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215_12 | Louvaine (medium) + Italic (1929, Benton)
Louvaine Light + Italic Louvaine Bold + Italic Lydian series (1938, Warren Chappell)
Lydian + Italic (1938, Chappell)
Lydian Bold + Italic (1938, Chappell)
Lydian Cursive (1940, Chappell)
Lydian Condensed + Italic (1946, Chappell)
Miehle Extra Condensed + Title (1905, Benton)
Missal Initials (1904, Will H. Bradley)
Modernique (1928, Benton)
Modernistic (1928, Wadsworth A. Parker)
Monotone Gothic (1907, Benton)
Motto (1915, Benton)
Murray Hill (1956, Emil J. Klumpp)
Murray Hill Bold (Klumpp)
National Old Style (1916, Goudy), quite similar to his Nabisco.
Newport (1932, Willard T. Sniffin)
News Gothic series
News Gothic (1908, Benton)
News Gothic Italic (Benton)
News Gothic Condensed (Benton)
News Gothic Extra Condensed (Benton)
News Gothic Extra Condensed Title (Benton)
News Gothic Bold (Benton)
News Gothic Condensed Bold (Benton)
Norwood Roman (1906, Benton), made for J. S. Cushing’s Norwood Press. |
215_13 | Novel Gothic (1928, Benton), completed from drawings by ATF matrix cuter Charles H. Becker.
Nubian (1928, Willard T. Sniffin)
Onyx (1937, Gerry Powell)
P.T. Barnum (1933)
Pabst Old Style or Pabst Roman (1902, Goudy), based on hand lettering done by Goudy for advertisements for the Pabst Brewing Company, though commissioned by Schlesinger & Mayer, a Chicago department store. Cast by Goudy with the proviso that the department store would have the exclusive use of the font for a time before it would be offered to the public. These were the first matrices cut by Robert Wiebking for Goudy.
Pabst Roman Italic (1903, Goudy)
Packard (1913, Benton), based on lettering by Oz Cooper
Packard Bold (1916, Benton)
Paramount (1929, Benton)
Park Avenue (1933, Robert E. Smith)
Parisian (1928, Benton)
Pericles (1934, Robert Foster)
Phenix (1935, Benton), originally called Acquitaine.
Piranesi series (1930, Willard T. Sniffin)
Piranesi Italic (1930, Benton) |
215_14 | Piranesi Bold Italic (1931, Benton)
Piranesi Bold (1933, Benton)
Poster Gothic (1934, Benton), essentially larger sizes (24 pt. +) of Bank Gothic Condensed Medium. Railroad Gothic (1906)
Raleigh Cursive (1930, Willard T. Sniffin)
Raleigh Gothic (Condensed) (1932, Benton)
Repro Script (1953, Jerry Mullen)
Rockwell Antique (1931, Benton), an updating of Inland Type Foundry’s Litho Antique, later revised yet again as Stymie Bold. Romani (1934, A. R. Bosco)
Rosetti (1931, Willard T. Sniffin)
Roycroft (c. 1898, Benton), inspired by lettering in the Saturday Evening Post and often credited to Lewis Buddy.
Rugged Roman (1917, Benton), designed 1909-11, patented in 1915, earliest showing 1917.
Satanick (1896, Phinney), based on William Morris's Troy and Chaucer, matrices cut by John F. Cumming from drawings by Phinney.
Souvenir (1914, Benton), later Ed Benguiat’s photo-type versions of this type would achieve huge popularity.
Schoolbook Oldstyle (1924, Benton) |
215_15 | Schoolbook Oldstyle Italic (1928, Benton)
Shadow (1934, Benton)
Spartan series (1939, John L. Renshaw), a knockoff of Futura.
Spartan Book + Italic (Renshaw)
Spartan Medium + Italic (Renshaw)
Spartan Heavy + Italic (Renshaw)
Spartan Black + Italic (Renshaw)
Spartan Extra Black (early 1950s)
Spartan Book Condensed (Renshaw)
Spartan Medium Condensed (Renshaw)
Spartan Black Condensed + Italic (Renshaw)
Sterling (1917, Benton)
Sterling Cursive (1919, Benton)
Stencil (1937, Gerry Powell)
Stymie series, cast up to 288 point, Stymie is believed to be the largest type ever to be cast in regular molds. The “W” alone weighed two pounds!
Stymie Bold + Light + Medium + Light Italic + Medium Italic (1931, Benton)
Stymie Bold Italic (Benton)
Stymie Compressed (1932, Wadsworth A. Parker)
Stymie Inline Title (1932, Wadsworth A. Parker) |
215_16 | Taylor Gothic (1897, Phinney), capitals only, lower-case based on Central Type Foundry of St. Louis' Quentell. Later re-worked by either Benton or Goudy as Globe Gothic. Thermotype (1931, Benton), with three widths on the same basic design they prefigured the failed Univers by some twenty years.
Thompson Quill Script (1953, Tommy Thompson), this was also made available for phototypesetting by Photo Lettering Inc.
Thunderbird (1920)
Touraine Oldstyle Italic (1898, Phinney)
Tower (1934, Benton), similar to Stymie Medium Condensed.
Typo Roman Shaded (1924, Benton)
Typo Roman (1926, Benton)
Typo Script + extended (1902, Benton), originally ‘‘Tiffany Script’’.
Typo Upright (1905, Benton), originally Tiffany Upright Vanity Initials (1927, Will H. Bradley)
Venetian + Italic (1911, Benton)
Venetian Bold (1913, Benton)
Wayside Roman (1900, Will H. Bradley)
Wedding Text (1901, Benton)
Wedding Text Shaded (1913, Benton)
Whedons Gothic Outline (1965, Whedon Davis)
}} |
215_17 | Barnhart Brothers & Spindler
These foundry types were originally cast by Barnhart Brothers & Spindler:
Bruce Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by the Bruce Type Foundry:
Goldrush (c. 1885)
Central Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by the Central Type Foundry of Saint Louis:
De Vinne (1898, Gustav Schroeder), named in honor of Theodore Low De Vinne, probably based upon Schelter & Giesecke's Romanisch.
De Vinne Roman](1898, Goudy), a book face based on Schroeder's display type.
Othello (1934, Benton), a revision of an 1884 Central Type Foundry face. |
215_18 | Dickenson Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by Dickenson Type Foundry:
Camelot (1896, Goudy), Goudy designed only the capitals, lower-case letters were evidently added by Dickinson/ATF designer Phinney. A delicate display face with small wedge serifs.
Card Mercantile (1901, Benton), a redesign of the two smallest sizes of an 1890s Dickinson Type Foundry design that ATF had acquired when the companies merged in 1896. |
215_19 | Inland Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by Inland Type Foundry and sometimes later modified:
Card Litho + Card Light Litho (1917, Benton), a modification of a 1907 ITF design that ATF had acquired when the companies merged in 1912.
American Caslon (1919, Benton), based on the foundry's Inland New Caslon, a version of a face originally cut by William Caslon in the 18th century.
Light Oldstyle (1916), probably an old font from ITF, but sometimes credited to Benton.
Litho Antique, later updated as Rockwell Antique.
Pen Print Open (1921, Benton), based on the ITF design of 1911.
Keystone Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by Keystone Type Foundry:
John Hancock (1905)
Powell (1903, Goudy), commissioned by one Mr. Powell, then advertising manager for Mandel Brothers department store (earlier he had commissioned Pabst Old Style for another store), and named after him. |
215_20 | Marder, Luse, & Co.
These foundry types were originally cast by Marder, Luse, & Co.:
Copperplate Gothic Series
Copperplate Gothic Heavy (1905, Goudy), originally designed for Marder, Luse, & Co., ATF immediately adopted it and made it the first in a hugely successful series.
P. T. Barnum (1938 + 1949) a revival of Marder, Luse, & Co.'s nineteenth century French Clarendon, also known as Italian Condensed.
H.C. Hansen Type Foundry
These foundry types were originally cast by H.C. Hansen Type Foundry:
Buffalo, originally cast in 1904 as Kolonial by the Woellmer Type Foundry, also cast as Columbia by the Amsterdam Type foundry.
Nineteenth Century Faces
These foundry types were cast before the consolidation by unspecified foundries:<ref>Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface, David R. Godine, Publisher, Boston, Massachusetts, 1990, , p. 297.</ref>
Altona
Octic
Telescope
Turius |
215_21 | References
Jaspert, W. Pincus, W. Turner Berry and A.F. Johnson. The Encyclopedia of Type Faces. Blandford Press Lts.: 1953, 1983, .
MacGrew, Mac, American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century, Oak Knoll Books, New Castle Delaware, 1993, .
Rollins, Carl Purlington American Type Designers and Their Work. in Print, V. 4, #1.
American Type Founders |
216_0 | "Unity" is the 17th episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager, the 59th episode overall. The episode first aired on the UPN network on February 12, 1997, as part of sweeps week. It was written by producer Kenneth Biller, and is the second episode to be directed by cast member Robert Duncan McNeill. It marked the first major appearance of the Borg in Voyager, which were kicked off with a teaser ending in the prior episode. |
216_1 | Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant far from the rest of the Federation. In this episode, while on an away mission, Chakotay is taken in by a group of former Borg who seek help from the crew of Voyager to reactivate their neural link. The ex-Borg force Chakotay to reactivate a Borg cube (a large Borg spaceship), but, in their new-found "Co-operative", the ex-Borg make the cube self-destruct, saving Voyager. |
216_2 | Biller was influenced by the story of the Tower of Babel in writing the episode, and also considered the dissolution of the Soviet Union to be an influence. The crew re-used the make-up and costumes of the Borg designed for the film Star Trek: First Contact, but sets were not re-used. A new fully computer generated Borg cube was created for "Unity", and the storyline of the episode was intended as a hint to those in the later two-part episode "Scorpion". According to Nielsen ratings, it received a 5.4/8 percent share of the audience on first broadcast. "Unity" was received positively by critics, with praise directed at McNeill's direction as well as Biller's plot. |
216_3 | Plot
Commander Chakotay (Robert Beltran) and Ensign Kaplan (Susan Patterson) hear a distress call while scouting ahead for Voyager in a shuttlecraft. They land the vessel but come under fire from hostile aliens, killing Kaplan and injuring Chakotay. He wakes in a room with a woman called Riley Frazier (Lori Hallier). She informs him that she is part of a group of survivors on the planet from a variety of races. There are other groups nearby, including those that attacked him. She calls her group a "Co-operative". Meanwhile, the USS Voyager discovers a derelict Borg cube and Captain Kathryn Janeway (Kate Mulgrew) decides that an investigation is required in order to learn more about the Borg's technology. |
216_4 | An away team boards the cube, discovering that either an accident or another species disabled the vessel. They take a Borg drone back onto Voyager, where the Doctor (Robert Picardo) accidentally revives it. After being told by Frazier to remain where he is, Chakotay breaks out of his room where he sees that all the people around him on the alien planet possess Borg implant technology in their bodies. Frazier explains that an electro-kinetic storm broke their link with the Borg hive mind. Instead, the separated drones settled on a nearby planet. Chakotay's health gets worse, and the ex-Borg offer to connect him to a joint mind to heal his injuries, and he reluctantly accepts. Once part of the hive mind, he sees a montage of their memories. After Voyager arrives, Frazier and her group want Janeway to re-activate the neuroelectric generator on the damaged cube to extend a new joint mind across the entire planet. |
216_5 | Chakotay pleads their case, but Janeway decides not to help them. As Chakotay returns to Voyager on board a shuttle, the Co-operative use their telepathic link to force him to travel to the Borg cube with Voyager in pursuit. Both Chakotay and an away team board the cube, and despite a firefight, he manages to reactivate the generator. This creates the new joint mind as expected, but also activates the cube, which begins powering up to attack Voyager. Chakotay and the away team are beamed back to Voyager as the Co-operative trigger the cube's self-destruct before it can endanger the Federation ship. The planet's inhabitants thank Voyager, but as a result of their actions, Chakotay later questions the morality of the Co-operative's motives with Janeway, as it connected many of the former Borg together in a new hive mind without consulting them.
Production |
216_6 | Writing and background |
216_7 | The producers had wanted to bring the Borg into Voyager, which resulted in numerous pitches from a variety of writers. There were concerns from some of the crew that the events of the film Star Trek: First Contact effectively destroyed the Borg, but executive producer Rick Berman clarified both that the death of the Borg Queen in the film did not mean the destruction of the entire collective and that there were other Borg remaining in the Delta Quadrant. The alien race had made their first appearance in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Q Who" and, at the time of the original broadcast of "Unity", had recently appeared in First Contact. The idea of Borg being separated from the collective had previously been seen in the episode of The Next Generation entitled "I, Borg" with the resultant effect seen in the two-part "Descent". "Unity" was written by producer Kenneth Biller, with the final version of the script being submitted on November 7, 1996. Though the film had not been |
216_8 | released at the time he drafted the episode, Biller had read the First Contact script before writing the "Unity" script. |
216_9 | Biller sought to give a more interesting look at the Borg, rather than simply focusing on their pursuit of assimilation. With this in mind, he thought of an idea based upon the Tower of Babel. He said that the Borg was a "incredibly interwoven, complex community" and "once you knocked it all down you would have all these people who spoke different languages, and couldn't communicate with each other. It occurred to me that a group of ex-Borg would be a very interesting community to explore." He wanted the potential reunification of the ex-Borg to be a moral dilemma. This was based on the growing favorable views of Communism in the Eastern bloc during the mid-1990s after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Direction and editing |
216_10 | "Unity" was the second episode of Voyager to be directed by Robert Duncan McNeill following "Sacred Ground" from earlier in the season. He felt a great deal of pressure working on the episode which introduced the Borg to Voyager, and complained to the producers that the aliens only appear on two and a half pages of the script. He felt pressure in trying to produce something significant regarding the Borg because of the release of First Contact a few months earlier, and wanted to do something equally as exciting but without being repetitive. Instead, he wanted to give the viewer a sense of suspense and mystery regarding the people that Chakotay meets even if they do not appear to be Borg. McNeill saw "Unity" as being a type of film noir, with Chakotay being seduced by the Devil during the course of the story, and wanted to have a strong focus on this direction throughout the episode. |
216_11 | This vision was included in the cinematography for the episode, with one scene having Captain Janeway stand over Chakotay's shoulder much in the same way that a guardian angel would. The set-up for that particular scene came from a collaboration between McNeill and actress Kate Mulgrew. From that, he developed a series of close-up shots to bring some intimacy to the scene. The montage scene in the episode was created by McNeill, Biller, Jeri Taylor, Bob Ledermen and Wendy Neuss using footage from the episodes "Q Who" in The Next Generation, "Caretaker" from Voyager, as well as both "Emissary" and "The Way of the Warrior" from Deep Space Nine. |
216_12 | McNeill also agreed with Biller's view that "Unity" was a metaphor for the break-up of the USSR, and McNeill read up on the subject before directing the episode, saying that "I think some of those ideas did come out in the story, even though it wasn't a really heavy, political episode. Yet there were some references and you could connect that to contemporary issues, individuality as opposed to group needs or desires." McNeill was very happy with the resulting episode, saying that the Borg "were not as one-dimensional as previously depicted, but still as evil as ever", and hoped to direct two or three more episodes in the following season. By the end of Voyager, he had directed four episodes overall; this signalled a change in direction for his career into directing full-time. |
216_13 | Design and special effects
To represent the ex-Borg colony on the planet, sets previously used for the episodes "The Chute" and "Fair Trade" from earlier in the season were used. This was further extended by the use of a computer generated matte painting created by freelancer Eric Chauvin. Borg sets from First Contact were not re-used, but instead a new set was built. This new set measured in length curved around in a semi-circle, and McNeill was unsatisfied with this size. He said "It was the smallest set that I've ever seen in my life. We had no room on the stage to build a big Borg ship, because the other sets took up so much room." He hoped that they had hidden this on camera, with it instead appearing as a series of separate corridors within the Borg vessel. McNeill explained that he had the actors walk the length of the set past the camera at the end, at which point a cut was made and they would go back to the start of the corridor to start filming again. |
216_14 | Despite not using the sets, the episode did re-use the Borg costumes from First Contact, which McNeill described as "the scarier Borg" compared to those seen previously in The Next Generation. This caused some problems with filming as an animatronic Borg arm used for the film was malfunctioning, leading to the production being stalled for several hours. For First Contact, the Borg had been re-designed by Michael Westmore and Deborah Everton. The former and his makeup team had worked on the look of the heads, which included a variety of different Borg appliances which could be mixed and matched to create an ongoing variety of looks. For example, Westmore's colleague Jake Garber had created ten different eye pieces. Everton, meanwhile, created the costumes for the Borg, and wanted them to be more elaborate than in previous appearances. This has been done with a view that individuals should look as if they had been transformed from the inside out, rather than the other way around. |
216_15 | "Unity" also saw the first use of a fully computer generated Borg cube on screen. Those previously seen in the Star Trek franchise had been physical models, including the version seen in First Contact. It was constructed by Emile Edwin Smith at Foundation Imaging, who mapped a cube with an image before creating raised areas with further detail. In order to make it look more three dimensional, he added interconnecting tubes and edge pieces to the model. He explained on the
Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.startrek.current that the episode used around 90 percent of shots featuring the new cube, while the remainder were stock footage created for earlier episodes. Visual effects supervisor Mitch Suskin was pleased with the explosion of the Borg cube at the end of the episode, saying that "the only element was the explosion, the rest was accomplished in the CG domain. It was a real breakthrough. That was the first show that I really had no reservations about."
Later influence |
216_16 | When later discussing the end of season episode "Scorpion" (part one), Brannon Braga said that the destroyed cube which appeared in "Unity" had a direct link to the action in that episode, as they wanted to hint at an alien species who could successfully fight the Borg. However, he also explained that there was no plans to bring back the "Co-operative" as seen in "Unity", saying that "The Co-operative is long gone, man. It's been months since we've seen the Co-operative. That's not to say we won't learn someday what happened to them. That's kind of an interesting question." They returned in "Delta Rising", an expansion for Star Trek Online, where they had grown to encompass a large number of liberated Borg, including their vessels. |
216_17 | It was originally intended to include a "Borg graveyard" in space in "Unity", similar to the vision of the destroyed Federation ships seen after the Battle of Wolf 359 in The Next Generation episode "The Best of Both Worlds". The scene was instead shown in the first part of "Scorpion". One link remained in the "Unity" script: Riley Frazier was stated to have been abducted by the Borg while she was on the USS Roosevelt during the battle.
Reception |
216_18 | Ratings
"Unity" was first broadcast on February 12, 1997, on the UPN network within the United States. According to the Nielsen ratings, it received a 5.4/8 share, meaning it was watched by 5.4 percent of all households and 8 percent of all households watching television at the time of broadcast. This broadcast was during sweeps week, a period used to calculate advertising revenue for the forthcoming quarter. During this time, networks will often attempt to maximise the potential ratings received by their programming. "Unity" was the highest rated episode of Voyager since the second part of "Future's End", broadcast on November 13, 1996. |
216_19 | In the United Kingdom, the episode was first broadcast on July 21, 1997 on Sky One where it was watched by 0.502 million viewers. This was the highest number of viewers for July for an episode of Voyager on that channel, the next best being "Coda" with 0.428 million. The most watched science fiction broadcast on the channel during that month was "Gethsemane", an episode of The X-Files, with 1.164 million viewers. |
216_20 | Critical and fan reception
David Bianculli, while previewing the episode for the New York Daily News, called the plot "clever" and the suggestion that another alien race had defeated the Borg an "interesting possible springboard for future episodes". Regarding the direction and the writing, he said that McNeil directed with "a flair and pace that enhances all of Biller's many plot twists", and said that it was the best part of the season so far. Jamahl Epsicokhan, writing on his website Jammers Reviews, praised the special effects seen in "Unity", and added that "McNeill's direction is effective, the story is fresh and implicitly complex, the production is impressive, and the action and suspense works. This is not the best episode of Voyager, but it's among them." He gave the episode a score of three and a half out of four. |
216_21 | The episode was given a score of eight out of ten in Dreamwatch magazine, with the review saying that it delivered a "philosophical meditation on the nature of power" asking "does the possession automatically corrupt the possessor?" It praised the nature of the episode, saying the plot was "very clever". But the review said that the ending was ambiguous about whether or not Chakotay agrees with what he is doing on behalf of the Co-operative. When reviewing the third season for the website DVD Talk, Holly E. Ordway described "Unity" as being "noteworthy as an episode with more depth and complexity than the typical Voyager episode thus far", and said that it was likely to be remembered by the fans as the episode which introduced the Borg to the series. She added that the plot was "well thought out" and that the ending left the viewer with a moral dilemma over whether it was the right thing to do. |
216_22 | In his book Delta Quadrant, David McIntee gave the episode a rating of seven out of ten, while Anna L. Kaplan—writing for the magazine Cinefantastique—rated "Unity" as three and a half out of four. Lou Anders reviewed the episode for Star Trek Monthly, saying that McNeill did an "excellent job in his second foray as director, bringing a very dark and exciting feeling to the episode." Anders gave "Unity" a score of three out of five. The fan reaction to the episode was mostly positive, with the exception of those who were pushing for an ongoing liaison between Chakotay and Janeway; such fans did not approve of the implied temporary romantic entanglement between Chakotay and the ex-Borg Riley. |
216_23 | Home media release
The first home media release of "Unity" was on a two-episode VHS cassette alongside "Darkling" on July 21, 1997 in the United Kingdom. The first VHS release in the United States was as a single episode release on September 3, 2002. "Unity" was released on DVD as part of the season three box set, released on July 6, 2004, in the United States. This was followed in the UK on September 6, 2004.
By the 2010s, this episode was also made available at various Internet streaming television providers of this period, including Netflix and CBS All Access.
Notes
References
External links
Star Trek: Voyager (season 3) episodes
1997 American television episodes
Television episodes about cyborgs |
217_0 | Red mud, now more frequently termed bauxite residue, is an industrial waste generated during the processing of bauxite into alumina using the Bayer process. It is composed of various oxide compounds, including the iron oxides which give its red colour. Over 95% of the alumina produced globally is through the Bayer process; for every tonne of alumina produced, approximately 1 to 1.5 tonnes of red mud are also produced. Annual production of alumina in 2020 was over 133 million tonnes resulting in the generation of over 175 million tonnes of red mud.
Due to this high level of production and the material's high alkalinity, if not stored properly, it can pose a significant environmental hazard. As a result, significant effort is being invested in finding better methods for safe storage and dealing with it such as waste valorization in order to create useful materials for cement and concrete. |
217_1 | Less commonly, this material is also known as bauxite tailings, red sludge, or alumina refinery residues.
Production
Red mud is a side-product of the Bayer process, the principal means of refining bauxite en route to alumina. The resulting alumina is the raw material for producing aluminium by the Hall–Héroult process. A typical bauxite plant produces one to two times as much red mud as alumina. This ratio is dependent on the type of bauxite used in the refining process and the extraction conditions. |
217_2 | More than 60 manufacturing operations across the world use the Bayer process to make alumina from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is mined, normally in open cast mines, and transferred to an alumina refinery for processing. The alumina is extracted using sodium hydroxide under conditions of high temperature and pressure. The insoluble part of the bauxite (the residue) is removed, giving rise to a solution of sodium aluminate, which is then seeded with an aluminium hydroxide crystal and allowed to cool which causes the remaining aluminium hydroxide to precipitate from the solution. Some of the aluminium hydroxide is used to seed the next batch, while the remainder is calcined (heated) at over 1000 °C in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to produce aluminium oxide (alumina). |
217_3 | The alumina content of the bauxite used is normally between 42 and 50%, but ores with a wide range of alumina contents can be used. The aluminium compound may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH)3), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) or diaspore (α-AlO(OH)). The residue invariably has a high concentration of iron oxide which gives the product a characteristic red colour. A small residual amount of the sodium hydroxide used in the process remains with the residue, causing the material to have a high pH/alkalinity, normally >12. Various stages in the solid/liquid separation process are introduced to recycle as much sodium hydroxide as possible from the residue back into the Bayer Process in order to make the process as efficient as possible and reduce production costs. This also lowers the final alkalinity of the residue making it easier and safer to handle and store. |
217_4 | Composition
Red mud is composed of a mixture of solid and metallic oxides. The red colour arises from iron oxides, which can comprise up to 60% of the mass. The mud is highly basic with a pH ranging from 10 to 13. In addition to iron, the other dominant components include silica, unleached residual aluminium compounds, and titanium oxide.
The main constituents of the residue after the extraction of the aluminium component are insoluble metallic oxides. The percentage of these oxides produced by a particular alumina refinery will depend on the quality and nature of the bauxite ore and the extraction conditions. The table below shows the composition ranges for common chemical constituents, but the values vary widely:
Mineralogically expressed the components present are: |
217_5 | In general, the composition of the residue reflects that of the non-aluminium components, with the exception of part of the silicon component: crystalline silica (quartz) will not react but some of the silica present, often termed, reactive silica, will react under the extraction conditions and form sodium aluminium silicate as well as other related compounds.
Environmental hazards
Discharge of red mud can be hazardous environmentally because of its alkalinity and species components.
In 1972 there was a red mud discharge off the coast of Corsica by the Italian company Montedison. The case is important in international law governing the Mediterranean sea. |
217_6 | In October 2010, approximately one million cubic meters of red mud slurry from an alumina plant near Kolontár in Hungary was accidentally released into the surrounding countryside in the Ajka alumina plant accident, killing ten people and contaminating a large area. All life in the Marcal river was said to have been "extinguished" by the red mud, and within days the mud had reached the Danube. The long-term environmental effects of the spill have been minor after a remediation effort by the Hungarian government.
Residue storage areas
Residue storage methods have changed substantially since the original plants were built. The practice in early years was to pump the slurry, at a concentration of about 20% solids, into lagoons or ponds sometimes created in former bauxite mines or depleted quarries. In other cases, impoundments were constructed with dams or levees, while for some operations valleys were dammed and the residue deposited in these holding areas. |
217_7 | It was once common practice for the red mud to be discharged into rivers, estuaries, or the sea via pipelines or barges; in other instances the residue was shipped out to sea and disposed of in deep ocean trenches many kilometres offshore. From 2016, all disposal into the sea, estuaries and rivers was stopped.
As residue storage space ran out and concern increased over wet storage, since the mid-1980s dry stacking has been increasingly adopted. In this method, residues are thickened to a high density slurry (48–55% solids or higher), and then deposited in a way that it consolidates and dries. |
217_8 | An increasingly popular treatment process is filtration whereby a filter cake (typically resulting in 23–27% moisture) is produced. This cake can be washed with either water or steam to reduce alkalinity before being transported and stored as a semi-dried material. Residue produced in this form is ideal for reuse as it has lower alkalinity, is cheaper to transport, and is easier to handle and process. Another option for ensuring safe storage is to use amphirols to dewater the material once deposited and then 'conditioned' using farming equipment such as harrows to accelerate carbonation and thereby reduce the alkalinity. Bauxite residue produced after press filtration and 'conditioning as described above are classified as non-hazardous under the EU Waste Framework Directive. |
217_9 | In 2013 Vedanta Aluminium, Ltd. commissioned a red mud powder-producing unit at its Lanjigarh refinery in Odisha, India, describing it as the first of its kind in the alumina industry, tackling major environmental hazards. |
217_10 | Use
Since the Bayer process was first adopted industrially in 1894, the value of the remaining oxides has been recognized. Attempts have been made to recover the principal components – especially the iron. Since mining began, an enormous amount of research effort has been devoted to seeking uses for the residue. Many studies are now being financed by the European Union under the Horizon Europe programme. Several studies have been conducted to develop uses of red mud. An estimated 3 to 4 million tonnes are used annually in the production of cement, road construction and as a source for iron. Potential applications include the production of low cost concrete, application to sandy soils to improve phosphorus cycling, amelioration of soil acidity, landfill capping and carbon sequestration. |
217_11 | Reviews describing the current use of bauxite residue in Portland cement clinker, supplementary cementious materials/blended cements and special calcium sulfo-aluminate cements have been extensively researched and well documented. |
217_12 | Cement manufacture, use in concrete as a supplementary cementitious material. From 500,000 to 1,500,000 tonnes.
Raw material recovery of specific components present in the residue: iron, titanium, steel and REE (rare-earth elements) production. From 400,000 to 1,500,000 tonnes;
Landfill capping/roads/soil amelioration – 200,000 to 500,000 tonnes;
Use as a component in building or construction materials (bricks, tiles, ceramics etc.) – 100,000 to 300,000 tonnes;
Other (refractory, adsorbent, acid mine drainage (Virotec), catalyst etc.) – 100,000 tonnes. |
217_13 | Use in building panels, bricks, foamed insulating bricks, tiles, gravel/railway ballast, calcium and silicon fertilizer, refuse tip capping/site restoration, lanthanides (rare earths) recovery, scandium recovery, gallium recovery, yttrium recovery, treatment of acid mine drainage, adsorbent of heavy metals, dyes, phosphates, fluoride, water treatment chemical, glass ceramics, ceramics, foamed glass, pigments, oil drilling or gas extraction, filler for PVC, wood substitute, geopolymers, catalysts, plasma spray coating of aluminium and copper, manufacture of aluminium titanate-Mullite composites for high temperature resistant coatings, desulfurisation of flue gas, arsenic removal, chromium removal. |
217_14 | In 2020, the International Aluminium Institute, launched a Roadmap for maximising the use of bauxite residue in cement and concrete. |
217_15 | In 2015 a major initiative was launched in Europe with funds from the European Union to address the valorisation of red mud. Some 15 Ph.D. students were recruited as part the European Training Network (ETN) for Zero-Waste Valorisation of Bauxite Residue. The key focus will be the recovery of iron, aluminium, titanium and rare-earth elements (including scandium) while valorising the residue into building materials. |
217_16 | A European Innovation Partnership has been formed to explore options for using by-products from the aluminium industry, BRAVO (Bauxite Residue and Aluminium Valorisation Operations). This sought to bring together industry with researchers and stakeholders to explore the best available technologies to recover critical raw materials but has not proceeded. Additionally, EU funding of approximately Euro 11.5 million has been allocated to a four year programme starting in May 2018 looking at uses of bauxite residue with other wastes, RemovAL. A particular focus of this project is the installation of pilot plants to evaluate some of the interesting technologies from previous laboratory studies. As part of the H2020 project RemovAl, it is planned to erect a house in the Aspra Spitia area of Greece that will be made entirely out of materials from bauxite residue. |
217_17 | Other EU funded projects that have involved bauxite residue and waste recovery have been ENEXAL (energy-exergy of Aluminium industry) [2010-2014], EURARE (European Rare earth resources) [2013-2017] and three more recent projects are ENSUREAL (Ensuring sustainable alumina production) [2017-2021], SIDEREWIN (Sustainable Electro-wining of Iron) [2017- 2022] and SCALE (Scandium – Aluminium in Europe) [2016-2020] a Euro 7 million project to look at the recovery of scandium from bauxite residue. |
217_18 | In November 2020, The ReActiv: Industrial Residue Activation for Sustainable Cement Production research project was launched, this is being funded by the EU. One of the world's largest cement companies, Holcim, in cooperation with 20 partners across 12 European countries, launched the ambitious 4 year ReActiv project (reactivproject.eu). The ReActiv project will create a novel sustainable symbiotic value chain, linking the by-product of the alumina production industry and the cement production industry. In ReActiv modification will be made to both the alumina production and the cement production side of the chain, in order to link them through the new ReActiv technologies. The latter will modify the properties of the industrial residue, transforming it into a reactive material (with pozzolanic or hydraulic activity) suitable for new, low footprint, cement products. In this manner ReActiv proposes a win-win scenario for both industrial sectors (reducing wastes and emissions |
217_19 | respectively). |
217_20 | Fluorchemie Gmbh have developed a new flame-retardant additive from bauxite residue, the product is termed MKRS (modified re-carbonised red mud) with the trademark ALFERROCK(R) and has potential applicability in a wide range of polymers (PCT WO2014/000014). One of its particular benefits is the ability to operate over a much broader temperature range, 220 – 350 oC, that alternative zero halogen inorganic flame retardants such as aluminium hydroxide, boehmite or magnesium hydroxide. In addition to polymer systems where aluminium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide can be used, it has also found to be effective in foamed polymers such as EPS and PUR foams at loadings up to 60 %. |
217_21 | In a suitable solid form, calcined ALFERROCK produced by from bauxite residue, has a density of approximately 3.93 g/cm3 been found to be very effective as a heat storage medium (WO2017/157664). The material can repeatedly be heated and cooled without deterioration and has a specific thermal capacity in the range of 0.6 – 0.8 kJ/(kg*K) at 20 oC and 0.9 – 1.3 kJ/(kg*K) at 726 oC; this enables the material to work effectively in energy storage device to maximise the benefits of solar polar, wind turbines and hydro-electric systems.
See also
Chemical waste
Olivier Dubuquoy
References |
217_22 | Additional references
M. B. Cooper, “Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in Australian Industries”, EnviroRad report ERS-006 prepared for the Australian Radiation Health and Safety Advisory Council (2005).
Agrawal, K. K. Sahu, B. D. Pandey, "Solid waste management in non-ferrous industries in India", Resources, Conservation and Recycling 42 (2004), 99–120.
Jongyeong Hyuna, Shigehisa Endoha, Kaoru Masudaa, Heeyoung Shinb, Hitoshi Ohyaa, "Reduction of chlorine in bauxite residue by fine particle separation", Int. J. Miner. Process., 76, 1–2, (2005), 13–20.
Claudia Brunori, Carlo Cremisini, Paolo Massanisso, Valentina Pinto, Leonardo Torricelli, "Reuse of a treated red mud bauxite waste: studies on environmental compatibility", Journal of Hazardous Materials, 117(1), (2005), 55–63.
H. Genc¸-Fuhrman, J. C. Tjell, D. McConchie, "Increasing the arsenate adsorption capacity of neutralized red mud (Bauxsol™)", J. Colloid Interface Sci. 271 (2004) 313–320. |
217_23 | H. Genc¸-Fuhrman, J. C. Tjell, D. McConchie, O. Schuiling, "Adsorption of arsenate from water using neutralized red mud", J. Colloid Interface Sci. 264 (2003) 327–334. |
217_24 | External links and further reading
, from The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Waste
Water pollution
Soil contamination
Minerals |
218_0 | The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network (CPAN) is a repository of over 250,000 software modules and accompanying documentation for 39,000 distributions, written in the Perl programming language by over 12,000 contributors. CPAN can denote either the archive network or the Perl program that acts as an interface to the network and as an automated software installer (somewhat like a package manager). Most software on CPAN is free and open source software.
History
CPAN was conceived in 1993 and has been active online since October 1995. It is based on the CTAN model and began as a place to unify the structure of scattered Perl archives. |
218_1 | Role
Like many programming languages, Perl has mechanisms to use external libraries of code, making one file contain common routines used by several programs. Perl calls these modules. Perl modules are typically installed in one of several directories whose paths are placed in the Perl interpreter when it is first compiled; on Unix-like operating systems, common paths include /usr/lib/perl5, /usr/local/lib/perl5, and several of their subdirectories.
Perl comes with a small set of core modules. Some of these perform bootstrapping tasks, such as ExtUtils::MakeMaker, which is used to create Makefiles for building and installing other extension modules; others, like List::Util, are merely commonly used. |
218_2 | CPAN's main purpose is to help programmers locate modules and programs not included in the Perl standard distribution. Its structure is decentralized. Authors maintain and improve their own modules. Forking, and creating competing modules for the same task or purpose, is common. There is a third-party bug tracking system that is automatically set up for any uploaded distribution, but authors may opt to use a different bug tracking system such as GitHub. Similarly, though GitHub is a popular location to store the source for distributions, it may be stored anywhere the author prefers, or may not be publicly accessible at all. Maintainers may grant permissions to others to maintain or take over their modules, and permissions may be granted by admins for those wishing to take over abandoned modules. Previous versions of updated distributions are retained on CPAN until deleted by the uploader, and a secondary mirror network called BackPAN retains distributions even if they are deleted |
218_3 | from CPAN. Also, the complete history of the CPAN and all its modules is available as the GitPAN project, allowing to easily see the complete history for all the modules and for easy maintenance of forks. CPAN is also used to distribute new versions of Perl, as well as related projects, such as Parrot and Raku. |
218_4 | Structure
Files on the CPAN are referred to as distributions. A distribution may consist of one or more modules, documentation files, or programs packaged in a common archiving format, such as a gzipped tar archive or a ZIP file. Distributions will often contain installation scripts (usually called Makefile.PL or Build.PL) and test scripts which can be run to verify the contents of the distribution are functioning properly. New distributions are uploaded to the Perl Authors Upload Server, or PAUSE (see the section Uploading distributions with PAUSE). |
218_5 | In 2003, distributions started to include metadata files, called META.yml, indicating the distribution's name, version, dependencies, and other useful information; however, not all distributions contain metadata. When metadata is not present in a distribution, the PAUSE's software will try to analyze the code in the distribution to look for the same information; this is not necessarily very reliable. In 2010, version 2 of this specification was created to be used via a new file called META.json, with the YAML format file often also included for backward compatibility.
With thousands of distributions, CPAN needs to be structured to be useful. Authors often place their modules in the natural hierarchy of Perl module names (such as Apache::DBI or Lingua::EN::Inflect) according to purpose or domain, though this is not enforced. |
218_6 | CPAN module distributions usually have names in the form of CGI-Application-3.1 (where the :: used in the module's name has been replaced with a dash, and the version number has been appended to the name), but this is only a convention; many prominent distributions break the convention, especially those that contain multiple modules. Security restrictions prevent a distribution from ever being replaced with an identical filename, so virtually all distribution names do include a version number.
Components
The distribution infrastructure of CPAN consists of its worldwide network of more than 250 mirrors in more than 60 countries. Each full mirror hosts around 31 gigabytes of data.
Most mirrors update themselves hourly, daily or bidaily from the CPAN master site. Some sites are major FTP servers which mirror lots of other software, but others are simply servers owned by companies that use Perl heavily. There are at least two mirrors on every continent except Antarctica. |
218_7 | Several search engines have been written to help Perl programmers sort through the CPAN. The official includes textual search, a browsable index of modules, and extracted copies of all distributions currently on the CPAN. On 16 May 2018, the Perl Foundation announced that search.cpan.org would be shut down on 29 June 2018 (after 19 years of operation), due to its aging codebase and maintenance burden. Users will be transitioned and redirected to the third-party alternative MetaCPAN.
CPAN Testers are a group of volunteers, who will download and test distributions as they are uploaded to CPAN. This enables the authors to have their modules tested on many platforms and environments that they would otherwise not have access to, thus helping to promote portability, as well as a degree of quality. Smoke testers send reports, which are then collated and used for a variety of presentation websites, including the main reports site, statistics and dependencies. |
218_8 | Authors can upload new distributions to the CPAN through the Perl Authors Upload Server (PAUSE). To do so, they must request a PAUSE account.
Once registered, they may use a web interface at pause.perl.org, or an FTP interface to upload files to their directory and delete them. Modules in the upload will only be indexed as canonical if the module name has not been used before (granting first-come permission to the uploader), or if the uploader has permission for that name, and if the module is a higher version than any existing entry. This can be specified through PAUSE's web interface. |
218_9 | CPAN.pm, CPANPLUS, and cpanminus
There is also a Perl core module named CPAN; it is usually differentiated from the repository itself by using the name CPAN.pm. CPAN.pm is mainly an interactive shell which can be used to search for, download, and install distributions. An interactive shell called is also provided in the Perl core, and is the usual way of running CPAN.pm. After a short configuration process and mirror selection, it uses tools available on the user's computer to automatically download, unpack, compile, test, and install modules. It is also capable of updating itself. |
218_10 | An effort to replace CPAN.pm with something cleaner and more modern resulted in the CPANPLUS (or CPAN++) set of modules. CPANPLUS separates the back-end work of downloading, compiling, and installing modules from the interactive shell used to issue commands. It also supports several advanced features, such as cryptographic signature checking and test result reporting. Finally, CPANPLUS can uninstall a distribution. CPANPLUS was added to the Perl core in version 5.10.0, and removed from it in version 5.20.0. |
218_11 | A smaller, leaner modern alternative to these CPAN installers was developed called cpanminus. cpanminus was designed to have a much smaller memory footprint as often required in limited memory environments, and to be usable as a standalone script such that it can even install itself, requiring only the expected set of core Perl modules to be available. It is also available from CPAN as the module App::cpanminus, which installs the script. It does not maintain or rely on a persistent configuration, but is configured only by the environment and command-line options. cpanminus does not have an interactive shell component. It recognizes the cpanfile format for specifying prerequisites, useful in ad-hoc Perl projects that may not be designed for CPAN installation. cpanminus also has the ability to uninstall distributions. |
218_12 | Each of these modules can check a distribution's dependencies and recursively install any prerequisites, either automatically or with individual user approval. Each support FTP and HTTP and can work through firewalls and proxies.
Influence
Experienced Perl programmers often comment that half of Perl's power is in the CPAN. It has been called Perl's killer app. It is roughly equivalent to the PECL and PEAR for PHP; the PyPI (Python Package Index) repository for Python; RubyGems for Ruby; CRAN for R; npm for Node.js; LuaRocks for Lua; Maven for Java; and Hackage for Haskell. CPAN's use of arbitrated name spaces, a testing regime and a well defined documentation style makes it unique. |
218_13 | Given its importance to the Perl developer community, the CPAN both shapes and is shaped by Perl's culture. Its "self-appointed master librarian", Jarkko Hietaniemi, often takes part in the April Fools' Day jokes; on 1 April 2002 the site was temporarily named to CJAN, where the "J" stood for "Java". In 2003, the www.cpan.org domain name was redirected to Matt's Script Archive, a site infamous in the Perl community for having badly written code.
Some of the distributions on the CPAN are distributed as jokes. The Acme:: hierarchy is reserved for joke modules; for instance, Acme::Don't adds a don't function that doesn't run the code given to it (to complement the do built-in, which does). Even outside the Acme:: hierarchy, some modules are still written largely for amusement; one example is Lingua::Romana::Perligata, which can be used to write Perl programs in a subset of Latin. |
218_14 | In 2005, a group of Perl developers who also had an interest in JavaScript got together to create JSAN, the JavaScript Archive Network. The JSAN is a near-direct port of the CPAN infrastructure for use with the JavaScript language, which for most of its lifespan did not have a cohesive "community".
In 2008, after a chance meeting with CPAN admin Adam Kennedy at the Open Source Developers Conference, Linux kernel developer Rusty Russell created the CCAN, the Comprehensive C Archive Network. The CCAN is a direct port of the CPAN architecture for use with the C language.
CRAN, the Comprehensive R Archive Network, is a set of mirrors hosting the R programming language distribution(s), documentation, and contributed extensions.
References
External links |
218_15 | MetaCPAN
List of official CPAN mirrors, status of mirrors
ZCAN - "The Zen of Comprehensive Archive Networks" - a document that aims to explain how and why CPAN succeeded and how to duplicate it in similar efforts. (9 January 2003 by Jarkko Hietaniemi).
Perl
Archive networks
Package management systems |
219_0 | Solomon Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately long and flows through Fairview Township, Hanover Township, and Wilkes-Barre. The creek is affected by acid mine drainage and has significant loads of iron, aluminum, and manganese. The creek's named tributaries are Spring Run, Sugar Notch Run, and Pine Creek. The Solomon Creek watershed is located in the Anthracite Valley section of the ridge-and-valley geographical province. Major rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation, the Spechty Kopf Formation, and the Catskill Formation. |
219_1 | Solomon Creek was first settled by Native Americans around 8000 to 6000 B.C.E. A settler arrived at the confluence of the creek with the Susquehanna River by 1774. In the 1800s, more people began arriving in the watershed to exploit its natural resources. Anthracite mining was especially prevalent in the watershed in the 19th and 20th centuries, to the point that numerous streams were altered or destroyed and the Laurel Run mine fire started.
Solomon Creek was devoid of fish in the 1970s. However, since then several fish species, including brook trout, have inhabited the creek and its tributaries. A number of varieties of aquatic insects are also present.
Course |
219_2 | Solomon Creek starts on western Penobscot Mountain in northern Fairview Township and flows west down the mountain for a short distance before turning northwards, paralleling Pennsylvania Route 309 and briefly Pennsylvania Route 437. The creek then enters Hanover Township. It picks up Pine Creek and cuts a gap through Wilkes-Barre Mountain and then through Ashley. Upon leaving Ashley, it heads into Wilkes-Barre, picking up Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run. The creek soon turns west into Hanover Township again, having flowed by this point. It enters the Susquehanna River at Hanover Green.
Tributaries
Sugar Notch Run, Pine Creek and Spring Run are two tributaries of Solomon Creek. Sugar Notch Run is long, Pine Creek is long, and Spring Run is long. Spring Run is an intermittent stream. There are two other ephemeral tributaries that are not officially named, but are known locally as Sulfur Run and the Lee Park tributary. |
219_3 | Historically, Solomon Creek had at least seven tributaries, including one named Buttonwood Creek. However, several tributaries largely disappeared by the late 1890s due to mining in the watershed.
Hydrology
Solomon Creek has an orange color as it flows past Wilkes-Barre, due to acid mine drainage.
The tributaries Sugar Notch Run and Spring Run lose most of their discharge (75% in the case of Spring Run) when passing over subterranean mine pools. The discharge of the creek is 3.39 cubic feet per second. Between 1938 and 1989, the highest recorded discharge of the creek was 2450 cubic feet per second. This occurred on August 18, 1955. The discharge was not higher than 1610 cubic feet per second on any other year during that time period. |
219_4 | The daily load of aluminum in Solomon Creek ranges from at a site below Pine Creek to at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average load is per day. The lowest load of iron is per day at the site below Pine Creek and Solomon Creek at Sugar Notch Run and the highest is per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average is per day. The Solomon Creek boreholes and the Nottingham-Buttonwood Airshaft are the second-largest and third-largest sources of iron discharge in the Coal Region, contributing 9.07% and 7.85% of the iron load in the region, respectively. The daily load of manganese ranges between above Pine Creek and at the Buttonwood Tunnel and the average daily load is . The load of acidity in the creek ranges from 0 at site SR to per day at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average load of acidity per day is . The alkalinity load ranges from on Sugar Notch Run to at the Buttonwood Tunnel. The average daily load of alkalinity is . |
219_5 | At a large number of sites within the Solomon Creek watershed in 2011, the water temperature ranged from at site SC12 to at sites above, below, and on Sugar Notch Run. At these same sites, the pH ranged from 4.5 at a site on Sugar Notch Run to 7.5 two sites on an unnamed tributary, one site below Sugar Notch Run, and a site on another unnamed tributary. The iron concentration ranged from 0 at over 20 sites to 36 milligrams per liter at an acid mine drainage discharge in the watershed. The concentration of dissolved oxygen ranged from 0 at eight sites to 13 milligrams per liter at SU01, and on Pine Creek northeast of Pennsylvania Route 309 and below Unnamed Tributary 4.
There are six locations in the Solomon Creek watershed where mine drainage is discharged. Ten miles (sixteen kilometers) of the streams on the creek's watershed are rendered devoid of life by mine drainage. |
219_6 | According to Robert Hughes, the Eastern Pennsylvania Coalition for Abandoned Mine Reclamation's executive director, the water level of Solomon Creek has risen since the middle of the 19th century. There are large amounts of sediment along the creek. Sediment piles are over on the creek at Division Street and or in the Brookside area. Sewage is discharged into the creek at several locations. It has been discharged into the creek since at least 1909. Additionally, there are debris dams in various areas on the creek. |
219_7 | Geology
Solomon Creek is located at the edge of the ridge and valley geographic province, in the Anthracite Valley section. There is a ridge in the creek's watershed called the Wilkes-Barre Mountain. On the ridge, the Mauch Chunk Formation exists, with red shale, sandstone, and siltstone. Other significant rock formations in the watershed include the Pocono Formation with olive and gray rocks and the Spechty Kopf formation. Under the Spechty Kopf formation lie rocks of the Catskill Formation. The watershed is located in the Wyoming Coal Basin, the southwestern sub-basin of the Northern Anthracite Coal Field. The creek's headwaters have glacial deposition from the Wisconsonian glacial period. At the headwaters of the tributary Spring Creek, there is a rock formation of light gray conglomerate called Prospect Rock. It is above sea level and southeast of Wilkes-Barre's Public Square. |
219_8 | An unconformity lies between the Catskill Formation and the Spechty Kopf Formation. The sandstone in the latter formation are mostly cross-bedded, although some areas have planar bedding. The Llewellyn Formation, containing conglomerate and sandstone is found in the Spring Run and Sugar Notch Run sub-watersheds.
The upper part of Solomon Creek is located in the Pocono Plateau. The lowest elevation in the watershed is on the western side of the creek's floodplain. The highest elevation is on Haystack Mountain. The elevation of the creek's mouth is above sea level. The creek's source is just under above sea level. |
219_9 | There are 14 coal seams in the Solomon Creek watershed. The deepest seam is the Bottom Red Ash. Other seams included the Middle Red Ash, the Top Red Ash, the Checker Bed, the Pittston Bed, the Ross Bed, the Skidmore Bed, the Kidney Bed, the Snake Island Bed, the Hillman Bed, and the Abbott Bed. There are also three numbered beds called the #2, #3, and #4 beds. Historically, parts of the seams were within of the surface, but they were completely mined. Areas along the banks of the creek are covered in coal ash, coal silt, sand, and gravel. There are gravel bars and point bars in the lower reaches of the creek. The lower reaches of Solomon Creek have a 0.2% grade.
In the Solomon Gap, there are piles coal ash that is pink and orange due to oxidation. These piles rise as high as to . Similarly-colored coal is found in sediment and gravel bars in the creek. |
219_10 | Soils
Soils in the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207, in the Solomon Creek watershed, include the Arnot Rock outcrop complex. On hills with a grade higher than 25%, the steep variety of this soil appears. It is a dark brown silt loam with a bedrock depth of . It has fast runoff and 3% to 40% of the surface is covered with boulders. The regular variety of this soil, which occurs on slopes with a grade of 8% to 25%, is the same, but has a bedrock depth of and slower runoff.
Watershed
The area of Solomon Creek's watershed is 18.2 square miles. |
219_11 | The watershed area is 60% forested land and 26% developed land. Nearly 7% of the land is considered disturbed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This includes abandoned coal mines and quarries. In specific, 6748 acres are forest, 1839 acres are considered "low-intensity development" by the Environmental Protection Agency, 1174 acres are considered "high-intensity development" by the Environmental Protection Agency 509 acres are devoted to hay or pastureland, and 492 acres are considered "transition" by the Environmental Protection Agency. Crops are grown on 336 acres, quarries occupy 215 acres, wetland makes up 77 acres, coal mines make up 64 acres, and grass occupies 22 acres. There are a total of stream miles in the watershed. Deciduous forest occupies much of the southern part of the watershed. Most of the agricultural land is located on a floodplain at the mouth of the creek. |
219_12 | There are nine municipalities in the Solomon Creek watershed. Most of the watershed is in Ashley, Laurel Run, Wilkes-Barre Township, and Hanover Township. Smaller parts of the watershed are in Wilkes-Barre, Bear Creek Township, Fairview Township, Rice Township, and Sugar Notch.
In the 2000 United States Census, there were 928 households in the Solomon Creek area and an average household size of 4.6 people. This indicates a population of 4269 for the Solomon Creek watershed. There is a higher-than-average concentration of people over 65 years of age in the watershed. Major roads in the watershed include Interstate 81 and Pennsylvania Route 309.
There are five designated sub-watersheds of the Solomon Creek watershed. They are the upper and lower Solomon Creek watershed, the Pine Creek watershed, the Spring Run watershed, and the Sugar Notch Run watershed. Neighboring watersheds include those of Little Wapwallopen Creek and Big Wapwallopen Creek.
History |
219_13 | Native Americans settled in the Solomon Creek watershed by approximately 8000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. Ebenezer Hibbard was an early European settler on the creek, living there by 1772. The creek is named after a person with the surname of Solomon, who settled at the mouth of the creek in 1774. In the early 1800s, Europeans first realized the natural resources of the watershed. In the early 1800s, there was a tavern called Inman's Tavern and several cabins in the Solomon Gap. In the mid-1800s, the population of the watershed increased significantly due to coal mining and timbering opportunities. The first road in Fairview Township, the Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Turnpike, started at Solomon Creek.
There are waterfalls called Solomon's Falls on Solomon Creek. They were called a "beautiful cascade" by Philadelphia's Portfolio in 1809, although a 1909 book stated that the waterfalls were no longer "picturesque" or "delightful". The falls were between and . |
219_14 | In 1809, Richard and Israel Inman constructed a gristmill at the foot of Solomon's Falls. It was converted to a house in 1833 and destroyed in 1850. A gristmill on the creek in Hanover Township had been built by 1812 and was run by George Mesinger. It was destroyed in 1840. In 1845, William Petty constructed the gristmill called Petty Mill in Hanover Township. This mill burned down in 1887. The Wyoming Division Canal, which was constructed in the 1830s, started at Solomon Creek. Construction of the Ashley Planes in the Solomon Creek gap began in 1837. They were used until 1848. An iron-producing forge operated on the creek in Ashley until 1839. There was also a sawmill on it until 1839. A powder mill operated on Solomon Creek, but was replaced with a brewery by 1885. A slaughterhouse discharged its waste into the creek in the early 20th century. The creek was used as the water supply for the Huber Breaker from the 1930s to the 1970s. The Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Railway passed over |
219_15 | Solomon Creek. |
219_16 | Mining has been done in the Solomon Creek watershed in the past, causing considerable environmental damage. The mining began in the beginning of the 1800s and continued until the 1970s. However, there was one strip mining permit in the watershed in the late 1990s. Starting in 1967, the mine pools under the creek stopped having water pumped out of them. This led to them flooding and damaging buildings in the watershed in 1972 during Hurricane Agnes. To remedy the problem of the flooding, the Buttonwood Tunnel and three boreholes known as the South Wilkes-Barre Boreholes were created. The water quality of the creek was assessed in 1970 as part of Operation Scarlift. A 1977 study by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission observed brook trout inhabiting the watershed, although the stream was listed as impaired on account of the mining. A plan called the Solomon Creek Cold Water Conservation Plan was initiated in the summer of 2011 and continued into 2012. |
219_17 | A mine fire known as the Laurel Run mine fire started burning in the watershed of Solomon Creek since 1915, when a miner accidentally left a carbide lamp hanging from a timber support in the Red Ash Coal Mine. The lamp caused the support to catch fire. The fire may continue into the 22nd century. The fire was contained in 1973, but was not extinguished. Had the fire not been contained, it would have eventually spread under the entirety of the Wyoming Valley. The fire burns between and underground at a temperature of approximately .
The creek flooded in September 1850. It was the most severe flood of the creek up to that time. In January 1996, 400 buildings along Solomon Creek flooded by it due to melting snow. This was one of numerous floods on that area of the creek. |
219_18 | Alternate names
Solomon Creek has also been called Chester Creek and Solomon Creek by locals. It was called Moses Creek on maps of Pennsylvania created by William Scull in the 1770s. This last name may be named after an Indian, although it is not known for sure.
Biology |
219_19 | In 1975, a study found no fish species on the creek. However, brook trout have been observed at seven locations on Solomon Creek. Brook trout are especially common on the tributary Sugar Notch Run. Trout reproduce everywhere in the tributary Pine Creek and reproduce in the main stem as far downstream as southern Wilkes-Barre. Above of the South Wilkes-Barre borehole, a number of other fish species have been observed. These include eastern blacknose dace, bluegill, creek chub, fallfish, minnows, northern hog sucker, and white sucker. However, there are no species of fish downstream of the borehole. Out of 46 sites on the creek, 30 had sufficient macroinvertebrate concentrations to support trout. 2.6 stream miles in the watershed are home to brook trout fisheries. This area is in Hanover Township, Laurel Run, and Bear Creek Township. |
219_20 | The most common aquatic insects at the headwaters of unimpaired streams in the watershed of Solomon Creek are alderflies, caddis flies, dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies. Three sites in the watershed are considered "suboptimal" according to the WVSOS system. 20 sites are considered "marginal" and the remainder are "poor".
Recreation
The Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 207 are located in the southeastern part of the Solomon Creek Watershed. They take up 6.7% of the watershed. Parts of Pinchot State Forest are also in the watershed; the forest occupies 12.6% of it. Two of the trails in the 139-acre Sugar Notch Trail System are located in the sub-watershed of Sugar Notch Run. The creek is stocked with trout in some places. There are ATV trails in the watershed.
See also
Warrior Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver
Coal Creek (Susquehanna River), next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
Notes
References |
219_21 | External links
Modern-day images of the Solomon Creek falls
Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the Susquehanna River
Rivers of Pennsylvania |
220_0 | Hood By Air is a high fashion brand based in New York City first launched in 2006 and active to the present day, with the exception of a hiatus between early 2017 – 2019. The brand was co-founded by designers, Shayne Oliver and Raul Lopez. The designer is Shayne Oliver, a former student at Fashion Institute of Technology and New York University who described his design aesthetic as "ghetto gothic" and banjee. Oliver was named among The 25 Greatest Black Fashion Designers by Complex. Oliver brought in the conceptual artist and filmmaker Leilah Weinraub as CEO and cofounder in 2012. Weinraub was openly skeptical of the brand's celebrity endorsements. The company was notable for refusing outside investment. In the past, Hood By Air, also known by the acronym HBA, has identified as a "luxury streetwear brand," a term coined by Oliver and now “synonymous with HBA's subversive use of logos, high-end production values and an ingenious online presence”. |
220_1 | Hood By Air is notable for its collectively-driven creative output, collaborating with a large network of artists, performers, and other figures from the New York creative industries, as well as global brands. The brand has been the recipient of numerous fashion accolades and awards, including the LVMH Special Prize (2014) and CFDA Swarovski Award for Menswear (2015).
History
Founded in 2006 by Brooklyn-based designers Shayne Oliver and Raul Lopez, Hood By Air has gone from a t-shirt oriented streetwear project to a cult brand at the forefront of New York's fashion new guard. In 2006, Oliver was running a brand and blog under the name Elite Urban Brigade. Editorial collaborators on the blog included Akeem Smith and Mykki Blanco. Under Elite Urban Brigade, Oliver began printing one-off t-shirt designs, which he would sell at the New York streetwear store, aNYthing. |
220_2 | During this period, Oliver met fellow designer Raul Lopez at an after school programme run by the Hetrick-Martin Institute in partnership with the Harvey Milk High School, which Oliver attended. Oliver introduced Lopez to his early blueprint for a brand which could expand on his Elite Urban Brigade ideas. After developing the concept further, Oliver and Lopez began printing t-shirts, eventually releasing the designs under the name Hood By Air.
Whilst attending Harvey Milk High School, Oliver was accepted onto an art programme at New York University (NYU). During this time he developed a strong link between his fashion concepts and music, which would underpin the Hood By Air brand and Oliver's creative career to date. During this time Oliver was a dancer and choreographer for the band Hercules and Love Affair and would create costumes that he would wear as a dancer. Subsequently, Oliver designed merchandise for the band. |
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