventilating equipment are caused by the buildup of grease due to poor housekeeping. Keep the hood and other equipment as clean as possible. Servicing should include a thorough inspection of all the components and a test activation of the system without the extinguishing agent. Servicing should include the following:
• Storage containers for stored-pressure dry chemical systems must be weighed and checked for pressure. The expellant gas cartridge of non-stored pressure systems should be checked for pressure or weight and the dry chemical examined for moisture.
• Nozzles and lines should be cleaned and the protective covers checked. Sprinkler heads and spray nozzles must be replaced annually.
• The hood, extraction equipment, and ducting should be cleaned and maintained on a regular basis.
Fire Prevention Measures
As noted above, fire is only possible where there is a supply of combustible materials, oxygen, and heat. However, lack of caution, equipment failure, or simple human error can cause ignition. Here are some fire safety precautions for working near, handling, or storing flammable materials.
Flammable liquids and related equipment
The nature of flammable liquids makes them very vulnerable to ignition. Consequently, the following storage precautions are necessary:
• All containers of flammable liquids must be of an approved type and clearly marked.
• All containers must have secure capping devices.
• Open flames or lit cigarettes must be prohibited within or near any liquid-gas storage area.
• Where drums are used as containers, they must have taps and a drip tray.
• Transportation must only take place while containers are sealed.
• All empty containers must be stored on end.
• Spills must be cleaned up or covered with sand.
Any equipment that requires a flammable liquid needs the same basic precautionary measures as stored liquids. All tank or equipment leaks must be reported and then repaired immediately.
All waste liquids that are flammable must be placed in approved containers for disposal and taken to the appropriate location for disposal according to municipal waste disposal regulations.
Paper and wood products
Dry paper and wood are susceptible to ignition quite easily. When damp or wet, they do not ignite quickly. Keep all paper and wood products away from open flames such as burners and pilot lights.
Oily cloths
All oily cloths must be placed in metal bins with sealed lids and sent to be laundered professionally.
Oils and fats
All oils and fats have a predetermined flash point at which they will ignite. This is considerably higher than the smoke point where the oil gives off large amounts of smoke, which is a good indicator that the heat should be removed or turned down. For safety considerations, allow oil to cool down before removing or recycling.
Garbage and clutter
Garbage and clutter present a problem in fire prevention for two reasons. Garbage may contain substances that are toxic when burned, and clutter in high traffic areas may present an obstruction for fire fighters or for those trying to evacuate a building. Always ensure that exit corridors are kept clear and that garbage is disposed of regularly.
Fire Prevention Rules for the Kitchen
The following are important rules to remember while you work in the food preparation and storage areas of a kitchen:
• Keep a supply of salt or baking soda handy to extinguish small fires on range tops or under charbroilers.
• Don’t ever put water onto a fire containing oil or grease.
• Keep hoods and other equipment free from grease buildup.
• Do not leave hot fat unattended on the range.
• If a fire alarm sounds, turn off all gas and electrical appliances before leaving the building.
• Remove all rubbish regularly.
• Store all dry goods neatly, and make sure they do not impede traffic flow in the area.
• Do not leave grease rags around the kitchen, particularly near stoves.
• Keep fire doors closed at all times
• Keep fire stairs and fire exits clear of any obstruction.
• Keep all fire exits clearly marked and lighted.
• Check all automatic fire extinguishing systems on a regular basis. Remember, full servicing is required every six months.
1.11: Key Terms
Key Terms
combustible
Capable of catching fire and burning
compensation
Something given or received as an equivalent for services, debt, loss, injury, suffering, etc.
contravention
To come into conflict with or infringe on rules, laws, etc.
controlled products
Products that are potentially harmful and that fall under WHMIS regulation, also known as hazardous products under WHMIS 2015
flammable
Easily set on fire
GHS
Globally Harmonized System of classification and labelling for chemicals
hazardous products
Products that are potentially harmful and that fall under WHMIS regulation, also known as controlled products under WHMIS 1988
MSDS
Material safety data sheet, which outlines the handling of hazardous materials as required by WHMIS 1988
PPE
Personal protective equipment: clothing, gloves, footwear, or other equipment used to protect indivudals against hazards
regulations
Laws, rules, or other orders prescribed by authority
SDS
Safety data sheet, which outlines the handling of hazardous materials as required by WHMIS 2015 and the GHS
WHMIS
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System; a system of site-specific information about hazardous materials that are present and how to use and handle them safely
WorkSafeBC
Provincial agency responsible for workplace safety regulations and enforcement in British Columbia
1.12: Key Takeaways and Activities
Key Takeaways
• Safety is a joint responsibility of the employer and employees.
• Always ask if you are unsure of how to complete a task safely.
• Always communicate to those working with you and a supervisor if you notice a safety hazard.
Activities
1. Identify the different types of fire extinguishers and their appropriate uses.
2. Review the safety and emergency procedures for your workplace or school.
3. Make a list of any personal protective equipment you use at work or school.
1.13: References
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety CCOHS. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://www.ccohs.ca/
Health Canada. (2014, October 31). Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/occup-travail/index-eng.php
Tourism Industry Health & Safety. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2015, from https://www.go2hr.ca/health-safety
WHMIS.org | Canada’s National WHMIS Portal. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://whmis.org/
WorkSafeBC. (n.d.). Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://www2.worksafebc.com/Safety/Home.asp?_ga=1.43739559.380994179.1403041082 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.10%3A_Emergency_Procedures.txt |
The most important concept to remember is that you are responsible for your own safety and the safety of others. Most safety practices are common sense. Unfortunately, they can be forgotten or overlooked unless you make safe practices a habit or an instinct.
General Safety
By doing things right, you and your co-workers will commit yourselves to safety on the job and everyone will benefit. Accidents occur in many ways but most often can be traced back to one of two basic factors: ignorance or carelessness. You must always be concerned with your own safety and with the safety of others around you.
The following is a general list of safety precautions you must observe in any work area:
• Don’t fool around. “Horseplay” is one of the biggest causes of injuries on the job and it may be grounds for dismissal.
• Never work while under the influence of drugs or alcohol, as you are a hazard to yourself and your co-workers.
• Pay particular attention to moving objects, such as equipment, dollies, mixers, and slicers.
• Walk, do not run, in the work areas.
• Stay completely alert on the job.
• Avoid back strain by lifting properly.
Kitchen Accidents and Their Causes
Over 90% of all accidents are preventable, and three basic rules of kitchen safety, if enforced, will significantly reduce the likelihood of kitchen mishaps.
1. Do not run: People who rush around in the kitchen tend to take chances that increase the likelihood of an accident.
2. Keep your mind on your work: People who let their attention wander are a hazard to themselves and others around them. Lack of interest, personal problems, and distraction by others can all lead to serious accidents in the kitchen.
3. Observe all the rules for operating kitchen equipment. Never operate kitchen equipment until instructed in the correct procedures.
In a commercial kitchen, safety is everyone’s job. It is a responsibility that must be accepted throughout the working day. As stated many times before, accidents are caused — they do not just happen. They are the result of not knowing the proper way to do a task, carelessly performing an operation or job, or not being consciously aware during the performance of a task. It is wise to remember that careless workers not only jeopardize their own health and well-being, but also jeopardize those around them.
Cooking is considered a fairly safe occupation, but hazards certainly do exist, not only in food preparation but in other related tasks as well. The most common accidents in the kitchen are cuts, burns, falls, and strains. All of these accidents happen when extreme carelessness or general horseplay is present. Carelessness and horseplay can be neither justified nor allowed in the commercial kitchen.
Cuts
Cuts are all too common in commercial kitchens because knives and other cutting implements are constantly in use. These cuts, and the seriousness of the cuts, however, can be held to a minimum by using ordinary good sense, by paying attention to the proper safety rules, and by practising proper cutting procedures. Once the skill of using a knife is developed, accidental cuts should not occur very often. However, when and if they do occur, they should be treated properly and without delay. If infection sets in, it can result in more serious consequences and the loss of many working hours. Remember: preventive care is always cheaper than injury treatment!
Burns
Two types of burns occur in the commercial kitchen: minor and serious. Minor burns are usually a result of wet or damp towels used to handle hot pots and pans, or from bumping an exposed area of your arm against a hot surface like and oven rack. More serious burns occur when grease is splashed, when steam escapes or is released too quickly, or when gas is turned on or released unknowingly. Burns are generally more painful than cuts, and they certainly take more time to heal. If the burn is severe enough to cause a blister, it should be treated promptly by trained medical personnel.
Falls
Falls can cause some of the most serious injuries in the commercial kitchen. They may disable or incapacitate a person for life. Falls are caused by extreme carelessness, wet floors and aisles, spilled food or grease, and by torn mats or warped floor boards.
Strains
Strains may not be as serious as other types of injuries, but they are painful and can result in the loss of many working hours. They are caused by carrying loads that are too heavy and by improper lifting practices. Most strains do not require medical attention, but they do require time and care to heal properly.
Safety Practices for the Kitchen
A kitchen has many safety hazards. It contains hot stoves, electrical equipment, and sharp tools. These hazards, combined with the busy, often frantic pace in a kitchen, make it very important that you work carefully while giving constant attention to the safety practices described below.
Lock-out procedures
WorkSafeBC regulations require that all powered machinery or equipment shut down for maintenance or repair must be secured against the possibility of the equipment being accidentally turned on while being worked on. To safeguard the person working on such equipment, lock-out procedures must be posted near the equipment, and the procedures listed must be followed before repairs or maintenance can start.
Locking out a machine usually means the power feeding the machine is disconnected either by pulling a plug, placing a switch in the off position, or turning a circuit breaker to the off position. The disconnected circuit is then secured in the inoperative position by the use of a padlock. The person doing the maintenance or repair keeps the key to this lock until the work on the machine has been completed. The worker then removes the lock and the machine is again operable.
Depending on the situation, the lock might be used to secure the power switch of the machine or it might be used to lock shut the door to a circuit breaker panel where the thrown breaker is located.
If the machine is not wired into its own power circuit but simply plugs into the wall, the lock-out procedure may require that the machine be turned off with its power switch and unplugged from the power receptacle. The plug end of the machine must be kept in plain view of the repair person so no one can inadvertently restore power without the repair person’s knowledge.
Kitchen machines that must be locked out before repairs or maintenance can commence include, but are not limited to, meat saws, dough mixers, meat grinders, garbage disposal systems and meat slicers.
You must be aware of the lock-out procedures that are to be followed before repairing or cleaning any machine. Lock-out procedures must be clearly posted by management near each machine.
A sample lock-out procedure notice is shown in Figure 16. As has been stated, this notice would be posted near the machine that must be locked out.
Figure 16. Lock-out procedure notice
DOUGH MIXER LOCK-OUT PROCEDURE
1. SHUT OFF MIXER AT STOP/START SWITCH.
2. SHUT OFF AT DISCONNECT BEHIND MIXER.
3. APPLY LOCK TO DISCONNECT. PUT KEY IN POCKET. DO NOT LEAVE KEY IN LOCK!
4. ATTEMPT TO START MIXER, RESET OR RETURN SWITCH TO “OFF” POSITION.
5. COMPLETE WORK ON MIXER.
6. ENSURE BOWL AND MIXER ARE CLEAR OF LOOSE PIECES, TOOLS, ETC
7. REMOVE LOCK.
8. RESTART MIXER AND RUN UP TO OPERATING SPEED.
Procedures for equipment
1. Never use any machine you have not been trained to use.
2. Pull plug or throw switch to off position before cleaning or adjusting any machine. Keep fingers, hands, spoons, etc., away from moving parts. Wait until machine stops before moving food.
3. Check all switches to see that they are off before plugging into the outlet.
4. Particular care must be taken when cleaning the slicing machine.
1. First pull the plug.
2. Turn the gauge to zero in order to cover the edge of the blade
3. Do not touch the edge of the blade
4. Clean the blade from the centre out.
5. Clean the inside edge of the blade with a stick that has a cloth wrapped around one end.
5. Do not start a mixer until the bowl is locked in place and the attachments are securely fastened.
6. When using a mixer, turn off motor before you scrape down the sides of the bowl.
7. Use a wooden or plastic plunger rather than your hands or spoons to push meat down into a meat grinder.
8. Keep your hands to the front of the revolving bowl when operating the food cutter. This is one of the most dangerous pieces of equipment in the commercial kitchen.
9. Never start a machine until you are sure all parts are in their proper places. If it is a machine that operates with gears, check the gear position.
10. You must be aware of the lock-out procedures that are to be followed before repairing or cleaning any machine. Lock-out procedures must be clearly posted by management near each machine.
11. When using electrical power equipment, always follow the manufacturer’s instructions and recommendations. Do not wear rings, a wristwatch, or a tie when operating electrical power equipment.
Procedures for sharp utensils
1. Use the right knife for the job.
2. Do not grab for falling knives. When a knife starts to fall, jump backward to get out of the way.
3. Always carry a knife with the tip pointing downward and with the cutting edge turned away from your body.
4. Never talk while holding a knife in your hand. Should you start to gesture with the knife, there could be serious consequences.
5. When cutting with any knife, always cut away from your body. This also applies to potato peelers or any implement with a cutting edge.
6. Never place a knife in hot water as it will cause cracks in the wooden handle. Never reach into soapy water in search of a knife.
7. Use a cutting board at all times. Never cut on metal.
8. Place knives in designated knife drawers. Preferably, knives should be placed in knife racks for proper storage.
9. When cleaning or wiping a knife, keep the sharp edge turned away from your body.
10. Always use a sharp knife; it is much safer than a dull one. Less pressure is required on a sharp knife, and the chances of a sharp knife slipping are much less.
11. Always cut with a back and forth sweeping motion, not with downward force.
12. Use knives for the purpose for which they are designed, not as levers or wedges or as bottle or can openers.
13. Pick up knives by the handle only.
14. Take a firm grip on a knife handle and always make sure the handle is free of grease or any other slippery substance.
15. When slicing round objects such as onions or carrots, cut a flat base so the object will sit firmly and not shift when being cut.
16. Never force a meat band saw; it may jump from the bone.
17. When using a cleaver, be sure the item to be chopped is sitting solidly. Note: Avoid chopping large, hard, or brittle bones with a cleaver as the bones may splinter and become as dangerous as flying glass.
18. When grating foods, never work the foods too close to the cutting surface.
Avoid burns
1. Use dry towels when handling hot skillets, pots, or roasting pans as wet cloth conducts heat more readily than dry cloth.
2. Avoid splashing grease on top of the range. Grease will ignite quickly, causing a fire. Do not throw water on a grease or fat fire: smother it. Use a foam extinguisher or a wet towel.
3. Remove the lids of pots slowly. Lift the side of the lid that is away from you so the steam does not rush out too quickly, causing burns to your hands or face.
4. Always give notice of “hot stuff” when moving a hot container from one place to the other.
5. Keep towels used for handling hot foods off the range. Too often, the end of the towel is dangled into or drawn across the fire.
6. Avoid overfilling hot food containers.
7. Never let the long handles of saucepans or skillets extend into aisles. If they are brushed, hit, or bumped the pot may fall off the range.
8. Never turn the handle of any pot over an open flame.
9. Place a lighted match to gas jets before turning on the gas. Ventilate gas ovens for a few minutes before lighting by leaving the oven door open so any gas pockets that might be present can escape.
10. Know the location of fire extinguishers; know how and when to operate them.When placing food in hot grease, always let the item slide away from you so the grease will not splash toward you and cause a serious burn.
Keep floors safe
1. Wet floors are dangerous. Keep them dry.
2. Pick up or wipe up any spilled item immediately, particularly water or other similar liquids.
3. When liquid or fat is spilled, have one person watch the area and warn others of the danger while another goes for a mop. Small areas may be sprinkled with salt to provide traction until the spill is cleaned up.
4. Walk. Do not run or slide across the floor.
5. Never leave utensils on the floor. Someone is sure to trip over them, and it may be you.
6. Keep all traffic areas clear of boxes, garbage cans, portable equipment, mops and brooms, etc.
7. When mopping kitchen floors, do only a small area at a time.
8. Using rubber mats behind the range is a good practice. However, mats must be kept in first-class condition by daily cleaning and by replacement when they begin to wear.
Handle glassware and china safely
1. Use care in handling glasses and dishes.
2. When carrying china and glassware from one place to another, be alert and move cautiously. Keep complete control of the load at all times.
3. Discard all glass or other china items that are chipped or cracked.
4. Keep glasses and china out of the pot sink.
5. Never place glassware in soapy water. Wash glassware in a dishwasher, using a compound recommended for glasses.
6. If you suspect there is broken glass in soapy water, drain the water, then remove the pieces carefully with a paper towel.
7. Never use glassware in forming or preparing food. For example, do not cut biscuits or ladle liquids with a glass item.
8. Do not use a glass as an ice-cream scoop. It may break in your hand.
9. Use a pan and broom to sweep up large pieces of broken glass or china. Use a dampened paper towel to pick up the slivers. Put broken glass in a special container. Do not place broken glass in wastebaskets.
Store supplies safely
1. When opening boxes, crates, etc. remove the nails. Do not bend them down.
2. Always store heavy materials on bottom shelves, medium-weight materials next, and light-weight items on top shelves.
3. Get rid of all dirt, grease, and trash promptly to reduce fire hazards and to eliminate breeding places for rats and cockroaches.
4. Be sure light bulbs are guarded. As a precaution against fire, do not store any materials within 45 cm (18 in.) of any bulb.
5. Use ladders, not boxes or chairs, to get things from high shelves. Always have three points of contact when moving up and down the ladder. Do not over reach, and never stand on the top two rungs of the ladder.
Dispose of refuse properly
1. Place food scraps in proper containers.
2. Do not allow containers to overflow. Empty them before they are completely full.
3. Do not stack full refuse containers.
4. Report broken or defective containers.
5. If wearing gloves while disposing of refuse, you should remove the soiled gloves once the job is done and, when returning to work, wash and sanitize hands properly
6. Push garbage down using a tamper or other tool. Do not push it down with your hand or foot!
Lifting practices
1. Keep your back straight, but not necessarily vertical. Have a sure grip on the object.
2. Keep the object close to your body.
3. Bend your knees before lifting.
4. Lift with your legs, not with your back.
5. Call for help to lift or move heavy pots or containers.
Housekeeping
Good housekeeping is an important part of safety and accident prevention. Many unsafe conditions can be corrected before they result in injury. Good housekeeping is a necessity for a safe and sanitary kitchen. A clean work environment leads to pride in workmanship and a safe operation.
Good housekeeping procedures include the following:
• Do not block exits.
• Change burned-out light fixtures in work areas, walkways, and exits.
• Keep floors and work areas clean, dry, and grease-free.
• Keep steps and ladders in serviceable condition.
• Keep emergency equipment clean and unobstructed.
• Ensure that all signs and caution labels are in good condition and visible.
Personal Protective Equipment
In addition to being aware of the mechanical hazards in the kitchen, it is important that you use the correct protective clothing and equipment. Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) can prevent accidents from happening. As a worker, you are responsible for the following:
• Making sure your uniform is well fitted.
• Keeping all uniforms clean and in good condition, not frayed or badly worn.
• Making sure sleeves are kept buttoned at the wrist, cuffs on overalls and trousers are be eliminated, and trouser legs are long enough to hang outside boots.
• Wearing specific personal safety equipment such as goggles, hearing protection, gloves, and aprons when required.
To ensure that you are protecting yourself, your personal protective equipment (PPE) list should include the following items.
Clothing
This includes well-fitted pants and jackets with all buttons fastened. Sleeves should be close fitting because sleeves that are loose and flowing are potential fire hazards when working over open gas burners. Health regulations require that all food handlers wear hair nets or use other approved methods for keeping hair under control. Aprons should be made of non-combustible and flame-resistant materials that do not melt under heat.
Footwear
The OHS Regulation requires that approved footwear must be worn by employees in all industrial occupations. Ensure your footwear is sturdy and provides enough back support to not cause future back problems. Footwear suitable for commercial foodservice establishments must have a non-slip sole and a closed toe and closed back.
Your footwear should be sturdy and comfortable, and if the environment you work requires steeled toes, such footwear should be worn. High leather tops on shoes are a good idea as they will protect your feet from hot grease or liquids.
Hand protection
The most common type of gloves used in food service establishments are natural rubber latex gloves, synthetic rubber gloves, and vinyl gloves. As it is impossible to distinguish between natural and synthetic rubber gloves simply by looking at them, you should read the label on the box to determine what they are made of. Some people may have an allergic reaction (known as dermatitis) or a more serious reaction known as anaphylaxis to the natural latex glove, and for this reason natural latex gloves are not recommended for use when preparing food.
Mesh gloves should be used when cleaning the meat slicer. Thick plastic, gloves should be used when handling cleaning products.
Eye protection
Eye protection in the form of safety goggles or masks should be worn whenever there is a chance of eye injury. Particles flying through the air can easily land in your eye and possibly do permanent damage. Eye protection is important, for example, when working with the band saw cutting through bone or when working with corrosive cleansers that could splash into your face.
Hearing protection
Approved hearing protection must be worn when high-level noise conditions exist. These conditions are not common in commercial kitchens but may be present in food manufacturing operations.
Respirators
Respirators should be used to protect yourself from inhaling harmful fumes or vapours such as those that often come from concentrated kitchen cleaning liquids. The respirator unit should be properly fitted to provide the best protection. Check the components to ensure they are not broken, cracked, or torn and that they do not have holes. Replace faulty components before use. Each unit will have a filter that should be checked regularly and replaced before the expiration date.
Equipment Safety
Extreme care should be taken when operating equipment. Before you attempt to operate any tool or piece of equipment, you must be fully trained by an experienced operator. Make sure that all guards are in place and function properly and that all electrical connections are properly made. You should observe the following precautions when using equipment:
• Understand the correct operating procedures and safety precautions before operating a piece of equipment.
• Ensure that all guards are in place and functioning before any machine is started.
• Report defective or unsafe equipment to a responsible individual to prevent serious injury.
• Do not distract or interfere with the equipment operator.
• Make sure that the cords to electrically powered tools are in good condition, with no frayed parts or bare wires showing and make sure that the tools are properly grounded.
• Keep edge-cutting tools properly sharpened so that they do the job well and do not have to be forced because of dull edges.
• Use tools only for their intended use and make sure the size of the tool is right for the job.
• Report to your immediate supervisor any tool or piece of equipment that is broken or does not function properly.
Ventilation systems
The environment in which you work is very important. The air around you may be filled with smoke and steam.
Kitchens have some type of ventilation equipment usually housed in the same units as the fire suppression systems. Many other types of ventilation equipment may be found in workplaces. It is important, regardless of where you are working, to become familiar with the ventilation equipment or systems and use them.
Emergency shutdown systems
Many kitchens have emergency shutdown systems or “panic buttons.” These are installed so that only one switch has to be thrown to kill the power to a large amount of equipment. These systems are to be used when a person is being electrocuted or is caught in a piece of machinery. Under these circumstances, you do not have time to hunt for and throw the correct switch. Fast action is necessary. Hit the panic button.
When you enter a kitchen for the first time, locate and learn how to use the emergency shutdown.
Guards and barriers
Guards and barriers are used as safety devices on many pieces of equipment used in a modern kitchen. Always use them to ensure you are operating the machinery in the safest way possible. Never operate a piece of equipment unless all guards and barriers are in position.
Utilities
Each time you have a new work location, check the location of the shutoffs for all of the utilities. That way you will be prepared for an emergency.
Electrical
You should make yourself aware of the location of the main panel or sub-panels being used, and you should learn how to shut them off in case of an emergency. If you must shut the power off, notify your supervisor right away. Obtain permission from the electrician before using a new service.
Electrical extension cords, if they need to be used, should be orderly and not allowed to become tangled. Such cords should be taped to the floor whenever possible as this will reduce the chance of someone tripping over them
Electrical safety
Even though you may normally deal with low voltages and current, the values are never far away from lethal levels. You can receive a shock or burn from any common electrical circuit. The severity of the electrical shock depends on four factors:
• The amount of current that passes through the body
• The path that the current takes through the body
• The frequency of the current
• The length of time that the current flows within the body.
Normal household current (plugs and light circuits) is generally limited by a circuit breaker to a value of 15 amps. This device has been designed to trip and open a circuit if the 15 amp value is exceeded. It is possible to cause fatal injury with a current flow of only 50 milliamperes (mA). One milliampere (1 mA) is one one-thousandth of an amp.
It is easy to see that the body is sensitive to relatively small values of current. In comparison, a 100 watt light bulb draws approximately 0.85 amp (850 mA) of current when connected to a 120 volt source. Remember, there are 15 amps available in each standard house circuit. Industrial circuits may have a required flow of several hundred amps. In both cases, these are dangerous amounts!
In order for you to get an electrical shock, you must become part of the electrical circuit. You have to contact a live portion of a circuit while in contact with a lower potential such as a ground. Such an arrangement will complete an electrical circuit through your body to the ground, causing current to flow.
Water supply
Find out where the water shutoff is located in your kitchen. If a pipe breaks or bursts, the water may damage material, tools, and equipment or work already done. In addition, water may create an electrical hazard if it comes in contact with electrical panels or outlets. If you must shut the water off, notify your supervisor at once.
Gas supply
Locate the gas shutoff in the kitchen. Escaping gas can cause an explosion that could injure someone or do great damage. When the valve handle is running parallel with the gas line, the supply of gas is flowing and on. By turning the valve handle 90 degrees (that is, perpendicular to the gas line), you can shut off the gas supply. If you must shut off the gas, notify your supervisor immediately. Remember, you must have the gas flowing in order to light the pilot lights on equipment.
Other services
Other services, such as telephone, cable, and Internet, do not usually present any danger to people, and there is no way you can shut them off. If the lines for these services are broken or cut and if they must be located and repaired or moved, get in touch with the company that supplies the service. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Production_Service_and_Culinary_Arts/Workplace_Safety_in_the_Foodservice_Industry/1.14%3A_Workplace_Safety_Procedures.txt |
To start, let’s think about what product development is:
• How new things show up in the grocery store or in foodservice
• The process of creating, processing, and commercializing a new food product
• The process generally takes a group of people from different disciplines working together to develop (or improve) a product.
Product Development Key Stages
• Ideation
• Formulation
• Processing
• Commercialization
At each stage, or even within the stages, there are checkpoints to decide to continue or stop the project. This can be done through a Stage and Gate System like the example shown here or it can be done in a modified system. The principle is the same, though, to develop new products strategically and use time and resources wisely.
Typically this Stage and Gate process works like a funnel. You may start with 12 to 15 ideas and then research and evaluate those ideas. Some ideas will get discarded because you will find the product concept already exists. Others will get discarded because the ingredients or processing will cost more than what consumers are willing to pay (based on products in the relevant category). Some ideas will seem great, but will be too niche and will not have a large enough target audience to be successful. Once the ideas have been narrowed down, the best 3 to 5 ideas may be moved to the Formulation stage. In this stage, the product will be made on a small scale and consumer testing will be done to confirm interest. Then products will go through the second gate to determine which products have enough consumer interest to continue. During the Processing stage, 2 to 3 products are scaled up on larger equipment. This helps determine production costs and efficiency. Food safety and quality testing also are done to determine how to produce a safe and consistent product. Shelf-life testing is conducted at the end of the Processing stage to make sure the product will remain at an acceptable and safe quality long enough for the product to made, shipped, purchased, and consumed. The third gate evaluates production, food safety, quality, and shelf life to decide which products can actually be made efficiently and consistently. The Commercialization stage includes work to get the product ready to sell on the grocery store shelves. Typically this includes the final costing, additional consumer sensory testing, and package design. The final gate makes sure that no errors or significant drawbacks have been missed before the product is launched. Through the Stage and Gate process, 12 to 15 ideas may get narrowed down to 1 or 2 products. The Stage and Gate process allows many ideas to be considered efficiently. The more viable the idea, the more time and work is needed. When an obstacle is found at a gate, no more time or resources are committed to that idea.
Each company may work through the stages of product development a bit differently depending on resources, timelines, and product types being developed. In a product development course, a product is likely developed from start to finish, so more market, consumer, and product research will need to be done during the ideation stage to catch significant drawbacks.
Ideation
Often the most difficult part of product development is coming up with the initial idea. Many food products exist in the marketplace, so coming up with a new food product that does not exist and consumers are interested in buying can be a challenge. It is best to simply jump in and start generating ideas. From there, concepts can be refined and narrowed down. Ideas can come from a variety of sources. Some ideas are for a brand-new product and some are for a line extension of an existing product. Once ideas have been generated, it is important to identify the target customer. Trends are followed closely to determine what is new and upcoming. Trends often spark ideas for new products. Trends change over time, so it is difficult to list current examples, but convenience products, comfort foods, and plant-based foods have been trending over the last few years.
Some issues with ideation include regional vs. global preferences and market size vs. target market. Flavors that are commonly known and liked in the Midwest may not sell well in other parts of the country. Consumers outside of the Midwest may not like those flavors or may simply be unfamiliar with the flavors. If your target market is a small part of a product category and the product category itself is small, there may not be a large enough market share for your product. It also can be a challenge to realize that just because you like something, many others may not. We tend to develop products we like, but sometimes you may have to develop a product for a target audience that does not include you.
Formulation
• Making the new product!
• Procure ingredients and make them into a product on a small laboratory scale
• Produce a “gold standard” of the new product
• Possible issues
• Sourcing ingredients and ingredient costs
• Product shelf life (often not tested in formulation, but needs to be considered early in the process)
• Can the product really be made on a large scale?
• Avoid Patent and Copyright infringement
Processing
• The formulated product process is “scaled up” to produce greater volumes
• Often the process is “scaled up” more than once.
• Pilot plant testing
• Plant testing
• There are always product changes with scale-up.
• Quality & Proximate Analysis testing done to set specifications, determine food safety concerns, and estimate shelf life
• Processing experiments and runs allow a more accurate product cost to be determined (include processing efficiency, rework used, etc.).
Processing Key Questions:
• What effect will the process have on the product attributes
• Sensory Attributes
• Nutritional Profile
• Product Specifications
• Shelf Life
• Overall Functionality
Commercialization
• Once the new product has been made successfully, it is sent to commercialization to launch the new product into the store for sale.
• Steps include:
• determining packaging
• creating a label (logo, nutrition facts, etc.)
• finalizing costs
• developing advertising and/or literature for the product
Commercialization Key Questions:
• How should the product be positioned for the best sales?
• What attributes do you highlight?
• Where does it go in the grocery store (should consider this throughout the development process)?
• What effect will the distribution system have on product quality?
After the launch of a new product:
• Determine if the new product was successful.
• Success can be measured by:
• Growing interest, increase in sales
• Market share
• Company sales revenue
Key Team Members
It takes many roles to develop a new food product. A product development team can be very successful with all members contributing an expertise. The challenge is communicating effectively to make sure everyone is on the same page with the status and goals of the project. Key team members include product development, engineering, production, purchasing, quality, regulatory, marketing, sales, and upper management. Their typical roles are laid out below.
Product Developers
• In charge of developing new products, especially in terms of the hands-on testing and managing the development process
• May be the Team Leader
• Duties:
• Formulate Product
• Determine Sensory Attributes
• Run Shelf Life Testing
• Know Food Safety Concerns
• Test the Process
• Consider Nutrition
• Calculate Costs (may need input from others)
Engineering and Production
• Engineers & Production Managers help determine Process Design:
• Equipment Design and Maintenance
• Process Controls
• Production Costs (line speeds, overhead cost)
• Employee Training
• Sanitation
• They may also help with Package Design
• Shelf Life
• Handling
• Cost
• Consumer Safety
• Consumer Handling
Quality
• Ensures consumer expectations are met
• Sensory and Quality attributes are tested to make sure the product meets specifications
• Food Safety
• HACCP and Preventative Controls plus Prerequisite Programs
• Microbiology Testing
• Foreign Material Testing
• Process Checks
• Incoming ingredient and packaging safety checks
Regulatory
• Makes sure the new product is legal and safe
• Coordinates a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) dossier if necessary (typically for ingredient development)
• Regulations
• Product Name
• Standard of Identity
• Nutrition Labeling
• Product Codes
Marketing & Sales
• Defines product market and positioning
• Confirms consumer need for a new product through surveys and consumer data
• Develops advertising strategy
• Monitors competitor’s sales and new product introductions
• Helps design product packaging, especially tied to attracting the target audience
• Has input on the product name
Challenges of Product Development
• Just because you think it is a good idea, does not mean everyone else does.
• Sometimes things just do not work like they are supposed to (scale-up changes product characteristics, shelf life is not long enough, low consumer acceptance, etc.)
• Ingredient sourcing and costs
• Processing and equipment limitations
• Communicating with a Multidimensional Team can be difficult because each background has their own:
• Area of Expertise
• Goals and Objectives
• Ability to understand other disciplines
• Can be overlap or gaps in functions depending on company structure
Timeline for new product development
• Quick: 3-6 months
• A line extension for an already existing product
• Example: A new flavor of a popular soda
• Average: 6 months-1 year
• A new product, but still can be made on existing equipment
• Example: A new type of cereal
• Long: 1-3 years
• A brand new product – could be hard to make or new equipment may need to be designed/purchased.
• Examples: co-extruded snacks and plant-based meat alternatives
• Developing a new ingredient often takes longer than developing a finished food product because there are more regulatory and sales hurdles involved.
Recap on the Product Development Process
• Product Development is the process of creating, processing, and commercializing a new product.
• New products need to be of interest to a target market.
• The timeline can range from 3 months to 3 years.
• Product development teams are made up of members with a variety of backgrounds.
Product Development Scope
It is important to be able to ideate openly & creatively. However, ask yourself, “Does the product already exist?” and “What are our company’s new idea limitations?”. Below are common limitations for product development courses:
• Avoid mixes, line extensions, and assembly products.
• Avoid expensive ingredients or be ready to discuss how to pay for them.
• Typically a course does not have an alcohol license.
• CBD oil is not yet legal in food items in some states.
• Processing equipment availability needs to be considered for your new product idea.
1.02: Course Timeline
Course Timeline
It is difficult to fit the whole product development process into a semester course, but the goal is to make the experience as real-world as possible while fitting in as much of the development process as possible. All components will be explained further in additional chapters. In general, though, each section of the course is described below. The semester is split fairly evenly between the three sections. It is important to hit the ground running in this course!
Formulation – 5 Weeks
During this period your team will be responsible for ideating and selecting a formula for a new food product, determining consumer expectations, producing a gold standard, and evaluating your product through consumer and instrumental testing. At the end of this section, your team will have a gold standard product that will be able to be converted into a processable formula. A Formulation Board of Directors meeting will be scheduled for the end of the Formulation section.
Processing – 5 Weeks
During this period your team will be responsible for perfecting your processable formula made with industrial ingredients. You will scale up your formula in the laboratory and under plant conditions as applicable. Your team will be involved with processing and process development, food safety analysis, and measuring quality attributes.
Commercialization – 5 Weeks (Finishing during Finals Week)
During this final period, your team will address issues including consumer acceptance and instrumental testing of your product from your scaled-up process, shelf-life testing, nutritional labeling, and final package and label design. You will present your product and final shelf-ready package to the Board of Directors at the end of this section and will also share your new product with the department. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/01%3A_Introduction/1.01%3A_Introduction_to_Food_Product_Development.txt |
Some of us are naturally creative. For others of us, it takes some work. Either way is okay as long as you are willing to work on your creative skills.
To start, let’s consider the definition of create:
• to make or produce something
• to cause something new to exist
• to produce something new by using your talents and imagination
Think about creativity in terms of looking at a problem or situation and thinking of all of the ways to solve the problem or move a situation forward. It may include thinking “outside the box” or asking questions that start in “what if” or “why not”. Use your imagination, too. Creativity is often a mix of dreaming and using logical thought to make the dream a reality.
If creativity does not come naturally to you, that is okay. Here are a couple of techniques that can help.
Mindmapping:
“Developed by Tony Buzan in 1972, mindmapping is a visual ideation technique that encourages you to draw connections between different sets of ideas or information. You’ll start by writing a keyword in the middle of the page (this could be a product category or the start of an idea). On the same piece of paper, you then surround this word with any and all ideas that come to mind (different flavors, forms, trends). Finally, you’ll think about how these ideas are connected, depicting said connections with lines and curves—resulting in a visual map.” (Stevens, 2020)[1]
SCAMPER:
SCAMPER is a checklist that helps you to think of changes you can make to an existing product or solution to create a new one. This can be done in a list or table form. Developed by Bob Eberle (1996)[2], the changes SCAMPER stands for are:
S – Substitute – components, ingredients, packaging size/materials, people (people could be the target audience).
C – Combine – mix, combine with other assemblies or food types, integrate.
A – Adapt – alter, change function or use, use part of another element.
M – Modify – increase or reduce in scale, change shape, modify attributes (e.g. color, flavor).
P – Put to another use (e.g. breakfast foods as snacks).
E – Eliminate – remove elements, simplify, reduce to the simplest component.
R – Reverse/Rearrange – turn inside out or upside down, or reverse the use of the food (soup in a sandwich, cheese inside a pretzel, etc.).
Start with a product category or specific product and then work through the SCAMPER list to see what possible products emerge. This method may be more effective for line extensions (think Starburst jelly beans or Reese’s peanut butter cups in holiday shapes), but it can also help with brand new product ideas. Almost all new food products come from a food/flavor/format that consumers already know and buy (otherwise it is hard to explain what the new product is). Examples of using SCAMPER are available online.
1. Stevens, E. (2020). What Is Ideation In Design Thinking? A Guide To The Most Important Ideation Techniques. CareerFoundry. Retrieved June 6, 2021 from https://careerfoundry.com/en/blog/ux-design/what-is-ideation-in-design-thinking/
2. Erberle, B. (1996). Scamper: Games for Imagination Development. Prufrock Press Inc.
2.02: Resourcefulness
We do not spend enough time discussing resourcefulness, but we would argue that resourcefulness is one of the most important skills you can possess and use in this course and moving forward in your career. It is okay if you do not remember everything you ever learned; it is more important you can find and understand the information you need to successfully move a project forward.
Merriam-Webster defines resourcefulness as “able to meet situations, capable of devising ways and means.”
We would take that definition a step further and define resourcefulness as the ability to use instructions, examples, and given resources, plus search additional references as needed, to determine how to proceed with a project and solve problems that arise. This lab manual and additional references will allow you and your team to work through the product development process predominately independently. Faculty will be available to answer questions specific to your team’s product and project, but will not answer questions that can easily be found in provided references. The goal is to optimize time management, increase efficiency, and give you the power and ability to develop a new food product as a team. There are many different ways to be resourceful, but using this skill typically begins by asking yourself “How could I figure this out?” or “Where could I find a reference with that information?” | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/02%3A_Required_Skills/2.01%3A_Creativity.txt |
Course Policies and Best Practices
For Written Communication:
1. It is the student’s responsibility to submit assignments on time—points will be deducted from late assignments unless the student has communicated with faculty before the deadline.
2. Weekly reports and strategic objective reports should be written in complete sentences that are grammatically correct and free of spelling and typographical errors. You are expected to write clear and concise statements that express logical thinking and demonstrate professional quality and effort. If there are errors in your writing, it is easy to assume there are errors in your food science work, even if that is not the case.
3. Formatting of reports needs to be considered. Use headers and titles to make the components of the report easy to find and read. You are highly encouraged to follow the layout and order of report components given in the instructions.
4. Team reports should be edited for consistency among writers, at least enough that it is not obvious when a new writer starts. Make sure to use consistent terminology and have a team consensus on the results of the project.
5. Figure out what works best for you to produce professional written communication.
Some recommended practices include:
• Outline the main points before starting to write. Make sure you know what you want to say and figure out a logical order to make your points.
• Start by proofreading once.
• Pay attention to underlined words when using Microsoft products.
• Use Grammarly. The general version is free and the upgraded version is often provided for university students. Grammarly will keep you from making mistakes like the one shown below.
• Read your writing out loud. This will help you catch awkward sentences or phrases.
• Proofread at least one more time after reading your work out loud.
• Have someone else you trust read your work and make comments.
For Presentations and Verbal Communication:
2. For Presentation Slides:
• Organize your material and determine the best way to format and lay out the content.
• In general, keep the information you want to share as simple and straightforward as you can.
• Limit bullet points and text on slides, then make the text larger to fill the space.
• Avoid too many transitions and busy backgrounds.
• Use high-quality images.
• Make graphs and tables easy to read.
• Be careful not to crowd a slide with too many graphs or tables.
• Make your font on graphs and in tables large and easy to read. Faculty typically enlarge the font upon review.
• Right-align numbers in tables.
• Use a consistent number of digits after the decimal place per column.
• Make sure the sum of the numbers is double-checked and correctly displayed.
• For formulation tables, use “Batch Weight (in grams)” and “Percent by Weight” as column headers.
• Ingredient Statements need to include the ingredients within ingredients.
• Be careful about making health or nutrient content claims (make sure you have read all of the regulations).
• Proofread. Everyone in your team should proofread the presentation slides.
• Convert to PowerPoint if you start in Slides (be careful of formatting changes).
• Email your presentation to faculty for review, typically 1-3 days before the Board of Directors meeting.
3. For the Verbal Presentation:
• As a team, decide who will cover which part(s) of the presentation.
• Work on your part, deciding what to say and how to say it.
• Remember transitions, or how to get from one topic to the next.
• Practice the presentation alone and as a team. Does it flow? Is your timing in line with recommendations?
• Polish is often in the details. Determine who will pass out the food samples, who will introduce the team, and who is most comfortable answering what type of questions at the end.
• The use of notecards is not allowed for the Board of Directors’ presentations.
• Business casual dress is also required for presentations (specifically no jeans allowed).
4. For Verbal Communication in General:
• Most verbal communication is not actually the words we say, but how we say those words.
• It is far better to over-communicate than to under-communicate, so when in doubt, speak up, send an extra text or email, and make sure your team members are on the same page.
• We all communicate differently. Ask for clarification if you are unsure what someone else means.
2.04: Teamwork
You are asked to work in teams often, so you are used to the idea. However, it is worth taking a step back and thinking about how best to work in a team.
To start, answer the following questions:
What is the best team you have been a part of and why?
• Was there a synergy?
• Comradery?
• A clear plan?
• Was everyone engaged?
Think about how you can be a good team member. This can be in general and also based on your strengths. Communicating, active listening, resolving conflict, setting and meeting expectations, motivating others, staying organized and on task, and working with your team to reach a consensus are all beneficial attributes to bring to a team. Discuss best practices and expectations together as a team before you start your project. Being a good team member is not just about your intentions; it is also how you are perceived. Peer evaluations will be used to provide feedback and improve teamwork.
Babe Ruth said it well, “The way a team plays as a whole determines its success. You may have the greatest bunch of individual stars in the world, but if they don’t play together, the club won’t be worth a dime.”
Building an Effective Team
Check out the team-building pyramid below adapted from Grow (2011)[1]. In order to build an effective and strong team, it is important to start from the bottom with vision, expectations, and then connectivity. Once a foundation has been laid, trust can be built and problem-solving can start. Too often teams start at the top. It is difficult to effectively communicate and make decisions if team members are not on the same page in terms of vision and expectations and have not built trust with each other.
Balancing the Team and Tasks
Forming and maintaining an effective and successful team takes work. One of the challenges is how to allocate time and resources to balance getting things done and keeping the team cohesive and working well together. Below is an illustration of this challenge from Grow (2011) [2]. It is a good idea to keep this balance in mind throughout the project. At times the scale may tip one way or the other, but it is important to keep both the project and team in mind as decisions are made.
1. Grow, S. (2011). Foundations II Training. In. Indianapolis, IN: HR Dimensions.
2. Grow, S. (2011). Foundations II Training. In. Indianapolis, IN: HR Dimensions. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/02%3A_Required_Skills/2.03%3A_Communication.txt |
Attention to Detail
Whether a project succeeds or fails is often in the details. Make sure to slow down and pay attention to the little things, plus record detailed observations in the lab notebook. Small changes in ingredients or processing steps can change the final product. If you think there may be a small problem with your project, make sure to discuss it. Small problems have a tendency to turn into larger problems down the line.
Product Development Lab Notebook Expectations
It is important to keep an accurate and legal lab notebook during the product development process. The format to follow is listed below.
• Enter the project name in the front of the notebook.
• List the names of your team members and record your full signatures and initials.
• Allow room for a Table of Contents (usually 2-3 pages). Table of Contents should include each lab date, description of the entry, and corresponding page numbers. The entry needs to be detailed enough to know what was done in the lab that day. For instance, “Formulation Day 5” is not descriptive enough, but “Ran Drum Dryer to Produce Dried Sweet Potato” is descriptive enough.
• Enter each day in chronological order – do not leave spaces or blanks to be filled in later.
• As your project progresses, record a complete, factual account.
• Organization each day should include the date including the year, objectives, materials and methods, results and conclusions, and plans for the next class period.
• The project notebook is provided for the course.
• One notebook per team – your team is responsible for the notebook.
• Treat the notebook as a legal document.
• Information in the notebook should be considered confidential at the corporate level.
• Only team members should write in the notebooks.
• Notebooks should be bound or electronic.
• Use black or blue permanent ink only.
• Enter data immediately and not on scraps of paper or paper towels to be copied later.
• Keep your writing legible, accurate, neat, and clean.
• Never erase, scratch out, or scribble over an error.
• ONLY single lined-out errors with initials and corrections next to the lined-out errors are acceptable.
• Record your formula and procedures in detail.
• Include everything in sufficient detail for another person to duplicate your work.
• At the end of each research period, line out blank spaces, have all team members sign, and have your supervisor sign and date.
• Any innovative idea should be documented by the inventor.
• Complete notebooks should never be underestimated – and should be treated as an integral part of the job.
2.06: Lab Policies (Lab Modified Good Manufacturing Practices)
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
Lab procedures have been modeled after typical plant GMPs. We will work under GMPs at all times. Do not be surprised by unannounced inspections. You will lose points for GMP violations. Products made not following GMPs will be tagged and possibly discarded.
Good Manufacturing Practices will include, but not limited to, the following:
• Use good judgment when ill or not feeling well…contact the faculty if you are unwell.
• Clean lab coats or chef coats are required.
• You must wear fully enclosed shoes while in the laboratory.
• Hairnets are required and will be provided. Please reuse.
• No chewing gum or chewing tobacco allowed in the lab.
• No outside food or drink may enter the lab stations.
• No loose-fitting jewelry or watches.
• No fingernail polish or fake nails are allowed unless covered with gloves.
• Wash hands with soap and hot water before starting work and as necessary during work.
• Clean and sanitize work surfaces before and after use.
• Use an acceptable cutting board when using knives.
• Be aware of proper food handling temperatures (cooling and heating). Thermometers will be provided.
• Do not allow food to sit at room temperature for more than 2 hours.
• Use a serving spoon for serving and a sampling spoon for tasting.
• If food contacts the floor, it is no longer food grade and must be disposed.
• Food must be covered if removed from the food lab.
• Clean your work area after you are finished for the day.
• Wash and dry all equipment, dishes, and utensils before returning each to the correct storage space.
• Place all trash in proper receptacles.
• Make sure your sink, range top, and work area are clean before you leave.
• Hang wet towels on the drying rack before you leave.
• If you use a laptop with a power cord, make sure the cord is taped down as necessary to avoid a tripping hazard.
• Your area will be checked by a faculty member before you leave. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/02%3A_Required_Skills/2.05%3A_Attention_to_Details_and_Notetaking_with_Lab_Notebook_Expectations.txt |
It can be difficult to come up with a great new product idea right away. It is easier to work through a few steps, thinking about what is new and of interest to consumers throughout the process.
Current Food Trends
To get started coming up with a new product concept, it is important to understand current trends and the target markets for those trends. Search for and read through various trend materials. You are encouraged to do your own searching. Take notes on what trends are new flavors, new combinations of existing products (think Starburst jelly beans), new ingredients, and completely new products. This will be a good start in the brainstorming process.
Trend Resources – the following publications, professional organizations, and companies typically publish trend articles each year:
• Food and Wine
• Prepared Foods
• Institute of Food Technologists
• National Restaurant Association
• Kerry Consumer Insights
• US Foods
Ideation
It can be difficult to come up with the best new food product idea in a short amount of time, especially while in a new team. Great ideas take time. Starting to think about new ideas ahead of time will make deciding on a new food product concept easier.
Spend some time thinking about the trends you researched, the food you know and are interested in, and the food products you would like to buy in the grocery store but are currently unavailable. Then give ideation a try and come up with at least two new food concepts. You will not be tied to these ideas and you can continue to think about new ideas, but this will give you a couple of places to start.
Here are some recommendations to maximize the ideation process once you meet with your team.
1. Come prepared. Research as many trends as you can, bring notes, and spend time thinking of new product ideas in detail.
2. Be open to all ideas. Everyone in the team needs to feel safe to share their ideas. Plus, sharing ideas can lead to additional ideas!
3. If you get stuck with either your ideation or the team’s ideation, use the MindMapping and/or SCAMPER methods shared in the Creativity Chapter.
3.02: Ideation Worksheet - Complete Before the 1st Day of Class
Complete and bring to the first day of class.
Name:
Food Allergies/Intolerances:
Favorite 3 foods/beverages:
Favorite 2-3 foods/beverages you like making at home, describe as necessary:
One new food/beverage you have tried recently – describe it, where did you have it, would you have it again?
At least one food or beverage you wish was available in the grocery store now:
List four or five trends, why you find each trend interesting, and the source of each trend (a link is fine):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Describe 2 new product ideas in detail.
New Product Idea #1.
New Product Idea #2.
3.03: New Product Concept Market and Grocery Store Research
Once you have a new product concept or two, dig into the market and grocery store research further. Some trend articles include market research such as how big a market is in terms of sales or who is the target audience of a trend. Use all of the information that is available. Do additional research as needed to answer the questions on the Market and Grocery Research worksheet.
It can be difficult to think about all aspects of market research, so it is helpful to break it down into segments. As research is done, the goal is to hone in and improve your new product concept.
Here are components to consider:
• How big is the market segment most closely related to your new product concept?
• Sometimes multiple market segments need to be considered if a new product concept could fit into multiple categories.
• Find any and all data available in terms of market size, growth, saturation, and trends.
• It is likely not possible to find all of this information, but the more information gathered, the better of a case you can build for the new product.
• Or you may need to modify your new product concept if a relevant market segment is saturated with little room for growth.
• How does your new product concept compete with similar current products?
• You will not have all of the product details at this point, but should be able to come up with advantages for your new product over competitor products.
• Why would a consumer buy your product over other similar products? If there is not a good answer to this question, it will be important to rethink your new product concept.
• Who is your target audience and why?
• Very few products are marketed to everyone. It is important to know your target audience. This will help you to determine what attributes of your product are most important (nutrient content, flavor, price, convenience, etc.).
• Not sure who your target audience is? Go back to trend articles. Typically one to two consumer groups are driving each trend.
• The target audience will also shape the sales of your product. Are you developing a niche product for a small target audience? If so, more profit per unit may be necessary.
• If you are developing a product to a large target audience (such as all moms or all millennials) then your marketing and product characteristics are going to need to appeal to the larger audience. This may look like more recognizable flavors or ingredients.
• Where will your product be found in the grocery store?
• Does that location make sense if consumers are trying to find your product?
• How easy or difficult will it be for your new product to stand out in that part of the grocery store?
• Does the location match your product characteristics? You may want to put a coffee beverage in the coffee aisle, but your product may be more convenient to consume (or have an improved shelf life) if it is sold in the refrigerated section.
What this really boils down to is, “Will your new product sell, and will the company make a profit?”. Questions that are typically asked are: is there room for this new product in the market, is there an audience who will buy your product over other products, and can the consumer find your product in the grocery store to buy it?
Not sure how to answer these questions? Here are some references that will help.
Market Segment Information
Typically an internet search is a good place to start. Look for food business articles that include market data. It may take a bit of time to find what you are looking for, but it is worth being diligent.
Grocery Store Sales
To start:
• Think about the number of players or brands in a segment
• Consider how much of the segment is made up of private label products
• For example, private label is a large component of cereal, not in candy (candy is heavily branded)
• Some segments have multiple private label brands/quality levels (think Target’s multiple private labels as an example)
• There are better margins on private labels – no money is spent on advertising – the private label segment is growing currently
To help in determining sales volumes and segment size, the below reference was created by experts in the grocery sales field in 2020. Use these indicators to evaluate the potential for a new food product.
Grocery Store Relative Sales Information by Segment
Scale of 1-5 used with 1 = Low to 5 = High
Market Segment/Product Category Size of Segment/ Sales Volume Average Mark-Up Including Promotion Product Turnover
Cereal 5 3 5
Chip/Snack 5 3 5
Cookie/Crackers 3 3 3
Granola Bars/Mixes 3 3 2
Candy 4 3 3
Prepackaged Baked Goods 1 3 2
RTE Desserts/Puddings 2 3 1
Bakery Dry Mix 3 3 4
Fruit Snacks 1 3 2
Peanut Butter & Jelly 3 3 3
Salsas/Pickles/Dips 3 4 2
Sauces/Dressings/Condiments 4 3 2
Soups – Canned & Dry Mix 3 2 4
Pasta, Boxed Dinners 3 4 3
Refrigerated Sides & Salads 3 3 3
Frozen Appetizers & Entrees 4 4 3
Frozen Breakfast 2 3 2
Yogurt 4 3 5
Ice Cream 5 2 5
Processed Meats/Deli Meats 4 3 5
Fresh Meats 5 2 5
Poultry 3 3 4
Fish 2 3 3
Tea/Coffee 5 3 4
Soda 5 Not able to provide 5
Juice 3 3 3
Waters 5 3 5
International Cuisine 2 4 1
Gluten-Free Prepared Foods 1 3 1
Grocery Store Layout
All grocery stores are laid out a little differently, but it is good to think about general layouts of grocery stores and where your new product would fit in the store.
Think about how items are placed in the grocery store. What does the grocer want the customer to do while in the store? It is greatly encouraged to visit local grocery stores. Often the in-person research will be more valuable than online research. If possible, visit 2 to 3 grocery stores or stores with a large grocery section. Typically, visiting at least one mainstream/large grocery store and one specialty grocery store is recommended to provide multiple perspectives and show the breadth of products and categories.
Compile and evaluate all of the market and grocery store research on the corresponding worksheet. Spend time considering what all of the research means for your new product concept. Make sure your new product is a good idea. Modify or change your idea if the market and grocery store research is not favorable. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.01%3A_Ideation_-_Coming_Up_with_a_New_Product_Concept.txt |
New Product Concept Information
1. Please provide a brief description of your new product concept or concepts. Try to limit your team’s plans to not more than two ideas. The faster you decide on a single new product concept, the quicker you can get started with formulation. If you do want to pursue two ideas, you will need to provide market research on both.
2. What unique ingredients will you need, if any?
3. Will any of the ingredients be cost-prohibitive?
4. What unique equipment will you need for processing?
5. Any allergens of concern?
6. Any nutritional compositional concerns (fat, cholesterol, sodium, sugar, etc.)?
7. How will your new product concept fit with current trends? Does your new product concept fit a gap in the market? Please explain how your idea will be defendable based on consumer selling points.
8. What have you found in market research in terms of market size, sales, and growth?
9. Who is your target audience and why (be specific)?
10. What are your direct competitors?
11. What are your indirect competitors?
12. Before you conduct grocery store research, where do you think your new product be found in the grocery store (what aisle, with what products)?
Grocery Store & Internet Research
Once the new product has been discussed with faculty, make a trip to one or two grocery stores to conduct research. In-person research is the best when possible. Online research is also valuable, especially in terms of finding regional products.
13. First, look in the grocery store location you envision your new product being sold and fill out the table below with the products you find. Be specific – include brands, flavors, sizes of containers, and prices. Taking photos of products can be very helpful.
Grocery Store: Location in Store:
Brand Flavor Description Size Price Additional Information
Grocery Store: Location in Store:
Brand Flavor Description Size Price Additional Information
Grocery Store: Location in Store:
Brand Flavor Description Size Price Additional Information
Internet Site: Location in Store:
Brand Flavor Description Size Price Additional Information
Internet Site: Location in Store:
Brand Flavor Description Size Price Additional Information
14. Next look in other grocery store areas you think similar products could be found. Add a new location to the table and describe products you find in other pertinent parts of the grocery store.
15. Search the internet for similar products and add them to the table above. Then answer the following questions.
16. Did you find your product concept or something similar? If so, describe it and include the location.
17. After looking at various grocery store locations, does your product placement still make sense? If not, where would the new product placement be? Explain your answer.
18. Does the product category appear small, crowded, or somewhere in between? Justify your answer.
19. Does the product category appear inexpensive, varied, or premium? Explain your answer.
20. What else did you learn while conducting research in the grocery store and on the internet?
21. How does what you learned from the grocery store research modify your new product concept? Explain your answer in detail.
3.05: Consumer Concept Testing of the Gold Standard
After you have come up with what you think is the best new food product concept, it is valuable to gather consumer data to confirm the brilliance of your idea and provide feedback to hone in your new product concept. Check out this chapter to learn how to write your own consumer concept test.
Background
Numerous sensory tests are used in the development of new food products. These include Consumer Concept Tests, Attribute Tests (JAR Tests), Simple Difference Tests, and Home-Use Tests (HUT). Consumer Concept Tests gather information on consumer attitudes, likes and dislikes, trends, and consumer reactions to your proposed new product idea. Essentially, it is a way to find out if consumers like your new product concept plus get feedback on concept details.
Objectives
• Survey consumers to gain information to justify your new product idea.
• Gain additional information on product type (for example, fresh vs frozen), flavor and texture profiles, package size, overall product acceptability, and any other product attributes.
Advantages
• Justifies potential product interest before a large investment in development
• Pinpoints specific product attributes of interest
• Cost-effective to screen numerous product ideas and concepts to eliminate outliers
• Will allow for preliminary data on potential marketing and advertising strategies
Disadvantages
• Very new and innovative ideas may be difficult to explain without a product prototype.
• May lose (some) confidentially of company long-term objectives
• Consumers may not be completely honest with their responses.
• General consumers may not be your target market.
Methodology
• It is difficult to pinpoint an exact number of consumers surveyed for a typical Concept Test. As a general course guideline, 100 consumers within your target market would be acceptable.
• You may include demographic questions within your survey. Common questions include age, gender, and frequency of product usage. However, a “prefer not to reply” option should be included with every demographic question.
• Course standards do not allow for participants under the age of 18.
• Surveys must contain company information, contact information, and instructions for survey return.
• Open-ended questions are allowed, but hard to analyze.
• Product attribute questions regarding color, flavor, or texture are encouraged. For example, when asking about a fruit flavor, it may be better to provide a list of flavors and ask consumers to rank instead of an open-ended question about what flavor they prefer.
• Questions concerning product type (e.g. fresh/frozen/vending machine/foodservice), package size (e.g. single-serve/family size/bulk pack), and product placement in a retail grocery store can be included.
• This is your chance to ask for feedback on anything you want to know about your product idea.
• After being approved by faculty, consumer concept tests are typically formatted in Google Forms or SurveyMonkey and are distributed through social media and/or emails. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.04%3A_New_Product_Concept_Market_and_Grocery_Store_Research_Worksheet.txt |
It can be daunting to figure out where to start when taking a new product concept and making it a reality. Your team will need to be smart and use educated reasoning to maximize limited time and resources. This chapter will walk you through the process and help get you started.
Making a Food Concept into a New Food Product – Start with a Plan
• Once a new product concept is decided upon, your team will need a formulation starting point.
• Finding existing formulations and recipes and then modifying and combining them as needed is often the easiest way to start.
• Look up usage levels for ingredients, especially if specialty or industrial ingredients are needed (gums, modified starches, etc.).
• Study the existing recipes, formulations, and processing instructions and look for similarities and differences. Think through ingredient functionality and purpose of processing steps to choose the best starting place(s).
Make 2-3 Starting Formulations
• Convert volume measurements to weights and calculate percent by weight right away. Converting volume measurements to weights can be done by carefully weighing out volumetric measurements of ingredients or by looking at reputable references such as the USDA FoodData Central.
• Weights -> Percents: Ingredient Weight/Total Weight = % by Weight
• For Baker’s Weight: % by weight of an ingredient/% of flour weight(s) in formula
• Converting to weights makes it easier to track variable changes.
• It also allows additional calculations, especially if targeting a specific nutrient content amount.
• Plus faculty cannot answer ingredient usage questions without the formulation percents.
• Take notes and record observations while making the formulation and evaluate the finished product in detail.
• Determine which formulation and process worked the best and why.
Decide what changes need to be made to reach the optimum gold standard food product.
• Based on the characteristics of the best iteration and the changes that need to be made, make a list of the most effective variables to test.
• There is not enough time or resources to test each variable, so it is important to think through the system and use educated reasoning to narrow down variables to test.
• Keep cost in mind. If you are using an expensive ingredient, could you use a less expensive ingredient and get almost the same functionality and product quality? It is recommended to make the smallest batch size that works on equipment and is needed for sensory evaluation.
• Once variables are chosen, start testing one variable at a time. It is important to only change one ingredient type, ingredient amount, or processing step at a time to track and understand the results of each experiment.
Adjusting and Tracking Variables
• When adding a new ingredient, research usage levels. Depending on the application, it is often most efficient to test the high usage level first. This is the best way to see and evaluate the functionality of the ingredient. Then the level can be reduced as needed.
• Addition vs. Substitution: When adjusting a formulation, it can either be done by addition or by substitution.
• Addition is taking the existing amounts of ingredients and simply adding another ingredient. This method dilutes or reduces the percentages of other ingredients. It makes the most sense if the ingredient function is different than other ingredients already in the formula.
• Substitution takes out all or part of one or more ingredients and replaces that amount with another ingredient. This keeps the amounts and percentages of the other ingredients the same, but it replaces one ingredient functionality with another ingredient functionality. Substitution makes the most sense if the new ingredient has a similar function to another ingredient already in the formula.
• It can be difficult to decide on addition versus substitution. Think through the formulation and the variable you want to test and then evaluate both options to determine which makes the most sense.
• Track the formulation and processing changes and your detailed observations and results in the lab notebook. Also, use an Excel file to track the formulations. The Excel file tracking will allow easy variable tracking and will save time calculating percentages.
A Formulation Example – Adding Fiber to Pancakes
First, review the formula and think about the function of each of the ingredients. Sometimes functions can be confusing. If this is the case, consider how the pancake would turn out without the ingredient added.
Table 1. Pancake Formulation with Ingredient Functionality
Pancake Ingredients Percent by Weight Ingredient Function
All-purpose Flour
30.8
Gluten Structure (Minimal), Starch Gelatinization
Baking Powder 2.5 Leavening
Sugar 2.1 Sweetness, Tenderizing (Minimal), Maillard Browning
Salt 1.0 Taste
Milk, 2% 52.7 Hydrate Dry Ingredients, Flavor
Egg 8.5 Hydrate Dry Ingredients, Structure, Maillard Browning
Oil 2.4 Tenderizing, Flavor (Minimal)
Total
100.0
Now compare addition and substitution methods of adding fiber to the formula. The goal in this scenario is to add fiber to the recipe to get an excellent source of fiber per serving: (5.6 grams / 110 gram serving). Note that for simplicity we are assuming the fiber ingredient is 100% fiber. This is not normally the case but works best here to illustrate differences.
Table 2. Pancake Formulation with Fiber Ingredient Added
Option 1 – Addition (makes sense if the ingredient function is different than other ingredients already in the formula) Option 2 – Substitution from similar ingredient(s) (makes sense if the ingredient is similar to another ingredient already in the formula)
Pancake Ingredients Weight (in grams) Percent by Weight Weight (in grams) Percent by Weight
All-purpose flour 180.0 29.2 149.2 25.5
Fiber Ingredient 31.4 5.1 29.8 5.1
Baking Powder 14.4 2.3 14.4 2.5
Sugar 12.0 1.9 12.0 2.1
Salt 6.0 1.0 6.0 1.0
Milk, 2% 309.0 50.1 309.0 52.8
Egg 50.0 8.1 50.0 8.6
Oil 14.0 2.3 14.0 2.4
Total
616.8 100.0 584.4 100.0
In this scenario, deciding between addition and substitution will likely center around the fiber ingredient characteristics. If it is a fiber ingredient like wheat bran or oat bran, the fiber ingredient will function similarly enough to flour for substitution to make the most sense. If the fiber is soluble with low viscosity like inulin or resistant maltodextrin, the fiber ingredient does not have similar functionality to the ingredients listed and addition may make more sense.
Material Balance
• Track the material in the system. This tracking will provide context for ingredient functionality and is necessary for generating the nutrition facts panel.
• Measure and record data throughout the formulation testing, NOT just once the gold standard is reached.
• Measurements include processing loss, moisture loss or gain, and fat loss or gain and will depend on the formulation. The most common material balance measurement is moisture loss through cooking, baking, or dehydrating. It can be as simple as measuring the weight of the product before and after the processing step to calculate water loss.
• See the brownie moisture loss example below. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.06%3A_Formulation_Design_-_How_to_Set_Up_Experiments_and_Track_Variables.txt |
Tracking Moisture Content
After working through the material balance example in the previous chapter, you may be wondering why we care about tracking moisture through a process. There are a few reasons why, although tedious, tracking moisture is important.
• It helps us understand what is happening through the process, especially when comparing one experiment to the next.
• For instance, if the first experiment included raw fruit and the second experiment included frozen fruit puree, how did the initial water content of the fruit (and possibly the particle size) affect the final water content and consistency of the product?
• If the first experiment included a step to cook a filling on top of the stove for 5 minutes and the second experiment modified that step to cook a filling for 15 minutes, how much water was cooked off in both and how did that affect the finished product texture, color, and flavor?
• Tracking moisture content helps convert liquid ingredients to dry ingredients – like fluid milk to nonfat dry milk or liquid egg to egg powder.
• Lastly, and very important for this course, it allows an accurate Nutrition Facts Panel to be generated in Genesis. The Nutrition Facts Panel serving size is based on the finished product weight.
• If moisture is lost through cooking or baking, the calories and nutrients are concentrated in the final product.
• If water is added through processing, it dilutes the calories and nutrients.
• Lastly, tracking moisture through an experiment makes sure you are paying attention to details and observing what is happening during the formulation experimentation process.
Here is an example of tracking the moisture content of ingredients in order to convert from liquid ingredients to dry ingredients. Whenever you are doing formula calculations, it is very important to think through what you know and what you are trying to find. You may need to write it out or draw a picture to help yourself. Then use logic and stop and ask yourself “does that make sense” along the way. For this example, you may want to open your own Excel file and/or write out the calculations to think through the steps. Your layout may look a bit different than what is shown in Tables 1 and 2 and that is okay. Take it slow and make sure you understand each step along the way.
Omelet Formulation Calculation Example – Tracking Moisture and Converting to Dry Ingredients
What you know (or can find out):
• The current formula using liquid ingredients
• The water content (and solids content) of those liquid ingredients
What you want (need) to know:
• Weight of dry ingredients plus the weight of water needed to replace the liquid ingredients
Logic and checkpoints – If you take the water out of the ingredient, you will need less of the dry ingredient.
There are a few ways to calculate a conversion from wet or fully-hydrated ingredients to dry ingredients. Here is an example of converting an omelet formula with fresh/wet ingredients to dry ingredients plus water.
Table 1. Omelet Formulation Made with Fresh Ingredients
Fresh Ingredients Formulation
Ingredients Batch in grams % by Weight Water Content % Water Content in grams Dry Weight in grams
Egg
150.0
60.0
75.8
113.7
36.3
Cheddar Cheese
50.0
20.0
41.1
20.5
29.5
Skim Milk
50.0
20.0
89.0
44.5
5.5
Total 250.0
100.0
n/a
178.7
n/a
Table 2. Omelet Made with Dry Ingredients
Converting to Dry Ingredients
Ingredients Batch in grams % by Weight Water Content % Water Content in grams Dry Weight %
Dried whole egg powder
40.3
16.1
10 4.0 90
Dried shredded cheese
31.0
12.4
5 1.6 95
Nonfat dry milk
6.1
2.4
10 0.6 90
Water 172.5
69.0
100 0
Total 250.0
100.0
n/a
6.2
n/a
Steps for Calculating the Conversion:
1. Fill out the batch weights and % by weight for your current formula.
2. Water or moisture content of each food can be found in the USDA food database, calculated from an ingredient Nutrition Facts Panel, or from an ingredient specification sheet. (If water is not listed, take the total grams & subtract fat, protein, & carbohydrates to find the water content in grams.)
3. Water content in grams = batch weight x water content %
4. Dry weight in grams = batch weight in grams – water content in grams
5. Convert to dry ingredients or to ingredients with a lower moisture content.
6. List new ingredients & find water content percent for each new ingredient.
7. Find the Dry Weight % for each ingredient = 100% – Water Content %
8. To find the new batch weights in grams, take the dry weight in grams of the original formula & divide by the dry weight % of the new formula.
9. Then find the water content in grams by multiplying the batch weight in grams by the water content %.
10. Find the sum of the water contents in grams. Then subtract the total from the water content in grams from the original formula.
178.7 grams total water minus 6.2 grams water from dry ingredients equals 172.5 grams water
11. Take the difference in water content and add that amount in grams of water to the new formula*.
12. Finish filling out the new formula % by weight and check your work.
*If the original formula contains more or less water than desired, it is okay to adjust the water level and overall moisture content.
Tracking Fat Content
Not all food products will need to track fat content changes, but it is still helpful to understand the process. The main application is for frying food. The other instance where tracking fat content is important is if meat is cooked and fat is rendered from the meat (think frying bacon or cooking ground beef or pork and skimming fat from the cooked meat). The importance of tracking fat changes is similar to that of tracking moisture changes. It explains what is happening through the processing steps and is also important for generating an accurate Nutrition Facts Panel in Genesis.
The example given here is for frying french fries. The difficult thing about tracking fat content through frying is that moisture is lost at the same time fat or oil is picked up.
The same guidelines apply here.
Whenever you are doing formula calculations, it is very important to think through what you know and what you are trying to find. You may need to write it out or draw a picture to help yourself. Then use logic and stop and ask yourself “does that make sense” along the way. For this example, you may want to open your own Excel file and/or write out the calculations to think through the steps. Your layout may look a bit different than what is shown and that is okay. Take it slow and make sure you understand each step along the way.
What We Know or Can Reason:
• If the weight of a food is the same before and after frying, the weight of moisture lost equals the weight of the oil gained.
• If the weight of the food is less after frying, more moisture is lost than oil is picked up.
• If the weight of the food is greater after frying, more oil is picked up than moisture is lost (this is less likely).
Table 3. Frying Worksheet
Data Needed Percent by Weight Weight in Grams
Moisture Content Before Frying – This can be determined by moisture content in the formula (calculated in an Excel file or on Genesis) and/or by measuring moisture content on the moisture balance.
Moisture Content After Frying – This can be determined by measuring moisture content on the moisture balance and/or it can be calculated by fat content pickup weight lost through frying.
Moisture Lost During Frying – Calculated by subtracting the moisture content after frying from the moisture content before frying
Weight Before Frying (for the whole batch) – This can be determined by measuring the weights of a set amount of pieces or the whole batch. If the whole batch is used, account for processing loss (batter lost in the bowl, etc.).
Weight After Frying (for the whole batch) – Again, this can be determined by measuring the weights of a set amount of pieces or the whole batch. If the whole batch is used, account for processing loss (batter lost in the bowl, etc.). Make sure the product has cooled before weighing.
Weight Difference from Frying** (for the whole batch) Calculated by subtracting the weight after frying from the weight before frying
Oil Pick Up = Moisture Lost During Frying – Weight Difference from Frying
Table 4. French Fry Example Using a 200-Gram Batch
Data Needed Percent by Weight Weight in Grams
Moisture Content Before Frying – USDA Food Database 83.29% 166.6
Moisture Content After Frying (measured by moisture balance) 66.67% 133.3
Moisture Lost During Frying 16.63% 33.3
Weight Before Frying (able to measure the whole batch for this example) 100.00% 200.0
Weight After Frying (able to measure the whole batch for this example) 91.70% 183.4
Weight Difference from Frying** 8.30% 16.6
Oil Pick Up = Moisture Lost During Frying – Weight Difference from Frying 8.33% 16.7
Your product may not calculate perfectly like the example above. Determining the values in multiple ways is a great way to verify the results. Weighing the frying pot and oil in the pot at the beginning and end of frying (after the oil is cooled) is a good way to measure oil pick-up for an entire batch.
**If you measure the weight of part of the batch being fried, use the percent difference X the batch weight to get your total moisture loss in grams. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.07%3A_Formulation_Calculations_-_Tracking_Moisture_and_Fat_Content.txt |
Along with tracking ingredient levels and changes through testing, it is equally important to think about the order of ingredient addition and the function of each processing step.
Formulation Steps – Where to Start
Think through the processing steps to make a food. What is the function of each step? Does the order of the steps matter? To help answer these questions, think about what would happen if all of the ingredients were mixed together in one step. Need terminology to help describe the process? Check out the Common Processing Steps table below.
Table 1. Common Processing Steps
Processing Method Definition Example(s)
Baked Products:
Creaming Mixing fat and sugar together vigorously to create an air-in-fat foam Shortened Cakes and Cookies
Beating Very vigorous agitation of food mixtures using an electric mixer at high speed or a wooden spoon to trap air and/or develop gluten or an emulsion Shortened Cakes, egg white foams like in Angel Food Cake
Stirring/moderate mixing The gentle blending of ingredients when trapping of air and development of gluten are not necessary Muffins, various quick breads
Folding Very gentle manipulation used to bring batter up from the bottom of the mixing bowl while incorporating dry ingredients or another batter, all without releasing air from the foam Angel food cake, soufflé, chiffon cake
Cutting In Process of cutting solid fats (generally mixed with flour) into small pieces using a pastry blender Biscuits and Pastry
Kneading Folding over a ball of dough and pressing it with either the fingertips or the heels of both hands, depending upon the amount of gluten needing to be developed and the ratio of ingredients Biscuits, Yeast Bread, Pizza Crust
Size Reduction:
Cutting/Chopping Reducing the size of an ingredient to medium to small pieces Fruits, Vegetables, Nuts
Grinding/Milling Reducing the size of a typically dry ingredient to a very small piece or powder Grains, Nuts
Processing or Blending Reducing the size and mixing ingredients together, typically with a food processor or blender, to create a liquid or paste Fruits, Vegetables, Juices, Nuts, Peanuts
Table 2. Common Processing Steps Cont.
Shaping:
Rolling/Laminating Flattening a dough to a given thickness, potentially layering dough and fat layers together to laminate for a flaky baked product Pizza crust, Biscuits, Fondant
Cutting or Pressing Shapes Using a set shape to form a dough, could use a cutter, press, or pan Sugar cookies, Oreos, Tortilla Chips, Potato Chips
Extruding Pressing a dough or batter through a tube with a specifically shaped opening Pasta, Spritz cookies, Sausage & Hot Dogs
Molding Using a specific 3-D shape to form a coating and/or dough Candies with fillings such as peanut butter cups and peppermint patties
Coating Adding a layer to the outside of a food; the layer could be made up of dry ingredients, wet ingredients, or a melting coating that will set upon cooling Cheetos, Peanut Butter Balls, M&Ms
Mixing:
Hydrating Mixing of ingredients with the main purpose of water hydrating dry ingredients to get functionality from the dry ingredients Hydrocolloids, Leavening, Gluten Development
Shear / High-Speed Mixing / Emulsifying Mixing of ingredients with the purpose of particle size reduction and/or emulsion formation Salad Dressings
Homogenizing Processing a liquid under pressure with the goal of particle size reduction to inhibit separation Milk, Beverages
Water Separation:
Dehydrating Removal of water from a food, typically slowly using heat and forced air Fruits & Vegetables
Centrifuging Separation of particles based on density, often a liquid separated from a semi-solid Fruit Purees
Physical Pressure Using physical pressure to squeeze out free water, often using cheesecloth Cheese, Vegetables
Straining Using a filter to remove solids from a liquid. The filter size affects the separation and can include cheesecloth and finer filter paper Apple Cider, Tea, Coffee
Physical/Chemical Reactions:
Fermentation / Enzyme Reaction Allowing beneficial bacteria, yeast, or enzymes to convert food through controlled breakdown, production of acid, alcohol, and/or carbon dioxide Sauer Kraut, Yogurt, Yeast Bread, Soy Sauce
Protein Coagulation Adding an enzyme, salt, acid, physical agitation, or heat to cause proteins to change shape and become less soluble Cheese, Tofu, Egg White Foams, Cooked Eggs, Cooked Meat
Heating:
Cooking Heating with a direct heat source, often with a liquid present, typically on the stovetop in a conventional kitchen Soups, Gravies, Pudding
Baking Heating in an oven, typically referring to baked products Cookies, Brownies, Cake
Roasting Heating in an oven, dry heat method Chicken, Nuts
Frying Heating in liquid oil for efficient heat transfer French Fries, Chicken Nuggets, Funnel Cakes
Cooling/Freezing:
Refrigerating Cooling a food product to under 40 degrees Fahrenheit Various
Freezing Cooling a food product to ~ 0 degrees Fahrenheit, converting water to ice in the food, speed of freezing affects product quality Various
Next think about where the water is added or removed in the system and what ingredients need to be hydrated to function fully in the food (gums, gluten proteins, leavening, protein powders, etc.).
• Is there enough water in the system to hydrate all of the ingredients like in a beverage?
• Is there limited water in the system leading to minimal hydration of ingredients like in cookies (where often the only water is from the water in the eggs)?
• Is it somewhere in between?
• How much sugar and/or salt are in the system? Both pull water more than other ingredients.
• Consider if the water-containing ingredients need to be mixed with the dry ingredients that need the most hydration first. For instance, gums often need to be mixed with water first before being mixed with other ingredients.
Flow Diagram Starting Point
Once the processing steps have been determined and tested with parameters set (time, temperature, speed, etc.), your team will construct a flow diagram based on the processing steps (not necessarily the equipment). This is helpful as a transition step to processing to determine larger pieces of processing equipment.
As an example, consider the processing steps needed to make a chocolate chip cookie. Here is a typical set of instructions for a chocolate chip cookie recipe modified from Nestle Toll House [1]:
Step 1.
Preheat oven to 375° F.
Step 2.
Combine flour, baking powder, and salt in a small bowl. Beat butter, granulated sugar, and brown sugar in a large mixer bowl until creamy. Beat in eggs and vanilla extract. Gradually add in flour mixture. Stir in chocolate chips. Drop by rounded tablespoon onto ungreased baking sheets.
Step 3.
Bake for 9 to 11 minutes or until golden brown. Cool on baking sheets for 2 minutes; remove to wire racks to cool completely.
Think about the flow diagram that would be constructed from the processing steps for the cookie. Then read through the flow diagram shown below. Do you see how the recipe instructions were converted to a flow diagram? From here, you can construct a flow diagram for your new food product.
1. Original NESTLÉ® TOLL HOUSE® Chocolate Chip Cookies. Retrieved January 19, 2021, from https://www.verybestbaking.com/toll-...-chip-cookies/ | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.08%3A_Formulation_Steps__Order_of_Addition_of_Ingredients_and_Function_of_Each_Step.txt |
Generating a Nutrition Facts Panel is a great way to analyze the macronutrient, micronutrient, and calorie content of your new food product. The Genesis software program (and any other Nutrition Facts Panel program) is only as good as the information that is inputted, so it is important to pay attention to detail and be as accurate as possible on ingredient composition, moisture change, and possibly fat change.
Helpful Resources for Nutrition Facts Panels
• FDA Standard Reference Sizes are important to know when setting a serving size for your product. A serving needs to be within the range of 50-200% of the Reference Amount Customarily Consumed (RACC)[1]. More details are included in the 21 CFR 101.9(b)(2)(i).
• FDA Requirements for Nutrient Content Claims are important if you want to make nutrient content claims on your product package. It is often not just about the nutrient, but also about the ingredients and overall nutritional profile of the food.
Using Genesis
Adding Ingredients
• Look through your ingredient list and check out the Genesis ingredient database. Any ingredients in your product that are not in the database will need to be added into Genesis before you start building your product in the system.
• Start a new ingredient. Name the ingredient specific enough (possibly including a brand or company name) so you can find it later. Then input the weight (quantity) of the ingredient based on the nutritional information you have. If the nutritional information is from a specification sheet, the weight is typically 100 grams. This is not the weight of the ingredient in your product.
• Next click on the Nutrient tab and input all of the information you have. Carefully scroll through all of the inputs including vitamins and minerals.
• Make sure Total Sugar and Added Sugar are both inputted if applicable (needed for the new Nutrition Facts Panel).
• Add the Fiber content in both prompts (one is for the old Nutrition Facts Panel and the other is for the new version).
• Add water content. This is the total weight of the ingredient minus the macronutrients.
• When you are done inputting the ingredient components, click “Check Data”. All but the fat content should be green confirming that macronutrients have been added correctly. Make corrections as necessary. Click Save before adding another ingredient or starting a new recipe.
Starting a New Recipe
• Start a new recipe or formula. Save the recipe with an identifiable name to find in the database.
• Include a serving size based on your product weight and the RACC.
• Search for ingredients and choose options that are closest to the ingredients you are using. Then add the amount of each ingredient in grams.
• Adjust yield for moisture, fat, and/or batch loss by clicking “Edit Yields”. Input losses in grams, not percent.
• If moisture and/or fat has been gained through steaming, cooking, or frying, water and/or oil will need to be added to the recipe as ingredients with amounts added in grams.
• Next, check your inputs by clicking “Reports” and then “Spreadsheet”. This spreadsheet will show all the ingredients in your product per serving. Scroll through the nutrients to make sure all are reasonable and there are no glaring mistakes or missing nutrients.
• Return to the recipe and click “View Label” to generate your product’s Nutrition Facts Panel.
• Use the “Edit Label” feature to make adjustments to the label and add in the serving size information.
• Review the results
• Often all allergens are assumed by default, but that does not mean your product somehow contains all eight major allergens. Please edit accordingly.
• Serving sizes may need to be modified, especially if a nutrient content goal was not reached.
• Only use the updated Nutrition Facts Panel label format if all ingredients include added sugars and have fiber content based on the updated guidelines.
• Once the Nutrition Facts Panel has been reviewed, it can be exported by right-clicking on the image and choosing export as image to file, and saving the image as a png or jpeg file. Do not screenshot the Nutrition Facts Panel because image resolution will be lost.
Key Reminders
• If the Nutrition Facts Panel does not make sense, something is wrong. Check the ingredients and your numbers.
• Take into consideration what happens through processing, whenever possible, as much as possible.
1. Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 101.9(b)(2)(i). (2020). In (Vol. 2): Department of Health and Human Services. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.09%3A_Using_Genesis_Software_to_Generate_Nutrition_Facts_Panels.txt |
Background
Numerous sensory tests are used in the development of new food products. These include Consumer Concept Tests, Attribute Tests (JAR Tests), Simple Difference Tests, and Home-Use Tests (HUT). Attribute Tests gather information on the acceptability of individual attributes for optimization of your formula for your new product.
Objectives
• Gain consumer feedback on the intensity of specific sensory attributes
• Use consumer feedback on specific attributes for the optimum formulation of your new product
• The optimum formulation will lead to better product acceptance.
Advantages
• Evaluate multiple attributes including size, color, tastes, flavors, and textures with a single test
• Simple and easy to design
• Can be used throughout the development process to optimize product attributes
Disadvantages
• May need a large number of judges because of variation within consumer ratings
• Reformulation based on one attribute may change the ratings and acceptability of other attributes.
• Some consumers may have a hard time blending intensity ratings and liking scores.
• The use of Just About Right Tests, Just Right Tests, and Ideal Level Tests are controversial in the sensory world because of the blend of intensity and liking scores.
Methodology
• As a general course guideline, 30-40 consumers within your target market would be acceptable. In a company setting, 100 consumers may be required (depending on product complexity).
• You may include demographic questions within your survey. Common questions include age, gender, and frequency of product usage. However, a “prefer not to reply” option should be included with every demographic question.
• Course standards do not allow for participants under the age of 18.
• Course standards require the use of 7-point JAR scales with too small, not nearly enough, too light, etc. being scaled on the left-hand portion of the scale and too large, much too much, too dark, etc. being scaled on the right-hand portion of the scale. Most often, category scales are used with a score of 4.0 representing Just-About-Right in the center of the scale.
• Include a scale for any and every attribute of interest including size, color, tastes, flavors, and textures.
• Faculty must approve your JAR Attribute Test before the sensory panel can be conducted.
• Analysis – summarize the frequency of responses within each of the categories on the 7-point scale.
• Seventy-five percent of scores must fall in the 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 categories for the attribute to “pass” and be considered acceptable. Note: This is not calculating a mean by averaging all responses.
• Scale attributes that have less than 75% of 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 scores need to be addressed. Reformulate your product to improve these attributes and then repeat JAR Attribute Testing as needed.
3.11: Industrial Ingredients Purpose Sourcing and Conversion
Here is an explanation of why we start with grocery store ingredients and then convert them to industrial ingredients. Industrial ingredients are requested from food companies and not purchased from the grocery store. Some industrial ingredients are quite similar to grocery store ingredients. Other industrial ingredients have variations in composition, moisture content, and functionality. It is important to understand the differences and that converting to industrial ingredients takes time and planning.
We start with grocery store ingredients to produce your gold standard product due to:
• Speed of getting (most) ingredients
• Understanding the ingredient functionality of fresh ingredients before using industrial ingredients
• Real egg to powdered egg
• Butter to butter powder or butter-flavored shortening
• Unmodified starch to modified starch
• Fresh flavors to liquid flavors (helps determine desired profile)
• Exceptions to starting with grocery ingredients (or instances when you may move to industrial ingredients before processing):
• When your product needs functionality you cannot get with grocery ingredients such as hydrocolloids in ice cream
• When the grocery store ingredient is expensive and an industrial ingredient is readily available
Moving to Industrial Ingredients – typically done at the end of the formulation section into the beginning of the processing section – has pros and cons.
Pros:
• Typically receive free samples from ingredient companies (or we just cover shipping) – this is good for your course fees!
• Most industrial ingredients come with specifications/nutrition information/certificates of analysis.
• Often industrial ingredients give you more functional options than what can be sourced in the grocery store.
• Examples include native starch to a variety of modified starches, pure pectin, low-heat and high-heat non-fat dry milk, various cocoas, chocolates and coatings, fruit purees, etc.
Cons:
• Takes longer to get industrial ingredients (have to request each ingredient from the supplier and we can be a low priority)
• There can be limits on sample sizes.
Goal of Final Formulation/Processed Product – have all of the ingredients sourced from industrial ingredients, if possible
3.12: Industrial Ingredient Worksheet
The sooner you submit the worksheet, the quicker industrial ingredients can be sourced.
• Start with course preferred suppliers, look in the Food Master (publication) and search the internet for ingredient suppliers.
• Provide multiple sources if you have them.
Current Ingredients Current Batch Weight (in grams) Current Percent by Weight Functionality of Ingredient Proposed Industrial Ingredient & Source (Company, product name, etc.) | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/03%3A_Formulation/3.10%3A_JAR_Attribute_Testing.txt |
Processing can be broken into three main parts. These parts overlap and may need to happen simultaneously during processing, so it is helpful to start on each part and plan tasks accordingly.
At the end of Processing, you will have completed the following components:
• Formulations – Gold Standard and Scale-up Formulation with Industrial Ingredients
• Analytical Testing Methods used, the purpose of test, method, and results
• Comparison of (Analytical and Sensory) Test Data from Scale-up to your Gold Standard
• Scale-Up Amount Calculated & Justified
• Equipment Needed for Large Scale Production – equipment photos and functionality
• Equipment Needed for Small Scale Lab Production – equipment settings and functionality
• GMPs, SOPs, and Completed Batch Sheets
• Ingredient Specifications
• Preventative Control Hazard Analysis and Flow Diagram with Preventative Controls Included
• Scale-up Summary – How did it go, successes, problems, etc.
Details of many of the components are included below as a reference. Keep in mind that you may not work in the order listed. This is meant to give you a scope of the tasks in an order that could likely be used.
Step 1. Gold Standard – Collect Analytical Data
• What are the most important characteristics of your product?
• Analytical Equipment typically available in-house includes:
• Water Activity Meter
• Moisture Balance
• pH Meter
• Refractometer
• Hunter Colorimeter
• Texture Analyzer – know what textural attribute you want to measure
• Bostwick Consistometer
• Ring Spread Test
• Brookfield Viscometer
• Penetrometer
• Seed Displacement
• Density (calculation)
Step 2. Convert to Industrial Ingredients
• Going away from fresh ingredients like milk, eggs, and raw fruits & vegetables
• If a fresh ingredient is key to your product, you will need to collect data to show that importance.
• Work on your industrial ingredient list due at the end of formulation/beginning of processing.
• The process of ordering industrial ingredients takes time, so try to be patient.
• See Industrial Ingredients Chapter and Worksheet in Formulation for more information.
Step 3. Production Equipment, Scale-Up Equipment, and Flow Diagram
• This covers a large segment of processing and includes multiple components.
• Production Equipment – equipment you would use in large-scale plant production – search references and the internet for processing equipment photos and videos. If you cannot find exactly what you are looking for, show a similar piece of equipment and explain how it would be modified for your product or sketch the new piece of equipment.
• Scale-Up Equipment – what you will use for scaling up your product on campus. The goal is to match the function of the large-scale equipment chosen with the scale-up equipment that is available.
• Flow Diagram – steps of your process written out in block diagram format. Take your initial flow diagram from Formulation and convert it for large-scale / plant production equipment and processing steps.
Step 4. Prepare GMPs, SOPs, & Batch Sheets
• GMPs: Read the cGMPs in 21 CFR Part 117. Then write your product-specific GMPs.
• SOPs: Standard Operating Procedures are detailed instructions for each step of your process. Think about handing the SOPs to a plant worker. Would they be able to make your product to your standards based on the instructions laid out in the SOPs?
• Batch Sheets: documents used in plants to monitor processes to ensure that the process is being carried out correctly and as a historical document that can be reviewed if there are any questions about the process in the future.
• For each step in your process (flow diagram), there should be a section in your batch sheet to document the step.
Step 5. Ingredient Specifications – can think about this in terms of what ingredient (quality/characteristics) you would (and would not) accept into a plant to make your product.
• Industrial Ingredient Specifications can be used.
• If you are using a grocery store ingredient:
• Find a comparable industrial ingredient specification sheet
• Or – use the Nutrition Facts Panel and/or the USDA FoodData Central to create your own ingredient specification.
• Use references to set microbial specifications.
Step 6. Conduct a Hazard Analysis using Preventative Controls Methodology
• Conduct a Hazard Analysis using the Preventative Controls for Human Food manual formatting.
• Assume strong prerequisite programs and that the plant is specific to your product.
• Focus on pathogens, allergens, and metal fragments.
• Determine Preventative Controls for your process and product. Also, determine what other concerns can be managed through Supplier Programs and/or Prerequisite Programs.
• Discuss the hazard analysis and Preventative Controls with faculty
• Add the Preventative Controls to the flow diagram.
Step 7. Packaging & Storage
• Think about your product characteristics.
• What functionality does your product packaging need to have to protect your product and have a positive impact on shelf life?
• Research packaging types to choose the ideal packaging material(s) for your product. More information about packaging will be included in the Commercialization section, but it does not hurt to start researching packaging materials as you have time.
• Discuss packaging needs for the scaled-up product (may not be the same as your ideal packaging).
• Need refrigerator or freezer space for the scaled-up product? Check with faculty to coordinate space.
Step 8. Scale Up
• The actual scale-up will take one to two lab periods. During this time, your team will make enough product for testing needs.
• It is important to have all of the details and procedure parameters figured out before scale-up occurs because typically there are only enough time and resources to scale up once.
Step 9. Analytical Measurements
• Your main goals are to:
• Compare your gold-standard product to your scaled-up product
• Collect data related to shelf-life determination (pH, water activity, color, etc.)
• Collect data – in-process and finished product – to provide guidance for process and finished product specifications.
• Refer to Step 1 for the analytical equipment list. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.01%3A_Components_of_Processing_and_Where_to_Start.txt |
The purpose of analytical testing is to reduce the number of sensory panels needed by measuring sensory attributes with equipment and to measure attributes needed for product specifications. Analytical testing also can be used to determine shelf life and shelf stability parameters. Make a plan for analytical testing based on key product characteristics/attributes.
1. Determine what attributes of your food are most important for food safety, quality, and consistency.
• It is too expensive and time-intensive to test every attribute of a food product, but enough testing needs to be done to understand product characteristics and to maintain product safety and quality.
• Typically 4-6 analytical tests are run per new food product.
• Look at the Analytical Testing Equipment available in your food lab.
• Common Analytical Equipment
• Water Activity Meter
• Moisture Balance
• pH Meter
• Refractometer
• Hunter Colorimeter
• Texture Analyzer – know what textural attribute you want to measure
• Bostwick Consistometer
• Ring Spread Test
• Brookfield Viscometer
• Penetrometer
• Seed Displacement
• Density (calculation)
• Next, determine the best way(s) to test the key product attributes.
• Discuss options with faculty as needed.
A Note on Microbial Testing – Often food labs do not have microbial testing capabilities and rely on available research and knowledge to set kill steps in-process and finished product specifications. If specific microbial testing is needed for a new product, teams can inquire with related food microbiological labs on campus to see if testing can be conducted.
2. Timing of Testing: Think through the timing of testing or when the product iterations that need to be tested will be made.
• The gold standard product will need to be compared with the scaled-up industrial product.
• Some in-process testing may be needed.
• Typically finished product testing is best when the product is fresh, but testing at the same time for each product is more important.
• Analytical testing also can be used for shelf-life testing and to compare the preparation or storage methods of a product.
3. Sample Amount Needed: When in doubt, more samples are better than fewer. Testing multiple batches is advised when possible, but we realize it is not always feasible with limited time and resources.
• At least three samples from the same batch or iteration are needed for testing such as viscosity, color, moisture, and water activity. This will help reduce variability across a batch.
• Seven to ten samples per batch or iteration are typically needed for texture analysis. More is needed if there is considerable variability of texture in the product (think crisp and crunchy products).
• Consider the sample available for testing and the order of testing when the sample amount is limited. Texture analysis typically needs whole product. Water activity, moisture content, and pH need homogenous and often mixed/ground product.
• More samples are almost always needed at the beginning of analytical testing to set test parameters. This is especially true for the texture analyzer because testing parameters will need to be set specific to your product.
4. Analytical Testing Plan: After working through steps 1-3, compile your testing needs into the table shown below. Edit the table as necessary for your product testing needs. Review your testing plan with faculty before you start.
Product Characteristic Testing Method/ Equipment Testing Parameters What the method actually tests Number or Amount of Samples needed Sample time (s) Sample conditions
Ex. Chewiness Texture Analyzer 3 Point Bend Rig + Knife Downward force and distance At least 10 per variable or iteration Same day as baked – for gold standard and scale-up product. Test 1st (then use the broken product for other sampling) Whole, 6-7 cm in diameter | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.02%3A_Analytical_Testing.txt |
As you get ready to scale up, it is important to take a moment to discuss why scale-up is an important part of processing.
Objectives of Scale-Up
• Practice detailed planning before scale-up
• Experience with different, sometimes larger, equipment
• Produce samples for Home Use Tests, shelf-life/abuse testing, and final board meeting
Preparation Required
While the actual scale-up will only be one or two lab periods, it will take weeks to plan. A successful Processing section is tied to detailed and thorough planning. Your team must work through equipment selections, preventative controls, and scale-up planning documents including GMPS, SOPs, and a batch sheet. Testing industrial ingredients and new equipment also will need to be done resulting in a final industrial formula with specific processing parameters. It is also important to plan where and how to store your scaled-up product before you start.
One Chance
You are really only going to get one chance to scale up in the course, and you may only get once or twice to be able to scale up in a large processing facility, as well. This is especially the case if you have to stop the line or stop production of a day-to-day product to test run your new product. That time could be very limited so making sure all of the pre-work is done with attention to detail and potential problems or setbacks have been considered are critical to make that scale-up time count.
Product Samples Needed
The amount of product made during scale-up will be the amount needed for the Home Use Test, analytical testing, and shelf-life/product abuse testing. If your product has a 6-week shelf life or greater, more product will be made for the final board meeting and poster presentation. The amount needed for scale-up will vary based on the product but is typically still going to be a lab-scale amount. The goal is to make a bigger batch than what your team has previously made with equipment that has the same or very similar functions as the large-scale plant equipment.
Learning from Experience
Each time you go up in the size of equipment and each time you change the type of equipment and what controls you have over that equipment, your product characteristics have the potential to change. During scale-up it is likely that your team will not have as much processing control as with previous small batches. You will learn how that changes your product (possibly more waste, less uniformity, etc.). Most of the changes are not going to be significant, but some may be and it is important to know and understand these changes. For instance, if the moisture content of a cracker increases from 8% with small-scale processing to 12% with scale-up processing, the texture of the cracker could change significantly. A crisp cracker could become stale and tough with just this small moisture change. The processing parameters would have to be adjusted to produce an acceptable, lower moisture cracker. Knowing what characteristics are critical for your product will allow you to make quick changes while scaling up.
Here is a checklist of items that need to be completed and approved before you will be ready to scale up.
Scale-Up Preparation Checklist
• Large Equipment determined
• Small Equipment chosen (based on large equipment function) and tested
• Updated Flow Diagram approved
• Preventative Controls Hazard Analysis conducted and discussed with faculty
• GMPs approved
• SOPs approved
• Batch Sheet approved
• Industrial ingredients tested, industrial formula finalized
• New equipment tested (can be a small batch)
• Scale-Up Amount determined
• Time and Equipment scheduled
• Ingredients ordered and secured
• Storage of scaled-up product determined
To-Do List After Scale-Up
• Measure scaled-up product attributes to compare to the gold standard and to set final product specifications
• Write Home Use Test, get approval, send product out safely to consumers
• Start shelf-life and/or abuse testing | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.03%3A_Scale-Up_Expectations_and_Value.txt |
It is time to figure out how to make your product on a large scale!
The goal is to think about the process which includes the function of each step (why is the step in the process and how does it affect the ingredients) and what equipment is needed to perform that function. Each time equipment is scaled to a different size (kitchen equipment, lab equipment, pilot plant equipment, plant equipment), the equipment will function slightly differently, which can have small or large effects on the finished product. These effects can be due to small differences in how the equipment works, how full the equipment is, differences in volume to surface area ratios, and more. It is best to be prepared for changes and adjustments when scaling up equipment.
The core thought process when updating the flow diagram and choosing equipment should be the function of the processing steps.
Start with the flow diagram from Formulation and update for the industrialized formula.
To keep the functionality of each step in mind, start with the flow diagram from the Formulation stage. Update the flow diagram once the formulation is converted to industrial ingredients (this may need to be updated more than once while working through other processing steps). These updates may be minimal or considerable depending on the ingredient changes (wet ingredients to dry ingredients, real ingredients to flavors, etc.). See the Food Safety Preventative Controls Alliance Preventative Controls for Human Food manual page A3-5 for a flow diagram example.
Research large processing equipment for an ideal plant processing line.
You will be in charge of designing your processing line on a large plant scale. This may look similar to the small-scale equipment, just with larger pieces of equipment, or it may look considerably different based on small equipment available to you and changes encountered when converting to a continuous process (as opposed to a batch process).
Method/Steps: Design a processing line on a plant scale.
• Use the functions of the processing steps to choose large-scale processing equipment for an ideal plant processing line.
• Use processing equipment references, textbooks, and the Common Types of Food Processing Equipment list shown below to start.
• Then look at other processing equipment images and videos online (How It’s Made videos are very helpful) to find specialty equipment.
• If a new piece of equipment is needed to make your product (most commonly needed for shaping or molding), sketch an image of the needed equipment or find a similar piece of equipment and describe how it would be modified for your process.
• Include conveyor belts and holding tanks as much as possible.
• End with filling and packaging equipment. Consider the filling speed and precision of the chosen equipment.
Common Types of Food Processing Equipment
Size Reduction
• Family of equipment that specializes in reducing fibrous roots, fruits, cooked meats, dry cheese, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and more into smaller sizes for further processing.
• Common types:
1. Angle disintegrators
2. Screw-fed disintegrators
3. Pump fed disintegrators
4. Crushers
5. Shredders
6. Mills
7. Grinders
Molders
• Process of taking a nearly finished product and making it into the desired shape
• Common types
1. Dough Sheeter
2. Bread Molder
3. Confectionary Molder
4. Enrobing Machine
Extruders
• Process that forces food through a small opening called a die to form and shape the materials into a desired shape
• Combines multiple food processing steps into one
• Common types
1. Single Screw Extruder
2. Twin Screw Extruder
3. Pasta Extruder
4. Co-extruder
Homogenizers/Emulsifiers
• Operation that reduced the average particle size and increases the consistency of semi-solid and liquid food matter
• Common types
1. High-Pressure Homogenizer
2. Sonolator
3. Colloid Mill
4. High Shear Mixer
Mixers
• Processing step that combines and disperses two or more components into one another to achieve and maintain a uniform mixture and/or an alteration to the functional or aesthetic qualities of the food product
• Common types
1. Agitation Tanks
2. Paddle Mixers
3. Drum Blender
Baking
• Employs heated air to heat and produce physical and chemical changes in food material, such as texture and/or flavor
• Assists in the preservation of food matter by killing microorganisms and reducing the moisture content.
• Common types
1. Deck Oven
2. Rotary Oven
3. Convection Oven
4. Combination Oven
Frying
• Process of foods being heated in (160 – 180°C) fat or oil to transfer heat directly to food material
• Reduces moisture content, forms a crispy/crunchy exterior, and inactivates microorganisms
• Common types
1. Batch Fryer
2. Continuous Fryer
Blanching
• Employs heated water or steam to reduce the number of microorganisms and inactivate undesirable enzymes that cause spoilage
• Removes excess air from the fruit or vegetable, softens the texture, and improves the overall quality
• Typically done before freezing vegetables
• Common types
1. Steam Blanchers
2. Hot Water Blanchers
Canning
• Process that places food in a sealed can or glass jar that is heated at high temperatures for enough time to preserve the food
• Creates products that are commercially sterile where all pathogenic, toxin forming, and spoilage organisms are killed
• Allows food to be stable at room temperature
• Retort Canning is the main example
• Hot Water Cooker is an option for some foods, but does not provide the same level of heating/microbial reduction as retort canning (typically acidic, high sugar, or high salt foods)
Pasteurization
• Food processing step where food materials are placed under moderate temperatures to inactivate pathogenic microorganisms
• Typically, pasteurization produces food products with limited shelf lives and sterilization produces food products with extended shelf lives
• 3 major types
1. Vat pasteurization
2. HTST
3. UHT
Drying
• Process that removes water from a food with the intention of producing a solid food product with low water content
• Increases the shelf life of food products by reducing water content which inhibits or slows microbial growth and enzyme activity
• Common Types
1. Convective Dryers
2. Vacuum Dryer
3. Drum Dryer
4. Spray Dryer
5. Freeze Dryer
Freezing
• Process that lowers the temperature of a food product to -18°C or below
• Decreases the enzymatic action, as well as slows the metabolism of microorganisms, acting as a preservation method
• Common types
1. Blast Freezers
2. Plate Freezer
3. Cryogenic Freezer
4. Belt Freezer
5. Fluidized Belt Freezer
Refrigeration
• Process that lowers the temperature of food to below 40°F
• Typically encountered as a walk-in cooler
Belts
• An important component in a food processing line transporting food throughout the factory
• Common types
1. Plastic Modular
2. Solid Flat Belt
3. Wire Mesh
Hoppers
• Used for storage, as well as the main component of metered transfer of food components
• Can be equipped with jacketing to help heating and cooling, or equipped with special attachments based on the food product
Filling Equipment
• Final process before final packaging that places the food products created into the proper package. Packaging comes in all different shapes and sizes, with different filling equipment necessary for all the different food products, as well as all the different packages available
• Common types
1. Volumetric Fillers
2. Net Weight Fillers
3. Overflow filling machines
4. Cup Machines
5. Centrifugal Machine Counting
For more information, check out the article, Overview of Food Processing Equipment. The content above is adapted from the same article by Romina Ronquillo. [1]
Determining Lab-Scale or Small-Scale Equipment Based on the Large-Scale Equipment
Match the function of the large-scale equipment to small processing equipment available for lab scale-up. Think through the processing steps and functions of equipment chosen for plant production. Then consider the small processing equipment available. Make the best fit matches of functions of steps to equipment available to scale-up. When your team is ready, review your large-scale and small-scale equipment with faculty. Then test the small-scale equipment to determine the effectiveness and optimal run parameters (time, speed, temperature, etc.).
It is important to note that choosing lab-scale equipment is not necessarily about what is the easiest or most convenient. It is about matching functions of the equipment so that the lab scale-up is as close as possible to large-scale production.
1. Ronquillo, R. Overview of Food Processing Equipment. Thomas. Retrieved June 15, 2020 from https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/m...ing-equipment/ | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.04%3A_Processing_Equipment_Considerations.txt |
Purpose
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are written and implemented for a specific plant or food product as a prerequisite program for Preventative Controls for Human Foods. GMPs reduce the risk of hazards that could occur due to personnel and plant conditions.
Methodology
Read through the Current Good Manufacturing Practices in the Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 117. Then write Good Manufacturing Practices for your product and process. Focus on the GMPs that are most relevant. Frame your GMP to fit a plant-scale operation. Your GMPs also will need to be followed as close as possible during scale-up in the lab.
Potential GMP categories include, but are not limited to:
• Building and Facilities
• Receiving
• Sanitation
• Food Handling and Processing
• Packaging
• Storage
• Personnel and Training
• Cleanliness
• Handwashing
• Jewelry
• Gloves
• Hair restraints
• No food in processing area
4.06: Writing Standard Operating Procedures for Your Product
Purpose
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs) are written and implemented to provide instructions for tasks that are done regularly as part of food receiving, storage, production, and testing. These instructions are needed to make sure there is consistency in production and to reduce hazard risks.
Instructions
Using the reference examples given, list all of the SOPs your product and process would need. Include a short one- to two-sentence description for each SOP in the list.
Then write one full SOP in detail with the format given below (this could be making one component of your product or one unit operation depending on how complex the process is). You can think about an SOP like a detailed recipe that includes the ingredients and amounts (materials) and step-by-step instructions of how the food is made (procedure of how the task is performed). Just add a few more details and the SOP is developed. The one full SOP should be written in enough detail that it could be handed off to another person and that person could successfully complete the task and/or make your product.
Format for One Full SOP
• Title
• Purpose—what task are you accomplishing and why?
• Scope – when and where does this task take place?
• Responsibility—who is responsible for making sure the task is completed?
• Materials—what specific items are needed to complete the task?
• Procedure—what are the steps to the task, in order?
• Monitoring—what checks are in place to monitor or check that the SOP was completed?
• Corrective Action—what steps will be taken if the SOP is not completed correctly?
• Verification/documentation—how will you verify that the procedure was completed correctly and what records will you keep?
4.07: Constructing Batch Sheets For Scale-Up
What is a Batch Sheet?
It is a document used in plants to monitor processes to ensure that the process is being carried out correctly. A batch sheet is the documentation used to explain if a process does not go as planned.
Purpose
An SOP provides detailed instructions for a process. Batch Sheets are needed to record exactly what happened during the process. A process rarely goes exactly as planned. Ingredient weights may be off of the formula weights slightly. Equipment conditions, speeds, temperatures, etc. can vary based on batch size or the given day of operation. The batch sheets are the first documents to be reviewed if the finished product does not meet specifications, so the detail and accuracy of the batch sheets are very important.
Method
• For each step or unit operation in your process (consult your up-to-date flow diagram), there should be a section in your batch sheet to document the step or unit operation parameters.
• Your process may need multiple batch sheets depending on the steps and what needs to be monitored.
• Below is a general batch sheet. Construct your batch sheet(s) based on your process and be as specific as possible. In addition to the columns below, you may also need to include data such as time, temperature, pH, RPMs, flow rates, throughput rates, the weight of rework, etc.
• Faculty will need to approve your batch sheet(s) before scale-up.
• The completed batch sheet(s) with all the details of scale-up recorded will be submitted.
Unit Operation Ingredient Formula Weight (units) Actual Weight (units) Equipment & Conditions Process Specification Unit Operation Conclusion, including any variation from your SOP | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.05%3A_Good_Manufacturing_Practices.txt |
Purpose
The purpose of setting ingredient specifications is to make sure you get safe and consistent quality ingredients to produce a safe and consistent final product. Your team should have an SOP detailing what to do with an ingredient if it arrives out of spec. Examples include if an incoming ingredient contains an allergen that was not listed on the specification, arrives outside of temperature spec (too hot or too cold), or arrives in dirty or broken boxes or bags, leaking containers, etc.
For example, a warehouse employee calls after receiving a pallet of apples that are in rings instead of being diced. They ask, “You did not get what you ordered, what do I do with this stuff?” You need to have an answer.
Key Points of Setting Ingredient Specifications
1. Specifies the quality, safety, and storage of ingredients used in the food product
2. Needed for hazard risk assessment and supplier program documentation
3. Determines if an ingredient is allowed into your plant or not – what characteristics are most important (what would you reject/not pay for)
4. Important to set tight enough specifications to ensure a consistent and safe final product.
Method
1. Gather ingredient specification sheets, product bulletins, and/or certificates of analysis for industrial ingredients.
2. Use ingredient packaging information and USDA FoodData Central information for ingredients without specification sheets.
3. Use references shared below (plus you are encouraged to do further research) to set microbial specifications for those ingredients without them. Think through your process – do you have a strong kill step, is your product ready to eat, etc. These factors will affect the microbial specifications allowed for incoming ingredients.
4. Choose the most important characteristics for the ingredients to compile an ingredient specification table. Column headers need to include those shown in the example below (Ingredient, Required Attributes, Preferred Supplier, Microbial Specifications, Receiving Storage Conditions, Potential Allergens or Labeling Concerns) and can include additional columns as needed.
5. Include as much detail for each ingredient as is needed to ensure your product will turn out consistently with the quality characteristics expected. Required Attributes may include flavor profile, aroma, color, clarity, texture, particle size, uniformity, or the variation in size that is acceptable.
6. The Preferred Supplier column will be filled out related to where your ingredient is being sourced. Suppliers of some ingredients will be very important for consistency and specific attributes. Other ingredients will have more flexibility. For example, granulated sugar can easily be sourced from multiple suppliers without a noticeable difference in quality attributes. It would be difficult to source a flavor from two suppliers and get the exact same flavor profile, so a flavor ingredient specification will need a preferred supplier listed.
Ingredient Specification Table
Ingredients in formulation need to be represented in the following or similar table:
Example Ingredient Specification Table
Ingredient Required Attributes Preferred Supplier Microbial Specifications, Concerns Receiving – Storage Conditions Potential Allergens or Labeling Concerns
Guar Gum Moisture 10-15%
Viscosity 4000-6000cp
Color – creamy white
APC < 2500 CFU/g
Yeast/Mold < 200 CFU/g
Total coliform < 3 CFU/g
E. coli< 3 CFU/g
Salmonella neg. / 25 g.
S. aureus < 50 CFU/g
Cool (70 degrees F or below) & dry (<40% Relative Humidity) environment
50 lbs. bags
None
Honey Powder Powder Moisture 5-15%
Honey solids 45-50%
Cream color, mild honey flavor
APC < 5,000 CFU/g,
Yeast & Mold < 20 CFU/g,
Coliform < 10 CFU/g
E. coli < 3 CFU/g
Salmonella neg. / 25 g.
Cool (70 degrees F or below) & dry (<40% Relative Humidity) environment
50 lbs. bags
None
4.09: Food Safety Plans
Where to Start with Food Safety
It really boils down to what needs to happen to make sure a safe product is made the vast majority of the time. It is hard to plan for everything that could go wrong, but it is important to consider all relevant reasonable risks. You know you can produce a safe food product because your team has done it through the Formulation stage. Now it is time to consider how to ensure that same safety when transitioning to industrial ingredients and a large plant-scale operation.
HACCP or Preventative Controls?
When you finish this course and start your career, you may encounter HACCP or Preventative Controls programs. This course is currently transitioning from HACCP to Preventative Controls. The main reason is that the Preventative Controls Hazard Analysis allows you to use supplier programs and prerequisite programs as methods to mitigate or eliminate hazards. It is a more integrated approach that encompasses a broader scope than just the processing steps. If you are more used to HACCP, it is fine to think through what your critical control points (CCPs) need to be and then work through the Preventative Controls Hazard Analysis form (sort of a backward approach).
Method
Start with a general conversation in your team about what will be your main hazards or food safety concerns. Then work through the Preventative Controls Hazard Analysis form. As you work through the form, research hazards to determine which are likely enough to be considered.
• Use the Food Safety Preventative Controls Alliance Preventative Controls for Human Food manual as a reference. Chapter 8 and Appendix 3 will be especially helpful.
• To streamline the process, focus on biological pathogens, chemical allergens, and physical metal fragments. It is acceptable to include additional hazards but is not required for this hazard analysis.
• Assume there are strong prerequisite programs in place and your product is the only product made in the plant.
• The most common preventative controls are a heating step and metal detection right before or after packaging, but it is important to consider your process, product hazards, and associated risks.
• If your product does not have a heat step, careful consideration will be needed to ensure no pathogens are present in the finished product. Food safety experts really like kill steps and will ask more questions if your process does not include one. Relying on supplier guarantees for pathogen-free ingredients is acceptable – just make sure that is a feasible plan for your ingredients.
• After completing the hazard analysis, add the Preventative Controls to your product’s flow diagram.
• Have faculty review your hazard analysis. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/04%3A_Processing/4.08%3A_Setting_Ingredient_Specifications.txt |
During Commercialization, your team will prepare your product for grocery store launch by completing the following objectives.
Objectives
1. Confirm product quality produced during scale-up meets consumer expectations with Home Use Test (HUT).
2. Define and document your product with Final Product Specifications, Package Label, and the team’s completed notebook.
3. Compare and defend the quality of your product using Ingredient Pricing/Suggested Retail Price (SRP) & the Final Presentation.
Key Points
• Your team will need to move faster on paperwork and documents in this section than in previous sections. Attention to detail is critical due to time constraints associated with a successful product launch.
• It is okay to divide tasks and be working on multiple tasks per lab period.
• Make a plan to complete tasks, so you can stay on top of all of the items.
The following is a checklist to help in organizing the work for this strategic objective.
___ Consumer acceptance test (Home Use Test or HUT)
___ Shelf Life/Abuse Testing
___ Final product specifications including packaging materials and specs.
___ Final package with approved Nutrition Facts Panel. All labels and final packages must be approved.
___ Ingredient costs: Determine your ingredient costs and calculate a theoretical SRP based on information provided (model costing including manufacturing costs, packaging, marketing/advising, company profit, grocery store mark-up, etc.) and compare your predicted SRP with a chosen competitive product(s).
____ Professional oral presentation – needs to be reviewed and approved during the lab period before the presentation
____ Notebooks: completed with detailed table of contents – due Finals Week
Timeline
Week 1. Finishing processing scale-up and report, getting home use test written/approved/sent out, and getting shelf-life testing/abuse testing and analytical testing started. Submit ingredient list for pricing.
Weeks 2 & 3. Work on items not yet complete, plus work on final product specifications, packaging materials, and the product label.
Week 4. Work on the final product label, package, pricing, and presentation.
Week 5. Get the final presentation approved and present to the board. Work on the commercialization report.
5.02: Home Use Tests (HUT)
Home Use Tests (HUT) are the last sensory evaluation done before your product will be launched in the grocery store. It is important to check the liking of attributes and the overall product, along with the willingness to purchase and the price consumers would be willing to pay.
Background
Numerous sensory tests are used in the development of new food products. These include Consumer Concept Tests, Attribute Tests (JAR Tests), Simple Difference Tests, and Home-Use Tests (HUT). Home-Use Tests provide valuable information on product performance in a natural environment before marketing and launch.
Objectives
• Gather real-time consumer data related to product sensory quality.
• Gain additional information on product packaging, serving size, package instructions, product cost, frequency of purchase, and reaction to product claims (gluten-free, vegan, nutrient content claims, etc.).
Advantages
• Allows for product usage under true consumer conditions when compared with CLT’s (Central Location Tests – in the lab, mall, grocery store, etc.)
• Allows for multiple responses if more than one household member
• May allow for sampling of high-fatigue products over time (coffee, spicy foods, etc.)
• Allows for the opportunity to test a product in different market segments across the country
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Limited or no control over how the product will be used by the consumer
• Traditional low questionnaire return rates… may be as low as 25%
• Loss of confidentially
Methodology
• An ideal Home-Use Test may include 100 consumers in three diverse markets across the country (for a national product introduction).
• Because of budget and product amount restrictions, faculty recommends 15 to 20 completed Home-Use Tests.
• Products do not have to be in final packaging for distribution – plastic bags work well.
• Surveys must contain company information, contact information for survey return, allergens, and the ingredient statement.
• Demographic information and product usage may be collected as long as a “prefer not to answer” option is included.
• This is your chance to ask for feedback on anything you want to know about your product.
• Attribute questions MUST be on 9-point hedonic scales – you MUST include an overall opinion or overall acceptability question – The course standard is to score an average of 7.0 or better on the 9.0 hedonic scale for all attributes, especially for overall acceptability.
Final Notes
Questionnaires must be approved by faculty before distribution. Your product must average a 7 out of 9 or better in overall acceptability. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.01%3A_Commercialization_Introduction.txt |
How long will your product last?
In this chapter, you will learn how to test your product to determine the shelf life and/or how much abuse your product can take.
• It is important to know how long your product will stay at the quality the consumer expects.
• Typically, at least to a certain extent, we want the product to have as long of shelf life as possible. This gives time to make the product, ship the product to a distributor, then ship the product to the grocery store, have a consumer buy the product, take it home (possibly store it), and then consume.
• Your team will need to determine the mode of failure – what will go wrong with your product first – spoilage microorganism growth, moisture migration, color loss, flavor change, etc.
Shelf Life Definition
Shelf life is the period of time under defined conditions of storage, after manufacture or packing, for which a food product will remain safe and be fit for use. During this period of shelf life, the product should:
• Retain its desired sensory, chemical, physical, functional, or microbiological characteristics
• Comply with any label declaration of nutrition information when stored according to the recommended conditions (Man, 2015) [1]
Shelf Life Types
All foods deteriorate, often in different ways and at different rates. Types of shelf life are shown below.
• Microbiological Shelf Life – example: mold spoilage growth
• Chemical Shelf Life – example: lipid oxidation
• Sensory Shelf Life – color, flavor, or texture change
• The shelf life of a food product is intended to reflect the overall effect of these different aspects, ideally under a set of specified storage conditions.
Food Safety and Shelf Life Considerations
• The food has to be safe to consume first and foremost.
• Unless selling a raw product, ensuring your product is safe to consume is typically done during processing and packaging (heat steps, metal detectors, etc. – think CCPs or Preventative Controls).
• Microbial shelf-life concerns are typically from spoilage microorganisms, especially yeasts & molds.
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Factors to Consider
For some products, it is fairly straightforward to determine the mode of failure. For other, especially new products, it may be less clear. Performing accelerated and real-time shelf life testing will be needed to confirm the mode or modes of failure, but it can be helpful to think through the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of your product to start with an educated guess.
Intrinsic Factors
• Raw materials
• Product composition and formulation
• Product structure
• Product make‐up
• Water activity value (Aw)
• pH value and acidity (total acidity and the type of acid)
• Availability of oxygen and redox potential (Eh)
Extrinsic Factors
• Processing and preservation
• Hygiene
• Packaging materials and system
• Storage, distribution, and retail display (in particular with respect to exposure to light, fluctuating temperature, and humidity, and elevated or depressed temperature and humidity)
• Other factors – consumer handling and use (Man, 2015) [2]
Accelerated Shelf Life Testing
• Accelerated shelf-life testing (ASLT) is used to shorten the time required to estimate a shelf life which otherwise can take an unrealistically long time to determine (at least in terms of new product development and wanting to launch a product as soon as possible).
• Real-time shelf life testing also is needed but can be done/finished after the new product is already launched. The shelf life is then updated as applicable.
• The most common form of ASLT is storing food at an elevated temperature.
• The assumption is that by storing food (or drink) at a higher temperature, any adverse effect on its storage behavior and hence shelf life may become apparent sooner.
• The shelf life under normal storage conditions can then be estimated by extrapolation using the data obtained from the accelerated testing.
Accelerated Shelf Life Testing Benefits and Drawbacks
This is not a perfect system and works better for some products than others.
Benefits
• Accelerated tests are particularly useful when the patterns of changes are practically identical under both normal and accelerated storage.
• This allows the shelf life under normal storage to be predicted with a high degree of certainty from the accelerated shelf life results.
• Accelerated shelf-life testing works well for oil rancidity predictions, especially in products such as chips and nuts.
Drawbacks
• Tends to be product-specific; results have to be interpreted carefully based on detailed knowledge
• Frozen product accelerated testing can be difficult because thawing significantly changes product characteristics.
• If spoilage is the main concern, increasing the hold temperature may cause other classes of microbes to grow.
Steps to Determine Accelerated Shelf-Life
• Define product (and packaging) to be put into conditions with a set timeframe
• Identify the conditions and type(s) of test needed
• Define mode of failure
• Implement set-up and testing
• Analyze results
• Predict real-time shelf life
Abuse Testing
Abuse testing is done to simulate the conditions food products will go through between production and consumption. In some instances, especially for this course, abuse testing is used instead of accelerated shelf-life testing.
Physical Abuse – for fragile products
• Simulates the shaking or movement of a product riding on a truck and abuse from dropping the product.
• Drop tests are easy to perform and then evaluate product change.
• This testing indicates how durable the product and corresponding packaging is through distribution and movement from the grocery store to the consumer.
Temperature Abuse – for refrigerated and especially frozen products
• Simulates freeze-thaw cycles in the grocery store, consumers buying and taking the product home, and inefficient storage at home
• Abuse testing indicates how much temperature abuse the product can take before its quality is no longer acceptable.
Seven-Cycle Abuse Testing – an industry test method to determine how much abuse a product can withstand before the product quality is unacceptable.
The type and duration of abuse are dependent on the product characteristics and size. For frozen products, the idea is for the product to be temperature abused with some surface melting, but not completely melt or come to room temperature during the abuse. Refrigerated products can sit out at room temperature for abuse, but the lengths of time may be longer than the frozen products. Below is an example of the 7 cycles of abuse. All 7 samples are abused, then all samples are evaluated together to determine the mode of failure and the cycle that the product was no longer acceptable.
Determining an Accelerated Shelf Life Test or Abuse Test for Your Product
• Think about your product characteristics.
• Which characteristics are the most important?
• Which characteristics are the most likely to deteriorate first?
From your answers above:
• Does abuse testing or accelerated shelf-life make more sense?
• Look at the 7-cycle example to set up your abuse testing –OR-
• Research accelerated shelf-life studies of similar products to determine your parameters (typically time and temperature, sometimes relative humidity).
State how you chose your testing, what the predicted mode of failure is, and if the product fails after only one or two abuse cycles, what steps you would take to improve the resiliency/shelf life of the product. If abuse testing is used, it will be helpful to look up the shelf life of other similar products to set the shelf life specification.
Shelf Life References with Examples
Cereal Foods World – Not Your Mentor’s Shelf Life Methods (pdf)
Italian Journal of Food Safety – Experimental Accelerated Shelf Life Determination of Ready-To-Eat Processed Foods (pdf)
1. Introduction to shelf life of foods – frequently asked questions. (2015). In Shelf Life (pp. 1). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1...1118346235.ch1
2. Introduction to shelf life of foods – frequently asked questions. (2015). In Shelf Life (pp. 11-12). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1...1118346235.ch1 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.03%3A_Shelf_Life_and_Abuse_Testing.txt |
Purpose
Final product specifications are set to make sure a safe and quality product is consistently made. Specifications set the quality and safety parameters of the finished product along with information regarding packaging and storage. Specifications are used to determine product characteristics that would be out of spec or unacceptable to sell and how that product will be handled.
For attributes that you were unable to measure in the lab, research values for similar products to yours. This will likely be the case for microbiological specifications.
Methodology
Most commonly, analytical testing results for the scaled-up product are used to set specification ranges for the finished product. How narrow or wide the range is will depend on what is acceptable for the product. A slight change in water activity can greatly affect if microbes can grow, so that range may be smaller (it is also possible to set a minimum or maximum value). Moisture content variations may or may not significantly impact product texture or shelf life. pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, so pH ranges are typically set based on food safety and/or spoilage requirements. For many quality attributes, the average value measured through analytical testing +/- 5-10% is a good place to start for a specification range. Once the range has been calculated, determine whether that range still produces an acceptable and safe product and if the range can feasibly and consistently be met (look at testing variability). While the focus is mainly on finished product attributes, it is possible to set in process specifications if needed. These specifications should be included in the final product specification document and can be labeled as “In-Process Specifications”. Examples of in-process specifications can include color standards (browning level, coloring added correctly, etc.), solids testing of syrups, and viscosity readings of syrups and sauces. Photos of acceptable and unacceptable products can be used as specifications. Photos work well, for instance, if a bakery product bakes unevenly in terms of color or shape or if multiple ingredients of different colors are used in the final product.
Components of the Final Product Specification
1. Physical Attributes
• pH, Aw, moisture, etc. – how each is measured and what is an acceptable range.
• Flavor, color, texture, etc. – how each is measured and what is an acceptable range. Flavor profiles can be described as a specification.
• Size (diameter or dimensions), weight, height if applicable.
3. Shelf-Life with Mode of Failure
See the chapter on Shelf Life and Abuse Testing for more information.
4. Packaging
• A diagram of the packaging showing the dimensions and materials used (be specific on types of plastics, layers in a laminated bag, etc.)
• Inner and outer package specs if applicable – search resources and suppliers for specifications as needed
• For films: thickness, heat sealability, vacuum packaging, any other functional attributes
• Individual weights or count if a multi-pack
• Case and pallet configuration – optional
5. Shipping and Handling Instructions
• Temperature control, weight limits on boxes, pallet size
• The course of action if the product is put on “hold” | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.04%3A_Finished_Product_Specifications.txt |
Consider your food’s characteristics and what function(s) packaging needs to provide. Packaging functionality is diverse, but typically includes:
• Containment (holds the food)
• Protects the food (quality, safety, freshness)
• Maintains or extends product shelf life
• Communicates and markets information through the label
• Provides convenience or utility for the consumer
Food Packaging Range
• Includes everything from bulk packaging
• Railcars and trucks
• 2000 pound totes
• 50-pound bags
• To retail packaging (like you see in the grocery store)
• To foodservice packaging
• Take Out boxes
• Bakery bags
Types of Packaging
• Primary – has direct contact with the food
• Bottle, can, bag, etc.
• Secondary – contains multiple primary packages
• Corrugated boxes, cases, stretch wrap
• Tertiary – bundling of secondary containers to allow easy transportation and distribution
• Often stacked on a pallet and stretch wrapped
Packaging Materials
• Metal (and foil)
• Glass
• Paper and Paperboard
• Corrugated boxes (aka cardboard boxes)
• Plastics
• Wood crates
Packaging Materials Chosen Based on:
• Cost
• Packaging equipment in place
• Product compatibility
• Processing requirements
• Shelf life desired
• Packaging materials used need to be easy to fill (line speeds help determine cost)
• All packaged food has identification included so it can be tracked (typically with a lot code and/or “best if used by” date)
Metal: Steel and Aluminum
• Used in cans and trays
• Able to form a hermetic seal, which is good for canning
• Steel
• Has a non-corrosive coating of either tin, chromium, or aluminum on the inside
• Manufactured into three-piece cans or two-piece cans
• Aluminum
• Easily formed into cans with hermetic seals
• Lighter weight than steel
• Resists corrosion
• Used in trays and aluminum foil
• Aluminum foil provides an oxygen and light barrier
Glass
• Derived from silicon dioxide (sand)
• Used in forming bottles and jars
• Can form hermetic seals, which makes glass good for canning
• Disadvantage:
• Glass needs to be thick enough to prevent breakage without being too heavy
• Coatings can be applied to minimize damaging nicks and scratches
• Advantage:
• 100% Recyclable
Paper
• Derived from the pulp of wood
• Includes additives for strength and barrier protection
• Generally recycled as long as the paper is not contaminated
• Pizza boxes have a wax coating
• Makes the paper hard to recycle
• Grease from the pizza is also a problem
• Thickness and layers of paper vary
• Paper – thin and one layer
• Paperboard – thicker, but still one layer
• Corrugated paperboard – multiple layers of paperboard, often referred to as cardboard
Plastics
• Six basic types of plastics
• Chosen by characteristics that are needed:
• Flexible and stretchable
• Lightweight
• Low-temperature formability (especially compared to glass)
• Resistant to breakage
• Strong heat sealability
• Barrier properties for moisture and oxygen
• Not all plastics are good oxygen or gas barriers – small bottles will lose their carbonation faster than big bottles
• Plastics are generally not good light barriers.
• Derived from natural gas and petroleum.
• Hydrocarbon monomers are formed into plastic polymers.
• Recycled plastic is not used for food packaging.
Laminates and Material Combinations
• Multilayers of aluminum foil, paper, and/or plastic films
• Chosen to get optimal functionality from the packaging
Controlling Atmosphere Packaging
• Generally has reduced oxygen levels
• Modified Atmosphere Packaging is the most common.
• Air is replaced with nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
• Increase in shelf life possible
• Reduces respiration of vegetables & other fresh foods.
• Also used for meats, baked goods, coffees & teas, dairy products, and lunch kits
• Can reduce the need for added preservatives
• Vacuum Packaging
• All oxygen and most of the air is removed
• Flexible packaging with a strong oxygen barrier is used
• Helps prevent rancidity
• There are restrictions on what can be vacuum packaged
• Clostridium botulinum is a concern in anaerobic (no oxygen present) conditions
Active Packaging
• Packaging can “react” to changes in the internal environment
• Antimicrobial films
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and odor scavengers
• Steam release films
• Time-temperature indicators
• Microwave susceptor films allow browning
Aseptic Packaging
• The food and packaging are sterilized separately
• Food is then packaged in a commercially sterile environment to produce a safe product
• Typically shelf-stable
Safety Measures
• Tamper-Evident Banding/Seals
• Gives consumers security that the product has not been compromised.
Environmental Concerns
• There has been a push to reduce packaging over the last 10-15 years.
• Most packaging materials can be recycled, but not all are.
• Plastic recycling is complicated – lots of plastic is not recycled and recycled plastic is typically not food-grade.
Packaging Material content adapted from Essentials of Food Science (Vaclavik et al., 2014) [1]
Choosing Your Packaging Material(s)
Focus on product packaging needs and the material characteristics to choose the packaging for your new product. Include multiple components and layers as needed. Does your product need protection from any of the following?
• Light
• Oxygen
• Breakage (fragile products)
Does the packaging for your product need to provide an additional function? Examples include:
• Microwave susceptors
• Vacuum packaging
• Antioxidant addition
• Processing in package (canning, etc.)
• Convenience (heat in the container and/or eat out of the container, single-serve)
Questions to Answer:
• What type of packaging is used for similar products?
• What type of packaging/filling equipment would your product require?
• What type of packaging can your product afford? (premium products are more likely to afford glass…)
Additional Considerations:
Where will your product be located?
• Refrigerated display case
• Wide array of packaging options
• Important – take fit, form, and function into account
• Freezer/Frozen Food Cases
• Important – look at packaging performance
• Heated display case
• Limited packaging options
• Ventilation for this packaging is important
• Think the rotisserie chicken packaging
Inventory Space reduction
• Increase the number of units per space in order to sell more
• Square and rectangular packaging is the most case ready
• Allows optimization of space within a case in order to get more product in the case
• Keeps case full and less handling by employees (where some damage come from – preventing food waste)
Decrease overall packaging costs
• Use a less expensive material that has the same function
• Higher price points for individual servings
1. Vaclavik, V., Christian, E., & Campbell, T. (2014). Essentials of Food Science (4th ed.). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46814-9 | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.05%3A_Choosing_Packaging_for_Your_Product.txt |
Designing a label is a blend of detail and creativity. Think about all of the components needed on the label before you start designing the label. Also, consider packaging layout and size. This will be important for determining what goes where and how much space you have for the design. Then get creative on how you want to make your package stand out on the grocery store shelves.
Requirements for a Food Label
• Statement of Identity or standard product name (in addition to the brand name)
• Net Quantity of Contents statement
• How much is in the package?
• Component/Ingredient Statement
• Listed greatest to least by weight
• Include all of the ingredients within ingredients – look at food packages for examples – enriched flour, chocolate and syrups are just some of the ingredients that are made up of additional ingredients
• Nutrition Facts Panel – make sure to check ingredients, processing adjustments, and serving size in Genesis. Get your Nutrition Facts Panel approved before exporting it for your label
• Allergen Statement – see FSIS Compliance Guidelines on Allergens (pdf) for more information.
• Signature line or name and place of business of the U.S. manufacturer, packer, or distributor
Additional Label Material
• Bar Code – can be generated on Genesis or “borrowed” from the internet…
• “Best by” Date – set your date based on shelf-life testing and research
• Lot Code – used for tracking purposes
• Preparation &/or Storage Instructions (keep refrigerated, heat thoroughly, etc.)
• Label Claims
• Nutrient Content Claims
• Health Claims
• Other truthful statements (vegan, kosher, third party verification, etc.)
• Marketing extras
• Slogan
• Promotional materials
• Choking Hazard Statement may be needed for some foods
• Meat & Poultry products need an Inspection Label – Check out the FSIS Label Reference (pdf) for more information.
Layout & Font Size
• Study FDA’s A Food Labeling Guide (pdf) – it is incredibly helpful for all components of the label and especially helpful for the layout requirements.
• Necessary to determine which part of your package is the Principal Display Panel (PDP) & Information Panel
• Then determine the area of the PDP for minimum type size permitted (especially for the net quantity statement)
What name should be used as the Statement of Identity?
• The name established by law or regulation, or in the absence thereof, the common or usual name of the food, if the food has one, should be used as the statement of identity.
• If there is none, then an appropriately descriptive name, that is not misleading, should be used.
• Brand names are not considered to be statements of identity and should not be unduly prominent compared to the statement of identity.
• Check out 21 CFR 101.3(b) & (d) for more information.
Be Creative – make your packaging stand out!
Here is a label (from England) that stands out on a crowded snack shelf.
End Goal
• Your team needs one finished label and package to submit.
• The approval process generally takes a few times to get it right.
How to Get Started
• Organize/create all of the material that is required for the label.
• Organize/create additional material (graphics, claims, etc.) that you would like to put on the label.
• Determine package material(s) & size/dimensions.
• Identify the principal display panel and then organize the layout accordingly.
• Canva is recommended for designing the label.
• Check out Packola.com for boxes (help with the layout).
Package Example – Bag Design
Legend:
1. Company name
2. Brand name
3. Statement of Identity/standard product name
4. Truthful statement
5. Image for branding and consumer attraction purposes
6. Nutrient Content Claim
7. Net Weight Statement
8. Ingredient callout for marketing & consumer attraction purposes
9. Nutrition Facts Panel
10. Preparation steps for product
11. Ingredient Statement
12. Manufacturer Address and Phone Number, Bar Code, and Lot Code/Tracking Code | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.06%3A_Designing_a_Package_Label.txt |
Calculating the Suggested Retail Price (SRP) for your product will be done using a model.
• While the model generally does a reasonable job estimating the SRP, note that some calculations may need to be adjusted for your product SRP to be realistic.
• Adjustments are common for products with inexpensive ingredients and expensive packaging or possibly for products with intricate processing steps.
• Calculating ingredient costs for your product should be done based on your package size.
• Make sure to do one calculation at a time and check your work.
Ingredient Pricing
• The first step to determining your product’s suggested retail price
• Submit your ingredient list to faculty for pricing
• A Google Sheet is provided for your team to submit your ingredient list.
• Make sure to include all of the details (product name, code number, descriptors for grocery ingredients)
• Faculty will contact suppliers for ingredient pricing (and will fill in the price per unit in the Google Sheet)
• Watch the units and details with pricing.
• Method for Supplier Pricing
• Request ingredient pricing for small to medium-size production amounts – this equates to pallet size for gums, truckload quantities for flour, sugar, etc.
• Pricing is typically given as f.o.b., so some transportation cost is added to the base price. Transportation costs can vary widely, so an estimate is used.
• Method for Grocery Store Prices (Secondary Option)
• Generally, take 60-70% of the grocery store price to get an ingredient cost
• Sometimes ~90% of bulk online/restaurant pricing is used
Estimated SRP Calculations
1. Start with your formula in percent by weight.
2. Calculate the weight of each ingredient in pounds (or gallons for a few fluid ingredients) per package amount.
3. Calculate the price of each ingredient in one package. Water (as long as it is not specially filtered) is considered part of the overhead cost and does not need to be part of the calculation.
4. Add ingredient costs to get the total cost of all of the ingredients in one package.
5. Calculate manufacturing costs by starting with a 55% base of the ingredient cost for manufacturing costs. Additional costs that may need to be added include:
• 5% for each unit operation that the plant considers beyond “typical processing”, i.e. special equipment, additional processing steps, etc.
• NOTE: Please check with faculty for processes that require an additional 5%.
• Add 2% for each of the following: if you have refrigerated ingredients, refrigerated products, frozen ingredients, and/or a frozen product.
• Add 15% for packaging costs, add 20% for unique or complex packaging (generally considered anything more than a bottle, bag, or bag in box)
6. Add together ingredient costs and manufacturing costs. Then calculate an additional 4% for marketing and advertising costs.
7. Calculate company cost to stores by adding 40% for company profit of the ingredient + manufacturing + marketing & advertising costs.
8. Calculate SPR per package by adding 35% for store markup.
Example Calculations (note that is it helpful to wait and round values at the end of the calculations)
Table 1. Calculating Ingredient Costs for 1 Box of Hot Cocoa Dry Mix
Cocoa Dry Mix Batch Wt. % by wt. Weight/Box (8 – 26 gram servings) Weight/Box in pounds. \$/pound \$/Box
Sugar 288 41.9 87.0688 0.19178150 0.41 0.07863041
Cocoa 80 11.6 24.1904 0.05328282 0.89 0.04742171
Non-fat Dry Milk 225 32.7 68.0160 0.14981498 0.99 0.14831683
Vanilla Powder 20 2.9 6.0528 0.01333216 20.00 0.26664317
Marshmallows 75 10.9 22.6720 0.04993833 0.85 0.04244758
688 100.0 208.0000 0.45814978 0.58345970
Table 2. Calculations 1 Step at a Time for Hot Cocoa Dry Mix
Ingredient Cost per Box \$0.583
Manufacturing Cost \$0.583 x 70% = \$0.408 + \$0.583 = \$0.991
Marketing & Advertising \$0.991 x 4% = \$0.0396 + \$0.991 = \$1.031
Company Profit \$1.031 x 40% = \$0.412 + \$1.031 = \$1.443
Store Markup \$1.443 x 35% = \$0.505 + \$1.443 = \$1.948
The model shows a suggested retail price of \$1.95 per box of 8 servings of hot cocoa mix. That seems about right based on current grocery store prices. The SRP will likely fluctuate based on ingredient and transportation costs.
After Calculating Your Suggested Retail Price (SRP)
• Check your work and ask yourself, does your cost make sense?
• Compare your SRP to competing products
• Let faculty know your SRP
• If your SRP is lower than expected, what is the reason why?
• May need to adjust costing to account for model weaknesses
• If your SRP is higher than expected, what are the contributing factors, and could you adjust your ingredients/process/company profit to reduce your SRP? | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Product_Development_Lab_Manual_(Gilbert_and_Prusa)/05%3A_Commercialization/5.07%3A_Calculating_Suggested_Retail_Price_%28SRP%29.txt |
Advertising Food for Health and Happiness: Bovril to superfood
Anne F. MacLennan is an Associate Professor in Communication and Media Studies at York University and editor of the Journal of Radio and Audio Media. She is co-author of Seeing, Selling, and Situating Radio in Canada, 1922–1956. Her research focuses on radio, media history, research methodologies, women, poverty, advertising, and labour. She is published in Media and Communication,Journal of Radio & Audio Media,Women’s Studies, Radio Journal, Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations,Urban History Review, and edited collections.
Irena Knezevic is an Associate Professor in the School of Journalism and Communication at Carleton University, and the director of the Carleton Food and Media Hub. She is a co-editor of Nourishing Communities: From Fractured Food Systems to Transformative Pathways and has published in CanadianJournal of Communication, Canadian Food Studies, Food, Culture and Society, and Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Identify some advertising strategies used to promote commercial food products.
• Describe historical precursors of “superfood” advertising.
• Articulate links between food, health, and advertising.
Introduction
Many cultures have versions of the sayings, “you are what you eat,” “a hungry person is an angry person,” and “let food be thy medicine.” Food, health, and well-being are inextricably linked, and advertising has long capitalized on this.[1] Promotional messages that describe food products as linked to diets, low in undesirable ingredients like added sugars, or high in desirable ones like fiber, always imply that such products improve health. While those qualities can be beneficial to human health, their impact is sometimes exaggerated as a magical solution to the pursuit of health and well-being.
In much of the world, the average person is exposed to thousands of advertisements every day. People receive information from advertising, alongside nutritional advice from news media, social media feeds, science reporting, and public health messaging. Competing interests, evolving nutritional science, and cultural trends shape the abundance and the complexity of available food information. That information is now made widely accessible with new media technologies, which have also enabled anyone—not just recognized experts—to offer opinions and recommendations to tell consumers how to choose their food. This—rather than making us more knowledgeable about nutrition—leaves us sifting through conflicting and confusing messages looking for shortcuts to wise food choices. We want simple, magical solutions to health and well-being. This desire is bolstered by promotional messages that highlight individual responsibility for personal health. Health and nutrition are often portrayed as individual choices, encouraging those practices that are deemed healthy as moral imperatives. Even for people who have little choice—for economic, mobility, geographical or other reasons—this view imposes a cultural norm of individual responsibility for managing diet and appearing healthy. Food products that promise to aid in dietary management benefit from this cultural norm.
The Bovril Example
In 1871, butcher and amateur food scientist John Lawson Johnston acquired the contract to supply canned meat to Paris after the Franco-Prussian War. Commercial production of his meat-extract paste commenced in Montreal in 1874.[2] The product was soon available widely and continues be sold to this day. The international promotion of Bovril in the early twentieth century offers a fascinating glimpse into the historical trajectory of food advertising that promises “health, strength, and happiness.” Bovril advertising evolved, but the core message has remained consistent—this food product offers an easy, convenient path to well-being through consumption.
We have been collecting and analysing Bovril advertisements for more than a decade. The product’s century-and-a-half long existence has generated hundreds of advertisements; many from the early 20th century are widely available in physical and digital archives.
A more focused sample from 1930 to 1940 was collected from major Canadian newspapers,[3] where a keyword for Bovril produced a sample of unique 288 advertisements. The decade of the Great Depression was a time of post–World War I recovery and unstable global politics that would eventually lead to World War II. It was also a decade of food precarity that made a meat substitute like Bovril more significant. Moreover, the early 1900s are considered the golden age of advertising, when transportation and printing technologies speedily evolved, and industrialization allowed for large-scale production and expansion of markets outside of manufacturers’ local communities. However, by the mid-1920s in North America, print media suddenly had to compete with radio for advertising revenue, and in response, print ads became increasingly catchy, intricate, and colourful. The archives from the decades that followed offer an abundance of diverse and clever print ads.
Health and Strength
A close reading of the advertisements revealed that science, medicine, and health figured heavily in the campaigns. In the advertisement, “Yes, Doctor – Bovril is just what he needed” (Figure 1), a nurse is on the telephone. Bovril sits outside of the frame of her photograph, connecting it to the nurse and her report to the doctor. The advertisement’s claim that “Bovril Gives Strength Quickly” is expanded, indicating its “unique power of enabling convalescents to get more nourishment from other foods.”[4]Bovril’s Human Document campaign offered testimonials attesting how Bovril improved customers’ health. “Bovril helped me save my Boy” (Figure 2) chronicled a Montreal mother’s story about her worries after her son’s surgery, proclaiming “I would…shout to everyone ‘try Bovril, when everything else fails, Bovril won’t…’[5] The campaign, with its numbered “document” entries, implied research-based evidence of Bovril’s success. This was at a time when scientific innovations, acceptance of germs, and the ability of people to influence their own health through practices like exercise, diet, anti-spitting laws, and initiatives other than prayer became important. Montreal, Canada’s largest city in the 1930s, was second only to Mumbai in tuberculous infections in the 1920s and 1930s.[6] Public health campaigns of the time worked to change traditional practices of sanitation and health.[7]In Canada, 1926 to 1930 infant mortality rates averaged 93 per 1000 live births, 75 from 1931 to 1935, and 64 from 1936 to 1940, making the health of surviving children a pressing concern.[8] Pablum, a prepackaged, vitamin-enriched cereal for children developed by Toronto’s Hospital for Sick Children, is an example of a dietary innovation used to strengthen the body during an era when other remedies failed to safeguard children against polio, Scarlett fever, tuberculosis, measles, rickets, and other diseases.
Echoing the concerns about childhood health, the campaign “Why Children Need Bovril” (Figures 3 and 4) featured toddlers and older children. It promoted Bovril’s “body-building powers” and encouraged parents to mix Bovril into milk and add it to their children’s daily diets.[9] The promotion of the body-building characteristics of the product extended to adults emphasizing “remarkable experiments upon human subjects” and the “astonishing body-building power of Bovril proved by famous Physiologist.”[10] The appeal to scientific research and medical authority in text was paralleled by visuals. “Realize the difference made by one spoonful of Bovril” (Figure 5) incorporated an image of Bovril being poured into a spoon like medicine.[11] While no medical claims were made in the advertisement, the daily use of Bovril was promoted. “It must be Bovril” (Figure 6) became the catchphrase of a Bovril campaign, reportedly quoting Sir Ernest Shackleton preparing for his Antarctic Expedition. Bovril was described as essential for homes and sickrooms attended by doctors and nurses.[12] The association with strength and health extended well into the 1970s with testimonial advertising from mountaineers[13] and elite athletes.[14] Health remained a constant element in the campaigns. While the imagery and text changed to reflect the sensibilities of each decade, Bovril advertising repeatedly featured notions of health, medicine, and science, over several decades.
Magic and Transformation
Magical, physical, and mental transformation was always a strong component of Bovril campaigns.[15] Canadian 1930s advertising portrayed Bovril as a comforting, hot drink, especially in the winter. The power of beef in the formula was credited with great feats of strength, such as the man in office attire holding an elephant above his head (Figure 7).[16] Advertising the power and stimulating taste of Bovril was crucial in a period when regular access to protein through meat was precarious. Concentrated beef was a key selling point in the advertisements, and the bull, a symbol of strength and authority (Figure 8), was a reminder of this ingredient and what it promised to deliver.[17] Avoiding the chills and ills of winter were routinely part of the advertising, whether it featured a sick or injured person, or outside gatherings. Further, meat was expensive and at the same time considered a necessity for nourishment and strength.[18]
In the advertisement “Keep warmer with Hot Bovril” (Figure 9) the association with the heroic continued, with two men rescuing another man, who had fallen through ice, by offering him a hot cup of Bovril rather than pulling him from the icy water.[19] The magical qualities were reinforced with the image of a large cut of prime beef hovering over the tiny bottle of Bovril to show all the “concentrated savoury goodness of the best there is in Prime Beef” (Figure 10) packed into the small bottle.[20]
T.J. Jackson Lears, a cultural historian, argues that industrialization ushered neurasthenia, a type of depression associated with changes wrought by the modern working world.[21] Bovril captured that early-20th-century concern for mental health and well-being in its “Bovril Prevents that Sinking Feeling” campaign, and in advertisements such as “…but men and women are not machines… Every Body Needs the Strength of Bovril” (Figure 11).[22]Bovril’s advertisements illustrated the constant work, including women’s unending work (Figure 12), and the euphemistic visualization of sinking represented by a man clinging to a buoy at sea. Along with advertisements demonstrating physical strength to ward off physical illness, these showed how Bovril could make life brighter, as a cure and remedy, but also as a daily treat. It was promoted as an ingredient in soups and stews, mixed with milk, or as a sandwich spread (Figure 13).[23] Health, well-being, and Bovril were linked as a daily routine.
Discussion, implications, and conclusion
Advertising equates the purchase of food with a sense well-being and overall good health. Recent promotions of “superfoods” are examples of promotions that echo the tone of early Bovril advertising. In recent years, many foods like acai berries products, green tea, and fermented milk, like kefir and “probiotic yogurt,” have been touted as superfoods that can instantly improve health and extend lifespan. In 2021, OSU, owned by Mizkan in Japan, launched a campaign to promote its apple cider vinegar in the U.K. market. It cast three stylish nonagenarians from Tokyo to convey vitality and health.[24] The eternal quest for health and happiness continues to feature prominently in advertising.
Social theorists have long identified the link between dietetic management and capitalism. Bryan Turner[25] proposed that dietetic management of one’s body stemmed from two key characteristics of capitalism: (a) the privileging of Western science and medicine, and (b) the need for functioning, labouring bodies to participate in industrial commodity production. Mike Featherstone[26] expanded on this to include another tenet of capitalism—individualism. The emphasis on individual freedoms and responsibilities has made “body maintenance” both an individual responsibility and a requirement for economic participation. Together, these values have rendered dietetic management a pillar of being a good citizen.
The resulting cultural pressure on individuals to pursue “good” diets makes promises of easy solutions to healthy eating particularly appealing. Bovril’s longevity on the market suggests that their messaging has resonated with consumers, serving as a historical example of successful food advertising.
Contemporary advertising for various “superfoods” is but a continuation of promotional messaging that offers shortcuts to dietetic management. Bovril’s 1930s advertisements may seem laughable now, but a closer reading reveals that they were also trailblazing.
Discussion Q uestions
• How do current advertising campaigns convince consumers that their foods make them healthy and happy?
• What advertising messages have prompted you to buy a food product to improve your health?
• What do historical examples of food advertising tell us about the evolving understandings of health and nutrition?
Additional Resources
Readers can find numerous Bovril print and television ads with a simple internet search. Bovril even has its own Wikipedia page!
Product information about Bovril is available on the manufacturer’s website.
John Lawson Johnston’s papers are held by the City of Edinburgh Council Archives.
References
Adams, A., K. Schwartzman and D. Theodore. 2008. “Collapse and Expand: Architecture and Tuberculosis Therapy in Montreal, 1909, 1933, 1954.” Technology and Culture49 (4): 908–942.
Bovril. “Bovril helped me save my Boy.” Advertisement. The Vancouver Sun. November 19, 1937, p. 7.
Bovril. “Bovril stands alone”. Advertisement. Vancouver Daily World. October 22,1920. p. 16.
Bovril. “Enjoy the stimulating taste of Bovril nourishing concentrated beef.” Advertisement. The Vancouver Province. December 14, 1938. p. 32.
Bovril. “Keep warmer with Hot Bovril.” Advertisement. The Ottawa Citizen. December 1, 1930. p. 17.
Bovril. “Men and Women are Not Machines” Advertisement. The Ottawa Citizen. February 1, 1940. p. 7.
Bovril. “Prime Beef is tempting, tasty, and nourishing.” Advertisement. Regina Leader-Post. January 5, 1938. p. 16.
Bovril. “Realize the difference made by one spoonful of Borvil.” Advertisement. The Regina Leader-Post. November 5, 1931. p. 4.
Bovril. “Tempting and Tasty Bovril Sandwiches are so delightfully different.” Advertisement. The Vancouver Province. August 5, 1932. p. 9.
Bovril. “They Must Have Been Giving Him Bovril.” Advertisement. The Ottawa Citizen. November 13, 1940. p. 5.
Bovril. “When Illness Threatens.” Advertisement. The Montreal Gazette. November 5, 1930, p. 11.
Bovril. “Why Bovril Prevents that Sinking Feeling.” Advertisement. The Montreal Gazette. February 3, 1931, p. 11.
Bovril. “Why Children Need Bovril.” Advertisement. The Vancouver Province. September 25, 1935. p.10.
Bovril. “Why- Children Need Bovril.” Advertisement. Edmonton Journal. October 3, 1935. p. 2.
Bovril. “A woman’s work is never done”. Advertisement. November 3, 1933. The Vancouver Sun. p. 11.
Bovril. “Yes, doctor – Bovril is just what he needed.” Advertisement. The Toronto Globe. January 17, 1933. p. 10.
Copp, T. 1974. The Anatomy of Poverty: The Condition of the Working Class in Montreal 1897-1929. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
Featherstone, M. 1982. “The Body in Consumer Culture.” Theory, Culture & Society1 (2): 18–33.
“Great British Brands: Bovril – Created for the French army and used by Scott and Shackleton, Bovril has a rich past and retains consumer loyalty.” Advertising. (August 1, 2002): 11.
Lears, T.J.J. 1981. No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation American Culture. New York: Pantheon Books.
MacLennan, A.F. 1984. “Charity and Change: The Montreal Council of Social Agencies’ Attempts to Deal with the Depression.” Master thesis, McGill University.
McCuaig, K.E. 1979. “The Campaign Against Tuberculosis in Canada 1900–1950.” Master thesis, McGill University.
Poutanen, M.A., S. Olson, R. Fischler, K. Schwartzman. 2009. “Tuberculosis in Town: Mobility of Patients in Montreal, 1925–1950.” Histoire sociale/Social history 42 (83): 69–106.
Steinitz, L. 2014. “Making Muscular Machines with Nitrogenous Nutrition: Bovril, Plasmon and Cadbury’s Cocoa,” in Food & Material Culture: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2013. ed. Mark McWilliams: 289–303. Devon: Prospect Books.
Tetreault, M. 1983. “Les Maladies de la Misère: Aspects de la Santé Publique a Montréal 1880-1914.Revue d’histoire de l’amerique française 36: 507–526.
Turner, B.S. 1982. “The Discourse of Diet.” Theory, Culture & Society1 (1): 23–32.
Williams, R. 1960. “The Magic System.” New Left Review4: 27-32.
1. Due to the parallel development of print technologies and expansion of colonial trade in the 17th century, the earliest food ads featured imported spices and other non-perishable goods, and livestock auctions were frequently promoted in print as early as the 1600s. The imported goods were sometimes unfamiliar to the readers, and the ads had to convince the readers of the benefits of such foods, so even early food ads suggested these foods would support health, strength, and well-being.
2. “Great British Brands” 2002.
3. Winnipeg Tribune, Montreal Gazette, Vancouver Province, Windsor Star, Calgary Herald, Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, Victoria Times Colonist, Ottawa Citizen, and Globe/Globe & Mail.
4. Bovril. "Yes, Doctor – Bovril is just what he needed.” 1933
5. Bovril. “Bovril helped me save my Boy.” 1937.
6. Copp 1974; MacLennan 1984; McCuaig 1979; Tetreault 1983.
7. Poutanen et al. 2009; Adams et al. 2008.
8. Statistics Canada.
9. Bovril. “Why Children Need Bovril.” 1935; Bovril. "Why Children Need Bovril.” 1931.
10. Bovril. "Bovril stands alone". 1920.
11. Bovril. "Realize the difference made by one spoonful of Bovril.” 1931.
12. Bovril. "When Illness Threatens." 1930.
13. Bovril. British television advertisement featuring Chris Bonington, who climbed Mount Everest. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LH3PHL6vTJw.
14. Bovril. British television advertisement featuring Wendy Brook, fastest swimmer to cross the English Channel. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u40ZhrZPOoU
15. Williams 1960.
16. Bovril. “They Must Have Been Giving Him Bovril." 1940.
17. Bovril. “Enjoy the stimulating taste of Bovril nourishing concentrated beef.” 1938.
18. Steinitz 2014.
19. Bovril. "Keep warmer with Hot Bovril." 1930.
20. Bovril. “Prime Beef is tempting, tasty, and nourishing.” 1938.
21. Lears 1981.
22. Bovril. "Men and Women are Not Machines" 1940; Bovril. "Why Bovril Prevents that Sinking Feeling.” 1931; Bovril. “A woman’s work is never done.” 1933.
23. Bovril. “Tempting and Tasty Bovril Sandwiches are so delightfully different.” 1932.
24. Kiefer 2021.
25. Turner 1982.
26. Featherstone 1982. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.29%3A_Case%3A_Superfood_Advertising.txt |
Breast Milk: The Past, Present, and FuturE
Janet Colson‘s interest and experience in breastfeeding began during her work with the Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women Infants and Children (WIC) in rural Mississippi. After five years of teaching new mothers how to feed their babies with WIC, she transitioned to university teaching. Currently, she is a professor at Middle Tennessee State University, where she teaches life cycle nutrition classes.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Trace the history of infant feeding practices over the last three centuries.
• Explain the importance of human milk for infant survival.
• Differentiate between cross-nursing, wet-nursing, and milk-sharing.
• Identify the pros and cons of pasteurizing human milk.
Introduction
Shortly after my father’s birth in 1918, his mother developed the Spanish flu, requiring her to be hospitalized for several weeks. During my grandmother’s absence, a neighbor cared for my father, who was less than a month old at the time. The neighbor fed him from her own breasts, a practice known as wet-nursing.
A century later, the global COVID pandemic had a similar effect on newborns. Today, because wet-nursing is taboo in most countries, mothers too ill to nurse have the option to purchase another woman’s breast milk. Human milk is available to buy from accredited milk banks or from enterprising women selling their milk for extra income. Some lucky parents may have a friend or relative willing to supply breast milk free of charge, a practice known as milk sharing. According to public health officials, mothers unable to nurse should only use another woman’s milk that has been pasteurized, similar to the milk sold in grocery stores.[1] This type milk is known as pasteurized human donor milk.
How did we, as a global community, transition from a birth mother nursing from her own breasts, to outsourcing infant feeding to paid wet nurses, to having a market for pasteurized human milk? We can trace the history to at least 1000 BC.
Milk for Human Infants
Human breast milk has always been the gold standard for feeding infants. Humanity would not exist today had our ancestral mothers refused to nurse. Perhaps one of the earliest written records of nursing is found in Exodus from the Old Testament bible. The author describes how Moses’ mother hides him in a basket to prevent his execution and a princess finds the young infant and decides to adopt him. Realizing that he will need a wet nurse, Moses’ big sister tells the princess that her mother is willing to nurse the babe.[2] Not knowing that the woman is Moses’ actual birth mother, the princess pays her to serve as his wet nurse.
Although not common, hiring a wet nurse is still an option for today’s parents, but there are several other methods. As shown in Table I, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends human milk, fed directly from the natural mother’s breasts, as the best method.[3] If an infant is too weak to nurse from the birth mother’s breasts, the woman should pump and feed her milk through a bottle or other feeding device. If the birth mother cannot produce enough milk to meet the needs of her infant, use of pasteurized human milk from an accredited donor milk bank ranks third. Fourth in this ranking is the use of a wet-nurse. Because it is not socially accepted in all cultures, WHO clarifies their stance: “Wet-nursing may be an option depending on acceptability to mothers and families, availability of wet nurses, and services to support mothers and wet nurses.”[4] Commercial infant formula is the least favorable method of infant feeding and should only be used if other methods are not feasible.
[table id=5 /]
(source: World Health Organization[5])
Most commercial formulas are made from cow’s milk—with vitamins and minerals added to make it resemble human milk—or from soy protein formulated in a similar way. In 1981, after WHO’s concern about the global decrease in breastfeeding, the organization published the “International Code of Marketing Breast-Milk Substitutes.”[6] Their aim was “to contribute to the provision of safe and adequate nutrition for infants, by the protection and promotion of breast-feeding, and by ensuring the proper use of breast-milk substitutes, when these are necessary.”[7] The same year, the Codex Alimentarius established regulations specifying the minimum content of 29 nutrients in infant formula.[8] The regulations have been updated several times to coincide with advances in research on nutrient needs of infants. The Codex requires that infant formula labels include a statement describing the superiority of breastfeeding such as “Breast milk is the best food for your baby.”[9]
Infant Feeding AND GROWTH During the Early Months
Ideally, breast milk should be the only source of food given to infants for the first six months of life, with continued breastfeeding as the baby begins eating cereals and other solid foods. The American Academy of Pediatrics[10] recommends breastfeeding until age one and beyond, whereas WHO[11] and the Canadian Pediatric Society[12] both recommend continuation to two years of agin and beyond. Some mothers define “beyond” as five or six years, a practice criticized by mainstream parents, but acceptable to less traditional parents.
Human milk has the perfect nutrient content for optimal infant growth. Table 2 includes a few of the nutrients found in various mammalian milks. Human milk is much lower in protein and minerals than milk from other mammals, which is the ideal amount needed for a human baby’s growth pattern. Humans grow much more slowly than other mammals, gaining about one ounce per day in the first few months of life, whereas calves add an extra two to three pounds a day, topping out at 500 to 800 pounds by twelve months. A healthy human infant may weigh a mere twenty-one or twenty-two pounds by their first birthday.
[table id=6 /]
Background on Preterm Babies
Weight and gestational age at birth reflect the health status and survival rate of newborns. Infants born at or after 38 weeks of gestation are considered full term; those born earlier are pre-term. Birth weights vary by stage of gestation, as noted in Table 3.[14] Based on 2019 U.S. data, slightly less than two percent of infants are born at very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams). These very small preemies frequently do not survive. Eight percent are low birthweight, weighing less than 2,500 grams.[15] Those weighing at least 3,000 grams are the healthiest, with few complications.
[table id=7 /]
(Adapted from the Utah Department of Health Fetal Growth Chart[16])
Until neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) became common in the 1970s, preemies weighing 1,500 grams or less had a very low chance of surviving. Today, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening intestinal condition occurring in about 10% of these very small infants. The condition, characterized by intestinal inflammation and perforations, often results in death.[17] Neonatologists recognize that giving these babies infant formula worsens NEC; survival is much greater if infants are fed human milk. However, many women who deliver prematurely are unable to produce an adequate amount of milk. Survival of these infants improves when given pasteurized human donor milk.
Nutritional Needs of Young Infants
Infants’ bodies are unable to digest and metabolize the high amounts of protein, calcium, phosphorus, and sodium in milk from cows and other large mammals. Commercial infant formula mimics the low protein and mineral content of human milk. Before the availability of commercial infant formula, infants given cow’s or goat’s milk developed severe diarrhea and eventually died due the damage it caused in their immature bodies. Today’s infants should not be given cow’s milk until at least age one because of this high protein and mineral content.
A woman’s breast milk fulfills her own baby’s nutritional needs, not those of a baby who is older or younger than the child she birthed. Nutrients in breast milk vary by the age and needs of a woman’s biological child, not for the infant of a friend, family member, or complete stranger.
Health Benefits of Human Milk
In addition to the ideal balance of nutrients, human milk is often called “liquid gold” because of the numerous bioactive substances such as hormones, immunoglobulins, probiotics, prebiotics, and oligosaccharides it contains. In addition to the immunoglobulins that are absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, current research shows the high levels of oligosaccharides contain anti-adhesive properties that may decrease absorption of viruses and bacteria, thereby reducing infections.[18] Even though formula manufacturers claim their products are “closest to mother’s milk” by trying to replicate the nutrient and bioactive ingredients, they will never be able to replicate nature’s nutriment.
Methods of Feeding Human Milk
Although wet-nursing is rare in developed countries, the practice was common from prehistoric time until the early 1900s, when widespread use of infant formula became the norm. In fact, it was the only way to keep infants alive. Throughout history, wealthy families sent their newborns to live with a wet nurse until the child could drink from a cup and eat regular foods. Even poor families turned to wet nurses if the mother died at birth or was too ill to care for her own infant.[19]
Hormonal changes that occur at the delivery of a newborn stimulate milk production in a woman’s breasts. Nutrients are highest in milk produced for the first few months, when infants are growing rapidly, and decrease substantially after six months. Therefore, the ideal wet nurse is one who has recently given birth, when her milk is at its prime. During the 18th and 19th centuries, slave owners throughout the Americas often forced enslaved women who had recently given birth to nurse their wives’ newborns, instead of allowing the slaves to nurse their own infants. This practice often resulted in death of the enslaved infants, who were given cow’s milk or dirty water. [20]
After abolition and slaves were set free, poor women took over as wet nurses for the wealthy. It became a well-organized profession, with doctors often helping wealthy new mothers hire a suitable wet nurse. Because a nursing woman needed to have recently given birth, the woman’s biological infant often suffered because she gave preference to the the paying infant, similar to the fate of enslaved infants.
Today, nursing another woman’s infant is still practiced, although not broadly publicized. Mothers may join an informal nursing co-op and nurse each other’s children, a practice known as cross-nursing. A quick internet search will show the top websites for promoting wet-nurse services, and also for buying and selling expressed milk. Only the Breast[21] and Breast Feeding Moms Unite[22] are two top sites. Of the 3,500 postings on Only the Breast, 17 are for wet nurses.
Chestfeeding
“Chestfeeding” is term and practice that has emerged among people who choose to feed their babies from their chest, but who do not identify with the term breastfeeding for one of a number of reasons. Trans men who have undergone surgery to remove most of their breast tissue (“chest masculinization” or “top” surgery) as well as cis-gender women who have have experienced breast-related trauma often prefer this term. Similarly, a non-binary person may choose not to use the term breastfeeding, given the female-gendered association it carries. If a trans man chooses to retain their uterus and ovaries, pregnancy is possible, and lactation is often possible after delivery. Alternately, some trans women may want to feed an adopted baby, in which case hormone therapy with nipple stimulation can make lactation possible.
Breast pumps have been around for about 200 years. The earliest ones consisted of a syringe connected to a glass bowl.[23] These early pumps were painful and not efficient in suctioning milk, unlike the double electric pumps available today that work on both breasts simultaneously. (See Figure 1.) In the U.S., the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 requires insurance companies to provide a pump for breastfeeding parents and specifies that employers allow time for women to pump during the workday.[24] The U.S. does not require employers to give paid maternity leave like most other developed countries, resulting in many women returning to work a few weeks after birth. Providing a pump encourages continued breastfeeding throughout the first year.
Women vary in their milk production, with some able to pump an additional 20 to 30 ounces each day after feeding their own babies. Entrepreneurial mothers may choose to sell their surplus milk to other parents as a source of income. Based on Only the Breast postings, most women charge between US\$1.00 and US\$2.00 per ounce, with vegan milk priced slightly higher.[25] A few altruistic mothers freely give their excess milk, representing a huge savings to parents in need.
One problem with pumping and storing milk is that it loses some nutritional value. Small amounts of nutrients cling to the tube and collection container while pumping. Pouring milk into a plastic bag to freeze, and from there into a bottle for feeding, results in additional nutrient loss. An infant nursing directly from their mother’s own breast thus provides the highest quality nutriment.
The Practice of Milk-Sharing
Research has also been done on the experience of milk-sharing mothers.[26] Representing both milk recipients and milk donors, mothers from various continents shared their opinions about the bonds formed with the donor or recipient, health aspects of giving milk, and opinions of other family members. As they noted:
“In Islamic culture, we have to maintain the relationship because me giving my milk to another baby has created a familial bond [meaning that] my children and my milk children cannot marry one another.” [Donor]
“It gives you kind of a lifelong connection. It’s hard to explain but I look at my son’s ‘milk siblings’ with fondness.” [Donor]
“For so long I was very cynical about life and other people, but being able to be involved in the modern ‘It takes a whole village to raise a baby’ idea has changed my perceptions of what is going on in our society.” [Recipient]
“My son gained 10 pounds in 3 months after we started receiving donor milk. He did not gain any weight his first month of life. He is healthy and happy.” [Recipient]
“I think the only negative repercussions were from my family who [are] not keen on breastfeeding. I got weird looks and disgusted words.” [Recipient]
Unpasteurized Human Milk
Health care experts frown on individuals selling or giving breast milk because it is unpasteurized. Researchers at Ohio State analyzed the microbial content of breast milk bought online. They found bacterial contamination in 75% of the samples, reflecting poor collection, storage, or shipping techniques.[27] Pasteurization would have destroyed the bacteria, making it safe for babies. In another study, the same researchers bought 102 human milk samples; a shocking ten percent contained cow’s milk.[28] Parents buy human milk assuming it is 100 percent human milk, devoid of cow’s milk or other additives. Infants who have a milk allergy may suffer a life-threatening reaction when given the adulterated milk. Some parents may also be tempted to water down their milk to increase profit, resulting in inadequate nutrients and calories.
While pasteurization protects against pathogenic microbes, it has its downside. The high heat processing destroys many of the bioactive substances and vitamin content. In a review of 44 studies that examined the nutrient and bioactive content of pasteurized human, results showed that the immunoglobulins, enzymes, and vitamin C levels were much lower in the pasteurized product than in the fresh milk. However, most other nutrients were unaffected.[29]
Non-ProfitHuman Milk Banks
Human milk banks are services that accept, pasteurize, and bottle donated breast milk and provide it to the frail pre-term babies in hospital NICUs. The first American milk bank opened in the early 1900s in Boston, after physicians realized that very small infants failed to thrive if given the cow’s milk formula common at the time. The word spread and human milk banking grew steadily in North America. By the 1980s, Canada had 23 milk banks and the U.S. had 30. However, the HIV/AIDS crisis in the mid-1980s resulted in closure in all but one in Canada and the vast majority in the U.S.[30]
In 1985, the Human Milk Banking Association of North America (HMBANA) organized and now accredits nonprofit milk banks in Canada and the U.S. The Association developed international guidelines for pasteurized human donor milk. Canada has four HMBANA-accredited milk banks and the U.S. has 25, with several applying for accreditation.[31] Milk banks face several problems. In addition to health crises (such as the COVID pandemic’s effect of decreasing donations), their operating cost is high. They must pay to screen the mothers, test for purity and bacterial levels in the milk, then pasteurize, bottle, package, store, and ship the final product. As a result, the banks must charge US\$4.00 to US\$5.00 per ounce for the pasteurized human milk to cover their expenses.[32] A tiny preterm infant may drink only one ounce per feeding, but as they grows, the amount increases to 20 to 30 ounces per day.
Although North American efforts are better than most other countries, Brazil is considered the global leader in donor milk banks:
With a history of the practice dating back to the 1930s, the country also has a three decade-old public health law that stipulates all the steps required to operate a [human donor] bank, based on advice from scientists at the respected research organization, FIOCRUZ. Today, Brazil has 217 milk banks, plus another 126 milk collection points, with at least one bank in each of the country’s 26 states—from Amazonas to São Paulo. Last year, 166,848 Brazilian women donated breast milk; an even larger number of infants reaped the benefits.
This huge system is centrally organized; every state has a reference bank… An online portal called RedeBLH, which has won praise from foreigners, facilitates a vast data collection operation, and enables the public, as well as the government, to stay informed. FIOCRUZ’s Fernandes Figueira Institute—where the national reference bank is kept—also disseminates information via a newsletter, conducts research, and runs undergraduate and graduate programs on policy and applied methodologies for milk banking.[33]
Human Milk for Profit
In contrast to the non-profit endeavors described above, two U.S. companies buy human milk, process it into human milk fortifiers, then sell if for a profit. Both were founded by entrepreneur Elena Medo. Her first was Prolacta® Bioscience, which began in 1999 and sold its first 100% human milk products to hospitals in 2006. The California-based company pays women US\$1.00 per ounce for their milk, processes it into a variety of 100% human milk forms, and sells it to hospital NICUs around the world.[34] In 2009, Medo left Prolacta® to form a new company Medolac® that follows a similar model.[35]
The Future of “Human Milk”
The future of commercial ventures for human milk appears to be endless. In 2020, two visionary entrepreneurs introduced “mammary biotechnology” at their North Carolina-based Biomilq™. Their company is developing a process to grow human milk in the lab. The four-step process will include: collecting a woman’s mammary cells; culturing the cells in a lab; collecting the milk made by these cells; and shipping the milk to hungry babies.[36] Their current research focuses on the protein and carbohydrate content of human milk. It will be easy to add the needed vitamins and minerals following the Codex Alimentarius infant formula standards. However, the seemingly unlimited variety of bioactive substances provided in the “liquid gold” secreted from a woman’s real breasts will be more complex, if not impossible, to replicate.
Will the public accept this lab-grown substance as a new form of human breast milk, or will they consider it an artificial substitute? Will the WHO add this type milk to their hierarchy for infant feeding? Will this milk be superior to commercial infant formula or just another expensive alternative? Only time will tell.
Conclusion
Human milk is the sustenance that has allowed civilization to continue; it is considered the gold standard for feeding babies. Originally, infants received the life-saving substance directly from breasts of the birthmother. Today, natural secretion serves as a source of income for some parents and a profitable venture for private industry. It is well known that processing and pasteurizing milk results in losses of many of the beneficial bioactive substances in human milk, yet pasteurization is recommended by all health organizations. Pre-term infants, at high risk of life threatening NEC, depend on the pasteurized human donor milk for survival. Wet-nursing, a practical profession and a major source of income for women in the past, has become taboo (or secretive) in many developed cultures. Is cross-nursing or milk-sharing any different? Would society be healthier if wet nurses became a new and recognized profession or should we wait until biotechnology allows growing “human milk” in a lab to replace human breasts? Although, the future of infant feeding holds many uncertainties, the one universal truth is, infants must be fed to survive.
Discussion Questions
• Breastfeeding mothers of today often produce more milk than is needed to feed one infant, resulting in a surplus of stored milk. Describe three ways a mother with excess expressed breast milk can use the milk, and the protocol she needs to follow in handling the milk.
• Tiny Treasures Milk Bank is Prolacta Bioscience’s route for women to donate (at US\$1 per ounce) expressed breast milk. Using their Frequently Asked Questions, answer the following:
• What are the steps a parent must take to donate milk to Tiny Treasures?
• In you were lactating and had a surplus of milk, would you consider “donating” to Tiny Treasures or to your local HMBANA milk bank? Explain your decision.
• In the early 2000s, commercial infant formula in China was found to be adulterated with melamine, resulting in several infant deaths. New working mothers resorted to hiring wet nurses to feed their infants. Image that you were one of these working mothers looking for someone to wet-nurse your infant. Write a posting for the internet, specifying your requirements and the salary you would pay to the wet nurse.
• You adopt a newborn and are told about ways to induce lactation through the use of hormones. Because you work full time, you decide against it. You still want your baby to have the best nutrition possible. Discuss the pros and cons of feeding your infant by the following methods:
• commercial infant formula
• asking a friend who is lactating a 10-month-old to give you breast milk
• buying breast milk from a stranger on the internet
• buying pasteurized 100% human milk from Prolacta
• hiring a wet nurse
Exercise
Breastfeeding and paid maternity/paternity laws vary by country. Select two countries and compare their laws to those of your own country.
• Explain the food system associated with human milk that is being prepared to be sold to a hospital neonatal intensive care unit.
References
Breastfeeding Moms Unite.” Accessed February 20, 2021.
Only the Breast.” Accessed February 20, 2021.
Baumgartel, K., L. Sneeringer, and S. Cohen. 2016. “From Royal Wet Nurses to Facebook: The Evolution of Breast Milk Sharing.” Breastfeeding Review: Professional Publication of the Nursing Mothers’ Association Of Australia 24 (3): 25–32.
BIOMIQ. 2021. “Unlocking Human Potential with Breakthrough Mammary Biotechnology.” BIOMIQ™ Human Milk for Babies. Accessed May 10, 2021.
Bologna, C. 2020. “200 Years of Breast Pumps: In 18 Images.” Huffington Post. Updated July 30.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Breastfeeding: Frequently Asked Questions.” Reviewed May 28, 2020.
Critch, J.N. 2014. Canadian Pediatric Society. Nutrition and Gastroenterology Committee. “Nutrition for Healthy Term Infants, Six to 24 Months: An Overview.” Paediatrics & Child Health 19 (10): 547–52.
Exodus 2:1-9
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization. 2007. “Standard for Infant Formula and Formulas for Special Medical Purposes Intended for Infants.” Adopted 1981, Amended 1983, 1985, 1987, 2011, 2015, 2016, and 2020. Revised 2007.
Gribble, K. 2018. “’Someone’s generosity has formed a bond between us’: Interpersonal relationships in Internet-facilitated peer-to-peer milk sharing.” Maternal & child nutrition 14 (Suppl 6): e12575. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12575
Human Milk Bank Association of North America. 2021. Accessed February 20, 2021.
Kapinos, K., L. Bullinger, and T. Gurley-Calvez. 2017 “Lactation Support Services and Breastfeeding Initiation: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act.” Health Services Research ˆ (6): 2175–2196. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12598
Keim, S., J. Hogan, K. McNamara, V. Gudimetla, C. Dillon, J. Kwiek, and S. Geraghty. 2013. “Microbial contamination of human milk purchased via the Internet.” Pediatrics132 (5): e1227-35. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1687
Keim, S., M. Kulkarni, K. McNamara, R. Billock, R. Ronau, J. Hogan, and J. Kwiek. 2015 “Cow’s Milk Contamination of Human Milk Purchased via the Internet.” Pediatrics 135 (5): e1157-62. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3554
Martin, J.A. 2021. “Births: Final Data for 2019.” National vital statistics reports : from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System70 (2): 1–51.
Medolac. 2021. “Human Based Milk for Hospitals.” Medolac® A Public Benefit Corporation. Accessed May 10, 2021.
Moore, R., L. Xu, and S. Townsend. 2021. “Prospecting Human Milk Oligosaccharides as a Defense against Viral Infections.” ACS Infectious Diseases 7 (2): 254–263.
Paynter, M., and K. Hayward. 2018. “Medicine, Body Fluid and Food: The Regulation of Human Donor Milk in Canada.” Healthcare policy = Politiques de santé 13 (3): 20–26. https://doi.org/10.12927/hcpol.2018.25400
Peila, C., G. Moro, E. Bertino, L. Cavallarin, M. Giribaldi, F. Giuliani, F. Cresi, and A. Coscia. 2016.“The Effect of Holder Pasteurization on Nutrients and Biologically-Active Components in Donor Human Milk: A Review.” Nutrients8 (8): 477. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080477
Petherick, A. 2015. “Milk Banks Around the World.”
Prolacta. 2021. “Leader in Human Nutrition.” Prolacta® Bioscience. Accessed February 22, 2021.
Quigley, M., and W. McGuire. 2014. “Formula versus donor breast milk for feeding preterm or low birth weight infants.” The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4. CD002971. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002971.pub3
Slavery Facts. 2019. “Breastfeeding Masters’ Babies: The Wet-Nurse Slave.
United States Department of Agriculture. 2019. Agriculture Research Service. “Food Data Central.” April 1, 2019.
Utah Dept. of Health. 2021. “Fetal Growth Chart.” Accessed February 20, 2021
World Health Organization. 1981. “International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes.” January 28, 1981.
World Health Organization. 2021. “Clinical Management of COVID-19.” Accessed May 10, 2021.
1. CCD 2020
2. Exodus 2:1-9.
3. WHO 2021.
4. WHO 2021.
5. WHO 2021.
6. WHO 1981.
7. WHO 1981.
8. FAO 2007.
9. FAO 2007.
10. CDC 2020.
11. WHO 2021.
12. Critch 2014.
13. USDA 2019.
14. Utah Dept. of Health 2021
15. Martin 2021.
16. Utah Dept. of Health 2021.
17. Quigley 2014.
18. Moore et al. 2021.
19. Baumgartel et al. 2016.
20. Slavery Facts 2019.
21. Only the Breast 2021.
22. Breastfeeding Moms Unite 2021.
23. Bologna 2020.
24. Kapinos et al. 2017.
25. Only the Breast 2021.
26. Gribble 2018.
27. Keim et al. 2015.
28. Keim et al. 2014.
29. Peila et al. 2016.
30. Paynter & Hayward 2018.
31. Human Milk Bank Assoc. 2021.
32. Human Milk Bank Assoc. 2021.
33. Petherick 2015.
34. Prolacta 2021.
35. Medolac 2021.
36. BIOMIQ 2021. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.30%3A_Perspective%3A_Breast_Milk.txt |
From Charity to Solidarity: Food Insecurity and Imagining Other Worlds
Michael Classens is a White settler man and Assistant Professor in the School of the Environment at University of Toronto. He is broadly interested in areas of social and environmental justice, with an emphasis on these dynamics within food systems. As a teacher, researcher, learner, and activist, he is committed to connecting theory with practice, and scholarship with socio-ecological change. Michael lives in Toronto with his partner, three kids, and dog named Sue. .
Mary Anne Martin is a White settler woman and adjunct faculty member in the Master of Arts in Sustainable Studies program at Trent University. Her interests include household food insecurity, the impact of community-based food initiatives, and intersections between gender and food systems. She actively participates in food policy initiatives and is dedicated to fostering social change through campus-community collaborations..
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe the systemic dynamics that contribute to food (in)security
• Understand the be able to express the limits of food charity
• Interpret new paradigms that can reframe food insecurity and support its solutions
Introduction
The global COVID pandemic has had far-reaching food systems implications, including for those experiencing food insecurity and for food justice organizations, advocates, and activists. Community-engaged scholars witnessed first-hand how food justice and allied organizations shifted the focus of their work as COVID descended. In a moment of acute and cascading crisis, many organizations returned (if perhaps temporarily) to a charitable food bank model. This case, looking at an example from Ontario, Canada, provides reflections on a number of themes that emerged in the intervening months related to food insecurity, food systems change, and broader issues of social change.
Setting the table
How we understand the problems associated with our food systems is a function, in part, of how we conceive of our food systems in the first place. For interdisciplinary food scholars and activists, understanding food systems means being attentive to a wide range of issues, including “historically specific webs of social relations, processes, structures, and institutional arrangements that cover human interaction with nature and with other humans involving the production, distribution, preparation, consumption, and disposal of food.”[1] What this means in practice isn’t always so clear, however. Nonetheless, thinking through food insecurity, and responses to it, can help provide some clarity and demonstrate why the way we think about food systems matters. For an illustration capturing some of the complexity of these dynamics, see Figure 1 below.
By any measure, food insecurity is a crisis in Canada, and around the world, and it has worsened during the pandemic. The United Nations World Food Programme estimates that there are nearly 700 million food insecure people worldwide, 270 million of whom experience crisis levels of hunger, meaning that they face severe calorie deficiencies and are at high risk of mortality.[2] In more stark terms, the organization estimates that between 6,000 and 12,000 people may be dying of hunger everyday.[3] In Canada, about 4.4 million people were living with food insecurity before the global pandemic.[4] By May of 2020, just a few months into the pandemic, food insecurity had risen by 39%.[5]
It is important to keep in mind that these alarming food insecurity rates are unequally distributed across the population, so some demographic groups are much more likely to experience food insecurity than others. For example, a study conducted in Toronto found that Black households are about three-and-a-half times more likely to be food insecure than White households.[6] Indigenous populations throughout the territory known as Canada experience rates of food insecurity from as high as 33% off reserve[7] to 100% on reserve.[8] Among all income brackets, rates of food insecurity are highest for households in the lowest income bracket, and the prevalence of food insecurity declines as household income increases.[9] These numbers (and others) demonstrate that food insecurity isn’t just a food issue, narrowly conceived. Food access is structured within unequal socio-economic, cultural, and ecological systems. In other words, food insecurity is an issue of equity and justice.
One of the main ways we have attempted to address food insecurity in Canada is through food banks. While they may seem like timeless institutions, Canada’s first food bank opened in Edmonton in 1981 to provide temporary measures to support people struggling within the compounding context of high rates of inflation, recession, and scaled-back federal unemployment and provincial social supports.[10] These interventions were always intended to be short-term, stop-gap measures, and yet, by the mid-1980s, there were over 75 food banks across Canada.[11] This was just the beginning of the normalization and institutionalization of the charitable food banking model in Canada—Food Banks Canada reports that there are now more than 3000 food banks and frontline food-serving agencies in their network.[12] The problem is, there are far more food insecure people in Canada now than ever before. So, if the point of food banks is to provide food to those in need of it, they aren’t succeeding even on their own terms. In fact, research shows that only about one in five food insecure people even use food banks.[13]
In contrast to food banks, many organizations can be considered food justice organizations. These organizations don’t understand food insecurity as simply the absence of food, but rather they conceive of food insecurity as a result of broader, inequitable structures resulting from colonialism, White supremacy, misogyny, and unfettered capitalism. Consequently, they also frame food insecurity as more than simply a food issue. As a result of looking at the entire food system through interdisciplinary and equity lenses, many food justice organizations understand the root causes of food insecurity as comprising intersecting social, political, and ecological inequities, and therefore propose solutions beyond food banks.
FoodShare Toronto, a leading food justice organization in Toronto, Ontario, was founded in 1985. It was originally established as a temporary initiative to coordinate among the City of Toronto’s 45 front line emergency food service agencies. Very quickly, the organization understood that broader systems change was required to address the systemic and root causes of hunger. Today, FoodShare is dedicated to pursuing food justice in ways that centre the experience of those most impacted by poverty and food insecurity—Black, Indigenous, People of Colour and People with Disabilities through a variety of programs and initiatives that go far beyond the food bank model.
So, for example, rather than simply providing low-quality, highly processed food to those in need, some food justice organizations offer weekly fresh-produce box programs. Some support the establishment of farmers’ markets in low-income, marginalized, and racialized communities (communities that typically don’t have access to farmers’ markets). In some cases, these organizations buy directly from local growers, in an attempt to address food insecurity while also supporting local, small-scale growers—attending to the struggles of both marginalized eaters and growers.
Beyond providing food for those who need it, some food justice activists, organizations and networks also agitate for policy change. As an example, there have recently been various efforts by a diverse network of food justice and other organizations to compel the federal government to institute a basic income (BI) in Canada. This means that all Canadians would be provided with a sufficient and guaranteed income to meet their basic needs, including food. Research shows that when people have a reliable and sufficient income, rates of food insecurity are significantly reduced.[14]
Other research points to the political economy of our food system, noting that food is in fact a human right, and that Canada is legally bound by international agreements to fulfill the right to food.[15] In Canada just four companies—Loblaws, Metro, Sobeys, and Walmart—control upwards of 80% of the retail market.[16] And these companies prefer establishing larger stores typically in higher-income areas, resulting in an unequal distribution of food access across Canada. Food, many advocates argue, is too important to be treated as a commodity governed by a retail oligopoly.
When the impact of the COVID pandemic began to be felt across Canada, and rates of food insecurity began to spike, we saw many food justice organizations—at least temporarily—adopt a food charity/food bank model. In part, this reflects the efforts of food justice organizations to respond to the increasing intensity of the food insecurity crisis during the pandemic in whatever ways they could. However, this response was also the result of the federal government nudging organizations in the food bank direction. By December 2021, the federal government made \$330 million available through the Emergency Food Security Fund. These funds were disbursed through a handful of national and regional emergency food and food justice agencies to smaller, front-line serving organizations. The money was earmarked for the purchase of emergency food provisions, personal protective equipment, and to hire additional workers.[17] In other words, the Canadian federal government conscripted food banks as well as food justice and community development organizations into its efforts to address dramatically increasing rates of food insecurity across the country through charity emergency food provisioning.
Solidarity, not Charity
The first six months of the pandemic were profoundly challenging for many food justice organizations as they adjusted to increased demand for basic food-provisioning services, a reduced volunteer base, emotionally exhausted staff, intense uncertainty, and increasingly marginalized community members. While these challenges persist, many organizations have recalibrated within this difficult context and, in ongoing recognition of the need for food justice, are redoubling their efforts to realize broader structural social change. FoodShare, a leading food justice organization in Toronto, for example, has recently underscored their commitment to food justice, democratic control, and political mobilization as we transition out of the global pandemic.[18]
The COVID pandemic—and the spectre of new, different pandemics resulting from our corporatized and globalized food system—makes the words of feminist philosopher Val Plumwood truer now than ever before, “If our species does not survive….it will probably be due to our failure…to work out new ways to live with the earth, to repower ourselves… We will go onwards in a different mode of humanity, or not at all.”[19] One way to reframe this sentiment within the context of food insecurity is to move beyond thinking about how to end food insecurity, to thinking about how we can create a world within which food insecurity is unthinkable.
As dissatisfying as it may be, there are no clear blueprints to direct us on how to do this. However, there are paradigms and ways of thinking that can inform the development of a comprehensive and integrated plan to transition toward more just and equitable food systems. The feminist economists J.K Gibson-Graham[20] illuminate how ways of knowing and being in the world are already informing how we can move beyond the need for charity. They see hope in reciprocal relationships, mutual support, care work, and myriad other everyday occurrences that exist outside of the formal capitalist economy. In this, they see the beginnings of a new economic ethic for the Anthropocene—a way of reclaiming the economy as a site of equitable decision making, not simply the accumulation of profit.
The global peasant movement, La Via Campesina, similarly understands food systems as entanglements of human-nature relationships through which to advance equity and justice, a perspective that contrasts markedly with the dominant capitalist food system within which food is treated as a simple commodity. La Via Campesina advances food sovereignty and agroecology, food systems paradigms that promote equity, democratic control, and empowerment of traditionally marginalized groups of people. In various places around the world, these approaches espoused by La Via Campesina have demonstrably resulted in better overall nutrition and enhanced food security.[21]
Another paradigm that can help broaden our political imagination is the notion of mutual aid. This perspective contrasts explicitly with the charitable model by weaving ways of supporting each other into the very fabric of everyday life. It should also be noted that in contrast to some of the approaches summarized above, mutual aid assumes that it is unlikely that the state will ever substantively support food justice. However, the significant resources and policy levers of the state are still necessary for effecting change on a profound and universal basis. As the Big Door Brigade puts it, “Mutual aid is when people get together to meet each other’s basic survival needs with a shared understanding that the systems we live under are not going to meet our needs.”[22] The movement is gaining traction, and recently the United States Congresswoman Alexandrian Ocasio-Cortez collaborated on the development of a “how to” mutual aid strategy resource.[23] The trans-rights activist and lawyer, Dean Spade, argues that moving from charity to solidarity through mutual aid strategies “will be the most effective way to support vulnerable populations to survive, mobilize significant resistance, and build the infrastructure we need for the coming disasters.”[24]
(Re)setting the table
That the negative consequences of the global pandemic have been so disproportionately shouldered by those who are already struggling underscores the fundamental inequities in our world. In Canada, our initial response to deepening food insecurity was to double down on a 40-year-old food charity model that we already knew was ineffective. However, this acute crisis has also inspired many food justice organizations, activists, and scholars to intensify their commitment to food justice, and to imagine new ways of organizing our relationships with each other and nature in ways that make inequity unthinkable.
Discussion Q uestions
• Why might one’s social location have an impact on their level of food (in)security?
• What other food issues might be reframed by looking at them through interdisciplinary and equity lenses?
• How can we reframe our relationship with food in our everyday lives? What are the limits of individual actions on those relationships?
Exercise
Find and compare websites of a food bank and a food justice organization in your area. How does each frame food? What activities does each organization do? What differences do you notice?
References
Agriculture and Agri-food Canada. 2021. “Emergency Food Security Fund.”
Big Door Brigade. n.d. “What is Mutual Aid?”
Food Banks Canada. 2020. “Relieving and Preventing Hunger in Canada.”
Food Secure Canada. 2012. “The Right to Food in Canada.”
FoodShare. n.d. “FoodShare’s Locally-Rooted Food Justice Approach to COVID-19 Response.”
Gibson-Graham, J.K. 2006. A Postcapitalist Politics. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Gibson-Graham, J.K. 1996. The End of Capitalism (As We Knew It). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Health Canada. 2004. “Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 2.2, Nutrition (2004). Income-Related Household Food Security in Canada.”
Koç, M., J. Sumner, and A. Winson. Critical Perspectives in Food Studies. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Minister of Health, Office of Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 2006.
MacRae, R. 2021. “Equitable Access to the Food Distribution System.”
Ogle, B., H.T.A. Dao, M. Generose, and B.L. Hamnbraeus. 2012. “Micronutrient Composition and Nutritional Importance of Gathered Vegetables in Vietnam.” International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 52(6): 485–99.
Plumwood, V. A review of Deborah Bird Rose’s Reports from a Wild Country: Ethics of Decolonization. Australian Humanities Review 42 (2007): 1–4.
Riches, G. 1986. Food Banks and the Welfare Crisis. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development.
Roos, N., M.M. Islam, and S.H. Thilsted. 2003. “Small Indigenous Fish Species in Bangladesh Contribution to Vitamin A, Calcium and Iron Intakes.” Journal of Nutrition 133 (11) (Suppl. 2): 4031S–26S.
Simran, D. and V. Tarasuk. 2019. “Race and Food Insecurity: Fact Sheet.” Research to PROOF Food Insecurity Policy Research and FoodShare.
Spade, D. 2020. “Solidarity Not Charity: Mutual Aid for Mobilization and Survival.” Social Text 142 (1): 131-151.
Statistics Canada. “Food Insecurity During the COVID-19 Pandemic, May 2020.” June 24, 2020.
Tarasuk, V. 2017. “Implications of a Basic Income Guarantee for Household Food Insecurity. Research Paper 24.” Thunder Bay: Northern Policy Institute.
Tarasuk, V., A.-A. Fafard St-Germain, and R. Loopstra, R. 2020. “The relationship between food banks and food insecurity: Insights from Canada.” VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations.31, 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-019-00092-w
Tarasuk, V. and A. Mitchell. 2020. “Household Food Insecurity in Canada, 2017-2018.” PROOF Food Insecurity Policy Research.
Thompson, S., A. Gulrukh, M. Ballard, B. Beardy, D. Islam, V. Lozeznik, and K. Wong. 2011. “Is Community Economic Development Putting Health Food on the Table? Food Sovereignty in Northern Manitoba’s Aboriginal Communities.” The Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 7 (2): 14–29.
Wakefield, S., J. Fleming, C. Klassen, and A. Skinner. 2012. “Sweet Charity, Revisited: Organizational Response to Food Insecurity in Hamilton and Toronto, Canada.” Critical Social Policy 33 (3): 427–450.
World Food Programme. 2020. “World Food Programme to Assist Largest Number of Hungry People Ever, as Coronavirus Devastates Poor Nations.” June, 29 2020.
1. Koç et al. 2012, xiv.
2. World Food Programme, n.p.
3. Ibid.
4. Tarasuk & Mitchell 2020, 8.
5. Statistics Canada 2020, n.p.
6. Dhunna & Tarasuk 2019, n.p.
7. Health Canada 2006, 15.
8. Thompson et al. 2011, 24.
9. Tarasuk & Mitchell 2020, 10.
10. Wakefield et al. 2012.
11. Riches 1986, 22.
12. Food Banks Canada, 2020.
13. Tarasuk et al, 2020, n.p.
14. Tarasuk 2017.
15. Food Secure Canada 2012, n.p.
16. MacRae 2021, n.p.
17. Agriculture and Agri-food Canada 2021.
18. FoodShare 2020, n.p.
19. Plumwood 2007, 1.
20. See for example, Gibson-Graham 1996; 2006.
21. Ogle et al. 2001; Roos et al. 2003.
22. Big Door Brigade n.d., n.p.
23. See: Ocasio-Cortez.
24. Spade 2020, 131. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.31%3A_Perspective%3A_Food_Insecurity.txt |
Fractured Food System Blues: A Blues in Five Voices
Faris Ahmed has been working on food, farming, and environmental issues in Canada and internationally for more than 20 years. He is an Ottawa-based consultant and policy researcher, specializing in ecosystems, biodiversity, climate resilience, and human rights. He has played leadership roles in international civil society networks, policy processes, and advocacy campaigns on these issues. Faris has a Master’s degree in International Development from the University of Toronto and has worked as a writer and documentary photographer in Asia. He dabbles with music in his spare time.
Tommy Wall is an environmental communicator and researcher with professional interests in public education, engagement, research and writing on nature, ecology, environment, and climate change in everyday life. He currently works as a strategic communications advisor for domestic climate change policy at Environment and Climate Change Canada, consulting with federal policymakers on how to communicate to the public about subjects ranging from carbon pricing to climate change adaptation. He’s still figuring out the best ways to get his fellow humans to understand the “so what, who cares” of global environmental problems.
Fractured Food System Blues
In 2016, researchers from the Food: Locally Embedded, Globally Engaged (FLEdGE) partnership published Nourishing Communities: From Fractured Food Systems to Transformative Pathways. The book documents many years of collaborative work focused on building towards more sustainable and more just food systems. In November 2017, Carleton University’s Faculty of Public Affairs hosted an event bringing together academics, activists, and others focused on the same issues. Several people provided commentaries on Nourishing Communities, including Faris Ahmed, who gave his response to the book in the form of a spoken word piece.
This performance, as well as a short interview with Faris about his work at USC Canada (now SeedChange), offer a lively, alternate way of thinking about sustainability when it comes to food systems. Tommy Wall interviewed Faris and produced and edited the audio.
Listen to Faris’s performance of “Fractured Food System Blues.”
One
They call me a small farmer, but I’ve got a big list of to-dos
They call me a small farmer, but I’ve got a big list of to-dos
Feed the world. Cool the planet. Try walking just one day in my shoes
Because I’ve got the fractured food system blues
Two
I’m Jamaican, but I’m kneeling down on your land
Never Canadian. No, but what you’re eating was picked by these hands
No rights, no shelter, no heat in winter, and the worst kinds of abuse
I’ve got the fractured food system blues
Three
I’m a community garden right in your neighborhood
I can connect friends and families, young and old
Leafy greens, peppers, tomatoes of all sizes, shapes, and hues
To wash away your fractured food system blues
Four
We’re food policy councils. Now, how do you put that in a song?
People’s voices and ideas that make decision-making strong
But, hey, inclusive governance mechanisms will never make the news
We’ve got the fractured food system blues
Five
Agroecology and food sovereignty
We’re more than just words, or theories, or novelty
We’re the roadmap and the journey. So, go ahead and take your cues
We’re transformative pathways for your fractured food system blues
Fractured Food System Blues: Tommy Wall in Conversationwith Faris Ahmed
In late 2017, Tommy Wall, a student of Communications and Environmental Studies at Carleton University recorded an interview with Faris Ahmed about his spoken word poem, Fractured Food System Blues: A Blues in Five Voices.
Listen to Tommy’s interview with Faris.
Interview Transcript
[slow blues baseline plays]
Tommy Wall(TW): My name is Tommy Wall. I’m a fourth-year communications and environmental studies student at Carleton University, and I’m interested in climate change and global environmental sustainability. Agricultural sustainability and food security are important issues in Canada and around the world. In the fall of 2017, a public discussion took place about a new book that attempts to tackle some of the problems associated with food and agriculture. Nourishing Communities: From Fractured Food Systems to Transformative Pathways, was published by Springer and focuses on community-based practices that can mend fractures in the food system. One of the participants in the public discussion that marked the release of the book, was Faris Ahmed from USC Canada. Faris leads USC’s policy work and closely collaborates with ecological agriculture, biodiversity, and food sovereignty networks in the global south and in Canada. Faris joins me today to discuss his response to the book release and to speak on his own work. Hello, Faris.
Faris Ahmed(FA): Hello, Tommy.
TW: Thank you for taking the time today to talk about your work and about the issues that you deal with. Can you tell me a bit more about your work, and the work of USC?
FA: Sure. USC is an organization based here in Ottawa and our work is basically about ensuring a healthy and diverse food for everyone. And, the way we grow our food should be strengthening biodiversity and ecosystems, and not diminishing them. And we also feel that the food that has grown is determined by the choices of the people who grow the food. We work with farmer organizations in 12 countries around the world, including in Canada, and a new program we started about five, six years ago. And, essentially, we support farmers and Indigenous people, women, youth, to grow healthy and resilient agricultural food systems. And their goal is to ensure that biodiversity—the diversity in plants, and seeds, and genetic resources in animals as well—is determined by their own research questions. So, they consider themselves researchers. And their goal is to enhance their biodiversity and seed systems because that has impact on a whole bunch of things. It has impact on their food, and their ability to eat around, around the year. It increases their resilience to climate shocks. If it’s too wet or too dry, they have the varieties to, to serve their needs. It engages young people in a way that other types of agriculture do not. They are very passionate about ecological agriculture, which is what we support. And it’s healthy, it’s nutritious, it creates livelihoods. And so, we find that this one intervention has quite a lot of impact on a whole bunch of things, and it’s driven by the farmer’s own needs. And now my own work at USC is about policy and ensuring that policies support the work of farmers and not constrain them. For example, trade and investment policy or seed policy that can inhibit what farmers do, that can impose restrictions on the kinds of seeds that they can produce and save and sell. Or trade that encourages the kind of market that will not support the prices of, the kinds of prices that farmers are expecting or wanting, or imposes restrictions on them that they can’t sell or exchange their own products. So, we try to create a conducive environment for farmers to really flourish in their food systems, to serve them as well as their communities.
TW: And so, you participated in the public book release for Nourishing Communities back in November. What’s your connection to the book and to its authors?
FA: Well, I’m lucky enough to have, to know and have worked with all five of them: Irena, Alison, Charles, Phil, and Erin. I’ve been involved in many things that they’ve initiated, or I’ve participated in research initiatives, workshops and so on. Also, with Peter Andrée and Patricia Ballamingie, both of whom are at Carleton. These people are leaders in their field, I’d say, I mean, they’re researchers in the truest sense. They’ve got the academic tools and the research methodologies, but they’re also grounded, and they’re connected to what they’re researching, whether it’s, you know, the food system and food justice organizations or practitioners, or farmer organizations, food providers. And I think that they have a sense of what the community needs because of that, and it makes them better researchers. So, when I saw the book, I was quite captivated by it. And, I did, I did read quite a lot of it, and it gave me all kinds of ideas. And it’s a culmination of researchers and practitioners working together. And these guys are some of the best.
TW: They come from a lot of very well-rounded backgrounds too, so, it’s good to have multiple perspectives on food security and agriculture coming from a lot of different people. And the book inspired you to do more than to just simply comment as well. How did you respond to the book and to its messages?
FA: Well, I first did a traditional book review as I was asked to do. And that was, I mean, rewarding enough. But that I was inspired by the diversity of the methodologies I guess, the tools and narratives in the book that came from different peoples and communities and different ways of even gathering the information. And, given that we were, you know, quote unquote on stage in Irene’s pub and my own love for music, and Irene’s is known for life performing, performances, and I’d never performed there. So, I just thought that a spoken word rendition of some of the voices and narratives in the book would be fun and hopefully complimentary. So, I just sat down at the computer and it came out pretty quickly and naturally. So, I constructed a spoken-word poem with five voices. And afterwards, decided to add a bassline to it.
TW: And so you have no shortage of musical resources at your disposal down here in your studio. So, we’re going to play for you, “Fractured Food System Blues in Five Voices,” and we’d like to thank Faris so much for his time today. Thank you, Faris.
FA: My pleasure, thanks.
Discussion Questions
• There are five distinct voices in the poem, “Fractured Food Systems Blues.” What are these voices and what are they saying about the food system?
• If you were to write a spoken word poem about your experience of the food system, which five voices would you highlight? What would those voices say?
• Each section of the poem identifies a major critique of our fractured food system or a potential “transformative pathway.” What are these critiques and pathways? Can you think of other critiques/challenges? Can you imagine other transformative pathways?
Additional Resources
Ahmed, F. 2021. “Biting Back Climate Change: Let’s take a bite out of climate change.” TEDxOttawa.
Andrée, P., J.K. Clark, C.Z. Levkoe, and K. Lowitt (Eds). 2019. Civil Society and Social Movements in Food System Governance. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429503597
Global Alliance for the Future of Food. 2021. The Politics of Knowledge: Understanding the Evidence for Agroecology, Regenerative Approaches, and Indigenous Foodways. n.p.: Global Alliance for the Future of Food.
La Via Campesina | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.32%3A_Creative%3A_Food_System_Blues.txt |
The Eat, Waste, Make Project
Pamela Tudge is a PhD candidate at Concordia University, exploring critical design and public pedagogy as a methodology to respond to food-based waste. Her academic and creative work is driven by design, which makes her think differently about critical issues in food and the environment. Over 15 years, her writing and teaching has spanned environmental science, food studies, new media, and social movements. Pamela has worked in the fields of cartography, climate science, education, and the arts.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe food-based waste and why it is an issue in our society.
• Articulate ways critical design can increase the visibility of waste.
• Identify variation in the food-based waste in their own homes.
Exploring my domestic food-based waste through critical design learning encounters
We all produce and manage waste to varying degrees, across our living environments and daily life. Discarded edible food—food waste—is gaining significant attention globally as a contributor to climate change, through the production of methane gas in landfills. The United Nations (UN) estimates that, globally, humans waste about one third of all food produced, a resource that could be used to alleviate global hunger.
Imagine you are preparing a meal at home. Think of all of the materials that you might throw out. All of the food remnants, like vegetable peels, is food-based waste, but so is food packaging. Few government policies limit the types of materials companies can use to package their foods. Instead, most policies target consumers, through efforts such as banning or limiting the use of plastic bags. Packages remain important because they protect food in transportation and enable promotional messaging, corporate branding, and the communication of critical consumer information (e.g., nutrition values and ingredients). However, the environmental impact from plastic pollution is significant, polluting oceans and threatening species. Little (less than 10%) of our discarded plastics are ever recycled. How can we reduce our food-based waste?
For most of history, women’s knowledge of food and their labour in the kitchen determined what became domestic waste. Contemporary studies show that responding to food-based waste remains women’s work. Previous generations valued the reduction of household waste, as it was essential to the economics of North American households. A post-war cultural shift in the 1950s, however, redefined waste as a sign of privilege and modernity. The implication of this change in values and behaviour is the loss of food-related knowledge, devaluing this critical work. Today, there is little monetary incentive for households to engage in the labour needed to reduce food-based waste; instead, a renewed ethical value of care for the materials of food-based waste is called for.
Through the Eat, Waste, Make project, I explored my relationship to food and waste and extended my findings to teach others through public workshops. As a food studies scholar and a woman, I began researching my topic through my own practices. Designers are experts in materials, and critical design is an approach to design that focuses on making things that challenge the role of products in everyday life. Identifying my waste through the food I eat, and exploring the materials through critical design methods, provides a different kind of attention to what I discard, allowing me to develop a mindful relationship that extends taking care of the materials I encounter. The learning encounters I create (and depict in the GIFs below) form a method for developing care and enabling material visibility. Caring for materials means doing things differently, such as composting non-edible peels, repurposing glass, or limiting the use of plastics. Achieving a better practice with these materials requires enhancing my attention and acknowledging the individual waste materials that I encounter. Finally, through the learning encounters, I can identify the significance of labour and reflect on the unique care women held for generations to repurpose materials, re-use food waste, and ultimately prevent waste from entering the environment.
Exercise
Learning Encounters at Home
For this activity, you will conduct exploratory research and respond to the questions in each step. At the end of the learning encounters, use your responses to write a reflective paragraph on your research, noting any new questions or ideas from your food-based waste exploration encounters.
Have ready the following material:
• Construction paper, poster board, or anything similar (but not foam core!)
• Wood glue
• Scissors
Step One: Collect Waste
Identify and collect ten pieces of material from your recycling bin, compost, and garbage that is are forms of food-based waste.
Lightly clean any packages and arrange the waste on a large piece of paper.
Question: What types of waste materials are in your home?
Step Two: Document Waste
Document the waste using a digital camera; take a single picture of all the materials together and separately.
Create a portrait with one chosen piece of material (e.g., a banana peel, a yogurt container)
Question: What material did you choose for your portrait, and why did you choose it?
Step Three: Break down your waste
Break down each piece of waste into smaller pieces, using scissors or your hands.
Mix the materials.
Questions: What colours, textures, or shapes can you identify with the materials together? What food products can you identify from the pieces?
Step Four: Make a Collage
Using the paper and glue, arrange all the pieces, including food waste, onto your paper.
Make any design you choose with the pieces, and allow glue and materials to dry.
Questions: How do the materials in your collage reflect your food practices around cooking and eating? What transformations to food practices do you feel you can make in your home to reduce waste?
Additional Resources
CBC News. People waste way more food than thought, UN finds. Here is how Canada compares. March 4, 2021.
Dunne, A. and F. Raby. Critical Design FAQ.
Environment and Climate Change Canada. Taking Stock: Reducing food loss and waste in Canada. June 2019.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food Loss and Food Waste.
Plastic Wars.” Frontline Documentary. Produced by Rick Young, Laura Sullivan, Emma Schwartz, and Fritz Kramer, PBS, USA. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.33%3A_Creative%3A_Food_Waste.txt |
Food Environments and Access to Food: Examples from Toronto
Laine Young is a PhD Candidate from Wilfrid Laurier University in the Geography and Environmental Studies program. She works with the Laurier Centre for Sustainable Food Systems on her dissertation research exploring intersectional feminist analysis in urban agriculture projects in Quito, Ecuador. Laine is a Contract Teaching Faculty at Laurier and is the co-producer of the podcast, Handpicked: Stories from the Field.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Differentiate among the concepts of food deserts, food swamps, food mirages, and food oases.
• Articulate the differences between food environments in specific urban areas.
• Identify the barriers to food access—like transportation, income, and time—and the socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic disparities in food access.
Introduction
There are many factors that influence people’s access to food in a town or city. Some are specific individual barriers (e.g., income), but often there are larger structural issues (e.g., racism, discrimination, resource inequity). These barriers can be social, economic, or physical. To evaluate food access, it is important to be able to differentiate among the food environments that people belong to. Neighbourhoods struggling with food access within cities can be food deserts, food swamps, or food mirages. Those with superior access to food are considered food oases. The number and quality of healthful and affordable options for access to food in each neighbourhood determines which food environment the area belongs to. We differentiate between these environments because each problem is unique and requires specific solutions to improve food access. This chapter explores the different food environments in communities and how they affect access to food. It provides examples of work that has been done to mitigate these barriers to access in the city of Toronto, Ontario.
Food Environments
While health promotion materials tend to emphasize the importance of individual food choices, access to healthy food is primarily determined by the social and built environments, including “community” and “consumer” nutrition environments. The community nutrition environment is determined by “the number, type, location and accessibility of food outlets such as grocery stores,” and the consumer nutrition environment is categorized by what “consumers encounter in and around places where they buy food, such as the availability, cost, and quality of healthful food choices.”[1]1 Food environments are affected by both community and consumer nutrition environments.
The conditions of different food environments within neighbourhoods can have an impact on access to food for the residents that live there. Negative food environments are those in which healthy food access is limited or difficult due to lack of retail options, cost, transportation and mobility, and availability of culturally appropriate foods. They have been linked to communities whose demographics indicate they have a lower socio-economic status, as well as racial and ethnic disparities. These inequities in the food environment can be partially attributed to racial segregation in neighbourhoods. For example, certain neighbourhoods in the U.S. where residents are predominantly Hispanic and Black have less access to large, chain grocery stores, and more access to fast food.[2]2 This is not always the case, as we sometimes see higher-income neighbourhoods without grocery stores and other nutritious food sources. The difference is that people living in higher-income communities typically have the money to purchase more expensive options close by, have vehicles to drive to buy food, and typically don’t have the same time constraints or accessibility issues as those in lower-income neighbourhoods.
There are currently four examples of food environments that appear in the literature: food deserts, food swamps, food mirages, and food oases. It is important to distinguish between these environments, given that different strategies are needed to mitigate the different risks in each3.[3]Food deserts are areas of a city where residents lack physical and/or financial access to nutritious food. People living in rural areas may also need to travel long distances to get their food and are often left out of the food environment literature.[4]4 In Canada, people are more likely to experience food swamps, areas that have nutritious food stores but also have an abundance of unhealthy options that are more accessible.[5]5
Another food environment that is important to discuss is food mirages. In this case, healthful food options are available, but not affordable to those with low incomes, requiring them to travel long distances for access to affordable food.[6]6 Food mirages differ from food deserts because it appears that the neighbourhood has healthful food options close by, but they are not actually usable resources for some members of the community (because they cannot afford to shop there). In addition to affordability, there are also other potential access issues for the residents of the neighbourhood. Food access is more than financial, as a household’s physical ability to get to and navigate the stores (e.g., because of disability or age) can restrict their access. Many also experience time poverty,[7]7 for example, if they work several jobs, use public transit, or are the primary caregiver in their household; in these cases, the number of hours left in their day to acquire food is much less than in other households. Finally, a food oasis is a neighbourhood with superior access to nutritious foods.[8]8
[table id=10 /]
Measuring Food Access
In order to determine how to classify a neighborhood’s food environment, community food assets need to be measured. A food asset is a place where local residents can go to “grow, prepare, share, buy, receive or learn about food”[9]9 through, for example, community programs, retail outlets, urban gardens, and fresh food markets. Determining the number of food assets in a community can be challenging without a tangible way to collect the data. Toronto Public Health’s Food Strategy and the Toronto Food Policy Council created a way to measure the available food assets in the city, providing a tool to advocate for food environment change.
Toronto’s Food by Ward project was created as a way of measuring the unequal distribution of food assets across the city’s neighbourhoods.[10]10 This information was collected through grassroots organizing in each city ward. In each area, Food Champions led the data collection through several rounds of community consultations. Food Champions are “people who care about food, healthy communities, and economic development, and (who) are working together to protect, promote, and strengthen food assets.”[11]11
The food asset categories that were collected within the Food by Ward project included: emergency food programs, community food services, local food retail outlets, food markets, children’s meal programs, community gardens, and urban agriculture projects.[12]12 The data was collected and mapped, so residents and policy makers could visualize the assets, as well as determine which communities were lacking or had an abundance of food. This provided community organizers with the data needed to approach City Council representatives in their specific wards and advocate for change. This project makes the case that food-related projects and development are just as important as other urban infrastructure.[13]13
Food by Ward is an excellent example of measuring food access, but is highly dependent on resources to maintain the data. Without dedicated funding, the tool is not sustainable. While the tool itself is not currently being maintained across all of metropolitan Toronto, some individual neighbourhoods, like Rexdale, have taken on their own asset mapping on a smaller scale. This allows each neighbourhood to ensure that their maps are updated and reflect their current situation. Food asset mapping has a lot of potential for measuring access to food, but there needs to be a sustainable approach, including the human and technical resources needed to maintain the data.
Toronto’s Response to Negative Food Environments
Cities have the potential to mitigate the impact of challenging food environments through initiating policy and programs that increase nutritious food access in the areas that need it most. The city of Toronto has many geographic areas that fall under the above-mentioned negative food environments. Toronto Public Health’s Food Strategy has implemented many initiatives to combat this in the city. The Food Strategy uses a “food-systems perspective” that focuses on nutrition, prevention of diseases, food literacy, social justice, food supply chains, economic development, environmental protection, and climate change mitigation.[14]14
Grab Some Good
In 2014, one of the key projects of the Toronto’s Food Strategy was called Grab Some Good. This project was initiated to combat the lack of equitable access to healthy food across the city.[15]15 Many Canadian cities, Toronto included, technically do not have food deserts and, for various reasons are far likelier to have food swamps.[16]16 Grab Some Good was a partnership between the Food Strategy and community partners like FoodShare.[17]17 (FoodShare is a food justice organization in Toronto that provides nutritious food to people across the city. They collaborate with the people most affected by poverty to create long-term solutions to food problems.) The three major projects that evolved were Healthy Corner Stores, Mobile Good Food markets, and Subway Pop-Up markets. The goals of Grab Some Good were:
• To offer healthy, affordable and culturally diverse fresh food to residents living in areas that are underserved by healthy food retailers.
• To provide fresh produce at convenient locations at prices that are lower than the average grocery store.
• To promote healthy and sustainable eating habits among all Toronto residents and to support good nutrition and disease prevention interventions.[18]18
The Healthy Corner Store initiative provided logistical and infrastructure support to local corner stores, aimed at increasing the healthy food available to people in the surrounding neighbourhoods and at ensuring that the owners were making profit from the endeavor.[19]19 To address the issue of minimal grocery store availability in underserved neighbourhoods, the Food Strategy and FoodShare launched mobile food markets in 2012. These retrofitted wheelchair buses were transformed into mobile food markets and served affordable, healthy food to 11 low-income neighbourhoods in Toronto.[20]20 The Toronto Transit Commission pop-up markets, another partnership with FoodShare, were established in major transit hubs and provided commuters with access to healthy snacks, as well as fruits and vegetables to take home with them without needing to stop at a grocery store.[21]21
Each of these three projects attempted to mitigate the negative effects of neighbourhoods found in food swamps in innovative and community-focused ways. They were successful in improving access to nutritious food in the neighbourhoods they served. They offered innovative solutions to food environment problems. Unfortunately, the overarching issue with these types of projects is the lack of financial sustainability. As they all required some degree of municipal funding, the longevity of the projects was not guaranteed and they are therefore no longer running. Nonetheless, these cases show that if municipal governments can prioritize funding to address food swamps, deserts, and mirages, or if community organizations can build self-sustainability, there is great potential to make changes to the way food is accessed in these communities.
Good Food Markets
One of FoodShare’s many successful projects is the Good Food Markets. These markets are found across the city in neighbourhoods that lack access to nutritious food and are run by the community members themselves. The program trains community members on the necessary skills and information needed to run the markets and provides the tools and resources necessary for sustainability.[22]22 The Good Food Markets not only provide access to food, they work more holistically—as community hubs that engage and connect residents in their own neighbourhood.[23]23 This type of community engagement is important for neighbourhoods to build social cohesion and strengthen the residents’ ties to their community. This model has great potential for success because it is sustainable and driven by the needs of those who use it.
Conclusion
To ensure healthy communities, it is important to measure food access within specific neighbourhoods. Identifying the type of food environments that communities reside within can help inform targeted responses by municipal governments and community organizations.
It is critical to address the racial and ethnic disparities present in negative food environments. This necessitates structural change through policy-making, planning, and development, in order to address diet quality (related to food environments) within white and minority populations.[24]24 Such efforts should address the disparities in access to healthful food in neighbourhoods to limit the impact on nutrition and health outcomes.[25]25
Toronto Public Health’s Food Strategy and FoodShare have shown great examples of engaging in innovative solutions to manage food access, but there are funding challenges that can have an impact on the capacity to help communities in the long-term. Moving towards the community hub model has great potential to improve food access and serve communities in a holistic way.
Discussion Questions
• How might systemic discrimination, based on the demographics and experiences of residents within a neighbourhood, influence their food environment?
• Do you notice any differences in perceived access to food between low- or high-income neighbourhoods in your community?
• What kinds of impacts related to food access might residents of diverse racial or ethnic backgrounds experience in their communities?
Exercise
Choose a neighbourhood in your city. Either walk around the area or explore it through a maps app and note all of the food stores/restaurants. Determine if they sell healthy or unhealthy food. Check out the demographics of the neighbourhood online. According to your research, decide if this area fits within one of the food environments you learned about in this chapter.
Additional Resources
FoodShare website
Food by Ward Website
Agincourt Food Asset Map
Yang, Meng, Haoluan Wang, and Feng Qiu. “Neighbourhood Food Environments Revisited: When Food Deserts Meet Food Swamps.” The Canadian Geographer 64, no. 1 (2020): 135–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12570.
CBC article, “Chinatown BIA slams study calling area ‘food desert’.
Canadian Public Health Association “Mobile good food market brings healthy choices to neighbourhoods in ‘food deserts’.”
References
Advancing Food Access.” FoodShare. Accessed June 9, 2021.
Food by Ward.” Toronto Food Policy Council. Accessed June 9, 2021.
Food Deserts.” Canadian Environmental Health Atlas. Accessed June 9, 2021.
Chen, T. and E. Gregg. 2017. “Food Deserts and Food Swamps: A Primer.” National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health.
Glanz, K., J.F. Sallis, B.E. Saelens, and L.D. Frank. 2007. “Nutrition Environment Measures Survey in Stores (NEMS-S).” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32 (4): 282–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2006.12.019.
Stowers, K.C., Q. Jiang, A.T. Atoloye, S. Lucan, and K. Gans. 2020. “Racial Differences in Perceived Food Swamp and Food Desert Exposure and Disparities in Self-Reported Dietary Habits.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (19): 1gx+.
Toronto Food Strategy: 2016 update.” Toronto Public Health.
Vancouver Food Asset Map.” Vancouver Neighbourhood Food Networks. Accessed June 9, 2021.
Yang, M., H. Wang, and F. Qiu. 2020. “Neighbourhood Food Environments Revisited: When Food Deserts Meet Food Swamps.” The Canadian Geographer 64 (1): 135–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12570.
1. Glanz et al. 2007, 282.
2. Stowers et al. 2020.
3. Yang et al, 2020.
4. Chen & Greg, 2017.
5. Ibid.
6. Yang et al. 2020.
7. Canadian Environmental Health Atlas, n.d.
8. Yang et al. 2020.
9. Vancouver Neighbourhood Food Networks.
10. TFPC, n.d.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. TPH, 2016.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid., 16.
19. TPH 2016.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. FoodShare n.d.
23. Ibid.
24. Stowers et al, 2020.
25. Ibid. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.34%3A_Perspective%3A_Food_Access.txt |
Systemic Analysis of a Food Rescue Network
Leda Cooks is a Professor in Department of Communication University of Massachusetts, Amherst. She teaches communication and food studies courses from a critical social justice orientation. Her research addresses the ways ideas about identity, ethics, power, relationships, community, culture and citizenship intersect in spaces and performances of both teaching and learning as well as producing, preparing, consuming, and communicating about and through food. Recent work includes articles on food rescue networks and food rescuers, the communicative pedagogy of land acknowledgment statements, and the rhetorical appeal of food waste apps.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Identify ways in which food waste is often connected to hunger .
• Describe how food rescue networks function .
• Articulate ideas about systems theory as it relates to food system s and food rescue networks .
• Situate food rescue and food rescue networks as sub-system s of food .
Introduction
What if for every three bags of groceries you bought, you threw one in the trash? More than one third— or one trillion dollars— of the food produced in the world is lost or wasted. In the U.S., estimates of food waste have varied between 33 % and 50%, and these numbers have only grown because of the COVID pandemic.
Along the food supply chain (production, transformation, distribution, retail, and consumption), exactly where waste occurs the most is less clear, but internationally , food waste happens primarily at the production stage, with fruits and vegetables leading the losses. In countries with higher gross domestic product (GDP), such as the U . S . , U . K ., Canada, and Australia, food waste occurs more often at the consumer end of the chain, where oversupply by food businesses is deemed necessary to sell their products.
Given its origins in everyday life as a material and relational byproduct of production, waste is profoundly important to the ecosystem. And yet, especially in nations with highly industrialized food systems, and amongst the middle classes, waste also represents material and unnecessary excess. Waste is both unnecessary and necessary—it is both overly abundant and thus not wanted or chosen and that which is needed to survive. Food waste, especially, causes both guilt and ambivalence, because it indicates the casual disregard or devaluation of food, even as many people don’t know when or where they will get their next meal.
In highly industrialized nations, food – waste reduction campaigns by governments, nonprofits, food-related businesses, and other groups have proliferated on mass and social media platforms. In conjunction with these campaigns, the excessive waste of food has become a frequent topic for news stories, documentaries, and even competitive cooking shows. The immorality of wasting food when so many go hungry is the primary theme of these shows, and it is a powerful one. In the U.S., there is an incredible overabundance of food, where piles of perfect produce are displayed in supermarket s, and seemingly endless choices over what and how much to eat are necessary to attract consumers. This phenomenon has led many scholars and activists to proclaim that we waste more than enough to feed the estimated 820 million hungry people globally. Indeed, the connection between waste and hunger has come to serve as the foundation for a very popular method of waste reduction: food rescue.
Food rescue, or food waste recovery, describes the sanctioned activityof collecting food from markets, farms, educational institutions, restaurants and other food-related businesses, whichwould otherwise be wasted. The rescued food is then delivered or transported to food shelters or other recognized food aid providers. The terms “recognized” and “santioned” are important to food rescue transactions, as these designations are necessary for legal protection (under the Bill Emerson Act[1]) and to apply for tax breaks and government(or other)aid. Food donors, rescue agencies, and recipients of rescued food must work closely together to communicate about what, where,and how much food can be donated, as well as specific logistics of dates, times, and transport. Over time, these food rescue networks learn how to coordinate their actions to donateandrescue,in order to serve as many community members as possible. Food rescueagencies primarily serve as the hub of these networks and, as such, must match suppliers with recipients, ensure the safety and quality of the food,and calibrate amounts of food to match supply with need. In this manner, food rescue networkswork as a system, communicating among themselves to ensure that food is donated, rescued, and received as optimally as possible.
SystemsTheory and Analysis
The followingcase looks at the systemic operations of a food rescue network in Western Massachusetts, U.S. Systems theory posits that everything livingand non-living, from organisms to organizationsto official policies, draws from and contributes to its broader environment. Systems are made up of various elements, and those parts, through coordinating processes, make up the whole. Systems analysis shows the interconnections among the various parts (e.g., roles, functions) and their relationshipsto the whole system’s effectiveness. For instance, within food systems,there are various sub-systems of production, transformation, distribution, retail,and consumption. Those sub-systems interact with larger food systems, and all are interconnected to other systems that have an impact on each other(for instance, the health system, transportation systems, energy systems, etc.). A structural change in any of those ‘other’systems (e.g., health systemsduring a global pandemic,or the shutdown of a natural gas pipeline) will have an impactonfood systemsand theirvarious sub-systems.
Several systems principles are useful in analyzing the communication of food rescue networks. Interconnectedness refers to the relatedness of all things to each other, and to the interdependence among the various parts for the system to function. Food rescueagencies are central to food recovery, but food donations and food shelters supplying food to hungry people are necessary for food rescueto be successful. Food security means that people don’t have to worry about gaining access tonutritious food. For food rescuers and shelters, achieving food security requires aconstantexcess of otherwise wasted food, and so the cycle begins again. Synthesis focuses on how parts of the system become a network and make meaning in relation to each other. It offers a bird’s–eye view of both the whole and its parts,as they work together. Food rescueis made meaningful through the actions and reactions of food donors, rescue agencies,and receiving shelters and centers. As a system, food rescuealso shapes attempts to reduce food waste and food insecurity. A system adjusts and readjusts itself based on feedbackabout the functioning of various elements. When a system is maintaining its normal levels of performance, reinforcing feedback loops sustain the patterns established by working together toward the goal. Food rescue networks have as their goal the diversion of otherwise wasted food to feed hungry people, and that goal is constantly reinforced by rising levels of food waste and food insecurity. Balancing feedback loops, however, use feedback to change reinforcing loops,in order to alter or correct systemic relations at a larger level, such as addressing environmental issues caused by food waste at the point of production. Finally, causality describes the ways parts of the system influence each other and how systemic processes (relationships, feedback loops) lead to various consequences.
Food rescue in Western Massachusetts
In what follows, I apply these concepts to better understand how the network functions as a system. A research assistant and I conducted 30 interviews with food donors and staff at rescue agencies, food pantries , and shelters in the network. We conducted five of the interviews twice, before and after the start of the COVID pandemic, to evaluate how the network managed such a massive event. Members of the network expressed interconnectedness through being able to understand and respond to the logistics of everyday food rescue . This appeared in the ways they communicated about what was expendable and needed for donation, and how to get the product from one place to another safely. For instance, one staff member at the local food bank told me that she was in frequent contact, twice a week, with the most regular donating organizations and shelters, to determine needs and supplies. She regularly received data from shelters about what kinds of food was most needed (fresh vegetables, meat), and went about trying to secure consistent sources for supply.
Synthesis was expressed by members of the network in comments about how food rescue acquires meaning , not through individual actions , but through members’ relationships with one another and the community. Speaking shortly after the 2020 pandemic shutdowns led to difficulty maintaining the network, one shelter director stated, “The number of checks that we’ve gotten, the amount of calls, people that have dropped off masks or supplies we couldn’t get. You ask for it, they [community members] give it to you.” Food rescue is therefore meaningful not only in terms of the various parts of the network, but also as representative of the community.
Reinforcing feedback in the network is heightened by increases in the amounts of food donated (either through outreach or government incentives) and the need for food donations as food insecurity continues to increase in the U.S. These feedback loops strengthen the motivation to continue to rescue food. As a food shelter director noted, “I think something else to take away from [ COVID ] is the flexibility aspect … Just having the ability to go with the flow, to make those adjustments accordingly.” Where flexibility allows for greater latitudes of adjustment and reinforcement to the system, balancing feedback loops do not occur. As food insecurity has risen during the pandemic, food waste has grown in tandem . On the consumer end of the food chain, studies in the U.S. and U.K. showed that in the first months of the pandemic, when there was chaos and uncertainty over food supply, household food waste decreased , but then increased again as the food supply became more normalized. Further up the food chain, when farms and other food purveyors shut down or lost employees due to illness, food was not sold and waste increased. In a crisis, the donation of otherwise wasted food provides the easiest and quickest route to feed hungry people, and food banks and shelters now rely more than ever on food rescue to help with the increasing numbers of people who need food.
The increased need for food rescue has resulted in continuous changes to the food networks we studied. These changes, such as increasing government incentives for large-scale food producers and suppliers to donate/divert their food waste , recruiting more volunteers , and adding a third shift at food banks (to allow them to be open longer) , have helped to strengthen the network and increase rescue activities. For donations to match the needs of a food shelter, more waste (non-retail food) needs to be constantly donated. Causality , then, ensures that food rescue is a functional short-term solution that will resolve neither food insecurity nor food waste reduction in the long run. Using the logic of causality and the reinforcing loop, we will (perversely) need to waste more to feed more hungry people.
However, causality within systems theory is dynamic and multi – scalar, and there are systemic consequences to food rescue and its networks on the relational and community level that are more beneficial, and which raise community awareness of food insecurity, if not food waste. Before and after the pandemic began, as one food rescue agency director stated, “We were seeing some creative partnerships happening. The one that comes to mind is a restaurant that wants to keep their staff engaged, so they were making meals using the product th ey couldn’t normally serve to customers and making them for the local food bank.” Similar , informal initiatives to help combat food insecurity, such as mutual aid, indicated the presence of grassroots motivation to help others, perhaps for the first time.
Conclusion
Systems theory and systems tools are helpful in describing relationships, patterns and functions in organisms, networks, and organizations. For our food system s , and food rescue in particular, systems thinking allows us to see what ’ s working, diagnose problems , and see consequences. Systems thinking about food rescue foregrounds cyclical processes where food rescue often focuses on linearity (e.g., the diversion of food waste from point A to point B), structural problems (unemployment), and other ways to focus on feeding (literally and figuratively) the immediate issues. Systems theory also allows us to see how systems (and not just parts of the whole) are interdependent on each other, as the food system depends on other environmental, economic, and political systems. Finally, systems analysis points to consequences of reinforcing feedback loops, or of systemic interdependencies of which we may otherwise be unaware. Food rescue networks then, communicate systems theory in action, as a sub-system working within the broader food system s and the constellation of systems that contribute to their functioning and consequences.
Discussion Questions
• Why is waste unavoidable?
• How do principles of food rescue systems function within our overall food system s ?
• How does food rescue reduce food waste?
• How is food rescue related to other options for reducing waste?
• How or does food rescue address food insecurity?
• What (if any) food rescue organizations operate locally?
Additional Resources
Acaroglu, L. 2017. “ Tools for systems thinkers: The six fundamental concepts of systems thinking.Medium . September 7.
Cooks, L. 2019. “Food Savers or Food Saviors? Food Waste, Food Recovery Networks, and Food Justice.” Gastronomica 19 (3): 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2019.19.3.8
Frequently Asked Questions,” Food Rescue U.S.
Food Loss and Food Waste.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Last Week Tonight, [television]. Director: Jim Hopkinson, July 19, 2015.
Sewald, C.A., Kuo, E.S. & H. Dansky. 2018. “Boulder Food Rescue: An Innovative Approach to Reducing Food Waste and Increasing Food Security.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 54 (5): S130–S132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.12.006.
Wasted! The story of food waste [documentary]. Directors: Anna Chai, Nari Kye, 2017.
1. The Bill Emerson Food Donation Act offers Federal (U.S.) protection from civil and criminal liability for persons involved in the donation and distribution of food products to food insecure people under certain conditions. Namely, a person must donate in good faith apparently safe and good quality food to a nonprofit organization for distribution to individuals in need to receive protection under the Act. The Act also provides protection against civil and criminal liability to the nonprofit organizations that receive such donated items in good faith. https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/usda-good-samaritan-faqs.pdf | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.35%3A_Case%3A_Food_Rescue.txt |
Financialization in the Food System
Phoebe Stephens is a SSHRC Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Toronto where she studies the role of finance in the food system and is particularly interested in assessing the potential of alternative financing mechanisms to support transitions towards more sustainable and regenerative food systems. Phoebe has published a number of book chapters and peer-reviewed journal articles on this topic. She holds a PhD in Social and Ecological Sustainability from the University of Waterloo and is a 2018 Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation Scholar.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Explain the context for the rise of financialization in the food system.
• Outline the core debates amongst scholars of financialization
• Identify the main manifestations of financialization in the food system and how they impact social and ecological outcomes
Introduction
Have you ever wondered how decisions made in the abstract world of financial markets affect something as intimate as the food you eat? Did you know that the investment landscape of food and agriculture has significantly changed in the last two decades, in ways that influence your choices at the grocery store? The reality is that we live in a highly financialized era, that is, profits made through financial markets—rather than productive activities—are taking on a greater share of our economy. In big and small ways, our food systems are being shaped by financial investment patterns. It is important to understand such structural forces in our food systems, as they profoundly shape realities on the ground, often in unsustainable ways. If we want to have any hope of changing those realities, we must know how the system is structured and which levers to pull.
The academic literature on financialization gained momentum after the 2007–08 financial crisis, and has grown rapidly in the last decade. It is a broad area of scholarship that originates predominantly from political economy and geography, but is also informed by other disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, and development studies. Mainly, scholars of financialization seek answers to and explore the implications of the increasing role of finance in the economy. At its core, the literature on financialization contributes to the study of contemporary capitalism.[1] Its primary contribution is to challenge the belief in the neutrality of money, that is, the literature on financialization critically analyzes the financial system.
There are many definitions of financialization. A common one is by economist Gerald Epstein, who describes financialization as “the increasing role of financial motives, financial markets, financial actors and financial institutions in the operation of domestic and international economies”.[2] Another, by historical sociologist Greta Krippner, emphasizes the abstraction from the real economy: “Financialization is the tendency for profit making in the economy to occur increasingly through financial channels rather than through productive activities”.[3]
Scholars identify different causes for the increased financialization of the economy from macro-, meso-, and micro-levels. A macro-level interpretation relates to the crisis of capital accumulation. Since the 1980s, capital has accumulated increasingly through financial rather than productive means, as Krippner’s definition suggests.[4] The thrust of the argument is that declining profits in the manufacturing sectors of industrialized countries encouraged financial deregulation, which was meant to stimulate the stagnant economies of the 1980s and gave rise to finance-led growth.[5] Globalization is one of the primary drivers of this structural shift, as companies in the Global North increasingly moved their production off-shore and began to control foreign supply chains in order to keep costs low and remain competitive internationally.[6] Rather than reinvesting profits into the business, they were increasingly distributed to shareholders or invested in financial products.[7]
The meso-perspective relates to the shareholder revolution that arose in the 1980s. At this time, non-financial companies began acting more like financial firms, in the sense that they re-oriented their strategies to maximize shareholder return. The revolution of shareholder activism tied business performance to the compensation of executives through stock options, which tends to result in more short-term value creation, rather than long-term investments in innovation.[8] By the late 1990s, the shareholder value model of corporate governance became conventional wisdom and spread around the world, gaining prominence not only in North America, but also in Europe, Japan and emerging economies.
A final, micro-level aspect is the concept of the financialization of daily life. This refers to the fact that, increasingly, people must resort to financial products to manage life stages and life goals.[9] Other themes that fall under the financialization of daily life include discourses around risk-taking and self-management, and the way that state policies influence everyday habits of savings and borrowing. While the 2008 financial crisis helped to expose the interconnection between households and global financial markets, the financialization of daily life was already well underway. The first factor relates to the erosion of the Fordist social contract prevalent in the United States and Canada, starting in the 1970s, whereby employers provided certain forms of security through living wages, meaningful pension, and health insurance. The second factor occurred around the same time, when the Keynesian-inspired welfare state started to dismantle, pushing many citizens around the world to turn to financial products to underpin their livelihood security.
Debates
Since financialization scholars attempt to make sense of a host of complex interactions, it is no wonder that there has been such a wide variety of empirical studies on the topic. This mushrooming of the financialization literature has come under scrutiny, however. For instance, Christophers views financialization as the “buzzword of the 2010’s,” arguing that it is both conceptually and empirically limited.[10] His critique largely stems from the lack of analytical clarity of the concept of financialization and he cautions scholars researching the topic to be conscious of its theoretical limits.[11] Lawrence and Smith wrote a response to Christophers’ arguments, defending financialization as a “concept-in-the-making.”[12] Their main rebuttal was that rather than viewing financialization as intellectually vacuous, more rigorous studies of financialization are needed to better understand the phenomenon. As financialization has gained traction among a variety of scholars, there has been more research into how the process of financialization incorporates ‘non-financial’ actors. Financialization in the food system is one such example, and represents an important body of literature for contextualizing how large-scale financial investment patterns and the rise of shareholder value influence social and environmental outcomes in food systems around the world.
Financialization in the food system
The activities of the financial sector have become increasingly enmeshed in food and agriculture. Just over a decade ago, the financialization of the food system captured scholarly interest when it first became widely apparent in the area of agricultural commodities. From 2002–08, the FAO Food Price index rose by 125 percent, spiking dramatically between 2007 and 2008 at the height of the food crisis.[13] Although a confluence of factors contributed to this situation (including rising energy prices, increased costs of agricultural inputs, and droughts around the world), many pointed to the dramatic increase in speculative financial activity in agricultural futures markets as a core driver. The high food prices of the food crisis hurt many poorer communities around the world as they struggled to afford to feed themselves. Exorbitant food prices incited riots in different parts of the world, including Egypt, Haiti, Bangladesh, and Mexico. The far-reaching impacts of the food crisis demonstrate how financial investments can have very real repercussions for people’s lives.
Financialization in the food system is demonstrated in part by the involvement of a new group of actors such as pension funds, private equity firms, hedge funds, and sovereign wealth funds in food and agriculture investments.[14] Spurred in part by the food price crisis, new financial actors in the food system also moved swiftly into farmland investments. Though financial investors had long dismissed the agricultural sector as unpredictable and unprofitable, they turned their focus to farmland, and agriculture more broadly, during the 2007–08 financial crisis, as higher commodity prices and the prospect of stable, risk-adjusted returns provided a promising alternative to traditional investments, which were floundering at the time.[15] Other factors, such as a rising global population, greater demand for meat, and biofuels made agricultural land an appealing investment. The interest in farmland has stuck, and between 2005 and 2017, institutional investors (e.g., private equity funds, hedge funds, pension funds) and high-net worth individuals invested an unprecedented forty-five billion dollars (US) in farmland.[16] However, it bears noting that investor interest in farmland ebbs and flows depending on a variety of factors, including changing regulations around which actors are allowed to invest in farmland. For example, in response to dramatic price increases of agricultural land in Saskatchewan, in 2015, pension funds and trusts of more than ten people were banned from acquiring farmland in the province.[17]
Initially, the land rush predominantly took place in emerging economies and prompted concerns around tenure rights and land access for small-scale farmers in these countries. One egregious example involved South Korea’s Daeweoo Logistics, which was negotiating a 99-year lease of half of Madagascar’s arable land.[18] Had the deal gone through, the company could have exported all of the produce grown on the Malagasy land and imported all labour from South Korea, as the governance stipulations were weak. The scale and nature of the deal caused public outrage and was a primary cause for the ousting of the president at the time. Though this one deal did not move ahead, Africa is a popular target of land grabbing by foreign entities, which raises many concerns regarding African countries’ food security and food sovereignty. Over time however, higher income countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia have also attracted private and institutional investment in farmland.[19] This has served to drive up the cost of rural land in these countries, making it difficult for new or small-scale farmers to enter the market.
Such investments in agricultural land tend to entrench the industrial model of agriculture, as they target large tracts of land destined for commodity and monoculture farming. This type of agricultural production is highly mechanized and involves the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions—among other negative environmental externalities.[20]
At the institutional level, non-financial firms such as agrifood businesses—like seed and agrochemical companies, food manufacturers and processors, and grocery retailers—are being reshaped by financialization while also profiting from it. For instance, agricultural trading firms such as Cargill are increasingly involved in financial activities to generate profit. Cargill is made up of a number of business units and subunits. The company produces and trades seed, feed, fertilizer, and agrochemicals. It is also a “landowner, cattle rancher, maker of transportation vehicles, biofuel producer and a provider of financial services,” through subsidiaries such as Black River Asset Management.[21] Black River acquires private equity in agricultural companies, indirectly controlling land in various countries around the world, which demonstrates the connection between agricultural companies and farmland.
Another way that financialization affects business behaviour is by motivating firms to participate in mergers and acquisitions in order to generate value for shareholders. There is therefore an indirect connection between rising financialization and rising corporate concentration along the food value chain. These activities have led to a situation in which four companies dominate the global grain market, a handful of supermarket chains in advanced economies control the vast majority of food sales, and the top five seed companies have massively increased their market share in the last twenty years.[22] As fewer and fewer companies control the food system, the influence of the few remaining firms becomes more powerful. This growing power allows them to shape rules, regulations, and practices along the food chain to their benefit.[23] Some of the results of rising corporate control in the food system include jeopardizing small farmer livelihoods, environmental quality, food safety, and consumer sovereignty.
Consider the unprecedented acquisition of Whole Foods by Amazon in 2017, which has not only expanded Amazon’s reach offline but has also pushed the entire grocery industry towards online shopping and delivery services. Moreover, there are concerns about how the acquisition will affect sustainability outcomes on the ground. As the leadership at Whole Foods changed with the acquisition, many wondered if the new management would uphold the same values of prioritizing local and sustainably produced food. Four years on, it seems as though Amazon has maintained many of Whole Foods’ original commitments to sustainability and traceability, but it is perceived as less nimble from an innovation standpoint and less able to support local companies, now that it has centralized its buying practices.[24] This reality limits its ability to support more diversified, regional food systems, which is understood to support greater resilience and sustainability.
Conclusion
Ultimately financialization makes it difficult for more sustainable, alternative food systems to develop and thrive. In particular, the prioritization of shareholder value—whereby maximizing shareholder returns are sought over long-term or ethical goals—tends to increase corporate concentration through mergers and acquisitions (because these activities generate strong dividends). This trend crowds out chances for economic diversity in the food system and limits opportunities for smaller and more sustainable alternatives to scale up and out.[25] In-depth research on the power dimensions of the food system has demonstrate how neoliberalized markets have a tendency to become dominated by a handful of corporations.[26] When markets become skewed in this way, companies have the power to shape outcomes to their benefit and the already disadvantaged end up bearing the brunt of costs.[27] The financialization of agricultural commodity markets have hurt consumers around the world as food prices rise and become increasingly unaffordable. The meteoric rise in farmland investments has also had profound repercussions for social and environmental justice. For instance, many of the crops grown on land bought by foreign investors in poorer countries are exported, instead of feeding local and often food-insecure communities. Moreover, these investments tend to entrench the industrial model of agricultural production, which is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, degrades soil fertility, and is highly polluting.[28]
Inconspicuous, structural forces like financialization can often go unexamined in daily life. To bring about food system change, however, it is necessary to make the invisible visible, so as to understand the leverage and pain points in a system. Reading and learning more about financialization at the macro-, meso- and micro- levels is one way of advancing your knowledge of the barriers and opportunities that exist for transforming food systems, towards more sustainable and regenerative outcomes.
Discussion Q uestion s
• What are the three levels of financialization and how are they connected to the financialization of the food system?
• How do you see the presence of financialization in your daily food provisioning practices?
• Who owns the farmland in your region? Does it matter who invests in farmland? How might farmland ownership impact social, economic, and environmental outcomes in your region?
Exercise
Land Grabbing Role Play
In groups of approximately six students, engage in a role-playing game to understand the perspectives of various stakeholder groups associated with large-scale farmland investments (also known as land grabbing).
Scenario: A large land deal is being negotiated in which institutional and foreign investors are poised to acquire 100,000 acres of some of the most fertile land in your region. There is significant opposition to the deal, but it promises to be very lucrative. A town hall meeting is being held to discuss possible ways forward.
Roles:
• pension fund manager
• foreign state investor
• provincially elected government official
• farmer
• domestic food consumer
• environmentalist
Assuming one of the roles identified above, present your arguments for or against the deal and identify possible areas for compromise. Once everyone in the group has had a chance to present, discuss the issues, tensions, areas of agreement or conflict, and anything else that piqued your interest. Be prepared to share and discuss your observations with the rest of the class.
Additional Resources
ETC Group Reports: The ETC Group is a non-profit organization that investigates and reports on ecological erosion; the development of new technologies, and global governance issues including corporate concentration. They often focus on the food system.
Clapp, Jennifer, and Ryan Isakson. 2018. Speculative Harvests: Financialization, Food, and Agriculture. Black Point, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing.
References
Arrighi, G. 1994. The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Our Times . London: Verso.
Bjorkhaug, H., A. Magnan, and G. Lawrence. 2018. “Introduction: The Financialization of Agri-Food.” In The Financialization of Agri-Food Systems: Contested Transformations . New York: Routledge.
Bonny, S. 2017. “Corporate Concentration and Technological Change in the Global Seed Industry.” Sustainability 9 (9): 1–25.
Burch, D., J. Dixon, and G. Lawrence. 2013. “Introduction to Symposium on the Changing Role of Supermarkets in Global Supply Chains: From Seedling to Supermarket: Agri-Food Supply Chains in Transition.” Agriculture and Human Values 30 (2): 215–24.
Burch, D., and G. Lawrence. 2013. “Financialization in Agri-Food Supply Chains: Private Equity and the Transformation of the Retail Sector.” Agriculture and Human Values 30: 247–58.
Christophers, B. 2015. “The Limits to Financialization.” Dialogues in Human Geography 5 (2): 183–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043820615588153.
Clapp, J. and R.S. Isakson. 2018. Speculative Harvests: Financialization, Food and Agriculture . Halifax: Fernwood Press.
Clapp, J. 2015. “ABCD and Beyond: From Global Grain Merchants and Agricultural Value Chain Managers.” Canadian Food Studies 2 (2): 126–35.
Clapp, J., and R.S. Isakson. 2018. “Risky Returns: The Implications of Financialization in the Food System.” Development and Change 49 (2): 437–60.
Clapp, J. 2015. “Distant Agricultural Landscapes.” Sustainability Science 10 (2): 305–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-014-0278-0.
Cox, A. 2021. “Has Amazon Spoiled Whole Foods?” Freightwaves.com, February 17.
de Lapérouse, P. 2016. “Agriculture: A New Asset Class Presents Opportunities for Institutional Investors.
Epstein, G.A. 2005. “Introduction: Financialization and the World Economy.” In Financialization and the World Economy , 3–16. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M., Mueller, N.D., O’Connell, C., Ray, D. K., West, P. C., Balzer, C., Bennett, E. M., Carpenter, S. R., Hill, J., Monfreda, C., Polasky, S., Rockström, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., … Zaks, D.P.M. 2011. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478 (7369), 337–342. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10452
Friedmann, H. 2005. “From Colonialism to Green Capitalism: Social Movements and Emergence of Food Regimes.” New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development 11.
Friedmann, H., and P. McMichael. 1989. “Agriculture and the State System: The Rise and Decline of National Agricultures, 1870 to the Present.” Sociologia Ruralis 29 (2): 93–117.
Fuchs, D., R. Meyer-Eppler, and U. Hamenstädt. 2013.“Food for Thought: The Politics of Financialization in the Agrifood System.” Competition & Change 17 (3): 219–33. https://doi.org/10.1179/1024529413Z.00000000034.
Krippner, G. 2011. Capitalizing on Crisis . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Lawrence, G., and K. Smith. 2018. “The Concept of ‘Financialization’: Criticisms and Insights.” In The Financialization of Agri-Food Systems: Contested Transformations , 23–41. New York: Routledge.
Mader, P., D. Mertens, and N. van der Zwan. 2019. “Financialization an Introduction.” In International Handbook of Financialization . Routledge.
Magnan, A. 2018. “Farmland Values: Media and Public Discourses around Farmland Investment in Canada and Australia.” In The Financialization of Agri-Food Systems: Contested Transformations , 108–32. New York: Routledge.
McMichael, P. 2009. “A Food Regime Genealogy.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 36 (1): 139–69.
Salerno, T. 2014. “Capitalizing on the Financialization of Agriculture: Cargill’s Land Investment Techniques in the Philippines.” Third World Quarterly 35 (9): 1709–27.
Schmidt, T.P. 2016. The Political Economy of Food and Finance . London: Routledge.
van der Zwan, N. 2014. “Making Sense of Financialization.” Socio-Economic Review 12: 99–129.
1. van der Zwan 2014.
2. Epstein 2005, 3.
3. Krippner 2011.
4. Arrighi 1994.
5. Clapp 2015.
6. van der Zwan 2014,104.
7. Ibid.
8. Schmidt 2016.
9. van der Zwan 2014, 109.
10. Christophers 2015.
11. Ibid.
12. Lawrence & Smith 2018.
13. Schmidt 2016.
14. Lawrence & Smith 2018, 31.
15. Schmidt 2016, 105.
16. Laperouse 2016.
17. Magnan 2018, 110.
18. Wittmeyer 2012.
19. Magnan 2018.
20. Foley et al. 2011.
21. Salerno 2014, 1710.
22. Bonny 2017.
23. Fuchs et al. 2013.
24. Cox 2021.
25. Clapp & Isakson 2018.
26. Howard 2016.
27. Ibid., 2.
28. Ibid.
02.37: Creative: Solidarity for Food Businesses
Follow the SPoons
Annika Walsh is a transdisciplinary artist who was born in Chuzhou, China and adopted at 11 months of age by her family in Canada. She works with a variety of ingredients, materials, and collaborators to form her conceptual pieces. Her practice ranges from exploration of cultural identity to participatory food performances, and everything in between. Striving to blur the lines and push the boundaries, Annika makes a habit of traversing many disciplines, including sculptural installation, performance, and media.
Follow The Spoons (Oct. 2020)
“Follow the Spoons” is a non-invasive public intervention that invests in the community and advocates for the importance of people. During COVID pandemic-related shutdowns, Wellington Village in Ottawa, Ontario began to shift and suffer. The local food establishments are very dependent on everyone in the neighbourhood and were in need of public engagement. This intervention served as a reminder to the community that these businesses needed help. Leveraging the flow of people going in and out of the newly built Tunney’s Pasture O-Train transit station, I placed flattened spoons in the area, labeled with the names of restaurants and food shops, and pointed in the general direction where they were located. During difficult times, I encourage this initiative to spread throughout the city, with many people participating in a movement of collective solidarity.
A Vimeo element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/food/?p=202
Exercise
Grab some paper, tape, and spoons!
Then write down a list of local restaurants or food businesses that deserve some love and attention from your neighbourhood. Cut out the list of names and tape them onto your flattened spoons. If you do not have a hammer to flatten out the spoons, don’t worry about it! Concave surfaces work too, or you can use chopsticks or any other utensil you have access to! Take your labelled spoons and tape them onto a signpost in a semi–high traffic area, wherever they will be easily and frequently seen. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.36%3A_Perspective%3A_Financialization_of_Food.txt |
Fair Trade
Eefje de Gelder is a PhD student on “the Consequences of Mainstreaming Fair trade” (Radboud University Nijmegen). She has also worked as a postdoctoral researcher on inclusiveness for the Inclusive Biobased Innovations project (Delft University of Technology) and as a project coordinator on a research project on Morality and Markets at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Her main research interests are how to include smallholders in agricultural value chains and market systems in which profit-maximisation and sustainability are often in conflict.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Explain fair trade practices and how these relate to underlying ideological debates.
• E xplain what fair trade mainstreaming is and the main topics of debate around it .
• Articulate potential future direction s for the fair trade movement .
• Formulate an informed position on fair trade practices and ideologies.
• Review and compare the fair trade p ractices of different organi s ations and businesses .
Fair trade
While doing your daily grocery shopping, you may have wondered about the fair trade labels you see on certain products. Fair tradeis a form of ethical commerce, embodied by a movement that mobilizesthe idea of food justice.[1] The goal of the movementis to providejustice to marginalised, small-scalefarmers in supplychainsthat typically do not have equal access to international markets and/or have low bargaining power in exchange relationships. Ideally, direct and long-term relationships between producers and buyers are established, eliminating the middlemen who often take a large part of the profits. The movement aims to pay higherprices than those already established on the world market, and establish better exchange conditionsfor producers, for example by including pre-finance options and fixed interest rates when contracts are set up. Better wages, fewer working hours, prohibition offorced andchild labour,and better protection against toxic material are among the ways that working conditions of labourers areimproved. In this way, fair trade aims to makeproducers less dependent on the mercies of world marketsand middlemen. In other words, it is believed that compliance with fair trade principlesimprovesand stabilises the socioeconomic situationof producersand labourers and the communitiesin which they live.
These additional requirements do not come without costs for consumer s . Over time, different fair trade organi s ations and businesses have supplied fair trade products to Western consumers, who in turn pay a higher price for these products . The higher consumer price is intended to ensure the well being of producers . At the same time, with descriptors, labels and marketing campaigns around their products, fair trade organi s ations aim to create greater awareness , explaining why fair trade products cost more . At a higher level, fair trade organi s ations want to change the rules of the game , where conventional international trade practices are perceived as unfair .[2] For example, the Fair Trade Advocacy Office in Brussels is dedicated to bringing fair trade and justice to the fore in EU policies.
When fair trade principles are applied in practice, t here are a couple of basic premises for the part ners involved in the exchange . Small-sca l e p roducers of handicraft or commodities such as coffee and bananas with the production organi s ed democratically in producer communities receive a guaranteed higher price than the world market price . If the world market price is higher than the fair trade price, the world market price holds . On top of the fair trade price , a social premium should be provided , which producer communities should spend on community development , for instance on education. Organically grown commodities receive an additional premium. For example, s in ce 201 9 , the guaranteed fair trade price for cocoa has been US \$ 2400 / m etric t onne ( MT ) , with a social premium of US \$240/MT and an organic premium of US \$300 /MT . At the beginning of 2021, the cocoa price was US \$2604/MT, meaning that fair trade cocoa producers would receive the world market price plus the social premium, which amounted to US \$ 2844/MT . Organic cocoa producers would receive a US \$ 3144/MT. Besides the payment of fair trade prices, pre-finance arran gements should also be made with producers who often lack the financial means to invest and/or face high interest rates . On their side of the bargain, p roducers must apply s ustainable production methods and forbid c hild labo u r in the production process.
The efficacy of fair tradecertification programs has been found to be mixedand multi-layered. Fairtrade certification by FairtradeInternational may function as a safety net in caseswhere world market prices are low,but in those cases whereworld market prices are high, the relative benefits of fair tradecertificationmaydisappear. Results depend on the context, and may reflectthe way in which the fair tradecertification program is applied and the type of producergroup involved.It is alsohard to control how the auditing of small-scale producers functions,as well as how transparent these processes are. Furthermore, the poorest small-scale producersthose suffering mostly from power imbalances in exchangesmay not be reached by its program, since a yearly certification fee is chargedto co-operatives,which the poorest are unable to pay. While generallyit can be said thatfair tradecertificationprograms such as Fairtrade arebeneficial to producer and worker communities, fair tradecannot be regarded as a panacea for the structural challenges that continue to exist at the international level. For example, it would be more effective to lower or eliminate U.S.subsidies for cotton farmers that serve to keep world market prices artificially low, and allowpricesand therefore incomesfor cotton producers to rise worldwide.
This raises the question o f how the fair trade movement as a whole approach es the market , with fair trade organi s ations and companies hav ing different ideas about how fair trade work s in practice. A major issue is the extent to which the movement’s ideology fits the markets it operates in. Should fair trade focus on enlarging its market, or focus on greater international justice? Do fair trade practices exist completely separate ly from conventional market operations, or can they be integrated? The history of the fair trade movement reveals the tensions between different approaches and different actors in the movement , and these differences have caused debate that continues today.
Table 1 shows different fair trade principles that virtually all actors in the movement adhere to , more or less .
[table id=11 /]
The history of fair trade
Fair trade has a longer historical track record than is immediately obvious. The fair trademovement beganalready in the 1940s,when consumer groups in the U.S.and Europestarted to import products from handicraft producers. The American Edna Byler, for instance, formed the basis of what is now the retail chain Ten Thousand Villages,by importing handicraftsfrom Puerto Rico,starting in1946. In the 1960s and 1970s,these consumer groups were joined by people aiming to changethe international trade systementirely. Shops selling products coming from decolonising countries started to appear in commercial districts,encouraged by alternative trade organisations (ATOs).An example of these are the so-called World shops in the Netherlands. These outlets were regarded as alternative, and often functioned as centres of political action,where fair trade’s market approaches and actions were discussed. They paid special attention to producers from countries that were in the process of decolonisationand their participationin equal exchanges at the international level.[3]
Differences over how to operationali se the movement ’s ideals became very obvious with a new exchange practice in 1988 . The birth of the first fair trade certification program , by the Dutch foundation Max Havelaar , implied the start of a market-based strategy. Conventional companies could now join the movement more eas il y , without bei ng involved in the political ly sensitive issues with which the ATOs were associated . Products could be fair trade certified if producers and companies complied with fair trade standards, audited by an independe nt organi s ation ( such as the European FLOCERT ). Over time, fair trade certification became common ground in different European countries , as well as in the U . S . and Canada . The rise of fair trade c ertification programs enlarge d the impact of fair trade among producers because more companies could join . Sales of fair trade products increased as consumers more easily and frequently encounter ed fair trade products during grocery shopping . At the same time, fair trade producers faced extra costs in terms of certification fees and associated administrative costs.
Asfair tradecertifiedsales increased, the fair trademovement became more institutionalised,with the overarchingbody of the fair trademovement, Fairtrade International in Bonn(Germany),leadingthe different national European and American fair tradeinitiativesfrom2007. This organisation is responsible for setting the Fairtrade Certified standards and managementof the surrounding process. Currently, various fair tradesuppliers, companies, certification programs, and organisations have emerged, including industry- and firm-based programs such as UTZ Certifiedand the Nestlé Cocoa Plan. UTZ Certified was introduced in 2001,as the certification program “Utz Kapeh” (“better coffee”) by the multinational Ahold, and fitting the desires of the industry better than the Fairtrade International certification program.Themain difference wasthe guaranteed minimum price, which UTZ Certified does not offer. The emergence of different types of certification programs and industry involvement has meant that the concept offair tradehas increasinglybeencontested,withinternal conflictsin the movementleadingto asplit inthe American fair trademovement in 2011. At stake,among otherthings, werethe percentage of fair tradecertifiedingredientsin fair tradecertified productsand plantation certification.[4] Essentially, the discussion was about who fair trade policies were about: the marginalised, small-scale producers,or companiesengaging in fair trade.
Mainstreaming fair trade and the clash of two strands in one movement
Disagreements over the goal of the movement haveled to intense discussions between people and organisations. Some fair trademovement actors have saidthat enteringmainstream distribution channels would hollow out the movement’s ideals. Indeed, up until today, thedebateaboutbeing a movement and a market at the same time hasbeenan important thread in mainstreaming fair trade,that is,the process in which consumers and companiesare increasingly buying and selling fair tradecertified products. Two main ideological positionsin the fair trade practices of organisations and companiescan be distinguished.
On the one hand, fair tradeisregarded as a practice over andagainst conventional market practices. Activists advocate an entirely new, alternative international trade system. Based on Marxist ideas on exchanges, personalrelationships between consumers and producers,anddirect, long-termtransactions are regarded as the embodiment ofjust trade.According to Karl Marx, commoditiesin an exploitativesystem focused on profit-maximisation hide the situation of marginalised producers and labourers. Commodification thus preventsconsumers from seeing the true circumstances under which a product is produced. Following this logic, consumers should be enlightened about the precarious position of producers and labourers, and aim at theeradication ofinequalitiesat the international level. By working in the marketand with conventional market players, the movement would lose these valuesand no longer be an alternative for the impersonalmarket systems. Again, this argument suggests that such systems aim atprofit-maximisation only,and may start to undermine fair tradeprinciples. The fear isthat cooperation with thesame firmswhose practices the movement has been trying to fight would cause the same problems to re-emerge, given that theirmotivationswould not havechanged fundamentally. Consumers,aiming to establishpersonal and long-term relationshipsin supplychains, or to acknowledge theproducers’ situation,would have no incentive to buy. Instead, consumers would be extrinsically motivated and focus on other features of the products.This would undermine the movement’s objectiveof having a dedicated consumer basewith a focus on international justice.
On the other hand, adherents of fair trade certification proclaim that the idea of just trade should be operationali s ed in the market. By means of certification programs , both market share and impact for producers and workers w ould increase. Moreover, working with bigger multinationals such as Starbucks and Nestlé wou ld accelerate this process. The success of fair trade certification could stimula te these firms to apply fair trade principles in their other supply chains too . F rom a business perspective, a certification mark on their product packages implies added value to their products . A label may persuade consumers to buy not just a commodity, but a product that reflects fairness for producers . Having a certification mark could thus be a market strategy to differentiate , and give businesses a competitive advantage compared to other (not yet certified) products typically traded as commodit ies . In addition, larger businesses can often achieve economies of scale, making it easier to offer fair trade products at a lower price. Staying alternative would mean that the (often more expensive ) fair trade products remain a niche in conventional market s , restricting the overall improvement of producer livelihoods . F air trade certified products in conventional outlets would thus allow c onsumers to find fair trade products easily by the ir certification marks and labels , increase a wareness of fair trade producers and workers , and allow high quality products to be bought at affordable prices.
Mainstreaming fair trade and the practical consequences
The mainstreaming of fair trade has raised three main issues about operationali s ing just trade . Essentially, these reflect the roles of three actors in the fair trade movement and their effect on beneficiaries : the larger companies entering the movement, consumer s , and the fair trade movement itself .
First, it has been fear ed that the entrance of larger businesses may violate or not fully comply with the standards set by Fairtrade International .[5] For instance, in the U . S . , Starbucks violated the Fairtrade requirement that 5% of total coffee consumption should be bought as fair trade– certified .[6] L arger companies may start their own certification programs, requiring compliance with lower standards and thus diluting fair trade ’s overall message . F or consumers , distinguishing between the significance of different certification mark s on products may be come increasingly difficult . Connected with this , larger companies and multinationals often source from larger plantations , rather than small -scale producers , so the original fair trade beneficiaries would face competition . D ue to overall low demand , they already fac e difficulties in selling their harvest . Moreover, power imbalances may continue to exist , to the detriment of small-scale producers , due to lack of transparency about how and to what degree standards are complied with. The voice of the producer may not be voiced sufficiently and, a s can be imagine d , a two-day, on-site audit of farm operations does not necessarily provide an accurate portrait of what happens in the day-to-day. Such developments raise the question about the intended beneficiaries of fair trade certification programs and about the transpare n cy of the certification process .
Second, increased competition with in fair trade in Western countries may result in the disappearance of Alternative Trade Orga ni s ations in commercial districts , a n outcome already seen during the last decade . This is important, as these organisations typically embody the more ‘alternative’ current of the movement, conveying fair trade ’s core message and identity , a s well as functioning as a benchmark for fairness. ATOs also stand for establishing long-term personal relationships, which are hard to quantify but of importance to the producer groups they work with. The existence of c ertification programs would only further increase the anonymity of standardi s ed market transactions , mak ing producers again dependent on the mercies of the market.
Third, consumers’ stance s on the different fair trade certification marks remains an open question. Consumers do support fair trade goals but do not always buy fair trade certified products. C onsumers can also differ greatly on which aspects of just trade are important and how they should be operationali s ed in conventional markets . The different fair trade label s that have emerged, such as UTZ-certified , may furthermore lead to confusion for consumers about what fair trade really means . A parallel example is t he appearance of other sustainability-related labels ( e.g., organic, carbon -neutral, climate-friendly, etc. ), which may lead to label fatigue among consumers . For the fair trade movement, this is a risk , as consumers may no longer notice the f air trade certification and/or consider its added (social) value. Further , m edia treatment of both the original fair trade certification program and conventional firms’ involvement in fair trade may undermine the trust in certification marks . At the same time, such attention can give consumers a better understanding of the difficulties in operationali s ing just trade.
Finally, the relationship between the Western fair trade organi s ations and the producers has also been questioned . Fair trade p roducers do not always have an equal say and/or impact on the strategy to be followed within the development of fair trade (certification) programs . This may hinder critical reflection and exclude the views of fair trade producers’ on fair trade standards , mainly developed in West ern countries . Over time, Fair trade International has increased the voting power of producer organi s ations to 50%, but not all certification programs have such systems in place.
The consequences of mainstreaming are crucial to the legitimacy of fair trade in the conventional market. For both companies and consumers, successful and effective fair trade standards would legitimi s e paying a higher price for fair trade products and result in more engagement . If fair trade certification marks do not live up to expectation, consumers may lose belief in fair trade . The latter may also happen if fair trade practices are misused by companies, that is, were ‘fair washing’ to occur, or were fair tra de programs set up that in practice make little or no difference to the producers . For producers, importantly, their well being depend s on fair trade standards being effective . If fair trade does not sufficiently increase socioeconomic well being, producers will stop working through it . However, there are other ways of fighting the structural inequalities that small-scale producers and workers face . More equality could be estab lished in international trade if , for example, import tariffs and quota s were change d structurally , to the advantage of non-Western countries .
The future of fair trade
The future of the fair trade movement is closely related t o the mainstreaming of fair trade . P ractice and understanding are shaped by the way fair trade is operationali s ed . This has become increasingly varied , now that more companies and organi s ations have entered the market. It remains questionable to what degree ATOs such as Ten Thousand Villages and World shops will be able to attract consumers and convince them of the added value of the fair trade products. Enterprises that do not necessarily identify as ATO s or fair trade certified will also become important transmitters of the fair trade message and even compete with ATOs . This could create confusion for consumers . At the same time, this and increased media attention could increase attention to the cause. For example, in the Netherlands, the company Tony’s Chocolonely has focused on improving the situation of cocoa producers , making this the reason for its existence and the core of its marketing campaign . (It was nonetheless heavily criticised for being un able to guarantee that its cocoa beans are ‘slave free’ . ) More recent ly , there were media reports that this firm is no longer on a U . S . -based list of ‘ e thical c ompanies’ , due to its co-operation with a conventional cocoa processing company . Clearly, with mainstreaming, fair trade organi s ations and companies are increasingly under public scrutiny. Such discussions may pave the way for new and more effective avenues for key actors to mainstream fair trade .
One option may come from companies that opt for having no certification label at all, in order to be more effective in reaching social responsibility and environmental goals . T he main aspects of just trade these companies adhere to are establish ing direct and long-term relationships with farmers , provid ing community support , and support ing environmental- friendly production . Moreover, these companies give the producer organisations a price that may be beyond the minimum price as set by Fairtrade International . B eing transparent to the public about their on the ground practices even if it includes difficulties in operationalising fairness locally is often another goal . As such, these companies can be regarded as a new type of ATO , operating in often specialized niche markets . If the se companies are able to succeed in establish ing socioeconomic well being for producers without need ing certification programs , they show case a new way of operationalising fairness to actors in the mainstream . To succeed, however, these companies will need a dedicated consumer base that understands and engage s with the issues they aim to address , including a willingness to pay a higher price for products ( compared to conventional and fair trade certified products ) .
Fair tradecertification organisations, in turn,are increasingly aware ofthe consequences of mainstreaming,as well as the limits of their own certification programs. They tend work together more, lobbyingfor (inter)national legislation, as they believe that market-based strategies do not work quicklyenough,and consumer commitment is too weakto achievereal change. In thisway, a level playing field for all companies mightbe established, forcing thosethat are lagging behind to start implementing human rights and environmental due diligence. This entailsthat companiesaddressall the social and environmental risks and impacts within their supply chains.They would have to make the risks ofcarbon emissionsandpollutionvisible, but also make the payand working conditions of workers transparentand,in doing so, respect human rights. The United Nations Human Rights Council initiated guidelines for company and government responsibilities and duties in 2011.
Currently, these frameworks are mostly voluntary for companies , although some countries are in the process of making mandatory the prohibition of forced and child labour. Because of mainstreaming , companies and consumers are increasingly aware of these issues, and at the present moment, there is greater openness to this type of enforced regulation by governments that have, until now , not actively put into place such regulation .
[table id=12 /]
Synthesis
F air trade products that consumers encounter during their grocery shop ping reflect a world of organisations and firms that struggle over bring ing just trade into practice. The balance between movement and market has been a continuous struggle in the historical trajectory of fair trade . The mainstreaming of fair trade products in conventional distribution channels makes clear that the operationali s ation of just trade has become increasingly difficult , especially since 1988 , when certification was introduced as a new way to approach the market . Certification was a radical ly different way of establishing fairness, meaning that m ore organi s ations with different interests and motivations than the original, alternative shops have entered the fair trade market. For fair trade , mainstreaming entails th at the movement think through who it want s to benefit from its certification system s : small-scale producers , who may not always be so efficient and are the most vulnerable ? Or the plantations of the newly joined , larger companies? And is fair trade only a safety net when world market prices fall , or does it represent a panacea for producers ? Other questions revolve around the credibility of the fair trade certification programs that have emerged. Companies and consumers may have different motivations for joining in the movement, bringing along different understandings of fair trade . This could create confusion for consumers about what should be understood as fair trade . At the same time, these developments also force the fair trade movement to re-identify and react to the increasingly competitive environment of which they are a part . That implies that co-operation between actors has emerged , as well as new initiatives to operationalise fair trade without need ing certification . To most fair trade actors, however, th e time seems ripe for a legal enforcement of fair trade ’s standards on the (inter)national levels at which they operate . The fair trade movement may be about to enter into a new are n a in which ‘just trade’ becomes the standard for all products .
Discussion Q uestions
• Which stores in your neighbourhood would you classify as an Alternative Trade Organisation (ATO), and why?
• Thinking about the products you buy regularly in the supermarket , to what degree are you aware of the companies’ policies regarding fair trade principles?
• Discuss how political convictions relate to the fair trade movement’s two main ideological positions .
• Do you see your consumption choices as a political act ? Why or why not?
Exercise
Pick a product of your choice (for example, coffee, tea, chocolate, spices) and then go to a supermarket where it is sold. Find the product on its shelf and list all the fair trade certification marks you can find on the different brands. Then search for more information regarding each certification program on your list and compare them with the help of the principles as outlined in Table 1. In your opinion, which fair trade certification program looks like ‘the fairest of them all’?
Additional Resources
Fair Trade Advocacy Office
Jaffee, D., 2014 . Brewing justice: fair trade coffee, sustainability, and survival . 2nd ed. Berkley: University of California Press.
Raynolds, L.T. and Bennett, E.A. 2016. Handbook of Research on Fair Trade . Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing .
Wheeler, K., 2012 . Fair trade and the citizen-consumer: shopping for justice? New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
References
Bacon, C., 2010. Who decides what is fair in fair trade? The agri-environmental governance of standards, access, and price. The Journal of Peasant Studies 37 (1), 111–147.
Bassett, T.J., 2014. Capturing the margins: world market prices and cotton farmer incomes in West Africa. World Development 59, 408–421.
Besky, S., 2015. Agricultural justice, abnormal justice? An analysis of fair trade’s plantation problem. Antipode47 (5), 1141–1160.
De Gelder, E., De Vaal, A., Driessen, P.H. Driessen, Sent, E.-M., Bloemer, J. 2021. Market competition and ethical standards: the case of fair trade mainstreaming. Review of Social Economy79 (2), 191221.
Doherty, B., Davies, I.A., Tranchell, S. 2013. Where now for fair trade? Business History 55 (2), 161–189.
Dragusanu, R., Giovannucci, D., Nunn, N. 2015. The Economics of Fair Trade. Journal of Economic Perspectives 28 (3), 217–236.
Fridell, G. (2009). The Co-Operative and the Corporation: Competing Visions of the Future of Fair Trade. Journal of Business Ethics 86, 81 95.
International Fair Trade Charter 2018. The International Fair Trade Charter.
Jaffee, D. 2010. Fair trade standards, corporate participation, and social movement responses in the United States. Journal of Business Ethics 92 (Suppl. 2), 267–285.
Jaffee, D. Howard, P.H. 2016. Who’s the fairest of them all? The fractured landscape of U.S. fair trade certification. Agricultural and Human Values 33 (4), 813–826.
Marston, A., 2013. Justice for all? Material and semiotic impacts of fair trade craft certification. Geoforum 44 , 162–169.
Maseland, R. , De Vaal, A. 2002. How fair is fair trade? De Economist 150 (3), 251–272.
Naylor, L. 2019. Fair Trade Rebels Coffee Production and Struggles for Autonomy in Chiapas. University Of Minnesota Press .
Raynolds, L. 2017. Fairtrade labour certification: the contested incorporation of plantations and workers. Third World Quarterly 38 (7), 1473-1492.
Raynolds, L.T. 2009. Mainstreaming fair trade coffee: from partnership to traceability. World Development 37 (6): 1083–1093.
Reed, D. 2009. What do corporations have to do with fair trade? Positive and normative analysis from a value chain perspective? Journal of Business Ethics 86: 3–26.
Van Dam, P. 2020 . No justice Without Charity: Humanitarianism After Empire. The International History Review . https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2020.1739734
Van Rijsbergen, B., Elbers, W., Ruben, R., Njuguna, S.N. 2016. The ambivalent impact of coffee certification on farmers’ welfare: a matched panel approach for cooperatives in Central Kenya. World Development 77, 277–292.
Walton, A. 2010. What is fair trade? Third World Quarterl y 31 (3), 431–447.
1. Maseland & De Vaal 2002, 253.
2. International Fair Trade Charter 2018, 7.
3. See also Van Dam 2020.
4. For a discussion on plantations, see Raynolds 2017.
5. Doherty et al. 2013.
6. See Fridell 2009. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.38%3A_Perspective%3A_Fair_Trade.txt |
Access to Information in the Agri-Food Sector: Can Better Communication Help Protect Migrant Workers?
Courtney Jane Clause completed her BA in Criminology & Socio-legal at the University of Toronto, and her MA in Communication & Media Studies at Carleton University. This case study is based on her thesis research focusing on access to information for workers enrolled in the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program, which she completed at Carleton University.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Identify and explain the key information needs of migrant workers.
• Describe the implications of information quality on worker well-being.
• Consider how these concepts relate to broader labour and food studies areas, such as neoliberalism, disposable workforces, and community-based approaches to food systems.
Introduction
The Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP) is a labour program negotiated between Canada and twelve participating countries intended to combat labour shortages in the agri-food sector. Workers reside in Canada for up to eight months while cultivating, planting, harvesting, sorting, and packing produce. Studies on SAWP show that, overall, the program requires significant overhaul. Workers often suffer through inadequate housing conditions, increased health concerns, unsafe working conditions, social isolation, and arbitrary dismissal and deportation, among other challenges. Most research around SAWP focuses on ways to resolve these issues, rather than abolition of the program, as it represents a vital source of income for many workers.
When studying SAWP, scholars, activists, and community organizations have often called attention to what may be termed the information barrier—poor, unclear, or sometimes entirely absent communication around key issues. These include translation options, legal rights, program processes, job training, public awareness, social integration, health resources, and navigating Canadian systems and services. The information barrier also includes unequal access to the internet, language and literacy constraints, and related concerns beyond information resources.
Studies increasingly recognize that workers require information beyond program processes, as they not only work in Canada, but also live in Canada. Healthcare workers, for example, express that there are difficulties in making workers aware of services, which can have an impact on whether they even seek access to healthcare services at all. Increased risk of sexual illnesses among SAWP workers, as another example, has been tied to information and communication failures among these specific populations.[1]
This disparate access to information exists alongside increased vulnerabilities across many areas of life and work—unsafe working conditions, frequency of arbitrary dismissal, increased health concerns, and so on. Successful information sharing around these areas is therefore especially important. For example, advocacy groups report that many workers are not sufficiently aware of their legal rights in the workplace, and thus cannot fully exercise these rights.[2] In these examples, quality of information has important consequences for worker awareness, self-advocacy, and decision-making when it comes to their safety during program participation and life in Canada. Lack of information can affect the avenues that workers have to exercise their rights, seek advocacy and services, and demand better working and living environments for themselves. In this way, access to information is considered by several advocacy groups to be a right in and of itself, as it is a tool for actively creating the type of safe, beneficial program we hope to see.
The COVID Pandemic
The COVID pandemic is one of many instances in which we have seen how crucial communication can be for SAWP workers’ well-being. As information changed rapidly, clear recommendations on how to navigate pandemic risks were difficult to obtain for many people. This was especially true for migrant workers. As SAWP workers tried to gain access to information and follow guidelines surrounding the pandemic, we have come to see how COVID has highlighted the existing information struggles within the program.
We can thus ask: How has the COVID pandemic intersected with the SAWP’s information barrier? What information do SAWP enrollees need to make safe decisions about their lives and labour during a health crisis? How does this relate to the types of information that SAWP enrollees need to make safe decisions about their life and labour in general?
COVID-19 andthe Continued Lack of Information
N obody told us what COVID-19 really is…we deserve to be treated better…our families expect us to come back home.”
In a report co-authored by two workers’ rights groups,[3] SAWP enrollees voiced their experiences with gaining access to information around the disease. In their words: “Nobody told us what COVID-19 really is…we deserve to be treated better…our families expect us to come back home.”[4] Similar stories appear in news outlets, as workers reveal that, in some cases, “neither the government nor [their] employer[s] provided information on workers’ rights during the pandemic.”[5] In the case of Spanish-speaking workers, many additionally struggled to find information and COVID testing options in their language.
Literature has demonstrated that, for decades, SAWP workers have been particularly vulnerable to abuse and, as a result, require robust information support on knowing and exercising their legal, health, safety, and mobility rights.[6] Workers have included increased access to information among their concerns in several program reviews.[7] During the pandemic, these information needs were compounded by social distancing and quarantine requirements, new protective equipment protocols, and increased sanitation recommendations. Reports suggest that information on these areas has not reached workers in timely or comprehensive ways.[8]
Seeing Information as a Safety and Self-Advocacy Tool
M ost workers do not have access to the timely/detailed information about health risks or living and working conditions needed to weigh the risks of coming to Canada during a health crisis.
Without safe, transparent, and complete information, workers are making constrained decisions within high-risk environments. Within pandemic contexts, informed participation in the program is not possible if workers do not have clear understanding of the state of COVID in Canada, safeguards in place for SAWP enrollees, and current good practices for the public. Instead, workers are returning without adequate education on how COVID has affected health, housing, and work conditions within the country, and within the program more specifically. Research finds that “most [workers] do not have access to the timely/detailed information about health risks…[or] living and working conditions needed to weigh the risks of coming to Canada” during a health crisis.[9]
Well-informed decision-making regarding these risks is important—especially as, for SAWP populations, safety risks are heightened. Reports find that SAWP workers face greater risk of exposure and greater risk of infection.[10] Though statistics are likely conservative due to underreporting issues,[11] some local groups suggest that, as of August 2020, between 1,000[12] and 1,300[13] workers had contracted the virus in Ontario, with three reported deaths.[14] Both the positive cases and the number of deaths escalated in 2021. For example, one report shows five deaths since mid-March.[15] A second report records a death in April and one in June.[16] A third announcement in May adds another death.[17] These represent only a portion of COVID-related deaths. Vague communication regarding COVID has left many workers tolerating unsafe conditions to avoid being sent home. As advocacy groups attest, in the absence of clear guidelines, “…many workers wonder what to do to ensure that their health is taken care of, but it’s this idea that if they speak up, they won’t be able to return to Canada.”[18] Workers are required to weigh employment needs against health needs and, as in the above case, often feel they must continue working without adequate health and safety information.[19]
Many advocacy groups have identified clear communication and comprehensive information as important protections for SAWP workers. Within pandemic contexts, this might look like increasing “…available and consistent information…to evaluate health, safety, livelihood, and mobility implications of participating…” in the program during the pandemic. Here, good information and communication practices are understood to contribute to free and informed decision-making for workers.
Beyond COVID-related contexts, information-sharing recommendations have been wide-ranging: increased translation services, literacy and language classes, health and safety information, and education around legal rights, to name a few.[20] These are intended to equip workers with the necessary resources and skills to participate more safely in the program and in local Canadian communities. Each of these recommended areas recognize communication and information as tools towards empowerment, self-advocacy, and protection within SAWP contexts.
What Has COVID Taught us About the Future of Information-Sharing within SAWP?
Access to adaptive, prompt, and comprehensive information is a necessity, but it has proven challenging to provide it within a program lacking strong, well-supported information exchange. Details on health, safety, living conditions, and new workplace protocols have been, according to the examples above, sparse, unclear, and infrequently updated.
This is not a new phenomenon within SAWP. Information sharing around important topics like health, safety, communication needs, socializing, and community services have been lacking within the program for some time. Studies show that workers experience increased health risks, unsafe work conditions, lack of meaningful inclusion in program input or review, isolation and depression, and barriers to accessing community services and events.[21] We can speculate that poor education and awareness around these areas contribute at least partially to these challenges experienced by workers.
Disposable Workers vs. Community Members: How Might Access to Information Play a Role?
Studies on SAWP often connect the program to neoliberalism, which relies increasingly on market values to guide thought, action, and policy. These values are favoured over community approaches to well-being and, as a result, promote individual responsibility and reduce the availability of collective social protections. Studies argue that neoliberalism creates disposable workforces, which are valued for their ability to maximize productivity. Workers within disposable workforces are often not valued beyond these labour contributions. Turning workers into disposable workforces means that we “import workers, not people,” and their overall well-being often suffers.[22]
When this is applied to information sharing, it becomes clear that the concept of “workers, not people” would affect the type and quality of information available. When we believe that SAWP participants are only here to work, it is easy to see how, for example, literacy, social belonging, and personal health information are not made into significant parts of discussions, promotions, and education efforts. However, advocates have called for the valuing and care of workers as community members, rather than using them solely for the labour they provide. This includes ensuring they have access to well-rounded information that will help them work and live well. For example, information on upcoming social events and community organizations may reduce feelings of depression, isolation, and lack of belonging. Transparent information on program risks may help worker have a sense of choice and freedom, so that they feel less coerced in entering the program. Information on health services and legal rights may help them better safeguard their well-being during their time in Canada.
For many years, community groups, such as Justicia for Migrant Workers and Niagara Migrant Workers Interest Group, have been implementing these ideas in their local areas. In their daily work with SAWP migrants, they provide honest and caring information about program risks, social events, mental health supports, legal rights, communication needs, and even weekly grocery discounts or bus schedules. This approach to information treats worker well-being as a shared, community responsibility, and sees workers as people, not just units of labour.
Conclusion
“Though COVID-19 has brought these issues to light , they are neither new nor likely to disappear soon .. . workers may very well continue to lack information…under existing program structures which see them as disposable labour sources.
The COVID pandemic provides a pertinent context for examining communication techniques within parts of our food systems, in this instance, as they relate to the migrant workers who sustain these systems. Though COVID has brought these issues to light, they are neither new nor likely to disappear soon. Workers may very well continue to lack information on their many, varied needs under existing program structures which often see them as disposable labour sources.
When we understand migrant workers to be vital members of our food systems and community networks, we can expand the type and quality of information we provide them, towards truly supporting full personal and work lives. Community efforts that affirm their full existences, see them as vital community members, and attend to their information needs as such, are contributing to ongoing efforts to reform SAWP into a safe, healthy, and beneficial option for workers.
Importantly, well-rounded information is one aspect of a complex and layered issue. Without, for example, balanced work schedules, safe transportation, and effective translation services, information regarding healthcare does not necessarily enable access to healthcare. Attention to information-sharing should therefore always be considered alongside other reform efforts that seek to address the varied issues noted above.
Discussion Questions
• What do agricultural workers contribute to our food systems? How is the well-being of workers related to other parts of our food systems?
• What are the key information needs of SAWP workers?
• What are some examples from the chapter in which access to information affected worker wellbeing?
• What is another example in which having the right information would help migrant workers?
• In addition to information, what other resources do migrant workers need in order to access rights and services?
References
Baobeid, A. 2020. “Human Rights and COVID-19: Temporary Foreign Workers in Canada at the Intersection of Human Rights and COVID-19.” Dalla Lana School of Public Health (August 6).
Basok, T., D. Bélanger, and E. Rivas. 2014. “Reproducing Deportability: Migrant Agricultural Workers in South-Western Ontario.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40 (9): 1394–1413. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.849566
Clause, C.J. 2020. “Vegetables and Viruses: How COVID-19 is Exposing the Information Barrier Within the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program.” Food: Locally Embedded, Globally Engaged (blog), October 2.
Caxaj, C.S., and A. Cohen. 2019. “’I Will Not Leave My Body Here’: Migrant Farmworkers’ Health and Safety Amidst a Climate of Coercion.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16 (15): 2643-2656. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152643
Cole, D. 2020. “Heightened COVID-19 Risks to Temporary Foreign (Migrant) Agricultural Workers (TFAWs) and Recommended Actions in the 2020 Agricultural Season: Occupational Medicine Perspective Paper.” Migrant Worker Health Project (June 4).
Grant, T., and I. Bailey. 2021. “Five Migrant Farm Workers Have Died Since Mid-March, Four While in COVID-19 Quarantine, Advocacy Group Says.” CBC News (May 5).
Government of Canada. 2019. “Primary Agriculture Review – What We Heard.” Government of Canada. (February 12).
Gerber, L. 2020. “If Canadian Consumers ‘Knew the Work, They’d Value the Workers.’” The Record (June 15).
Justicia for Migrant Workers (n.d.). Submission of Justicia for Migrant Workers to the Standing Committee on the Review of the Temporary Foreign Worker Program. House of Commons.
Liu, S. 2020. “Farmers Worry About Labour Shortage with Travel Restrictions.” CTV News (March 20).
McLaughlin, J., D. Wells, A.D. Mendiburo, A. Lyn, and B. Vasilevska. 2017. “‘Temporary workers’, Temporary Fathers: Transnational Family Impacts of Canada’s Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program.” Relations Industrielles 72 (4): 682-709. https://doi.org/10.7202/1043172ar
Migrant Worker Health Expert Working Group. 2020. “Recommendations for Overcoming Health Challenges Faced Migrant Agricultural Workers During the COVID-19 Virus Pandemic.” Migrant Worker Health Project (June 1).
Mojtehedzadeh, S. 2020. “Migrant Farm Workers from Jamaica are Being Forced to Sign COVID-19 Waivers.” Toronto Star (April 15).
Mysyk, A., England, M., & J.A. Avila Gallegos. 2009. “A Case for Certified Interpreters for Participants in the Canada/Mexico Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program.” Human Organization 68 (3): 318–327. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.68.3.6g012756050r04h8
Nakache, D., and P.J. Kinoshita. 2010. “The Canadian Temporary Foreign Worker Program: Do Short-Term Economic Needs Prevail Over Human Rights Concerns?” IRPP Study (5): 1–58.
Paz Ramirez, A.B. 2013. “Embodying and Resisting Labour Apartheid: Racism and Mexican Farm Workers in Canada’s Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program.” Master thesis, University of British Columbia. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.0103384
Pazzano, J. 2020. “Coronavirus: Canada’s Migrant Farm Workers Face Fatal COVID-19 Outbreaks, Alleged Mistreatment.” Global News (August 28).
Preibisch, K. 2010. “Pick-Your-Own Labor: Migrant Workers and Flexibility in Canadian Agriculture.” The International Migration Review 44 (2): 404–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2010.00811.x
Preibisch, K., & Hennebry, J. 2011. “Temporary Migration, Chronic Effects: The Health of International Migrant Workers in Canada.Canadian Medical Association. Journal 183 (9): 1033–1038. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.090736
Rapid Response Service. 2013. “Migrant Farm Workers and Sexual Health.” Ontario HIV Treatment Network.
Rodriguez, S. 2020. “As More Migrant Workers Contract COVID-19, Advocates Urge for System to Change.” CBC News (June 2).
Rodriguez, S. 2021. “Migrant Worker Died During Hotel Quarantine, Advocacy Group Says.” CBC News (June 18).
Taekema, D. 2021. “Haldimand-Norfolk Reports 2 More COVID-19 Deaths, Including Temporary Farm Worker.” CBC News (May 20).
United Food and Commercial Workers, and Agricultural Workers Alliance. 2020. “The Status of Migrant Farm Workers in Canada, 2020, Special Report: Marking Three Decades of Advocacy on Behalf of Canada’s Most Exploited Workforce.” United Food and Commercial Workers and Agricultural Workers Alliance.
Vosko, L. 2018. “Legal but Deportable: Institutionalized Deportability and the Limits of Collective Bargaining Among Participants in Canada’s Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program.” ILR Review 71 (4): 882–907. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793918756055
1. Rapid Response Service 2013.
2. Government of Canada 2019.
3. United Food and Commercial Workers, and Agricultural Workers Alliance 2020.
4. United Food and Commercial Workers, and Agricultural Workers Alliance 2020, 22.
5. Mojtehedzadeh 2020, para. 2.
6. Mysyk et. al. 2009; Basok et. al. 2014; Cohen & Caxaj 2019.
7. Government of Canada 2019.
8. Migrant Worker Health Expert Working Group 2020.
9. Migrant Worker Health Expert Working Group 2020, 3.
10. Cole 2020.
11. Cole 2020, 4.
12. Baobeid 2020, para. 4.
13. Pazzano 2020, para. 7.
14. Baobeid 2020, para. 4.
15. Grant & Bailey 2021.
16. Rodriguez 2021.
17. Taekema 2021.
18. Rodriguez 2020, para. 3.
19. Paz Ramirez 2013; Cohen & Caxaj 2019.
20. Mysyk et. al. 2009; Nakache & Kinoshita 2010; Paz Ramirez 2013; Basok et. al. 2014; Vosko 2018; Cohen & Caxaj 2019.
21. Justicia for Migrant Workers n.d.; McLaughlin et. al. 2017; Preibisch & Hennebry 2011.
22. Preibisch 2010, 432. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.39%3A_Case%3A_Migrant_Farm_Workers.txt |
A Socio-Ecology of Pollination
D. Susan Willis Chan, PhD, is at the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of Guelph.
Jennifer Marshman, PhD, RN, is at the Laurier Center for Sustainable Food Systems at Wilfrid Laurier University.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe the concept of reciprocity as it applies to interspecies relationships.
• Explain the ongoing reciprocal relationship among humans, cucurbita crops , and hoary squash bees, and how it is advantageous to partners .
• Examine why and how healthy native pollinator populations are important to sustainable food systems .
A Case Study in Reciprocal Thinking: Humans, Cucurbita Crops & Squash Bees
In this case, we examine the reciprocity that has existed for m illenia between humans, c ucurbita crops (pumpkins, squash, and gourds), and squash bees , and discuss how that reciprocity can be threatened or strengthened by the actions of humans.
Beginning 10,000 years ago in Meso-America and again 5,000 years ago in what is now the American mid-west, Indigenous peoples began domesticating wild cucurbita, especially the wild buffalo gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima)[1]. Buffalo gourds are perennial vines that produce thick-walled, inedible bitter fruit that were initially used as containers for water, storage, and floats[2]. Over time, domestication resulted in five species of pumpkin or squash crops grown for their large, nutrient-rich, edible fruit, and which continue to have cultural importance among Indigenous peoples[3].
Cucurbita domestication can be considered a co-evolutionary process between plants and humans that resulted in crop plants that are incapable of thriving outside of human influence and humans that are dependent upon crops for food[4]. Modern agriculture enjoys access to hundreds of cultivars of pumpkin or squash crops with different sizes, shapes, colours, growth habits, maturity times, and uses[5]. The crops are growing in importance globally and are used for food (e.g., fresh vegetables, processing, oil production, snack food), cultural expression (e.g., Thanksgiving, Hallowe’en, artisanal crafts, musical instruments), and medicinal purposes[6].
A group of wild pollinators known as squash bees[7] coevolved with wild cucurbita species and are the most important pollinators of these plants across the Americas.
What is the relationship between squash bees and humans?
Unlike most other bee species, the hoary squash bee (Eucera pruinosa) is a truly agricultural bee that has formed a strong, successful, and enduring relationship with humans through their food production systems. In fact, the expansion of the hoary squash bee’s range across North America is the direct product of the human movement and trade of pumpkin and squash seeds, and subsequent cultivation of the plants by both Indigenous and more recently by settler peoples.
Humans, pumpkin/squash crops, and the hoary squash bee thus provide a fascinating example of an intimate, three-way, mutually beneficial exchange known as reciprocity. Over history, humans moved pumpkin and squash seeds across the continent. Initially this was done by planting and tending them in Indigenous growing systems such as the Three Sisters. These seeds are also planted in home and community gardens and, more recently, in large monocultural agricultural systems, all of which have expanded the crops’ range enormously. However, seed set and fruit production in pumpkin/squash crops is entirely dependent upon bees to move pollen from the male flowers to the female flowers that produce fruit (Figure 1).
Movement of pollen
Pollination happens when pollen grains are transferred from the male anther to the female stigma of flowers. On the stigma, pollen grains grow a pollen tube that allows the genetic material in the pollen to be transferred to the ovules in the ovary, thereby producing fertilized seeds that ensure survival of the species. In some crops, the seeds then stimulate the growth of a fruit. Plants are either self-pollinated, or they may need cross-pollination. Cross pollination requires the assistance of a vector (usually wind or an insect) to move the pollen from the male anther of one flower to the female stigma of another flower. The movement of pollen grains is unintentional. In fact, bees are manipulated by flowers in this process. For example, the hoary squash bee has a hairy body that picks up pollen as it unintentionally contacts the anthers of a male pumpkin flower while feeding on the nectar in the flower. When the bee visits a female flower for nectar, it lands first on the stigma of that flower and then walks down to the nectaries in the base of the flower. As it does this, pollen is unintentionally transferred from its body to the sticky surface of the stigma, resulting in pollination.
Cucurbita crops attract bees by providing copious amounts of nutrient-rich nectar and pollen. As the range of cucurbita crops expanded, hoary squash bees followed, in pursuit of those nectar and pollen resources. As they foraged, hoary squash bees pollinated the cucurbita crops, allowing the plant to produce seeds and develop fruit (squash or pumpkins), which humans then harvested as a crop (Figure 2).
What do squash bees use pollen for?
Like people, squash bees require a healthy diet containing carbohydrates, protein or amino acids, fatty acids, and micronutrients. Nectar produced in both male and female cucurbita flowers provides the carbohydrates and micronutrients[8]. The pollen, produced only in the male flowers, provides fatty acids, protein, or amino acids[9]. The flowers of cucurbita are vital for the survival of squash bees because unlike most bees that forage on a wide range of plants, squash bees are strict dietary specialists, using only cucurbita pollen to provision the nest cells where they raise their young[10] (Figure 3).
Squash bees are found in North, Central, and South America, and one species, the hoary squash bee[11], is found across the continental United States and in Canada as far north as southern Ontario and Quebec (Figure 2). Interestingly, across most of the present range of the hoary squash bee, there are no wild cucurbita occurring naturally, making the hoary squash bee entirely dependent upon human cultivation of pumpkin and squash crops for its pollen supply.
The importance of hoary squash bees in pumpkin and squash production
Because they have separate male and female flowers, pumpkin and squash crops are entirely dependent on insects for pollination and ultimately seed and fruit production. As such, hoary squash bees are a vital part of our agricultural landscape.They are the most abundant flower visitors to cucurbita crops and are ubiquitous on farms growing pumpkin and squash in eastern North America. Their populations are reliably abundant from year to year, and the timing of their foraging activity corresponds well to the crop’s pollination window (6:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m.daily, from mid–July to mid–August). Hoary squash bees are active on the crop flowersas soon as they open at dawn,when pollen supplies are greatest, and they remain active until the crop flowers wilt at noon. Seasonally, the bees emerge from their natal ground nests around the time that pumpkin and squash crops begin to bloom and begin to forageon the flowersimmediately(Figure 4).
The bees’ unique behaviour and biology also contribute to the tightness of the ir relationship with cuc urbita crop flowers. Besides foraging on the crop flowers, h oary squash bees also mat e on the flowers, and males and unmated females sleep in the wilted flowers during the afternoon and evening after the nectar resources are exhausted . Other aspects of the biology of the hoary squash bee are linked to pumpkin and squash crops. To effectively collect c ucurbita pollen, which is spiny and oily and not favoured by other bees such as the Western honey bee or bumble bees , hoary squash bees have evolved specialized hairs (scopa) on their hind legs.
Unlike the familiar Western honey bee , which is a social insect that lives in a colony with tens of thousands of other bees , s quash bees are solitary . This means that e ach mated female builds her own nest in the ground ( often within or close to pumpkin or squash crops ) and raises her own offspring within cells in that nest ( Figure s 3 and 4 ). However , like people in an urban neighbourhood, many of these bees will live close to each other, creat ing dense, expanding nesting aggregations, sometimes with thousands of individual nests in a small area . (Watch this video of a hoary squash bee nesting aggregation. )
If large, stable populations of wild bees, such as the hoary squash bee, are maintained on farms, they will provide reliable , free pollination services to crops, reducing an over reliance on honey bees, which are under increasing pressure from pests, diseases, and overwintering losses .
What is the threat to hoary squash bees?
Known threats to bees generally include habitat loss, a changing climate , pests and diseases, pesticide use, and the interaction among these threats . For the squash bee, we will focus on pesticide use.
T he hoary squash bee, because of its close association with pumpkin and squash crops across most of its range , may be at risk of exposure to insecticide residues in agricultural soil if those crops are treated with insecticides to control insect pests . Indeed, exposure to crops treated with a common soil-applied neonicotinoid insecticide causes hoary squash bee populations to construct fewer nests and harvest less pollen, resulting in greatly reduced offspring production . This puts cucurbita crop pollination at risk over the long term . This is ironic because it is precisely the hoary squash bee’s enduring relationship with human crop cultivation that has supported the bee’s large population and range expansion [12] . In fact , by applying this neonicotinoid insecticide to soil, we are causing harm to the very pollinators that help with successful food crop production , thereby harming ourselves .
An Ethic of Reciprocity
Reciprocity describes amutually beneficial relationshipamong organisms or groups. The reciprocity of the human–cucurbita crop–hoary squash bee relationship is obvious, and a salient example of what the best (and worst) outcomes can be for all relational partners in human-grown, pollinator-dependent crops. As such, it is a reminder of the ways in which human actions can affect less-studied or less-understood relationships among bees that pollinate food crops for humans and other living things. Reciprocity implies that the choices humans make that have a positive or negative impact on pollinators also have a positive or negative impact on human well-being. Although bees and crops may have little agency to protect themselves, humans can act to protect bees and their own crop yields in several simple but effective ways. This can be illustrated within cucurbita growing systems.
First, growers can acquaint themselves with hoary squash bees. These bees are easy to identify on pumpkin and squash flowers, rarely sting, and are considered to be quite endearing . Information about the bee is readily available online, including photos, videos, and diagrams. A greater awareness of this bee, and familiarity with its behaviour, biology, and ecology, can help strengthen this important relationship through respect, empathy , and understanding.
A r eal-life example of this enduring and endearing relationship is found on Strom ’s Farm & Bakery near Guelph , Ontario . The Stroms have understood the importance of hoary squash bee s for their pumpkin growing enterprise. They have educated themselves about the nesting behaviour of hoary squash bees and have allow ed hoary squash bees to build nest ing aggregations in lawn s outside their cropping areas. In the se lawn s , t he nests and the female bees who build them are protected from tillage and exposure to agricultural pesticides used on the crops. As a result, the nesting aggregations on th at farm are expanding, ensuring pollination services from the bees into the future .
Next, g rowers can choose not to apply systemic pesticides to soil to avoid the demonstrated ill effects on hoary squash bees. On Stellmar Farm near Lindsay, Ontario, the farm owners have learned about the effects of neonicotinoids on hoary squash bees by supporting research activities on their farm. As a result, they have stopped using these pesticides in their production practices because they were shown to reduce hoary squash bee nesting and foraging behaviour, resulting in declining populations.
Other growers such as Lunar Rhythm Gardens near Janetville, Ontario have adopted alternative approaches to pesticide use includingphysical barriersagainst pests, such asrow covers. The row covers are applied after planting,and are removed once flowering begins. This gives the hoary squash bees access to the flowers. Alternately, “trap crops” can be usedto draw insect pests away from the cash crop, or less–harmful pesticidescan be used, whichare applied only in reaction to pest pressure using integrated pest management (IPM)principles.
Conclusion
Clearly, maintaining a healthy reciprocal relationship among humans, cucurbita crops, and hoary squash bees is advantageous to all partners. Humans gain reliable access to cucurbita fruit (pumpkin or squash) or seeds for food, medicine, or cultural expression. Cucurbita crops are planted widely and tended by humans and receive the pollination services that they need to set seed and reproduce. Hoary squash bee populations have reliable sources of the only pollen that they feed to their young, as well as mating and sleeping sites. As the members of this relationship with the most agency, humans hold the responsibility to recognize, value, and protect the integrity of this reciprocal relationship for the benefit of all.
Discussion Questions
• List and explain some of the reasons is it problematic to lump together all pollinators into one group, using the squash bee as an illustrative example.
• Considering the information presented in this case, what are some of the problems associated with an over-reliance on the domesticated Western honey bee as a primary pollinator of food crops?
• Explain the reciprocal relationship among humans, cucurbita crops, and the hoary squash bee to illustrate the nature of reciprocity in food systems.
• How can human action negatively or positively affect our reciprocal relationship with cucurbita crops and hoary squash bees? How can reciprocity drive positive actions?
References
Barrowclough, G. F., Cracraft, J., Klicka, J., Zink, R.M. (2016). How Many Kinds of Birds Are There and Why Does It Matter? PLoS ONE, 11(11), p. e0166307. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166307
Bleed, P. (2006). Living in the human niche. Evolutionary Anthropology, 15, 8-10. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20084
Boyd, M., Surette, C., Lints, A., & Hamilton, S. (2014). Wild rice (Zizania spp.), the three sisters, and the Woodland tradition in western and central Canada. Midwest Archaeological Conference Inc. Occasional Papers.1, pp. 7-32. Thunderbay: Lakehead University.
Burgin, C. J., Colella, J. P., Kahn, P. L., & Upham, N. S. (2018). How many species of mammals are there? Journal of Mammalogy, 99(1), 1-14.
Chatt, E. C., von Aderkas, P., Carter, C. J., Smith, D., Elliot, M., & Nikolau, B. J. (2018). Sex-dependent variation of pumpkin (Cucurbitamaxima cv. Big Max) nectar and nectaries as determined by proteomic and metabolomics. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 860. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00860
FAO (2017). FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Hart, J.P., Daniels, R.A., Sheviak, C.J. (2004) Do Cucurbita pepo gourds float fishnets? American Antiquity, 69, 141–148. https://doi.org/10.2307/4128352
Hurd, P. D., & Linsley, E. G. (1964). The squash and gourd bees-genera Peponapis Robertson and Xenoglossa Smith-inhabiting America north of Mexico (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Hilgardia, 35(15), 375-477. https://doi.org/10.3733/hilg.v35n15p375
Landon, A. J., “The ‘How’ of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche.” (2008). Nebraska Anthropologist. 40.
López-Uribe, M. M., Cane, J. H., Minckley, R. L., & Danforth, B. N. (2016). Crop domestication facilitated rapid geographical expansion of a specialist pollinator, the squash bee Peponapis pruinosa. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 283(1833), 20160443. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0443
Mailvaganam, S. (2018). Pumpkin & Squash*: Area, Production, Farm Value, Price and Yield, Ontario, 1979 -2017. Retrieved from Agricultural Statistics for Ontario, OMAFRA.
Nepi, M., Guarnieri, M., & Pacini, E. (2001). Nectar secretion, reabsorption, and sugar composition in male and female flowers of Cucurbitapepo. International Journal of Plant Science 162(2), 353-358. https://doi.org/10.1086/319581
OECD. (2013). Squashes, pumkins, zucchinis and gourds (Cucurbita species). In Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organism in the Environment (Vol. 5). Paris, France: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.178/9789264253018-5-en
Salehi, B., Capanoglu, E., Adrar, N., Catalkaya, G., Shaheen, S., Jaffer, M., … Capasso, R. (2019). Cucurbits Plants: A Key Emphasis to Its Pharmacological Potential. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 24(10), 1854. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24101854
Smith, B. D. (1997). The initial domestication of Cucurbitapepo in the Americas 10,000 years ago. Science, 276(5314), 932-934. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5314.932
Smith, B. D. (2006). Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 103(33), 12223-12228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604335103
Stephen, W. P., Bohart, G. E., & Torchio, P. F. (1969). The Biology and External Morphology of Bees with a Synopsis of the Genera of Northwestern America. Corvallis: Oregon State University.
Willis Chan, D. S. and N. E. Raine. (2021). Population decline in a ground-nesting solitary squash bee (Eucera pruinosa) following exposure to a neonicotinoid insecticide treated crop (Cucurbita pepo). Sci Reports 11: 4241. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-41021-83341-41597
1. See Smith 1997; Smith 2006; López-Uribe 2016.
2. See Hart et al. 2004.
3. Cucurbita pepo, C. moschata, C. argyosperma, C. maxima, C. ficifolia
4. See Bleed 2006; Landon 2008.
5. See OECD 2013.
6. See OECD 2013; FAO 2017; Mailvaganam 2018; Salehi et al. 2019.
7. Eucera, sub genera Peponapis—15 species or Xenoglossa—7 species.
8. See Nepi et al. 2001.
9. Chatt et al. 2018.
10. See Hurd & Linsley 1964; OMAFRA 2014) Stephen et al. 1969.
11. Eucera (Peponapis) pruinosa
12. See Willis Chan & Raine 2021. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.40%3A_Case%3A_Pollinator_Ecologies.txt |
Pollinators, People, and the Planet
Jennifer Marshman, PhD, RN, is at the Laurier Center for Sustainable Food Systems at Wilfrid Laurier University.
D. Susan Willis Chan, PhD, is at the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of Guelph.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe pollination and name several bee species.
• Discover that there are diverse species that provide pollination services .
• Reframe pollination as a product of diversity.
• Recognize that a healthy relationship between people and bees is one of reciprocity.
Introduction
Humans depend on the cultivation of a wide variety of crops for their food, fuel, fibre, medicines, and cultural expression[1]. Some crops are wind pollinated (grains, many nuts) but many require pollinationby animals, including insectssuch as bees. A biological imperative of living organisms is to reproduce—to create offspring for the next generation. Without this, species would simply cease to exist. In plants, reproduction involves passing genetic material through pollen to ovules[2] to set seeds, which may stimulate the production of fruit.
The diversity of plants is reflected in the diversity of animals that pollinate them including bees, wasps, flies, beetles, moths, butterflies, birds, bats, or other small mammals. Humans consume a large variety of seeds and fruit, some of which are produced and eaten globally (coffee, mango, avocado, tomato, cucumber, squash, apple, strawberry, pear, melons), and some of which are more regional (feijoa, durian, kiwano, cherimoya). Although the diversity of animals that acts as pollinators in natural systems is extensive, agricultural systems, where most human food is produced, are disproportionately dependent on a single group of insects: bees.
Bees pollinate plants by inadvertently transferring pollen between the sexual organs of plants (male stamens and female pistils) as they visit flowers to collect their food. Like humans, bees fuel their activities, maintain their physiological processes, mature sexually, and feed their offspring through nutrients consumed as food. For bees, the essential nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals) are consumed in the form of pollen, nectar, and oils. Both plants and animals have coevolved a complex system of rewards, deterrents, deceptive manipulation, and structural elements that make the system work to the advantage of all involved[3].
Some bee species are more intimately connected to human behaviour than others. When people think of pollinators, they often think of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera). Humans have a long history with the honey bee, with evidence of honey harvesting as far back as 15,000 years ago[4].The modern human reciprocal connection to honey bees is so strong that there are professional beekeepers who manage honey bees to produce honey and beeswax and to provide crop pollination services, in much the same way as people manage domesticated animals such as cows, sheep, pigs, chickens, and horses.
Some bees can be considered charismatic microfauna, or species that stimulate action and awareness in humans. For example, the giant panda (which is commonly referred to as charismatic megafauna), has become a well–recognized symbol for the World Wildlife Fund. For insects, bumble bees are often pictured as cute, fuzzy creatures that elicit similar positive responses from people. This intimate human-bee interconnection is deeply felt and forms the basis for the strong reaction to such slogans as “Save the Bees.”
When people think of bees, theymay have a mental image ofa fuzzy bumble bee. One study, however, found that for many Canadians, the honey bee is something of a stand-in for all bees[5] and has become a symbol for conservation and environmentalism, despite the fact that honey bees in the Americas are more like domesticated animals than wild, native animals, and are not on any formal species-at-risk lists.
In tropical climates, although they produce far less honey, stingless bees are also managed by beekeepers for their pollination services [6] and to produce honey valued for its medicinal properties.
Not all bees produce honey. Besides honey bees, bumble bees, and stingless bees, there are other solitary bee species that have longstanding reciprocal relationships with humans, often around the provision of specialized crop pollination services that surpass the efficiency of honey bees[7]. These include:alfalfa leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata) and alkali bees (Nomia melanderi), both important for alfalfa seed production[8];blue orchard bees (Osmia lignaria), important for orchard crop pollination[9];and squash bees (Eucera [Peponapis] species and Eucera [Xenoglossa] species),which areimportant pollinators of pumpkin and squash[10].
In these cases, we havea three-way reciprocity with bees. Rather than interacting through a product like honey or beeswax, the primary exchange occurs via a human-grown crop that the bees pollinate. The crop provides forage and provisions—and sometimes sleeping and mating habitat—for the bees, and pollination results in a successful cropfor people.
Social honey bees are the most abundant bees on Earth, primarily due to the global breeding programs for extensive use in agriculture, and their large colony size: about 100,000 individuals per colony, as compared to 300 individuals per colony for bumble bees, and about 5 offspring per nest for solitary bees.
The pollination services of honey bees in their constructed, mobile hives have long been thought to be critical for conventional agriculture that relies on large swathes of monocultural crops. However, increasingly, even in commercial systems, the important role of wild bumble bees, solitary bees, and stingless bees is being recognized, in some cases as more important than honey bees[11].
Commercial beekeepers use the honey bee’s easy mobility and large numbers to deliver commercial pollination services to food crops across the United States. For example, every year in February, about 1.7 million honey bee colonies[12] are taken to California’s Central Valley to pollinate the more than 800,000 acres of almond trees (Figure 2). After almond pollination is complete, the movement of managed honey bees across the United States by commercial beekeepers then continues to cherry, plum, avocado, apple, alfalfa, sunflower, clover, clementines, tangerines, squash, cranberries, and blueberries, across Washington, Texas, Florida, the Dakotas, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Maine (Figure 3).
Globally, crop pollination has an estimated market value of up to US\$577 billion annually, far more than the value of honey. However, the movement of so many bee colonies to crops causes physiological stress to bees. Bees require a varied diet from a wide range of plants, in much the same way as humans need a diversity of foods to maximize nutritional intake. When generalist bees[13] are forced to visit a single crop species instead of visiting a wide range of plants for their food, they, too, may experience reduced nutrition[14]. Furthermore, at pollination hubs such as the California almond crop where millions of colonies are concentrated, pests and diseases are easily spread from one colony to another, and there is increasing evidence of pathogen spillover from managed bees to wild bee species[15].
The term colony collapse disorder (CCD) became part of the mainstream narrative during the first decade of the 21st century when entire managed honey bee colonies began to mysteriously disappear from their hives in the United States, baffling beekeepers and scientists alike. Colony collapse disorder has become a catch-all term for all mysterious, undiagnosed deaths of colonies and it is likely that it has many causes. While colony collapse is not currently a significant problem, high rates of seasonal honey bee colony losses, especially in winter, are still of great concern to commercial beekeepers and anyone who enjoys insect-pollinated food.
Many management practices, including best practices for agricultural pesticide use, often dictate that honey bee colonies should be moved before spraying pesticides or that pesticides should be applied in the evening or early morning when honey bees are not active. These honey bee–centric guidelines do not protect wild bees that nest in or above ground, on or around these sites, and which cannot be moved. Unlike honey bees, many wild bees are active in the early morning or evening and so risk exposure to pesticides if spraying occurs at those times. In addition, there is a growing literature on the negative impacts of pesticide residues at sub-lethal levels for both managed and wild bees.
Honey bees are also used as surrogates for all bee species in risk assessments of agricultural pesticides, despite the fact that they are highly unusual compared to other bees. This surrogacy approach[16] in risk assessment and best management practices does not consider the unique needs, behaviours, or habitat of native, wild bees, who do not live in mobile hives that can be moved during pesticide application.
Bee Diversity
Bees are a vastly diverse group of living organisms, with an estimated 20,000 species that have been identified on Earth—nearly the same number as all the mammal and bird species combined[17]. These diverse bee species also have diverse foraging needs and food preferences. Bees are intimately involved in pollinating roughly 75% of the most productive crops, accounting for 35% of global crop volume[18]. This is where the notion of “one in three bites of food” is derived, which is commonly cited as the contribution of bees to human food crops. While all bees forage on plantsto collect their food, bees vary greatly in biology,behaviour, food and habitat preferences, sometimes based on millenia of coevolution with the plants they feed from and hence, pollinate.
The differences in social behaviour , food preferences, and living conditions of these myriad species are many—some are social, others semi-social, most are solitary.
Most bees collect and eatnectar and pollenin unprocessed form. Others, such as honey bees,processnectar into honey and form bee bread from pollen, while still others collect and consume plant oilsinstead of nectar. Not all bees can fly the same distances from their nests to food sources. Honey bees can forage at distances up to 8 kilometers from their hives, whereas bumble bees are restricted to a radius of about a kilometer,and many solitary bees can only access nectar and pollen from plants within a range of 100to 500 metersfrom their nests.This raises further questions about the effects of commercial honey bee migration and introduction of millions of managed honey beecoloniesinto agroecosystems at crop pollination hubs(such as the California almond crop). While evidence is still lacking in this area, the potential for managed honey bees to spread parasites, pathogens, and outcompete native, wild bee speciesin these contextsis clear.
In terms of nesting sites, s ome bees live in large cavities or constructed hives, others live in the hollow stems of plants or other small cavities, and some bees are nest parasites: instead of making their own nests, they insert their eggs into the nests of other bee species and have no role in provisioning those nest cells, much like the behaviour of cuckoo birds [19] . M ost , however ( about 70%) , build their nests in the ground.
Pollinators in Peril
Beyond concerns for the Westernhoney bee, there is evidence that other pollinators are in peril. In North America, of the native bee species with sufficient data to assess, more than half are in decline with nearly one in four at risk of extinction.[20] The emphasis on only a couple of bee species, and the lack of understanding of the diversity of bees, has significant implications for conservation efforts and action campaigns. Unfortunately, due to a lack of research, the extent of threats and population declines in many species is not known.
In contrast to a positive reciprocal relationship, humans may also contribute to the decline of bee species . This takes place in several ways: by degrading and fragmenting landscapes so that there is less habitat for bees ; by driving climate change that may create inhospitable conditions for bees or the plants that provide them with pollen or nectar ; by inadvertently introducing invasive species, pests, or pathogens, often via managed bees such as honey bees or bumble bees ; and by exposing bees to pesticides used to control pests in crops. [21] Our own food system , which need bees , is also put ting them in peril.
These anthropogenic pressures may lessen the strength of the reciprocity of the human-bee-crop relationship. Increasingly, humans have become aware of the connection between bees and food and the human role in bee declines. As such, initiativesto address these concerns (e.g.,World Bee Dayand Bee City) are growing in popularity, including increasing and enhancing education and creating pollinator habitat in a wide variety of eco-regions and contexts.
One example of such an initiative is Bee City(Figure 5). The Bee City movementbegan in the United States in 2012 in Asheville, NC.In2016, it established itself in Toronto, ON, witha growing number of Bee Cities being created each year. As the Americanand Canadian programs expanded, they merged with the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation (June 2018) and Pollinator Partnership Canada (December 2020), respectively.
To get Bee City certification, municipalities (and First Nations communities in Canada) commit to pollinator education and habitat creation. The ways that each Bee City chooses to do this is determined at the local level. Every Bee City has unique characteristics that help to inform decision-making processes and interventions, making Bee City a truly place-based initiative. For example, municipalities containing a significant amount of agricultural land may focus on different interventions than those with a lot of urban green space or those with primarily residential properties.
Human food systems currently depend on the mobility of one species of bee, the Western honey bee, to pollinate vast swaths of monocultural crops. This is a precarious dependency that has negative outcomes for both bees and humans. Honey bees are stressed by traveling long distances on trucks, and then become exposed to a melting pot of disease and parasites at each stop ( as they mix with other transported colonies ). H umans are also at risk, potentially losing all crop pollination services should this single species collapse under a devastating disease or disorder such as colony collapse disorder (CCD) .
A better approach would be to recognize the value of the diverse pool of insect pollinators available to pollinate crops and then create systems that support those insect pollinators in the localized areas where they are needed. This includes protection from exposure to pesticides and maintaining flowering plants outside of the period when the crop needs to be pollinated. T he very cropping systems that depend upon pollinators thus have the potential to support those pollinators or to harm them , depending on whether humans regard pollinator diversity in the context of reciprocity or resource exploitation. True r eciproc ity requires adjustment , but provides long – term sustainability to the plant systems that humans and bees alike depend on for food .
Discussion Questions
• What are some of the ways that you benefit directly or indirectly from pollination?
• What are some of the key differences between managed honey bees and native, wild bees?
• Why might using honey bees as surrogates in best practice guidelines for things like pesticide application be problematic?
• What are three reasons that bringing awareness to native, wild bee species is important?
References
Barrowclough, G. F., Cracraft, J., Klicka, J., Zink, R.M. (2016). How Many Kinds of Birds Are There and Why Does It Matter? PLoS ONE, 11(11), p. e0166307. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166307
Bohart, George E. (1958). Alfalfa Pollinators with Special Reference to Species Other than Honey Bees. Proceedings from the 10th International Congress of Entomology, 4, 929-937.
Burgin, C. J., Colella, J. P., Kahn, P. L., & Upham, N. S. (2018). How many species of mammals are there? Journal of Mammalogy, 99(1), 1-14.
Franklin, E. L., & Raine, N. E. (2019). Moving beyond honey bee-centric pesticide risk assessments to protect all pollinators. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3: 1373–1375.
Garibaldi, L. A., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Winfree, R., Aizen, M. A., Bommarco, R., Cunningham, S. A., … Klein, A. M. (2013). Wild pollinators enhance fruit set of crops regardless of honey bee abundance. Science, 339(6127), 1608-1611. https://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.1230200
Greenleaf, S. S., & Kremen, C. (2006). Wild bees enhance honey bees’ pollination of hybrid sunflower. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(37), 13890-13895. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0600929103
Grüter, C. (2020). Stingless Bees: Their Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution. Switzerland: Springer Nature.
IPBES (2016). The assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. (S. G. Potts, V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca, & H. T. Ngo, Eds.) Bonn, Germany: Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. 552 pages. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3402856
Klein, A.-M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303-313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721
Kleinman, D. L., & Suryanarayanan, S. (2013). Dying bees and the social production of ignorance. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 38(4), 492-517.
Kopek, K.; Burd, L. (2017). Pollinators in Peril: A Systematic Status Review of North American and Hawaiian Native Bees.
Marshman, J. (2019). Communing with bees: A whole-of-community approach to address crisis in the Anthropocene. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 9(A), 87-110.
Marshman, J., Blay-Palmer, A., & Landman, K. (2019). Anthropocene crisis: climate change, pollinators, and food security. Environments, 6(2), 22.
McGrady, C. M., Troyer, R., & Fleischer, S. J. (2020). Wild bee visitation rates exceed pollination thresholds in commercial Cucurbita agroecosystems. Journal of Economic Entomology, 113(2), 562-574. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz295
Otterstatter M.C. & Thomson, J.D. (2008) Does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators? PLoS ONE 3(7): e2771. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002771
Rader, R., Bartomeus, I., Garibaldi, L. A., Garratt, M. P. D., Howlett, B. G., Winfree, R., … Woyciechowski, M. (2016). Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(1), 146-151. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517092112
St. Clair, A. L., Zhang, G., Dolezal, A. G., O’Neal, M. E., & Toth, A. L. (2020). Diversified farming in a monoculture landscape: Effects on honey bee health and wild bee communities. Environmental entomology, 49(3), 753-764.
Tepedino, V. J. (1981). The Pollination efficiency of the squash bee (Peponapis pruinosa) and the honey bee (Apis mellifera) on summer squash (Cucurbita pepo). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 54(2), 359-377.
The Canadian Encyclopedia. (2006). Beekeeping. Retrieved online February 2021 from
USDA. (2018). Pollinating Insect-Biology, Management, Systematics Research: Logan, UT.
van Vierssen Trip, N., MacPhail, V. J., Colla, S. R., & Olivastri, B. (2020). Examining the public’s awareness of bee (Hymenoptera: Apoidae: Anthophila) conservation in Canada. Conservation Science and Practice, 2(12), e293.
Willis Chan, D. S., Prosser, R. S., Rodríguez-Gil, J. L., & Raine, N. E. (2019). Assessment of risk to hoary squash bees (Peponapis pruinosa) and other ground-nesting bees from systemic insecticides in agricultural soil. Scientific Reports, 9, 11870. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47805-1
Willis Chan, D. S. and N. E. Raine. (2021). Population decline in a ground-nesting solitary squash bee (Eucera pruinosa) following exposure to a neonicotinoid insecticide treated crop (Cucurbita pepo). Sci Reports XXX. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-41021-83341-41597
Woodcock, T.S. (2012). Blue Orchard Bee (Osmia lignaria Fab.) in Pollination in the agricultural landscape: best management practices for crop pollination.
1. See the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination, and food production (2016).
2. The ovules are plant structures that form seeds when they are fertilized.
3. Rewards include nectar, pollen, or oils that attract pollinators; deterrents include flower shapes that admit some pollinators but not others; deceptive manipulation includes the production of foul smells that attract flies as pollinators; structural elements include pollen packages or hidden pollen that is only accessible when bees behave in a certain way.
4. See The Canadian Encyclopedia 2006.
5. See van Vierssen Trip et al. 2020.
6. Pollination services is a term often used to describe the services provided by managed bees or wild bees as they interact with flowers and move pollen from male to female flower parts. Pollination services aid in plant reproduction (i.e. seed set) in both wild and crop plants.
7. See Greenleaf & Kremen 2006; Garibaldi et al. 2013.
8. See Bohart 1958; USDA 2018.
9. See Woodcock 2012.
10. See Willis Chan et al. 2019; Willis Chan & Raine 2021; Tepedino 1981; McGrady 2020.
11. See Garibaldi et al. 2013.
12. A managed honey bee colony can range from 30,000 to 100,000 bees.
13. Most bees fall into two categories of pollen preferences: generalists and specialists. Generalist’s pollen needs are not restricted to a specific flower host, whereas specialist bees have coevolved with a specific plant or plants to feed only from those flowers.
14. See St. Clair et al. 2020; Klein et al. 2007.
15. See Otterstatter & Thomson 2008.
16. Franklin & Raine 2019, 1.
17. See Barrowclough et al. 2016; Burgin et al. 2018.
18. See Klein et al. 2007.
19. The common cuckoo bird is a brood parasite, meaning that it uses the nests of other bird species to lay eggs to be incubated (and later fed) by the host bird.
20. See Kopec & Burd 2017.
21. See IPBES 2016.
02.42: Creative: Ode to Pollinators
Andrea Elena Noriega
Ode to Pollinators
Andrea Elena Noriega is an Ottawa-based artist and Carleton University graduate with an MA in Applied Linguistics, and PhD (abd) in Anthropology specializing in food discourses related to health and wellness. Her artwork explores the relationships between people and non-human beings, with particular interest in the role of pollinators and food systems.
Ode to Pollinators
Sometimes being still is the best way to see not only the world around us, but also our own selves. Focusing on what is small can make us feel big, dominant, and powerful. Yet it can also bring us into a new sense of appreciation for the ways in which size matters less than intention does. Small can be powerful too. In many ways, this is denied by the language we use, which often conflates large, tall, and massive with grand, beautiful, and strong. At the same time, small things—whether microbial or insectile—often become associated with danger, fear, and risk.
In the video below, artist Andrea Elena Noriega reflects on her first encounter with a small-but-not-risky creature, the humble and mighty bumblebee. Learning to respect and value what is tiny, and to come into a more equitable relationship with it, often means taking the time to observe and remain, rather than reacting and running away.
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.41%3A_Perspective%3A_Pollinators_and_People.txt |
Community Gardens Count: Measuring Chicago’s Harvest
Howard Rosing is the Executive Director of the Steans Center at DePaul University and teaches courses on urban food systems in the Department of Geography and the MA in Sustainable Urban Development. Dr. Rosing is a cultural anthropologist who has authored numerous publications on urban and community food systems including the co-authored book Chicago: A Food Biography. He holds a Ph.D. in Anthropology from Binghamton University.
Ben Helphand is the Executive Director of NeighborSpace, a nonprofit urban land trust dedicated to preserving and sustaining community managed open spaces in Chicago. NeighborSpace owns a large network of growing spaces across the City so that community groups can focus on gardening and community building. He holds a BA from Wesleyan University and a MA in the History of Religion from the University of Chicago.
Amy DeLorenzo is an Extension Educator at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign where she works on developing the pipeline of agricultural talent in the state of Illinois and to create partnerships with food and beverage companies in the Chicagoland area. She holds a BA in International/Global Studies from DePaul University and a MA in Geography from the University of Guelph.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Explain how urban community gardens address social and economic challenges to food access while building greater community cohesion.
• Examine the importance of community gardens in supporting food security and food justice.
• Compare the case of community gardens in Chicago with a case in their own city or town.
• Describe the role of community gardens in improving the health and wellbeing of urban communities.
Introduction
Building sustainable food-producing communities requires a complex set of skills and talents that go far beyond technical knowledge and science. This text offers a multifaceted perspective on the practice, debates on, and process of producing and sustaining community gardens in North American cities. Drawing from research on community gardens across Chicago, the study highlights how community gardens offer an important mechanism for creating resilient, socially cohesive communities that can respond to social, economic, and environmental challenges. The study sheds light on gardeners as neighborhood assets in urban sectors where access to fresh food is challenged by historical patterns of racial segregation and social exclusion. Given insufficient availability and/or increasing cost for healthy fresh food for large segments of Chicago’s population, researching how people organize to cultivate fresh food, how much food they produce, how and where their yields are distributed, the nutritional value of their crops, and the meaning of gardens for gardeners, offers a holistic understanding of what it takes to build sustainable community food systems in large cities.
Chicago is an ideal city to study community gardens in the 21st century. The city’s historical motto, Urbs in Horto (“city in a garden”), symbolizes longstanding horticultural practices among residents across neighborhoods and social classes.[1] Notwithstanding the city’s rich garden history, for much of Chicago’s recent past, community gardening has been primarily a grassroots effort with little in terms of municipal government investment. Starting during the 1990s, Chicago created the job training program GreenCorps, which provided resources to community gardens, but the effort that was cut by the subsequent mayor. Until 2011, there was no legal land-use code for urban agriculture in Chicago, meaning community gardeners would in many cases be doing so outside zoning laws governing land use. This policy, or lack thereof, had particular impact on neighborhoods that lacked proximity to fresh food resources. For decades, Chicago’s racist urban planning practices, combined with discriminatory mortgage lending and real estate development, resulted in neighborhood divestment and property devaluation on the south and west sides of the city. By the 1990s, the outcome was a shortage of supermarket retailers in economically distressed neighborhoods, largely populated by Black and Latinx residents.[2] Nonprofit and grassroots efforts to organize community gardens in these neighborhoods were thus partly a neighborhood resilience strategy in response to limited access to fresh food, and partly about community building and self-determination.
The label “food desert,” or what some authors describe as “supermarket redlinings,”[3] was ascribed to many southside and westside Chicago neighborhoods by the early 2000s, due to a lack of full-service supermarkets.[4] The label misrepresented decades of growth of community gardeners, who offered food assets in their neighborhoods. Indeed, the vast majority of the 260 community gardens researched in this study were located on the south and west sides of Chicago. McClintock describes this urban growing movement as having an “emancipatory role,” a type of active resistance through “ecological stewardship with social justice.”[5] Rather than constructing community gardeners of color as passive victims of racial and economic marginalization, resulting in significant health disparities, community gardeners in segregated cities like Chicago are better understood through their own agency and diverse ways and reasons for producing food. This study emerged out of an effort to highlight the importance of community gardens, especially for Chicago neighborhoods with limited access to fresh food.
There is no one metric by which to evaluate what makes a community garden successful. Laura Lawson in City Bountiful states that the dominant narrative tends to link community gardens to community food security, but given the numerous reasons people state as to why they garden, food security should not be the only measure of success.[6] The enormous harvest and nutritional yield from gardens in Chicago dispels a popularly held notion that community gardens do not produce significant amounts of food. Yet community gardeners have diverse motivations for organizing collectively to produce food from year to year. Understanding these motivations requires deeper inquiry into what people think about theirgardens: that is, why gardens matter to gardeners. While this study illustrates that community gardens “count” both at neighborhood and city levels in respect to building greater food security, there are numerous other reasons for community gardens, not the least of which is creating ecologically sustainable and aesthetically pleasing spaces that build pride in community and positive relationships with neighbors. Documenting the values attached to community gardens in urban spaces, especially in those spaces marked by racially motivated divestment, helps to identify ways that cities can invest in neighborhood-based food production as a means for building more equitable urban food systems.
Research Process
One of the first tasks in researching community gardens in a city as large as Chicago is to define what is meant by the term “community garden.” The definition for this study was developed by the organization NeighborSpace, a nonprofit urban land trust charged with protecting community-organized and managed growing spaces across Chicago.[7] The organization takes on land ownership and assists gardeners with insurance, access to water, and other resources. Gardens on land protected by NeighborSpace are no longer susceptible to removal as a result of, for example, more powerful, capital-intensive development interests. Equipped with a definition of community gardens, researchers for this study visited 260 gardens across Chicago, of which 208 fit the definition during the 2013 growing season.
Researchers defined community gardens in Chicago as growing sites that presented both internal and external community-fostering properties. Internal community fostering properties refer to the development of social ties among people who work together at the garden. External properties refer to the potential impact that the garden has on the outside environment in the form of neighborhood improvement, beautification, food access, violence prevention, increase in property values, youth development, health benefits, and more. The study did not include sites where the majority of produce was sold, where there were paid employees, where the site was used exclusively for social service and/or educational programming, and/or where the site was in a private, for-profit housing establishment exclusive to those residents and inaccessible to the public.
Fieldwork for the study consisted of seven distinct components: (a) identifying community gardens; (b) counting square footage of food crops grown in the gardens during spring, summer, and fall; (c) sampling 29 sites that broadly represented a cross-section of Chicago’s community gardens; (d) sampling seven gardens representing seven distinct neighborhoods and diverse growing conditions where gardeners agreed to weigh their harvest; (e) measuring the replacement value of foods produced in the gardens through documentation at retail food outlets; (f) interviewing gardeners about their garden’s history, organization, distribution, and use of food; and (g) calculating nutritional values of the foods produced.
At all 260 community gardens initially visited, detailed information was recorded about the garden and its food crops, including the total size of garden properties, the number of plots, water sources, evidence of support organizations, and other data. Researchers recorded the total area (square footage) of each crop. These tabulations, along with the weight of crops at the seven selected community gardens, enabled researchers to estimate the yield (pounds per square foot) of vegetables and fruits within the areas under production. In order to provide a basis for estimating the productivity by weight, dollar value, servings, and nutritional scores, researchers arranged with gardeners and support organizations at the seven gardens to weigh their harvest. These gardens were in different neighborhoods with diverse soils, growing conditions, gardeners, and institutional affiliations, and constituted a fairly representative cross-section of Chicago’s community gardens. Gardeners weighed their harvest by crop and researchers employed the results of the tallies to estimate the average productivity of different crops and to arrive at yield estimates for the production of all community gardens surveyed.[8] To calculate replacement value or cost of these foods, researchers visited twelve retail outlets, representing a wide range of grocers (luxury, mid-priced, and discount) and farmers markets in different Chicago neighborhoods. At each of the outlets, prices were recorded for the various vegetables, fruit, and herbs grown in the gardens.
To understand garden distribution processes and the underlying meanings of community gardens for gardeners, researchers interviewed 53 gardeners at 32 gardens about garden history, organization, and especially distribution and use of the food. The interviews helped explain what people do with food grown in the gardens, how community gardens affect the community, and the role of gardens in community-building, youth development, food access, beautification, and the nutritional well-being of residents.
Food Production in Chicago Community Gardens
The study estimated that 517,157 pounds of food was produced on 43.56 acres of community gardens during the 2013 Chicago growing season. Most of this food was produced in low- to lower-middle–income neighborhoods. Nutrient rich fruits and vegetables went directly into gardeners’ households and were in many cases redistributed through neighborhood social networks to other households multiplying the impact on food access for Chicagoans who might otherwise not regularly have access to fresh, healthy foods. As can be seen in Figure 1, the vast majority of community gardens are clustered in non-white areas of Chicago; as noted in Figure 2, these are also the lowest-income areas of the city.
Among the many crops produced by Chicago community gardens, 20 stood out as yielding the highest poundage. (See Table 1.) Mapping these 20 crops by Chicago’s 77 community areas spatially revealed the cultural and economic importance of crops across neighborhoods with diverse demographics. For example, more than 5,000 pounds of collard greens were produced in the southside neighborhood of Washington Heights, a neighborhood populated by more than 95 percent Black or African American residents, and most of which was classified in research studies as a food desert.[9] Community gardens thus also provided neighborhood access to culturally important, nutrient-rich food, the economic value of which can be seen in Table 2.
[table id=1 /]
[table id=2 /]
Food Distribution, Youth Engagement, and Community Building
Distribution of food from Chicago’s community gardens is a complex, informal, and often ad hoc neighborhood provisioning process described by gardeners through interviews. For example, gardeners described how many gardens are openly accessible to neighbors, as one interviewee explained: “The neighbors take some, ain’t nobody sellin’ it, somebody might come by and take some, but most people come by and do it like they would from the store—put it in a box.” Interviewees were asked whether they distribute portions of their yield to friends and neighbors. Most described that they would give surplus produce away to family, friends, and others who they knew needed it. Many mentioned harvest days or cook-out days, when neighborhood residents would assist with the harvest and/or cook and eat together. Permanent or impromptu meeting spaces with furniture and cooking resources were often visible at gardens, reflecting how the sites offered neighborhood social gathering points that encouraged community building. Indeed, as one gardener described, some gardens were highly accessible to neighbors: “So, for the most part, we’re eating what we grow. And if we’re not eating what we grow, people who walk by and pick it are eating what we grow.” Other gardeners emphasized the ethos of food sharing at the gardens: “We gave food to people, anybody we see. Cause we couldn’t use all that. We couldn’t use all the food!”
Community gardens in Chicago were also important for encouraging positive youth development. As one interviewee noted, “I think we really want kids to eat healthy. I mean we want families to eat healthy, but obviously starting with children. You know, teaching them why you’re supposed to eat fruits and vegetables. I think we technically live in a food desert, where there is not a lot of access to fresh produce, so wanting kids to have that access, but also just wanting kids to know like, this is how broccoli grows, break it off and eat it.” Other sentiments by gardeners highlighted how gardens provide important educational resources not offered in formal schooling. Youth learned about communal production, food sharing, and the origins of food. As another gardener noted, “We also have kids who just—they’ll take a pot of greens and take it home with them. And kids really, really love it because I have this one kid who, two months ago, he was like, ‘Hey, are we gonna grow those things that are orange and long?’ I was like, ‘A carrot.’ He was like, ‘Yeah, a carrot. Are we gonna grow those?’”
In general, gardeners explained how community gardens offered a safe space for local youth to engage with one another and intergenerationally to learn gardening and civic skills and the importance of mutual aid and care within neighborhoods. “I have a lot of neighbors who have kids who help me garden,” explained one gardener. “they help me plant the seeds, they help me water. When I go out of town, I ask them to water, they love it. So, yeah, it’s reaching a lot of, a lot of families.”
Nutritional Impact from Chicago Community Gardens
The far-reaching nature of community gardens within many Chicago neighborhoods, especially for households that lack proximity to full-service grocery stores, illustrates the relational process of communal food production. The informal social processes described above have an impact on the physical well-being of residents through nutritional intake. Using the estimated production yields, researchers calculated the number of servings of specific foods per garden, as well as related nutritional data such as fiber content (See Tables 3 and 4). For example, gardeners produced an estimated 588,516 servings of collard greens, averaging 6,848 servings per garden, and delivering some 905,410 grams of fiber. Along with the significant health benefits of such leafy green vegetables, these findings provide evidence for advocacy, planning and policymaking in support of gardens, especially for neighborhoods marginalized by the retail food sector.
[table id=3 /]
Data Analysis by Angela Odoms-Young, University of Illinois at Chicago
[table id=4 /]
Data Analysis by Angela Odoms-Young, University of Illinois at Chicago
The Value ofCommunity Gardens in Cities
Research on the yield from Chicago community gardens, combined with gardeners’ descriptions of how food is distributed across neighborhoods, counters popular perceptions of community gardens as spaces that do not produce significant amounts of food. The study shows that Chicago community gardens are essential public health assets for providing highly nutritious foods that are often not otherwise locally available. The estimated 259 tons of food produced by Chicago community gardens during the 2013 growing season had an estimated value of US\$1,665,698, demonstrating the economic value of communal food production. Some gardens were so successful that they had explicit goals of being community food distribution hubs, creating direct supply chains to food pantries or through large distribution events and community meals.
No matter the manner in which food is distributed from gardens, the process of growing, harvesting, and distributing food nurtures positive relations among neighbors and especially for youth. Recurrent themes among interviewees included “feeding” the community spiritually or mentally, and that gardens provide a beautiful space of respite in a hectic, busy city. Gardeners described gardens as “a community backyard,” a place for children to play safely, and a point of pride for their neighborhood. In some neighborhoods, gardens act as a bridge between newcomers to an area and long-time residents, who come together with a common vision of a more beautiful neighborhood, reducing potential for conflict, and further emphasizing why community gardens are important assets that should not be overlooked by policymakers and planners.
Urban policymakers would do well to recognize the intrinsic value of gardens in feeding and healing communities and creating safe, educational spaces for children and adults alike. In Chicago, the study determined that 20 percent of all Chicagoans (547,360) live within two blocks (1/4 mile) of a community garden. Extrinsically, these gardens hold value in that they feed both the gardeners themselves and residents across neighborhoods. For some Chicago neighborhoods, the gardens are the only local place where people can have access to fresh, culturally appropriate produce. While gardens cannot be the primary solution for food insecure neighborhoods, they should be recognized as an important piece of a larger process of systematically addressing disparities in urban food access.
There are a variety of ways that cities can support community garden development. Interviewees noted the necessity of gaining access to land in proximity to water sources, such as water lines or fire hydrants, that are permissible to use by gardens. In addition to land and water, access to soil is critical, since creating food-producing gardens on what are often toxic and/or paved spaces requires building raised beds. To keep people safe from harmful contaminants, purchasing high-quality soil is an expense often difficult for gardens to maintain. Policies can be implemented to support composting and environmental remediation of publicly owned vacant land suitable for gardening. In sum, gardeners recommended easing financial burden and removing barriers to entry for creating and maintaining gardens.
Chicago’s community gardens were described by gardeners as places where people “are seen as equals,” where there is “no hierarchy” between new and long-term residents. Investing in these spaces is an investment in promoting peace, and can be weighed against the cost of policing cities. Community gardens support self-governance and self-determination, neighborhood beautification, and caring for neighbors. Building sustainable food-producing communities thus requires an approach that goes far beyond applying technical knowledge. This study highlights how community gardens offer an important mechanism for creating resilient, socially cohesive communities that can respond to social, economic, and environmental challenges. As neighborhood assets in racially segregated cities like Chicago, gardens offer a community response to insufficient availability and/or increasing cost of fresh food in a changing global economy and environment. Reducing the costs of gardening, and making community gardening as easy as possible, is thus a valuable investment in public health. Prioritizing community gardens in urban planning, policymaking, and development ensures that these spaces count and will lead to the development of more socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable food systems that are less reliant on importing food to feed cities.
Discussion Q uestions
• Why are community gardens important for public health in North American cities and towns?
• Should governments invest tax dollars in community gardens? Why or why not?
• In what ways can community gardens respond to racial injustice?
• How does your city or town support community food production? How can you get involved?
Exercises
Visit a local community garden
This exercise should take about four hours of time.
Visit an existing community garden in your city or town. If possible, choose a garden close to where you live. Answer the following questions about the garden in a notebook, laptop, or tablet:
What did you see when you visited the garden (physical, social environment)?
Does the garden seem like it is well taken care of?
Do you get a sense that the garden is an active growing space? Why?
Is there something that makes this garden distinct from others?
Did you talk to anyone at the garden? What did they say?
Describe the garden in as much detail as possible. Your answer should be a minimum of 500 words, but there is no maximum limit.
Using your phone or a camera, make an audio and/or video recording of yourself while visiting the garden. The recording should describe the garden in as much detail as possible, but should be no longer than five minutes in length. In particular, identify any symbols of how community members are working together to grow food (communal growing) and ways in which the garden seems to be designed to build or support community (tables, barbecue, etc.). Make sure to avoid filming people’s faces, and include the location and name of the garden in your recording.
Submit your notes and recording to a shared drive where students can review each other’s submissions.
Note to instructors: Following review of all the submissions, prepare for class discussion by determining what patterns or themes you see occurring across the different community gardens visited by students in your class. What can these patterns tell you about the culture and practice of community gardening in your town or city?
Map community gardens in your town or cit y
Using Google maps or another mapping tool, work with your class to begin mapping community gardens in your neighborhood, town, or city. For an example of what you can map, see the Chicago Urban Agriculture Mapping Project(CUAMP), which was developed in conjunction with the Community Gardens Count study. Pay special attention to the Advanced Search features of CUAMP and explore the types of garden features that can be added to the public map. Decide as a class or in small groups what you would like your map to look like and contain. Make sure to visit the gardens that you map to ensure that they are still there.
As you add gardens to the map, discuss with the class what the geography of community gardens says about local food production in your town or city. How does the location of gardens and what they contain relate to the demographics in your region? How does racism and class play a role in where and how community gardens operate?
Engage in service-learning with a community garden
Service-learning can be defined in several ways, but in general it involves intentionally integrating relevant and meaningful service with the community with academic and civic learning. While it involves students in service as a learning strategy, service-learning is not synonymous with community service or volunteering.
For this exercise, students will be assigned to one of several pre-arranged community gardens, where they should serve a minimum of 20 hours of service, spread out over the school semester. Students should maintain a journal of their weekly experiences. A set of guided questions should be developed by the instructor, linking student observations and reflections to course readings, guest speakers, and learning resources. During several class sessions, students and the instructor should reflect on their experiences and discuss the value of this type of learning, both for students and for communities.
Additional Resources
Anti-racism in community food growing: Signposting: An online informational resource from the London-based organization, Capital Growth.
Strengthening Equity & Inclusion in Garden Education: An online informational resource from the School Garden Support Organization.
Inclusive Community Gardens: A downloadable resource from the City of Vancouver.
References
Block, Daniel, Noel Chávez and Judy Birgen. “Finding food in Chicago and the suburbs: the report of the northeastern Illinois community food security assessment report to the public.” 2008.
Eisenhauer, Elizabeth. 2001. “In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition.” GeoJournal 53: 125–133.
Gallagher, Mari. “Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Chicago.” 2006.
Lawson, Laura J. City Bountiful: A Century of Community Gardening in America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005.
Maloney, Cathy Jean. Chicago Gardens: The Early History. University of Chicago Press, 2008.
McClintock, Nathan. “From industrial garden to food desert: Unearthing the root structure of urban agriculture in Oakland, California.” 2008.
Vitiello, Dominic and Michael Nairn. “Community gardening in Philadelphia: 2008 harvest Report.” 2009.
1. Maloney 2008.
2. Block, Chávez & Birgen 2008; Gallagher 2006.
3. Eisenhauer 2001.
4. Gallagher 2006.
5. McClintock 2008, 6-7.
6. Lawson 2005.
7. The project was built on partnership between NeighborSpace, DePaul University, University of Illinois at Chicago, University of Pennsylvania, Angelic Organic Learning Center and E.A.T. This research was made possible by a generous grant from the Consortium to Lower Obesity in Chicago Children and from a charitable donation made by the Walton Family Foundation.
8. Vitiello & Nairn 2009.
9. Gallagher 2006. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.43%3A_Case%3A_Community_Gardens.txt |
Municipal Policy as Part of Local Food Systems Governance: Backyard chickens and land for growing
Johanna Wilkes (she/her) is a PhD candidate at the Balsillie School of International Affairs. Her dissertation research focuses on pathways of change within and between different scales of food governance. Johanna has experience in food systems research and policy development. She lives and learns on the traditional territory of the Anishnaabe, Haudenosaunee and Neutral peoples.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe the role of municipal policy in local food systems.
• Evaluate the engagement and influence of different actors in the policy development process.
• Explain how policies evolve over time.
• Recognize the importance of decolonizing food systems and re-building Indigenous foodways.
Introduction
While issues of housing, transit, or waste collection can all be quite controversial, the debate on raising hens and growing food in urban spaces can really ruffle some feathers. Debates such as these are part of the public policy ecosystem. Public policy is, to use Thomas Dye’s definition from 1972, “anything a government chooses to do or not do.”[1] While personal policy (the rules we use to guide our actions) and organizational policy (the rules and guiding principles of a company or group of people) also intersect with our everyday lives, the focus of this chapter will be the role of municipal governments in public policy.[2]
Public policy across scales—municipal, regional, provincial, national, or international—can come in many forms and is often situated within a specific community or context as part of the larger structures of governments.
It is important to acknowledge that municipal policy is a form of settler-colonial governance, as it is made for and by settler communities across the United States and Canada. This chapter highlights several projects that support the revitalization of foodways and knowledges in food systems.
Municipal policy in food systems
Local sites of governance, such as municipal governments, are becoming increasingly important for food systems policy transformation. Municipal and regional governance offer one of the most intimate and grounded spaces for policy implementation—narrowing the gap between the structures that govern and the people who are affected.
The following cases explore the role of municipal policy in food systems. To provide a more grounded view on the policy development process, I focus specifically on two areas: backyard chickens and land for growing. It is important to note that municipal food policy is much broader than just these two areas, encompassing issues from the number of food retail outlets in a community to the creation of pollinator habitats. While both cases presented are based in Ontario, Canada, links to other examples in the United States and Canada have been included to explore what is happening in other communities.
Backyard Chickens
Before beginning this section, take a few minutes to read and view this article and archived video clip from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
In Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the UrbanHensTO pilot project was launched in 2018, but debate on the subject is far from new[3]. The case of Toronto shows how policy evolves, rather than being a binary decision made at a discreet point in time. Advocacy coalitions, policy champions, and policy brokers may all play a role in the outcome of the policy development process. The 1980s saw a rise in concern from both community members and policy makers (i.e., City Councillors) about the negative impact chickens could have on the health and well-being of residents. Noting odour, noise, and nuisance, the Toronto City Council supported the adoption of a bylaw banning the ownership of poultry.
This decision shifted poultry-owning policy from a more laissez-faire approach towards an active restriction on ownership. While there were active participants on both sides of the debate, the blunt use of a restrictive policy instrument meant that chicken farmers who chose to keep their flock would be in violation of city rules. In the decades since, advocates have lobbied, researched, and educated communities about the benefits of chickens in an urban setting, as well as researched how to mitigate the earlier risks or nuisance concerns. Using communication tools, such as sample letters, education materials, social media and online forums, and petitions, advocates have continued to fight for re-evaluation of the previous policy decisions.
In 2018, these long-fought efforts were partially recognized with the introduction of a time-limited pilot program that would run in specific wards of the city. Coverage of the decision also notes the importance of policy makers as advocates from within the governance structure[4]. For UrbanHensTO, a set of city councillors were supportive and championed the efforts of advocates at the municipal level. In addition, a broader coalition of individuals and organized networks created a system of information sharing and advocacy. Urban chickens—and urban farming more generally—are both a way to grow food in city settings and are activities that highlight the role of municipal governance in food sovereignty. In addition to the municipal-level, policy at all scales can create enabling frameworks that allow for community-led and community-informed decisions.
[table id=9 /]
City Lands, Bylaws, and Urban Growing
Before beginning this section, take a few minutes to read this 2019 CBC News article or watch the City of Hamilton’s 2016 video about the McQuestern Urban Farm.
Urban food growing can occur on both private and public property, given the right conditions and rules are in place at the municipal level. In Hamilton, Ontario, policy makers and advocates have been working to create an enabling environment for growing food in communities across the city. In thiscase, a key report was submitted to the City of Hamiltonby the Urban Agriculture Working Group (the Group)thatbecame the basis for change. The Group brought together members of housing, health, public works, and other departmentsto study howlocal food systems could be enabled across the municipality. By providing a wide range of recommendations, the Group was able to tackle the role of different policy tools across the municipal government. The Group used theirreport to outline the benefits of urban growing as well as the different changes necessary to create an enabling policy environment. These recommendations included using policy planning tools (e.g.,official plans and zoning) as well as other policy levers (e.g.,food strategies, land inventory, and supportive policies and programs).
One of the largest success stories in the city has been McQuesten Urban Farm.Buildingon the lands behind a former school, this Urban Farm grew from the efforts of community advocates, city officials, and local community members. In addition to land identification, the location of this project was tied to more systemic challenges of food insecurity, including limited access to fresh fruits and vegetablesin the community. Key to McQuestenUrban Farm’s success is both access to land and support (financial, community, and knowledge). By identifying a parcel of public land that was ideal for the community’s vision, advocates worked with policy makers and policy brokers toidentify the needs of communities and the requirements to realize the project.
While this project is symbolic of a shift towards anenabling framework forurban growing,the ideal conditionsare influenced by much more than this single project.Hamilton is now seen as an example of how to create urban growing environments that work for and are developed by communities. In 2016[5], Hamilton City Council endorsed the Hamilton Food Strategythat outlines goals, recommendations, and actionsthat help support local food systems[6]. Otherexamples of community advocacy and localactioninclude those in Athens, Georgia, Denver, Colorado, Guelph, Ontario, and Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Conclusion
In both cases above, nuance and advocacy were key in pushing for the consideration, expansion, or reconsideration of a desired policy. By acknowledging the past criticisms and looking towards municipalities that have adopted different policy approaches, advocates were able to work with city staff to table pilot projects or programs that were thoughtful of incorporating nuance. Cross-jurisdictional learning allowed for the cities of Toronto and Hamilton to look at other North American municipalities for policy options and how communities have responded to change. For municipal food policy, these different forms of learning can be important for policy processes and advocacy within movements. The role of communication, policy champions and advocates, and knowledge sharing sites played a key part in the development of the different policy components and helped source solutions. In addition, food policy councils[7]—or more broadly, food policy groups—help translate and facilitate change by working with and within municipal governments. The councils provide a dedicated space where knowledge of food and policy systems merge.
Local food policy is much older and deeper than governance of or by a municipality. Looking beyond these settler forms of local governance (such as the municipal, state, or federal systems), it is important to recognize the intimate relationship between community and sustainable foodways. Indigenous communities have been active in decolonizing food systems and empowering Indigenous knowledge through ways of growing/eating/being. See the resources below for more on how food sovereignty is growing within and across communities.
Discussion Questions
• What food issues are important to your community? Are you aware of existing municipal or regional food policies that addresses those issues? If not, why do you think there is a gap?
• What elements, people, and resources are involved in the creation of a new food policy (e.g., advocates, policy brokers, community-identified needs, etc.)? How can communication tools be used to increase engagement in food policy processes?
• How can community movements help decolonialize food growing and eating practices? Can you achieve one of the actions set out by the Native Food Systems team?
Exercises
Backyard Chicken Policy Comparison
Look at the list of municipal backyard chicken policies below. Read each of the policies and how policy development can differ. Note such variations as the number of chickens, the lot size of an owner’s property, and the limitation or banning of roosters. What other differences can you find? Are there similarities across policies?
Understanding Food Policy Groups
Food policy groups—such as councils—can bring knowledge and act as policy brokers in communities. Write a short plain language report outlining the debate and decision of a recent urban food policy process by a city council of your choosing. To find more information on municipal food policies or groups, see the BC Food System Policy Database (for Canada) or the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future’s Food Policy Networks project (for the U.S.), or look for a food policy database in your area.
Use the following guiding questions to write your report:
• What is the name, area of work, and primary focus of the food policy group you chose?
• Whose interests does the food policy group serve? Who is in/employed by the group?
• What are the key topics being debated? Are there opposing viewpoints? What are they?
• Who are the key stakeholders or groups that are/will be impacted by the policy being debated? Are there any external interests influencing the debate?
• What are the main concerns about the policy? What are the potential benefits?
• If a policy decision has been made, what are the key points of that policy?
Additional Resources
Gather, a film about Indigenous reclamation of spiritual, political and cultural identities through food sovereignty.
Native Food Systems
Nourish Healthcare’s Report on Indigenous Foodways
Indigenous Food Systems Network
Dream of Wild Health
Indigenous Food and Agriculture Initiative
Hamilton’s McQuesten Urban Farm. (video)
References
CBC Archives. 2019. “The Battle over Backyard Chickens That Hatched in 1980s Toronto.” CBC. May 2, 2019.
Howlett, M. and Cashore, B. (2014). Comparative Policy Studies: Conceptualizing Public Policy.
Moon, J. (2018). “Influencing Policy Change: Finding a Champion.” Berkley Public Policy Journal.
International Centre for Policy Advocacy. 5.2.1 Identify policy brokers or champions.
Langford, S. (2020). “What happens to the backyard hens after Toronto’s pilot program ends?” Toronto Star.
Rankin, C. (2019). CBC Hamilton.
1. Howlett & Cashore 2014.
2. To learn more about the basics of policy, see “What is Policy?” Food Security for All. (2005). Section 4. Available at: http://partcfood.msvu.ca/section4/4.pdf.
3. See: “The battle over backyard chickens that hatched in 1980s Toronto.” Posted on May 2nd, 2019 (filmed in 1983). Available at: https://www.cbc.ca/archives/the-battle-over-backyard-chickens-that-hatched-in-1980s-toronto-1.5100066 and “The battle over backyard chickens that hatched in 1980s Toronto.” Posted on May 2nd, 2019 (filmed in 1983). Available at: https://www.cbc.ca/archives/the-battle-over-backyard-chickens-that-hatched-in-1980s-toronto-1.5100066
4. Langford 2020.
5. For more on the municipal food policy history in Hamilton, see: https://www.hamilton.ca/sites/default/files/media/browser/2016-09-01/hamilton-food-strategy-2018.pdf (starting on p. 7).
6. See https://www.hamilton.ca/government-information/news-centre/news-releases/hamilton-city-council-endorsed-10-year-food.
7. While the Toronto Food Policy Council (TFPC) is often used as a prominent example, Food Policy Groups are present across the world.
02.45: Creative: Ode to Nature
Ode to Nature
Andrea Elena Noriega is an Ottawa-based artist and Carleton University graduate with an MA in Applied Linguistics, and PhD (abd) in Anthropology specializing in food discourses related to health and wellness. Her artwork explores the relationships between people and non-human beings, with particular interest in the role of pollinators and food systems.
Ode to Nature
In making work about the natural environment, artists and artisans often find themselves meditating on their broader relationships with their subject. Making art about ‘nature’—whether visual, textural, performative, or otherwise—also means witnessing oneself within nature. The division between what humans make and what the world ‘outside us’ makes suddenly stops being so obvious. In this way, artists often feel deeply connected to their environments, in cognitive, physical, and psychological ways. This sense of presence can be expressed through words and images and gesture, as well as through the emotions and affect that both making and witnessing art bring about.
In the video below, multimedia artist Andrea Elena Noriega reflects on the reciprocity and relationality of humans, the rest of the living world, and art. It is at once an ode to nature and a recognition of that the line between nature and culture tends to disappear the closer we get to it.
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.44%3A_Case%3A_Backyard_Chickens.txt |
From water to plate: Making fisheries a part of sustainable food systems
Kristen Lowitt is an Assistant Professor in the School of Environmental Studies at Queen’s University. Her interdisciplinary research program is directed towards working with communities to build just and sustainable food systems in rural and coastal settings. Areas of interest include the role of small-scale fisheries in sustainable food systems, Indigenous-settler collaborations for food sovereignty, and collective action for food systems governance.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Articulate different positions on fisheries and their governance.
• Explain the ways in which fisheries contribute to food systems.
• Describe and define key concepts and terminology related to fisheries.
Introduction
From inland lakes to the world’s oceans, the harvesting and eating of fish are woven into the cultural identities, values, and traditions of coastal communities. Nearly 60 million people around the world are involved in the primary sector of capture fisheries and aquaculture, with many more, especially women, undertaking related tasks such as fish handling, processing, and selling.[1] The majority of this employment is in the Global South, among small-scale fish harvesters and aquacultural workers, who catch a diversity of species from small boats near shore or who tend low-input fish farming systems. Most of the fish from these small-scale operations goes towards local markets and directly to feeding households, providing a culturally preferred source of protein and valuable source of micronutrients. Fisheries are also crucial to livelihoods and food security in fishing-dependent regions of the Global North. For example, on Canada’s Atlantic coast, fisheries continue to be the backbone of regional economic development for numerous small communities called “outports,” in addition to forming a vital part of local foodways. Around the Great Lakes of North America, a range of Indigenous, commercial, and recreational freshwater fisheries are key features of the regional landscape. For many Indigenous peoples around the world, fisheries are integrally tied to traditional food practices and self-determination.
However, fisheries are under considerable stress. Industrialization and consolidation in the fishing sector are placing mounting pressure on fish stocks and aquatic ecosystems and threatening the livelihoods and food security of those most reliant on fisheries. Industrial fishing is highly uneven across countries, with a small number of higher-income countries accounting for the majority of industrial fishing activity and accruing the benefits in terms of profits and seafood supply.[2] Fishing pressure is exacerbated by broader forces such as climate change and toxic pollution. Data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations indicate that the share of marine fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels is declining.[3]
Against this backdrop, this chapter asks, can fisheries be a part of feeding people sustainably in the coming decades? To answer this question, I begin by reviewing two contrasting perspectives on fisheries: efficiency and transformation. These are adapted from Garnett’s (2014) typology of perspectives on sustainable food security.[4] I then discuss the implications of these perspectives for fisheries’ roles in sustainable food systems, ultimately arguing in favour of a transformational perspective that resists the dominant view of fish as a commodity, and places the goal of providing food for people at the centre of fisheries.
Efficiency perspective: T he pursuit of profit
This can be considered the prevailing view on fisheries, often held by governments and large industry actors. Fish are seen foremost as a commodity to be managed for economic efficiency, meaning the key aim is to minimize fishing costs and maximize outputs and profits. The pursuit of efficiency spurred the global industrialization of fisheries that took off in the 1940s following World War II, as more sophisticated technologies expanded the speed and scale at which fish could be caught.[5] Small boats using mostly household and family labour, and bringing catches to shore at small processing plants, were deemed “inefficient” and became increasingly marginalized by a large-scale industrial sector of corporate-owned fishing vessels. These large-scale fleets sometimes fish in the same waters as smaller boats, as well as further from shore. The largest of these vessels can freeze and process fish directly on board. High-seas fishing is yet another scale of fishing that takes place beyond the jurisdiction of any individual country and is characterized by vast freezer trawlers that can process thousands of tonnes of fish while at sea.
The mantra of economic efficiency gained further credence with the publication in 1968 of a famous essay called the “Tragedy of the Commons.” In it, economist Garrett Hardin wrote that “ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons.”[6] This essay is based on a limited view of people as being out to maximize their own personal gain. It was nonetheless highly influential in shifting the policy landscape around fisheries, with what had long been a shared and common resource becoming enclosed through new management tools designed to incentivize individual ownership and stewardship. One of the most popular tools used widely in freshwater and marine fisheries today is Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). ITQs are a type of quota that, as their name indicates, can be transferred (i.e., bought and sold) among fish harvesters on a free market. The logic behind ITQs is that fish harvesters will be less likely to “race for the fish” and put pressure on fish stocks if they can be assured of their exclusive right to a part of the catch.[7] Following this line of thinking, ecological sustainability is promoted and fishing rights are optimally allocated, given that the more efficient can “buy out their less efficient counterparts.”[8]
Of course, what may be economically efficient is not necessarily equitable or ecologically sustainable. ITQs have been critiqued for contributing to environmental externalities, including the practice among some ITQ holders of “high-grading”—or disposing of low-value fish—to maximize the value of their quota.[9] Another serious critique of ITQs pertains to social equity. With ITQs, those with more capital can buy up more fish to catch. In many cases, the long-term outcome of ITQs has been fewer and larger boats, leading to a concentration of wealth and power in fisheries. This has direct implications for food systems. My research on Lake Superior in the Great Lakes has shown that the introduction of ITQs into commercial fisheries in that region has facilitated the export of lake whitefish into large markets in the United States for use as low-quality protein; this has disadvantaged its access among local communities across the Canadian shore of the lake, where it remains a desirable, culturally appropriate, and nutritious food.[10]
So far, this discussion has focused on capture fisheries. However, it is important to note that aquaculture fits particularly neatly within an efficiency perspective, because it is a more controlled form of production that lends itself well to private ownership. Unlike wild fish that cross ecological and political borders, farmed fish enclosed in a pen at sea or on land are much easier to own. As aquaculture has grown in recent decades, it is often heralded among policy makers as more advanced, forward looking, and the key to meeting food security needs by increasing fish supply.[11]
Lastly, an efficiency perspective applies not only to the harvesting and production of fish but to consumption as well. As demonstrated so far, an efficiency perspective sees markets as the most appropriate mechanism for allocating fishing rights, such as through ITQs. Likewise, markets are held up as a means of promoting environmental sustainability through consumer choices. An example is the proliferation of labels that have come to adorn fish products in the marketplace, which attempt to communicate something about the sustainability of these products to consumers. While there is some merit in promoting greater transparency in fish supply chains, a limitation of this form of sustainability is that it casts people primarily as consumers. This sidelines other possibilities for democratic engagement, such as policy advocacy or collective organizing, in favour of individual purchasing choices and buying power.
Transformationperspective: Prioritizing people and communities
The transformation perspective is in many ways directly juxtaposed to the ideas presented above. In contrast to an efficiency perspective, a transformational view places attention and priority on the world’s small-scale fish harvesters and workers, asserting that the people and communities most dependent on fishing for food and for livelihoods should be at the centre of decision-making. In this sense, fish is understood as much more than a commodity; it is appreciated as a vital part of foodways, local cultures, social identities, and histories. As many scholars and activists have pointed out, despite small-scale fisheries comprising the majority of livelihood opportunities and contributing the most to food security for vulnerable households[12], power and attention from governments often remains centered around corporate and industrial fleets and operations.[13] In contrast to the private property rights that characterize an efficiency approach, a transformational perspective emphasizes community-access rights and sees fish as a commons, to be shared and collectively governed. Here, a large body of research by maritime anthropologists, as well as foundational work by economist Elinor Ostrom, points to how communities have long governed access to resources through local institutions designed and adapted to their needs.
This perspective also sees privatization and capitalization in fisheries as the core problems that contribute to over-exploitation of fish stocks, degradation of aquatic environments, and insecure livelihoods. Wealth distribution is the goal of a transformational perspective, as opposed to wealth concentration, which is the goal of an efficiency perspective. A transformational perspective recognizes that the well-being of fish and people are interlinked, meaning that changes in the natural environment directly influences the well-being of people reliant on these ecosystems. An example of this interconnection comes from my doctoral research on the island of Newfoundland, Canada, which looked at how changes to fish stocks had an impact on the food provisioning practices of households in fishing communities. I found that what households ate closely mirrored changes in local fisheries and marine environments. This included seasonal changes in diets related to the availability of local fish, as well as shifts in the type of seafood consumed over time, such as the introduction of more shellfish (shrimp, crab) into diets, as these species started to be harvested more after cod and other groundfish declined.[14] Around the world today, multiple threats to aquatic ecosystems and fish stocks challenge the food security of fishing-dependent communities.
A transformational perspective prioritizing the needs of fishing people and communities is closely connected to the concept and movement of food sovereignty. Food sovereignty is understood as the “right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems.”[15] Recently, policy proposals for food sovereignty have emerged from fishers’ movements. For example, in 2017, the World Forum of Fisher Peoples (WFFP), a social movement organization representing ten million small-scale fishers from around the world, released the report, Agroecology and Food Sovereignty in Small-Scale Fisheries. This report provides an agenda for solidarity building and political organizing among fish harvesters, workers, youth, women, Indigenous communities, and related organizations and allies, in response to increasing corporate control of fisheries. The WFFP has become a key voice representing small-scale fishers’ movements in international governance forums, including at the United Nations Committee on World Food Security.
Another key policy accomplishment encompassing both inland and marine small-scale fisheries is the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Alleviation, led by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The Guidelines are significant as the first international instrument devoted to the sustainability of small-scale fisheries. The Guidelines adopt a human rights approach that asserts that supporting fishing communities and their empowerment is fundamental to the realization of these communities’ human rights. The Guidelines were endorsed by FAO member states in 2014, following a three-year dialogue and consultation process with civil society, fishers’ groups, and governments, among others. However, their implementation into national laws is ongoing and politically fraught because of some of the major policy reforms that are called for.[16] Small-scale fisheries and their sustainability have also been recognized as key to achieving many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including poverty and food security, and directly applicable to SDG 14: Life Below Water.
Conclusion
Ultimately, these perspectives reflect different views on fisheries governance. Governance refers to how decisions are made, including what values and principles should shape them. An efficiency perspective on fisheries emphasizes markets and private property as key principles, and, when food systems are considered, a focus on fish supply is the key concern. However, as Béné points out, the capacity to simply produce more fish “masks inequalities and inequities in who eats the fish and who benefits from the value chains.”[17] These are some of the key concerns raised by a transformational viewpoint. A transformational perspective problematizes the commodification of fish; it pushes beyond an efficiency lens to foreground questions of democracy and human rights within fisheries. This isn’t to suggest there isn’t a role for markets or technology, as promoted from an efficiency position. Rather, for fisheries to make meaningful contributions to sustainable food systems, the balance of power needs to be adjusted in favour of the millions of small-scale fish harvesters, aquaculture workers, and other labourers across fisheries value chains who are most dependent on fisheries for their livelihoods, culture, and food security. This balance may begin to shift as small-scale fisheries become an increasing locus of political struggle and social mobilization. Working towards sustainability in fisheries-based food systems will require the efforts of a range of actors and networks in advocating for change in support of fishing communities, from fishers themselves to governments, youth, researchers, students, and consumers.
Discussion Questions
• What coastal communities are you familiar with? What role do fisheries play in the food systems of these communities?
• What does the idea of ‘fish as commons’ mean to you? How might it challenge a dominant view of fish as commodity?
• How are fisheries, food systems, and social movements connected?
Additional Resources
Too Big to Ignore, a global partnership for small-scale fisheries research.
United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life Below Water
Coastal Routes Radio, featuring stories of coastal community resilience around North America. (podcasts)
Stiegman, Martha and Pictou, Sherry. In the Same Boat. (2007). (videos)
References
Belton, Ben and Thilsted, Shakuntala Haraksingh. “Fisheries in transition: Food and nutrition security implications for the global South.” Global Food Security 3, no.1 (2014): 59-66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2013.10.001
Béné, Christopher, Barange, Manuel, Subasinghe, Rohana, Pinstrup-Andersen, Per, Merino, Gorka, Hemre, Gro-Ingunn, and Williams, Meryl. “Feeding 9 billion by 2050 – Putting fish back on the menu.” Food Security 7 (2015): 261–274, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z
Declaration of Nyéléni, 2007.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Rome, 2020.
Finley, Carmel. “The industrialization of commercial fishing, 1930-2016.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Oxford University Press, 2016.
Garnett, Tara. “Three perspectives on sustainable food security: efficiency, demand restraint, food system transformation. What role for life cycle assessment?” Journal of Cleaner Production 73 (2014): 10-18, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.045
Hardin, Garrett. “The tragedy of the commons.” Science 162 (1968): 1243-1248.
Jentoft, Svein, Ratana Chuenpagdee, Maria Jose Barragán-Paladines, and Nicole Franz. The Small-Scale Fisheries Guidelines: Global Implementation. Springer, 2017.
Lowitt, Kristen, Levkoe, Charles, & Nelson, Connie. “Where are the fish? Using a fish as food framework to explore the Thunder Bay Area fisheries.” Northern Review 49 (2019): 39-65.
Lowitt, Kristen. “Examining fisheries contributions to community food security: Findings from a household seafood consumption survey on the west coast of Newfoundland,” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 8, no. 2 (2013): 221-241.
McCauley, Douglas et al., “Wealthy countries dominate industrial fishing.” Science Advances 4, no.8 (2018).
Sumaila, Rashid. “A cautionary note on individual transferable quotas.” Ecology and Society 15, no. 3 (2010): 36.
1. FAO 2020.
2. McCauley et al. 2018.
3. FAO 2020.
4. Garnett 2014.
5. Finley 2016.
6. Hardin 1968, 1244.
7. Sumaila 2010.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Lowitt et al. 2019.
11. Belton & Thilsted 2014.
12. Ibid.
13. Béné et al. 2015.
14. Lowitt 2013.
15. Declaration of Nyéléni 2007.
16. Jentoft et al. 2017.
17. Béné et al. 2015, 271. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.46%3A_Perspective%3A_Fisheries.txt |
Parlour of Food Futures: Tarot Toolkit for Food Futures Imaginaries
Markéta Dolejšová is a design researcher working across the interrelated domains of eco-social sustainability and food systems transitions. Her practice-based research seeks to connect stakeholders across food-oriented design, research, and practice who are interested in experimenting with diverse co-creative methods to foster regenerative, more-than-human food futures. She is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at Aalto University in the School of Arts, Design and Architecture (FI), researching creative practices for transformational futures (CreaTures project).
Introduction
Food and food practices are essential elements of everyday life. The global more-than-human food web is a complex composite of substances, processes , and meanings that are woven together by diverse eaters following distinct personal, biological, cultural , and economic values and motives. The ways that nutrients and relations flow through food systems are problematic. Far from being nourishing and regenerative, current modes of food production, distribution, consumption, and disposal are causing ill health and amplifying climate chang e .[1] Identifying and maintaining more sustainable and just foodways is essential for life on the planet to thrive.
Food system transformation has been of a central interest of many food practitioners . To address food system issues, various methods and tools have been experimented with, frequent ly using technological innovation.
Food-Tech Innovation
While the use of technology in food processes is not new (think of spears, plows, butter churns),recent years have seen a rapid growth of the digital food-tech sector.[2] From AI-based kitchenware and online diet personalization services to food sharing apps and digital farming platforms, food-tech designers, entrepreneurs,and venture capitalists began proposing solutions for better food practices.[3] (See Figure 1.)
These food-tech services and gadgets carry a promise of more efficient food futures,but they also raise concerns. How are food-tech solutions having an impactonsocial and cultural food traditions? How are they changing eaterscreative involvements with food? Is it safe to rely on recipes and diets designed by algorithms? How is the growing food-tech innovation affectingthe food job market? How could generic, universalising techno-solutions cause long-term, sustainable behavioral changes across diverse food cultures and systems?
The Parlour o f Food Futures
Concerns about human-food-technology entanglements are at the center of the Parlour of Food Futures project , which aims to provoke future food imaginaries and gather reflections from diverse eaters. Initiated in 2017 as a series of experimental food design research events[4] situated in various co-creative settings, the Parlour functions as a speculative oracle that explores possible food-tech futures through the 15th century game of Tarot.
The future food explorations are performed over a bespoke deck of Food Tarot cards that present 22 food-tech tribes’,imagining how food and eating practices might look in the near future (Figure 2).Although primarily future-oriented, each tribe refers to an existing or emerging food-tech trend. For instance, Datavoresrefer to people who follow quantified diets and do health self-tracking.Turing Foodiesis aboutthe use of AI in the kitchen, and Genomic Fatalistsrefers toDNA-based diet personalisation (Figure 3).
During one-on-one Tarot readings, Parlour participants are prompted to discuss food-tech issues shown on their selected cards, share their experiences and reflections, and craft future food scenarios.
Food Tarot
The Parlour project is inspired by the Tarot technique , which has been traditionally used in card games , as well as for divinatory purposes and future speculations. Drawing on the Tarot inspiration, the project aims to provoke playful yet critical food engagements and support the notion of food futures as uncertain but always connected to the past and the present.
The Food Tarot cards are designed according to the Tarot de Marseille deck (focusing on the Major Arcanaof Tarot). The Marseille deck includes 22 cards with various philosophical and astronomical motives,embodied by elements such as The Empress or The Magician. Each of these elements has a specific symbolic meaning,which we translated into the Food Tarot version.
For instance, the Tarot card of The Magiciansignifying the potential for transformationis matched with the diet tribe of Food Gadgeteers,who experiment with 3D food printing to transform ordinary food items into more spectacular forms. The Empress cardrepresenting the dominion over growing thingsinspired the food-tech tribe of Gut Gardeners, whoexperiment with DIY biohacking to grow their own food (Figure 4).
To arrive at the 22 imagined food tribes, we conducted a literature review of existing and emerging food-tech trends .[5] We then selected 22 trends that were most interesting to us and matched those with the original Marseille symbols, thereby creating the Food Tarot deck as an experimental design toolkit to help guid e critical future food imaginaries.
Future Food Readings and Imaginaries
Between 2017and 2021, we have performed the Parlour at more than 30 occasions, in venues accessible to diverse publics including festivals, exhibitions, workshops, classrooms, hackerspaces, and community gardens,as well as random street corners. Following our aim to engage diverse food practitioners, we have not set any specific requirements on participantsskills and expertise: anyone can sit down for a reading and share what they know about food.
The Food Tarot readings are similar to readings performed intraditional Tarot parlours: a participant sits down, shuffles the deck, and picks a card. The reader initiates a conversation about the selected card and the food futures it represents, asking prompting questions about participants experiences and ideas.
Based on how the responses unfold, the reader keeps selecting a few additional cards from the deck that are either resonant or contrasting to participants responses. Eventually, the table ends up filled with a card collageor a prophecyrepresenting a possible food future that reflects the reading conversation (Figure 5).
When a reading is finished, a participant is asked to select one card from the final collage that they feelisthe most important. They thencraft a short what-ifscenario imagining that they area member of the selected food-tech tribe (Figure 6). A few scenario examples follow.
Human-food exchange club and social breastfeeding
Inspired by the card of Ethical Cannibalsdieters preferring to eat themselvesas an ethical alternative to consuming animal proteina Parlour participant at the Emerge exhibition in Arizona (USA) proposed a scenario for convivial more-than-human food futures. In his imagined future as an Ethical Cannibal, he would consume special probiotics to tweak his gut flora and grow edible mushrooms on his skin. Instead of feeding just himself, he would share his harvest with others in the Human-Food Exchange Cluba community space for peer exchange of edible proteins cultivated in and on human bodies (Figure 7).
A similarly focused response to the Ethical Cannibals card was presented by a participant at the VVitchVVavve festival in Melbourne , Australia, who suggested the idea of social breastfeeding . Instead of breastfeeding only her baby, she imagined sharing the nourishing protein in her milk with a broader circle of friends and family , as well as with any other non-human animals in need of good nutrition.
Both scenarios reflect on broken global food supply chains and unevenly distributed food resources, proposing self-replenishing human bio-materials as a nutritious resource for human and non-human eaters. The implementation of the proposed ideas would require a radical shift in values, and the scenarios thus serve as a provocation, raising for debate the role of human bodies in supporting regenerative food futures.
Genomic surveillance& algorithmic chefs
During our reading of the Genomic Fatalists card, a participant at the Cross festival in Prague pointed out the growing volume of sensitive personal data that people share over online diet personalisation services (e.g., demographic and metabolic details, genetic information). Her scenario includes a drawing of herself walking in a street full of food shopsbakeries, ice cream parlours, cheese and wine boutiquesstaring sadly into the shopping windows, unable to buy anything.(Figure 8)
As the participant explained, her bank card (in the scenario world) is connected to her personal genetic data profile, which is managed by her health insurer. Aiming to keep their clients fit and profitable assets, the insurance company does not allow her to purchase foods that are considered unhealthy.
Reflecting on the Food Gadgeteers card, a young mother attending the Emerge Parlour highlighted the simulacral character of cooking with smart AI-based’ food technologies: While having the illusion of preparing their food by themselves, users rely on algorithmic commands prescribed by smart machines, such as automated, remote-controlled ovens and ‘intelligent’ cookbooks.[6] In her scenario, she envisioned a Food Gadgeteers future in whichpeople stop eating food altogether and become Food Replicants. (Figure 9)
These dystopian scenarios illustrate concerns with the potentially nefarious role of novel food technologies, as surveillance tools restrict people’s personal choices and agency. Their creativity as cooks as well as their gustatory joys are inhibited by the cold efficiency of vigilant algorithmic chefs.
Towards Transformative Food Futures
Since the start of the Parlour project, we have collected hand-written notes from over 160 Food Tarot readings and the same number of participant-made scenarios. Thescenario examplesdescribed aboveillustrate the kind of critical, imaginative reflections that the experimental Food Tarot toolkit can provoke. The personal food-tech reflections shared by Parlour participants are both optimistic and sceptical,provocative and practical,whimsical and serious. They touch upon broader social circumstances of food-tech innovation as well as personal food-tech contexts. The breadth of these ideas illustrates a variety of perspectives on how to approach contemporary food-tech issues.
The cards do not provide instructive recipes for better food practices. Instead of being didactic, they provoke critical thinking, enable a space for playful learning and nurture imagination. They do not support transformative food action on a systemic level but they can help people reflect, and imagine how food futures might lookan essential, although only partial, step in any sustainable food transition.[7] It is vital to note that the experimental Food Tarot encounters in the Parlour have not been always reflective and inspiring. Sometimes, participants engaged on a rather superficial level, focusing on the aesthetic—and decidedly whimsical—aspects of the imagined diet tribes, rather than on the food-tech provocations that they carry. This is a limitation of the card deck as a critical design artifact.[8]
Besides performative readings in the Parlour, we have used the Food Tarot toolkit as a pedagogical prop in various food and design research courses and workshops. The data collected from readings and course observations helped us to make better sense of food-tech innovation and gain a deeper understanding of what technology can do in various social and cultural food contexts .[9] As a toolkit for experimental food practitioners, the Food Tarot deck is available for free, under a Creative Commons license.
References
Dolejšová , M. (2016). A Taste of Big Data on the Global Dinner Table. Journal for Artistic Research , issue 9, 2016. https://doi.org/10.22501/jar.57801
Dolejšová , M. (2018). Edible Speculations: Designing for Human-Food Interaction . Doctoral dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Dolejšová , M. (2021). Edible Speculations: Designing Everyday Oracles for Food Futures . Global Discourse, 11:1-2. Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/ 10.1332/204378920X16069559218265
Dolejšová , M., Khot, R.A., Davis, H., Ferdous, H.S., Quitmeyer, A. (2018). Designing Recipes for Digital Food Futures. In Extended Abstracts of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA ‘ 18). ACM, New York, NY, USA, Paper W10. https://doi.org/10.1145/3170427.3170622
Dolejšová , M., Wilde, D., Altarriba Bertran, F., and Davis, H. (2020). Disrupting (More-than-) Human-Food Interaction: Experimental Design, Tangibles and Food-Tech Futures. In Proceedings of the Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS ’ 20). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.1145/3357236.3395437
Forecasts to 2027 . Report ID: ER_00464.
Lupton, D. (2017). Cooking, eating, uploading: digital food cultures. The Bloomsbury Handbook of Food and Popular Culture , pp. 66-79.
Norton, J., Raturi, A., Nardi, B., Prost, S., McDonald, S., Pargman, D., Bates, O., Normark, M., Tomlinson, B., Herbig, N. and Dombrowski, L. (2017). A grand challenge for HCI: food + sustainability, interactions , 24(6): 50-55.
Wilde, D., Dolejšová , M., van Gaalen, S., Altarriba Bertran, F., Davis, H. & Raven, P.G. (2021 – upcoming). Troubling the Impact of Food Future Imaginaries. Proceedings of the 2021 Nordic Design Research Conference (NORDES).
Willett, W. et al. (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT – Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet 393, 10170, 447-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4
1. Willet et al., 2019.
2. Emergen Research, 2021.
3. Dolejšová 2016; Lupton, 2017; Norton et al., 2017.
4. Dolejšová et al. 2020.
5. See details in Dolejšová, 2018.
6. See details in Dolejšová 2018.
7. Wilde, Dolejšová, et al. 2021.
8. See Dolejšová, 2021 for details.
9. For details of Parlour research, see Dolejšová, 2018; 2021. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.47%3A_Creative%3A_Food_Tarot_Toolkit.txt |
Digital Agriculture and the Promise of Immateriality
Mascha Gugganig is a socio-cultural anthropologist and science and technology studies (STS) scholar who researches knowledge politics that both constitute and trouble ‘expertise’ on (Indigenous) land and environmental issues. Through ethnographic, multimodal research and policy analysis, she researches high- and (s)low-tech discourses and practices of sustainable agriculture. She is currently an Alex Trebek Postdoctoral Fellow in Artificial Intelligence and Environment at the University of Ottawa, and a Research Associate at the Department of Science & Technology Studies, Technical University Munich. .
Kelly Bronson is a Canada Research Chair in Science and Society at the University of Ottawa in Canada. She is a social scientist studying and helping to mitigate science-society tensions that erupt around controversial technologies and their governance—from GMOs to big data. Her research aims to bring community values and non-technical knowledge into conversation with technical in the production of evidence-based decision-making. Kelly is the author of Immaculate Conception of Data: Agribusiness, activists and their shared politics of the future .
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe the many different elements of digital agriculture, including both hardware and software elements.
• Explain why the digitization of agriculture—and of many different practices and industries—has material effects in the world.
• Articulate some of the broader and potentially problematic effects of the so-called digital revolution in agriculture.
Introduction
When thinking about food production , you likely imagine a muddy-booted farmer standing in a field using a notebook to log observations about crops . M aybe you can hear the sound of the grain rustling in the wind as you envision the farmer feel ing the wheat shaft and plung ing her hand in to the soil to assess its moisture level.
Yet farming is also envisioned to becomedigitized,wherebyinsightson crop quality and soil moisture are determined usingdigital devices like sensors on tractors. The virtues ofdigital agriculture is its(supposed) immateriality, such as the precise (and thus reduced)useof fertilizers throughdata-driven advice stored in the cloud.Proponents argue that a ‘digital revolution’ will reduce farming’s negative material impactson the environment and on human health, while opponents raiseconcerns about digital tools displacinghuman labourers.
In this chapter we ask: D oes the digitalization of agriculture mean that farming will become immaterial , that it will no longer involv e people , and that it will no longer generat e the material and environmental impacts of the farming practices of yester year ?
We explore th ese question s and highlight some of the continued material aspects of digital tools in agriculture . We situate th is chapter with in new materialist social science , which has highlight ed the material effects of social processes ( e.g. , the ubiquitous use of plastic bags as a consumer convenience ) that have real material effects on the environment. To date , however, l ess attention has been given to digital agriculture.[1]
We begin the chapter by outlining common terms connected to digital agriculture , show ing how it is often talked about as an escape from materiality. W e illustrate th e continued materiality of digital agriculture in two forms as physical matter, and as instantiated ideas and conclude that agriculture still depends on the material world , with significant impacts on people and the environment .
What is digital agriculture?
There are many termsthat relate to digital agriculture,and precision agricultureis arguably the most prominent one. With the help of sensors embedded in farm machinery, precision agriculturehas for two decadesbeen used to apply resources in a highly controlled and specificway.[2] The farm machinery collectsdata on local weather or soilconditions, which thendrive farm decisions. In recent years, such datahavebeen combinedwith remote sensing data,includingenvironmental (climate)satellite-collected data.[3]The resulting big datasets can be processed using sophisticated computing to create even more preciseinsights on farm management decisions, such as when to plant, apply chemicals, irrigate, and so on. The termdigital agricultureis often used to refer to the use of big datain food production,combined with thedeployment of internet of things (IoT), blockchain technology, artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning,cloud computing, as well asunmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),and robotics.
Another common term is smart farming . Compared to precision agriculture , scholars argue that smart farming and agriculture 4.0 are wider reaching terms, as the former includes digitization of whole food systems ( beyond farming ) , while the latter may include pre-production processes, like gene editing of crop s .[4] Another umbrella term is the fourth agricultural revolution , y et there is no agreement as to what constitutes its newness, whether it has started , and if it is even desired.[5]
The immaterial ‘smart’ farm of the future
A common way proponents talk about the benefits of digital agriculture is in regard to its decreased material impact on the environment . Indeed, the current systems of intensive, global , capitalist food production including its heavy reliance on agricultural chemicals has been the cause of tremendous greenhouse gas emissions and water pollution .[6]
P roponents of digital agriculture predict that data-driven insights will lead to a dramatic reduction in chemical use . As Tobias Menne, head of Bayer/Monsanto’s Global Digital Farming Unit explained:
Before, selling more products meant more business for a company like Bayer; whereas in future, the fewer products we sell the better, because we’re selling outcome-based services. With sensor devices, we can learn a lot more about what is and is not helping crops and livestock and create a better way of doing things .[7]
Here, t he lead of the largest agribusiness corporation claims that conventional products like pesticides and seeds will no longer drive their business ; instead, they will focus on services . O ne Canadian agricultural economist likewise explain ed in an interview : “If we are to feed 10 billion people by 2100 while preserving our environment, the next green revolution must incorporate the virtual world . Scholars often similarly argu e that precision agriculture will substitute environmental information and knowledge for physical inputs .
Yet m ateriality be it resources for software and machines , the climate , or labour do es not simply disappear . In the next section we explore the material precondition s of digital agriculture , and then look at labour, including h ow farmers interact with digital artifacts .
The material preconditions of digital agriculture
To consider the materiality of digital artifacts, it is helpful to distinguish two forms: materiality as physical substance ( e.g. , dron e s detect ing weeds ) and materiality as the manifestation of principles or values[10] ( e.g. , intellectual property rights that allow or restrict the use of farm management tools ) .
Materiality as physical matter
One key infrastructure supporting digital agriculture is e nergy , which requires materials like coal, gas, and oil, as well as water, wind, and solar infrastructure. When Monsanto boasts that its Climate Pro sensors generate seven gigabytes of data per acre ,[11] there are implications for the resources needed to manage that data. C onsider this: if the virtual cloud (where our data is stored and processed) were a country, it would have the fifth largest electricity demand worldwide .[12] In that context, d igital agriculture also requires reliable rural telecommunication infrastructure and broadband access .
An other material dimension concerns the extraction of rare earth minerals to create microelectronics in microchips for computers and platforms , analytic software , and data storage systems . S cholars have explore d th is material dimension for social media[13] and information and communication technology (ICT) .[14] D ue to the heavy reliance on ICT and digital platforms , digital ag riculture share s many environmental impacts , including water and energy use , e-wast e , a s well as detrimental labour conditions .[15]
A key material property in digital agriculture is computer infrastructure , especially for scientists and engineers in the public sector. Often , public sector computer scientists are limited by a lack of access to sophisticated computing .[16] Concurrently , spatial datasets compiled by public entities ( such as NASA) are used by industry actors to develop products that are subsequently blocked behind paywalls.
Seeing the materiality of digital infrastructures the microchips, servers, computers, cell towers, or the electricity grid can be difficult in the farming context, where it seems distant from the immediate context .[17] However, these infrastructures have a n immediate effect on those that hav e to generate such materials . For instance, the demand for cobalt and other minerals has resulted in ongoing violence, slavery and labour exploitation in the Democratic Republic of Congo the world’s largest producer of cobalt[18] while businesses in Silicon Valley’s ICT manufacturing industry frequently contaminat e the environment and human bodies .[19]
Materiality as instantiated ideas
As mentioned above, m aterialit y is also the result of instantiated principles or values . G overnments around the world create policies and invest public money to develop telecommunication infrastructure , yet often for private corporations . [20] P olicies reflect ing the principle of equal rural access to the internet may therefore result in supporting industry actors who could not profit from selling digital farm tool s without this infrastructure . D igital infrastructure expansion and maintenance can also prove controversial ( e.g. , concerns over 5G technology’s environmental and health effects[21] or cell tower infrastructures interven ing with natural heritage protection[22] ).
Legal infrastructures, in the form of intellectual property rights,are also principlesthat areinstantiated in material properties; theyregulatewho can have accessto data and machinery for developing and using sensing technologies, file formats, or metadata.[23] Exemplary is the agribusiness corporation John Deere, whichappliescopyright licenses to protect both data and sensing machines, whichin turn limits farmers’ access to their data and machineryeven preventing themfromfixing their tractors.[24]
Further, interpreting agricultural data requires digital skills and expertise that many farmers often do not possess , but which would allow them to interpret data and acquire hands-on abilities to tinker, fix , innovate and build tools .[25] Concerns over corporate proprietary rights [26] have spurred such initiatives as the U . S . -based non-profit organization , Ag Data Coalition, which seeks to give farmers an option for storing all of their data in one secure location independent of supplier s or manufacturer s .[27] S tate authorities have also worked towards multi-stakeholder engagement s in the governance of digital agriculture ( e.g. , the Swiss Charter on the Digitalisation of Swiss Agriculture and Food Production[28] ).
The materialization of values , in the form of private gain , is also visible in the design of digital agricultural technologies . Companies like John Deere develop tools with large commodity crop and capital-intensive farms in mind .[29] F arm technology developers , policymakers , and investors often imagine farmers as being minimally concerned with anything but economic profitability . [30] This result s in commercial systems like FarmCommand that follow economic logics, and provide an overview that is only useful for large-scale farm s . As one Prairie farmer, Dan, explained , precision tractors with GPS auto-steering are only worthwhile for farms like his because of the cumulative efficiency gains: “Say, you’re overlapping by two feet every time, it doesn’t take very long before you start to add up quite a bit of overlap.” As a result, s mall-scale farmers have had little to gain from the use of (very costly) digital agriculture tools . M ost v isual AI-driven tools trained to detect crop diseases are also not conducive to polyculture growth settings . Such farming systems are currently not captured by applications trained to collect big data .[31] The value of large-scale farming as business is thus instantiated into the materiality of digital technologies currently on the market .
Implications of digital agriculture
Because the re is a bias toward large-scale commodity producers, digital agriculture arguably furthers capital-intensive, industrial agriculture a system that has known material implications on people and the planet.[32] D igital agriculture extends histor ic processes of the industrial ization of agriculture[33] , potentially leading to a new digital food regime . [34] Adding the dimension of energy, extracted resources for developing microchips, digital storehouses , and rural network infrastructures, the environmental and health consequences of a digitized agriculture may in fact undo its own sustainability claims.[35]
D igital tools such as robots may also alter farmers’ identity and relationship s to farm ing practice s .[36] Indeed, requir ing farmers to use decision support tools can re- write how farmers interact with their land.[37] A farm may turn into a control centre where the farmer becomes an office manager[38] or data labourer.[39] The ‘g ood farmer may be the one who trusts big data to be more objective than their neighbor, their gut intution , or their own tacit knowledge .[40]
Yet for farmers , a digital monitoring system may also free up time for leisure activities , foster ing other forms of relationships , car ing for animals beyond service exchange s like cattle for milk , or improv ing communication with their consumers. Indeed, in practice, farmers engag e with precision technolog ies in many ways , sometimes by tinkering and repurposing them , or blending them with analogue tools .[41]
Conclusion
Proponents of digital agriculture claim that digital tools in agriculture will require less chemical input , such as pesticides or fertilizer, as they can now be applied in a more precise way . The digitization of farm management, often imagined as data in the form of a distant ‘cloud,’ is portrayed as immaterial that is, requiring less machinery, chemical input, and land for food production. Digital agriculture is a lso imagined to decreas e the detrimental impacts on the environment due to decades of high-input industrial agriculture . Yet there are numerous material preconditions for , and consequences of the digitalization of agriculture , that has effects on land and people .
To better understand such claims of immateriality , this chapter approached materiality not merely as physical matter but also as instantiated ideas . This is because the existence (or lack ) of policies, intellectual property rights, digital education programs , and the design of tools ha ve material implications regarding who is able to participate in the so-called digital revolution in agriculture. Likewise, the material preconditions of ICT-driven tools are , similar ly to other sectors , rel iant on the extraction of rare earth mineral s , e nergy resources for high-data drive sensors, or rural telecommunication infrastructures . They exemplify the very real material needs for the digitization of agriculture.
Some questions left to consider are: D oes existing policy ( like broadband development programs ) and existing legislation ( like licenses protecting farm data as corporate property ) serve the public , industry , or both ? Who ought to hold the legal rights to develop, tinker with , and fix digital tools and machineries? What if digital tools were developed such that they reflect a broad array of farm values, like the environmental principles of agroecologists, or the relational knowledge of Indigenous farming ? What might the very material dimensions of digital agricultural tools look like if they were developed by farmers and DI Y -tool developers, based on their place-based knowledge and expertise , rather than merely industry scientists ? As you can see, there is still much research to be done!
Discussion Questions
• What are the key elements of digital agriculture?
• How have digital technologies changed farming practices? How have digital technologies changed how and what we think about agriculture?
• What are the potential benefits of digital agriculture? What are the potential problems?
• This chapter identifies materiality as an important concept for examining the real-world impacts of digital agriculture. What is materiality and why is it important to identify the often-hidden material effects of digital agriculture?
Additional Resources
Disadvantaged by Digitization”: Technology, Big Data, and Food Systems. 2021. Handpicked: Stories from the Field S2E2 ( podcast).
References
Bronson, K. and I. Knezevic. 2017. “Look twice at the digital agricultural revolution.” Policy Options.
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Bronson, K. 2019. “Looking through a responsible innovation lens at uneven engagements with digital farming.” NJAS-Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences90: 100294.
Bronson, K. and I. Knezevic. 2016. “Big Data in food and agriculture.” Big Data & Society3 (1): 2053951716648174.
Bronson, K. and I. Knezevic. 2019. “The digital divide and how it matters for Canadian food system equity.” Canadian Journal of Communication44 (2): 63–68.
Carolan, M. 2017. “Publicising food: big data, precision agriculture, and co‐experimental techniques of addition.” Sociologia Ruralis57 (2): 135–154.
Chen, S. 2016. “The materialist circuits and the quest for environmental justice in ICT’s global expansion.” tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society14 (1): 121–131.
Cobby, R.W. 2020. “Searching for sustainability in the digital agriculture debate: an alternative approach for a systemic transition.” Teknokultura17 (2): 224–238.
Cook, G. 2012. How Clean is Your Cloud? Greenpeace International. Accessed May 16.
De Schutter, O. 2015. “Don’t Let Food Be the Problem.” Foreign Policy.
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Driessen, C. and L.F.M. Heutinck. 2018. “Cows desiring to be milked? Milking robots and the co-evolution of ethics and technology on Dutch dairy farms.” Agriculture and Human Values 32, no. 1 (2015): 3-20.Ensmenger, Nathan. “The environmental history of computing.” Technology and Culture59 (4): 7–33.
Fitzpatrick, C., E. Olivetti, T.R. Miller, R. Roth, and R. Kirchain. 2015. “Conflict minerals in the compute sector: estimating extent of tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold use in ICT products.” Environmental Science & Technology49 (2): 974–981.
Fuchs, C. 2014. “Theorising and analysing digital labour: From global value chains to modes of production.” The Political Economy of Communication1 (2).
Higgins, V., M. Bryant, A. Howell, and J. Battersby. 2017. “Ordering adoption: Materiality, knowledge and farmer engagement with precision agriculture technologies.” Journal of Rural Studies55: 193–202.
Iles, A., Graddy-Lovelace, G., Montenegro, M., & Galt, R. 2017. “Agricultural systems: co-producing knowledge and food.” In Handbook of Science & Technology Studies, 4th ed.: 943–972.
IPES Food (International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems). 2015. The New Science of Sustainable Food Systems.
Klerkx, L., E. Jakku, and P. Labarthe. 2019. “A review of social science on digital agriculture, smart farming and agriculture 4.0: New contributions and a future research agenda.” NJAS-Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences90: 100315.
Kostoff, R.N., P. Heroux, M. Aschner, and A. Tsatsakis. 2020. “Adverse health effects of 5G mobile networking technology under real-life conditions.” Toxicology Letters323: 35–40.
Lajoie-O’Malley, A., K. Bronson, S. van der Burg, and L. Klerkx. 2020. “The future (s) of digital agriculture and sustainable food systems: An analysis of high-level policy documents.” Ecosystem Services45: 101183.
Legun, K., and K. Burch. 2021. “Robot-ready: How apple producers are assembling in anticipation of new AI robotics.” Journal of Rural Studies82: 380–390.
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1. For an exception, see Cobby 2020 and Higgins et al 2017.
2. Wolf & Wood 1997.
3. Carolan 2017, 137.
4. Rose & Chilvers 2018, 87; Klerkx et al. 2019, 100315; Overall, distinguishing agriculture into successive periods reflects a problematic evolutionary conception of agriculture.
5. Rose & Chilvers 2018.
6. IPES Food 2015.
7. Quoted in Strubenhoff & Parizat 2004, para 8.
8. Delgado 2019, n.p.
9. Bongiovanni & Lowenberg-DeBoer 2004.
10. Leonardi 2010, n.p.
11. Carolan 2017, 139.
12. Cook 2012.
13. Reading 2014.
14. Fitzpatrick et al. 2015.
15. Cobby 2020; Chen 2016; Ensmenger 2018; Fuchs 2014.
16. Bronson 2018.
17. Carolan 2017, 147.
18. Fuchs 2014.
19. Pellow & Park, 1991.
20. https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/139.nsf/eng/h_00006.html
21. Kostoff et al. 2020.
22. https://ontarionature.good.do/mzos-trump-protection/email/?twclid=11380638952936341508
23. Blumenfeld 2019.
24. IFIXIT.org
25. Higgins 2017; IFIXIT.org
26. Mooney 2018.
27. http://agdatacoalition.org/about-us.
28. https://agridigital.ch/
29. Bronson 2018; Bronson 2019, 100294.
30. Bronson 2019.
31. Bronson & Knezevic 2016.
32. De Schutter 2015.
33. Bronson & Knezevic 2016; Bronson & Knezevic 2019.
34. Klerkx et al. 2019, 10.
35. Cobby, 2020; Lajoie-O'Malley et al. 2020, 101183.
36. Driessen & Heutinck 2015. Legun & Burch 2021.
37. Rose et al. 2018.
38. Tsouvalis et al. 2000, 913.
39. Rotz et al. 2019.
40. Carolan 2017, 145; Miles 2019; Iles et al. 2017, 957.
41. Vik et al. 2019, 100305; Higgins et al. 2017. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.48%3A_Perspective%3A_Digital_Agriculture.txt |
From Farms and Food Factories to Food Data Factories
Blue Miaoran Dong holds a MA in the fields of Communication and Data Science Studies from Carleton University. Her thesis on Chinese food traceability system, “The Political Economy of the Chinese Food Traceability System: Cultivating Trust, or Constructing a Technocratic Certainty Machine?” illustrates the power relations between the Chinese government, the big three Chinese technology giants, foreign capital, food merchants, and Chinese citizens. It also addresses the embedded information and power asymmetry. She is a PhD student at School of Journalism and Communication at Carleton University. She is also the conference coordinator of the Food Matters and Materialities: Critical Understandings of Food Cultures Conference and conference co-chair of the 16th Annual Communication Graduate Caucus Conference. She is keen on digital agriculture, food and data equity, rural broadband, and the development of the platform ecosystem.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Identify food traceability technologies, infrastructures, and corporate capitals that compose the Chinese food traceability system.
• Describe the limitations of the food traceability system relative to its public claims (like perfect transparency).
• Explain the potential harm and environmental impacts stemming from the food traceability system.
Introduction
Chinese Citizens are increasingly interested in knowing where their food comes from and seeking information about the conditions in which their food is produced. But how much detail is necessary? Do you need to know who is growing your crops, or how farmers feed the animals they raise? Would you be willing to pay a premium price for that information? Both the Chinese government and Chinese corporations are convinced that the answer to all of these questions is a resounding yes.
Con text
Mounting food safety incidents and food fraud can endanger citizens and cost the global food industry billions of dollars every year. Traceability apps claim to give you the entire life story of your food by simply scanning a unique identification code attached to the food package. For instance, the identification code on an egg would allow you to know whether that egg was laid by the fittest hen. The hen would wear a device like a Fitbit on her ankle, which transmits live footstep numbers and other biometric data. Some premium egg farmers even have 360-degree surveillance cameras and face-recognition technology, to help you identify the hens in their farming environment. As the consumer, you can even choose a customized feeding plan for the hen, to ensure it lays eggs with a specific taste profile. On the one hand, this technology helps ensure animal welfare—i.e., that the hen has a nice environment for exercise and high-quality food to eat. On the other hand, this comes at a hefty price of privacy for consumers and augments social inequalities.
The Chinese government is enthusiastic about its food traceability system, which allows the government to pinpoint the source of food contamination more accurately, thus mitigating the risks of wide-scale, food-related disease outbreaks. But traceability also works as a goldmine for corporations to learn about their customers, to extract their personal information and expand the reach of their own business. There is a distinct difference between the Chinese and Canadian food traceability systems, in that the Canadian system does not trace forward to the customer. In other words, the Canadian system does not keep detailed consumer food preferences and purchasing habits; it only traces the food from origin to sales point. The Chinese food traceability system enables food corporations, food traceability technology providers, and the government to trace and track all kinds of consumer food preferences and eating habits. This information allows food corporations to create new hit products, or only produce those food items that sell in the greatest quantities, which in turn can decrease food diversity in the long run.
Tracing the Tracers
My interest in this rapidly developing technology sector led me to examine the financial reports of the big three Chinese technology corporations: Alibaba, Tencent, and JD,[1] which are playing essential roles in developing, distributing, operating, and transforming the Chinese food traceability system. This transformation accumulates substantial revenue in the hands of corporate actors. In the last ten years, food traceability apps available in China through Apple’s App Store have grown from 8 to 112, and from being available in 2 cities to 21. While this development trajectory prioritized coastal, eastern, and urban regions, it neglected rural and western regions, where citizens are still struggling to have an adequate internet connection and delivery service on which digital economies heavily depend. Amazingly, eggs with food traceability technology are 4 to 8 times more expensive than regular eggs. Evidently, not everyone can afford the well-traced food, and this is especially the case for people who live in rural regions.
Analysis
Figure 1 provides an overview of the food traceability technologies available as of 2021. The technologies include infrastructure hardware, the Internet of things (IoT), and computing capabilities. For instance, the Beidou navigation system enables the edge computing system to coordinate with Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) signal transmitter, RTK rover station, and radio antennas, which connect the transmission to the satellite. It also coordinates water sprinkler drones, IoT sensors, animal tracking collars, and plant monitoring devices to transmission base stations that coordinate orders for IoT sensors in the rural regions where internet connections are poor. Last, satellite systems combine satellite image, sensor data, and artificial intelligence analysis to generate an optimized irrigation action plan, provide animal early sickness alerts, and reduce insurance premiums with this heavily monitored and automated technology system.
Figure 2 portrays the extent to which the dominant technology companies, Alibaba (Ali), Tencent, JD, and Meituan (TJM), have spread their influence over the various sectors of the food traceability system in China. First and foremost, Ali and the TJM platform ecosystem both invest and collaborate with a Chinese telecom company, China Unicom, to obtain an unfair advantage with high-quality internet connections and better telecom service rates. Furthermore, Ali and the TJM platform ecosystem have invested in information technologies and services like cloud computing. By investing in cloud computing companies like Ali Cloud, the retail technology Shiji, and the intelligent car operating system Banma, Ali has built a solid foundation to amplify traceability technology for commercial applications and actively promote the national code economy. Moreover, Ali and the TJM platform ecosystem have invested in many food traceability platforms with a high level of daily active user rate, like Ele, YiguoShengxian, and Fruit Day.
Ali directs and generates consumer traffic from one site to another, fosters symbiotic relationships, and strengthens the network effect. Their seamless integration also reaches offline activities, from offline supermarkets and supply chains to delivery and logistics systems. The Ali and TJM platform ecosystem integrate almost every aspect of the business.
By luring consumers into scanning offline QR codes, Alipay can potentially connect 555 direct procurement sources, 200 supermarket chains with 1700 traceable food items, free half-hour delivery, and traceable robot restaurants, all within the Alibaba ecosystem. Essentially, food traceability systems connect merchants with the consumer through the integrated platform design from online to offline. This model has now expanded beyond the scope of food, replicating the same business model in other sectors and sharing data with other diversified businesses within the same platform ecosystem. For instance, TJM invested in the travel business TunNiu, flying vehicle company Lilium, coffee franchise Tim Hortons, and film producer Wanda. Ali then uses the data collected and consumer traffic in the game industry, mini-program, business WeChat, and WeVideos. It creates an ultimate one-stop, convenient access center with four essential categories: financial, daily needs, travel and transportation, shopping, and entertainment, all embedded in the platform to further their monopoly and make it more robust. In a nutshell, if you came in for the food traceability information, the big technology corporations try to keep you around for four essential needs that they also own.
The ambitious market model promoted in this manner promises to deliver perfect transparency, but so far, it has only magnified information and power asymmetry. Specifically, between urban and rural regions, there is an imbalance in the development of food safety systems. The food safety and quality tests associated with the current traceability system revealed that twelve provinces were below the national average in food safety. The food safety and quality tests also found that most of the food that was turned down by the city and coastal markets (for having failed the essential food quality and safety test) was then sold back to rural regions. More information does not equal more certainty and transparency. And after all, does the average consumer want to—each time they sit down for a meal—read the entire biography of the hen that laid the egg they are about to eat? Or do they typically just need the peace of mind to enjoy their meal without doubt and concern?
Both the Chinese government and Chinese corporations are convinced that there is a need to build a technology-enabled food traceability system as a market solution to this increasing need. They also believe consumers are willing to pay a premium for the excessive details and data generated by the food traceability system. However, not every Chinese citizen can afford the increased premium, and not everyone feels the need to know the entire life story of a hen before feeling safe enough to eat an egg.
Chinese consumers can still buy the conventional egg without an identification code attached to it—for now. But this is only the beginning. The egg is likely just one example of the future of food consumption. Technology corporations are gradually making significant inroads into the food supply chain, from farms to transportation to retail. They are also exporting IoT technology and the accompanying business model to other parts of the world. Food, of course, is not unique in this, as this trend can be seen in other sectors as well, such as the health and insurance industries.
The next time you are about to eat an egg, consider the story one egg can tell, the industry one egg can change, and the impact one egg can make beyond the act of eating.
Discussion Questions
• What are the potential benefits of the Chinese food traceability system? What are the drawbacks?
• Is there anything in Chinese system that the Canadian food traceability system can adopt or avoid?
Additional Resource
Government of Canada. 2020. Traceability: Safe Food for Canadians Regulations.
References
Alibaba. 2020. 2019 annual report. Alibaba Group.
Alibaba. 2021. 2020 annual report. Alibaba Group.
JD. 2020. 2019 annual report. JD.com, Inc.
JD. 2021. 2020 annual report. JD.com, Inc.
Meituan. 2020. 2019 annual report. Meituan Dianping.
Tencent Holdings Limited. 2020. 2019 annual report. Tencent.
1. Alibaba, Tencent, JD, and Meituan are among the top thirteen most valuable publicly traded internet companies in the world. Tencent has the highest monthly active user accounts, at 1165 million, and 50 million active merchant accounts among the big four internet companies (Tencent AR, 5). Alibaba has 846 million monthly active user accounts (Alibaba AR, 21). Meituan has 449 million active user accounts (Meituan AR, 2), but JD has 417 million active user accounts and is more involved in the food traceability system than Meituan (JD AR, 10). Tencent holds 17.9% of JD and 20.1% of Meituan, which are considered as operating under the same Tencent platform ecosystem. Collectively they are referred as TJM. To simplify the infographics, in the figures, Alibaba is referred to as Ali. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.49%3A_Case%3A_Food_Traceability.txt |
Security from Trespass and Protecting THE Food Safety Act, Ontario : Whose Interests are Protected?
Amanda Shankland is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Political Science at Carleton University. Her dissertation work looks at water governance in agricultural communities in rural New South Wales, Australia. Her areas of research expertise include food culture, social ecology, agroecology, food sovereignty, water management and rural development. She currently teaches courses in political science at the University of Ottawa.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Explain how the Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act relates to the concept of commodity fetishism.
• Critique the ways in which the law differentially upholds corporate, animal, and small-scale farmers’s rights.
• Describe some of the ethical dimensions of animal agriculture under industrial capitalism.
Introduction
For seven weeks in 2020, a man who asked to be identified as Elijah worked as a hog farm technician in a barn owned by Paragon farms in Putnam, Ontario. Elijah was hired by Animal Justice, a Canadian animal law advocacy group. The footage that was eventually shared by the CTV television network’s news magazine, W5, showed disturbing images of farm workers forcefully slapping and hitting pigs with plastic boards and jabbing them with pens. Other footage showed workers discussing how pregnant sows had been deprived of drinking water for several days, workers castrating male piglets without the use of painkillers, and unsanitary conditions in the barn. While organizations like Animal Justice are demanding more transparency in the system and greater provincial oversight, the government of Ontario has taken measures to protect farmers from these types of investigations. On December 5, 2020, Bill 156 entered into force in the province of Ontario, implementing the Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act. The Act’s stated purpose is to:
Prohibit trespassing on farms and other properties on which farm animals are located and to prohibit other interferences with farm animals in order to eliminate or reduce the unique risks that are created when individuals trespass on those properties or interfere with farm animals, including the risk of exposing farm animals to disease and stress as well as the risk of introducing contaminants into the food supply.
The Act goes on to describe its purpose as protecting farm animals and the safety of farmers, workers at production facilities, and drivers transporting farm animals. It also indicates that the law is designed to prevent “any adverse effects of these risks on Ontario’s economy overall.” Laws of this kind are also effective in preventing proprietary information and trade secrets from being leaked.For thesereasons, some see these measures as necessary to protect the industry and its contribution to the Ontario economy. Alternatively, animal welfare activists see the Act as a measure to protect the industry from public criticism and the economic impacts that such scrutiny might have on farm businesses.
The Act raises many questions among both its supporters and its critics. Whether it can accomplish the stated intentions of animal and farmer welfare is being challenged by activists who see it as a pretence to keep certainpracticesaway from public view.They see the criminalization of exposing practices on farms asa decision that protects corporate agriculture.Supporters of the Act, on the other hand, claim that it will protect human and animal health. However, because farm practices are far from a uniform set of behaviours, a questions arises as to how theinterests of both large,industrial farms and small-scalefarms are protected? The concept of commodity fetishism can be helpful inexplainingwhy the Actis seen by some as a measure to reinforce industrialized,large-scale meat production.
Commodity Fetishism
Commodity fetishism is aconceptthatdescribesthe relationship between production and exchange under capitalism. Karl Marx proposed that this relationshipno longer represents a relationship among people, but a relationship among things, i.e.,money and commodities. Commodity fetishism describes how human labour is ignored or unaccounted foras exchange becomes the predominant mode of relations.Marx developed this theory in Das Kapital(1887) and it continues to be relevant today.
In the industrial food system,for instance, producers of food are often far removed from the consumers. The vast urbanization project of the 20th century now means that most people no longer live on, work at, or even visit farms involved in animal production. Production has also become highly mechanized, which means that less human labour is involved in farming. Commodity fetishism in this context summarizes the ways in which people come to believe they are not participating in the processes of animal production. Human labour is erased each time an animal passes through new hands. The animal is erased at each step because it has been transformed into a commodity; from, for example, a pig, to freight, to a box in a warehouse, to dinner on a foam tray. At each step, the commodity becomes both independent from human labour and its own pigness. Processing of animal parts into attractive packaging distances the consumer from any of the more unsettling aspects of animal rearing, slaughter, and processing.
In food studies, distance is a term that parallels commodity fetishism. It is used to describe the physicaland cognitive(and some would include spiritual) distances created by the modernand globalizedfood system. Distance is enhancedby industrialmodelsof agriculturethat insertnumerous actors between farmlevel production and individual consumption.
For example, when it comes time for slaughter, t ruckers in Ontario transport all animals to one of just a few government certified slaughterhouses. From there, meat is sent in another truck to a processing facility. After processing , it is likely sent to a distribution centre by another truck. S till another truck then brings the meat to the grocery store , where it is handled by a stock person , the customer, and then finally by a cashier. Often, there is no indication of the farm from which the meat originates , where it was processed , and whether it has been combined with meat from other farms. The consumer, by virtue of this processing and distribution chain , has no personal relationship with the farmer. S ince the farmer has no relationship with the consumer, they are not directly invested in the consumer s well being. The lack of participation by consumers in the food system means that farmers do not have as much pressure to adhere to consumer demands for humane practices. As demonstrated by cases like Elijah’s (from Animal Justice) , a nimal activism increase s the level of demand for better conditions on farms and/or at production facilities. C ommodity fetishism thus supports a perspective that the Act is a way to reinforce the tendency in food system s to strengthen a veil of secrecy, and to create distance between production and consumption.
Whose Interests are Protected by the Act ?
The wording of the Act focuses on the risks of contamination and the safety of farmers and animals. The government’s rational e for the Act is to protect farm animals from exposure to disease caused by human trespass. It seems reasonable to prohibit trespass on farms for this reason ; there are already trespass laws in place , in fact . The Act , however, also prohibits anyone from entering a facility on false pretenses , which means if an activist gets a job in a facility in order to document animal abuses and conducts an investigation in the day-to day activities of their job , then they can also be criminally charged. In Ontario, i nvestigations into farm conditions are only made if a complaint is received . The threat of criminal prosecution , however, means that reporting by undercover investigators or employees is unlikely to occur. The Act therefore reduces public scrutiny and is a significant move toward mystification in the industry . Further, w hile these types of privacy measures might be commonplace in some industries ( like in technology to protect trade secrets ), they represent a risky precedent in other cases (such as criminalizing the document ation of elder abuse in old age homes ) .
Animal rights activists callthe Act an Ag-gag law. Ag-gag lawsban people from exposing cruel and/orunsafe conditions at farms and slaughterhouses. Activists argue that these laws protect industrial agriculture and undermine the efforts of ethical producers. Since the Act has the effect of limiting consumer knowledge about industrial practices, an unintended consequence couldbe reduced trust on the part of consumers,which canundermine the efforts of ethical producers. Many consumerswant to make informed decisions about what they are buying,and the ethical treatment of animals is an important consideration. To illustrate this point, while farmers in Ontario are legally forbidden from slaughtering their own animals,many take special care to raise them humanely, particularly through pasturing. Many small-scalefarmers bring their animals to slaughtering facilities themselves and sell their products directly to consumers through direct marketing and farmersmarkets. For these farmers, it isimportant to nurture the relationship withconsumers to create an environment of transparency, mutual respect, and accountability.Informal discussions with small-scalefarmers engaged in direct marketing to consumers have revealedthat personal relationships with consumers are a driver in terms of improving animal husbandry methods. This value is reflected in the price, but consumers who are able to pay a premium are often willing todo sofor the reassurance that they are contributing to a humane farming system. In sum, the Act appears to benefit largerscale industrial farmsmorethan it does farmers engaged in smallerscale,direct marketing operations.
Conclusion
As a concept, commodity fetishism draws our attention to the ways that the industrial food system can make invisible our connections to the food we eat and to the farmers who produce it. The deepening psychological distance between producers, consumers and animals can therefore undermine the best efforts to create a humane and sustainable food system. The Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act reveals many of the pitfalls in trying to balance privacy and safety with public accountability in the food system. The Acts stated purpose is to protect animals and farmers, but as explained above, itcould undermine trust in the industry by creating an environment that favors secrecy and potentially protects animal abusers. As food scholars, we must critically examine the justification for these types of laws and question whether they in fact necessary in achieving their stated purpose.
Discussion Questions
• Do you think animal production is humane and sustainable given the right conditions, including education, legal frameworks, and financial security? Why or why not?
• How do the rights of food producers—including the right to protect food safety and privacy—compete with the need for public accountability in the food system? Are the rights of certain groups of food system actors prioritized over others? Explain.
• What other examples of commodity fetishism can you identify in the food system? In small groups, explain how your examples illustrate the concept.
Additional Resources
Bill 156, Security from Trespass and Protecting Food Safety Act ( 2020 ) , Hardeman, Hon. Ernie Minister of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Statutes of Ontario 2020, chapter 9.
Fitzgerald, A.J. 2019. Animal Advocacy and Environmentalism: Understanding and Bridging the Divide. 1st edition. Medford, MA: PolityPress.
Foer, J.F. 2018. Eating Animals. London, UK: Penguin Random House.
Marx, K.1887. Capitol: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production. London, UK: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey & Co.
Pollen, M. 2007. The Omnivore’s Dilemma. London, UK: Penguin Random House.
Salatin, J. 2012. Folks, This Ain’t Normal. New York: Center Street.
Wrenn, C.L. 2019. Piecemeal Protest: Animal Rights in the Age of Nonprofits. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
02.51: Creative: A Last Supper
my tiniest apology
Stephanie Couey is a Ph.D. candidate in English at the University of Colorado Boulder. Her work is on Multiethnic Contemporary Women’s Literatures of the United States, and her dissertation examines race, gender, and national identity within works of fiction, non-fiction, and poetry that centralize food, hunger, and the body. She previously received her MFA in Poetry, also from CU Boulder, and she teaches undergraduate courses in Literature and Creative Writing.
my tiniest apology
if I could have made you your last supper
it would have been
the reddest slaughter, a halting
ritual of bones, a bound and roasted
lamb on a sea-brined bed of greens
there would have been
a quieting side
of creamed potatoes
all biting hot and familiar
like a coming-of-age novel
but would you have even accepted
this shrine of abundance, my last offering,
or would it have been just another
blister for you to swallow?
what matters now
is what remains – of you
– your dad
in your apartment, all empty
your cabinets all empty
bookcases and I can feel you
getting mad at me
for simplifying
your relationship to grace
my inanity for equating
salvation with satiety
but I have to imagine
a final moment of moments
where you allow yourself
against yourself, and your insistent ache
to share in the private yet common
truth of, the simple fact of,
a right-made custard and a honeyed éclair
with slabs of pear and fig and all the earth
you had to leave
I hope you’ll accept just this:
my tiniest apology,
so sincere, fugitive, and sweet
[for Shawn Collins, 1989–2021] | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.50%3A_Case%3A_Food_Safety_Act.txt |
“Meat Made Manifest”: Beef, Fertility, and the Ideal American Woman in Ruth Ozeki’s My Year of Meats
Stephanie Couey is a Ph.D. candidate in English at the University of Colorado Boulder. Her work is on Multiethnic Contemporary Women’s Literatures of the United States, and her dissertation examines race, gender, and national identity within works of fiction, non-fiction, and poetry that centralize food, hunger, and the body. She previously received her MFA in Poetry, also from CU Boulder, and she teaches undergraduate courses in Literature and Creative Writing.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Apply the process of close reading to descriptions of foods and food contexts in literature.
• Analyze food writing through interdisciplinary engagement.
• Assess the value and utility of analyzing food to make unexpected connections, and to arrive at new or more fully developed cultural insights.
Introduction
Although food is an approachable subject, studying it closely and critically in literature can make some of our most potent anxieties and cultural violences visible. This case uses literary analysis to consider not only the symbolic functions of a specific food within a literary text, but also its material significances.
The text in focus is Canadian-American author Ruth Ozeki’s 1998 novel, My Year of Meats,[1] and the food in focus is beef. Although the novel features other commonly consumed meats and emphasizes their distinct cultural meanings in American culture, as indicated by the plurality of “meats” in the title, it is beef that takes center stage. In centering the novel on America’s most-emblematic animal protein, Ozeki reveals how the violence inherent in the production and consumption of beef extends directly to women’s bodies following World War II.
Processof Analysis
This case focuses on two of the main subjects of Ozeki’s 1998 novel: women and beef. It employs the aptly named process of close reading over three observations to analyze the nuances of Ozeki’s language. This detailed analysis generates a clear unpacking of ideas surrounding the relationships between meat and meat-related media, modern perceptions of “American” femininity, and animal-human relationships.
Close reading is a deep analysis of the writer’s language—it focuses on thewords on thepage at hand, but it also always considers the context of the rest of the work. Effective close reading is a sequential process that starts small and works its way outward. Rather than immediately identifying themes, big picture ideas, or larger trends, it centers itself in diction and syntax. It then uses the emerging observations to build bigger-picture arguments. Close reading, rather than trying to “prove” a pre-existing argument, allows for unexpected new inquiries. It is, by necessity, a personal engagement with the text. If close reading is performed in earnest, it is unlikely that you will arrive at precisely the same conclusions as your classmates or those found in existing scholarship on the piece, though you will be able to point to the evidence within the text that brought you to your own conclusion.
Contextfor Observations
The central protagonist of My Year of Meats is Jane Takagi-Little, an American documentarian of Japanese and Anglo-European descent. The three block quotations used in this study are all told from Jane’s point of view and carry her narrative voice, and as such, they are suffused with her attitudes, beliefs, and values. The novel begins with Jane reluctantly taking a new job on the fictional reality TV show, My American Wife!, which quickly leads her down a rabbit hole of deeply personal investigative journalism. The show is funded by fictional American meat lobbying company, BEEF-EX, and is made by a Japanese production company. Its goal is to sell two things to a primarily Japanese consumer base: beef imported from the United States, and regressive conceptions of the “ideal American” woman and family, so as to influence Japanese housewives to become more similar to these ideals. Jane states that she “made documentaries about an exotic and vanishing America for consumption on the flip side of the planet,”[2] and much of what is “exotic” and “vanishing” is the white, heteronormative, nuclear family in the United States. Initially, Jane’s mission is to correct the show’s proclivity for featuring homogeneous white families, but as she learns more about American-raised beef and about her own family history, she learns that beef production is not only ideologically linked to notions of white supremacy and sexism, but that is it also physically linked.
Specifically, Jane learns about her mother being prescribed diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen that was first used as a fertility treatment following World War II. The drug was heavily pushed upon women by advertisers and doctors, to encourage those who had taken jobs during the war to return to what was considered their central role for their country: bearing and rearing healthy children.[3] DES has also been used as an agent for promoting rapid weight gain in cattle to yield more meat product (beef) with less feed. Jane argues that “DES changed the face of meat in America. Using DES and other drugs, like antibiotics, farmers could process animals on an assembly line, like cars or computer chips.”[4] In the history Jane cites, the basic comfort and well-being of cattle was deemed “inefficient,” and all that mattered was how much weight they could gain and how quickly they could be harvested for America’s favorite staple.
Women, Beef, and “T raditional F amily V alues”
After the chief producer of My American Wife! describes what he wants the show to communicate, Jane drafts the following deliberately “excessive”[5] description:
Meat is the Message. Each weekly half-hour episode of My American Wife! must culminate in the celebration of a featured meat, climaxing in its glorious consumption. It’s the meat (not the Mrs.) who’s the star of our show! Of course, the ‘Wife of the Week’ is important too. She must be attractive, appetizing, and All-American. She is the Meat Made Manifest: ample, robust, yet never tough or hard to digest. Through her, Japanese housewives will feel the hearty sense of warmth, of comfort, of hearth and home—the traditional family values symbolized by red meat in rural America.[6]
“Meat is the Message,” with a capital “m” in “message,” is a satiric allusion to Marshall McLuhan’s 1967 text, The Medium is the Massage. McLuhan argues that the new electronic technologies of the information age control us—physically, psychologically, and socially—more than we control them. He contends, “all media work us over completely… any understanding of social and cultural change is impossible without a knowledge of the way media work as environments.”[7] Jane stating, however sardonically, that “meat is the message” suggests that meat is a form of media and thus is an active rather than passive substance with the power to “work us over completely.”
Jane then employs what can be read as pornographic diction to comedically analogize meat to both male genitalia and women’s bodies, to contrasting ends. She exaggeratedly writes that each episode of My American Wife! must “culminate” with a “celebration” of a “featured meat,” and “climax” in the event of its “glorious consumption.” That the “glorious consumption” of the “featured meat” results in “climax” communicates that Jane is making a direct comparison between male sexual release and the consumption of meat, as “climax” overtly suggests orgasm, since it is a colloquial synonym, and “culminat[ion]” more subtly suggests the same.
In the context of the show, analogizing male genitalia to meat glorifies the penis and suggests its theoretical desirability and centrality as the “star,” but analogizing women to meat suggests diminishment and debasement and renders them into consumable objects. Jane’s theatrical description of My American Wife! mirrors mainstream male-focused pornography in how it’s “the meat” and “not the Mrs.” who’s “the star.” In other words, women in the show are considered secondary to the animal flesh over which they labor and to the men they serve. The way the women in the show are “Meat Made Manifest” reduces them into products in a way not wholly dissimilar to how living cows are reduced and abstracted into “beef.” The women on the show must be “appetizing,” “ample,” and “robust,” but “never tough or hard to digest.” This suggests that viewing the women on screen is an act of consumption unto itself and they are intended to be consumed alongside the meat. And in stating that the “Wife of the Week” must be “All-American,” Jane alludes to the show’s preference for white women; although the women featured on-screen are rendered into props rather than people, women of color are marginalized further in the show’s willful obfuscation of their existence and importance as American women.
Finally, Jane ends the description with the ultra-patriotic declaration that “red meat” symbolizes “traditional family values in rural America,” which are only vaguely characterized by a “hearty sense of warmth, of comfort, of hearth and home.” The grammatically unnecessary repetition of the preposition “of” alongside the alliteration of “hearty,” “hearth,” and “home” gives this sentence the bouncy, upbeat, and musical quality of a mid-century advertisement. Jane’s use of such mnemonic devices makes this final sentence exude the very “sense of warmth” and white American nostalgia that My American Wife! seeks to capitalize on in order to sell beef.
DES and All-American Abundance
Whether as a fertility treatment or as a fattening agent for feedlot cows, DES has been used extensively throughout the twentieth century, despite the fact that its use in humans has been linked to numerous health defects including cancers and reproductive organ deformities.[8] Jane also learns that DES doesn’t just affect those who consume it directly, but that it can cause health issues in their descendants—a discovery that led medical editor Cynthia Laitman Orenberg to coin of the term “DES daughter”[9] in 1981.
Jane herself struggles with “a precancerous condition known as neoplasia”[10] on her cervix, a misshapen uterus, and presumed infertility, which are resultant of her mother having been prescribed DES by an American doctor who assumed she was too “delicate”[11] to carry Jane, an assumption with racial bias against Japanese women. Viewing an X-ray of her uterus, Jane recalls:
I’ve always pictured the triangular uterine cavity as the head of a bull, with the fallopian tubes spreading and curling like noble horns, and that was what I was expecting to see…what I saw instead was less symmetrical. The left side of the bull’s broad forehead was caved in, less triangular, as though my uterus had been coldcocked.[12]
In likening Jane’s uterus to “the head of a bull,” Ozeki makes the link between Jane’s reproductive health and the American beef industry explicit. While the figurative bull’s head has been damaged to the extent of appearing to have been “coldcocked,” or bashed in by a club, so too have Jane’s sexual organs, suggesting that the bodies of both women and cattle have been similarly violated and brutalized by DES.
The imagined “bull” with its “noble horns” also functions to conjure images of the “all-American” frontier and “Big Rugged Nature.”[13] It evokes cattle ranching, as well as bull riding, which despite the Hispanic origins of rodeo, has “long been thought of as a distinctively American sport.”[14] The imagery of Jane’s X-ray reveals that the fate of her own body and future offspring and the fate of cattle are intimately linked due to toxic and exclusionary ideologies of American abundance.
Humans, Animals, and Trans-corporeality
Trans-corporeality, or the idea that, as environmental humanities scholar Stacy Alaimo argues, “the human is always intermeshed with the non-human world,”[15] pervades the novel, in ways that go far beyond the usage of DES. The porousness of human, animal, and environmental bodies are highlighted when Jane organizes an exposé of “Dunn & Son’s, Custom Cattle Feeders” in Colorado under the guise of an episode of My American Wife! Rather than celebrating the glorious Colorado landscape, the ranch’s abundance of beef, and the “ideal” American wife for the show’s audience, Jane instead plans to film this “episode” as a documentary that exposes the inner workings of slaughterhouses.
The featured wife is Bunny Dunn, who Jane pitches to her boss as the show’s “best American Wife yet!”[16] And Bunny is the show’s ideal—white, blonde, large-chested, decades younger than her husband, dressed in rodeo queen outfits, and cooking not just beef, but her “special recipe of Pan-Fried Prairie Oysters,”[17] or bull testicles.
Along with her Prairie Oysters and the 20,000 cattle at Dunn & Son,[18] Bunny’s body is on display for the audience of My American Wife! to consume. When filming, she is treated as a dish and, at times, as an animal. Ozeki even compares her to a cow as the camera crew film her: “the wavering ray of the sun gun finds Bunny’s face, illuminates it.”[19] The subtle wordplay between “sun gun” and “stun gun”[20] likens Bunny to a cow facing slaughter. This likening positions her as a potential victim of the camera and the violence of media representation, and it positions her as one whose body, like a cow’s, is consumable.
Jane observes Bunny’s body’s closeness to, and fusing with, animal and environmental bodies as she studies her ample figure and rodeo queen ensemble:
[Bunny] had dressed for the interview in purple stretch jeans, hand-tooled alligator cowboy boots, and a purple checked shirt decorated with fringe and mother-of-pearl snaps that fought to stay attached across the expanse of her bosom. The upper snaps popped open to reveal a massive depth of cleavage… And then there was her hair, golden, like spun metal forged into a nest by a mythical bird of prey, impossible to capture on television.[21]
Bunny is either wearing or embodying numerous animals: alligators, oysters (mother-of-pearl), and birds, and her name, in addition to being suggestive of a Playboy Bunny, is that of an animal. The diction describing her body also suggests the landscape of Colorado with the “expanse” and “massive depth” of her chest, and the lengthy, clause-filled sentences suggest an awe-inspiring quality to Bunny’s presence. Altogether, Bunny’s appearance is meant to suggest not only a nationalistic ideal of American femininity, but also the permeability between human and non-human bodies.
Humans, animals, and the environment collide even further on the kill floor of the Dunn & Son slaughterhouse. In an ironic reversal of what is usually human on animal violence, a pregnant Jane is pummeled by a cow’s massive swinging carcass on the kill floor, and she is knocked out when she hits her head on “the edge of the knocking pen,”[22] an enclosure that contains an animal as it is knocked out or stunned before slaughter. When she briefly returns to consciousness, Jane realizes that her “entire body had been drenched in blood” as she’d “fallen on the slaughterhouse floor, into the lake of blood,”[23] with the “lake” connoting a natural body of water. She finds herself crying and notices that “every time [she] wiped [her] eyes the tears were bloody too.”[24] In this scene, Jane’s body and those of the slaughtered cattle are shown to be thoroughly conjoined, and no matter how seemingly inert the body of the cow that swings into her may be, it has the potential to act upon her and change her life. Later, when Jane is in the hospital, Bunny holds her “fractured head […] against her chest.”[25] Ozeki brings the novel’s parallel treatment of women and cattle full circle, with Jane’s “fractured head” connecting back to when she first saw her X-ray and observed that her uterus looked like a “coldcocked”[26] bull’s head.
Synthesisand Conclusion
In My Year of Meats, Ruth Ozeki unpacks the overt and nuanced values implicated in Americans’ love of red meat. For many, beef exemplifies American cuisine—steaks, barbecue, pot roast, and of course, the hamburger. Ozeki, however, highlights the related ways that animals’ and women’s bodies are exploited throughout the twentieth century; both are used to project an image of the United States as a land of wholesomeness and abundance, and both are given synthetic hormones to increase production of meat and children, respectively. The novel investigates how this mythic portrayal of the United States is defined by its fertile, moral, “All-American” women, and its cheap, plentiful beef.
Although often-satirical in tone, the novel is too on-point to be entirely funny. In using beef as the “star” of the plot, Ozeki shows how American nationalism, the subjection of women’s bodies, the male gaze, and the medical gaze are intertwined with the mass production of American beef. The novel shows how the large-scale production and consumption of meat is far more than just symbolic of the objectification of women. Rather, My Year of Meats illustrates the ways that human and animal bodies are interconnected and endure similar—and at times overlapping—abuses.
Discussion Questions
• What are your first impressions of each of these three block quotations from the novel? What words catch your attention first? Circle them, without thinking about it too much. Compare the words you’ve chosen with a classmate. Did you circle any of the same words? Why do you think these words stand out to you?
• What personal associations do you have with any of the topics raised in these three passages? How might your personal associations influence your interpretation?
• What field(s) aside from literary studies might you conduct research in to support your interpretation?
• What explicit and implicit connections does the novel make between food and sex/sexuality? How do you feel about the connections it makes?
• What do you consider to be America’s (or your own country’s) staple food? What makes it a national staple?
• Is there such a thing as any one national cuisine? If so, how would you describe it? If not, explain.
• How might a novel such as My Year of Meats change how readers think about a topic, situation, or relationship? How might it influence their behaviour or actions?
Exercises
Food in Popular Culture
In pairs or small groups, select a food that has been featured in popular culture. List all of the times you’ve encountered that food in movies, television shows, music, etc., and describe how it was depicted. Was the food used to convey information or meaning in a non-explicit way? Were those meanings similar or conflicted? Did the food item symbolize or represent anything outside of itself? Record and share your findings with the larger group.
Close Reading Food Essay
Select a food featured in a literary text and conduct a close reading. Paying close attention to just one food item or category, consider how imagery, setting, diction, syntax, point of view, form, characterization, style, symbolism, and figurative language are used in relation to that food. Try to branch outward from your close reading to make new discoveries, with the aim of arriving at new conclusions about your chosen food and literary text.
In a 1,500-word essay, provide a sustained close reading of one food featured in an individual passage from a text you have read in full. Your analysis should answer the following questions:
• What is the food you have chosen to study within this passage?
• How is it used in this passage?
• What does the passage explicitly say?
• Is there meaning beneath or beyond the explicit message? What is (are) the implicit meaning(s)?
• How do the writer’s imagery, diction, and syntax contribute to that meaning?
• What specific examples in the passage support these observations?
• How could this food symbolize the entire work? Could this food serve as a microcosm—a little picture—of what’s taking place in the whole work? How?
• What themes running through the book are evoked explicitly and implicitly by this food?
• What questions does this food raise about the story being told?
• What conclusions can be drawn from your close reading of this food?
Additional Resources
Adams, C.J. Burger. 2018. Bloomsbury Object Lessons. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
Carruth, A. 2013. Global Appetites: American Power and the Literature of Food. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Specht, J. 2019. Red Meat Republic: A Hoof-to-Table History of How Beef Changed America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Vester, K. 2015. A Taste of Power: Food and American Identities. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
References
Alaimo, S. 2010. Bodily Natures: Science, Environment, and the Material Self. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Goldberg, J. and T. Falcone. 1999. “Effects of diethylstilbestrol on reproductive function,” Fertility and Sterility72 (1).
LeCompte, M.L. 1985. “The Hispanic Influence on the History of Rodeo, 1823-1922,” Journal of SportHistory 12 (1).
Langston, N. 2010. Toxic Bodies: Hormone Disruptors and the Legacy of DES. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Orenberg, C.L. 1981. DES: The Complete Story. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
McLuhan, M. 1967. The Medium is the Massage. Berkley, CA: Gingko Press.
1. Ozeki 1998.
2. Ozeki 1998, 15.
3. Langston 2010, 48.
4. Ozeki 1998, 125.
5. Ozeki 1998, 8.
6. Ibid.
7. McLuhan, 26.
8. Langston 2010, 55–56.
9. Orenberg 1981.
10. Ozeki 1998, 152.
11. Ibid., 156.
12. Ibid, 153.
13. Ibid, 230-231.
14. LeCompte 1985, 21.
15. Alaimo 2010, 2.
16. Ibid, 230.
17. Ibid, 208.
18. Ibid, 209.
19. Ibid, 327.
20. Ibid, 283.
21. Ibid, 252.
22. Ibid, 284.
23. Ibid, 291–92
24. Ibid, 292.
25. Ibid, 293.
26. Ibid, 153. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.52%3A_Case%3A_Meat_in_Literature.txt |
The Meat of the Matter : An introduction to the materiality of meat
Kristie O’Neill ’s research is anchored in understanding how dietary changes emerge at the intersection of trade arrangements and cultural ideals.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Explain how governments, businesses, and eaters’ food interests are aligned and in tension.
• Articulate the wide range of reactions that meat elicits from people.
• Discuss how we make meaning about who we are and how we should act through meat.
Introduction
Food researchers explain how global reductions in meat consumption will lessen environmental degradation and improve physical health.[1] Yet researchers also understand that getting people to adopt dietary recommendations is difficult. Food, like meat, is not simply a physical object that people ingest in order to meet daily survival needs.
This chapter will explore the “more than” element of meat. Scholars use the concept of materiality to illustrate that objects like meat are produced through people’s work, that they have a physical presence that people react to, and that they are used to express social relationships and identities.[2] The point here is to better understand how meat is socially embedded so that we can also understand why calls to change meat practices may feel unrealistic and even offensive.
Meat and government and business strategies
Governments’ and businesses’ concerns about food safety, profit, and animal welfare influence people’s work of raising and slaughtering livestock. For instance, Brynne explains how in British Columbia, Canada, regulatory attempts to align federal, provincial, and territorial meat inspection practices made it illegal to slaughter animals directly on farms.[3] Since adopting new slaughtering standards was costly and difficult to implement, by 2012, there were only 50 abattoirs in the province, rather than the more than 300 that existed in the early 2000s.[4] The loss of local abattoirs meant that fewer farmers were able to provide consumers with the locally farmed meat they desired. Brynne’s work illustrates that efforts to standardize meat production had the effect of favouring big businesses, which could keep up with regulations.
Moreover, businesses’ and governments’ interests diverge when it comes to animals and food. The tensions that exist among government ministries (and between ministries and businesses) garnered media attention in 2019 when Canada revised its national food guide and launched a new version. The latest edition of Canada’s Food Guide recommends that people eat more plant-based foods and lists nuts, beans, tofu, and more alongside meat, eggs, and dairy in the “protein” category. These recommendations promote human and environmental health in line with Health Canada’s mandate, yet contradict strategies that are in line with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s mandate to promote Canada’s animal-based industries.[5]
In short, the ways that meat is made available through livestock raising and slaughtering practices have changed over time. The approaches different ministries and businesses take to eating meat are not always in sync. However, government and businesses are not the only actors influencing meat supplies and eating practices. Meat itself elicits many reactions.
Meat and agency
Beyond the struggles that emerge among businesses and governments, it is also important to consider how meat calls forth reactions from people. Meat is a visceral substance, and invokes sensory responses. Sight, smell, texture, taste, and even sound are part of people’s experiences in responding to what is ‘edible’ or ‘inedible.’ The reactions meat elicits are sometimes described as indicators of the agency of things.[6] In many supermarkets, raw selections are provided to consumers on plastic-wrapped trays or are wrapped in paper, seemingly distancing consumers from the process of how that particular cut came into being. Not all markets take this approach, with some offering displays of feet, heads, roasts, and live fish (to be killed). In this regard, meat brings about reactions from disgust to desire.
What signals edibility versus inedibility changes with people’s cultures, preferences, and knowledge.[7] For instance, organ meats have “a reputation for triggering disgust and hesitation”[8] but do not do so uniformly. Foie gras is made from geese or duck liver and is a traditional delicacy for many.[9] In contrast, it also symbolizes animal cruelty to other eaters, as it is produced through force feeding. The meat-related cues that eaters react to vary based on individual understandings of what is good to eat and why. Like foie gras, the edibility of veal has been hotly debated.[10] For some eaters, veal cutlets tinged with pink (versus white) signals to eaters that the calf was not crated and is therefore acceptable to eat. For others, veal is never an acceptable option. The quality and cost of meat provide cues to eaters about the conditions of animal rearing, as do colour, texture, flavours, and even freshness.[11]
In addition to meat itself, the infrastructure around meat calls forth reactions. Where abattoirs are to be located, and how slaughtering and butchering are in view or hidden are also part of meat’s agency. For example, the location of abattoirs elicits reactions from people, as residents find themselves confronting the regular transport of animals to slaughterhouses, as well as related smells that can waft through their homes.[12] The location of abattoirs and farms also brings about questions of environmental racism, in terms of who bears the burden of closing windows to avoid smells, avoiding time outside, and the economic penalty of living in housing with depreciating value. Moreover, the outbreaks of COVID at meat-packing plants have drawn attention to the fact that industrialized slaughter and butchering work is typically done by immigrants, temporary foreign workers, and/or racialized people.[13]
Meat is thus a material object that people react to with their senses and daily living practices. Sense-based reactions and ways of living with meat are often part of people’s culture and identities. Different options offer inviting, stomach-filling, and socially enriching experiences to some, while symbolizing something revolting, inhuman, lacking in compassion, or taboo to others.
Meatas culture and identity
Meat is not just eaten to satiate hunger: what is eaten, how it is obtained, how it is prepared, and how people come together to eat it can be an integral part of people’s cultural identities. For example, hunting, trapping, and fishing activities reflect Kistiganwacheeng’s, or Garden Hill First Nation’s, deep-rooted relationship with land, animals, and people.[14] “This cultural foundation includes the knowledge of wildlife behaviours in their habitats, as well the protocols, including ceremonies, required to hunt, fish, trap, gather, and live on the land”.[15] In this regard, relationships with people, animals, and the land are meaningfully interconnected, and eating meat reflects these bonds.
The type and qualities of meat available to people in institutions and at public gatherings can also selectively invite and exclude people. In their study of the halal food market in Canada, Adekunle and Filson regularly learned from Somali-Canadian participants that having halal options readily available in supermarkets would make them feel more included.[16] Food nourishes bodies, as well as communities, and integration and inclusion matter.
People express who they are and interpret each other through eating practices, and this includes if and how people eat meat. Gender expressions are associated with meat eating. A “strong man” script associated with meat eating links consumption to aggression, strength, and virility.[17] There are multiple scripts at play at any one time, which inform how people should act in different lived contexts,[18] and gender expressions around meat intersect with sexuality, class, race, and ethnicity. When a study about vegetarians and vegans seeking sexual partners with the same eating habits made global headlines, both journalists and commenters responded rudely, with some commentators threatening sexual violence against non-meat eaters.[19] The pressure to eat meat, often illuminated when people are prompted to explain why they are not eating meat, underscores “how much attention we [in society] pay to what we’re eating—and what everyone else is eating—and how that obsession affects other aspects of our lives”.[20]
Meat eating can be a polarizing topic. Meat eaters have been vilified as cruel and savage, and non-meat eaters as militant and hyper-sensitive.[21] Contention sometimes emerges in discussions amongst “those who think meat will destroy the planet and those who believe that…livestock can heal it (and of course those who prefer not to think about the issue at all).”[22] Discussions about meat can target people’s heritage and identities in ways that may not be obvious to the critic, but are degrading to those who are targets of comments.
Conclusion
This text introduced readers to ways in which meat is an substance produced through work, work that is influenced by governments’ and businesses’ different interests. It also showed how meat is an substance that calls forth reactions from people, that people use to make value-based inferences about one another, and that can nourish us physically, culturally, spiritually. Meat is socially embedded, as our relationship with it is entangled with our political, economic, social, and cultural relationships with other people. In this regard, meat is an object of considerable complexity.
Discussion Questions
• Think of an advertisement or promotion for meat-based foods (including packaging messages). What claims are made about the food? Who is depicted (e.g., farmers, families, eaters)? How would you describe the social demographics of the people who are depicted (e.g., gender expression, ethno-racial heritage, class, sexual expression)? How would you describe their attributes (e.g., knowledgeable, trustworthy, happy)?
• When marketers transmit messages about food products, they also transmit ideals about who people are and how they should act. What can these ideals tell us about the scripts that have traction in society? Why might it be important to pay attention to script patterns in advertising?
Exercises
Looking at Daily-Protein Consumption
Have a look at the “protein” section in Canada’s Food Guide. Based on the visual display, think of what proteins you have eaten today and consider:
• What have you eaten that is represented in the Canada Food Guide?
• What have you eaten that was not represented in the Canada Food Guide?
• Why are there differences?
• How do the differences between the Guide’s dietary recommendations and your everyday eating patterns highlight the challenges involved in making and adopting recommendations?
Mapping Environmental Racism Through Slaughterhouses
In this exercise, you will adopt an environmental racism approach to examining where slaughterhouses are in your area. The aim is to begin to identify if/how neighbourhood demographics—such as race and class—are predictors of where meat-processing facilitates are located.
• Using Google Maps, find the slaughterhouse nearest to your home using the following search terms: “slaughterhouse”, “abattoir”, “meat packer”, or “meat processor”. Write down the postal code.
• Go to the 2016 Statistics Canada Census Profiles and under “Search” click on “Postal Code.” Enter the postal code of the slaughterhouse you located. You may have many additional geographic options to choose from. Try starting with “federal electoral district.”
• Have a look at the demographic information. A lot of information is provided—be prepared to scroll down the page.
• Do a keyword search for “median total income.” When you find it, write down the figure.
• There are a variety of demographics related to heritage, and they are not perfect indicators. Nonetheless, you may want to start by writing down the “total population estimate” reported, the “total visible minority population” reported, and the total who indicated “Aboriginal identity.” If you divide the number you wrote down for “total visible minority population” by the “total population estimate” and multiply by 100, and follow the same step for “Aboriginal identity,” you will be able to compare demographics later.
• Next, enter the postal code of your home. Compare demographic information based on the steps you took to examine demographics related to the nearest slaughterhouse.
Compare income and ethno-racial demographic patterns. What similarities and differences do you observe? Compare your findings with others in your course.
Additional Resource
Waldron, I.R. 2018. There’s Something in the Water: Environmental Racism in Indigenous and Black Communities. Black Point, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
References
Adekunle, B. and G. Filson. 2020. “Understanding Halal Food Market: Resolving Asymmetric Information.” Food Ethics13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41055-020-00072-7
Bakker, K. and G. Bridge. 2006. “Material Worlds? Resource Geographies and The ‘Matter of Nature’.” Progress in Human Geography30: 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132506ph588oa
Brynne, A. 2020. “The Structural Constraints on Green Meat.” In Green Meat? Sustaining Eaters, Animals, and the Planet. Ryan M. Katz-Rosene and Sarah J. Martin (eds.): 348-387. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
CBC News. 2021 Residents, Politicians “Disturbed” By New Meat-Processing Plant in Toronto Neighbourhood. CBC News.
Deckha, M. 2020. “Something to Celebrate?: Demoting Dairy in Canada’s National Food Guide.” Journal of Food Law & Policy 16.
DeSoucey, M. 2016. Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Dryden, J. and Rieger, S. 2020. Inside The Slaughterhouse. CBC News.
EAT-Lancet Commission. n.d. “Summary Report of the EAT-Lancet Commission: Healthy Diets From Sustainable Food Systems, Food Planet Health.”
Font-i-Furnols, M. and L. Guerrero. 2014. “Consumer Preference, Behavior and Perception About Meat and Meat Products: An Overview.” Meat Science 98: 361–371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.025
Kenefick, A. 2020. “The Practice of Responsible Meat Consumption.” Green Meat? Sustaining Eaters, Animals, and the Planet. Ryan M. Katz-Rosene and Sarah J. Martin (eds.): 254-285. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Mason, R. 2021. “Book Review: Green Meat? Sustaining Eaters, Animals, and The Planet.” Canadian Food Studies 8 (1): 82-84.
O’Neill, K. 2019. “From Inhumane to Enticing: Reimagining Scandalous Meat,” British Food Journal 12: 3135-3150. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-10-2018-0708
Potts, A. and J. Parry. 2010. “Vegan Sexuality: Challenging Heteronormative Masculinity through Meat-free Sex.” Feminism & Psychology 20: 53–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353509351181
Sobal, J. 2005. “Men, Meat, and Marriage: Models of Masculinity.” Food and Foodways: Explorations inthe History and Culture of Human Nourishment13: 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710590915409
Thompson, S., P. Pritty, and K. Thapa. 2020. “Eco-Carnivorism in Garden Hill First Nation.” Green Meat? Sustaining Eaters, Animals, and the Planet. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Ryan M. Katz-Rosene and Sarah J. Martin (eds.): 220–253.
Van Bemmel, A. and K. Parizeau. 2020. “Is it Food or Is it Waste? The Materiality and Relational Agency of Food Waste Across The Value Chain.” Journal of Cultural Economy 13: 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/17530350.2019.1684339
Weis, T. 2015. “Meatification and the Madness of the Doubling Narrative,” Canadian Food Studies2 (2): 296–303. https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v2i2.105
1. EAT-Lancet Commission, n.d.
2. Bakker & Bridge 2006.
3. Brynne 2020.
4. Ibid.
5. Deckha 2020, 34.
6. Van Bemmel & Parizeau 2020.
7. Font-i-Furnols & Guerrero 2014.
8. Kenefick 2020, 273.
9. De Soucey 2016.
10. O’Neill 2019.
11. Font-i-Furnols & Guerrero 2014.
12. Brynne 2020; CBC News 2021.
13. Dryden & Rieger 2020.
14. Thompson, Pritty &Thapa 2020.
15. Ibid, 228.
16. Adekunle & Filson 2020, 17.
17. Sobal 2005.
18. Ibid.
19. Potts & Parry 2010.
20. Ibid, 65.
21. Weis 2015.
22. Mason 2021. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.53%3A_Perspective%3A_Meat_and_Materiality.txt |
Meat/Dress
Edward Whittall (he/him/his) is a Learning Experience Designer based in Toronto. A former scholar of food and performance, he has published research in areas of food, art, and urban politics.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe some of the ways that food art has provoked debate, discussion, and criticism about both art and food, as well as other themes.
• Use ideas about place, time, material, and space to investigate the relationship between art and food.
• Critically reflect on conceptions of art, food, and food art.
Food as Art, Art as Food
Lady Gaga wore a meat dress to the 2010 MTV Awards. She was criticized by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and lauded by celebrity chef Fergus Henderson[1]. Was the dress art? Was it food? Was it protest, or was it waste? The answer might be yes to all of these questions. Regardless of where you land, the question of how, and even if art can be made from food and food from art deserves attention.
Another meat dress appeared in the art world in Canada in 1987. Jana Sterback’s sculpture, Vanitas: Flesh Dress for an Albino Anorectic, consisted in a dress fashioned from 20kg of raw skirt steak and hung for display in a gallery or, in photographs, modeled on the body of a live, female model. “The material becomes part of the idea,” Sterbak said[2]. Taken as a whole, wrote Jennifer McLerran, Vanitas parodies the expectation that women provide sustenance for others at the expense of their own self-nurturing; “Sterbak’s work thus becomes a form of viable resistance to patriarchal oppression”[3].
When Vanitas was mounted at the National Gallery of Canada in 1991, it was met with patriarchal resistance in the form of Felix Holtmann, a pig-farmer-turned-Conservative-Party-MP who sat as chair of the parliamentary committee overseeing funding for the Arts in Canada. Holtmann was offended on behalf of “people who hold food sacred in this land,” suggesting that the rotting of food was “an insult to the poor in tough economic times”[4]. Curator Diana Nemiroff fired back, suggesting that people were upset “not because meat is food but because meat is flesh”[5].
But steak, unlike the human flesh to which Nemiroff alludes metaphorically, is also food, even within the powerful confines of the National Gallery. Johanne Lamoureux points out that Hoffmann, though known for his “ridiculous” attacks on the arts in general, made arguments against Vanitas that should not be lightly dismissed, given his expertise in meat production and distribution. Neither disgusted by the meat, nor concerned that its use in art robbed local food banks of needed supply, he instead focused his displeasure on meat’s normal use and place: it should be on a butcher’s counter, not in a museum[6].
Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett suggests that food can only become art when it is “dissociated from eating and eating from nourishment”[7]. But if we think about a marble sculpture, would we argue that marble can only be art when it is dissociated from being a floor? Avant-garde artist Marcel Duchamp famously mounted a urinal in an art gallery, with the defense that because it was an object chosen by the artist and mounted in a gallery, it was indeed art[8]. But it also raised the question: what is art, anyhow?
Some might imagine that art should exist outside the realm of moral, political, financial, or even practical value: Art for Art’s Sake, in other words. But the cultural forces that define one thing as art and another as urinal shift over time and place. Many contemporary Western art forms invite contact—touching, smelling, tasting, hearing, and moving in and through the artwork. The centre of the art experience is now less the object of our attention, and more our bodies and selves as we engage in the aesthetic experience.
Food is always an aesthetic experience, whether it is eaten in a museum or at a sidewalk stand. In many ways, food has less become like art than art has become more like food. The debate over the meat dress brought these questions to the forefront. Where does food become art, and where does art become food? Yael Raviv describes food art as a creation that “gives the diner pause and makes her think”[9]. If the value of bringing food into the museum lies in helping us think differently about our relationship to it, perhaps, then, it also helps us question our relationship to art and, ultimately, to each other and to how and where we live together.
Epilogue: What happened to the meat dress?
The power struggle to declare the meat either art or food came to a head when a City of Ottawa medical officer, on the order of a local councillor, closed the gallery for a health inspection. “The inspection revealed no health hazard at this time,” Dr. Edward Ellis declared—dramatically, one hopes. Finding that meat on display was safe as long as it was neither touched nor eaten, the exhibit was reopened[10], and the dress was thus declared by competing institutional powers as both meat and art. It remains preserved to this day in the collection of the Minneapolis Museum of Fine Arts.
Discussion Questions
• How does the museum help make food into art? (Think about the ways the museum supports and creates the experience of art, such as lighting, display, programs with descriptions of the work.)
• How does the “butcher’s counter” or food store support or create the experience of food? (Again, think about the concrete things stores do: signage, display, lighting, descriptions.) What are the similarities to a museum? What are the differences?
Exercises
What is art when it is made with food and what is food when it is turned into art? The exercises below are designed to prompt debate and discussion.
Working with a partner or a group, tackle one of these frameworks. You can collaborate on a mind map, Google Slides, a virtual white board, or sticky notes on a wall. When each group is done, present the findings and discuss as a class.
Framework #1: The idea of “Art”
The word “art” often leads us to the word “museum.” Perhaps we think of objects like paintings, photos, and sculptures. Perhaps we think of events like performance art, or immersive installations that engulf us as we move through them. Regardless of where your experience takes you, you might recognize some differences between objects and events. Here are four areas to frame your research and discussion:
• Place: Does art only happen in a museum? Where else might you find it? What are the differences between places you find art? Here, you can think about things like admission fees, architecture, outdoors vs. indoors.
• Time: How is time part of an art experience? Has the ‘art’ already happened somewhere else? Is it happening now? Will the art be there tomorrow, or will it be gone? Is it being preserved or is it going to disappear over time? Can the ‘art’ happen again?
• Material: Is there an object? Does the ‘object’ change? Does it stay the same? Is it art if there is no object at all?
• Space: Does the ‘art’ ask you to move through space to experience it? Can you touch, smell, taste, or hear the art? Do you have to stay at a distance?
Framework #2: The idea of food
Ask the same questions about food.
• Place: Restaurants? Farmer’s markets? Museums? How do different places create different ideas of food? Is there a difference between eating ‘art’ in a museum exhibit and eating ‘food’ in the same museum’s restaurant?
• Time: What kinds of times are involved in food? Growing, harvesting, cooking, serving, eating, wasting (don’t we waste time too?). Are all these times the same? What about preserved food? ‘When’ is a pickle?
• Material: Food is a material. But what about food that you see on television? Are you consuming it the same way as you might at home? What happens to food when you cook it? Does it stay the same, or does it transform?
• Space: You eat food, serve food, buy food, and make food for yourself and others. How is space used in a restaurant? A cafeteria? A supermarket? A farmer’s market? How does space create different ideas of food?
Framework #3: Food as art
Use the internet to find examples of food art. Download pictures and use them on your discussion board.
• Place: Where is the art happening? Museum, gallery, restaurant, an open field? What does the place tell us about the art?
• Time: What is the timeframe for the art to happen? What happens to the art over time? Does it end? Does it stay around? Is the art related to harvest? To consumption? To waste?
• Material: Is the food in the room? Can you touch it? Eat it? Smell it? Is it just being watched? What happens to it? Does it change? How?
• Space: Where is the food in the space: on a table, a wall, a podium? Do people have to move through the space? Are they seated? Close to the food, far from it, or both?
References
“Flesh dress not a health threat.” 1991. The Globe and Mail. Toronto, ON. April 3.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, B. 1999.“Playing to the Senses: Food as a Performance Medium.” In Performance Research: On Cooking 4.1, Richard Gough, Ed.: 1–30.
Lamoureux, J. 2000. “Vanitas : Robe de Chair Pour Une Albinos Anorexique / Vanitas : Flesh Dress for an Albino Anorectic.” Espace Art Actuel 51 (Spring). Le Centre de diffusion 3D: 14–17.
Mann, J. 2017. “How Duchamp’s Urinal Changed Art Forever.” Artsy.net, May 9.
McLerran, J. 1998. Disciplined Subjects and Docile Bodies in the Work of Contemporary Artist Jana Sterbak. Feminist Studies 24 (3): 535–552. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178578
Raviv, Y. 2010. “Eating My Words: Talking About Food in Performance.” Invisible Culture 14: 8-31.
Rowley, S. H. 1991. “A Raw Meat Dress Stakes Its Claim As An Object of Art.” The Chicago Tribune, April 14.
Winterman, D., and J. Kelly. 2010. “Five Interpretations of Lady Gaga’s Meat Dress.” BBC News, September 14.
1. Winterman & Kelly 2010.
2. Quoted in McLerran 1998, 538.
3. McLerran 1998, 537
4. Rowley 1991.
5. Ibid.
6. Lamoureux 2000, 17.
7. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1999, 3.
8. Mann 2017.
9. Raviv 2010, 14.
10. Globe and Mail, 1991. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.54%3A_Case%3A_Food_and_Art.txt |
Animals, Plants , a nd Laboratories, Oh My! Perspectives on Sustainable Protein Transition
Ryan Katz-Rosene is an Associate Professor at the University of Ottawa, based in the School of Political Studies and affiliated with the Institute of Environment. Off campus, Ryan helps out on his family’s regenerative farm near Wakefield, Québec.
Andrew Heffernan is a PhD candidate in Political Science at the University of Ottawa. He is a commissioning editor for E-International Relations, and sits on the boards of directors for the International Studies Association – Canada, and the Environmental Studies Association of Canada.
Anil Arora holds an MSc in Environmental Sustainability from the University of Ottawa, where his research focused on the challenges and opportunities of an environmentally motivated meat tax in Canada for climate change mitigation.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Describe the diverse arrayof protein-rich foods and the wide range of existingprotein production and consumption practices.
• E xplain how the context of a specific protein food’s production profoundly shapes its environmental impact .
• Situate contemporary discourses about protein transition in relation to three core visions of a sustainable future .
Introduction
Our world is changing rapidly, and the human relationship with protein an essential macronutrient in our food is changing rapidly too. Today, if you buy beef in Europe, there is a decent chance it is from cattle raised in Brazil (or from European cattle fed soy grown in Brazil), a country with troublingly high rates of deforestation. If you p urchase almonds , chances are the nuts were grown in California, where drought is putting major strain on the water table. Order a plant-based Beyond Meat burger at a fast food joint in North America , chances are it was put together at a factory in Missouri using protein isolates from peas grown in the Canadian Prairies, where high rates of herbicide and pesticide use are degrading regional grassland ecosystem s . Just about all types of protein foods are implicated in various environmental challenges, be it climate change, land and water use, or various forms of pollution.
Protein has become the unwitting focus of a range of agri-food sustainability debates, in part because it comes in many different forms , and the contexts of its production and consumption are so varied . Whereas a century ago , most humans derived their protein from minimally processed animal, plant , and insect sources produced or gathered in (mostly) localized, traditional agricultural context s , today the situation is much more complex . T echnological innovations have enabled humans to produce proteins that are far more synthesized and processed than straight-up meat, nuts, and legumes; we now have novel products like synthesized plant-based proteins that are combined with other ingredients to look, feel , and taste like meat, as well as animal cell- cultured meats that are produced without animals at all . Moreover, i ndustrialized farms have increased the distance between food producers and consumers , which , when combined with increasing global trade flows, ha s created a truly global diet.
In recent years , a number of institutions committed to sustainable development have advocated for a global “protein transition , which generally entails a shift from diets centred on animal-sourced proteins to diets centred on plant-based proteins , or other “novel” proteins (like cell-cultured meats, insects, etc.). The proposed protein transition is not only a response to the need for a n environmentally sustainable food future , but also to the need for a range of interconnected sustainable development objectives implicated by protein production and consumption, including improving food security and tackling mal nutrition.
In some wealthy countries there has been a noted trend toward increasing protein intake (in part , as people try to steer away from processed sugars and carbohydrates). The U . S . Dietary Guidelines suggest healthy adults should consume 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of bodyweight daily , and many in the Global North now consume more than that. As part of the protein transition , therefore, some people call for reductions in protein consumption in countries where it is far above recommended intake values, with corresponding increases in parts of the world where current protein consumption is deficient.
Generally speaking, animal-sourced protein foods are more resource-intensive to produce than plant-sourced or novel proteins : they tend to require more land and water , and result in higher greenhouse gas emissions , per kilogram of protein produced . There is also growing concern and awareness about animal welfare in protein food production . M oreover, m uch of the nutrition literature suggest s that practicing plant-rich diets results in positive health outcomes. Nevertheless, as hinted above, the global protein food system is complex, muddied by different contexts underlying protein production . There are also various defi nit ions of what constitutes “efficient production” and further differen ces within socio-political and economic priorities regarding the agri- food sector . These differences are influenced by diverse culinary cultures , and even different interpretations of the nutritional value of different protein foods and their common-paired nutrients (the other vitamins , elements , and fats that are embedded in foods besides protein ) .
In other words , we see a range of perspectives and disagreements around the world about what actually constitutes a “healthy and sustainable diet , particularly when it comes to the role that protein foods ought to play . As a key example, in 2019 , the World Health Organization was compelled to withdraw its support for the well-known EAT-Lancet Commission’s Planetary Health Diet, after some national representatives to the UN argued that the plant-rich diet could negatively affect people’s health and livelihoods.
It is thus not surprising that we oftenhearcontradictory information about the future of sustainable protein.On one end of the spectrum, the livestock industry communicatesmessages about how they are maximizing efficiency and introducing new technologies that enable meat and dairyto be producedin environmentallyfriendly ways.(See this ad from Planet-Smart Dairy.)On the other end, vegetarian and vegan diets have been proposed as solutions to the current climate crisis, leadingto promises byfood tech start-ups about the marvel of cell-cultured meat, and how it will one day replace the protein we get from animalsentirely.(See this video clip from Eater.)Situated somewhere in between, many recent documentaries about regenerative agriculture speak of the potential to produce protein foods while sequestering carbonand regenerating ecosystems, inspiringconsumer interestinpasture-raised, locallysourced,and ethicallyproduced meat.(See the trailer for Kiss the Ground.)
Current Debates
The world of protein is muddied by different contexts, perceptions , and objectives. It thus becomes difficult to say whether a given protein food is necessarily good or bad , because there are so many underlying contextual factors to consider. As an example , beef and dairy are typically identified as a problem for the climate, biodiversity, food security, and health, because ruminants (the suborder of species from which we derive beef and dairy) produce a lot of methane and use up a lot of land relative to other types of food production . As well, red meat contains saturated fats , which have been associated with a higher incidence of c ardio v ascular d isease (CVD) .
Nevertheless,there are alsovarious contexts in which beef or dairy maybeunderstood asusefulin the effort to tackle climate change and biodiversity decline, improve food security, and improve health.Some forms of cattle productionfor instance,in silvopasturing and insome rational grazing operationshave been shown to have high rates of soil carbon sequestration, and may enable the sharing of food production withbiodiversity-rich land. Because ruminants eat grass, they can support food security in marginal lands thatare not conducive to crop production. And because ruminant food isrelatively nutrientdense and incorporateshigh quality complete proteins, a small quantityof itcan pack a significant nutritional punch, which can be especially helpful in areas of the world facing nutritional deficiencies. All this to say, the example of beef and dairy alone points to an underlying complexity thatmay shape a range of competing perspectives about the most idealfuture for protein, depending on what parameters are assumed for sustainability in the first place.Here we identify three starkly different visions of the future of sustainable protein.
Repairing Protein
First, t here are those who seek to repair the existing problems relating to the protein food system through a variety of approaches grounded in technology and modernization . This vision emphasizes technological solutions at the level of food production , rather than consumption based solutions seeking to chan ge individual behaviours with food . Proponents of this vision acknowledge that the conventional protein system has some sustainability challenges , but do not feel these problems are insurmountable . Instead, this group sees protein transition as incorporating the best of science and innovation to ma ke our existing socio-cultural practices around protein more sustainable. These include things like using feed additives to minimize methane emission s from livestock, developing genetically modified products for higher yield protein crops ( requiring fewer inputs ) , as well as various on- farm efficiencies and innovations to minimize the energy and resource inputs . Th ose in this camp are skeptical of the idea that a majority of the world will willingly embrace plant-based diets. Similarly, they accuse proponents of the local, organic food movement as being eco-romantics , who offer false solutions that cannot feed the world’s growing population. The best way forward, they say, is to push industrial agriculture forward, fixing those parts of the agri-food system that requir e repair , while overall benefiting from a globalized and highly modernized protein food system.
Replacing Protein
Another approach seeks to overhaul the protein system in a more comprehensive way. Rather than simply improve uponthe efficiency of protein production, those in this group advocate replacing our typical proteins sourced from animalswith various forms of plant-based proteins andnovel protein productsinstead. This includes highproteinpulses(such as lentils, beans, and peas)but also synthesizedplant-basedproductssuch as the plant-based ‘meats’noted above.Beyond these,some within this camp also support lab grown or cell-culturedmeat grown in a lab,without many of the harmful externalities produced on farmsraising livestock. Yet another approach thatmany in thiscamp support is entomophagy (insect eating) in Western countries, which is already a much more common practice in much of the rest of the world.Those in this school of thought are skeptical of the extent to which“greening” can truly be accomplished in the animal agriculture sector.They argue that a diet featuring a wide array of plant-based proteins is perfectly capable of delivering all the essential amino acids required for human development. A radical reduction in animal agriculture, they say,would free up land, which could in turn support biodiversity and massive amounts of carbon sequestration. Protein transition, then, should accordingly focus primarily on swapping out animal proteins for equivalent alternatives wherever possible.
Restoring Protein
The third main approach to the protein sustainability problem consists of “restoring” a more holistic balance between humans and the food they eat, particularly in highly industrialized countries. This camp is concerned with the growing gap between people’s plates and the sites of food production. This has led to the over-industrialization of agriculture and the unsustainable, unhealthy diets centred on overly processed, nutritionally void and culturally inappropriate foods that could come from anywhere on the planet. Restore advocates place an emphasis on maximizing biodiversity and natural resilience, and using geographically appropriate methods in food production processes. Such proponents share permacultural beliefs around the important role that animals play in biodiverse and complimentary food systems: for instance, poultry and pigs can eat food scraps or insects (helping to reduce agri-food waste and supporting natural pest management), while ruminants can help to fertilize pastures or cropland while providing nutrient-dense meat and dairy. A diet centered on an array of whole, fresh, localized foods is also interpreted as the best way to support the objectives of food security, community development, and balanced nutrition. For proponents of this vision, protein transition is about restoring production and consumption practices to ways that are inherently sustainable: buying locally and seasonally available products and using regenerative techniques that sequester soil and use animals in ways that compliment food production. (See the Future of Protein video project.) Unsurprisingly, this viewpoint is deeply skeptical of the claims made by proponents of cell-cultured meats, arguing that such lab meatsare unnatural, unnecessary, energy-intensive, and part of a push to further corporatize thefoodsector.
Discussion and Implications
While t here seems to be a concerted effort to embrace some form of protein transition within the context of sustainable development , all three pathways characterized above interpret transition in different ways . As we have shown, protein itself conjures up different relations for different people, and so the best pathway forward manifest s itself differently in different places and spaces . These competing sets of interests, desires , and contexts are further complexified by the different relationships among people around the world , based on food cultures, historical , and political economic contexts. Food is such a central part of every human’s life , and of every society and culture , that any major shifts raise difficult questions of how , why , and even whether they should be carried out .
So where do these complex challenges and choices leave us? Should we all go vegan? Or is there a benefit to keeping some animals in the food system? A re the re benefits to leaving animal foods in the global diet , given the different access to common-paired nutrients and complete, useable proteins? Estimates of the number of people worldwide who are involved in some form of pastoralism or animal husbandry range from 100 to 200 million . W hat would stopping the production and consumption of animal products mean for them? Furthermore, if we were to start eating entirely lab grown meat in place of animal-grown meat , would this mean that production would be centred evermore in the hands of a very small number of food producing corporations ?
For some, the big question is about how to achieve a nutritionally balanced and tasty vegan diet that still supports local food security. For others it is about defining culturally appropriate meanings for “plant-rich” diets. For others still it is about finding ways to make protein foods as sustainable as possible through efficiency improvements in production repairing the wheel , not reinventing it. There are yet others who focus on the need to produce food for communities in ways that are resilient and that do not degrade agricultural ecosystems, with animal proteins considered to be an essential part of the larger farm ecosystem strategy.
Overall, we find major benefits to what could be called “protein pluralitythe idea that all three of the protein pathways identified above are simultaneously progressing at once. Such a multi-headed approach may seem contradictory,but the world of protein is complex, and a diverse set of well-intentioned pathways is one way of making sure we do not put all of our proteinsustainability eggs in one basket!Moreover, a plurality of approaches to protein transition is a better fit for a world featuring an extremely diverse set of preferred practices and objectives on protein, not to mention a world featuring a diverse array of protein-rich foods in the first place.
Conclusion
It is clear that the world faces a great number of challenges in relation to the protein food system. As it stands, growing populations are demanding more food, and specifically more protein, as large numbers of people continue to exit poverty around the world. This has created a multifaceted sustainability crisis that has led to a number of proposed solutions that can be said to fall within three pathways (which we have called repair, replace, and restore). It seems at this point that the world is pursuing all three paths at once, and we see this as both a natural human response as well as a resilient approach that is most likely to achieve the variety of outcomes sought by agri-food decision-makers. It may just be possible to envision a future world in which everyone can have their protein—and eat it too.
Discussion Questions
• Which vision of a sustainable protein future (‘Repairing Protein’, ‘Replacing protein’, ‘Restoring Protein’), do you find most compelling, and why?
• With some exceptions, most experts agree that the share of animal proteins in the diets of industrialized economies is now too high, and should be reduced for global sustainability. What kinds of policies might help bring about a reduction of animal proteins, and what kinds of challenges might such policies face?
• A considerable number of people around the world are employed in animal protein food production. The FAO, for instance, notes that livestock contributes to the livelihoods of 1.7 billion poor people in developing countries. By contrast, in the U.S. there are more than half a million workers in the meat industry. If we take it as a given that we need to reduce the number of livestock animals around the world to support sustainability, what might this mean for those workers? Do we need to think about transitioning workers from the livestock sector to other sectors (i.e., retraining workers in large meat processing plants; or creating incentives and training to facilitate a switch from livestock rearing to other types of agricultural production)?
• When it becomes available in grocery stores and restaurants, would you be willing to substitute your current meat consumption with cell-cultured meat? If not, what reservations do you have?
Exercises
The Future of Protein—Small Group Discussion
Watch the Future of Protein video and, working in small groups, consider the direction(s) you see for the future of protein. Is one of the approaches discussed in this chapter more prevalent than others? Is one approach more likely to persist than the others moving forward? Is there room for all three to persist at once? How do you think these pathways will change in the coming decades?
Marketing Protein Foods—Think, Pair, Share
In recent years, food producers and restaurants have shifted their marketing strategies, recognizing that consumers have become more attentive to the broader environmental, social, and ethical consequences of their food choices. Can you recall food advertisements that used terms like ‘sustainable’, ‘grass-fed’, ‘regenerative’, or ‘free-range’ to sell their protein food products? With a partner, discuss how the use of these terms influences your attitudes towards the food products being advertised. How are your experiences/attitudes similar or different? Be prepared to share your insights with the larger group.
Tracking Daily Protein Consumption Journal
Over a week, keep a journal to track the protein-rich foods you eat, being mindful of the factors influencing your decisions and how much information you have about where and how the foods were produced. For your first entry, reflect on the types of protein-rich foods you and your family consume. What types of protein foods (i.e., animal-sourced, plant-sourced, etc.) do you consume the most/the least? What factors typically influence your choices (i.e., price, convenience, taste), both at the grocery store and at restaurants?
Each day, document all the protein-rich foods you eat and answer the following questions:
• How does your protein-rich food consumption compare with the recommended daily intake of protein (in Canada, for instance, it is recommended to consume 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight per day)?
• Did you acquire all the essential amino acids today? What about common paired nutrients (like fibre, vitamin B12, iron, zinc, fats)?
• How did your intake of protein-rich foods influence your intake of common paired nutrients?
• What factors influenced your choice of protein-rich foods today?
• Do you know where and how those protein-rich foods were produced?
At the end of the week, look back through your journal and reflect on your protein-rich food consumption patterns. Did anything surprise you?
Additional Resources
Charlebois, S. 2018. “Meat Is Not the ‘new Tobacco,’ and Shouldn’t Be Taxed.” The Conversation. Accessed July 15, 2021.
Glaros, A., E. Duncan, E. Fraser, and L. Ashton. 2020. “Insects, Seaweed and Lab-Grown Meat Could Be the Foods of the Future.” The Conversation. Accessed July 15, 2021.
Dunne, D., T. Prater and J. Goodman. 2020. “Interactive: What Is the Climate Impact of Eating Meat and Dairy?” Accessed July 15, 2021.
Hayek, M.N., H. Harwatt, W.J. Ripple, and N.D. Mueller. 2021. “The Carbon Opportunity Cost of Animal-Sourced Food Production on Land.” Nature Sustainability4 (1): 21–24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00603-4
Katz-Rosene, R. and S. Martin (eds.) 2020. Green Meat? Sustaining Animals, Eaters, and the Planet. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Milburn, J. 2020. “Is Lab-Grown Meat Good News for Animals?The Conversation. Accessed July 15, 2021.
Rowntree, J.E., P.L. Stanley, I.C.F. Maciel, M. Thorbecke, S.T. Rosenzweig, D.W. Hancock, A. Guzman, and M.R. Raven. 2020. “Ecosystem Impacts and Productive Capacity of a Multi-Species Pastured Livestock System.” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.544984
Searchinger, T., R. Waite, C. Hanson, and J. Ranganathan. 2019. “Creating a Sustainable Food Future.” World Resources Institute, July.
Willett, W., J. Rockström, B. Loken, M. Springmann, T. Lang, S. Vermeulen, T. Garnett, et al. 2019. “Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems.” The Lancet393 (10170): 447–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4
Wilson, B. 2019. “Protein Mania: The Rich World’s New Diet Obsession.The Guardian, January 4. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.55%3A_Perspective%3A_Sustainable_Protein.txt |
Can Eating Insects Save t he Planet? Investigating bugs’ place at the sustainable table
Laura Shine holds a PhD in the fields of Food Anthropology, Food Marketing, and Sensory Studies from Concordia University. Her dissertation on edible insects, From Foe to Food: Entomophagy and the adoption of edible insects, examined the arrival of bugs on Québec plates. She writes, cooks and leads the non-profit Femmes Expertes, dedicated to amplifying women’s expertise in the public sphere.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Critique sustainability claims used by some actors in the food industry.
• Articulate the risks of adopting single-focus solutions when addressing larger systemic problems.
• Explain how the material realities and symbolic representations of a food can overrun rational arguments about its benefits.
Introduction
Eat bugs, save the planet.
You’ve probably heard this catchy slogan or read something along the same lines. As North American and European eaters scramble to find more sustainable foods to fill their insatiable appetites, especially for protein, they’re considering all kinds of avenues: soy, other legumes, algae, even lab-grown meats. Some of the more daring among them are turning to critters that have long embodied the epitome of the inedible: insects.
With their small size, their fast metabolism, their high feed conversion ratio, their capacity to thrive on a variety of foods, and their adaptability, bugs have convinced some advocates they are the greener alternative to industrially raised livestock. You can stack them in boxes, feed (some of) them your table scraps, raise them in an industrial hangar or even in your closet—as local as it gets. They’re said to emit very minimal greenhouse gases and to consume a fraction of the food and water needed to raise the equivalent weight in cattle.
Sounds great, right? Maybe a little too great, in fact. There are many problems with this proposal. First, the actual benefits of eating insects are not that clear yet, and the ways in which they’re currently promoted and sold aren’t coherent with sustainability imperatives. Second, and perhaps most importantly, bugs are an extremely hard sell. Though about two billion people around the world consume them regularly and enthusiastically, most eaters in European-derived cultures consider them disgusting, dirty, and even dangerous, including many eaters from religious backgrounds. Indeed, kosher and halal laws do not endorse the consumption of some species or life stages, such as larvae. (Grasshoppers and crickets are generally considered acceptable, since they are explicitly referenced in sacred texts.) Because of these barriers, edible insects provide a rich case that illuminates the difficulties in changing food habits to incorporate more sustainable, or at least less environmentally destructive, behaviours.
In this chapter, I consider how the specific case of edible insects plays into notions of food sustainability and how the nascent related industry has integrated these assertions to promote its products. To do so, I examine the different types of products currently on offer by North American and European companies and the claims included in their marketing or labelling. I also draw on 27 interviews with stakeholders in the edible insect industry, including consumers, researchers, growers, and entrepreneurs, as well as fieldwork activities such as participant observation in industry gatherings and insect farms.
Unclear Benefits Jeopardize the Industry’s Credibility
One of the central issues with promoting insects as a solution to environmental problems is that it’s still unclear exactly how much more sustainable they are when compared to other animal protein sources. The research is still preliminary, mostly because insect farms are few and far between, their processes aren’t standardized, and most facilities are too small to draw significant conclusions about their environmental impact. It’s simply too early to accurately predict the industry’s direction as it matures and scales up. It will certainly gain in efficiency and standardization—wherein different firms use processes similar enough that they can be meaningfully measured and compared in homogenous ways. But it will potentially lose, as most industrial production has, the capacity to balance out negative externalities as they accumulate. For instance, when grown in your cupboard, mealworms can eat all kinds of carrot tops and apple peels—a boon for sustainability when you divert those from the garbage or compost bin. When grown industrially for commercial sale, however, each batch needs to be identical to previous ones for reasons of food safety and regulation, which means the insects need a steady and consistent food supply, not a haphazard waste stream. Many companies address this issue by feeding their bugs grains or chicken pellet–like granules, drastically weakening sustainability claims.
With the limited information we do have, we can ascertain that growing bugs is almost certainly better than growing cows, probably better than growing pigs, and potentially better than growing chickens. Yet this hasn’t stopped many companies from taking such restrained conclusions and turning them into fervent marketing pitches, with very little regard for the accuracy of their claims. Statements on the promotional websites of four successful companies selling insect ingredients or ready-to-eat insect products illustrate this well. They compare insects and beef in terms of water usage, one of the numerous variables utilized to calculate environmental costs. Entomo farms (Ontario, Canada) boasts ratios of one unit of water for insects for 13 in beef production; Micronutris (France), of one for 50; Chapul (United States), one for 11.8; and Näak (Quebec, Canada), a whopping one for 2000. None of these companies cite a source, and the exact units of measurement they base their comparisons on isn’t clear. Such problematic disparities undoubtedly undermine the edible insect industry’s credibility: if they can’t get their numbers right, why should we trust them to feed us a food that’s already pretty unsettling? What’s more, they distort public perception in an area already subjected to much dispute, confusion, and controversy. Beyond insects, anything that creates doubtful claims around food sustainability or resembles greenwashing runs the risk of undermining all efforts to lower the environmental impact of our foodways.
Existing Products Aren’t Compatible With Sustainability Claims
Comparing different foods’ environmental impact to decide which one is more sustainable means that, down the line, one food will be chosen instead of others. Insects are probably more sustainable than many animal products. The problem is that they’re so dissimilar to meat that positioning them as a sustainable replacement is unlikely to convince you to ditch your steak or chop. From a sensory perspective, they don’t look like meat, they don’t taste or smell like it, and their mouthfeel is completely different. From a functional point of view, they’re mostly incompatible too: unless they’re ground into a patty with other binding ingredients, they can’t be pan-fried to medium-well and sliced as a single uniform piece; they don’t bleed or exude meaty juices; and they’re a multitude of small bits rather than an imposing piece of meat you can saddle with potatoes and two veg. From a symbolic perspective, they lack the prestige and importance generally accorded to meat in European-derived cultures; in fact, they’re seen as the opposite—as revolting famine foods.
Perhaps because of this incompatibility with meat, the edible insect industry has thus far mostly developed as a purveyor of foods to add to our already brimming plates, rather than as a replacement to unsustainable items. Though companies selling insect foods compare their impact to meat’s, most of them sell products that never contained meat at all—mainly convenience or snack foods such as protein bars. Worse even, many others promote bugs as an additional source of protein, in foods such as brownie mixes, cakes, breads, or crackers. This fits in with the current popularity of protein as an additive in a number of foods that never contained significant amounts, catering to consumer demand and to marketing imperatives—even though a large proportion of North American eaters already consume close to twice the recommended daily amounts. But addding yet more protein to our crowded diets undoubtedly makes them less sustainable, not more.
In short, chewing on an insect protein bar between two carnist meals or adding cricket meal to your banana bread won’t stop global warming.
Insects Are a Tough Sell
Beyond the number crunching, a fundamental problem remains with positioning insects as a sustainable food: in European-derived cultures, almost no one wants to eat them.
Influencing food choice is an extremely complex task, and rational arguments—such as increased sustainability—just don’t work all that well. There is the theory—the top-down, logical calculation—and then the gritty, chewy, sensual practice of putting something in your mouth and swallowing it. Apart from some stringently “eco-aware” eaters, most consumers are primarily interested in the hedonic qualities of a food: Is this delicious? Do I feel good when I eat it? And no one can be expected to durably adopt a food they consider unpalatable or repulsive, no matter how environmentally conscious they are.
Yet many companies currently marketing insect products focus on abstract rational benefits rather than perceptible, measurable ones such as sensory pleasure. Most of them strive to mask the insect ingredient’s sensory properties with the use of spices, sweeteners, or strong flavourings. Näak, a Montreal-based company selling protein bars, even noticed a marked uptick in purchases once they lowered the amount of cricket flour their bars contained. Their consumers preferred the taste and texture of better-known ingredients and bought more bars, even though the environmental benefit attributable to bugs was lower. Therefore, if sustainability is a driving concern, it cannot supersede matters of taste and deliciousness; advocates need to focus on actual, perceptible benefits to the eater, not just the planet, if they want to foster real change in consumers’ plates.
There is one other thing to consider in the case of bugs. The energy, time, and money required to convince consumers to adopt more sustainable behaviours are enormous. When you add a scary critter into the equation, it becomes a herculean task, so it makes sense to critically examine whether it’s all worthwhile. Insects indisputably fare better (from a sustainability point of view) than behemoths such as cattle or lamb. But they still pale in comparison to most plant foods or even less resource-intensive, protein-rich animal foods that people already consume readily, such as eggs or small fish (in certain conditions). In such a context, it is worth asking whether all the energy mobilized to promote insects as a potential food—especially through a sustainability discourse—could not be more efficiently directed towards supporting foods that are already familiar to consumers and present less of an adoption hurdle. Legumes for instance, would be one option, if the real objective was to manage resources more efficiently and mitigate environmental destruction, rather than market a new niche product.
Conclusion
In the quest for more sustainable protein, a growing number of advocates have been touting insects as a potential solution—one that requires less feed, water, and space than conventional livestock, and which generates fewer noxious emissions. The nascent edible insect industry was quick to brandish such arguments to promote their products, even though sustainability claims were still preliminary, potentially undermining their credibility. What is more, the products currently on offer for consumers cannot conceivably replace more problematic protein such as meat; instead, they are mostly additions to our already high-impact diets, making them more onerous still. Finally, to generate true impact from a sustainability perspective, efforts to curb undesirable behaviours should be directed in the most efficient way possible, which might not tip the final balance in favour of insects.
Rather than focus on the consumer end of the food chain, advocates could investigate other creative—and less confronting—ways to integrate insects’ sustainable advantages into the food system. TriCycle (in Quebec, Canada) is experimenting with hyperlocal tailored technologies that integrate insects into sustainable ecosystems, rather than growing them as an end in themselves. The insects are valued as an end product, but other positive outcomes—such as integrated waste management and fertilizer from insect excrements—are also drivers. Producing insects as feed for animals, especially for fish and fowl, seems like another promising opportunity, one that could more directly tackle sustainability issues while bypassing consumer reluctance. Enterra Foods (in British Columbia, Canada) sells whole insects, meal, and oils for pets and livestock, replacing more resource-intensive meats without facing attitudinal barriers.
As a case study, insects illuminate the crucial necessity of examining sustainability claims in a critical light. They also show just how difficult it is to effect meaningful change in people’s dietary choices, especially when faced with a potential food that many find so repellent. Without discounting them altogether as part of sustainable food systems, it is important to critically consider the ways in which their benefits can be most efficiently mobilized, rather than to focus on developing a new lucrative niche of consumer-oriented convenience products with little demonstrable advantage.
Discussion Q uestions
• How can sustainability claims be critically examined for other foods that aim to replace animal protein, such as legumes or lab-grown meat?
• What are some of the ways in which the relevant industry markets these products, and are they coherent with sustainability claims?
• How do the material realities of these foods influence their potential adoption as a meat replacement?
Additional Resources
BBC Radio 1. 2019. Would You Eat Insects to Save the Planet? BBC.
Deroy, O., B. Reade, and C. Spence. 2015. “The Insectivore’s Dilemma, and How to Take the West Out of It.” Food Quality and Preference 44: 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.02.007
Probyn, E. 2011. “Eating Roo: Of Things That Become Food.” New Formations 74: 33–45. https://doi.org/10.3898/nEWf.74.02.2011
Shelomi, M. 2015. “Why We Still Don’t Eat Insects: Assessing Entomophagy Promotion Through a Diffusion of Innovations Framework.” Trends in Food Science and Technology45: 311–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.06.008
Van Huis, A., J. van Itterbeek, H. Klunder, E. Mertens, A. Halloran, G. Muir, and P. Vantomme. 2013. Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Wilson, B. 2019. “Protein Mania: The Rich World’s New Diet Obsession.The Guardian, January 4. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.56%3A_Perspective%3A_Eating_Insects.txt |
Mainstream Vegan’s Appropriation Problem: Close-Reading Morality in Vegan Narratives
Melissa Montanari (she/her) is a PhD candidate, Teaching Assistant, and Teaching Fellow in the Department of English and Cultural Studies at McMaster University. Her doctoral project brings together literary studies and critical food studies by attending to the workings of food in material and textual ecologies. Alongside her dissertation, Melissa enjoys writing about the complex politics of veganism and vegan health promotion in food media. She has also developed and taught a second year course on food in media and popular culture.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Identify common rhetorical strategies used to construct narratives of moral consumption.
• Trace the complex relationship between mainstream veganism and discourses of white femininity using the skill of close-reading.
• Situate analyses of food media within enduring and overlapping systems of power.
Introduction
Vegan options are more widely available than they once were in places like North America and Europe. With more vegan cookbooks, Netflix documentaries, fitness blogs, and meat alternatives in fast-food restaurants and grocery store deli sections, it would seem as though veganism has captured mainstream attention.
That said, the cultural politics and culinary roots of vegan foods are more complex than this popularity signals. For one, vegetable-based diets are much more than a trend; some branches of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism have practiced forms of ethical vegetarianism and veganism for thousands of years. In addition, vegan practices rooted in equity and anti-oppression, such as those taken up by intersectional feminists, activists, and scholars have gained traction on social media. Yet most often, voices in the food media align vegan practices of non-violence, as well as the core ingredients in plant-based protein alternatives—like fermented soy, garbanzo beans, and quinoa—to the work of white bakers, chefs, cookbook writers, recipe developers, and other personalities. In addition to erasing culinary histories, popular vegan promotion also perpetuates notions of purity and restraint. Online platforms that claim to concern themselves with topics that are “important to women,” such as Canada’s integrated media brand, Chatelaine, and Gwenyth Paltrow’s modern lifestyle brand, Goop, have ever-growing banks of vegan recipes composed by white wellness ‘experts’. These recipes are often described using morally suggestive language like “good,” “healthy,” and “cleaned-up,” implying a virtuous element to consumption, one that is deeply gendered and heavily informed by whiteness and diet culture.
In the history of mainstream vegetarianism and veganism, an appeal to morality—particularly one that prioritizes the interests and experiences of women who are white, cis, straight, slim, and able-bodied—is not new. During the Victorian era, vivisection was protested and vegetable-based diets were championed by financially and socially secure, white English women who saw certain kinds of cruelty as morally reprehensible. In demonstrating a more public expression of white femininity, early expressions of mainstream vegetarianism and veganism not only outlined the values of an emerging white middle class, but also participated in defining, on the one hand, socially acceptable forms of violence (which included violence against women of colour) and, on the other hand, unacceptable forms of violence (such as violence against animals).
One problem that continues in the promotion of veganism today is that it centers the experiences and interests of white women in defining “virtuous” eating. This definition is inflexible, as it does not account for all of the cultural, economical, ecological, and geographical complexities that inform people’s food choices. Because of the ways veganism and morality have been aligned in complicated ways, vegan food media offers a rich site to study how language shapes, reflects, and produces ideas about food and morality.
This chapter explores how the language of morality tries to place mainstream veganism within a neat politics of consumption without critically examining how it is implicated in violent systems. By examining two examples of vegan food media, I explore how the language of morality operates as a pervading rhetorical strategy that takes away from the transformative possibilities of vegan practices. I have employed the literary method of close reading to locate and problematize the language of morality in mainstream vegan narratives. Close reading requires deep and sustained attention to how words are used and what those words connote and/or evoke. By using this method, I locate a pattern in the ways in which vegan practices are communicated in popular culture examples, and explain how this pattern interacts with race and gender in the space of food.
Morality and Race
PETA, or People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, is probably the most controversial voice on veganism. Founded by Ingrid Newkirk in 1980, PETA has historically catered to white-middle class ideals and sentimentalities. On the one hand, PETA demonstrates outrage against the animal-related cultural practices of Black, Indigenous, and people of colour. On the other, they continuously appropriate vegetable-based recipes from these communities in order to promote an abundance of healthy veggie options on their website and other platforms.
In May of 2020, in the midst of the COVID pandemic, PETA held an investigation on the status of wet markets in Asia. This investigation was titled “Filthy ‘Wet Markets’ Are Still Selling Scared Animals and Rotting Flesh Despite Mounting COVID-19 Death Toll.” (The tagline on the PETA website goes on to say, “It’s bloody, filthy environments like these in which zoonotic diseases originate.”)[1] In the investigation, PETA relied heavily on racializing morality to promote veganism and posited that wet markets in Asia are a locus for disease. However, the investigation did not address the importance of wet markets in urban spaces, where access to fresh foods is limited; nor did it account for any religious, cultural, geographic, or economic variances that inform people’s food access and food decisions. After all, not everyone has equal access to food, and not everyone eats the same foods for the same reasons.
In contrast to publications like Chatelaine and Goop, which use words like “clean” and “pure” to describe vegan recipes, PETA uses words like “bloody,” “filthy,” and “rotting” to illustrate wet markets in Asia. What does this kind of language imply about the people who acquire or sell fresh food there? By excluding important context, such as the existence of wet markets in North America and Europe, PETA’s language highlights the racial biases and binaries embedded in the organization’s mainstream messaging.
Branding Veganism with Kindness and Love
In the age of social media, brands have gone online to participate in cultural activities and social movements. Language plays an important role in how brands position themselves in these spaces. Sometimes the sentiments expressed on social media are extensions of an organization’s commitments to social justice. Other times, these sentiments overemphasize a brand’s advocacy work by deploying culturally and emotionally charged words. Words like “consciousness,” “love,” and “kindness” are particularly popular in the branding of vegan businesses as they work to sell veganism as an entirely virtuous form of consumption.
This kind of morally coded language was mobilized at large after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020. At this time, many businesses flooded social media with statements about their brand’s commitment to ending racial violence. However, many did not take responsibility for their racist business practices, nor were they transparent about the steps they would take going forward. One example of how this played out in the vegan community was with two cookbook authors and vegan bakery owners. These two white women posted a response to anti-Black racism that claimed to “welcome an open dialogue of kindness, love and support” on Instagram. Shortly after the post went live, Black women spoke out, stating that their questions and criticisms of the brand were being deleted from the comment section of the post.
As the post gained more attention, the owners disabled the comments entirely, hiding the initial concerns from view. They then posted two follow-up apologies that were accompanied by graphics reading “With love” and “We are built for love,” but refused to re-open the comment section. In these posts, the owners used the business’s branding as evidence of their innocence; they claimed that their vegan business had always been a place of “love” and “inclusivity,” for people and for animals. By erasing the words of Black women, the business owners re-centered their virtue narrative, using morality and animal-rights as the anchor. Comments and articles that were posted in defence of the owners similarly evoked these ideas to cast the women as victims of an angry and mean-spirited digital mob. The concerns of Black women were transformed into a narrative about white women’s virtues.
Conclusion
Although it is deployed differently in each observation, the language of morality in mainstream vegan discourse serves to persuade readers or customers to think or feel a certain way, not only about their food, but also about the brands they support. By paying close attention to the language of mainstream veganism, one can observe how words can reinforce violent structures of power. While vegan food writing and marketing may seem inconsequential in the face of issues like starvation, institutional racism, settler colonialism, and environmental degradation, there is much to unpack in terms of how appeals to morality enable people, institutions, and businesses to deny their complicity in violent systems on the basis of their food choices. These examples point to the ways in which food practices, and the people who partake in them, are represented in cultural conversations.
As a cultural practice, veganism certainly carries transformative possibilities. From destabilizing hierarchies between human and other-than-human animals to increasing the availability and affordability of culturally specific foods in the diaspora, to reducing the environmental impact of the food system, veganism (or plant-based eating more broadly) is rich to think with. There is a lot of exciting and collaborative work happening in the space of vegan food. However, the transformative potential of these kinds of shifts are limited by the ways that mainstream veganism, as a practice and a cultural text, continues to perpetuate narratives about eating that frame some people’s diets and cultural practices as more virtuous than others. At the same time, these same narratives ignore big factors that shape people’s food choices, including geographic location, cultural and religious practices, and structural barriers within the food system. Paying close and careful attention to the narrative of mainstream veganism is one place to begin reframing conversations about food to address topics of access and equity.
Discussion Questions
• Why do you think the topic of morality plays such a critical role in conversations about veganism?
• How do food media and popular culture shape the way we talk about food? How might this reflect and/or enforce systemic barriers to food access?
• What would a more inclusive veganism look like? How can vegans not perpetuate some of the problems examined above regarding race and gender?
Additional Resources
Cooke, S. 2021. “Learning to Unlearn with Dr. Emily Contois,” May 7.
Harper, B. 2016. Sistah Vegan – Anti-oppression, food justice & veganism, January 27.
King, M.T., and W. Jia-Chen Fu. 2021. “Rumor, Chinese Diets, and COVID-19: Questions and Answers about Chinese Food and Eating Habits.” Meant to Be Eaten. Heritage Radio One. Accessed May 12.
McGregor, H. 2020. “Episode 3.17 On Veganism.” Secret Feminist Agenda, January 29.
Satterfield, S., A. Kennedy, Y. Narayanan, Y. Batista. 2020. “Episode 29 The Morality of Meat.Point of Origin, produced by Whetstone Media (podcast), November 18.
PETA. 2020 PETA Exposés and Undercover Investigations (blog). Accessed January 19, 2022.
1. PETA 2020. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.57%3A_Case%3A_Veganism_and_Morality.txt |
CATTLE AROUND
Annika Walsh is a transdisciplinary artist who was born in Chuzhou, China and adopted at 11 months of age by her family in Canada. She works with a variety of ingredients, materials, and collaborators to form her conceptual pieces. Her practice ranges from exploration of cultural identity to participatory food performances, and everything in between. Striving to blur the lines and push the boundaries, Annika makes a habit of traversing many disciplines, including sculptural installation, performance, and media.
CATTLE AROUND (Dec. 2020)
When cows are in a large open pasture, the main objective that drives their movement is to find more food. In my observations, they do not socialize much, other than when they are eating together. During the COVID pandemic, our global condition often kept us socially distant from each other. We learned to cherish the ‘physical time’ we have with each other; sharing a meal with someone has come to mean more than it used to. Food has always been a centralizing part of our human culture, not just for survival, but because of its power to facilitate socialize.
This installation connects two surrounding establishments near its site: The Ottawa Civic Hospital and the Central Experimental Farm (both in Ottawa, Ontario). My intention was to create an opportunity for human interaction that mirrors the way cows might interact in a similar, large, open field. The coldness of the glass panes read as human-made and bring aspects of the hospital—such as the blue-white light of the emergency room—into the colour scheme of the sculpture. The structure itself was inspired by food troughs that might be scattered in and around the farm. The placement of the trough in the open field echos the layout of cow pastures. Even though the image projected within the structure may not read as “food” to humans, the way people are drawn to it, and move through the site, suggest a kind of consumption that is similar to the way more-bovine mammals interact with their feed.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/food/?p=275
1.01: Creative- Poetics and Politics
Poetics and Politics
David Szanto is a teacher, consultant, and artist taking an experimental approach to gastronomy and food systems. Past projects include meal performances about urban foodscapes, immersive sensory installations, and interventions involving food, microbes, humans, and digital technology. David has taught at several universities in Canada and Europe and has written extensively on food, art, and performance.
Hot writing
Sometimes poetry can make a big impact with just a few words. A poet I once worked with called it a “hot” form of writing, meaning that each word has to do a lot—they have to be intense, loaded with meaning, and burn brightly. It also means that the poet has to do a lot, picking words that carry the right amount of heat, and then treating them carefully so that they don’t burn too much.
The first poem below was written when I was thinking about how guilty I feel when I eat an ordinary meal. “Ordinary” means that I don’t go out of my way to buy local or seasonal food, that I do succumb to styrofoam, or that I overconsume and then end up wasting something. Because even though all those things are very important to me and my planet, I. sometimes. just. can’t. The poem’s title evokes my sense of throwing up my hands and saying “oh well, tomorrow I’ll do better.”
The second poem was my attempt to streamline 10,000 years or so of food systems evolution into a quick little ditty. It’s meant to be read with an ironically arched eyebrow, acknowledging that an awful lot of stuff happened in between each of the stanzas. At the same time, when you compress time a bit, you sometimes see new patterns in past events, and then—maybe—imagine new ones for the future.
A lovely dinner nonetheless
Tawny dazzling bird
Spirals lies around my tongue
Battery chicken
Root of celery
French-drenched in creamy nap
Not very local
Shining Granny Smith
Juices glaze the hot browned crumb
Flesh reduced to mush
The Bio of Diversity
In the beginning
Elemental ev’rything
Primordial ooze
TenK BCE
Limiting controlling food
Domestication
In middle-aged Earth:
Let’s all industrialize!
Variety wanes.
Soy corn rice and wheat
Break them down to molecules—
Rebuilt with branding
Phoenix trussed and cooked
But was it our goose instead?
Blackened bio-d.
Discussion Questions
• When is saying less more important (or more effective) than saying more?
• How can we express complex ideas about food with minimal (or no) language?
• What food words, to you, are ‘hot’?
Exercises
Both of the poems above are written following a modified haiku style, a Japanese-heritage form of poetry that is written in three lines (the first with five syllables, the next with seven, and the final with five again). Word play and references to nature are often included, and the third line generally incorporates a twist that is meant to delight or surprise the reader, and make them think differently about the first two lines.
• Try writing a single haiku, about food, following this model. What is easy about it and what is hard? How did it make you think differently about your subject, and if you read it to someone else, does it make them think the same way? Do they have a different take on it that you did? Why?
You can also write compound haikus, like the ones above, to tell a more complex story or invoke structural patterns like dishes in a meal, the changing seasons and food cycles, or the different holidays you celebrate.
• Once you’ve had fun with haikus, try a longer form poem. What is different when the length changes?
• You can also tighten things up by writing a “six-word story,” a form of flash fiction that tells a lot with very little. This means coming up with only the most important combination of words, often without proper grammar or syntax, to telegraph a feeling or a narrative into the reader’s mind. Talk about “hot” writing… | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/02.58%3A_Creative%3A_Herding_Humans.txt |
Challenging Perceptions of Food Culture and Personal Identity
Kate Gardner Burt, PhD, RDN is an Associate Professor and the Undergraduate Program Director of the Dietetics, Foods, and Nutrition Program at Lehman College, City University of New York. Dr. Burt teaches courses in cultural humility and cultural foodways and in professional practice. Her research aims to reduce racial and ethnic inequities food systems and explore how systemic racial bias and the normativity of whiteness impact the dietetics profession and dietary recommendations.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Use the Dimensions of Personal Identity model to describe how personal identities are shaped .
• Explain ways in which social norms have an impact on perceptions of food .
• Examine how different ways of knowing shape food culture .
• Use self-reflection and critical analysis to examine their own relationship with food and how that relationship effects their personal identity .
Introduction
What we eat—and don’t eat—is influenced by who we are and where we live. Our individual food choices represent multiple layers of our identities, which are situated within our social and physical environment. What we eat is influenced, for example, by what foods are grown or sold in our geographic regions, by what foods our caregivers served when we were infants, and by the foods our friends and family ate while we were growing up. Our food choices are also influenced by our values, wealth, and social trends. The myriad layers of our own identities give unique meaning to food and, collectively, give rise to food culture. Therefore, understanding food culture requires an analysis of one’s own perspective to explicate personal, community, and societal values, assumptions, norms, and biases. Ultimately, to understand food culture and develop cultural humility—the ability to work effectively with individuals whose identity is different from our own—we must develop self-awareness of our own perspectives as well as an awareness of others’ perspectives.
Our perspectives are a manifestation of our upbringing, informed by our unique personal identities and experiences. Over time, they become a lens that has an impact on the way we view the world. As we grow, so too does our worldview. Our lenses are dynamic—they are shaped and reshaped as we gather information from new sources and understand information in new ways. Each individual’s lens is a synthesis of their multilayered personal identity. Personal identities are simultaneously historic and current; they are rooted in our cultural and familial pasts, but shaped by our personal and present conditions.
Our identities are developed (in part) from various sources of information that we receive consciously and subconsciously. Table 1 provides examples of different types of information received from different sources that shape personal identity.
[table id=8 /]
*Social and familial norms may be implicit or explicit categorically, or vary depending on the norm itself (e.g., some norms may be explicit while others may be implicit)
As a result, identity is shaped in ways that we are and are not aware of. We unconsciously integrate information into our worldview—what we think of as ‘the way the world works’. However, everyone’s world works differently depending on their identity. A person living in India during the early 1800s has a different worldview than a person born and raised in 21st-century Peru. When we add layers of identity to those contexts, understanding individuals’ experiences becomes more complex, because identity is intersectional (that is, identities overlap and have an impact on each other). A cis-gendered, straight male, born to a high social caste in Mumbai (then Bombay), India in the 1800s has a different identity than a transgender female born into an Andean farming family in modern-day Peru.
Those individuals’ experiences also differ because they exist in different social, political, geospatial, and historical contexts. The policies, systems, and structures operating in those contexts advantage (or privilege) some identities but not others. In other words, gender identity only matters because societies have, in general, given men more advantages than women. Deeper than that, cis-gendered men and cis-gendered women experience more privilege than their transgender peers. In contrast, other demographic identities, like eye color, face shape, handedness, and height are not used for social policy making, so they are still identities, albeit relatively innocuous ones. Ultimately, identities and the social structures in which an individual lives determine the way their world works and the information they come to know.
Epistemology is the study of knowledge— how we know what we know—and epistemological investigation helps us distinguish beliefs from opinions. As investigators, we try to be objective, but in reality, we are not unbiased observers. What we know—or what we think we know—is subject to interpretation, to our interpretation through the lens of our personal identities. We must therefore understand our personal identities in order to distinguish our perspective and how it has an impact on our perceptions. Since our knowledge of food is based on the ways we come to know things, it is up to each of us to better understand ourselves.
What is “knowing”?
What we know is influenced by our personal identities, and our identities become a lens through which we consume and process information. Information may fall into four categories[1]:
• Facts are evidence-based verifiable information, built upon objective reasoning and rooted in science.
• Opinions, or judgements based on facts, are formed in a genuine attempt to draw a conclusion from facts. It is possible to come to different conclusions using the same facts.
• Beliefs are convictions based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values. In contrast to opinions, beliefs are not necessarily fact-based.
• Prejudices are opinions based on insufficient, faulty, or biased information, and can be disproved by facts. Hidden values and assumptions are embedded in prejudices but can be revealed with critical thinking. Bias and stereotypes are forms of prejudice and can be formed consciously or unconsciously.
Information from each of these categories is used to form knowledge. For example, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are translated to the general public using MyPlate, a visual method of portioning food, promoted as the healthiest way to eat (see Figure 1).[2]
MyPlate recommendations are based on all of the aforementioned categories of knowledge:
• Facts about nutrient composition (e.g., fruits and vegetables contain valuable nutrients).
• Opinions about how to best translate epidemiological research into practice (e.g., fruits and vegetables should comprise half of one’s intake).
• Beliefs about what foods should be on the plate (e.g., dairy should be included at every meal).
• Prejudices in the form of social norms (e.g., using a Euro-centric nine-inch dinner plate is the best way to communicate this information to Americans, who are predominantly white and of European descent).
Critical thinking is therefore necessary to understand nuances leading to a seemingly fact-based conclusion: To be healthy, eat according to MyPlate.
Each way of knowing is important to understand food culture, and it is important to be able to distinguish them. It is also important to understand that each way of knowing informs food culture. For instance, staple foods are usually based on foods that are indigenous to a region (i.e., facts). Using those foods, cultures develop recipes and patterns of eating that produce a pleasant flavor and aroma (i.e., beliefs, based on sense of smell and taste), which result in some benefit (i.e., opinions, based on relationships between food and health or food cookery), and that are rooted in prejudices or biased social stereotypes (i.e., some foods or food practices are condemned while others are valued).
In order to understand the meaning and value of food, it is necessary to understand how we have built knowledge about food and meaning. We must explore our personal identities through intentional self-reflection to understand how values, assumptions, and biases impact and shape our lens and perspective.[3]
How Personal Identity Shapes Knowledge
The Dimensions of Personal Identity model (Figure 2) can be used to see ourselves or others clearly because it breaks down how facets of our identities interact to shape who we are and what we know.[4]
There are three dimensions of personal identity:
• Dimension A: visible characteristics you are born with or into, making these characteristics “fixed” or unchangeable. They include age, gender identity, sexual orientation, race, culture, language, and social class. These characteristics are the basis for developing assumptions and biases, which can lead to stereotyping and prejudice.[5]
• Dimension B: characteristics that are not always visible. They include personal attributes such as geographic location, educational attainment, marital status, parental status, employment status, hobbies or personal interests, military experience, and religion. Often, individuals exert some control or choice about characteristics in Dimension B (e.g., military service is not always a choice but it can be in some cases).
• Dimension C: the historical, social, political, and cultural context that shape individuals and societies. These characteristics shed light on how our individual or cultural experiences differ by revealing norms, assumptions, and values that influence personal identity.
The “choices” defining an individual’s Dimension B attributes depend largely on Dimension C. The “choices” an individual has only exist within a narrow range of possibilities. For instance, women did not not always have the freedom to choose to be employed; having that choice depended on the era during which they lived. In essence, Dimension B represents the “consequences” of the A and C dimensions. The choices individuals make (B Dimension) are influenced by visible characteristics of Dimension A and the historical, political, and sociocultural context of Dimension C.
To better understand how our identities overlap, intersect, and have an impact on how we are perceived and treated by others, guided group activities like the Personal[6] and Social[7] Identity Wheels or self-guided programs like the Supporting Equitable Dietetics Education Self Study[8] can be used. These toolkits are designed to make relationships between identity, power, and marginalization explicit. In essence, they assert that certain identities are more or less visible at times in a social context. These tools can also reveal how the identities that are most important to an individual may not be view as most important by society at large. Ultimately, because identities have an impact on the experiences individuals have, understanding identity is a critical aspect of understanding worldview.
How Personal Identity ShapesCultural Knowledge
Though the development of our personal identities is unique, many commonalities exist between individuals who share characteristics. Those commonalities, or collective identities, give rise to social groups. Shared collective identity through social groups, group norms, and values become the basis for cultural identity and knowledge. Though many social groups exist, groups with the most social power and status become dominant. (Often, it is the ‘majority’ group, though not always.) Dominant social groups tend to dictate cultural norms, values, and assumptions, which become interwoven into the structure of society. Ultimately, there becomes a collective perspective that dominates and dictates meaning within a culture. Members who identify with the dominant group typically benefit from the dominant group’s policies and practices, while others do not—a condition called privilege.[9] Privilege is important to understanding one’s relative position in society and how others, who don’t identify with a dominant group, may have similar life circumstances but different experiences.
When we examine social identity using this framework, we see how the dominant group dictates norms and practices. For instance, the use of cutlery, chopsticks, or eating with one’s hands differs regionally across the world, depending on the dominant group’s norms and values. Western societies use cutlery because the dominant group is white European and, historically, white Europeans believe that using cutlery is more refined.[10] With this assertion, however, we see the biased, covert ways that social power is maintained: deeming other (non-European) practices as less refined subjugates the people who follow those practices. Understanding collective identity and dominant group norms is thus important to understanding the meaning of food.
Critical analysis is used to understand individual and social phenomena. This section includes three questions that serve as examples of how to apply critical thinking to understanding the meaning of food.
1. How have some cuisines become known as ‘ethnic’ and others are known as ‘expensive’?
What the average U.S. adult is willing to pay for a particular food item is not objectively calculated. If it were, the cost of ingredients and labor would directly correlate with the price of food. Instead, the price of food—particularly restaurant food—is based on something entirely subjective.
The amount of money one is willing to pay for food is directly related to the perception of the culture producing that food.[11] ‘Expensive’ food—or food that people are willing to pay a high price for—is generally produced by cultural groups that are highly regarded by U.S. adults. In contrast, ‘ethnic’ food is often attributed to cultures’ whose prestige or reputation is not as well regarded. The dominant group of U.S. adults, who are white and of European descent, have constructed a social hierarchy based on beliefs and prejudices about others.
For instance, Chinese food is often deemed ‘ethnic’, whereas Italian food is considered expensive and elegant. Yet, both cuisines have dishes based on noodles, with a sauce, and chopped or minced ingredients. They are, on paper, very similar. The price difference between the foods is based on how each culture is perceived. Italian immigrants, once targets of discrimination, gained social capital and respect in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[12] In contrast, Chinese immigrants were subject to an overtly racist immigration ban (the Chinese Exclusion Act) and other forms of stereotyping and discrimination.[13] The dominant group of white U.S. adults perceived Italians to be of greater social rank, leading to a willingness to pay more for food that was perceived to be better.
2. What criteria are used to determine if a dish is “authentic”?
Whether or not a recipe or dish is culturally authentic is more commonly determined by consumers than it is by members of the culture the dish represents. Perceived authenticity is subjective and often an oversimplification of complex cultural underpinnings. Some might consider a dish authentic if it is based on indigenous ingredients and prepared in a way that has been done for many generations. Others might consider a dish authentic if it is frequently consumed in a particular place. These limited definitions fail to capture cultural nuances. The exact ingredients used, the preparation method, the proportion of different ingredients all vary across regions and even within neighborhoods.
Dominant group thinking defines what we know as authentic. The social context includes stereotypes and perceptions of other cultures, and it also includes other influences, like food marketing through gastrodiplomacy. Gastrodiplomacy is a coordinated effort by a nation to use food to promote their culture.[14] As a result, gastrodiplomacy campaigns communicate cultural attributes and values. Thailand, for instance, developed a cultural diplomacy program with a marketing strategy that requires overseas restaurants to be open for at least five days per week for a year, accept credit cards, have at least six Thai dishes on the menu, employ Thai chefs with Thai cooking training, and use materials and equipment from Thailand. It is clear that a goal of the Thai gastrodiplomacy program is to ensure that Thai restaurants abroad communicate similarities about Thai food to consumers. Dishes in restaurants represent only a sliver of authentic Thai cuisine: it is the cuisine that trained chefs prepare, whereas many other authentic examples are prepared in private households. There is not one single version of authentic pad Thai, despite what the gastrodiplomacy program communicates.
3. How does the socio-political environment have an impact on our perceived value of foods?
The perception of foods from specific cultures are not free from the dominant group’s economic and political values. The use of food labels, for example, including how or why a particular food is labeled, varies across nations. In the U.S., food labeling about origin is based on capitalistic notions of ownership through the use of trademarks.[15] In other words, the name of a regional food is attributable and reserved only for the trademark owner; it does not indicate quality. Trademarks are restrictive and relatively expensive for small farmers, serving to carve out rights for businesses and restrict the market. An example of a trademarked name is “Idaho Potatoes.”[16] An Idaho grower using a label that indicates that their potatoes are Idaho Potatoes, but who is not certified by the Idaho Potato Commission, may be subject to a lawsuit.
Geographic indication labels, common in Europe, are based on different values and qualities, such as terroir. Terroir is generally understood as the set of local attributes (including soil chemistry, climate, other environmental factors, and human practice) that impart a distinct set of flavors to the food produced in a given region. It is an indicator of quality, taste, and other desirable attributes. A geographic indication label is not owned by any person or entity, and in can be used by anyone in the region to which it applies, provided they follow certain practices and are certified by regulatory agencies.
While consumers may be unaware of what a given label means, the value of a food product may be related to its commodification (for some people) or cultural pride (for others). Clarifying these differences and understanding how such values are embedded in food culture helps us understand the meaning of foods in various contexts and settings.
Conclusion
In order to understand the meaning of food, we need to understand our own lens—our personal, community, and societal values, assumptions, norms, and biases. Understanding that lens through critical analysis can enhance self-awareness and reflectively examine what is embedded in our own meanings of food. Conducting a self-analysis through the Dimensions of Personal Identity Model or other tools can be helpful in developing an understanding of our individual identity and values, how we are each shaped into the people we are, and our relative position in society (e.g., the degree to which we experience privilege or marginalization). It is important to understand our own biases, through critical reflection or implict bias assessments (many of which are freely available online).
Assessing our own identities and biases can help facilitate an understanding of other cultures’ food because it helps differentiate among facts, beliefs, opinions, and prejudices. Understanding others’ food culture from their perspective, rather than our own, not only helps in understanding the meaning of food for others, it makes each person more culturally humble and able to authentically engage in the world.
Discussion Questions
• Consider the Dimensions of Personal Identity model again. How does your identity shape the meaning of food for you ?
• When a dominant social group dictates what “authentic food” looks like in another culture, what are the potential impacts and on whom?
• What is the relationship between cultural humility and empathy? Is either (or are both) required to understand diverse food cultures?
Additional Resources
References
Arredondo, P. 2018. “Dimensions of Personal Identity in the Workplace.” Arredondo Advisory Group (blog), November 7, 2018.
Arredondo, P., R. Toporek, S.P. Brown, J. Sanchez, D.C. Locke, J. Sanchez, and H. Stadler. 1996. “Operationalization of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development24, (1): 42–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.1996.tb00288.x.
Burt, K.G. 2020. A Primer on Privilege in Dietetics and Nutrition. EatRightProTV: FNCE 2020 Learning Lounge. Chicago, IL: The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics.
Burt, K.G. 2022. “The Whiteness of the Mediterranean Diet: A Historical, Sociopolitical, and Dietary Analysis Using Critical Race Theory.” Journal of Critical Dietetics.
Epistemology.” 2021. In Oxford University Press.
Fowler, H.R., and J.E. Aaron. 2011. The Little, Brown Handbook. 12th ed. Boston: Pearson
Goldsmith, S. 2012. “The Rise of the Fork.” Slate, June 20, 2012.
Hodge, D.R. 2018. “Spiritual Competence: What It Is, Why It Is Necessary, and How to Develop It.” Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work 27 (2): 124–39.
Idaho Potato Commission.” Accessed January 25, 2021.
Josling, T. 2006. “The War on Terroir: Geographical Indications as a Transatlantic Trade Conflict.” Journal of Agricultural Economics 57 (3): 337–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2006.00075.x.
MyPlate | U.S. Department of Agriculture.” Accessed May 6, 2021.
University of Michigan. 2021 “Personal Identity Wheel – Inclusive Teaching.
Ray, Krishnendu. 2016. The Ethnic Restaurateur. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic.
Rude, Emelyn. 2016. “A Very Brief History of Chinese Food in America.Time Magazine, February 8, 2016.
University of Michigan. 2021. “Social Identity Wheel – Inclusive Teaching.”
Supporting Equitable Dietetics Education Self Study.” 2021. Diversify Dietetics.
Yeager, K.A., and S. Bauer-Wu. 2013. “Cultural Humility: Essential Foundation for Clinical Researchers.” Applied Nursing Research26 (4): 251–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2013.06.008.
Zhang, J. 2015. “The Foods of the Worlds: Mapping and Comparing Contemporary Gastrodiplomacy Campaigns.” International Journal of Communication9: 568–91.
1. Fowler & Aaron 2011.
2. MyPlate | U.S. Department of Agriculture 2021.
3. Arredondo et al. 1996; Yeager & Bauer-Wu 2013; Hodge 2018.
4. Arredondo et al. 1996.
5. Arredondo 2018.
6. Personal Identity Wheel – Inclusive Teaching 2021.
7. Social Identity Wheel – Inclusive Teaching 2021.
8. Supporting Equitable Dietetics Education Self Study 2021.
9. Burt 2020; Goldsmith 2012.
10. Goldsmith 2012.
11. Ray 2016.
12. Burt n.d.
13. Rude 2016.
14. Zhang 2015.
15. Josling 2006.
16. Idaho Potato Commission 2021. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/1.02%3A_Perspective-_Food_and_Identity.txt |
Does Eating Natto Make One Japanese?
Maya Hey is a researcher, writer, and educator working at the intersection of food, feminist thought, and fermentation practices. She holds degrees in nutrition, gastronomy, and communication studies alongside work experience that spans farms, markets, kitchens, and chemistry labs.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Name an example of a food identity and explain how one comes to embody it.
• Compare the internal and external processes of identifying with a food practice.
• Consider and critique at least one aspect of the (sometimes problematic) relationship between race/ethnicity/culture and authenticity, with regards to food.
Introduction
Natto is a fermented food made with soybeans. Originating in Japan, it is often served as a topping to rice. Natto is one of the many ways that Japanese food culture preserves soybeans—an important source of protein—through the process of fermentation. Historically, fermenting soybeans ensured that people had access to vital nutrients long after the bean was harvested, producing such products as miso or shoyu (better known as soy sauce in the West). Unlike miso and shoyu, however, natto takes a shorter time to ferment (two to four days versus several months). Part of this difference is due to the fact that natto is fermented with a bacterial species called Bacillus subtilis, whereas the other soy-based ferments tend to use fungi (of the Aspergillus and Rhizopus species). Originally, the bacteria that transform natto came from dried rice stalks when farmers would try to preserve the bean, although nowadays the commonplace nature of natto in Japan means that most of it is mass produced in styrofoam packets.
You might be thinking at this point, why is it that miso and shoyu are fairly internationalized while natto remains less known? Natto is unique in its texture and is often regarded with a mixture of fascination and disgust. On the one hand, natto is hailed as a superfood and probiotic due to its health benefits, helping to combat conditions such as neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s), cardiovascular diseases (e.g., hypertension, stroke), and intestinal distress (e.g., colitis, irritable bowel syndrome). On the other hand, natto looks stringy and has a slippery feel on the tongue, which tends to be a rare experience for eaters (aside from eating vegetables like okra and molokhia). As with other novel experiences, what remains unknown or unfamiliar to the eater may simply be written off as ‘weird’ or ‘suspect’.
What is peculiar about natto is that some folks in Japan do not enjoy its flavor, either. That is, natto is not universally loved by the Japanese people, yet it can be used as one of many yardsticks to measure someone’s Japanese identity. Like many food identities, the repeated acts of consuming a food can bolster a person’s sense of self: I am who I am because I/we eat this food. Or, on a collective scale: We are the people who eat thesefoods; they are the people who eat thosefoods. What we eat (or don’t eat) can define who we are, but more than that, the practices we regularly perform with those foods can inform our food identities.
Of course, this is not unique to Japan or to natto. Many foods can define individual values and collective belief systems, whether in vegan diets, Kosher dietary laws, or national dishes. Identities, especially food identities, are not fixed because they are subject to contextual differences that change the ways that food identities are practiced. Food practices, in all places, with all sorts of foods, can both create and undermine identity.
As a person of Japanese heritage, I recognize that eating is part of a whole host of identity performances informing who I am. Of all of the things I eat that connote my Japanese-ness, I am particularly drawn to how natto leverages identity: to what extent does natto connote Japanese-ness as a food or even connote Japanese-ness in food identities? The answers are not straightforward, partly because Japanese-ness is negotiated by a mixture of forces happening at the same time, some culturally rooted, some socially situated, others purely happenstance. I focus on natto because, as a ferment, it emerged out of necessity (i.e., food security), but as a contemporary food choice—and one that isn’t celebrated universally—it is an anomaly worth exploring, to analyze the socio-cultural dynamics that it brings out. These practices include choosing natto (over other foods), preparing it, and consuming it.
Grounded Observation
In this text, I examine the ways in which consuming foods like natto can inform one’s sense of self or subjectivity. Rather than generalize the current state of natto consumption, my approach to this chapter is based on a sample of one, myself. To accomplish this, I use some of the tools used in autoethnography because these methods allow me to study how and why natto gathers meaning on personal and societal scales. By keeping my observations grounded in the specific details that make up my lived experience, I can make claims without committing the error of speaking on behalf of others, or of reducing “natto” or “Japanese-ness” to a set of criteria. Importantly, a subjective approach sees knowledge as always being partial—both in terms of being part of a whole as well as being partial to (or inherently biased towards) something. In this way, my observations are seen as a truth, instead of the universal truth. As many feminist thinkers argue, accounting for this partiality is critical to demonstrate how subjective knowledge is not lesser than objective knowledge, but is rather an attempt to convey (one type of) reality. I also draw on interviews and fieldwork during a multi-sited ethnography of fermented foods in Japan.
The Slippery Materiality of Natto
Like many other food cultures, Japan boasts a legacy of fermented foods (besides the aforementioned miso, shoyu, and natto, there are a variety of pickles, sakes, and garums). Thus, fermentation is part of the cultural identity of Japan, making ferments like natto a unique opportunity to study how its preparation and consumption give meaning to the people who handle them.
Think about the fermented foods you might encounter: bread, kimchi, sauerkraut, wine, cheese, and yogurt. Most of these are acidic—as in sourdough bread, sauerkraut, fermented dairy from soured milk—because of the acid-producing bacteria that ferment them. The acid adds complexity in taste while also helping to preserve the fermented ingredient (e.g., most cheeses can last longer than a glass of milk). This is where natto differs, because it undergoes an alkaline fermentation process. Alkaline processes are the opposite of acidic ones, and many proteins and seeds in Asia and Africa are preserved in this manner (e.g., fresh poultry eggs are fermented into pidan, or “century eggs”). In alkaline fermentation, proteins are broken down into units of amino acids. And while this often leads to intense, unctuous flavors (umami), when left to ferment for too long, the broken chain of amino acids produce ammonia and can give off a putrid smell.
So even before one handles natto, the scent of it is already wafting through the air, usually in the form of a bleach-like or pungent odor (similar to old bloomy-rind cheeses, like Brie or Camembert). Some people mitigate the smell by adding other flavors to natto including alliums (e.g., green onions), seasonings (e.g., more shoyu), or other vegetables and herbs (e.g., radish, mitsuba). Others avoid natto entirely.
Another material reality of natto is its stringy texture, which some people characterize as sticky, gooey, and slimy. This stringiness is also an effect of the fermentation process, in which bacteria breakdown the soybeans to produce thin wisps of polyglutamic acid that have the weight and feel of a single strand of cotton candy or a spider’s web. (It is in these strings that the bioactive compound, nattokinase, is located, which is known to improve one’s heart health.) In fact, the act of stirring vigorously encourages the polyglutamic acid to come to room temperature and release glutamates, which help produce the sensation of umami or savory tastes in the human tongue.
Stirring the natto makes it easier to eat as well. Natto often comes in a square styrofoam container, similar in size to a deck of cards. The top opens up like a scanner lid, and on top of the natto beans lies a plastic liner with two sauce packets (one shoyu-based, one mustard). A common ritual for natto eaters like me is to carefully peel back the plastic liner so as not to take any of the beans with it. After adding one or both of the sauce packets, I grab a set of chopsticks in one hand, and with a firm grip, whir my hands around in a circle so that the natto strings start to wrap around itself. Since individual beans might be difficult to grasp with chopsticks, the stirring encourages the natto beans to clump together, making it easier to eat in bite-size portions.
Can You Stomach it? Gauging Authenticity and Foreignness
The mucilaginous texture of natto—and one’s ability to tolerate or enjoy it—grants a person membership inside Japanese culture, or so the belief goes, because it is considered to have a taste and texture that only a Japanese individual could enjoy. Here, I turn to my own experiences of eating natto as a Japanese hafu, a Japanese term used to describe half-Japanese people.
When I was growing up in Japan, I was often asked if I preferred bread or rice for breakfast, which, even in my young age, I knew was an indirect question about whether I identified more as Japanese (native) or Western (foreigner). In the context of late 20th-century modernization, bread at breakfast came to symbolize how Japan engaged with global food practices, and the rest of the Western world. When I would indicate my preference for rice, I would often be met with the follow-up question regarding my thoughts on natto—that is, whether or not I could stomach it. Because I had been eating it since my childhood, I considered it an ordinary rice topping, analogous to butter on bread. The reaction to my response was always one of approval and assurance, as if I had passed an unspoken test.
As I would eat the natto, I would twirl my chopsticks after each bite so as to cut off the stringiness of the natto beans. Seeing this, other Japanese would see this as a sign that I was in-the-know: I knew how to handle natto. To this Japanese audience, eating natto validated my Japanese identity.
How (Japanese) authenticity gets monitored and enforced can have consequences that range from solidarity to sinister gatekeeping, and much of it has to do with how we imagine degrees of cultural or ethnic identity. That I am part Japanese means that my identity fluctuates depending on the context. In Japan, I am often seen for my half-ness, which, by definition, means that I could never be whole or fully Japanese, so I am rendered an outsider—at least until practices like natto-eating grant me an exception. This follows a nationalistic rhetoric of always being ‘not enough’ to be let into a dominant culture, something that many mixed-race and multi-ethnic people experience. In a Western context, however, I am often seen only for my Japanese identity, and called upon to speak on behalf of “my people” as if I were their representative (e.g., “tell us why your people eat that slimy stuff”). This manifests into tokenism, exoticism, or being ‘good enough’ to conveniently use a person’s identity as the whole, usually for questionable purposes like racial profiling or commercial marketing. Context certainly matters, but perhaps more important than what I am in each setting is the fact that I consider my identity to be fluid, depending on place-based context and, to the extent that these places allow, the values that I practice.
These practices include what I eat and how. I enjoy natto both as a nostalgic taste and as a health food, but it is part of a greater constellation of other practices: how I slurp my noodles, how I bring a teacup to my lips, how I begin and end each meal with gratitude—some of which can be coded as ‘Japanese’ practices, some not. Alongside these food practices are others that one can also embody: language, dress, manners, and more. I choose to continue this range of practices because they ground me in a past that I share with my relatives and ancestors. By making a ritual out of these practices, I can continue to uphold these values as long as I carry these practices in my body and pass them on to generations after me.
Conclusion: How Embodiment Informs Food Identities
How we embody a food can define us in both literal and figurative ways. Embodiment refers to the process of incorporating things into one’s body, including foods and their practices. To embody a food means to ingest its molecules, which then become the building blocks of our physical being (e.g., soy proteins, nattokinase). Yet we embody the practices that accompany the food as well, especially as they help form a cultural identity with repetition (e.g., twirling chopsticks to cut off the stringiness of natto). For natto in particular, the materiality requires a different set practices compared to other fermented soybeans like miso and shoyu, slotting natto and its practices as a distinct food and ritual in Japan.
How we embody foods and their practices can lead to a sense of belonging to (or being foreign to) a given food culture. The sense of self that comes with eating natto is sometimes internally defined (e.g., I eat this because it reminds me of my family) or externally imposed (e.g., I won’t eat this because people will think I am different). Given the fact that other food cultures also have alkaline ferments (e.g., cheonggukjang in Korea, thua nao in Thailand, dawa dawa in Nigeria), I wonder to what extent these places also use the embodiment of these foods as part of reinforcing a racial, ethnic, or national identity.
Eating natto may not inherently make one Japanese, not in the sense that it can confer citizenship or fulfill a checklist to becoming Japanese. Instead, natto distinguishes itself as a ferment (even in Japan) such that one’s ability to prepare it, eat it, and enjoy it reinforces its singularity—a uniqueness that can be selectively called upon to include and exclude those who handle it. So whether natto is or isn’t a Japanese food is secondary to the fact that some people use it to make sense of Japanese-ness in an increasingly globalized world.
At the same time, ‘Japanese-ness’ cannot be flattened into one experience—not by natto or any other foodstuff we call Japanese. While I am mostly writing from my own experience in Japan, it is also worth noting how Japanese-American, Japanese-Canadian, and Japanese-Brazilians cannot be collapsed into a singular Japanese category because they neither share the same histories nor were subject to the same political forces around migration, internment, and land ownership. A similar caution goes for nuancing the phrase “of Japanese descent,” in that people who identify as nisei, sansei, and yonsei (terms for second-, third-, and fourth-generation, respectively) experience Japanese-ness differently, usually along the lines of language affordances, cultural adaptations, or lost connections from uprooted homes. Again, identities are not fixed. It is from repeating practices that meaningful identities can form and inform who we are.
Repeatedly practicing the nuanced rituals associated with natto thus make up my layered process of identifying with Japanese food culture. To think that I am who I am because I eat this food works only if we dig deeper into how the Self comes to understand itself. Philosophers call this subjectivity, and it is perpetually shaped and reshaped by how we engage with the world around us as we try to make sense of it. This is why philosophers often write of subjectivity as being produced, because it is an active process of the Self becoming an individual.
To embody something, be it food or an identity, connects the physical with the figurative. Eating ferments like natto is just as much a social and cultural way of being as it is a political encapsulation of embodied difference. Natto can be a slimy food known by its stench and stringiness that prejudice can write off as being unsophisticated or gross, while at the same time, it can be a nostalgic or culture-specific food that eaters celebrate as a kind of belonging. What matters is that these processes are always and already ongoing, affected by and affecting how we make sense of the world around us. And, even as we do so, we are making sense of who we are as we exist in this world.
Discussion Q uestions
• How does embodying certain foods define one’s identity? Name and explain a few examples of the food you embody and the meaning it provides to your identity.
• Consider the difference between self-identification and external labels in food identity. Who has the ability to define themself? Who decides what is a food identity and how is it enforced?
• Many foods and identities are essentialized (reduced to a single aspect). What makes this a problematic way of thinking? What would be a more respectful approach to understanding differences in foods/identities?
• This text relies on aspects of storytelling to present subjective experience. What is the role of personal narrative as the basis for how we come to know what we know?
Additional Resources
Fischler, C. 1988. “Food, Self, and Identity.” Social Science Information 27 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/053901888027002005
Heldke, L. 2003. Exotic Appetites: Ruminations of a Food Adventurer. New York: Routledge.
Ikebuchi, S., & Ketchell, T. 2020. “It is food that calls us home: A multigenerational auto-ethnography of Japanese Canadian food and culture.” BC Studies, (207), 11–33. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/1.03%3A_Case-_Japanese_Food_Identity.txt |
Through Their Eyes
Lynn M. Walters, PhD, Licensed Nutritionist (NM), is the founder of Cooking with Kids, Inc., a non-profit organization that educates and empowers children and families to make healthy food choices through hands-on learning with fresh, affordable foods from diverse cultures. She is co-editor of Food as Communication: Communication as Food, author of Cooking at the Natural Cafe in Santa Fe, and co-author of The Cooking with Kids Cookbook. She is interested in how the practices of growing food and cooking can support health equity and encourage positive behavior change at the individual, family, and community levels.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this photo essay, students should be able to:
• Articulate a number of perspectives perceived by high school students on the influences on their food practices.
• Identify how food systems can help produce (and threaten) social equity.
• Describe the use of visual research methods in food studies.
Insights from a New Mexico Classroom on Factors that Influence Food Practices
In light of significant changes in food practices that began in the mid-twentieth century, many of which have led to unhealthy dietary patterns that have contributed to increased prevalence of overweight and correlated chronic diseases, it is important to understand factors that influence the ways young people eat. Increasing understanding about how family, culture, and cooking influence dietary habits can inform health communication and nutrition education interventions, as well as spur public policy strategies that promote healthy eating behavior.
New Mexico is a land of contrasts, with big skies, high mountains, sweeping deserts, and a deep and rich cultural history. Native Americans have lived in New Mexico for thousands of years. The Spanish colonized New Mexico in 1598, but it was not until 1912 that it became the 47th U.S. state. Hispanic/Latinx, Anglo, and Native American cultures are the three major population groups, with the largest percentage per capita of Hispanic/Latinx and the second largest percentage per capita of Native Americans. Hispanic/Latinx in New Mexico are in themselves a diverse group, including those of Spanish heritage, along with Mexican and Central and South American immigrants. It is estimated that about one-third of residents speak Spanish. New Mexico is known for its Native American and Spanish Colonial art, and artists from across the world have long been drawn to the light and landscape. The state also consistently ranks at or near the bottom of the educational and economic ladders in the U.S., and has a high degree of food insecurity.
The foodways of New Mexico reflect the varied geography and climatic conditions of the state, as well as the deep agricultural traditions and cultural diversity of its peoples. Chile, corn, beans, squash, and piñon nuts all originated in the Americas. They are important food crops in New Mexico, and the basis for many traditional dishes. New Mexican cuisine is famous for its chile, grown in New Mexico for at least four hundred years. Chile develops its spicy and sweet flavors in the hot summer fields. The state question, “Red or Green?” refers to red or green chile.
This photo essay is the outcome of qualitative research conducted as a dissertation project at the University of New Mexico.[1] It presents the first-person perspectives and insights of 14 eleventh-grade New Mexico high school students on the influences on their food practices.[2] Students visually documented their food practices for five days, wrote a photo-elicitation essay, compared food memories with daily food practices, and participated in focus groups and follow-up interviews.[3]
CUltural Heritage of FAMILY
Family and culture are inextricably intertwined, and cultural traditions are enacted, preserved, and evolve through family food practices. All of the students in the project expressed strong attachment to and valuing of the cultural culinary heritage of their families. Among students with close ties to Mexico, and those whose families have lived in New Mexico for generations, whether of Spanish and/or Native American heritage, it was more common to find a particularly strong view of the connection between culture and family than among the Anglo student participants.
The following photographs (see Figures 1 to 10) provide a glimpse into cultural practices enacted through family food traditions. The images primarily depict food traditions from Northern New Mexico and Mexico (the cultures of the majority of student participants), and are interspersed with Native American food traditions and others.
What foods do you associate with your family traditions?
“When I was growing up, my Nana would make a soup from acorn. She would pick acorns, grind them up, and pick the shells out. This process took the longest. Once she had the corn base taken care of, she then would make dumplings. All together the stew would consist of dumplings, “stew meat,” and the acorns. The soup has a very bitter taste. It’s something I had to get used to, just like coffee. Whenever I think of the soup, it reminds me of my Nana.” [Shasta (FNA)]
Gender Roles
Food practices were often gendered in the student narratives. Enactment of traditional gender roles, with women primarily responsible for household food, and men valued as professional chefs or in charge of the grill, was the norm in the majority of students’ families (see Figures 11 to 15).
What role does gender play in who cooks in your family?
“My brother and my dad—they don’t touch the kitchen—they think cooking is too complicated. My dad can’t even warm up a tortilla.” [Candelaria (FHM)]
Where Food Comes From
Congruent with the current food landscape, most students’ families primarily purchased food from grocery stores and restaurants, including fast food outlets. Some also shopped at farmers’ markets and natural grocers. Many of the students expressed an awareness of where food comes from, and that they valued the knowledge and expertise needed to grow food. Farming and/or gardening was part of family and cultural practices for almost half of the students, but it was generally not a major current food source (see Figures 16 to 20).
Do you know where the food came from that you ate for lunch today?
“I kind of bonded with the cow a little bit and so I was a little sad to see him get
shot in the head….You have to kill it, then you have to clean it, then you have to cut everything up, then you have to dry it so it’s not all bloody. And you have to make sure that the dogs don’t get it. I think I’m a bit traumatized because I wash the organs and I feel their warmth; I can’t bring myself to eat it.” [Shasta (FNA)]
“My grandpa has three pieces of land (tierras), or we call it in Mexico, el llano. He
grows beans, he grows sorghum for his cattle, and he grows corn. Lately, these past years there hasn’t been much rain in Mexico. He grows a little bit of beans to eat and a little bit to sell.” [Vicente (MHM)]
Friction Between Cultural Traditions and Daily Food Practices
Most of the students articulated their awareness of the friction between traditional and daily food practices. Although all of the students were cognizant of this issue, the Hispanic/Latinx and Native American students described these contradictions most vividly (see Figures 21 and 22).
How do you decide what to eat each day?
“Today’s food revolves around convenience, where food as a child was always something that we could all take our time with.” [(Franco (MHN)] “At home my parents [are the influence] because they cook…[if] we don’t like the food in the cafeteria, what should we eat? McDonalds or this place or that place.” [Santiago (MHM1)]
Commercial Influence
Commercial influence, especially the rise of corporate control of the global food system, has been cited as a central cause of overweight and correlated chronic disease (see Figures 23 to 27).
Many traditional dishes include beans, grains, meats, and vegetables, all of which contain vital nutrients that contribute to a healthy diet. Where do you think messages come from that imply that traditional foods are not healthy?
“At my friends’ house I could resort to eating junk.” [John (MA)] “When I’m with my friends we’re usually more tempted to go out and get something… When you cook you have to wash dishes.” [Shasta (FNA)]
Food Security/Food Insecurity and Sharing
Hunger and food insecurity are prevalent in the lives of many students in New Mexico. When several students candidly discussed the lack of food access that their families faced, none of the other students appeared surprised. Despite this, sharing food with extended family and neighbors is a common practice (see Figures 28 to 30).
Have you or your friends or family ever gone to bed hungry?
Several students reported that sometimes there was limited food available. John (MA) explained, “Our food stamps were shut down the past month, and so I have just been eating…less and less; school lunch has been my main meal. We had some dried beans, but I didn’t want to bother with [them]. I have been eating very little, but it seems like I always have enough to eat to get by.” Isabella (FHM) said, “Obviously we’re not broke because we still have our house, but it’s like the deadline of our budget, and she [mom] says, ‘We’re having ramen tonight.’ That’s when you know we’re at our limit.”
Food Practicesand Health
Although multiple factors have an impact on a healthy diet—food access, food preferences, and culture—several students observed that cooking was a way to control the cost and quality of the food that they ate. In a world in which prepared and packaged foods are available on most street corners, food selection and cooking skills support healthy food practices (see Figures 31 to 33).
What does “healthy food” mean to you?
“I wanted to play basketball and I had to have a physical, and they told me that I was pre-diabetic…and my family had to change everything from what I was drinking to what I was eating. We used to have a lot of junk food…sweet bread and chips. Besides being a lot healthier, I feel much better, my self-esteem. I was 230 pounds and I was only 12. It was like a life-changing experience.” [Candelaria (FHM)]
Cookingas a Life Skill
Cooking may range from making toast to creating a four-course meal. Most of the cooking reported by students during the project was relatively simple, with the exception of the traditional dishes that students photographed and described. If one has basic foods, a sharp knife, a few pots and pans, running water, and a heat source, much is possible (see Figures 34 to 43).
How do you define “cooking”?
“We make soups…stuff that you can make fast. Since we’re going to be college students, being able to make something with ease is important.” [(Franco (MHN)] “My friends—everyone can cook a little bit. It’s just a basic need. ’Cause if you can’t cook, what are your options? Eat out—and that takes a lot of money. It’s a life skill.” [David (MHN)]
“I go shopping and try to make a lot of it and freeze it and warm it up for the rest of the week ‘cause I don’t have time to be cooking every night. So I have just been making soup ‘cause it’s easy and fast—chicken soup, chicken curry, beef curry.” [Shasta (FNA)]
“When I go to college next year, I don’t want to be shopping at McDonalds. I want to buy my own food and cook it.” [Lucas (MHM)]
Honoring Family and CulturalTraditions
Many of the students expressed respect for the food practices of their elders, as well as the desire to preserve their cultural and family heritages by learning how to cook and share traditional foods (see Figures 44 to 47).
Vicente (MHM) observed, “It’s not the caldo de res, the pico de gallo, the corn tortillas, the rice or the seasoning—it’s the presence of the people around you that really make the dish worth the time.” Candelaria (FHM) concurred, “We are united because we continue our traditions…. I plan to share these traditions with other people and my own children in the future.”
Thank you to the students who generously shared their stories!
Discussion Questions
• How might increased access to a variety of foods, including fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, exert positive pressure to enact healthy food practices?
• How might cooking skills increase food access and counterbalance commercial practices of culinary imperialism?
• How have processed foods changed cooking and eating patterns?
• What role do you think that gender plays in who cooks? How has this changed (or not) over the past 100 years?
• What is healthy food? What is good food?
Bartis, P. 2002. Folklife and fieldwork: An introduction to field techniques. Library of Congress.
Collier Jr., J. & Collier, M. 1986. Visual anthropology: Photography as a Research method. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Collier, M., Hegde, R., Lee, W. Nakayama, T., Yep, G. 2001. “Dialogue on the Edges: Ferment in communication and culture.” In M. Collier (Ed.) International and Intercultural Communication Annual: Transforming communication about culture: Critical new directions, 24: 219–234. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
FAO. 2006. Food Security (Policy Brief No. 2).
Mak, T.N., Prynne, C.J., Cole, D., Fitt, E., Bates, B., Stephen, A.M. 2013.”Patterns of sociodemographic and food practice characteristics in relation to fruit and vegetable consumption in children: results from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey Rolling Programme (2008–2010).” Public Health Nutrition 16(11): 1912–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980013001912
McGee, H. 1984. On Food and Cooking. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,.
Rasmussen, K. 2004. “Places for children—Children’s places.” Childhood, 11(2): 155–173.
1. The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of New Mexico. Written active or passive informed consent was obtained from all study participants and/or their parents, as required.
2. Students’ photographs and quotations are identified by pseudonyms, along with demographic descriptors: F/M (female/male); HN (Hispanic/Latinx from New Mexico); HM (Hispanic/Latinx of Mexican descent); M1 (first generation Mexican immigrant); NA (Native American); A (Anglo).
3. Walters, Lynn. 2015. “Through Their Own Eyes: Exploring New Mexico High School Students’ Perceptions of the Influences on Their Food Practices.” Communication ETDs, May. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cj_etds/6. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/1.04%3A_Creative-_Food_Practices_Photo_Essay.txt |
Today’s Special: Reading Menus as Cultural Texts
L. Sasha Gora is a cultural historian and writer with a focus on food and contemporary art. She is an environmental humanities research fellow at the Center for the Humanities and Social Change at Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, where she is researching culinary reactions to climate change. In 2020, she received a PhD from Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and the Rachel Carson Center on the subject of Indigenous restaurants in Canada.
Learning Outcomes
After reading and discussing this text, students should be able to:
• Analyze restaurant menus as cultural artifacts.
• Identify how menus represent culinary points of view and reveal cultural norms.
• Recognize the assumptions and expectations associated with restaurant menus.
Introduction
“The dirty comes with bacon and sausages,” the tall chef explained. “And the clean is vegetarian—with hummus and salad.” It was my first day as a weekend cook and he was walking me through the basics: “The Dirty Brunch” and “The Clean Brunch.” I was the only woman in the kitchen, probably because my name had led him to believe otherwise. In addition to learning how to season potatoes and when to flip pancakes, I was taught that men tend to order “the dirty” and women “the clean.” This begins to reveal the assumptions behind the names of dishes on even the shortest of menus.
A restaurant menu is about a lot more than food. Menus reveal more than the daily specials and how much a burger costs. Like other forms of print media, they are narrative devices. Menus tell stories. They taxonomize plants and animals as edible. They represent a restaurant’s owners and cooks, its neighbourhood and region. They tell tales about class and race, about wealth and value, about immigration and identity, about culture and society. Menus “set forth our culinary options,” writes sociologist Priscilla Ferguson, and they “evoke the meals that express food as a distinctive attribute of a given social order.”[1] They are also archives. Menus document historic foodways—from lost ingredients to forgotten dishes—and transformations in taste. They are memories of appetites past. This makes them rich primary sources, and so a menu analysis is a compelling research method for food studies.
A Seat at the Table
To study a menu, one must first consider its history. As historian Paul Freedman makes clear, even though many of us take restaurants for granted, “most prosperous, commercial societies in the past managed quite well without them.”[2] From taverns and inns to market stalls and cookshops, eating out has taken a myriad of forms, but the term restaurant emerged in Paris around the 1760s. The first restaurants—also called a “restaurateur’s room”—shared their name with the dish they served: consommé, a healthful soup.[3] Offerings expanded and the restaurant developed a particular protocol: a printed menu announced dishes, tables were separate instead of shared, and diners no longer had to eat at a single time. From at least the 1770s, Paris restaurants advertised their culinary options with a menu—or carte. Before this, a menu listed what was served as opposed to options from which to choose. These new menus granted diners the ability to order a meal of their own.
The first menus featured printed folio text enclosed by leather borders or wooden frames. The text was tiny, packed, and, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, resembled a newspaper. But styles changed, keeping pace with other literary productions and, by mid-century, because of their looks, menus now resembled novels. Although the text was French, it spoke a dialect of its own, requiring what historian Rebecca Spang calls menu literacy.[4]
Restaurants straddle both public and private space. Historically, many have also upheld (or challenged) racial, gender, and socioeconomic segregation, policing who can dine where and with whom. Writing about nineteenth century Boston, for example, historian Kelly Erby acknowledges this exclusivity, clarifying that “not every restaurant welcomed women, African Americans, or immigrants.”[5] The model of the restaurant as an exclusive dining venue, serving French food prepared largely by male European chefs, carried on into the first decades of the 20th century in North America. Then the rise of middle-class restaurants transformed dining out into a more egalitarian practice. Ever since, many different types of restaurants have continued to open, as well as close—from Cecilia Chang’s the Mandarin (which in 1961 introduced San Francisco to northern rather than southern Chinese fare) to Harlem’s soul food icon, Sylvia’s Restaurant (opened in 1962 and still running), and from Mother Courage, New York City’s first feminist restaurant (which opened in 1972) to the Eureka Continuum, Toronto’s first Indigenous restaurant (opened in 2000).
But a restaurant is not a restaurant is not a restaurant. Some eateries bear the burden of wearing the label “ethnic”—by which the cuisines of some cultures are naturalized, while others are exoticized. What makes a restaurant “ethnic”?[6] Even though everyone has an ethnicity, the dominant culture never wears this label, which makes “ethnic” a relational marker and a politically charged label. This demonstrates how eating habits distinguish one culture from another. Food erects borders, constructs difference, and administers value. It is central for making and negotiating identity. Menus trace these negotiations.
How to Speak Menu
With this history in mind, how can you look beyond your own appetite in order to read menus as cultural texts? What stories does a menu tell about the cuisine it seeks to represent? What language does it use and what knowledge does it assume? Menus frame the relationships between chefs, servers, and diners. By setting forth options one can choose from, they establish expectations, holding the kitchen accountable to what the menu describes. This makes them contracts of sorts: printed agreements by which customers pay a fixed price for a dish the menu lists. Although a menu “textualizes the food,” as Lily Cho points out, there is a gap between the food itself and its textual representation.[7] Nonetheless, menus use visuals and text to represent what a kitchen sells and serves. They are also ambassadors about larger cultural beliefs that expand beyond a single restaurant. For example, one menu might list dishes to share, which encourages eating out as a collective experience, and another might only have individual dishes, which reflects (especially at lunch time) a busy person’s need to grab something on the go. One might offer some types of meat, like beef, but not other types, like seal. And like showing the option of a “Dirty” or a “Clean” brunch, menus can connect to gendered assumptions about appetites. All of these examples reveal how the food on offer relates to larger societal norms, who eats what, with whom, when, where, how, and who is expected to pay.
It is how menus represent choice (or the lack thereof) that makes them fascinating narrative devices and objects of study. A menu is an inventory of options and a timetable scheduling when a dish appears. Does a menu adhere to the appetizer/main/dessert regimen? Or does it abolish a hierarchy between dishes? How does this keep to—or challenge—a culture’s culinary norms? Menus can work with or against time. They can shadow the seasons by serving asparagus in spring, an increasingly common practice sparked by Slow Food and the locavore movement. They can equally can also challenge the seasons, however, serving the same dishes come rain or shine.
To analyze a menu is to reframe how we look at everyday things, learning to approach them as cultural artifacts that represent specific times and places. A good place to start is with names. “The process of designing a restaurant,” writes sociologist Krishnendu Ray, “can begin with the mere act of naming it.”[8] Names like Sylvia’s, for example, identify the restaurant with a single person, making it a more intimate affair.
Language is important. What language(s) does the menu use? Does it assume the knowledge of any specific terms? What does this knowledge reveal about the diner the menu targets? Le Pavilion, New York City’s seminal French restaurant from 1941 to 1966, presented diners with a menu in French, listing the likes of “Coeur de Céleris au Buerre” and “Germiny aux Pailettes Dorées.” This is an example of the cultural capital required to eat at an upscale restaurant at the time. Such a menu expected diners to be both fluent in French as well as in its cuisine’s cooking techniques. Based on language, can you determine if a menu speaks to a working-, middle- or owning-class clientele? The very first menus were long, but styles have since changed. For high-end restaurants it was once fashionable to display a range of options while today, many, including Copenhagen’s NOMA, present a single menu for all.
Sociologists Wynne Wright and Elizabeth Ransom demonstrate how to connect reading menus in relation to social class. Understanding food “as a source of conspicuous consumption for the wealthy” (referring to Thorstein Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class) and a means “for the socially mobile to acquire and display cultural capital” (referring to Pierre Bourdieu’s Distinction), Wright and Ransom share restaurant menus in relation to class and examine how these menus code economic and social value.[9] Moving beyond a focus on class alone, a menu analysis should employ an intersectional and cultural approach. After all, a tidy division between ethnicity, race, class, and gender is not possible. A menu analysis should zoom both in and out, and ask broader questions about how a menu represents a specific form of eating—a cuisine—and who it includes and excludes. Like the word ethnic, authentic is a loaded term. Setting it aside, what can you read on a menu that reveals how a restaurant communicates cultural beliefs, norms, and negotiations between majority and minority cultures?
A Menu of One’s Own
What do these questions look like in action? For the course, “California Cooking: How the Golden State Changed the Way America Eats,” students analyzed menus from either restaurants in California or ones elsewhere that market themselves as Californian. One looked at the politics of prices at In-N-Out Burger. Another addressed how a Mexican restaurant’s bilingual menu—which includes dishes with names like “A Taste of History”—represents one family’s experience of migration, as well as pressure to assimilate and Americanize. Another considered the menu of the Los Angeles outpost of a Tokyo-based ramen restaurant, and how the same practice in one culture—printing photographs—can carry different associations in another (cheap in a North American context but not so in Japan).
In a class about African American foodways, students selected menus from restaurants that serve Southern or soul food. One looked at a 1949 menu from a theater café, outlining the relationship between eating and entertaining, and, for African Americans, the “chitlin circuit.”[10] Studying both historic and contemporary menus, and showing how they are artifacts representing the history of the Great Migration and eating as a means to go back “home,” several students wrote about Sylvia’s, zooming in on the relationship between food, community, and memory.
In a course surveying the global history of American food, students mapped how restaurants around the world construct and represent American culinary cultures. Many confronted clichés in order to think critically about the nation state, soft power, and cultural capital. One, for example, looked at the American chain TGI Fridays in Ecuador, focusing on the prevalence of meat in tandem with transformations in social class. The larger the middle class, the bigger the appetite for meat. Writing about an Istanbul restaurant that peddles Southern American food, another student considered the politics of naming dishes—from “fusion” to “Tex-Mex.” Citing historian Donna Gabaccia’s claim about the “American penchant to experiment with foods, to combine and mix the foods of many cultural traditions into blended gumbos or stews and to create ‘smorgasbords’,”[11] the essay ended by arguing that this restaurant might also one day include dishes of Turkish origins. One student looked at an American diner in Munich, Germany, and its use of English, an example of a menu that requires particular linguistic or culinary knowledge, just like New York City’s Le Pavilion once did.
Conclusion: The Last Course
It is a challenge to not read menus too literally. Instead, a menu analysis requires both micro and macro thinking—to read between the lines, to read images and design. Restaurants mirror the ebbs and flows of social and political transformations. To follow suit, a menu analysis needs to move beyond a summary of dishes and ask: Why these dishes now? Why call bacon and sausages “dirty” and hummus and salad “clean”? By doing a close reading of a menu, you can learn about restaurant politics—from which animals and plants end up on plates to the construction of ethnicity and how eating salty before sweet fits into culturally specific social orders. To analyze a menu is, therefore, to analyze the culture and society that produces it.
Discussion Q uestions
• How does analyzing a restaurant menu as a primary source influence your understanding of what a menu is and does?
• Beyond menus, what are some other primary sources related to restaurants?
• What similarities and differences do you see between restaurant menus and other forms of culinary literature, like cookbooks?
Exercise
To analyze a menu it is not necessary to have visited the restaurant or to have eaten its food. Instead, one can do a close reading of a menu—its text, design, and images, or lack thereof—in a manner than is similar to studying other forms of print culture.
Here are some questions to ask.
• What is context of the menu? Is the menu contemporary or historic?
• How does the menu represent a particular cuisine? How inclusive is this representation? Does it take a regional or national approach? Does it stick to the country’s culinary clichés or does it include any unexpected dishes? Are there any obvious omissions? Does it try to ‘localize’ any dishes from elsewhere?
• Is the menu coherent or eclectic? Do any of the dishes stick out?
• How prominent is meat?
• What role does language play? What knowledge is assumed (of foreign words, ingredients, or particular culinary techniques)?
• Does the menu include photographs or illustrations? If so, how do these images relate to the food? Do the images represent particular dishes, or are they more inspirational or atmospheric?
• Does the menu reflect a particular season? Or is this food ‘seasonless’?
• How does the menu relate to the restaurant’s geography? Does it list producers? Does it mention, for example, what kind of meat it uses, or the names of farmers?
• What role do prices play? Is there a range that might influence what a customer might order?
• How do the drinks complement (or clash with) the rest of the menu?
• What kind of customer does the menu target?
Additional Resources
More and more libraries are sharing their menu holdings online. For example, in the United States, the New York Public Library has an extensive digital collection of historic restaurant menus. The Conrad N. Hilton Library at the Culinary Institute of America has over 4,000 historical menus, including international ones. The University of Washington also has a digital menu collection, as does the Los Angeles Public Library. Although not yet available online, McGill Library has an extensive collection.
References
Bourdieu, P. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, trans. Richard Nice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cho, L. 2010. Eating Chinese: Culture on the Menu in Small Town Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Erby, K. 2016.Restaurant Republic: The Rise of Public Dining in Boston. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Ferguson, P. 2005. “Eating Orders: Markets, Menus, and Meals.” The Journal of Modern History 77: 679-700.
Freedman, P. 2016. Ten Restaurants That Changed America. New York: Liveright.
Gabaccia, D.R. 200. We Are What We Eat: Ethnic Food and the Making of Americans. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Opie, F.D. 2008. Hog & Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America. New York: Columbia University Press.
Padoongpatt, T.M. 2011. “Too Hot to Handle: Food, Empire, and Race in Thai Los Angeles.” Radical History Review 110: 83-108.
Rawson, K. and E. Shore. 2019. Dining Out: A Global History of Restaurants. London: Reaktion Books.
Ray, K. 2014. “Taste, Toil and Ethnicity: Immigrant Restaurateur and the American City.” Ethnologie française 44 (1): 105-114.
Ray, L. 2016. The Ethnic Restaurateur. London and New York: Bloomsbury.
Spang, L.R. 2000. The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture. Cambridge, MA, and London, UK: Harvard University Press.
Veblen, T. 1912 [1899]. Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Macmillan.
Wright, W. and E. Ransom. 2005. “Stratification on the Menu: Using Restaurant Menus to Examine Social Class.” Teaching Sociology33 (3): 310-316.
1. Ferguson 2005, 689.
2. Freedman 2016, xxxix.
3. Spang 2000, 173. For earlier examples, like Pompei’s street food and imperial China’s dining options, see Rawson and Shore, 2019.
4. Ibid., 186.
5. Erby 2016, xix.
6. For “ethnic food” see Padoongpatt 2011 and Ray 2014.
7. Cho 2010, 52.
8. Ray 2014, 107.
9. Wright and Ransom 2005, 310–11.
10. For the history of the “chitlin’ circuit”—American music venues where African Americans could perform during the period of racial segregation—see Opie 2008.
11. Gabaccia 2000, 3.
1.06: Creative- Tasting Authenticity
You See Through ‘Authenticity’
Annika Walsh is a transdisciplinary artist who was born in Chuzhou, China and adopted at 11 months of age by her family in Canada. She works with a variety of ingredients, materials, and collaborators to form her conceptual pieces. Her practice ranges from exploration of cultural identity to participatory food performances, and everything in between. Striving to blur the lines and push the boundaries, Annika makes a habit of traversing many disciplines, including sculptural installation, performance, and media.
fin-xuan lee is a non-binary queer artist and second-generation settler who explores autobiographical foundations as relational tools, ones that may contribute to various creative expressions and that approach healing and acknowledgement processes. They are currently practicing on unceded, unsurrendered Algonquin, Anishinabek territory. They persist through reflecting and working with experiences that may offer growth, learning, and sharing. They are interested in art and art histories because they are inspired to facilitate engagements within various communities.
You See Through ‘Authenticity’ (Sept. – Dec. 2021)
Artists’ Statement
As two Asian-Canadian artists, we are both interested in using rice paper in our work to explore and share personal histories, experiences of oppression, and empowerment. Our collaboration aims to raise questions surrounding these specific themes and materials.
Through collaboration and community focused installations, we invite viewers to confront their assumptions and, ultimately, the dominant narratives and ideologies that uphold harmful attitudes towards non-white individuals. As a material, rice paper echoes the flexibility and malleable forms that can translate into ideas of diversity beyond stereotypical perspectives.
This installation is a participatory extension of our first performance that took place in October 2021. In the performance, viewers were able to see ingredients being rolled up by us and were encouraged to reflect on their impulsive responses to what they were seeing. This process of observing and visually digesting mirrors the act of the automatic authenticity assessment that occurs when viewing individuals. By bringing in different ingredients—some food, some non-food, such as hair, testosterone, make-up—we hoped to disrupt normative assumptions, filling the rice paper with ingredients and decisions of our own making rather than performing a prescribed form of cultural authenticity. This installation includes video documentation of our hands during the performance, as well as an interactive rolling station where participants are invited to roll their own authentic rolls and display them on a silver plate upon a tall plinth. The plate stacked with transparent rolls exhibits self-expressed authenticity within a community.
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. | textbooks/workforce/Food_Science_and_Agriculture/Food_Studies%3A_Matter_Meaning_Movement_(Szanto_Battista_and_Knezevic)/1.05%3A_Case-_Reading_Menus.txt |
Subsets and Splits