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200_6	Commissioning of painting The Liverpool painting was commissioned by Arthur George, Third Earl of Onslow, after Delaroche and George reportedly visited the Louvre in Paris, where they saw David's version of the famous event. It had only recently been re-hung in the museum after a resurgence of interest in Napoleon, nearly 40 years after he was exiled. Agreeing that the painting was unrealistic, George, who owned a sizable collection of Napoleonic paraphernalia, commissioned Delaroche to create a more realistic depiction. Elizabeth Foucart-Walker asserts that in fact the painting that hangs in the Louvre was produced first as it was already in America by 1850, when the Liverpool painting was produced. Stephen Bann suggests that Arthur George's meeting with Delaroche may have occurred, but Delaroche chose to produce two works that are almost identical and send one to America. The Liverpool version of the painting is more refined.
200_7	Contrast to David's depiction The contrast between Jacques-Louis David's depiction of the same scene (of Napoleon traversing the Alps on his way to Italy), which was a flattering portrait that the king of Spain requested for Napoleon (as a gift) and Delaroche's depiction in Bonaparte Crossing the Alps is easily apparent. The first and most significant difference is in Napoleon, in his clothing, and in his general demeanour. David's version depicts Napoleon, dressed in an immaculate, multi-coloured uniform with a billowing cape. Delaroche's version, however, sees Napoleon in a fairly ordinary, gray coat with the sole purpose of keeping the cold away, rather than showing him as the symbol he may have represented – that of a gallant and powerful war leader, which is the impression given in David's version.
200_8	However, there is another significant difference in Napoleon himself, in the way he holds himself. David's Napoleon is flamboyant, confident in his leadership of the French army, and in his ability to cross the Alps and defeat the Austrians in Italy. Delaroche's Napoleon is instead downcast, gaunt and embittered by the harsh cold. His eyes and expressionless face evidence his weariness, his tiredness a result of the long and unstable trek.
200_9	The last properly significant difference in the two art works (excluding the actual setting, background, men seen in the distance etc.) is the difference in the animals that Napoleon rides on. In David's version, Napoleon rides a large, strong steed with a long mane, and this is one figment of David's version that is irrefutably untrue – Napoleon is known to have ridden a mule on his journey (which was borrowed from a local peasant), rather than a horse. This presence of a horse rather than a mule was one of the main grounds for Delaroche's criticism of David's version, and is the basis of Delaroche's claim that Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, which includes a mule, is a more realistic portrayal of the scene.
200_10	Analysis Setting Napoleon is seen wearing clothing appropriate for his location: over his uniform he wears a long topcoat which is wrapped firmly around him, in which he keeps his gloveless right hand warm. He retains a piece of his dignity in the gold-trimmed black bicorne he wears on his head. The mule Napoleon rides is undernourished, tired from its ordeal in struggling through the Alps. On the left of the mule is his guide, Pierre Nicholas Dorsaz, who must constantly push himself and the mule forward, and who leans heavily on the shaft of wood he clutches in his left hand to allow himself to continue moving forward. His clothes are weather-beaten, his face ruddy from the cold. He is not allowed the luxury of riding an animal, for he must be able to navigate independently, on the ground.
200_11	Elements of the cold, harsh environment of the Alps are apparent: distant mountains capped in snow rise up behind Napoleon and his troupe, while a steep cliff face appears on his left, and the path underfoot has a thick layer of ice. More members of Napoleon's entourage can be seen slightly behind him, their robust figures accentuating Bonaparte's fragility.
200_12	Napoleon is shown to be as he would have been high up in the mountains, as a mortal and imperilled man. While this seems in some way demeaning to Napoleon's figure (and contrasts in the extreme with David's version, which shows Napoleon impervious to the cold, and in a heroic light), Delaroche's artwork was not intended to portray him in a hostile or unbecoming way. Delaroche wanted to depict Napoleon as a credible man, who suffered and underwent human hardship too, on his most daring exploits, and felt that making him appear as he really would have been in the situation would by no means debase or diminish Napoleon's iconic status or legacy, but rather make him a more admirable person. Artistic style
200_13	Along with the mass of white seen behind Napoleon, the amber sunlight glow, originating from the West of Napoleon's troupe, is the central source of lighting in the painting. It introduces contrast when coupled with shadow, and, by illumination, highlights key aspects of the scene; this is particularly seen by the light that falls across Bonaparte's pigeon chest. Napoleon and the mule he is saddled on are richly textured visually by the contrasting light and shade, as is the guide leading the mule. The ice and snow layers, also, are made whiter by the sunshine from the West, brightening the whole scene. However, the overhanging cliff on the left of Napoleon's guide and the legs of the mule both cast shadows to balance the lighting scheme of the painting.
200_14	The textural hues and schemes that Delaroche uses in this painting are quite detailed and well considered, especially in regards to the most important figures; such aspects of the work were described as being '...rendered with a fidelity that has not omitted the plait of a drapery, the shaggy texture of the four-footed animal, nor a detail of the harness on his back'. The mule, especially its fur, was intensely textured and detailed to make it look visually rough and bristly, and the mule itself weary and worn. The same techniques were applied to the red and yellow adornments draped and hung over the animal. The central detail of Napoleon is applied to his coat, in its ruffles and creases. Much detail and textural diversity is given to the guide too, most particularly to his face, his green, wind-caught tunic, and his leather boots.
200_15	Delaroche's attention to detail and literal precision in this painting evidences and demonstrates the slow but steady evolution of realism in art during the 19th century, and how its popularity began to rise. Reception The work, despite its attempt to depict Napoleon realistically, was criticised by several authorities for a variety of reasons. A few disapproved of Delaroche's choice of painting, while others disapproved of Delaroche himself, saying, in some form, that he sought the genius of Napoleon, to no avail. Soon after its completion, the work was taken to England, and there, in 1850, it was reviewed by the critic of the Atheneum, a literary magazine. The magazine's comments on the work indicated that, while they praised the painting for several of its features, they criticised Delaroche, for various reasons:
200_16	Some were displeased with Delaroche's work at the time in general, and, in part, Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, criticising what was described as his 'lowered standards in art'. Such critics included The Gentleman's Magazine, who wrote the following text about Delaroche: Gallery Notes
200_17	I Bonaparte chose to ride across the alps on a mule (obtained at a convent at Martigny) rather than a steed, the typical gentleman's mount at the time, because the mule was considered to be more sure-footed on the slippery slopes and narrow passes of the Alps, and to be more sturdy and hardy while making such a perilous journey on such volatile terrain. II Napoleon ordered the assemblage of over 5,000 artillery for transport through the pass, despite the fact that the pass was widely considered to be much too narrow, and the route too volatile and unstable, to allow any form of artillery, light or heavy, to come through. Thus, Napoleon's military advisers warned him against this move, but he insisted on this presence of this great number of artillery. IIIIn addition to these figures, approximately 3,600 French men were wounded, with over 900 captured or missing, and almost 5,520 Austrians were wounded, with over 2,900 captured (missing numbers cannot be accurately estimated).
200_18	IVThe painting was rehung as a result of the revival of Napoleon's reputation, and a fresh interest into his exploits. However, before this, in 1815, the year Napoleon was exiled, Napoleonic-themed art was proscribed for artists and painters, as he was not well liked because of events that had occurred in the few years immediately preceding 1815, and Napoleon's exile. It was only truly by the 1830s that artwork related to the emperor was being created once more. As such, after being removed from the walls of the Louvre around 1815, David's version had been re-hung by the time Delaroche observed it.
200_19	VThe king of Spain (of the time) commissioned Jacques-Louis David's Napoleon Crossing the Alps as a friendly gesture towards Napoleon, hoping that the flattering gift would strengthen relationships between France and Spain, to the degree that Napoleon would not consider invading Spain and taking it over, after he became emperor. However, the king of Spain's attempt failed, and, soon after Napoleon crowned himself emperor, he crossed the Pyrenees and conquered Spain. VIThe Athenæum was a widely read literary magazine or periodical that was published in London between 1828 and 1923. Published weekly, the Athenæum grew and expanded to become one of the most influential and most widely read periodical of the Victorian era. Most of its content was composed of articles, reviews, and scientific and political news, among others. The topics covered in these texts included works of literature, fine art, music and theatre, science and politics.
200_20	Citations
200_21	References Literature Abbot, J. S. C. Napoleon Bonaparte. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Alison, A. History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution in MDCCLXXXIX to the Restoration of the Bourbons in MDCCCXV. W. Blackwood and sons, 1854. Britt, A.B. The Wars of Napoleon. Square One Publishers, Inc., 2003. . Bunbury, H.E. Narratives of some passages in the great war with France, from 1799 to 1810. 1854. Chandler, D. G. Napoleon. Leo Cooper, 2002. . Clancy-Smith, J.A. North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge, 2001. Clubbe, J. Byron, Sully, and the Power of Portraiture. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005. Dodge, T.A. Napoleon: A History of the Art of War. Adamant Media Corporation, 2001. El-Enany, R.; Inc NetLibrary Arab Representations of the Occident East-west Encounters in Arabic Fiction. Routledge, 2006.
200_22	Foucart-Walter, E. Paul Delaroche et le thème du passage du Saint-Bernard par Bonaparte pp. 367–384 in La Revue du Louvre No 5-6 1984 Herold, J.C. The Age of Napoleon . Houghton Mifflin Books, 2002. . Jefferies, F. The Gentleman's Magazine. Published 1856. Kelley, T.M. Reinventing Allegory. Cambridge University Press, 1997. The American Whig Review, by the Making of America Project. Published first in 1845. Mason, D.S. Revolutionary Europe, 1789–1989: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Murray, C.J. Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850. Taylor & Francis, 2004. Quilley, G.; Bonehill, J. Conflicting Visions: War and Visual Culture in Britain and France, C. 1700–1830 Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005. . Thiers, M.A. History of the Consulate and the Empire of France Under Napoleon. Kessinger Publishing, 2005. . Tuckerman, H.T. Poems. Ticknor, Reed, and Fields, 1851.
200_23	Walther, I.F.; Suckale, R. Masterpieces of Western Art: A History of Art in 900 Individual Studies Taschen, 2002.
200_24	Other DELAROCHE, Paul – Bonaparte Crossing the Alps Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, 1848, Paul Delaroche (1797–1856) Bonaparte Crossing the Alps''; Delaroche, Paul; 1848 External links Zoomable image of the artwork Paintings by Paul Delaroche 1848 paintings Paintings of Napoleon Paintings in the collection of the Walker Art Gallery Paintings in the Louvre by French artists Paintings in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom Horses in art
201_0	Glastonbury is a town in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States, formally founded in 1693 and first settled in 1636. The town was named after Glastonbury in Somerset, England. Glastonbury is located on the banks of the Connecticut River, southeast of Hartford. The town center is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as a census-designated place (CDP). The population was 35,159 at the 2020 census. History In 1636, 30 families were settled in Pyaug, a tract of land belonging to Wethersfield on the eastern bank of the Connecticut River, bought from the Native American chief Sowheag for of trading cloth. In 1672, Wethersfield and Hartford were granted permission by the General Court to extend the boundary line of Pyaug to the east. By 1690, residents of Pyaug had gained permission from Wethersfield to become a separate town and, in 1693, the town of Glassenbury was created.
201_1	The ties have not been completely broken: the oldest continuously operating ferry in the United States still runs between South Glastonbury and Rocky Hill, also then part of Wethersfield, as it did as far back as 1655. One result of being split off from Wethersfield was that the town was built along a main road, rather than around the large green that anchors most New England towns. After part of New London Turnpike was realigned to eliminate the rotary in the middle of town during the mid-20th century, a small green was established there. During the American Revolutionary War, several homes were used to hold classes from Yale University. Noah Webster was a student in these classes; later he taught at one of Glastonbury's one-room schoolhouses.
201_2	Glastonbury freed its slaves in the 1780s, 60 years before Connecticut formally abolished slavery. The town organized its first library in 1803. It organized the first hospital shortly after the Revolution to combat and treat smallpox. By the end of the Revolution, there were ten schools, formed one by one during the 18th century. During the American Revolution, George Stocking's gunpowder factory operated in the town. In 1785, the town residents renamed Glassenbury to Glastenbury. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Glastenbury was a shipbuilding town. Located on the Connecticut River, it had reliable waterpower and nearby hardwood forests of oak. Sawmills, charcoal kilns, and foundries developed around the shipyards to process timber and other goods for their needs.
201_3	As shipbuilding was ending, the early industrial beginning continued. The J.B. Williams Soap Factory started in 1840 in James B. Williams' drugstore in Manchester, where he experimented with chemical formulas for shaving soap. When he had produced a formula that satisfied him, he moved his business to Glastonbury. Two years later, he was joined by his brother, William Stuart Williams. They formed what is believed to be the first commercial soap manufacturing business in the world. Although shaving soap was their first product, they also made ink and shoe blacking. Products made by the J.B. Williams Company included Williams 'Lectric Shave and Aqua Velva. Over time, J.B. Williams expanded to Montreal (around 1922), England, and Argentina. When the business was sold in 1957, ten former employees organized Glastonbury Toiletries and continued operation into the 1970s. J. B. Williams Park, on Neipsic Road, is named for James B. Williams.
201_4	Remaining parts of the industrial complex have been adapted for use as the Soap Factory Condominiums. Another portion was occupied by the Glastonbury Board of Education office and is now occupied by a translation company. In 1870, the name of the town was changed from Glastenbury to Glastonbury, with a spelling to match Glastonbury, England. During the World Wars, Glastonbury factories supplied leather and woolen goods to the military of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, and the United States. In addition, Glastonbury has been a center for feldspar mills, cotton mills, paper mills, and silver plate factories. It also had an airplane building industry.
201_5	J.H. Hale Orchards began operations in 1866 in Glastonbury. John Howard Hale became known as the Peach King for developing a peach that could withstand New England winters and was disease resistant, as well as for the large, national scale of his operations. He also had land in Georgia and was the first Glastonbury industry to establish a branch outside the state. A marketing pioneer, Hale shipped peaches to markets all over the country. The orchard that started with in 1866 grew to more than by 1900. John Hale never went beyond grade school, but he initiated the founding of Storrs Agricultural College, now the University of Connecticut. He helped to organize the Glastonbury Grange and the State Grange. His home, at the intersection of Main Street and Route 17, has been adapted in the 20th century for use first as a restaurant and, more recently, for business offices.
201_6	Henry Saglio began a pioneering effort to breed a white chicken, because black pinfeathers were difficult to pluck from a bird headed for the dinner table. In 1948, the Saglio Brothers formed Arbor Acres and produced a broiler chicken that A&P Food Stores awarded the title "Chicken of Tomorrow". By 1958, Arbor Acres was selling globally. Today the brand is owned by Aviagen. In 1977, Henry Saglio was inducted into the Poultry Hall of Fame. Glastonbury was also a major grower of broad-leaf tobacco. This agricultural tradition is carried on by the orchards and berry farms on its hills. In 1993, Billy Joel filmed part of his music video for his song "The River of Dreams" in a barn in South Glastonbury. The music video also has a scene with the Rocky Hill-Glastonbury Ferry.
201_7	Historical houses Glastonbury is the town with the second-highest number of genuine colonial houses in the United States. The town has 154 houses built before 1800; only Marblehead, Massachusetts, has more, with over 200. Newport, Rhode Island, has over 300, but it is a city, not a town. Four houses in Glastonbury are from the 1600s. The town's oldest house, the John Hollister House, was built around 1675. It is one of the five oldest houses in Connecticut, and is also one of the oldest houses in the United States. Geography and climate According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 1.76%, is water. The Glastonbury Center CDP has a total area of , of which 3.30% is water.
201_8	The town begins on the banks of the Connecticut River and extends up into foothills, many of which provide a view of Hartford's skyline. Some major developments in the town are built entirely on relatively steep hills, such as "Minnechaug Mountain", the major residential area developed from the 1970s until late '90s. Part of Glastonbury resides in an area called "Kongscut Mountain", locally called "Rattlesnake Mountain", because it has a small population of timber rattlesnakes. Since that area is sparsely developed and mostly in a state forest, the snakes don't pose much of a threat. The town boasts a small private lake named Diamond Lake, which is surrounded by growing subdivisions of large homes. Access to the lake is limited to members of the Diamond Lake Property Owners Association. Glastonbury has one of the largest state forests, Meshomasic State Forest, a popular area for hiking, fishing, and hunting.
201_9	Glastonbury borders the town and cities of East Hartford, Wethersfield, Rocky Hill, Cromwell, Portland, East Hampton, Marlborough, Hebron, Bolton, and Manchester. Climate The town center experiences a humid continental climate (Dfa). However, the rural parts of the town, at an elevation of 800 feet near Bolton and Hebron, experience a colder climate which straddles the (Dfa) and (Dfb) lines. Principal communities Addison Buckingham East Glastonbury Glastonbury Center Hopewell South Glastonbury Demographics
201_10	As of the census of 2000, the racial makeup of the town was 93.10% White, 1.53% African American, 0.15% Native American, 3.40% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.91% from other races, and 0.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.51% of the population. There were 31,876 people, 12,257 households, and 8,984 families residing in the town. The population density was 620.5 people per square mile (239.6/km2). There were 12,614 housing units at an average density of 245.5 per square mile (94.8/km2). There were 12,257 households, out of which 1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.7% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 22.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.06.
201_11	In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 4.1% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 27.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males. The median income for a household in the town was $80,660, and the median income for a family was $94,978. Males had a median income of $68,083 versus $43,810 for females. The per capita income for the town was $40,820. About 1.5% of families and 2.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.8% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over. Economy Top employers Top employers in Glastonbury according to the town's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report Government and politics
201_12	Notable people Samuel J. Battle, first black police officer in the NYPD, lived and worked in East Glastonbury in 1899 upon coming north from North Carolina Candace Bushnell, author, journalist and television producer Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy under Abraham Lincoln Thomas Welles, Governor of Connecticut in 1658 and 1659 Transportation
201_13	The major highway in Glastonbury is Connecticut Route 2, serving the town with six exits. Connecticut Route 3 only has the Main Street exit in Glastonbury. The expressway then follows its westward route across the Putnam Bridge into Wethersfield before connecting with Interstate 91. Route 17 has two exits in Glastonbury: the New London Turnpike and Hubbard Street. It then reduces to a surface street, merging with Main Street in South Glastonbury. The 95 (formerly O) route of Connecticut Transit (CT Transit) buses runs between downtown Hartford and Glastonbury, usually terminating at the corner of Main Street and Hebron Avenue. The 91 (formerly X) route travels between Wethersfield and the Buckland Hills area in Manchester via the Somerset Square Shopping Center. The 904-Glastonbury Express route conveniently operates into Putnam Bridge, St. Paul's, and St. Augustine's Park & Ride lots.
201_14	The Rocky Hill–Glastonbury ferry operates between May 1 and October 31. It is the oldest continually operating ferry in the United States, dating back to 1655. Fees are $5 for a vehicle and $1 for pedestrians and bicyclists. The trip across the Connecticut River takes approximately 4 minutes.
201_15	Schools There are five elementary schools in Glastonbury: Buttonball Lane School, Hebron Avenue School, Hopewell School, Naubuc School, and Nayaug School. A sixth elementary school, Eastbury School, closed in 2018. Each school has between 288 and 608 students. There are two middle schools in Glastonbury. Gideon Welles School has just over 500 students for the 6th grade, and Smith Middle School has 1,035 students in the 7th and 8th grades. The town's high school, Glastonbury High School, has 2,173 students, as of October 2013. Glastonbury's school system was referenced in episode 563 Act 2 of NPR's " This American Life" titled My Secret Public Plan
201_16	Town events and activities The most notable town event is the CT River Valley Chamber of Commerce (formerly the Glastonbury Chamber of Commerce) Apple Harvest & Music Festival, or 'Apple Fest.' The festival occurs annually every October during the apple harvest season. The festival is a town-wide event lasting three days that includes live music, a 5K road race, various rides, attractions, and vendors specializing in handmade crafts. Other events include the Under a Strawberry Moon Festival in June and various events held by the local Town Center Initiative. The Glastonbury Youth and Family Services' Creative Experiences puts on annual drama productions and family events. Popular sporting events include three 5K races organized by the Glastonbury River Runners, a local running club. Founded in 2008 by Rich Baber, the club now boasts 230+ members.
201_17	The annual Glastonbury Art Walk, a joint project of the Town Center Initiative and Glastonbury Art Guild, showcases the works of local artists in businesses all over the town center. In 1993, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the founding of the town, an exchange of bands was made between Glastonbury, England, and Glastonbury, Connecticut, resulting in Glastonbury's hosting the Glastonbury Brass Band for several enjoyable performances. The town has four private pool and tennis clubs; Minnechaug, Orchard Hill, Woodledge, and Pinebrook. Glastonbury also has a private country club with a golf course, Glastonbury Hills Country Club. The other golf course in town is a nine-hole course named Minnechaug Golf Course, located at the base of Minnechaug Mountain and owned by the town. Public aquatic facilities include the Grange pool, Eastbury Pond, an indoor pool at Glastonbury High School, and a pool at Addison Park.
201_18	Cotton Hollow Nature Preserve is located in South Glastonbury and is open to residents for fishing and hiking. It is spread out across 80 acres and used to be home to several mills during the 18th and 19th centuries, which no longer stand, except for the ruins of the cotton mill which was built in 1814. The name of the stream of water that runs through the preserve is known as Roaring Brook. Glastonbury is also home to several parks open to residents including Addison Park, Blackledge Falls, Buckingham Park, Butler Field, Center Green, Earle Park, Cotton Hollow Preserve, Eastbury Pond, Ferry Landing, Grange Pool, Great Pond Reserve, Hubbard Green, Riverfront Park, Salmon Brook Park, Shoddy Mill Preserve, and J.B. Williams Park, along with several others. Glastonbury is home to several plazas that include shops and restaurants. Some include Eric Town Square, The Griswold Shopping Center, and Somerset Square.
201_19	Residents are also known to enjoy the orchards of South Glastonbury, most of which are located along the Matson Hill road and Woodland Street area of town. Here, guests can buy and pick their own freshly and locally grown produce and fruits, such as blueberries and pumpkins. In the winter months, some locations sell Christmas trees. References External links Town of Glastonbury official website Glastonbury Chamber of Commerce 1693 establishments in Connecticut Towns in Hartford County, Connecticut Connecticut populated places on the Connecticut River Towns in Connecticut Greater Hartford
202_0	Vallorbe () is a municipality in the district of Jura-Nord Vaudois in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. History Vallorbe is first mentioned in 1139 as de valle urbanensi. In 1148 it was mentioned as de valle urbe. Geography Vallorbe has an area, , of . Of this area, or 22.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 66.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 9.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.2% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.6% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.5% and transportation infrastructure made up 4.3%. Out of the forested land, 64.6% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.2% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 1.4% is used for growing crops and 16.6% is pastures and 3.9% is used for alpine pastures. Of the water in the municipality, 0.4% is in lakes and 0.8% is in rivers and streams.
202_1	The municipality was part of the Orbe District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Vallorbe became part of the new district of Jura-Nord Vaudois. The municipality is located on the Swiss-French border. It is surrounded on three sides with mountains and reaches from in elevation. On the east side, the valley opens up due to the Jougnenaz and Orbe rivers. It includes the hamlets of Le Day, Le Creux and Bellevue. Coat of arms The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or, on a Bend wavy Azure a Trout proper bendwise. Demographics Vallorbe has a population () of . , 23.1% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 7.2%. It has changed at a rate of 10% due to migration and at a rate of -1.8% due to births and deaths.
202_2	Most of the population () speaks French (2,776 or 85.5%), with Italian being second most common (114 or 3.5%) and Albanian being third (78 or 2.4%). There are 74 people who speak German and 3 people who speak Romansh. The age distribution, , in Vallorbe is; 327 children or 9.9% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 422 teenagers or 12.7% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 418 people or 12.6% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 391 people or 11.8% are between 30 and 39, 481 people or 14.5% are between 40 and 49, and 460 people or 13.9% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 353 people or 10.7% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 262 people or 7.9% are between 70 and 79, there are 170 people or 5.1% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 27 people or 0.8% who are 90 and older.
202_3	, there were 1,248 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,585 married individuals, 245 widows or widowers and 169 individuals who are divorced. , there were 1,385 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. There were 515 households that consist of only one person and 82 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 1,400 households that answered this question, 36.8% were households made up of just one person and there were 9 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 414 married couples without children, 372 married couples with children There were 61 single parents with a child or children. There were 14 households that were made up of unrelated people and 15 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
202_4	there were 256 single family homes (or 40.2% of the total) out of a total of 637 inhabited buildings. There were 233 multi-family buildings (36.6%), along with 102 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (16.0%) and 46 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (7.2%). , a total of 1,363 apartments (84.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 126 apartments (7.8%) were seasonally occupied and 123 apartments (7.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.4 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.29%. The historical population is given in the following chart: Heritage sites of national significance Vallorbe international railway station is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire urban village of Vallorbe is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
202_5	Politics In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.59% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (25.93%), the FDP (13.57%) and the Green Party (9.59%). In the federal election, a total of 745 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 38.1%. Economy , Vallorbe had an unemployment rate of 7.7%. , there were 45 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 21 businesses involved in this sector. 713 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 34 businesses in this sector. 702 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 112 businesses in this sector. There were 1,432 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.1% of the workforce.
202_6	the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 1,282. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 31, of which 24 were in agriculture, 6 were in forestry or lumber production and 1 was in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 682 of which 579 or (84.9%) were in manufacturing and 59 (8.7%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 569. In the tertiary sector; 184 or 32.3% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 68 or 12.0% were in the movement and storage of goods, 50 or 8.8% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1 was in the information industry, 6 or 1.1% were the insurance or financial industry, 14 or 2.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 55 or 9.7% were in education and 53 or 9.3% were in health care.
202_7	, there were 1,285 workers who commuted into the municipality and 662 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.9 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 37.7% of the workforce coming into Vallorbe are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 11.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 57.1% used a private car.
202_8	Transportation Vallorbe CFF is the first and last Swiss railway station served by the TGV Lyria railway line from Lausanne to Paris. Vallorbe is also served by Swiss Federal Railways' hourly running suburban train S2 on the Simplon Railway to Lausanne and further to Palézieux. CFF also runs hourly services on the Vallorbe–Le Brassus railway line into the Vallée de Joux to Le Brassus in the south-west end of the valley. From there a bus connection connects Le Brassus with Nyon at the Lake of Geneva. They are all part of the integrated mobilis (canton of Vaud) fare network. Religion
202_9	From the , 1,130 or 34.8% were Roman Catholic, while 1,260 or 38.8% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 34 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.05% of the population), and there were 246 individuals (or about 7.58% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 239 (or about 7.36% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 9 individuals who were Buddhist, 1 person who was Hindu and 9 individuals who belonged to another church. 262 (or about 8.07% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 177 individuals (or about 5.45% of the population) did not answer the question.
202_10	Education In Vallorbe about 995 or (30.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 182 or (5.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 182 who completed tertiary schooling, 56.6% were Swiss men, 22.5% were Swiss women, 14.3% were non-Swiss men and 6.6% were non-Swiss women.
202_11	In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 421 students in the Vallorbe school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 578 children of which 359 children (62.1%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 215 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 196 students in those schools. There were also 10 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school. , there were 100 students in Vallorbe who came from another municipality, while 101 residents attended schools outside the municipality. References Municipalities of the canton of Vaud Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Vaud
203_0	Gangster is a 2006 Indian Hindi-language romantic thriller film directed by Anurag Basu. It stars Emraan Hashmi, Kangana Ranaut and Shiney Ahuja. The music is composed by Pritam. The film was rumored to be based on the life of mobster Abu Salem and former actress Monica Bedi, but director Basu has denied any similarities to any real characters or incidents. It was the debut of actress Kangana Ranaut, and released theatrically on 28 April 2006. Ranaut's performance received widespread critical acclaim, winning her several accolades including the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut at the 52nd Filmfare Awards. Plot Simran (Kangana Ranaut) drowns her misery in booze. Her one friend in Seoul is Aakash (Emraan Hashmi), a singer in an Indian restaurant.
203_1	Originally a bar dancer in Mumbai, India, Simran is the girlfriend of a notorious gangster, Daya (Shiney Ahuja). Five years ago, Daya's boss Khan (Gulshan Grover) ordered him to give Simran up. When Khan threatened Simran, Daya turned on him and Khan cut Daya loose from his gang. She and Daya were forced to flee to Seoul. They took a small boy named Bittu with them. After an encounter with the Mumbai police, Bittu was killed, causing a strain in the couple's relationship and pushing Simran toward alcoholism. Leaving Simran alone in Seoul, Daya went to work in Mauritius and then Dubai.
203_2	Aakash tells Simran that he cares for her despite her past, and their relationship gradually develops from friendship to love. Daya, who is still in Dubai, suddenly comes to Seoul. When he learns of Simran's affair with Aakash, he attacks and severely beats him in a fit of rage and jealousy. Daya then professes his love for her and promises to reform and fulfill her dreams of a normal life; he also tells her that if she truly loves Aakash he will not hold her back. Before Simran can respond, the police arrive in pursuit of Daya and Simran. The two flee. Daya gives up murdering innocents and begins working odd jobs, admitting to Simran that he has found peace in doing honest work. He says that he would like to return to his village in India with her, so that they might live there peacefully. To do so he would have to perform one last crime: fake passports for him and Simran.
203_3	Simran, who is longing for Aakash, soon discovers that she is pregnant with his child. When she tells Aakash, he meets her and tells her he would like to marry her, but they will never find peace as long as Daya is at large. He says that for the sake of their unborn child, Daya must be turned in to the police and only Simran can do this. Simran, who is still emotionally attached to Daya, refuses. Meanwhile, Daya, who has gone to forge passports for himself and Simran, is intercepted by Khan, who reminds Daya of what had occurred between them years before and says that he intends to make an example of Daya for abandoning the gang. Khan and his men severely beat and wound Daya, who is eventually able to fight back and kills Khan. He then calls Simran, warning her that the police are after them and asking her to meet him outside a Seoul train station that night.
203_4	Simran arrives at the appointed time to find Daya badly injured from his fight with Khan. He manages to crawl to Simran and takes out a box of sindoor for her. But just as he reaches and embraces her, they are surrounded by police cars. Daya realises that Simran informed the police; heartbroken and screaming, he is hauled away. Simran remains at the station until morning and then goes to meet Aakash, whom she finds is not at home. She is soon informed that he is at the Indian embassy.
203_5	When she reaches the embassy, she enters a room full of reporters and sees a large screen showing a video of her telling Aakash about her relationship with Daya. She is thunderstruck when she sees that the one addressing the media is none other than Aakash, who is actually an undercover Indian detective hired to capture Daya. Realizing that Aakash befriended and wooed her solely to discover Daya's whereabouts, she explodes in fury in front of the media; Aakash holds her back and slaps her across the face. He tells her that he never cared for her and that his involvement with her was only a part of his duty to end organised crime and bring justice to his country. Enraged, Simran tries to attack him, but she is stopped by security. While she is being hauled away, she yells that to spread justice Aakash and his colleagues have done her an injustice and that Daya, who has never betrayed anyone, is not the gangster but Aakash and his men are. She reminds Aakash that he has betrayed the
203_6	woman who is carrying his child and that he will regret his actions.
203_7	Daya, who has been arrested and taken to jail, sends Simran a letter saying that he does not blame her for what she did and that she is the one who has been betrayed; he admits that he has done many cruel and bad things but that, thanks to her, he now knows what it is like to live an honest life. He encloses her fake passport and, stating his love for her, writes that he would feel better knowing that she is living safely in India. After reading Daya's letter, Simran is left pained and guilty. Months later, Daya admits and pleads guilty to his crimes. He is tried and sentenced to death. Simran goes to meet him in prison and asks him to forgive her; they share an emotional goodbye. She later goes to Aakash's residence and, forcefully entering his house with a gun, shoots and fatally injures him. Before he lapses into unconsciousness, Aakash shoots her in the shoulder and they are found and taken to a hospital.
203_8	Aakash dies in the hospital while Simran is transferred to the I.C.U. At dawn she escapes to the roof, where she commits suicide by jumping off the roof. At the same time, Daya is hanged. Simran is shown falling through the air. Before she reaches the ground we see her standing in a meadow and gazing at Daya, who is holding Bittu. Smiling, they hold out their arms to her; she happily runs toward them, and they embrace in heaven. Cast Emraan Hashmi as Akash Kapadia Kangana Ranaut as Simran Malvade Shiney Ahuja as Daya Shankar Gulshan Grover as Khan Bhai (special appearance) Hitanshu Lodhia as Bittu Vicky Ahuja as Daya's friend Zubeen Garg (special appearance in song "Ya Ali") Pritam as himself (special appearance in song "Bheegi Bheegi") Pakistani cricketer Shoaib Akhtar was initially offered the role of Daya, but he turned it down saying, "Cricket is not only my profession but my obsession as well". Critical reception
203_9	Gangster received positive reviews from critics, with particular praise directed towards the music, screenplay and performances of the cast. Raja Sen of Rediff.com said that "Ranaut is a remarkable find, the actress coming across with great conviction. Hers is the pivotal character and an extremely difficult role to essay, but she manages it well. Ranaut's nuances [of an alcoholic character] are disconcertingly realistic. Hashmi also received positive reviews for his portrayal of an undercover detective. Raja Sen added, "His character is an understated one, and he manages to keep it that way. There is no unnecessary bluster or melodrama, and he does a pretty believable job. There is something lazy about his acting, by which I mean he makes the job look easy". Awards 52nd Filmfare Awards Won Best Female Debut – Kangana Ranaut Nominated
203_10	Best Villain – Emraan Hashmi Best Male Playback Singer – Zubeen Garg for "Ya Ali" Best Story – Mahesh Bhatt Best Screenplay – Anurag Basu Best Dialogue – Girish Dhamija Best Editing – Akiv Ali Best Cinematography – Bobby Singh Best Sound Design – Akiv Ali Best Action – Parvez Kiran 8th IIFA Awards Star Debut of the Year – Female – Kangana Ranaut Zee Cine Awards Best Female Debut – Kangana Ranaut Star Screen Awards Best Female Debut – Kangana Ranaut Global Indian Film Awards Best Female Debut – Kangana Ranaut Stardust Awards Superstar of Tomorrow (Female) – Kangana Ranaut Superstar of Tomorrow (Male) – Shiney Ahuja New Musical Sensation Award (Male) - Zubeen Garg Soundtrack
203_11	The soundtrack is composed by Pritam. The complete album consisted of five original tracks and four remixes. Saregama brought the music rights of the Film. The song "Bheegi Bheegi" is a modern re-creation of the song "Prithibi Ta Naki" by Moheener Ghoraguli. Singer Kailash Kher was originally supposed to sing "Ya Ali", but he had to go off for an international tour. "Ya Ali" is a rip-off of the Kuwaiti pop song "Ya Ghali" by the Kuwaiti band Guitara. Palestinian Bollywood blogger, Ahmad Rashad Arafa, who has familial ties to Kuwait, called "Ya Ali" a "Sufi-esque dud that doesn't hold a candle to the original Kuwaiti song."
203_12	Reception The soundtrack was popular upon release with songs like "Ya Ali", "Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" & "Bheegi Bheegi" topping the charts and hence were declared chartbusters within a week. Gangster became the fifth best-selling album of 2006 in India selling 16,00,000 units. Aakash Gandhi from Planet Bollywood rated the album 7.5/10 and wrote, "All in all, I would say that Gangster is a sure winner. It has mass appeal; it has a flavorful array of tunes to sample, and it features some fresh singers." Track list References Gangster Movie's Music External links 2006 films 2006 crime drama films Indian gangster films 2000s Hindi-language films Indian films Films shot in South Korea Indian romantic thriller films Films featuring songs by Pritam Films set in South Korea Hindi films remade in other languages Indian crime drama films 2000s romantic thriller films Films directed by Anurag Basu
204_0	The Severn Tunnel () is a railway tunnel in the United Kingdom, linking South Gloucestershire in the west of England to Monmouthshire in south Wales under the estuary of the River Severn. It was constructed by the Great Western Railway (GWR) between 1873 and 1886 for the purpose of dramatically shortening the journey times of their trains, passenger and freight alike, between South Wales and Western England. Its completion has often been regarded as having represented the crowning achievement of the noted Victorian civil engineer and GWR's chief engineer Sir John Hawkshaw.
204_1	Prior to the Severn Tunnel, lengthy detours were necessary for all traffic between South Wales and Western England, which either used ship or a lengthy diversion upriver via . Recognising the value of such a tunnel, the GWR sought its development, tasking Hawkshaw with its design and later contracting the civil engineer Thomas A. Walker to undertake its construction, which commenced in March 1873. Work proceeded smoothly until October 1879, at which point significant flooding of the tunnel occurred from what is now known as “The Great Spring”. Through strenuous and innovative efforts, the flooding was contained and work was able to continue, albeit with a great emphasis on drainage. Structurally completed during 1885, the first passenger train was run through the Severn Tunnel on 1 December 1886, nearly 14 years after the commencement of work.
204_2	Following its opening, the Severn Tunnel quickly formed a key element of the main trunk railway line between southern England and South Wales. Amongst other services, the GWR operated a car shuttle train service through the tunnel for many decades. However, the Severn Tunnel has also presented especially difficult conditions, both operationally and in terms of infrastructure and structural maintenance. On average, around 50 million litres of water per day infiltrates the tunnel, necessitating the permanent operation of several large pumping engines. Originally, during much of the steam era, a large number of pilot and banking locomotives were required to assist heavy trains traverse the challenging gradients of the tunnel, which deployed from nearby marshalling yards. Time has proven that these factors have been within the realm of manageability.
204_3	The Severn Tunnel is four miles and 624 yards (7,008 m) long, although only miles (3.62 km) of the tunnel are under the river. The Severn Tunnel was the longest underwater tunnel in the world until 1987 and, for more than 100 years, it was the longest mainline railway tunnel within the UK. It was finally exceeded in this capacity during 2007 with the opening of the two major tunnels of High Speed 1, forming a part of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link. In 2016, Overhead line equipment (OHLE) was installed in the Severn Tunnel to allow the passage of electric traction through its length; this work was undertaken as one element of the wider 21st-century modernisation of the Great Western main line. General
204_4	The Severn Tunnel forms a critical part of the trunk railway line between southern England and South Wales, and carries an intensive passenger train service as well as significant levels of freight traffic. As of 2012, an average of 200 trains per day use the tunnel. The whole length of the tunnel is controlled as a single signal section, which has the consequence of limiting the headway of successive trains. The steep gradients (1 in 90 and 1 in 100) make the working of heavy freight trains difficult.
204_5	There is a continuous drainage culvert between the tracks to lead ground water away to the lowest point of the tunnel, under Sudbrook Pumping Station, where it is pumped to the surface. The hazard of ignited petroleum running into the culvert in the event of derailment of a tank wagon means special arrangements have to be made to prevent occupation of the tunnel by passenger trains while hazardous liquid loads are being worked through. Evacuation arrangements are in place to enable the escape of passengers and staff in the event of serious accident in the tunnel.
204_6	There is restricted personnel access to the tunnel at Sudbrook Pumping Station, where an iron ladder descends in the shaft of the water pumping main; the ventilation air is pumped in at this point also. The GWR original ventilation arrangement was to extract air at Sudbrook, but the exhaust gases from steam train operation led to premature corrosion of the fan mechanism. When the Cornish pumping engines were replaced in the 1960s, the draughting was reversed so that atmospheric air is pumped into the tunnel exhausting at the tunnel mouths. On average, it has been determined that around per day of fresh (spring) water are typically being pumped from the tunnel; this is normally released directly into the adjacent River Severn. Attempts have also been made to try to determine the sources of the water which feeds the "Great Spring".
204_7	The especially difficult conditions for infrastructure maintenance in the tunnel, as well as the physical condition of the tunnel structure, require a higher than normal degree of maintenance attention. Access and personal safety difficulties mean that significant work tasks can only be performed during temporary line closure, during which trains are normally diverted via . It is claimed that the tunnel would be full of water within 26 minutes if the pumps were switched off and backup measures failed, while Network Rail has also observed that the corrosive atmosphere of the tunnel, produced from a combination of moisture and diesel fumes from passing trains, results in so much corrosion that the steel rails need to be replaced every six years. History Construction
204_8	Prior to the building of the tunnel, the railway journey between the Bristol area and South Wales involved a ferry journey between and or a long detour via . Officials within the Great Western Railway (GWR) Company soon realised that the rail journey time between the two locations could be significantly shortened by construction of a tunnel directly underneath the River Severn. As such, during the early 1870s, GWR's chief engineer, Sir John Hawkshaw, developed his design for this tunnel. On 27 June 1872, the company obtained an Act of Parliament which authorised the construction of the envisioned railway tunnel as a replacement for the ferry between Portskewett, Monmouthshire and Lew Passage, Gloucestershire.
204_9	On 18 March 1873, construction activity commenced using labourers employed directly by the GWR; this initial work was focused on the sinking of a shaft, possessing a diameter of at Sudbrook and a smaller drainage heading near the Pennant Measures. The rate of early work on the tunnel was slow and gradual, but without major incident. By August 1877, only the shaft and a heading had been completed; accordingly, that same year, new contracts were issued for the digging of additional shafts at both sides of the Severn as well as new headings along the tunnel's intended route.
204_10	As the civil engineer Thomas A. Walker, who was appointed as the contractor for the tunnel's construction, notes in his book, the GWR had expected the critical part of the work to be the tunnelling under the deep-water channel of the Shoots. However, the most substantial difficulties of the venture were encountered during October 1879, when, with only 130 yards (119 m) separating the main tunnel heading being driven from the Monmouthshire side and the shorter Gloucestershire heading, the workings were inundated. The incoming water was fresh, not from the Severn but from the Welsh side, and the source became known as "The Great Spring".
204_11	Walker was entrusted by Hawkshaw to proceed with efforts to rescue and then complete the tunnel following the 1879 flooding. To achieve this required holding the Great Spring in check, which in turn was accomplished via the installation of greatly-increased pumping facilities, while a diver also had to be sent down a shaft and along the tunnel heading to close a watertight door in the workings, sealing off the waters. During November 1880, this troublesome task was finally achieved by the lead diver, Alexander Lambert, who was equipped with Henry Fleuss' newly developed self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA); however, work in the area of the Great Spring was unable to continue until January 1881, at which point the Great Spring was temporarily sealed off.
204_12	On 26 September 1881, the two headings met, marking a key milestone in the tunnel's construction, efforts transferred to addressing the tunnel's final structure along with the long deep cuttings at either end. During October 1883, work was again disrupted by further flooding originating from the Great Spring, which was further compounded by the appearance of a spring tide only a week later; again, Lambert and other divers managed to save the day and seal the works. It was recognised that water ingress problems were to continue, thus a heading was driven at a gradient of 1 in 500 from the original Sudbrook shaft, continuing until it reached the fissure through which the Great Spring flowed. By diverting the water into the new heading, the walled-in section of the tunnel could be more easily drained and finished.
204_13	There were additional mishaps which afflicted the construction site; at one point, there was an unintentional breakthrough of the bed of a pool, known as the "Salmon Pool", on the English side of the tunnel. It had been originally assumed that the continuous brickwork lining of the tunnel would withstand the groundwater pressure, thus the drainage sluice valve on the side heading was closed and all but one of the pumps were taken from the site. However, on 20 December 1885, the pressure rose so high (up to 395 kN per sq m) that a number of bricks were discovered to have been pushed out of the lining. To address this, the sluice valve was opened gradually, allowing the pressure to subside but necessitating the long-term operation of additional pumping engines. In the intervening period, the Severn Railway Bridge, a competing means for railway traffic to traverse the Severn, spanning between Sharpness and Lydney, was also being built, eventually being opened to traffic during 1879.
204_14	On 22 October 1884, work commenced on the laying of the double tracks throughout the tunnel. On 18 April 1885, the final brick was placed in the tunnel's lining. It possessed a horseshoe-shaped cross-section, complete with a concave floor, having a height of 6.1 meters above the rails along with a maximum width of . An enclosed drainage channel, in the form of an upturned semi-circular tunnel, is built onto the tunnel invert, below the rails and having a height of . According to Railway Industry publication Rail Engineer, it is believed that around 76.4 million bricks were used in the tunnel's construction. The brickwork is between and thick. Around the deepest part of the tunnel, the roof is only a maximum of beneath the river bed.
204_15	During mid-1885, the Severn Tunnel was completed from a structural standing. To mark this accomplishment, on 5 September 1885, a special passenger train carrying numerous company officials and VIPs, including Sir Daniel Gooch, the then-chairman of the GWR Company, travelled through the tunnel. The first goods train passed through it on 9 January 1886. However, regular services would have to wait until the permanent pumping systems were complete. On 17 November 1886, the tunnel works were inspected by Colonel F. H. Rich, the Government Inspector, a necessary step in advance of its opening to any passenger traffic. Colonel Rich approved the works; thus, the tunnel was opened to regular goods trains during September 1886; the first passenger train followed on 1 December 1886, by which point nearly 14 years had passed since work on the tunnel had started.
204_16	Operations At the newly built station, the GWR built a major marshalling yard, which: distributed east and north, sending coal from the South Wales Valleys towards London and the Midlands; created mainline and localised mixed-traffic freight from goods shipped in from the Midlands, the Southwest and along the Thames Valley, both westwards into Wales and vice versa.
204_17	Due to the access gradients, throughout the steam era, assistance was required for the passage of all heavy trains through the Severn Tunnel, which entailed (eastwards, from ): of 1-in-90 down to the middle of the tunnel; a further at 1-in-100 up to ; a short level then more at 1-in-100 to . This meant that the associated locomotive shed at Severn Tunnel Junction (86E), had a large number of pilot and banking locomotives to assist heavy trains through the tunnel. Under typical operations, pilot locomotives usually worked eastwards and were detached at Pilning, and would then work westwards piloting a second train back to the marshalling yard. During the latter days of steam under British Rail, these locomotives were mainly a group of latter-built GWR 5101 Class 2-6-2T locomotives, the bulk of which now form the core preserved stock of that class today.
204_18	A number of fixed Cornish engines, powered by Lancashire boilers, were used to permanently pump out the Great Spring and other sources of water from the tunnel. These were still in regular use until the 1960s, at which point they were replaced by electrically powered pumps. These pumps and their control systems have since been replaced during the 1990s by privately owned railway infrastructure company Railtrack. During the 1930s, the availability of the reliable fresh water supply from the Great Spring was a significant contributing factor in favour of the selection of an adjacent site to be established as the Royal Navy Propellant Factory, Caerwent. Water was also supplied for paper manufacture to a mill at Sudbrook; this facility has since been closed.
204_19	On 7 December 1991, the Severn Tunnel rail accident occurred, involving an InterCity 125 that was struck from behind by a Class 155. The subsequent accident investigation, while unable to reach a firm conclusion on the cause, indicated that the axle counters used for detecting train movements in the tunnel may have been accidentally reset. The Second Severn Crossing, which was built during the 1990s, crosses over the tunnel via a "ground level bridge" on the English side, near the Salmon Pool. This bridge is supported in such a way that no load is imposed on the tunnel. During that bridge's construction, the opportunity was taken to renew the concrete cap above the tunnel in the Salmon Pool. In 2002, two Class 121s were overhauled by LNWR, Crewe for use as a Network Rail emergency train that was stabled near Severn Tunnel Junction station. They were removed in 2008 having never been used. Car transport
204_20	During 1924, the Great Western Railway started a car shuttle train service using the tunnel, which would transport cars on rail trucks through the tunnel between Pilning and Severn Tunnel Junction. The service functioned as a rail-based alternative to the Aust Ferry, which was operated under an erratic timetable determined by the tides, or lengthy road journeys via Gloucester. The rail shuttle service was continued after the end of World War II, but was ultimately made redundant by the opening of the Severn Bridge in 1966, leading to its discontinuation shortly thereafter. Electrification
204_21	As part of the 21st-century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line, the tunnel was prepared for electrification. While the structure provided good clearances and was therefore relatively easy to electrify, there was also a detracting factor in the form of the continuous seepage of water through the tunnel roof in some areas, which provided a key engineering challenge. The options of using either conventional tunnel electrification equipment or a covered solid beam technology were considered; supported by studies, it was decided to use the solid beam approach. Accordingly, along the length of the tunnel's roof, an aluminium conductor rail was installed to hold an un-tensioned copper contact cable; this rail is held in place using roughly 7000 high-grade stainless steel fixtures, which should be resistant to the hostile tunnel environment. Reportedly, the rigid rail is more robust, requires less maintenance, and is more compact than traditional overhead wires, and has been used in
204_22	several other tunnels along the GWML.
204_23	In order to install the overhead electrification equipment, a six-week closure of the Severn Tunnel was necessary, which commenced on 12 September 2016. During that time, alternative means of travel were either a longer train journey via Gloucester, or a bus service between Severn Tunnel Junction and Bristol Parkway stations. Also during that time, and possibly later, there were direct flights between Cardiff and London City Airport. Following the completion of this work, which involved the installation of of copper contact wires using 1,700 vertical drop tubes and 857 anchoring points at a rough cost of £10 million to perform, the tunnel was reopened to regular traffic on 22 October 2016. However, less than two years later, another three-week closure of the tunnel was enacted after it was discovered that some of the recently installed overhead electrification equipment had already started to rust. To combat corrosion, aluminium wire was used, the first of its type in the United
204_24	Kingdom. Electric trains began operating through the tunnel in June 2020.
204_25	Location See also Severn tunnel (1810) Severn Tunnel rail accident Crossings of the River Severn References Citations Bibliography The Severn Tunnel: Its Construction and Difficulties (1872–1887) by Thomas A. Walker (1st edition 1888) reprinted edition 2004, Nonsuch Publishing Ltd, Stroud, England . Reissued in 2013 (from fresh photographs of the 1890 second edition) by Cambridge University Press, . (Walker was the contractor entrusted by the chief GWR engineer Sir John Hawkshaw with rescuing and completing the tunnel after the 1879 flooding) Railway Tales of the Unexpected by K Westcott-Jones , 1992, Atlantic Transport Publishers. Further reading External links History of the tunnel from the Great Western Archive Building the Severn Tunnel, how divers tried to seal the Great Spring
204_26	River Severn Transport in South Gloucestershire District Buildings and structures in South Gloucestershire District Railway tunnels in England Railway tunnels in Wales Tunnels in Wales South Wales Main Line Transport in Monmouthshire Tunnels completed in 1886 Tunnels in Gloucestershire Tunnels in Monmouthshire 1886 establishments in the United Kingdom
205_0	William Jessop (23 January 1745 – 18 November 1814) was an English civil engineer, best known for his work on canals, harbours and early railways in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Early life Jessop was born in Devonport, Devon, the son of Josias Jessop, a foreman shipwright in the Naval Dockyard. Josias Jessop was responsible for the repair and maintenance of Rudyerd's Tower, a wooden lighthouse on the Eddystone Rock. He carried out this task for twenty years until 1755, when the lighthouse burnt down. John Smeaton, a leading civil engineer, drew up plans for a new stone lighthouse and Josias became responsible for the overseeing the building work. The two men became close friends, and when Josias died in 1761, two years after the completion of the lighthouse, William Jessop was taken on as a pupil by Smeaton (who also acted as Jessop's guardian), working on various canal schemes in Yorkshire.
205_1	Jessop worked as Smeaton's assistant for a number of years before beginning to work as an engineer in his own right. He assisted Smeaton with the Calder and Hebble and the Aire and Calder navigations in Yorkshire. Grand Canal of Ireland
205_2	The first major work that Jessop is known to have carried out was the Grand Canal of Ireland. This had begun as a Government project in 1753, and it had taken seventeen years to build fourteen miles (21 km) of canal from the Dublin end. In 1772 a private company was formed to complete the canal, and consulted John Smeaton. Smeaton sent Jessop to take control of the project as principal engineer. Jessop re-surveyed the proposed line of the canal and carried the canal over the River Liffey, via the Leinster Aqueduct. He also drove the canal across the great Bog of Allen, a feat comparable with George Stephenson's crossing of the Chat Moss bog with the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The canal was carried over the bog on a high embankment. Jessop also identified sources of water and built reservoirs, so that the canal was in no danger of running dry. Having seen to all of the important details Jessop returned to England, leaving a deputy in charge to complete the canal. This was
205_3	finally done in 1805. It seems that Jessop was closely involved with the canal in Ireland until about 1787, after which time, other work flowed in.
205_4	Relationship with other engineers Jessop was a very modest man, who did not seek self-aggrandizement. Unlike other engineers, he was not jealous of rising young engineers, but rather encouraged them. He would also recommend another engineer if he was too busy to be able to undertake a commission himself. He recommended John Rennie for the post of engineer to the Lancaster Canal Company, an appointment that helped to establish Rennie's reputation. When Jessop was consulting engineer to the Ellesmere Canal Company, in 1793, the company appointed the relatively unknown Thomas Telford as resident engineer. Telford had no previous experience as a designer of canals, but with Jessop's advice and guidance, Telford made a success of the project. He supported Telford, even when the Company thought that the latter's designs for aqueducts were too ambitious. Cromford Canal
205_5	In 1789 Jessop was appointed chief engineer to the Cromford Canal Company. The proposed canal was intended to carry limestone, coal and iron ore from the Derwent and upper Erewash valleys and join the nearby Erewash Canal. The important features of this canal are the Derwent Viaduct, which was a single span viaduct carrying the canal over the River Derwent, and the Butterley Tunnel (formerly the Ripley Tunnel). In 1793, the Derwent Viaduct partially collapsed, and Jessop shouldered the blame, saying that he had not made the front walls strong enough. He had the viaduct repaired and strengthened at his own expense. The Butterley Tunnel was 2,966 yards (2712m) long, wide and high and required thirty-three shafts to be sunk from the surface to build it. Jessop built the Butterley Reservoir above the tunnel, extending for . Butterley Company
205_6	In 1790 Jessop founded, jointly with partners Benjamin Outram, Francis Beresford and John Wright, the Butterley Iron Works in Derbyshire to manufacture (amongst other things) cast-iron edge rails – a design Jessop had used successfully on a horse-drawn railway scheme for coal wagons between Nanpantan and Loughborough, Leicestershire (1789). Outram was concerned with the production of ironwork and equipment for Jessop's engineering projects. Grand Junction Canal
205_7	The Oxford Canal had been built by James Brindley and carried coal to large parts of southern England. However it did not provide a sufficiently direct route between the Midlands and London. As a result, a new canal was proposed to run from the Oxford Canal at Braunston, near Rugby, and to end at the Thames at Brentford, a length of ninety miles. Jessop was appointed Chief Engineer to the Canal Company in 1793. The canal was especially difficult to plan because, whereas other canals tended to follow river valleys and only crossed a watershed when unavoidable, the new canal had to cross the rivers Ouse, Nene and others. An aqueduct was built at Wolverton to carry the canal across the Ouse valley. Whilst the three-arch stone aqueduct was being built, a set of nine temporary locks were used to carry the canal down one side of the valley and up the other. The aqueduct failed in 1808, and was replaced by an iron one in 1811, the iron trough design sharing a similar structure to
205_8	Longdon-on-Tern Aqueduct and the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct built by Thomas Telford. It is known as the Cosgrove aqueduct and was designed and built by Bevan.

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