manu/mldr-zoomed-100char-total-queries-documents

chunk_id stringlengths 3 9	chunk stringlengths 1 100
9849_256	the duchy of Mantua was restored to the candidate backed by Venice and France, Charles II Gonzaga,
9849_257	Duke of Nevers.
9849_258	The latter half of the 17th century also had prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire; in the Cretan
9849_259	War (1645–1669), after a heroic siege that lasted 24 years, Venice lost its major overseas
9849_260	possession, the island of Crete, while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684, however, taking
9849_261	advantage of the Ottoman involvement against Austria in the Great Turkish War, the republic
9849_262	initiated the Morean War, which lasted until 1699 and in which it was able to conquer the Morea
9849_263	peninsula in southern Greece.
9849_264	18th century: decline
9849_265	These gains did not last, however; in December 1714, the Turks began the last Turkish–Venetian War,
9849_266	when the Morea was "without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countries where
9849_267	aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea".
9849_268	The Turks took the islands of Tinos and Aegina, crossed the isthmus, and took Corinth. Daniele
9849_269	Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the
9849_270	Morea. When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone, and Malvasia had fallen.
9849_271	Levkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of Spinalonga and Suda on Crete, which still remained
9849_272	in Venetian hands, were abandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfu, but its defenders managed to
9849_273	throw them back.
9849_274	In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of
9849_275	Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles in 1717
9849_276	and 1718, however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718), Austria
9849_277	made large territorial gains, but Venice lost the Morea, for which its small gains in Albania and
9849_278	Dalmatia were little compensation. This was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By the year 1792,
9849_279	the once-great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen.
9849_280	Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain
9849_281	north of the Po Valley, extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from
9849_282	the Pax Venetiae (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century.
9849_283	Fall
9849_284	By 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only
9849_285	four galleys and seven galliots. In spring 1796, Piedmont fell, and the Austrians were beaten from
9849_286	Montenotte to Lodi. The army under Bonaparte crossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of
9849_287	the enemy. By the end of the year, the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the
9849_288	Adige. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year,
9849_289	Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to the Peace of
9849_290	Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions in
9849_291	the Balkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797) while France acquired the Lombard part of the
9849_292	State.
9849_293	After Napoleon's ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on 12 May, and
9849_294	abdicated, while the Major Council declared the end of the republic. According to Bonaparte's
9849_295	orders, the public powers passed to a provisional municipality under the French military governor.
9849_296	On 17 October, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, agreeing to share all the
9849_297	territory of the ancient republic, with a new border just west of the Adige River. Italian
9849_298	democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo, viewed the treaty as a betrayal. The metropolitan
9849_299	part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province
9849_300	(Provincia Veneta in Italian, Provinz Venedig in German).
9849_301	Legacy
9849_302	Though the economic vitality of the Venetian Republic had started to decline since the 16th century
9849_303	due to the movement of international trade towards the Atlantic, its political regime still
9849_304	appeared in the 18th century as a model for the philosophers of the enlightenment.
9849_305	Jean-Jacques Rousseau was hired in July 1743 as Secretary by comte de Montaigu, who had been named
9849_306	Ambassador of the French in Venice. This short experience, nevertheless, awakened the interest of
9849_307	Rousseau to the policy, which led him to design a large book of political philosophy. After the
9849_308	Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755), he published The Social Contract
9849_309	(1762).
9849_310	Government
9849_311	In the early years of the republic, the doge of Venice ruled Venice in an autocratic fashion, but
9849_312	later his powers were limited by the promissione ducale, a pledge he had to take when elected. As a
9849_313	result, powers were shared with the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, composed of 480 members
9849_314	taken from patrician families, so that in the words of Marin Sanudo, "[The doge] could do nothing
9849_315	without the Great Council and the Great Council could do nothing without him".
9849_316	Venice followed a mixed government model, combining monarchy in the doge, aristocracy in the
9849_317	senate, republic of Rialto families in the major council, and a democracy in the concio.
9849_318	Machiavelli considered it "excellent among modern republics" (unlike his native Florence).
9849_319	In the 12th century, the aristocratic families of Rialto further diminished the doge's powers by
9849_320	establishing the Minor Council (1175), composed of the six ducal councillors, and the Council of
9849_321	Forty or Quarantia (1179) as a supreme tribunal. In 1223, these institutions were combined into the
9849_322	Signoria, which consisted of the doge, the Minor Council, and the three leaders of the Quarantia.
9849_323	The Signoria was the central body of government, representing the continuity of the republic as
9849_324	shown in the expression: "si è morto il Doge, no la Signoria" ("If the Doge is dead, the Signoria
9849_325	is not").
9849_326	During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Signoria was supplemented by a number of boards
9849_327	of savii ("wise men"): the six savii del consiglio, who formulated and executed government policy;
9849_328	the five savii di terraferma, responsible for military affairs and the defence of the Terraferma;
9849_329	and the five savii ai ordini, responsible for the navy, commerce, and the overseas territories.
9849_330	Together, the Signoria and the savii formed the Full College (Pien Collegio), the de facto
9849_331	executive body of the Republic.
9849_332	In 1229, the Consiglio dei Pregadi or Senate, was formed, being 60 members elected by the major
9849_333	council. These developments left the doge with little personal power and put actual authority in
9849_334	the hands of the Great Council.
9849_335	In 1310, a Council of Ten was established, becoming the central political body whose members
9849_336	operated in secret. Around 1600, its dominance over the major council was considered a threat and
9849_337	efforts were made in the council and elsewhere to reduce its powers, with limited success.
9849_338	In 1454, the Supreme Tribunal of the three state inquisitors was established to guard the security
9849_339	of the republic. By means of espionage, counterespionage, internal surveillance, and a network of
9849_340	informers, they ensured that Venice did not come under the rule of a single "signore", as many
9849_341	other Italian cities did at the time. One of the inquisitors – popularly known as Il Rosso ("the
9849_342	red one") because of his scarlet robe – was chosen from the doge's councillors, two – popularly
9849_343	known as I negri ("the black ones") because of their black robes – were chosen from the Council of
9849_344	Ten. The Supreme Tribunal gradually assumed some of the powers of the Council of Ten.
9849_345	In 1556, the provveditori ai beni inculti were also created for the improvement of agriculture by
9849_346	increasing the area under cultivation and encouraging private investment in agricultural
9849_347	improvement. The consistent rise in the price of grain during the 16th century encouraged the
9849_348	transfer of capital from trade to the land.
9849_349	Military
9849_350	During the Medieval period, the republic's military was composed of the following elements:
9849_351	Forza ordinaria (ordinary force), the oarsmen drafted from the citizens of the City of Venice;
9849_352	everyone from the age of 20–70 was obligated to serve in it. However, generally only a twelfth was
9849_353	active.
9849_354	Forza sussidiaria (subsidiary force), the military force drawn from Venice's overseas possessions.
9849_355	Forza straordinaria (extraordinary force), the mercenary part of the army; Venetian galleys tended

9849_256

the duchy of Mantua was restored to the candidate backed by Venice and France, Charles II Gonzaga,

9849_257

Duke of Nevers.

9849_258

The latter half of the 17th century also had prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire; in the Cretan

9849_259

War (1645–1669), after a heroic siege that lasted 24 years, Venice lost its major overseas

9849_260

possession, the island of Crete, while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684, however, taking

9849_261

advantage of the Ottoman involvement against Austria in the Great Turkish War, the republic

9849_262

initiated the Morean War, which lasted until 1699 and in which it was able to conquer the Morea

9849_263

peninsula in southern Greece.

9849_264

18th century: decline

9849_265

These gains did not last, however; in December 1714, the Turks began the last Turkish–Venetian War,

9849_266

when the Morea was "without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countries where

9849_267

aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea".

9849_268

The Turks took the islands of Tinos and Aegina, crossed the isthmus, and took Corinth. Daniele

9849_269

Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the

9849_270

Morea. When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone, and Malvasia had fallen.

9849_271

Levkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of Spinalonga and Suda on Crete, which still remained

9849_272

in Venetian hands, were abandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfu, but its defenders managed to

9849_273

throw them back.

9849_274

In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of

9849_275

Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles in 1717

9849_276

and 1718, however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718), Austria

9849_277

made large territorial gains, but Venice lost the Morea, for which its small gains in Albania and

9849_278

Dalmatia were little compensation. This was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By the year 1792,

9849_279

the once-great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen.

9849_280

Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain

9849_281

north of the Po Valley, extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from

9849_282

the Pax Venetiae (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century.

9849_283

Fall

9849_284

By 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only

9849_285

four galleys and seven galliots. In spring 1796, Piedmont fell, and the Austrians were beaten from

9849_286

Montenotte to Lodi. The army under Bonaparte crossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of

9849_287

the enemy. By the end of the year, the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the

9849_288

Adige. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year,

9849_289

Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to the Peace of

9849_290

Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions in

9849_291

the Balkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797) while France acquired the Lombard part of the

9849_292

State.

9849_293

After Napoleon's ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on 12 May, and

9849_294

abdicated, while the Major Council declared the end of the republic. According to Bonaparte's

9849_295

orders, the public powers passed to a provisional municipality under the French military governor.

9849_296

On 17 October, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, agreeing to share all the

9849_297

territory of the ancient republic, with a new border just west of the Adige River. Italian

9849_298

democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo, viewed the treaty as a betrayal. The metropolitan

9849_299

part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province

9849_300

(Provincia Veneta in Italian, Provinz Venedig in German).

9849_301

Legacy

9849_302

Though the economic vitality of the Venetian Republic had started to decline since the 16th century

9849_303

due to the movement of international trade towards the Atlantic, its political regime still

9849_304

appeared in the 18th century as a model for the philosophers of the enlightenment.

9849_305

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was hired in July 1743 as Secretary by comte de Montaigu, who had been named

9849_306

Ambassador of the French in Venice. This short experience, nevertheless, awakened the interest of

9849_307

Rousseau to the policy, which led him to design a large book of political philosophy. After the

9849_308

Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755), he published The Social Contract

9849_309

(1762).

9849_310

Government

9849_311

In the early years of the republic, the doge of Venice ruled Venice in an autocratic fashion, but

9849_312

later his powers were limited by the promissione ducale, a pledge he had to take when elected. As a

9849_313

result, powers were shared with the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, composed of 480 members

9849_314

taken from patrician families, so that in the words of Marin Sanudo, "[The doge] could do nothing

9849_315

without the Great Council and the Great Council could do nothing without him".

9849_316

Venice followed a mixed government model, combining monarchy in the doge, aristocracy in the

9849_317

senate, republic of Rialto families in the major council, and a democracy in the concio.

9849_318

Machiavelli considered it "excellent among modern republics" (unlike his native Florence).

9849_319

In the 12th century, the aristocratic families of Rialto further diminished the doge's powers by

9849_320

establishing the Minor Council (1175), composed of the six ducal councillors, and the Council of

9849_321

Forty or Quarantia (1179) as a supreme tribunal. In 1223, these institutions were combined into the

9849_322

Signoria, which consisted of the doge, the Minor Council, and the three leaders of the Quarantia.

9849_323

The Signoria was the central body of government, representing the continuity of the republic as

9849_324

shown in the expression: "si è morto il Doge, no la Signoria" ("If the Doge is dead, the Signoria

9849_325

is not").

9849_326

During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Signoria was supplemented by a number of boards

9849_327

of savii ("wise men"): the six savii del consiglio, who formulated and executed government policy;

9849_328

the five savii di terraferma, responsible for military affairs and the defence of the Terraferma;

9849_329

and the five savii ai ordini, responsible for the navy, commerce, and the overseas territories.

9849_330

Together, the Signoria and the savii formed the Full College (Pien Collegio), the de facto

9849_331

executive body of the Republic.

9849_332

In 1229, the Consiglio dei Pregadi or Senate, was formed, being 60 members elected by the major

9849_333

council. These developments left the doge with little personal power and put actual authority in

9849_334

the hands of the Great Council.

9849_335

In 1310, a Council of Ten was established, becoming the central political body whose members

9849_336

operated in secret. Around 1600, its dominance over the major council was considered a threat and

9849_337

efforts were made in the council and elsewhere to reduce its powers, with limited success.

9849_338

In 1454, the Supreme Tribunal of the three state inquisitors was established to guard the security

9849_339

of the republic. By means of espionage, counterespionage, internal surveillance, and a network of

9849_340

informers, they ensured that Venice did not come under the rule of a single "signore", as many

9849_341

other Italian cities did at the time. One of the inquisitors – popularly known as Il Rosso ("the

9849_342

red one") because of his scarlet robe – was chosen from the doge's councillors, two – popularly

9849_343

known as I negri ("the black ones") because of their black robes – were chosen from the Council of

9849_344

Ten. The Supreme Tribunal gradually assumed some of the powers of the Council of Ten.

9849_345

In 1556, the provveditori ai beni inculti were also created for the improvement of agriculture by

9849_346

increasing the area under cultivation and encouraging private investment in agricultural

9849_347

improvement. The consistent rise in the price of grain during the 16th century encouraged the

9849_348

transfer of capital from trade to the land.

9849_349

Military

9849_350

During the Medieval period, the republic's military was composed of the following elements:

9849_351

Forza ordinaria (ordinary force), the oarsmen drafted from the citizens of the City of Venice;

9849_352

everyone from the age of 20–70 was obligated to serve in it. However, generally only a twelfth was

9849_353

active.

9849_354

Forza sussidiaria (subsidiary force), the military force drawn from Venice's overseas possessions.

9849_355

Forza straordinaria (extraordinary force), the mercenary part of the army; Venetian galleys tended