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205_9	Two tunnels also had to be built, at Braunston and Blisworth. The Blisworth Tunnel caused great problems, and was unfinished when the rest of the canal was ready. In fact Jessop considered abandoning it and using locks to carry the canal over the ridge. Jessop's temporary solution was a railway line laid over the ridge to carry traffic until the tunnel was completed. The Grand Junction Canal was enormously important in encouraging trade between London and the Midlands. West India Docks The West India Docks, built on the Isle of Dogs, was the first large wet docks built in the Port of London. Between 1800 and 1802 a wet dock area of was created with a depth of , and accommodating 600 ships. Jessop was the Chief Engineer for the docks, with Ralph Walker as his assistant.
205_10	Surrey Iron Railway In 1799 separate proposals were put forward for a canal from London to Portsmouth and for a tramway carrying horse-drawn carriages over the same route. The first part of the proposed Surrey Iron Railway was to be from Wandsworth to Croydon, and Jessop was asked for his opinion on the two opposing schemes. He declared that the tramway was a better scheme, as a canal would require too much water and would unduly reduce the supply in the River Wandle. It was agreed to build a tramway from Wandsworth to Croydon, as well a building a basin at Wandsworth. Jessop was appointed Chief Engineer of the project in 1801. In 1802 the Wandsworth Basin and the line were completed. There seems to be doubt as to the gauge of the line with some estimates stating and others stating 4 ft 8½ in.
205_11	In 1803, the next phase was authorized for a line from Croydon via Merstham to Godstone in Surrey. Jessop was again appointed Chief Engineer, with his son Josias as his assistant. The line reached Mestham but was never continued to Godstone. The total distance of the tramway from Wandsworth was . The tramway was eventually overtaken by the advent of steam locomotives. Later life From 1784 to 1805 Jessop lived in Newark in Nottinghamshire, where he twice served as town mayor. In his later life, Jessop became increasingly inflicted by a form of paralysis, and 1805 marked the end of his active career. He died at his home, Butterley Hall, on 18 November 1814. The Jessop Memorial was erected a year after his death, this can be seen east of Ripley in Codnor park. The Doric column can no longer be scaled due to being unsafe. His son Josias became a successful engineer in his own right.
205_12	Legacy Jessop was in the unusual position of bridging the gap between the canal engineers and the railway engineers who came later. His name did not gain the lasting fame that it deserved because of his modesty. Indeed some of his works have been wrongly attributed to engineers who acted as his assistants. Unlike some engineers, such as George Stephenson, Jessop did not stoop to undignified wrangles with fellow professionals. He was highly regarded by almost all those who had worked with him or for him.
205_13	List of Jessop's engineering projects the Aire and Calder Navigation the Calder and Hebble Navigation (1758–1770) the Caledonian Canal the Ripon Canal (1767) the Chester Canal (May 1778) as a contractor with James Pinkerton the Barnsley Canal (1792–1802) the Grand Canal of Ireland between the River Shannon and Dublin (1773–1805) the Grand Junction Canal (1793–1805), later part of the Grand Union Canal the Cromford Canal, Derbyshire/Nottinghamshire the Nottingham Canal (1792–1796) the River Trent Navigation the Grantham Canal (1793–1797), the first English canal entirely dependent on reservoirs for its water supply Engineer of the Ellesmere Canal (1793–1805), detailed design undertaken by Thomas Telford) the Rochdale Canal (1794–1798) the Sleaford Navigation (1794) the West India Docks and Isle of Dogs canal, London (1800–1802); John Rennie was a consultant on the Docks project
205_14	the Surrey Iron Railway, linking Wandsworth and Croydon (1801–1802), arguably the world's first public railway—albeit horse-drawn the 'Floating Harbour' in Bristol (1804–1809) the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway (1807–1812; the first railway in Scotland authorised by Act of Parliament) harbours at Shoreham-by-Sea and Littlehampton, West Sussex
205_15	See also Canals of the United Kingdom History of the British canal system References External links Codnor & District Local History & Heritage website – Jessop Monument webpage 1745 births 1814 deaths English inventors English civil engineers English canal engineers People from Devonport, Plymouth People of the Industrial Revolution Harbour engineers
206_0	Swaminatha Swamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to god Murugan. It is located in Swamimalai, 5 km from Kumbakonam, on the banks of a tributary of river Kaveri in Thanjavur District, 250 km from Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu, India. The temple is fourth abode of Murugan among six (Arupadaiveedugal). The shrine of the presiding deity, Swaminathaswamy is located atop a hillock and the shrine of his mother Meenakshi (Parvathi) and father Shiva (Sundareswarar) is located downhill. The temple has three gopuram (gateway towers), three precincts and sixty steps and each one is named after the sixty Tamil years. The temple has six daily rituals at various times from 5:30 a.m. to 9 p.m., and three yearly festivals on its calendar. The annual Vaikasi Visagam festival is attended by thousands of devotees from far and near.
206_1	As per Hindu legend, Muruga, the son of Shiva, extolled the meaning of the Pranava Mantra (AUM) to his father at this place and hence attained the name Swaminathaswamy. The temple is believed to be in existence from the Sangam period from 2nd century BC and was believed to have been modified and rebuilt by Parantaka Chola I. The temple was greatly damaged during the Anglo-French war between Hyder Ali and British in 1740. The temple, in modern times, is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. Legend
206_2	As per Hindu legend, Brahma, the Hindu god of creation, disrespected Muruga (the son of Shiva) at the time of visiting Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva. The child Muruga got angry with Brahma and asked him how he was creating living beings. Brahma said that he was creating living beings with the help of the Vedas (Hindu scriptures). On hearing the reply, Muruga asked Brahma to recite the texts from Vedas. Brahma started to recite the text with the holy word called Pranav Mantra, "Om". At that time Muruga stopped Brahma and asked him to explain the meaning of the Pranava Mantra. Brahma did not expect such a question from the child and could not reply. Muruga knocked Brahma on his forehead with his clenched fists and punished him with imprisonment. Muruga took up the role of the creator. The Devas (celestial deities) were surprised by the absence of Brahma and they requested Vishnu to negotiate with Muruga to release Brahma. Vishnu could not help and as the last resort, Shiva went to
206_3	the rescue of Brahma.
206_4	Shiva came to Muruga and asked him to release Brahma from imprisonment. Muruga refused to release him stating Brahma was unaware of the meaning of the Om - (Pranav Mantra-Tamil: ௐ AUM). Shiva asked Muruga to explain the meaning and Muruga extolled to Shiva the meaning of Om. Shiva behaved like a student to a teacher, listening with rapt attention from his son, giving Muruga the name "Swaminatha Swami". The meaning of this name is "The Teacher of Shiva". Following the legend, the shrine of the son Muruga is atop the hillock, while the father Shiva's shrine is located at the basement.
206_5	As per the Kanda Puranam, once all sages and gods assembled in Kailash to witness the wedding of Shiva with Parvathi. It resulted in the tilting of earth towards one direction. Shiva asked sage Agasthya to move towards South to balance the tilt. Agastya employed a demon by name Ettumba to carry two hills in his shoulders to be placed in the South. The demon carried the hills down south and rested in a place. When he tried to lift one of the hills, it didn't budge and he found a young man standing at the top of the hill not allowing it to be moved. The demon tried to attack the young man, but was smitten. Sage Agastya identified the young man as Karthikeya and asked him to pardon the demon. Karthikeya readily did so and let the hill remain there at Pazhani. It is a practice followed in the modern times where people carry milk in both their shoulders as a devotion to please Karthikeya. The demon carried the other hill to Swamimalai. Architecture
206_6	The temple is located in Swamimalai, a panchayat town located away from Kumbakonam on the Kumbakonam - Tiruvayyaru highway. In Swamimalai, Muruga is known as "Balamurugan" and "Swaminatha Swami". The temple is built on an artificial hill. In Tamil language, such an artificial hill is called "Kattu Malai".Earlier it was called as "Thiruveragam". The temple has three gopuram (gateway towers) and three precincts. Out of the three precincts, one is located in the basement, the second at midway to the top of the hillock and the third on the hillock, around the sanctum of the Swaminathaswamy shrine. There are sixty steps and each one is named after the sixty Tamil years. The first thirty steps lead to the second precinct of the temple. The image of Swaminathaswamy is tall. There are golden armours, golden crowns and a diamond lance for Swaminathaswamy. There is a shrine of Vinayagar outside the first precinct. The central shrine houses the granite image of Swaminathaswamy. The first
206_7	precinct has the images of Dakshinamurthy, Durga, Chandikeswarar and the festival image of Swaminathaswamy. The images of Sundaresawar as lingam (Shiva) and Meenakshi (Parvathi) are located down hill and the first precinct around their shrines have the images of Dakshinamurthy, Durga, Chandikeswarar and Navagrahas. The second precinct and the largest one of the temple houses a marriage hall and the chariot of the temple. The temple is one of the most visited temples in the district. The original animal mount of Murugan is believed to have been an elephant, compared to the peacock which is considered to be the most common mount. The white elephant, is considered a powerful, terror striking animal. The iconography is maintained only in two places, namely, this temple and Tiruttani Murugan Temple. Unlike other Murugan temples, where peacock is sported axial to the image of the presiding deity, an elephant is seen in front of Murugan in the temple. The temple is maintained and
206_8	administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu.
206_9	Religious importance Swamimalai is one of the Arupadaiveedu, believed to be the six main abodes of Muruga, that mark the different phases of his life. According to Hindu belief, Swamimalai is where Muruga preached what as called as "Pranava mantra" to his own father, Shiva, at a young age, after arresting Brahma for not answering his question about Pranava Mantram. The teaching capabilities of Murugan is found as one of his identifying features. The cult of Murugan is of pride to the Tamil people who identify six with Murugan connating six directions and six chakras in human anatomy.
206_10	According to Hindu legend, Mahalingaswamy at Thiruvidaimarudur is the centre of all Shiva temples in the region and the Saptha Vigraha moorthis (seven prime consorts in all Shiva temples) are located at seven cardinal points around the temple, located in various parts of the state. The seven deities are Nataraja in Chidambaram Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram, Chandikeswarar temple at Tirucheingalur, Vinayagar in Vellai Vinayagar Temple at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Muruga in Swamimalai Murugan Temple at Swamimalai, Bhairava in Sattainathar Temple at Sirkali, Navagraha in Sooriyanar Temple at Suryanar Kovil and Dakshinamoorthy in Apatsahayesvarar Temple, Alangudi at Alangudi, Papanasam taluk.
206_11	Arunagirinathar was a 15th-century Tamil poet born in Tiruvannamalai. He spent his early years as a rioter and seducer of women. After ruining his health, he tried to commit suicide by throwing himself from the northern tower of Annamalaiyar Temple, but was saved by the grace of Murugan. He became a staunch devotee and composed Tamil hymns glorifying Murugan, the most notable being Thirupugazh. Arunagirinathar visited various Murugan temples and on his way back to Tiruvannamalai, visited Swamimalai and sung praises about Swaminathaswamy. Worship and religious practises
206_12	The temple priests perform the puja (rituals) during festivals and on a daily basis. Like other Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the Shaiva community, a Brahmin sub-caste. The temple rituals are performed six times a day; Ushathkalam at 5:30 a.m., Kalasanthi at 8:00 a.m., Uchikalam at 10:00 a.m., Sayarakshai at 5:00 p.m., Irandamkalam at 7:00 p.m. and Ardha Jamam at 8:00 p.m. Each ritual comprises four steps: abhisheka (sacred bath), alangaram (decoration), naivethanam (food offering) and deepa aradanai (waving of lamps) for Swaminathaswamy. The worship is held amidst music with nagaswaram (pipe instrument) and tavil (percussion instrument), religious instructions in the Vedas (sacred texts) read by priests and prostration by worshippers in front of the temple mast. There are monthly rituals like amavasai (new moon day), kiruthigai, pournami (full moon day) and sathurthi. The major festival of the temple, Vaikasi Visagam, is celebrated during the Tamil month of
206_13	Vaikasi (May -June). As per Hindu legend, the celestial deity Indra worshipped Subramanyaswamy on the day of visagam star and gained strength to defeat the demon Arikesa. Like other Murugan temples, the worship practises include tonsuring in the temple, ablution of the deity with sandal, panchamirtham (a mixture of five ingredients) and milk are performed by devotees. Carrying milk pots (called palkudam) and Kavadi are other common forms of worship. A few years ago, a popular event called Subramanya Sahasranama, meaning doing archana with 1008 forms of Muruga was celebrated every month. Like in Palani Murugan temple, Vibhuti Abhishekam, the ablution of the central deity with ash is performed. The central deity with adorned with diamond Vel every Thursday. The kumbabhisekam of the temple was performed on 9 September 2015.
206_14	Notes References External links Hindu temples in Thanjavur district Murugan temples in Tamil Nadu Kaumaram
207_0	The McNamara Line, an operational strategy employed by the United States in 1966–1968 during the Vietnam War, aimed to prevent infiltration of South Vietnam by NVA forces from North Vietnam and Laos. Physically, the McNamara Line ran across South Vietnam from the South China Sea to the Laotian border along the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The eastern part included fortified field segments, with Khe Sanh as linchpin, along with stretches where roads and trails were guarded by high-tech acoustic and heat-detecting sensors on the ground and interdicted from the air. Assorted types of mines, including so-called gravel mines, and troops at choke points backed sophisticated electronic surveillance. Named the barrier system by Robert McNamara (United States Secretary of Defense from 1961 to 1968), it was one of the key elements, along with gradual aerial bombing, of his war strategy in Vietnam.
207_1	Barrier concept Various schemes had been proposed in the years before 1965 for a defensive line on the northern border of South Vietnam and in southeast Laos. These schemes had generally been rejected because of their requirements for large amounts of military personnel to be deployed in static positions and because any barrier in Laos would encourage the Vietnamese to deploy their forces deeper into Laotian territory.
207_2	In December 1965, Robert McNamara met twice with Carl Kaysen, a former Kennedy-era National Security Council staff member. Kaysen proposed an electronic barrier to limit infiltration from North Vietnam. McNamara embraced the idea and asked Kaysen to create a proposal. Starting in January, John McNaughton and a group of scientists in Cambridge, Massachusetts, including Kaysen and Roger Fisher created the proposal which was submitted to McNamara in March 1966, who then passed it to the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) for comments. The JCS response was that the proposal would still require an infeasible number of troops to be stationed along the barrier and would present difficult construction/logistical problems.
207_3	Also in late 1965 or early 1966, Jerry Wiesner and George Kistiakowsky persuaded McNamara to support a summer study program in Cambridge for the group of 47 prominent scientists and academics that made up the JASON advisory division of the Institute for Defense Analysis. The subject of the study was to find alternatives to the majorly unsuccessful gradual aerial bombing campaign in North Vietnam advocated by McNamara. As Kaysen and the others involved in the Cambridge group were all members of JASON scientific advisory group, the anti-infiltration barrier ideas were included in the JASON agenda. JASON study group The JASON study group meetings took place June 16–25, 1966 at Dana Hall in Wellesley, Massachusetts. The buildings were guarded day and night and attendees were given top secret security clearances. After the summer meetings, a report was produced over the course of July and August.
207_4	The JASON report of August 1966 called the bombing campaign against North Vietnam a failure, saying that it had "no measurable direct effect on Hanoi's ability to mount and support military operations in the South". Instead, advisors proposed as an alternative two defensive barriers. The first barrier would run from the coast some distance inland along the demilitarized zone and would seek to block the NVA infiltration through conventional means. The second barrier would run from the remote western areas of the border into Laos and would be a barrier of air interdiction, mine fields and electronic detection requiring minimal troops. While the JCS report had estimated the construction of a barrier would take up to four years, the JASON report suggested the barrier could be in place with available resources within a year. That was important to McNamara since he hoped that by cutting the logistics lines between the North and the South he would have been able to press Hanoi into
207_5	negotiations.
207_6	Decision-making
207_7	In September 1966, McNamara presented the JASON group report to the Joint Chiefs. It split on the proposal with the service chiefs being against it, and general Earle Wheeler, a chairman of JCS, being in support. The JCS then handed the report off to the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC) Admiral Sharp, who wrote back that the barrier idea was impractical from a manpower and construction point of view. General William Westmoreland, who was commanding officer in Vietnam, was apprehensive of the idea and reportedly was even afraid that the barrier would go into history as Westmoreland's Folly.
207_8	Despite all disagreements, on September 15, 1966, without waiting for the final judgment of the JCS, Secretary McNamara ordered that the proposal be implemented. Lieutenant General Alfred Starbird, director of the Defense Communications Agency, was appointed head of Task Force 728, which was to implement the project. Two days later, the JCS reported back favorably on the already-decided plan. Starbird had to complete the barrier by September 1967. In November 1966, McNamara officially recommended the barrier system to President Johnson for implementation. The construction budget was estimated as $1.5 billion, and $740 million was allocated for the annual operating costs. The Practice Nine was adopted as the barrier project internal communication code name.
207_9	Chronology On January 13, 1967, President Johnson authorized the construction, and it was assigned the highest national priority. Cover name changes In June 1967, an existence of Practice Nine was leaked to the press. The project was then renamed as Illinois City and in September it was called Project Dye Marker. Further, it was also referred to as SPOS (Strong-point-obstacle-system), with two different components, Dump Truck (anti-vehicle) and Mud River (anti-personnel), which were collectively referred to as Muscle Shoals. On September 13, 1967, the project's Dye Marker name was switched to Muscle Shoals, and in June 1968 it was changed again, this time to Igloo White.
207_10	Project Dye Marker was partially constructed by the American forces in 1967-1968 along the eastern portion of the demilitarized zone. An effective anti-infiltration barrier, running across South Vietnam deep into Laos, was a grand vision of the US Secretary of Defence Robert McNamara, who feared that escalation of bombing can bring greater Chinese involvement, and a vital component of his operational strategy. It was an enormous multimillion project, which was nicknamed in the media as the Great Wall of Vietnam, McNamara's Wall, McNamara Barrier, Electric Fence, and Alarm Belt. 1967 USMC Engineers in early 1967 were ordered to bulldoze a strip to at least 500 meters wide from Gio Linh westward to Con Thien. This became known by the Marines as The Trace. Construction began in the summer 1967.
207_11	The Dye Marker defensive line project stretched along the demilitarized zone starting from the South China Sea, and had a total length of 76 kilometers (47 miles). Some parts of the defensive line were manned and equipped with the bunkers, outposts, reinforcing and fire support bases, surrounded by concertina wire. Other segments were under constant radar, motion and acoustic surveillance, and secured by trip wires, mine fields, and barbed-wire entanglements. The airborne receiving equipment carried by EC-121R's relayed the signals and triggered artillery and bombers responses.
207_12	The plans that were leaked to the media called for an inexpensive barbed wire fence with watch towers, and they were presented to the public as a trivial measure, while the electronic part was highly classified. In reality, the strong-point part of the anti-infiltration system in Quang Tri Province, Vietnam was reinforced with electronic sensors and gravel mines to stop the flow of North Vietnamese troops and supplies through the demilitarized zone during the decisive years of the Vietnam War. Construction was announced on September 7, 1967, and was carried by the 3rd Marine Division. First, the 11th Engineers started to work on bulldozing the so-called Trace, a path 600 meter wide and 11 kilometers long that was stripped of trees, brush and villages if needed. The backbone of the strong-point system were fortified bases Alpha 2 at Gio Linh on the east, Alpha 4 at Con Thien on the west, and Alpha 3 in between. 7,578 American marines had been deployed in support of Dye Marker strong
207_13	point/obstacle system by 1 November 1967. In addition, 4,080 American troops have been involved in the air-supported anti-infiltration part of Dye Marker.
207_14	1968 At the beginning of 1968, the western end of the fortified part of the barrier stretching from Khe Sanh through the special forces camp at Lang Vei, which was still under construction, was attacked by the multiple North Vietnamese troops. The special forces camp at Lang Vei was overrun and Khe Sanh was placed under a limited siege. The Battle of Khe Sanh lasted for 77 days. In July 1968, General Abrams, a newly appointed US commander in South Vietnam, ordered Khe Sanh and the surrounding area to be abandoned. The base was dismantled and all the infrastructure along Route 9 toward Laos, including roads and bridges, was systematically destroyed.
207_15	On October 29, 1968, all construction work on the physical barrier along the demilitarized zone on South Vietnam's side was ceased. The physical infrastructure created for the barrier was converted into a series of strong-points and support bases for the new strategy of mobile operations. This marked the end of the McNamara Line as an operational strategy.
207_16	Significance of the barrier strategy In his memoirs, Robert McNamara insisted that the barrier, or the system, as he chose to call it, was able to cut to a degree an infiltration rate of the NVA to South Vietnam. However, constructed segments turned to be inefficient in stopping the NVA despite being costly to build and maintain. In March 1969, most of the strong points of the barrier manned by troops were abandoned. A system of sensors to provide surveillance of the truck routes coming from Laos was a success, but its counterpart for the foot trails was never deployed. Many special munitions ordered for the barrier turned to be ineffective or simply failed. In 1969, Defense Secretary Melvin R. Laird testified in Congress that goals set for the anti-infiltration barrier were not met despite high cost.
207_17	An official account of the Vietnam War, published in the Secretaries of Defense Historical Series, stated that the interdiction significance of the barrier remained contentious. At the same time, it reserved harsh words for McNamara's inability to listen to the opponents and called the so-called McNamara Line: The strategic meaning of the Dye Marker, as well as a whole McNamara Line, which were to stretch westward into Laos, was to curb the infiltration of South Vietnam by the NVA forces. This would have allowed McNamara to scale back the American bombing of North Vietnam and start negotiations with Hanoi. However, the Tet Offensive demonstrated the futility of such plans. The defensive barrier system was also criticized at the time of its inception for keeping American troops in static positions while facing mobile enemy forces. After the Tet Offensive, the criticism intensified, and Senator Stuart Symington (D-Missouri) called the barrier a "billion dollar Maginot line concept".
207_18	See also De Lattre Line Operation Igloo White Operation Kentucky Operation Buffalo (1967) References Further reading Documents Memo for Mr. Rostow from Gen E. G. Wheeler from Aqust 30, 1967. Declassified on Feb. 24, 1983. The Vietnam Center and Archive at Texas Tech University.
207_19	Books and articles Brush, Peter. "The Story Behind the McNamara Line", Vietnam Magazine, February 1996, 18–24. Deitchman, Seymour Jay. "The Electronic Battlefield in the Vietnam War", Journal of Military History 72 (July 2008), 869–887. Gibbons, William Conrad. The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986. Reinstein, Thomas A. "Seeking a Second Opinion: Robert McNamara's Distrust of the U.S. Intelligence Community During Operation Rolling Thunder", Federal History 8 (2016), 26–47. Stanton, Shalby L. The Rise and Fall of an American Army: US Ground Forces in Vietnam, 1965–1973. Novato, Calif: Presidio, 1995. Twomey, Christopher T. "The McNamara Line and the Turning Point for Civilian Scientist-Advisers in American Defence Policy, 1966–1968", Minerva, Volume 37, Issue 3, p. 235–258. DOI 10.1023/A:1004741523654
207_20	External links The McNamara Line UShistory.com Project Dye Marker, information by the Vietnam Helicopter Pilots Association Military operations of the Vietnam War Vietnam War sites Fortifications in Vietnam
208_0	The People's Liberation Army of the People's Republic of China has had many divisions since it was officially established in 1949.
208_1	Infantry divisions 1st Amphibious Mechanized Infantry Division – 1st Group Army, Nanjing Military Region. Listed in Federation of American Scientists (FAS). 2nd Infantry Division – division transferred to the People's Armed Police to become the 8690 Unit (often referred to as the 2nd Armed Police Mobile Division) in the 1990s. 3rd Division (1st Formation) of the 1st Group Army was deactivated in 1952. 3rd Division (2nd Formation) was formed in May 1969 and now active as 7th Armed Police Mobile Division. 3rd Division (3rd Formation) was renamed from the 7th Division in December 1969 and is now active as 3rd Motorized Infantry Brigade. 4th Division – Xinjiang Military District, Lanzhou Military Region - (Jane's Sentinel p. 91) 5th Division (1st Formation) is now the 5th Xinjiang Agriculture Construction Division. 5th Division (2nd Formation) was reduced to a brigade in 1985. 6th Division (1st Formation) is now 2nd Xinjiang Agriculture Construction Division.
208_2	6th Division (2nd Formation) – Lanzhou Military Region. 7th Division (1st Formation) is now 3rd Motorized Infantry Brigade. 7th Division (2nd Formation) is now the 7th Armed Police Mobile Division. 8th Division (1st Formation) was disbanded in 1952 when the 3rd Corps was merged into the 1st Corps. 8th Division (2nd Formation) was formed in 1969 from 1st Cavalry Division. It's now 8th Motorized Infantry Division. 9th Division - disbanded in 1952. 10th Division - disbanded in 1952. 11th Motorized Infantry Division - Western Theater Command, formerly Lanzhou MR. Military district. 12th Division 13th Division 14th Division 15th Division 16th Division 17th Division 18th Division 19th Division 20th Division First formation 1949-50, became 7th Artillery Training Base. Reformed. 21st Division 22nd Division 23rd Division 24th Division
208_3	25th Division - In May 1953, the 25th, 26th and 27th Divisions of the 9th Corps were reorganized as 7th, 8th and 9th Agriculture Construction Division of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, respectively. 26th Division 27th Division 28th Division - 28th Army Division to 1969. Then redesignated 205th Division. 29th Division – with 15th Army served in Korean War. Now as 56th Motorized Infantry Brigade. 30th Division (1st Formation)(People's Republic of China) 30th Infantry Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China) 30th Army Division (3rd Formation)(People's Republic of China) 31st Division – with 11th Army during Sino-Vietnamese War. Chengdu MR JSENT p. 91. First formation became the 36th Motorized Infantry Brigade (People's Republic of China). Second formation remains the 31st Motorized Infantry Division (People's Republic of China). 32nd Division – with 11th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict.
208_4	33rd Division – Served in the Korean War as the 33rd Independent Division. Second Formation was 33rd Army Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China) from 1979-85. 34th Division – 12th Army with 31st, 34th, and 35th Divisions entered Korea on March 25, 1951. Routed during the Battle of the Soyang River. 35th Division 36th Division 37th Division – with 13th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 38th Division – with 13th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 39th Division – with 13th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 40th Division – 14th Group Army - Chengdu MR. Served in S-V War with 14th Army (People's Republic of China). JSENT p. 91. 41st Division – served in Sino-Vietnamese War with 14th Army. 42nd Division – served in Sino-Vietnamese War with 14th Army. 43rd Division - formed 1949, disbanded 1950.
208_5	43rd Airborne Division – 89th Division (People's Republic of China) reorganised as an airborne formation, renumbered, now airborne with 15th Airborne Army. 44th Airborne Division – now airborne with 15th Airborne Army. Served in Korea War. Entered Korea with 15th Army in February 1951. 45th Airborne Division – now airborne with 15th Airborne Army. Served in Korea War. Entered Korea with 15th Army in February 1951. 46th Division 47th Infantry Division 48th Infantry Division 49th Division 50th Division 51st Division Formed twice. Second formation became the Independent Division of Hubei Provincial Military District. 52nd Division Formed three times. Second formation became the 149th Motorized Infantry Division. Third formation became the 52nd Mountain Motorized Infantry Brigade. 53rd Division. Formed twice. Second formation became 53rd Mountain Motorized Infantry Brigade. 54th Division
208_6	55th Division. Originally 19th Corps. 19th Corps was in 1969 at Wuwei, Gansu with the 55th, 56th, and 57th Divisions. 56th Division 57th Division. Formed twice. First formation became 1st Fossil Oil Engineer Division. 57th Division (Second Formation). 58th Division – 20th Group Army, but commanded by the 50th Army during the Sino-Vietnamese War. Converted to a brigade in 1999. 59th Division – Component of 20th Army during Korean War. Disbanded 1985. 60th Division 61st Division – 21st Army served in Korea War. Now 21st Group Army, Shaanxi Province. JSENT p. 90 Listed FAS, 21st GA 62nd Division – 21st Army served in Korea War. 63rd Division – 21st Army served in Korea War. 64th Division 65th Division 66th Division 67th Motorised Infantry Brigade, 23rd Group Army, 'demobilised' during 2003 reductions cycle (Blasko 2006, 77). With 23rd Army in Korea. 68th Division – subordinate to Shenyang MR. Now 68th Motorized Infantry Brigade, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang (from 23rd Group Army).
208_7	69th Division – Shenyang MR. JSENT p. 91 Listed FAS. With 23rd Army in Korea. Now 69th Motorized Infantry Division, Harbin, Heilongjiang (from 23rd Group Army). 70th Division – served with 24th Army in Korea. Now 3rd Guard Division. 71st Division. Disbanded. 71st Division formed later. 72nd Division – with 24th Army served in Korea War. 73rd Division – with 23rd Army served in Korea War. 74th Division – with 24th Army served in Korea War. 75th Division 76th Division 77th Division – 26th Army served in Korea War 78th Division – 26th Army served in Korea War 79th Division – 27th Army 80th Division – 27th Army 81st Division – 27th Army 82nd Division 83rd Division 84th Division 85th Division 86th Division – 31st Army. Second formation 86th Motorized Infantry Division (People's Republic of China) – 26th Army served in Korea War 87th Division 88th Division – 26th Army served in Korea War 89th Division – operating with 20th Army in Korea. Disband in February 1951. 90th Division, 1949–1950
208_8	90th Division, 1950–1952 91st Division – 31st Army 92nd Infantry Division – 31st Army 93rd Infantry Division – 31st Army 94th Division – with 27th Army served in Korea War. Disbanded in February 1951. 95th Division - In October 1950 32nd Corps was disbanded and the division was absorbed into the Air Force. On February 14, 1951, the division was reorganized and renamed as 14th Aviation Division. 96th Division 97th Division 105th Division 106th Division – 36th Army - Airfield construction labor during Korean War 107th Division 108th Division 109th Division – 37th Army - Airfield construction labor during Korean War 110th Division 111th Division 112th Division – 38th Army 113th Division – 38th Group Army 114th Division (People's Republic of China) - 38th Group Army 115th Division – 39th Army 116th Division 117th Division 118th Division - Part of 40th Army. 40th Army entered Korea on October 19, 1950 and was the first Chinese formation to make contact with UN forces in Korea.
208_9	119th Division 120th Division 121st Division – 41st Army during Sino-Vietnamese War 122nd Division – 41st Army during Sino-Vietnamese War 123rd Division – 41st Army during Sino-Vietnamese War 124th Division – 42nd Army during Korean War and Sino-Vietnamese War 125th Division – 42nd Army during Korean War and Sino-Vietnamese War 126th Division – 42nd Army during Korean War and Sino-Vietnamese War 127th Division – fought in Korean War and with 43rd Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 128th Division – with 43rd Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 129th Division – with 43rd Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 130th Division 131st Division 132nd Division- with 43rd and 44th Corps/Armies in the 1950s. Now on Hainan Island as 132nd Mechanized Infantry Brigade since 2003. 137th Division (People's Republic of China)137th Division 138th Division - probably originally with 46th Army. 1949-1953 disbanded and reorganised as PLAAF Second Aviation School.
208_10	139th Division – 47th Group Army, Lanzhou Military Region 140th Division 141st Division 148th Division – 50th Army Entered Korea on October 26, 1950. Fought with 50th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict. 149th Division – 13th GA - Suchuan Prov JSENT p. 90 Listed FAS, 13th GA. Belonged to 50th Army while it fought in Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 150th Division – 50th Army - Fought with 50th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict. 153rd Division 154th Division 155th Division 156th Division - disbanded June 1949, Korean troops to 7th Division, KPA. 157th Division 158th Division 159th Division 160th Division – 54th Army, Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 161st Division – 54th Army, Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 162nd Division – 54th Group Army, Sino-Vietnamese border conflict - Jinan MR; JSENT p. 90. 163rd Division – with 55th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict
208_11	164th Division – 164th Division (1st Formation)(People's Republic of China) became 5th Division, KPA, 1949. Reformed twice. With 55th Army during Sino-Vietnamese War. 165th Division – with 55th Army during Sino-Vietnamese border conflict 167th Division – possibly existed under 56th Army according to US intelligence during the Korean War. 179th Division – 12th Group Army; fought in Korean War under 60th Army 180th Division – fought in Korean War under 60th Army. 181st Division – fought in Korean War under 60th Army 187th Division – 63rd Army during Korean War 188th Division – 63rd Army served in Korea War. Now Beijing Military Region. 189th Division – 63rd Army served in Korea War. 189th Infantry Division (1985–98), then reduced to 189th Motorized Infantry Brigade (1998-2003). Disbanded 2003. 190th Division – 64th Army served in Korea War. Listed by Blasko as with 39th Army, 2006. 191st Division
208_12	192nd Division – listed by Blasko 2006 as the 'Liaoning Army Reserve 192nd Infantry Division, Shenyang,' Shenyang MR 193rd Division – 65th Army during Korean War. Entered Korea on February 23, 1951. Decimated during the Battle of the Imjin River. 194th Infantry Division (People's Republic of China) 195th Infantry Division (People's Republic of China) 196th Division – 66th Army Entered Korea on October 27, 1950. Served in Korea War 197th Division 198th Division – 66th Army 199th Division – 67th Army served in Korea War. 67th Army left Korea in September 1954. 200th Division – 67th Army served in Korea War 201st Division – 67th Army served in Korea War 202nd Division – 68th Army served in Korea War. 68th Army left Korea in April 1955. 203rd Division – 68th Army served in Korea War 204th Division – 68th Army served in Korea War. 205th Division 205th (II) 206th (I) 206th (II) 207th (I) 207th (II) 207th (III) 207th (IV) 208th 209th (I) 209th (II) 210th (I) 210th (II) 211th Division
208_13	212th Division 213th Division 214th Division 215th 216th Division 217th Division - 1949-1952; deactivated to provide replacements for the People's Volunteer Army in Korea. 218th Division Active until October 1950 as part of 53rd Corps (People's Republic of China). 219th Infantry Division. Formed from 164th Division. Active 1952-60 and then 1960-70 as 219th Army Division, part of 55th Corps (People's Republic of China). 220th 250th
208_14	Armored divisions 1st Armoured Division - belong to Beijing MR 2nd Armored Brigade (People's Republic of China) - with 12th Group Army, Nanjing Military Region 3rd Armoured Division - with 39th Group Army, 4th Armoured Division (1998-2011), now 4th Armored Brigade 5th Tank Division (People's Republic of China) 1967-98 6th Armored Division (People's Republic of China) 8th Tank Division from 1967–98; Armored Division 1998-2011, 8th Armored Brigade from 2011. 10th 11th 12th The IISS Military Balance 2012 listed nine armoured divisions as part of the People's Liberation Army.
208_15	Artillery divisions 1st Artillery Division 2nd Artillery Division 3rd Artillery Division 7th Artillery Division 8th Artillery Division 9th Artillery Division (1st Group Army) 21st Rocket Artillery Division 22nd Rocket Artillery Division 31st Anti-Tank Artillery Division 33rd Anti-Tank Artillery Division 61st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 62nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 63rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 64th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 65th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 70th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division 102nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division
208_16	Aviation divisions 1st Fighter Division - stationed at Anshan, Liaoning 2nd Fighter Division - stationed at Suixi, Guangdong 3rd Fighter Division - stationed at Wuhu, Anhui 4th Aviation Division - division disbanded as a fighter formation in 2003, with 10th Regiment going to 30th Division as 89th Regiment. It was re-established as a transport division at Qionglai Air Base in 2004. 5th Aviation Division Seemingly disbanded between 2014 and 2017. 6th Fighter Division - stationed at Yinchuan, Ningxia 7th Fighter Division - established December 1950 flying fighters, at Dongfeng, Jilin. - stationed at Datong, Shanxi
208_17	8th Aviation Division - established in December 1950 flying bombers at Siping, Jilin. Originally had 22nd and 24th Regiments. Scramble.nl, accessed mid 2015, indicates there are at least six regiments of H-6 bombers. All three regiments of the division fly the aircraft - the 22nd, 23rd (former 143rd Regt/48th Div), and 24th. On November 11, 1965, Li Xianbin (T:李顯斌, S:李显斌), a PLAAF Ilyushin Il-28 captain of the division flew his bomber numbered 0195 from Jianqiao (T:筧橋, S:笕桥) air base in Hangzhou to Taoyuan County, Taiwan (now Taoyuan City), and this became the first fully operational Il-28 in western hands. The radio operator / tail gunner Lian Baosheng (廉保生) was found dead at the scene and the navigator Li Caiwang (李才旺) was captured alive after a suicide attempt. Both survivors were honored and rewarded with positions in the Republic of China Air Force.
208_18	9th Aviation Division - established in December 1950 as a fighter division at Jilin, Jilin. Transferred to PLA Naval Aviation as 5th Naval Aviation Division in September 1955; reestablished at Ganzhou in March 1956. Stationed at Foshan, Guangdong 10th Aviation Division - established at Nanjing, Jiangsu in January 1951 as a bomber-flying division. In the Eastern Theatre Command. 11th Aviation Division - established in February 1951 as a ground-attack formation in Xuzhou, Jiangsu. Long part of the Shenyang Military Region. Stationed at Siping, Jilin 12th Fighter Division - established in Xiaoshan, Zhejiang in December 1950 as a fighter unit. Stationed at Yantai, Shandong 13th Aviation Division - stationed at Wuhan, Hubei
208_19	14th Fighter Division - formed February 1951 at Beijing Nanyuan Airport from elements of the disbanding 95th Division. Stationed at Nanchang, Jiangxi. The division fought in Korea, as a mixed MiG-9/MiG-15 fighter unit. Started its second combat tour in April 1953 and ceased combat in July 1953. It appears that in September 1992 the 146th Regiment of the disbanding 49th Air Division may have become the 42nd Regiment. 15th Fighter Division absorbed the 41st Division in 1985. 16th Aviation Division Originally established as 19th Inf Div. In August 1988, the division became the Shenyang Military Region Air Force Aviation Training Base, and the regiments were successively changed to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Regiments of that Base. 17th Aviation Division; on 26 October 1988 the division was reorganized into the Beijing MR Training Base. 18th Aviation Division (People's Republic of China) - stationed at Nanning, Guangxi
208_20	19th Aviation Division (People's Republic of China) - stationed at Zhengzhou, Henan The 57th Regiment, 19th Air Division, at Lianyungang, was re-established from 2nd Regiment, Jinan MR Training Base, in 2010 with J11 after it had been previously disbanded in 1988. However it became a regiment of the reformed 32nd Division in 2012. 20th Aviation Division (People's Republic of China) 21st Aviation Division (People's Republic of China) - stationed at Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang; absorbed 39th Aviation Division in 1998. 22nd Aviation Division - transferred to Shenyang MRAF 1985; disbanded in September 1992. Merged into the 11th Aviation Division; 33rd Aviation Regiment disbanded; 65th and 66th Regiments became "Kong 32 and 33" regiments of the 11th Aviation Division. 23rd Aviation Division (People's Republic of China) - division disbanded on August 27, 1985, along with its 67th and 69th Regiments. 24th Fighter Division - stationed at Tianjin.
208_21	28th Aviation Division - stationed at Hangzhou, Zhejiang 29th Fighter Division - stationed at Hangzhou, Zhejiang 30th Fighter Division - stationed at Dandong, Liaoning 31st Aviation Division - formed May 1960 in the Jinan Military Region. 32nd Aviation Division In 2012 the 57th Regiment, 19th Division got subordinated to the re-formed 32nd Division as 95th Regiment. 33rd Fighter Division - stationed at Chongqing 34th Transport Division - stationed in Beijing 36th Fighter Division - stationed at Xi'an, Shaanxi 37th Fighter Division - established August 1966, stationed at Ürümqi, Xinjiang 38th Aviation Division - established June 1967. 39th Aviation Division - established June 1967; absorbed into 21st Aviation Division and disbanded 1998. 40th Aviation Division - established July 1969.
208_22	41st Aviation Division - established in July–August 1969 in Inner Mongolia, seemingly from training units. Disbanded on November 17, 1985, with the 121st Regiment becoming the 44th Regiment in another division, and the 122nd and 123rd Regiments disbanding. 47th Aviation Division - merged with 6th Aviation Division, no longer active. 48th Aviation Division - established April 1971 49th Aviation Division - established April 1971 50th Aviation Division - established April 1971; merged with 8th Aviation Division in 1985. in August 1985, the 149th Regiment of this division was reassigned to the 8th Aviation Division.
208_23	Engineering divisions 1st Railway Engineer Division 2nd Railway Engineer Division 3rd Railway Engineer Division 4th Railway Engineer Division 5th Railway Engineer Division 6th Railway Engineer Division 7th Railway Engineer Division 9th Railway Engineer Division 10th Railway Engineer Division 11th Railway Engineer Division 52nd Engineer Division (People's Republic of China) See also Chinese People's Volunteer Army order of battle References Citations Sources xvii, 228 pp. Jane's Sentinel, China/North East Asia, June–Dec 2000. External links Andrew Chan, PLA forces during the Sino-Vietnam clashes, Orbat.com, v.1.0 July 29, 2001. http://www.militaryobservation.info/across-the-vast-to-18-from-70-infantry-army-group-army/ People's Liberation Army People's Liberation Army divisions
209_0	U.S. Figure Skating is the national governing body for the sport of figure skating in the United States. It is recognized as such by the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee "USOPC" under the Ted Stevens Olympic and Amateur Sports Act and is the United States member of the International Skating Union ("ISU"). Although the name of the organization is “the United States Figure Skating Association” it is now known as and conducts business under the name “U.S. Figure Skating.” Founded in 1921, U.S. Figure Skating regulates and governs the sport and defines and maintains the standard of skating proficiency. It specifies the rules for testing, competitions, and all other figure skating related activities. U.S. Figure Skating promotes interest and participation in the sport by assisting member clubs, skaters, and athletes, appointing officials, organizing competitions, exhibitions, and other figure skating pursuits, and offering a wide variety of programs.
209_1	Athletes and officials who represent the United States at international figure skating competitions are selected by U.S. Figure Skating. The Association is a non-profit organization. History In 1921 the United States Figure Skating Association was formed and became a member of the International Skating Union. At the time of its formation, the Association was composed of seven (7) charter member clubs including: Beaver Dam Winter Sports Club, The Skating Club of Boston, Chicago Figure Skating Club The Skating Club of New York, Philadelphia Skating Club and Humane Society, Sno Birds of Lake Placid, and Twin City Figure Skating Club (which became the Figure Skating Club of Minneapolis in 1929).
209_2	Since its inception through 1947, the governance activities of the Association were centered in New York City. The annual Governing Council meetings, as well as the annual Executive Committee meetings, were all held in New York City. In 1949 the Association transferred its offices to Chicago, Illinois. The offices were again moved, this time to Boston, in 1950. In 1979, the Association moved into its current headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado. This followed the USOC's move to Colorado Springs a year earlier in July 1978. In the 1930s, the Association made an effort to increase the number of competitive events by creating the three sectional championships, Eastern (1938), Midwestern (1933), and Pacific Coast (1936).
209_3	In 1959, the Eastern and Pacific Coast Sections expanded their qualifying competitions by adding three Sub-Sectionals Championships each. The Eastern Section created the New England, North Atlantic, and South Atlantic Regions, while the Pacific Coast Section established the Central Pacific, Northwest, and Southwest Pacific Regions. It wasn't until 1962 that the Midwestern Sectional finally added their regional championships to the qualifying competition cycle. The abbreviated name, "USFSA" was first used in April 1921 and trademarked in 1972. The distinctive shield logo was adopted in 1964 and used until 2003 when U.S. Figure Skating instituted its current logo. In 2006, the Executive Committee was eliminated. At the same time the Board of Directors was reduced to sixteen members from its previous 29 members. As of May 5, 2007, the Association officially adopted the name "U.S. Figure Skating" and dropped the abbreviated name of "USFSA".
209_4	Governance U.S. Figure Skating is an association of clubs, governed by its members and its elected officers at national, regional and club levels. As of June 2011, U.S. Figure Skating had 688 member, collegiate, and school-affiliated clubs and a membership of 180,452. Each member club may send delegates to the annual Governing Council meeting. Governing Council U.S. Figure Skating has a representational government. Clubs and individual members appoint delegates. The number of delegates representing a club and the individual members depends on the prior year's paid registered member. Athlete delegate representation is required to be 20 percent of the prior year's registered delegate and proxy votes. Collectively these delegates meet annually (typically early May) to review, amend and ratify the actions taken by the Board since the prior year's Governing Council. This annual meeting of the appointed delegates is called the Governing Council.
209_5	Board of Directors The Board of Directors is charged with the management of the business and affairs of U.S. Figure Skating. It is currently composed of sixteen (16) members including: the president, three (3) vice presidents (one from each section), the secretary, the treasurer, four (4) group coordinators, two (2) coaches, and four (4) athletes. Presidents Anne Cammett is the current president of U.S. Figure Skating. She began her term in 2018. The prior presidents are listed below. Past presidents Committees Committees, in particular the Permanent Committees, are responsible for proposing and enforcing the rules of the U.S. Figure Skating. Other special committees may undertake other projects, such as nominations and other ad hoc matters. Permanent committees The following table shows the Association's permanent committees:
209_6	Mission statement “As the national governing body, the mission of the United States Figure Skating Association is to provide programs to encourage participation and achievement in the sport of figure skating on ice.” Operations Executive Director The Executive Director is responsible for the day-to-day operations of U.S. Figure Skating. Mr. David Raith is currently serving in that capacity and has done so since 2005. He is charged with carrying out the policies, programs, and goals of the association as approved by the Board of Directors. Departments The departments that support U.S. Figure Skating's operations reside at its headquarters in Colorado Springs, CO. These departments are staffed by full-time employees. They administer and manage the association's day-to-day affairs.
209_7	Finance The Association is a non-profit organization. As of June 30, 2011, U.S. Figure Skating had revenue, support, and gains of approximately $24.9 million derived primarily from dues, admissions and activity fees, skating events, sponsorships, broadcast and licensing, publications, grants, and other sources. The association expended approximately $12.9 million on its various programs and services plus an additional $2.4 million on management and general administrative expenses, under which the departments listed under the “Operations – Departments” are included.
209_8	Officials Member clubs arrange to hold test sessions and competitions. The competitions are conducted under the supervision and authority of U.S. Figure Skating appointed officials. The member club (for competitions, the club is sometimes called the local organizing committee or “LOC”) is responsible for many of the ancillary functions of the test session or competition (registration, transportation, event monitoring, hospitality, messengers, copying, etc.). For national and international events, U.S. Figure Skating headquarters staff also provides logistics and event support. The officials are responsible for actually running the test sessions, competitions, and associated individual events. All the officials at test sessions and competitions are unpaid volunteers.
209_9	Officials receive their appointments from U.S. Figure Skating after demonstrating a certain level of proficiency, and in some cases, after trialing or taking written examinations. In most cases, officials are appointed at three (3) levels; regional, sectional, and national. Below is a list of officials at a typical large competition. For the 2012 U.S. Figure Skating Championships, 70 officials were assigned along with over 50 alternate officials. The parenthetical number is how many people were assigned to the respective positions. If there is no number, only one person was assigned. Organization U.S. Figure Skating's members, clubs, and qualifying competitions are divided into three (3) geographical sections, that are further divided into nine (9) regions. Eastern Section 1Erie, PA 2excluding Erie, PA Midwestern Section 1excluded for Synchronized only 2Upper Peninsula 3Lower Peninsula 4excluding Kansas City and St. Joseph's 5excluding Chattanooga 6Kansas City and St. Joseph's
209_10	Pacific Coast Section 1all cities north of and including Visalia 2for Synchronized only 3all cities south of Visalia 4Las Vegas 5excluding Las Vegas Types of membership U.S. Figure Skating has nine (9) types of membership: U.S. Figure Skating programs U.S. Figure Skating offers many programs to accommodate a wide range of skill and interest levels.
209_11	Testing
209_12	Testing allows figure skaters to demonstrate that they have achieved a certain level of skating proficiency. Tests progress in increasing difficulty and focus on power, strength, speed, quickness, flow, extension, and edge quality and control. Tests are conducted under the auspices of member clubs and administered during test sessions. Usually, three (3) test judges (the judge panel), of appropriate level, determine the outcome of the tests on a pass / retry basis. Tests up to a certain level may be judged by a single, sufficiently qualified, judge. Some higher-level dance tests require judges certified in dance judging to attend. The member club is responsible for reporting the results to U.S. Figure Skating. U.S. Figure appoints test judges at various levels (bronze, silver, and gold) based on trial judging and their judging experience. According to their level, test judges are qualified to determine the outcome of increasingly difficult tests. Test judges are invited by the member
209_13	club to participate in a given test session. Skaters’ testing levels passed determines at what level they may compete. For qualifying competitions, skaters must pass the free skate test at the level for which they intend to compete. U.S. Figure Skating still offers tests in compulsory figures, however, this discipline was last competed at a national championship competition in 1999.
209_14	Singles and adult skaters must show they are proficient at a given level by passing two (2) tests at each level, moves in the field ("MIF") and free skate ("FS"). Additional test are conducted in the pairs skating, free dance and pattern dance discipline. Each member of a synchronized skating team must pass the appropriate test of single's competitor. Tests must be completed in the order of increasing difficulty. They may not be taken out of turn. However, a singles skater may take as many moves-in-the-field tests before taking any free skate tests. Once a free skate test is passed, a competitor may only compete at that level at qualifying competitions. There are four (4) test levels specific to adult figure skating. Adult skater must be twenty-one (21) years of age or older. Standard track levels
209_15	1The test panel consists of three test judges of these levels or higher, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS. 2The test panel consists of three dance test judges of these levels or higher. 3A single bronze or higher test judge, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS, may also judge this level. 4A single silver or higher test judge, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS, may also judge this level. 5A single silver or higher dance test judge may also judge this level. Adult track levels
209_16	1The test panel consists of three test judges of these levels or higher, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS. 2The test panel consists of three dance test judges of these levels or higher. 3A single bronze or higher test judge, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS, may also judge this level. 4A single silver or higher dance test judge may also judge this level. 5A single silver or higher test judge, appointed in single/pairs or dance for MIF or in single/pairs for FS, may also judge this level. Pattern dance The Compulsory dance was renamed pattern dance. Each level of pattern dance, with the exception of international, consists of three or four individual dances. Preliminary skaters must pass the Dutch Waltz, Canasta Tango, and Rhythm Blues, while gold-level skaters must pass the Viennese Waltz, Westminster Waltz, Quickstep, and Argentine Tango. There are currently ten dances at the international level.
209_17	1The test panel consists of three dance test judges of these levels or higher. 2The test panel consists of one or three dance test judges of these levels or higher. 3A single bronze or higher dance test judge may also judge this level. 4A single silver or higher dance test judge may also judge this level. Synchronized skating Synchronized skating teams are not required to pass any tests as a whole. Each individual team member must have passed the appropriate moves-in-the-field test. 1Preliminary moves in the field, dance, or figure is also acceptable. Qualifying and international competitions Every year, U.S. Figure Skating sanctions numerous non-qualifying competitions, shows, and carnivals. In addition, it annually sanctions qualifying regional and sectional competitions, in various disciplines, that lead up to championship competitions. The Association also selects those athletes and officials that represent the United States at international competitions.
209_18	Regional competitions The following regional competitions are held in singles skating: Sectional competitions The following sectional competitions are held in singles, pairs, ice dance, adult, and synchronized skating: Championship competitions The following championship competitions are held in singles, pairs, ice dance, synchronized, adult, and collegiate skating: * Effective September 1, 2012, the U.S. Junior Championships (for Juvenile and Intermediate level competitors) was eliminated and those levels are held in conjunction with the U.S. Championships.
209_19	International competitions
209_20	U.S. Figure Skating selects the athletes and officials that represent the United States at international figure skating competitions (Team USA). These competitions include the ISU Junior Grand Prix, Four Continents Figure Skating Championships, the ISU Grand Prix, the World Synchronized Skating Championships, the World Figure Skating Championships, and the Olympic Games. Although the participants for Worlds and the Olympics are most often the top placers at US Nationals, there have been several times when other skaters have been selected due to injuries preventing them from competing at Nationals; Nancy Kerrigan being selected for the 1994 Olympics over 2nd-place finisher Michelle Kwan is one example. Most recently 2014 4th-place finisher Ashley Wagner was selected over 3rd place Mirai Nagasu ostensibly because of Wagner's more consistent international record; however because of Wagner's many endorsement contracts her selection has raised concerns about the fairness of the process
209_21	(since U.S. Championships are not used as a straightforward Olympic trials).
209_22	Sponsors U.S. Figure Skating has a number of sponsors, suppliers, and licensees that provide support to the association either financially or by supplying other goods and services. U.S. Figure Skating also makes available its logo and sanctioned content, primarily competitions, to various licensees. Media Skating magazine is the official publication of U.S. Figure Skating. Established in 1923, 11 issues are published annually. The association also houses the World Figure Skating Museum and Hall of Fame in its headquarters building in Colorado Springs, Colorado. U.S. Figure Skating maintains two Internet domains, usfsa.org, established in 1997 and usfigureskating.org, established in 2003. U.S. Figure Skating also has Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace accounts as well and a YouTube channel and Flickr website. The association has an RSS feed and can push alerts and content via text messaging.
209_23	Ice Network In 2005, U.S. Figure Skating partnered with MLB Advanced Media to set up Ice Network, LLC. Ice Network, LLC is a wholly owned by U.S. Figure Skating. In 2018, Ice Network's website closed. Memorial Fund Formation and purpose On February 15, 1961, the entire United States figure skating team was killed when Sabena Flight 548 crashed en route from New York City to Brussels, Belgium. The team was going to participate in the 1961 World Figure Skating Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia. Among the team members that perished were 18 athletes, seven coaches and managers, three judges and referees, and six team family members. Within one week of the tragedy, the association announced the formation of a memorial fund in honor of the lost team members.
209_24	"The mission of the Memorial Fund is to provide qualified U.S. Figure Skating members in need of financial aid with monetary assistance to pursue their goals both inside and outside the competitive arena. The fund is committed to awarding skating and academic scholarships to those athletes who have demonstrated excellent competitive results and/or academic achievements, and who have potential in national and international competitions."
209_25	RISE In 2009, U.S. Figure Skating commissioned the production of a full-length feature documentary film commemorating the 50th anniversary of the loss of the 1961 U.S. World Figure Skating Championship team and exalting figure skating in the U.S. The movie, RISE, was produced and directed by the Emmy-award-winning company, Lookalike Productions of Englewood, NJ. The film was released on February 17, 2011, for a one-night presentation through NCM Fathom. It was shown again for an encore presentation on March 7, 2011. Proceeds of the movie were used to further the mission of the Memorial Fund. See also Sabena Flight 548 Footnotes References Further reading External links Web Site U.S. Figure Skating RISE - Can the end of one dream give rise to another?
209_26	Social media U.S. Figure Skating's Facebook Page U.S. Figure Skating's Twitter Page U.S. Figure Skating's YouTube Channel U.S. Figure skating's Flickr Photostream U.S. Figure Skating's Myspace Page U.S. Figure Skating's RSS Feed U.S. Figure Skating's Text Alerts Figure skating in the United States Figure skating organizations Figure Sports in Colorado Springs, Colorado Organizations based in Colorado Springs, Colorado Sports organizations established in 1921
210_0	Clarence Lee Brandley (September 24, 1951 – September 2, 2018) was an American who was wrongly convicted of the rape and murder of Cheryl Dee Fergeson in 1981. Brandley was working as a janitor supervisor at Conroe High School in Conroe, Texas where Fergeson was a 16-year-old student athlete visiting the school from Bellville, Texas. Brandley was held for nine years on death row. After lengthy legal proceedings and community outcry that eventually ended in the Supreme Court of the United States, Clarence Brandley was freed in 1990. After his release, Brandley was involved in further legal proceedings over child support payments that had accrued over his time in prison, and ultimately with an unsuccessful $120 million lawsuit against various agencies of the State of Texas. The crime
210_1	Cheryl Dee Fergeson, a 16-year-old junior at Bellville High School, was murdered on August 23, 1980. Fergeson was part of a school volleyball team playing a match against another high school in Conroe, Texas. Her body was found in the loft above the school auditorium. Suspicion immediately fell on two of the custodians, Brandley and Henry (Icky) Peace, who had found the body. During their joint interrogation – as Peace would recount – Texas Ranger Wesley Styles told them, "One of you is going to have to hang for this" and then, turning to Brandley, added, "Since you're the nigger, you're elected." Investigation
210_2	Co-workers' statements The three claimed to have seen the victim enter a girls' restroom near the school gymnasium, and then to have seen Brandley walking toward the restroom with an armload of toilet paper. They claimed that they told Brandley there was a girl in the restroom, and that he replied that he was taking the toilet paper to the boys' restroom. They did not see him again until about 45 minutes later, after a search had begun for the missing student. The fourth white custodian, Peace, subsequently added that Brandley was insistent on immediately searching the loft and, when they found the body, calmly checked for a pulse and then notified the authorities. All four said that only Brandley had keys to the auditorium where the body was found.
210_3	Brandley's statements Before an all-white Montgomery County grand jury on August 28, 1980, five days after the crime, Brandley professed innocence. Although he contradicted his white co-workers in several respects, he acknowledged that he had disappeared for perhaps 30 minutes about the time the murder was believed to have occurred. He said he was in the custodian's office smoking and listening to music alone. He also testified that a number of other persons had master keys that would open the auditorium and, in any event, that doors near the stage usually were propped open with a two-by-four. Trials
210_4	December 1980 Brandley went on trial in December 1980 before an all-white jury. The prosecution's case was based entirely on circumstantial evidence and witness statements, as there was no physical evidence linking Brandley to the crime. Pubic hair with so-called "negroid characteristics" were allegedly found on the body, but no expert testimony was given at trial to indicate they belonged to Brandley. These hairs were subsequently lost from the prosecution's exhibits and have never been recovered. Spermatozoa recovered from the victim's body had been destroyed – without having been tested to determine whether Brandley could have been its source. Moreover, a fresh blood spot had been found on the victim's blouse that had not come from her and could not have come from Brandley. The spot was Type A, but Brandley had Type O blood.
210_5	One juror found the evidence insufficient to establish guilt, forcing Judge Sam Robertson, Jr. to declare a mistrial. The name of the holdout juror, William Shreck, became public knowledge, leading to anonymous harassing telephone calls. One man, whose anonymous communication was monitored by police, threatened Shreck, "We're going to get you, nigger lover." February 1981 Brandley's second trial in February 1981 was held before a different judge, but another all-white jury. The prosecution did not call John Sessum, one of the original witnesses. Later it was discovered that the prosecution had decided not to use Sessum because he no longer was willing to support the other custodians' versions of events, even though he had been threatened with being charged with perjury if he refused to go along.

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