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9836_5 | PIE *gʷʰ > gu: guezonto < *gʷʰedʰ-y-ont 'imploring, pleading'. Common Celtic *guedyo 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. guidid, W. gweddi.
PIE *p > *φ > ∅: Loss of PIE *, e.g. (Celtiberian, Old Irish and Old Breton) vs. Latin and Sanskrit . ozas sues acc. pl. fem. 'six feet, unit of measure' (< *φodians < *pod-y-ans *sweks);
aila 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cfr. OIr. ail 'boulder');
vamos 'higher' < *uφamos < *up-m̥os;
vrantiom 'remainder, rest' < *uper-n̥tiyo (cfr. Latin (s)uperans).
Toponym Litania now Ledaña 'broad place' < *pl̥th2-ny-a. |
9836_6 | Consonant clusters |
9836_7 | PIE *mn > un: as in Lepontic, Brittonic and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. Kouneso 'neighbour' < *kom-ness-o < *Kom-nedʰ-to (cf. OIr. comnessam 'neighbour' < *Kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o).
PIE *pn > un: Klounia < *kleun-y-a < *kleup-ni 'meadow' (Cfr. OIr. clúain 'meadow' < *klouni). However, in Latin *pn > mn: damnum 'damage' < *dHp-no.
PIE *nm > lm: Only in Celtiberian. melmu < *men-mōn 'intelligence', Melmanzos 'gifted with mind' < *men-mn̥-tyo (Cfr. OIr. menme 'mind' < *men-mn̥. Also occurs in modern Spanish: alma 'soul' < *anma < Lat. anima, Asturian galmu 'step' < Celtic *kang-mu. |
9836_8 | PIE *ps > *ss / s: usabituz 'he must excavate (lit. up/over-dig)' < *ups-ad-bʰiH-tōd, Useizu * < *useziu < *ups-ed-yō 'highest'. The ethnic name contestani in Latin (contesikum in native language), recall the proper name Komteso 'warm-hearted, friendly' (< *kom-tep-so, cf. OIr. tess 'warm' > *tep-so). In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: Usseiticum 'of the Usseitici' < *Usseito < *upse-tyo. However, in Gaulish and Brittonic *ps > *x (cf. Gaulish Uxama, MW. uchel, 'one six').
PIE *pt > *tt / t: setantu 'seventh' (< *septmo-to). However, in Gaulish and Insular Celtic *pt > x: sextameto 'seventh', Old Irish sechtmad (< *septmo-e-to).
PIE *gs > *ks > *ss / s: sues 'six' < *sweks;
Desobriga 'south/right city' (Celts oriented looking east) < *dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa; **Nertobris 'strength town' < *h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs; |
9836_9 | es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic exs-, OIr. ess-). In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: Suessatium < *sweks- 'the sixth city' (cfr. Latin Sextantium)
Dessicae < *deks-ika. However, in Gaulish *ks > *x: Dexivates.
PIE *gt > *kt > *tt / t: ditas 'constructions, buildings' < *dʰigʰ-tas (= Latin fictas);
loutu 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu;
litom 'it is permitted', ne-litom 'it is not permitted' (< *l(e)ik-to, cf. Latin licitum < *lik-e-to). But Common Celtic *kt > *xt: luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu, OIr. lucht.
Celtiberian Retugenos 'right born, lawful' < *h₃reg-tō-genos, Gaulish Rextugenos. In Latin epigraphy that sound is transcribed with geminated: Britto 'noble' < *brikto < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-to.
Bruttius 'fruitful' < *bruktio < *bʰruHǵ-t-y-o (cfr. Latin Fructuosus 'profitable'). |
9836_10 | PIE *st > *st: against Gaulish, Irish and Welsh (where the change was *st > ss) preservation of the PIE cluster *st. Gustunos 'excellent' < *gustu 'excellence' < *gus-tu. Old Irish gussu 'excellence' (cfr. Fergus < *viro-gussu), Gaulish gussu (Lezoux Plate, line 7). |
9836_11 | Vowels |
9836_12 | PIE *e, *h₁e > e: Togoitei eni 'in Togotis' < *h₁en-i (cf. Lat. in, OIr. in 'into, in'), somei eni touzei 'inside of this territory', es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic exs-, OIr. ess-), esankios 'not enclosed, open' lit. 'unfenced' < *h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos, treba 'settlement, town', Kontrebia 'conventus, capital' < *kom-treb-ya (cf. OIr. treb, W. tref 'settlement'), ekuo horse < *h₁ekw-os, ekualo 'horseman'.
PIE *h₂e > a: ankios 'fenced, enclosed' < *h₂enk-yos, Ablu 'strong' < *h₂ep-lō 'strength', augu 'valid, firm' < *h₂ewg-u, adj. 'strong, firm, valid'.
PIE *o, *Ho > o: olzui (dat.sing.) 'for the last' (< *olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo, cf. Lat. ultimus < *h₂ol-t-m̥o. OIr. ollam 'master poet' < *oltamo < *h₂ol-t-m̥), okris 'mountain' (< *h₂ok-r-i, cf. Lat. ocris 'mountain', OIr. ochair 'edge' < *h₂ok-r-i), monima 'memory' (< *monī-mā < *mon-eye-mā). |
9836_13 | PIE *eh₁ > ē > ī?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE *h3rg'-s meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian -reiKis, Gaulish -rix, British rix, Old Irish, Old Welsh, Old Breton ri meaning "king". In any case, the maintenance of PIE ē = ē is well attested in dekez 'he did' < *deked < *dʰeh₁k-et, identical to Latin fecit.
PIE *eh₂ > ā: dāunei 'to burn' < *deh₂u-nei (Old Irish dóud, dód 'burn' < *deh₂u-to-), silabur sāzom 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' (< *sātio < *she₂t-yo, Common Celtic sāti 'sufficiency', OIr. sáith), kār 'friendship' (< *keh₂r, cf. Lat. cārus 'dear' < *keh₂r-os, Irish cara 'friend', W. caru 'love' < *kh₂r-os).
PIE *eh₃, *oH > a/u: Celtic in final syllables and in non-final syllables, e.g. IE *dh3-td to Celtiberian datuz meaning 'he must give'. dama 'sentence' < *dʰoh₁m-eh₂ 'put, dispose' (cfr. Old Irish dán 'gift, skill, poem', Germanic dōma < *dʰoh₁m-o 'verdict, sentence'). |
9836_14 | PIE *Hw- > w-: uta 'conj. and, prep. besides' (< *h₂w-ta, 'or, and', cfr, Umb. ute 'or', Lat. aut 'or' (< *h₂ew-ti). |
9836_15 | Syllabic resonants and laryngeals |
9836_16 | PIE *n̥ > an / *m̥ > am: arganto 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to (cf. OIr. argat and Latin argentum). kamanom 'path, way' *kanmano < *kn̥gs-mn̥-o (cf. OIr. céimm, OW. cemmein 'step'), decameta 'tithe' < *dekm̥-et-a (cf. Gaulish decametos 'tenth', Old Irish dechmad 'tenth'), dekam 'ten' (cf. Lat. decem, Common Celtic dekam, OIr. deich < *dekm̥), novantutas 'the nine tribes', novan 'nine' < *h₁newn̥ (cf. Lat. novem, Common Celtic novan, OW. nauou < *h₁newn̥), ās 'we, us' (< *ans < *n̥s, Old Irish sinni < *sisni, *snisni 'we, us', cf. German uns < *n̥s), trikanta < *tri-kn̥g-ta, lit. 'three horns, three boundaries' > 'civil parish, shire' (modern Spanish Tres Cantos.
Like Common Celtic and Italic (SCHRIJVER 1991: 415, McCONE 1996: 51 and SCHUMACHER 2004: 135), PIE *CHC > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laringeal): datuz < *dh₃-tōd, dakot 'they put' < *dʰh₁k-ont, matus 'propitious days' < *mh₂-tu (Latin mānus 'good' < *meh₂-no, Old Irish maith 'good' < *mh₂-ti). |
9836_17 | PIE *CCH > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laryngeal): Magilo 'prince' (< *mgh₂-i-lo, cf. OIr. mál 'prince' < *mgh₂-lo).
PIE *r̥R > arR and *l̥R > alR (R = resonant): arznā 'part, share' < *φarsna < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common Celtic *φrasna < *prasna < *pr̥s-nh₂, cf. Old Irish ernáil 'part, share'.
PIE *r̥P > riP and *l̥P > liP (P = plosive): briganti PiRiKanTi < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-n̥ti. silabur konsklitom 'silver coined' < *kom-skl̥-to 'to cut'.
PIE *Cr̥HV > CarV and *Cl̥HV > CalV: sailo 'dung, slurry' *salyo < *sl̥H-yo (cf. Lat. saliva < *sl̥H-iwa, OIr. sal 'dirt' < *sl̥H-a), aila 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cf. OIr. ail 'boulder'), are- 'first, before' (Old Irish ar 'for', Gaulish are 'in front of', < *pr̥h₂i. Lat. prae- 'before' < *preh₂i).
Like Common Celtic (JOSEPH 1982: 51 and ZAIR 2012: 37), PIE *HR̥C > aRC (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant): arganto 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to, not **riganto. |
9836_18 | Exclusive developments
Affrication of the PIE groups -*dy-, -*dʰy-. -*ty- > z/th (/θ/) located between vowels and of -*d, -*dʰ > z/th (/θ/) at the end of the word: adiza 'duty' < *adittia < *h₂ed-d(e)ik-t-ya; Useizu 'highest' < *ups-ed-yō; touzu 'territory' < *teut-yō; rouzu 'red' < *reudʰy-ō; olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo; ozas 'feet' < *pod-y-ans; datuz < *dh₃-tōd; louzu 'free' (in: LOUZOKUM, MLH IV, K.1.1.) < *h₁leudʰy-ō (cf. Oscan loufir 'free man', Russian ljúdi 'men, people'.
Morphology
Noun cases
arznā 'part, share' < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common Celtic *φrasna < *prasna
veizos 'witness' < *weidʰ-yo < *weidʰ- 'perceive,see' / vamos 'higher' < *up-m̥os
gentis 'son, descendance' < *gen-ti. Common Celtic *genos 'family'
loutu 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu. Common Celtic luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu (oir. lucht).
duater 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr. Common Celtic duxtir. |
9836_19 | There is also a potential Vocative case, however this is very poorly attested, with only an ambiguous -e ending for o-stem nouns being cited in literature.
Demonstrative pronouns
Sample texts
First Botorrita plaque side A, Botorrita, Saragossa. (K.01.01.A).
soz augu arestalo damai
all this (is) valid by order of the competent authority
'all this' soz (< *sod) 'final, valid' augo (< *h₂eug-os 'strong, valid', cf. Latin augustus 'solemn').
'of the competent authority' arestalos (< *pr̥Hi-steh₂-lo 'competent authority' < *pr̥Hi-sto 'what is first, authority', gen. sing.)
'by order' damai (< *dʰoh₁m-eh₂ 'stablishing, dispose', instrumental fem. sing.).
(Translation: Prosper 2006)
saum dekametinas datuz somei eni touzei iste ankios iste es-ankios
of these, he will give the tax inside of this territory, so be fenced as be unfenced |
9836_20 | 'of these' (saum < *sa-ōm) 'the tithes, the tax' (dekametinas)
'he will pay, will give' (datuz) 'inside, in' (eni < *h₁en-i)
'of this' (somei loc. sing. < *so-sm-ei 'from this')
'territory' (touzei loc. sing. < *touzom 'territory' < *tewt-yo)
'so (be) fenced' iste ankios 'as (be) unfenced' iste es-ankios
(Transcription Jordán 2004)
togoitei ios vramtiom-ve auzeti aratim-ve dekametam datuz
In Togotis, he who draws water either for the green or for the farmland, the tithe (of their yield) he shall give
(Translation: De Bernardo 2007)
Great inscription from Peñalba de Villastar, Teruel. (K.03.03).
eni Orosei
uta Tigino tiatunei
erecaias to Luguei
araianom komeimu
eni Orosei Ekuoisui-kue
okris olokas togias sistat Luguei tiaso
togias |
9836_21 | eni Orosei uta Tigino tiatunei erecaias to Luguei araianom comeimu eni Orosei Ekuoisui-kue okris olokas togias sistat Luguei
in Orosis and the surroundings of Tigino river, we dedicate the fields to Lugus. In Orosis and Equeiso the hills, the vegetable gardens and the houses are dedicated to Lugus |
9836_22 | 'in' eni (< *h₁en-i) 'Orosis' Orosei (loc. sing. *oros-ei)
'and' uta(conj. cop.) 'of Tigino (river)' (gen. sing. *tigin-o) 'in the surroundings' (loc. sing. *tiatoun-ei < *to-yh₂eto-mn-ei)
'the furrows > the land cultivated' erekaiās < *perka-i-ans acc. pl. fem.) 'to Lugus' to Luguei
araianom (may be a verbal complement: properly, totally, *pare-yanom, cfr. welsh iawn) 'we dedicate' komeimu (< *komeimuz < *kom-ei-mos-i, present 3 p.pl.)
'in' eni 'Orosis' (Orosei loc. sing.) 'in Ekuoisu' (Ekuoisui loc. sing.) '-and' (-kue <*-kʷe)
'the hills' (okris < *h₂ok-r-eyes. nom. pl.) 'the vegetable gardens' (olokas < *olkās < *polk-eh₂-s, nom. pl.) '(and) the roofs > houses' (togias < tog-ya-s, nom. pl.)
'are they (dedicated)' sistat (< *sistant < *si-sth₂-nti, 3 p.pl.) 'to Lug' (Lugue-i dat.)
(Transcription: Meid 1994, Translation: Prosper 2002) |
9836_23 | Bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo, Teruel.
kelaunikui
derkininei : es
kenim : dures : lau
ni : olzui : obakai
eskenim : dures
useizunos : gorzo
nei : lutorikum : ei
subos : adizai : ekue : kar
tinokum : ekue : lankikum
ekue : tirtokum : silabur
sazom : ibos : esatui
Lutorikum eisubos adizai ekue Kartinokum ekue Lankikum ekue Tirtokum silabur sazom ibos esatui (datuz)
for those of the Lutorici included in the duty, and also of the Cartinoci, of the Lancici and of the Tritoci, must give enough money to settle the debt with them. |
9836_24 | 'for those included ' (eisubos < *h1epi-s-o-bʰos)
'of the Lutorici' (lutorikum gen. masc. pl.)
'and also' (ekue <*h₂et(i)kʷe) 'of the Cartinoci' (kartinokum)
'and also' (ekue) 'of the Lancici' (lankikum) 'and also' (ekue) 'of the Tritoci' (tirtokum)
'in the assignment, in the duty' (adizai loc. fem. sing. < *adittia < *ad-dik-tia. Cfr. Latin addictio 'assignment'),
'money' (silabur) 'enough' (sazom < *sātio < *seh₂t-yo)
'to settle the debt' (esatui < *essato < *eks-h₂eg-to. Cfr. Latin ex-igo 'demand, require' and exactum 'identical, equivalent')
'for them' (ibus < *i-bʰos, dat.3 p.pl.)
'must give' (datuz < *dh₃-tōd).
(Transcription and Translation: Prosper 2015)
See also
Celtiberian script
Botorrita plaque
Gallaecian language
Gaulish
Lepontic language
Iberian scripts
Continental Celtic languages
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Lusitanian language
References
Sources |
9836_25 | Alberro, Manuel. The celticisation of the Iberian Peninsula, a process that could have had parallels in other European regions. In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 35, 2003. pp. 7–24. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2003.2149]; www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2149
Anderson, James M. "Preroman indo-european languages of the hispanic peninsula" . In: Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 87, 1985, n°3-4. pp. 319–326. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rea.1985.4212]; [www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1985_num_87_3_4212]
Hoz, Javier de. "Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gaulish and the archaeological evidence". In: Etudes Celtiques. vol. 29, 1992. Actes du IXe congrès international d'études celtiques. Paris, 7-12 juillet 1991. Deuxième partie : Linguistique, littératures. pp. 223–240. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1992.2006 |
9836_26 | Hoz, Javier de. (1996). The Botorrita first text. Its epigraphical background; in: Die größeren altkeltischen Sprachdenkmäler. Akten des Kolloquiums Innsbruck 29. April - 3. Mai 1993, ed. W. Meid and P. Anreiter, 124–145, Innsbruck.
Jordán Cólera, Carlos: (2004). Celtibérico. . University of Zaragoza, Spain.
Joseph, Lionel S. (1982): The Treatment of *CRH- and the Origin of CaRa- in Celtic. Ériu n. 33 (31-57). Dublín. RIA.
Lorrio, Alberto J. "Les Celtibères: archéologie et culture". In: Etudes Celtiques. vol. 33, 1997. pp. 7–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1997.2109
Luján, Eugenio R. "Celtic and Celtiberian in the Iberian peninsula". In: E. Blasco et al. (eds.). Iberia e Sardegna. Le Monnier Universitá. 2013. pp. 97–112.
Luján, Eugenio R.; Lorrio, Alberto J. "Un puñal celtibérico con inscripción procedente de Almaraz (Cáceres, España)". In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 43, 2017. pp. 113–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2017.1096 |
9836_27 | McCone, Kim.(1996): Towards a relative chronology of ancient and medieval Celtic sound change Maynooth Studies in Celtic Linguistics 1. Maynooth. St. Patrick's College.
Meid, Wolfgang. (1994). Celtiberian Inscriptions, Archaeolingua, edd. S. Bökönyi and W. Meid, Series Minor, 5, 12–13. Budapest.
Schrijver, Peter (1991): The reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeals in Latin. Amsterdam. Ed. Rodopi.
Schumacher, Stefan (2004): Die keltischen Primärverben: ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft vol. 110. Universität Innsbruck.
Untermann, Jürgen. (1997): Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum. IV Die tartessischen, keltiberischen und lusitanischen Inschriften, Wiesbaden.
Velaza, Javier (1999): Balance actual de la onomástica personal celtibérica, Pueblos, lenguas y escrituras en la Hispania Prerromana, pp. 663–683.
Villar, Francisco (1995): Estudios de celtibérico y de toponimia prerromana, Salamanca. |
9836_28 | Zair, Nicholas. (2012): The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Leiden. Ed. Brill. |
9836_29 | Further reading
Beltrán Lloris, Francisco; Jordán Cólera, Carlos. "Celtibérico". In: Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua n. 20 (2020): pp. 631–688. DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.395
Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia de. "Celtic ‘son’, ‘daughter’, other descendants, and *sunus in Early Celtic". In: Indogermanische Forschungen 118, 2013 (2013): 259–298. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/indo.2013.118.2013.259
Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007). "Celtiberian". e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. Vol. 6: The Celts in the Iberian Peninsula. Article 17. pp. 749–850. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17
Fernández, Esteban Ngomo. “A propósito de matrubos y los términos de parentesco en celtibérico”. In: Boletín del Archivo Epigráfico. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. nº. 4 (2019): 5-15. |
9836_30 | Fernández, Esteban Ngomo. "El color rojo en celtibérico: del IE *H1roudh- al celtibérico routaikina". In: Boletín del Archivo Epigráfico. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. nº. 6 (junio, 2020): 5-19.
Simón Cornago, Ignacio; Jordán Cólera, Carlos Benjamín. "The Celtiberian S. A New Sign in (Paleo)Hispanic Epigraphy". In: Tyche 33 (2018). pp. 183–205.
Stifter, David (2006). "Contributions to Celtiberian Etymology II". In: Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua, 6. pp. 237–245. |
9836_31 | External links
Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
Celtic, Celtiberian - 2nd - 1st c. B.C. Examples of writing
Continental Celtic languages
Paleohispanic languages
Extinct languages of Spain |
9837_0 | War Paint is a 1953 American Western film directed by Lesley Selander and starring Robert Stack and Joan Taylor. A U.S. Cavalry lieutenant is assigned to deliver a peace treaty to a powerful Indian chief, but two Indians have vowed to kill the officer before he completes his mission.
The film was shot in Pathecolor and filmed on location in Death Valley National Park.
Plot
The pre-credit sequence of the film starts out with Bureau of Indian Affairs Commissioner Kirby and the last survivor of his US Cavalry escort shot and scalped by Taslik (Keith Larsen) and his squaw Wanima (Joan Taylor). |
9837_1 | The film proper begins with Lt. Billings (Robert Stack) leading his patrol, that has escorted Cpl Hamilton (Charles Nolte), a cartographer who has been making maps of the area. On the way back to the fort they are met by a messenger, who brings orders that they are to meet Commissioner Kirby (Richard H. Cutting) and his party at a trading post in order to deliver a recently signed Indian treaty from Washington to the chief of the local tribe. The messenger gives the treaty to the Lieutenant, who commandeers him to join his patrol. The patrol, who are unaware of the fate of Kirby and his party, have nine days to get the treaty to the chief, lest a new uprising start.
At the trading post is Taslik, who offers to lead the patrol to the chief. Taslik is wearing war paint that he explains is from his killing members of a rival tribe who have trespassed on his tribe's land. |
9837_2 | Unknown to the patrol, Taslik and Wanima, who is shadowing the patrol, are strongly against the peace treaty. The two sabotage the patrol's supplies at every turn in various undetected ways. On their journey the patrol discovers the remains of Commissioner Kirby's escort.
The patrol finally get wise to Taslik when they discover that he has led them in a giant circle looking for water. With time rapidly vanishing, Lt. Billings collects all the remaining water of the rapidly diminishing patrol to fill one water bottle. This is given to one of the troopers, who is to make his way overland to the Indian village while the rest of the men conserve their strength by traveling only at night. Wanima ambushes the trooper and kills him but is wounded herself and becomes unconscious. |
9837_3 | At night the patrol discovers what has happened, but Billings refuses to kill Wanima. This causes discontent among the patrol, who have lost other members through poisoned water and suicide. Wanima agrees to lead the patrol to water but leads them to an abandoned gold mine, creating further discontent. After a brief struggle between the troopers, Wanima, and Billings, Wanima resents leading them to water. With renewed strength and the knowledge of the gold, some remaining troopers plot to collect the gold and flee. When discovered a shootout occurs, ultimately only Billings and Wanima survive, finally arriving at the village to deliver the treaty.
Cast
As appearing in screen credits (main roles identified): |
9837_4 | Robert Stack as Lt. Billings
Joan Taylor as Wanima
Charles McGraw as Sgt. Clarke
Keith Larsen as Taslik
Peter Graves as Trooper Tolson
Robert Wilke as Trooper Grady
Walter Reed as Trooper Allison
John Doucette as Trooper Charnofsky
Douglas Kennedy as Trooper Clancy
Charles Nolte as Cpl. Hamilton
James Parnell as Trooper Martin
Paul Richards as Trooper Perkins
William Pullen as Jeb
Richard Cutting as Commissioner Kirby
Production
War Paint was the first film of Howard W. Koch and Aubrey Schenck's Bel-Air Productions, who were initially signed to do three films for United Artists. As Schenck was then under contract to RKO Pictures, he did not have his name on the screenplay credits, though he initially wrote the story. Schenck recalled that when it looked as though the film financing wouldn't come in on time, Robert Stack offered to provide the money himself.
The initial draft of the screenplay featured a mercy killing that the Production Code of America objected to. |
9837_5 | References
External links
1953 films
American films
1953 Western (genre) films
Western (genre) cavalry films
United Artists films
Films directed by Lesley Selander
Films scored by Emil Newman
American Western (genre) films
Films scored by Arthur Lange
1950s English-language films |
9838_0 | The Winfield Statewide Cup was an Australian rules football tournament held in Tasmania, Australia between the top twenty-one (21) major football clubs across Tasmania from the three major footballing bodies across the state (at the time), the TANFL, the NTFA and the NWFU.
The tournament was played in a five-round format held prior to the regular season proper, over a period of seven weeks between 29 March and 17 May 1980. |
9838_1 | Origins
The Winfield Statewide Cup competition came to fruition after discussions had been continuing for several years, as far back as 1972, mostly from TANFL executives and leading players and coaches, in wanting to expand the TANFL into a statewide competition to try to improve the perceived ailing standard of football across the state in recent years and disappointing performances of Tasmanian teams at Interstate level, notably Tasmania's disastrous displays at the 1969 and 1972 Australian National Football Carnivals which was causing the state's football reputation much harm and placing in jeopardy Tasmania's hopes of gaining Division One status within the Australian National Football Congress (and the large increase in funding the sport would ultimately receive from the ANFC as a result of attaining that status), this coincided with a disappointing loss to Queensland at Ulverstone in early 1980. |
9838_2 | The calls had grown stronger from within the TANFL after the classic 1975 State Premiership decider between Glenorchy and North Launceston (described by many old-timers as one of the best games of football ever seen in Hobart) and after the State Premiership was finally brought to an end in 1978 in favour of sending a Tasmanian team to play interstate, the TANFL, by then seeking all control of Australian Rules Football within Tasmania ordered all clubs from the NTFA and the NWFU to participate in the tournament alongside their TANFL counterparts.
Due to the perceived dogmatic approach by the TANFL in regard to its treatment of Northern & Coastal clubs, the final straw came when North Launceston had its home Semi Final replay against Clarence switched from York Park to North Hobart Oval by the TANFL in an effort to maximise the crowd attendance. |
9838_3 | Despite the uproar from the North over the decision, a crowd of 4,758 attended (the York Park match attracted 2,070 the previous week) and the Robins lost in the dying seconds by 2-points.
The Hobart Football Club, who had finished last in the TANFL in 1978 and 1979, rose from mediocrity under new coach Paul Sproule and took out the Winfield Statewide Cup beating Clarence in the Grand Final by 29-points at North Hobart Oval on 17 May 1980 in a dour, defensive game.
On the same day, Glenorchy handed North Launceston a shock 77-point defeat at York Park in the playoff for third and fourth place.
Despite some very good football displayed, the Winfield Statewide Cup failed to capture the football public's attention which resulted in poor crowds and a financial loss for the League.
Cigarette company Winfield sponsored the tournament to the tune of A$37,500 with a view to increasing that to A$50,000 for the tournament the following year (which was ultimately not held). |
9838_4 | In the aftermath of this tournament the TANFL planned to stage another Winfield Statewide Cup in 1981 with a view to formulating a full TFL Statewide League competition in 1982.
However, at a meeting of the three main bodies in Launceston in August 1980, the NTFA and NWFU voted against the proposal believing it not to be in the best interests of football in the North.
As a result, the Northern & Coastal clubs banded together in protest and formed the Greater Northern Football League (GNFL) in 1981 in order to disassociate themselves with the TANFL. |
9838_5 | After its formation, GNFL president Brendon Lyons launched a scathing attack on TANFL president John Bennett, accusing him of hatching plans aimed at denigrating Northern football by attempting to take six clubs to the statewide competition and seeking to demote the remaining uninvited clubs to junior status.
The TANFL, as the sport's governing body in Tasmania responded by introducing new qualification entries for players named for state duties, ruling that all players must play in the TANFL to be included in the squad, effectively banning all players from northern leagues from participating in the Tasmanian representative teams.
On 10 June 1982, the TANFL executive met at TFL House in Hobart and decided to put an end to talk of a statewide competition vowing to go it alone meaning that the GNFL could finish and a return to three separate leagues could resume.
Participating clubs |
9838_6 | Group 1 Teams
Clarence District Football Club.
Cooee Football Club.
Launceston Football Club.
Penguin Football Club.
Longford Football Club.
Group 2 Teams
Glenorchy District Football Club.
City-South Football Club.
Ulverstone Football Club.
New Norfolk District Football Club.
Latrobe Football Club.
Group 3 Teams
North Launceston Football Club.
North Hobart Football Club.
Devonport Football Club.
Sandy Bay Football Club.
Burnie Football Club.
Group 4 Teams
Hobart Football Club.
East Launceston Football Club.
Scottsdale Football Club.
East Devonport Football Club.
Smithton Football Club.
Wynyard Football Club.
Group 1 Ladder
Group 2 Ladder
Group 3 Ladder
Group 4 Ladder |
9838_7 | First Round
(Saturday, 29 March 1980)
Group 1
Clarence 12.22 (94) d Penguin 5.8 (38) – Att: 561 at Penguin Sports Ground.
Cooee 13.13 (91) d Launceston 12.12 (84) – Att: 592 at Windsor Park
Group 2
Glenorchy 13.12 (90) d New Norfolk 5.12 (42) – Att: 756 at Boyer Oval
City-South 9.19 (73) d Ulverstone 7.12 (54) – Att: 685 at Youngtown Memorial Ground
Group 3
Nth Launceston 20.18 (138) d Sandy Bay 11.17 (83) – Att: 1,579 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header)
Nth Hobart 20.17 (137) d Devonport 16.16 (112) – Att: 1,579 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header)
Group 4
Hobart 17.23 (125) d Smithton 8.4 (52) – Att: 551 at Latrobe Recreation Ground.
East Launceston 17.18 (120) d East Devonport 12.11 (83) – Att: 1,018 at York Park
Scottsdale 14.11 (95) d Wynyard 10.12 (72) – Att: 1,400 at Scottsdale Recreation Ground |
9838_8 | Second Round
(Saturday, 5 April & Monday, 7 April 1980)
Group 1
Clarence 18.18 (126) d Launceston 13.12 (90) – Att: 1,977 at North Hobart Oval
Cooee 23.18 (156) d Longford 8.12 (60) – Att: 783 at Longford Oval
Group 2
City-South 12.20 (92) d New Norfolk 11.19 (85) – Att: 1,329 at Windsor Park (Double-Header)
Latrobe 16.9 (105) d Ulverstone 13.17 (95) – Att: 434 at Ulverstone Recreation Ground
Group 3
Nth Hobart 18.23 (131) d Burnie 13.10 (88) – Att: 2,952 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header)
Devonport 15.18 (108) d Sandy Bay 15.12 (102) – Att: 902 at Devonport Oval
Group 4
East Launceston 19.14 (128) d Wynyard 13.7 (85) – Att: 1,329 at Windsor Park (Double-Header)
Hobart 20.17 (137) d Scottsdale 11.11 (77) – Att: 2,952 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header)
East Devonport 15.20 (110) d Smithton 10.13 (73) – Att: 1,500 at Smithton Football Ground. |
9838_9 | Third Round
(Saturday, 12 April 1980)
Group 1
Clarence 29.25 (199) d Longford 8.9 (57) – Att: 800 at Bellerive Oval
Launceston 21.12 (138) d Penguin 18.5 (113) – Att: 1,936 at York Park (Double-Header)
Group 2
Glenorchy 14.14 (98) d Ulverstone 12.15 (87) – Att: 1,097 at Devonport Oval (Double-Header)
Latrobe 13.12 (90) d City-South 8.15 (63) – Att: 1,097 at Devonport Oval (Double-Header)
Group 3
Nth Launceston 21.18 (144) d Nth Hobart 8.10 (58) – Att: 1,936 at York Park (Double-Header)
Devonport 16.17 (113) d Burnie 9.17 (71) – Att: 926 at West Park Oval
Group 4
Hobart 16.12 (108) d East Launceston 11.11 (77) – Att: 1,970 at North Hobart Oval
Scottsdale 17.15 (117) d Smithton 4.12 (36) – Att: 592 at Youngtown Memorial Ground |
9838_10 | Fourth Round
(Saturday, 19 April 1980)
Group 1
Cooee 19.13 (127) d Clarence 12.18 (90) – Att: 605 at West Park Oval (Double-Header)
Penguin 14.14 (98) d Longford 12.14 (86) – Att: 605 at West Park Oval (Double-Header)
Group 2
New Norfolk 23.13 (151) d Latrobe 9.13 (67) – Att: 917 at North Hobart Oval
Glenorchy 16.14 (110) d City-South 4.21 (45) – Att: 1,324 at KGV Football Park
Group 3
Nth Hobart 15.14 (104) d Sandy Bay 15.13 (103) – Att: 1,320 at Queenborough Oval
Nth Launceston 21.21 (147) d Burnie 7.10 (52) – Att: 1,044 at York Park (Double-Header)
Group 4
East Launceston 14.16 (100) d Smithton 7.7 (49) – Att: 1,044 at York Park (Double-Header)
Wynyard 11.14 (80) d Hobart 11.14 (80) – Att: 475 at Wynyard Oval.
Scottsdale 10.10 (70) d East Devonport 9.4 (58) – Att: 433 at Girdlestone Park. |
9838_11 | Fifth Round
(Friday, 25 April & Saturday, 26 April 1980)
Group 1
Penguin 17.21 (123) d Cooee 10.16 (76) – Att: 607 at Penguin Sports Ground.
Launceston 15.17 (107) d Longford 7.11 (53) – Att: 834 at York Park
Group 2
Glenorchy 17.12 (114) d Latrobe 10.14 (74) – Att: 666 at Latrobe Recreation Ground.
New Norfolk 15.16 (106) d Ulverstone 9.14 (68) – Att: 1,187 at North Hobart Oval
Group 3
Sandy Bay 19.11 (125) d Burnie 15.17 (107) – Att: 457 at West Park Oval
Devonport 14.15 (99) d Nth Launceston 11.13 (79) – Att: 1,511 at Devonport Oval
Group 4
Hobart 16.13 (109) d East Devonport 8.19 (67) – Att: 1,703 at TCA Ground
Wynyard 8.9 (57) d Smithton 7.4 (46) – Att: 785 at Smithton Football Ground.
Scottsdale 11.10 (76) d East Launceston 8.15 (63) – Att: 793 at Scottsdale Recreation Ground.
Non-Finalists Play-Off Round |
9838_12 | (Saturday, 3 May 1980)
New Norfolk 18.25 (133) d Nth Hobart 20.9 (129) – Att: 4,307 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header)
Cooee 23.18 (156) d Scottsdale 23.7 (145) – Att: 561 at West Park Oval (Double-Header)
Burnie 18.9 (117) d Wynyard 15.21 (111) – Att: 561 at West Park Oval (Double-Header)
Devonport 19.20 (134) d East Launceston 6.12 (48) – Att: 973 at Devonport Oval
East Devonport 25.19 (169) d Penguin 11.13 (79) – Att: 973 at Devonport Oval (Double-Header)
City-South 14.13 (97) d Launceston 12.8 (80) – Att: 602 at Windsor Park
Sandy Bay 27.29 (191) d Latrobe 11.11 (77) – Att: 567 at Queenborough Oval
Ulverstone 20.23 (143) d Longford 6.7 (43) – Att: 335 at Longford Oval.
Semi Finals
(Saturday, 3 May 1980)
Winner Group 4 v Winner Group 2
● Hobart: 3.2 (20) | 9.7 (61) | 15.10 (100) | 19.12 (126)
● Glenorchy: 9.3 (57) | 10.12 (72) | 12.13 (85) | 13.16 (94)
Attendance: 4,307 at North Hobart Oval (Double-Header) |
9838_13 | (Saturday, 3 May 1980)
Winner Group 3 v Winner Group 1
● Nth Launceston: 2.4 (16) | 5.6 (36) | 12.11 (83) | 16.18 (114)
● Clarence: 7.6 (48) | 12.8 (80) | 15.10 (100) | 17.12 (114)
Attendance: 2,070 at York Park
Semi Final Replay
(Saturday, 10 May 1980)
● Clarence: 1.8 (14) | 5.14 (44) | 11.15 (81) | 16.19 (115)
● Nth Launceston: 2.4 (16) | 5.7 (37) | 13.13 (91) | 16.17 (113)
Attendance: 4,758 at North Hobart Oval
Third Place Play-Off Match
(Saturday, 17 May 1980)
● Glenorchy: 3.6 (24) | 5.10 (40) | 13.17 (95) | 23.20 (158)
● Nth Launceston: 4.2 (26) | 9.6 (60) | 11.7 (73) | 12.12 (84)
Attendance: 1,230 at York Park.
Winfield Cup Grand Final
(Saturday, 17 May 1980)
● Hobart: 1.5 (11) | 4.9 (33) | 8.13 (61) | 9.21 (75)
● Clarence: 2.2 (14) | 3.2 (20) | 6.3 (39) | 7.4 (46)
Attendance: 5,961 at North Hobart Oval
Source: All scores and statistics courtesy of the Hobart Mercury, Saturday Evening Mercury (SEM), Launceston Examiner and North West Advocate publications |
9838_14 | See also
Australian rules football in Tasmania
Tasmanian Football League
Defunct Australian rules football competitions in Tasmania
1980 in Australian rules football |
9839_0 | Michael Jay Feinstein (born September 7, 1956) is an American singer, pianist, and music revivalist. He is an interpreter of and an anthropologist and archivist for the repertoire known as the Great American Songbook. In 1988 he won a Drama Desk Special Award for celebrating American musical theatre songs. Feinstein is also a multi-platinum-selling, five-time Grammy-nominated recording artist. He currently serves as Artistic Director for The Center for the Performing Arts in Carmel, Indiana. |
9839_1 | Early life
Feinstein was born in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Florence Mazie (née Cohen), an amateur tap dancer, and Edward Feinstein, a sales executive for the Sara Lee Corporation and a former amateur singer. He is Jewish. At the age of five, he studied piano for a couple of months until his teacher became angered that he was not reading the sheet music she gave him, since he was more comfortable playing by ear. As his mother saw no problem with her son's method, she took him out of lessons and allowed him to enjoy music his own way. |
9839_2 | Career
After graduating from high school, Feinstein worked in local piano bars for two years, moving to Los Angeles when he was 20. Through the widow of concert pianist-actor Oscar Levant, in 1977 he was introduced to Ira Gershwin, who hired him to catalogue his extensive collection of phonograph records. The assignment led to six years of researching, cataloguing and preserving the unpublished sheet music and rare recordings in Gershwin's home, thus building an archive of not just Ira's works but also those of his composer brother George Gershwin, who had died four decades earlier. During Feinstein's years with Gershwin, he also got to know Gershwin's next-door neighbor, singer Rosemary Clooney, with whom Feinstein formed a close friendship lasting until Clooney's death. Feinstein served as musical consultant for the 1983 Broadway show My One and Only, a musical pastiche of Gershwin tunes. |
9839_3 | By the mid-1980s, Feinstein was a nationally known cabaret singer-pianist famed for being a proponent of the Great American Songbook. In 1986, he recorded his first CD, Pure Gershwin (1987), a collection of music by George and Ira Gershwin. He followed this with Live at the Algonquin (1986); Remember: Michael Feinstein Sings Irving Berlin (1987); Isn't It Romantic (1988), a collection of standards and his first album backed by an orchestra; and Over There (1989), featuring the music of America and Europe during the First World War. Feinstein recorded his only children's album, Pure Imagination, in 1992. In the 1987 episode "But Not For Me" of the TV series thirtysomething he sang "But Not For Me", "Love Is Here to Stay" and Isn't It Romantic? as parts of dream sequences. |
9839_4 | By 1988, Feinstein was starring on Broadway in a series of in-concert shows: Michael Feinstein in Concert (April through June 1988), Michael Feinstein in Concert: "Isn't It Romantic" (October through November 1988), and Michael Feinstein in Concert: Piano and Voice (October 1990). He returned to Broadway in 2010, in a concert special duo with Dame Edna titled All About Me (March through April 2010).
1991 saw Feinstein's persona as a cabaret performer parodied in the third season of Mystery Science Theater 3000, which covered the Kaiju movie Gamera vs. Guiron. At the episode's close, Feinstein, played by the show's head writer Michael J. Nelson, and sang a cabaret version of the Gamera theme song to the characters Dr. Clayton Forrester and TV's Frank. |
9839_5 | In the early 1990s, Feinstein embarked on an ambitious songbook project wherein he performed an album featuring the music of a featured composer, often accompanied by the composer. These included collaborations with Burton Lane (two volumes: 1990, 1992), Jule Styne (1991), Jerry Herman (Michael Feinstein Sings the Jerry Herman Songbook, 1993), Hugh Martin (1995), Jimmy Webb (Only One Life: The Songs of Jimmy Webb, 2003) and Jay Livingston/Ray Evans (2002). He has also recorded three albums of standards with Maynard Ferguson: Forever (1993), Such Sweet Sorrow (1995), and Big City Rhythms (1999). |
9839_6 | In the late 1990s, Feinstein recorded two more albums of Gershwin music: Nice Work If You Can Get It: Songs by the Gershwins (1996) and Michael & George: Feinstein Sings Gershwin (1998). Feinstein's albums in the 21st century have included Romance on Film, Romance on Broadway (2000), Michael Feinstein with the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra (2001), Hopeless Romantics (2005, featuring George Shearing), and The Sinatra Project (2008).
In 2000, the Library of Congress appointed Feinstein to its newly formed National Recording Preservation Board, an organization dedicated to safeguarding America's musical heritage. |
9839_7 | In 2008, The Great American Songbook Foundation, founded by Feinstein, located its headquarters in Carmel, Indiana. The Foundation's two-fold mission includes the preservation, research, and exhibition of the physical artifacts, both published and non-published, of the Great American Songbook and educating today's youth about the music's relevance to their lives. The Foundation houses an archive and reference library; plans exist for a free-standing museum. The organization also holds an annual Great American Songbook Vocal Academy and Competition that invites high school students from around the country to compete in regional competitions; Feinstein has been a judge and mentor for the summer intensive each year from its inception in 2009. Finalists gather at the Foundation's headquarters for a vocal "boot camp" and final competition. The winner receives scholarship money and the opportunity to perform with Michael at his cabaret in New York. |
9839_8 | In 2009 Feinstein became the artistic director of The Center for the Performing Arts. located in Carmel, Indiana. Construction of the $170-million, three-theater venue was completed in January, 2011. The Center is home to an annual international arts festival, diverse live programming, and The Great American Songbook Foundation.
In 2009, Feinstein teamed up with Cheyenne Jackson to create a nightclub act titled "The Power of Two". The show was hailed by The New York Times as "passionate", "impeccably harmonized" and "groundbreaking". Variety acclaimed it as "dazzlingly entertaining". Their act became one of the most critically acclaimed shows of 2009, and the duo created a studio album from the material, The Power of Two that included their cover of the Indigo Girls song of the same name.
In addition to doing more than 150 live performances per year, Feinstein has appeared on a number of television series, documentaries, and talk shows. |
9839_9 | In 2010, PBS aired Michael Feinstein's American Songbook, a three-part television documentary that depicts the history of the American popular song up to 1960, as well as Feinstein's own life and career.
As of June 2011, Feinstein has written the score for two new stage musicals, The Night They Saved Macy's Parade and The Gold Room.
His Manhattan nightclub, Feinstein's at Loews Regency, presented the top talents of pop and jazz from 1999 to 2012, including Rosemary Clooney, Liza Minnelli, Glen Campbell, Barbara Cook, Diahann Carroll, Jane Krakowski, Lea Michele, Cyndi Lauper, Jason Mraz and Alan Cumming. The club was closed in December 2012 due to a year-long complete renovation of the Regency Hotel. Feinstein opened a new nightclub, Feinstein's at the Nikko in San Francisco's Nikko Hotel in May 2013, Feinstein's/54 Below at New York's Studio 54 in 2015 and also plans for a future nightclub in London. |
9839_10 | Since 2012, Feinstein has been the host of the weekly, one-hour radio program Song Travels with Michael Feinstein®, produced by South Carolina ETV Radio and distributed by NPR. On the program, Feinstein explores the legendary songs of 20th century America. The series surveys the passage of American popular song throughout the American landscape, evolving with each artist and performance. Podcast highlights of the show are also available under the title Song Travels Express.
Feinstein was named Principal Pops Conductor for the Pasadena POPS in 2012 and made his conducting debut in June 2013 to good reviews. In 2016, Feinstein's contract with the Pasadena POPS was extended through 2019. Under Feinstein's leadership, the Pasadena POPS has quickly become the nation's premier presenter of the Great American Songbook in the orchestral arena, delivering definitive performances of rare orchestrations and classic arrangements. |
9839_11 | Feinstein's memoir The Gershwins and Me: A Personal History in Twelve Songs about working for Ira Gershwin was published in the fall of 2012, accompanied by a CD of Feinstein performing the Gershwin brothers' music discussed in the book.
In April 2013 Feinstein released a new CD, Change Of Heart: The Songs of André Previn, (Concord) in collaboration with composer-conductor-pianist André Previn, with an album celebrating Previn's repertoire from his catalog of pop songs that have most commonly been featured in motion pictures. The album opens with "(You've Had) A Change of Heart".
On October 31, 2014, Feinstein's Michael Feinstein at the Rainbow Room premiered on PBS, with guest stars. The special is part of the 2014 PBS Arts Fall Festival, a primetime program with 11 weekly programs of classic Broadway hits and music from around the country, as well as some award-winning theater performances. |
9839_12 | Feinstein has appeared numerous times as a presenter on Turner Classic Movies. After cohosting with Robert Osborne for a night in January 2015, he returned to the channel as a guest host in August 2016 and December 2017, appearing in dozens of wraparounds on the channel.
Personal life
In October 2008, Feinstein married his longtime partner Terrence Flannery. The ceremony was performed by famed family court and television judge Judith Sheindlin, also known as Judge Judy. Feinstein and Flannery have homes in New York, Los Angeles, and Indiana.
Discography
For Feinstein's discography see Michael Feinstein discography.
References
Notes
External links
Michael Feinstein's American Songbook
Official fan club
Great American Songbook Foundation
The Center for the Performing Arts |
9839_13 | 1956 births
Living people
American archivists
American cabaret performers
American male singers
American jazz singers
American music historians
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American Jews
Concord Records artists
American gay musicians
LGBT singers from the United States
Singers from Ohio
Nonesuch Records artists
People from Carmel, Indiana
Musicians from Columbus, Ohio
Traditional pop music singers
LGBT Jews
LGBT people from Ohio
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
Jazz musicians from Ohio
21st-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Historians from Ohio
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people
21st-century American Jews |
9840_0 | The Chinese family of scripts are writing systems descended from the Chinese Oracle Bone Script and used for a variety of languages in East Asia. They include logosyllabic systems such as the Chinese script itself (or hanzi, now in two forms, traditional and simplified), and adaptations to other languages, such as Kanji (Japanese), Hanja (Korean), Chữ Hán and Chữ Nôm (Vietnamese) and Sawndip (Zhuang). More divergent are Tangut, Khitan large script, and its offspring Jurchen, as well as the Yi script, which were inspired by Chinese although not directly descended from it. The partially deciphered Khitan small script may be another. In addition, various phonetic scripts descend from Chinese characters, of which the best known are the various kana syllabaries, the zhuyin semi-syllabary, nüshu, and some influence on hangul. |
9840_1 | The Chinese scripts are written in various calligraphic hands, principally seal script, clerical script, regular script, semi-cursive script, and cursive script. (See Chinese calligraphy and Chinese script styles.) Adaptations range from the conservative, as in Korean, which used Chinese characters in their standard form with only a few local coinages, and relatively conservative Japanese, which has coined a few hundred new characters and used traditional character forms until the mid-20th century, to the extensive adaptations of Zhuang and Vietnamese, each coining over 10,000 new characters by Chinese formation principles, to the highly divergent Tangut script, which formed over 5,000 new characters by its own principles.
Chinese script
Origins |
9840_2 | The earliest extant Chinese writing consists of divinatory texts inscribed on ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons found at the last Shang dynasty capital near Anyang and dating from 1200 BC.
This Oracle Bone Script shows extensive simplification and linearization, which most researchers believe indicates an extensive period of prior development of the script. Although some Neolithic symbols have been found on pottery, jade or bone at a variety of sites in China, there is no consensus that any of them are directly related to the Shang oracle bone script. Bronze inscriptions from about 1100 BC are written in a developed form of the script and provide a richer body of text. |
9840_3 | Each character of the early script represents a word of Old Chinese, which at that time was uniformly monosyllabic. The strategies used are traditionally classified into six categories (六書 liùshū "six writings") first recorded in the second century dictionary Shuowen Jiezi. Three of these categories involved a representation of the meaning of the word:
Pictograms (象形字 xiàngxíngzì) represent a word by a picture (later stylized) such as rì "sun", rén "person" and mù "tree".
Ideograms (指事字 zhǐshìzì) are abstract symbols such as sān "three" and shàng "up".
Semantic compounds (會意字 huìyìzì) combine simpler elements to indicate the meaning of the word, as in lín "grove" (two trees).
Evolved forms of these characters are still in among the most commonly used today. |
9840_4 | Words that could not be represented pictorially, such as abstract terms and grammatical particles, were denoted using characters for similar-sounding words (the rebus strategy). These phonetic loans (假借字 jiǎjièzì) are thus new uses of existing characters rather than new graphic forms. An example is lái "come", written with the character for a similar-sounding word meaning "wheat". Sometimes the borrowed character would be modified slightly to distinguish it from the original, as with wú "don't", a borrowing of mǔ "mother". |
9840_5 | Phono-semantic compounds (形聲字 xíngshēngzì) were obtained by adding semantic indicators to disambiguate phonetic loans. This type was already used extensively on the oracle bones, and has been the main source of new characters since then. For example, the character originally representing jī "winnowing basket" was also used to write the pronoun and modal particle qí. Later the less common original word was written with the compound , obtained by adding the symbol zhú "bamboo" to the character. Sometimes the original phonetic similarity has been obscured by millennia of sound change, as in gé < *krak "go to" and lù < * "road". Many characters often explained as semantic compounds were originally phono-semantic compounds that have been obscured in this way. Some authors even dispute the validity of the semantic compound category.
The sixth traditional category (轉注字 zhuǎnzhùzì) contained very few characters, and its meaning is uncertain.
Styles |
9840_6 | Development and simplification of the script continued during the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods, with characters becoming less pictorial and more linear and regular, with rounded strokes being replaced by sharp angles.
During the Warring States period, writing became more widespread, with further simplification and variation, particularly in the eastern states.
After the western state of Qin unified China, its more conservative seal script became the standard for the whole country.
A simplified form known as the clerical script became the standard during the Han dynasty, and later evolved into the regular script still used today.
At the same time semi-cursive and cursive scripts developed.
The Traditional Chinese script is currently used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau.
Mainland China and Singapore use the Simplified Chinese variant. |
9840_7 | Dialectal writing
Until the early 20th century, formal writing employed Literary Chinese, based on the vocabulary and syntax of classical works.
The script was also used less formally to record local varieties, which had over time diverged from the classical language and each other.
The logographic script easily accommodated differences in pronunciation, meaning and word order, but often new characters were required for words that could not be related to older forms.
Many such characters were created using the traditional methods, particularly phono-semantic compounds. |
9840_8 | Adaptations for other languages
The Chinese script was for a long period the only writing system in East Asia, and was also hugely influential as the vehicle of the dominant Chinese culture. Korea, Japan and Vietnam adopted Chinese literary culture as a whole. For many centuries, all writing in neighbouring societies was done in Classical Chinese, albeit influenced by the writer's native language. Although they wrote in Chinese, writing about local subjects required characters to represent names of local people and places; leading to the creation of Han characters specific to other languages, some of which were later reimported as Chinese characters. Later they sought to use the script to write their own languages. Chinese characters were adapted to represent the words of other languages using a range of strategies, including
representing loans from Chinese using their original characters,
representing words with characters for similar-sounding Chinese words, |
9840_9 | representing words with characters for Chinese words with similar meanings,
creating new characters using the same formation principles as Chinese characters, especially phono-semantic compounds, and
creating new characters in other ways, such as compounds of pairs of characters indicating the pronunciation of the initial and final parts of a word respectively (similar to Chinese fanqie spellings).
The principle of representing one monosyllabic word with one character was readily applied to neighbouring languages to the south with a similar analytic structure to Chinese, such as Vietnamese and Zhuang. The script was a poorer fit for the polysyllabic agglutinative languages of the north-east, such as Korean, Japanese and the Mongolic and Tungusic languages. |
9840_10 | Korean
Chinese characters adapted to write Korean are known as Hanja. From the 9th century, Korean was written using a number of systems collectively known as Idu, in which Hanja were used to write both Sino-Korean and native Korean roots, and a smaller number of Hanja were used to write Korean grammatical morphemes with similar sounds. The overlapping uses of Hanja made the system complex and difficult to use, even when reduced forms for grammatical morphemes were introduced with the Gugyeol system in the 13th and 14th centuries. |
9840_11 | The Hangul alphabet introduced in the 15th century was much simpler, and specifically designed for the sounds of Korean. The alphabet makes systematic use of modifiers corresponding to features of Korean sounds. Although Hangul is unrelated to Chinese characters, its letters are written in syllabic blocks that can be interspersed with Hanja. Such a Korean mixed script became the usual way of writing the language, with roots of Chinese origin denoted by Hanja and all other elements rendered in Hangul. Hanja is still used (but not very commonly like the Japanese) and is required in both North and South Korea.
Historically, a few characters were coined in Korea, such as ; these are known as gukja (/).
Japanese |
9840_12 | Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with the Chinese character, while Japanese words could be written using the character for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Because there have been multiple layers of borrowing into Japanese, a single kanji may have several readings in Japanese. |
9840_13 | Other systems, known as kana, used Chinese characters phonetically to transcribe the sounds of Japanese syllables. An early system of this type was Man'yōgana, as used in the 8th century anthology Man'yōshū. This system was not quite a syllabary, because each Japanese syllable could be represented by one of several characters, but from it were derived two syllabaries still in use today. They differ because they sometimes selected different characters for a syllable, and because they used different strategies to reduce these characters for easy writing: the angular katakana were obtained by selecting a part of each character, while hiragana were derived from the cursive forms of whole characters. Such classic works as Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji were written in hiragana, the only system permitted to women of the time. |
9840_14 | Modern Japanese writing uses a composite system, using kanji for word stems, hiragana for inflexional endings and grammatical words, and katakana to transcribe non-Chinese loanwords.
A few hundred characters have been coined in Japan; these are known as kokuji (), and include natural phenomena, particularly fish, such as 鰯 (sardine), together with everyday terms such as 働 (work) and technical terms such as 腺 (gland).
Vietnamese |
9840_15 | Vietnamese was first written from the 13th century using the Chữ Nôm script based on Chinese characters, but the system developed in a quite different way than in Korea or Japan.
Vietnamese was and is a strongly analytic language with many distinct syllables (roughly 4,800 in the modern standard language), so there was little motivation to develop a syllabary.
As with Korean and Japanese, characters were used to write borrowed Chinese words, native words with a similar sound and native words with a similar meaning.
In the Vietnamese case, the latter category consisted mainly of early loans from Chinese that had come to be accepted as native.
The Vietnamese system also involved creation of new characters using Chinese principles, but on a far greater scale than in Korea or Japan.
The resulting system was highly complex and was never mastered by more than 5% of the population.
It was completely replaced in the 20th century by the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet.
Zhuang |
9840_16 | Zhuang has been written using Sawndip for over a thousand years. The script uses both Chinese characters and new characters formed using the traditional methods, as well as some formed by combining pairs of characters to indicate the pronunciation of a word by the fanqie method. The number of new created characters is similar in scale to the Chu nom of Vietnam. Even though an official alphabet-based writing system for Zhuang was introduced in 1957, Sawndip is still more often used in less formal situations.
Others
Several peoples in southwest China recorded laws, songs and other religious and cultural texts by representing words of their languages using a mix of Chinese characters with a similar sound or meaning, or pairs of Chinese characters indicating pronunciation using the fanqie method.
The languages so recorded included Miao, Yao, Bouyei, Kam, Bai and Hani.
All these languages are now written using Latin-based scripts. |
9840_17 | Chinese characters were also used to transcribe the Mongolian text of The Secret History of the Mongols.
Descendent scripts by type
Logographic
Oracle Bone Script, Seal script, Clerical script, Standard Script, Semi-cursive script, Cursive script, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Zhuang logogram, Zetian characters, Hanja, Chữ Hán, Chữ Nôm and Kanji.
Syllabary
Hiragana, Katakana, Man'yōgana and Nüshu.
Semi-syllabary
Zhuyin Fuhao, Gugyeol, Hyangchal, Idu.
Scripts influenced by Chinese |
9840_18 | Between the 10th and 13th centuries, northern China was ruled by foreign dynasties that created scripts for their own languages.
The Khitan large script and Khitan small script, which in turn influenced the Tangut script and Jurchen script, used characters that superficially resemble Chinese characters, but with the exception of a few loans were constructed using quite different principles.
In particular the Khitan small script contained phonetic sub-elements arranged in a square block in a manner similar to the more sophisticated Hangul system devised later for Korean.
Other scripts in China that borrowed or adapted some Chinese characters but are otherwise distinct include Ba–Shu scripts, Geba script, Sui script, Yi script and the Lisu syllabary. |
9840_19 | See also
List of languages written in Chinese characters and derivatives of Chinese characters
Chinese character encoding
Chinese input methods for computers
Chinese language
Chinese numerals, or how to write numbers with Chinese characters
Brahmic family of scripts
Mojikyo
Chinese character: Other languages
References
Citations
Works cited
External links
Evolution of Chinese Characters
History of Chinese writing
Unihan Database: Chinese, Japanese, and Korean references, readings, and meanings for all the Chinese and Chinese-derived characters in the Unicode character set
Ideographic Rapporteur Group working documents—many big size pdfs, some of them with details of CJK extensions
Welcome To Mojikyo Institute!—big size downloadable Mojikyo program files
Khitan script on Omniglot
Linguist List - Description of Kitan
Jurchen Script
Tangut script at Omniglot
Tangut coins, Andrew West
Writing systems
Chinese characters
Chinese scripts |
9841_0 | Anime and manga fandom (otherwise known as fan community) is a worldwide community of fans of anime and manga. Anime includes animated series, films and videos, while manga includes manga, graphic novels, drawings and related artworks. The anime and manga fandom traces back to the 1970s, with numerous countries such as the United States, France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Malaysia participating in it.
Otaku |
9841_1 | Otaku is a Japanese term for people with obsessive interests, including anime, manga or video games. In its original context, the term otaku is derived from a Japanese term for another's house or family ( otaku), which is also used as an honorific second-person pronoun. The modern slang form, which is distinguished from the older usage by being written only in hiragana (おたく) or katakana (オタク or, less frequently, ヲタク), or rarely in rōmaji, appeared in the 1980s. In the anime Macross, first aired in 1982, the term was used by Lynn Minmay as an honorific term. It appears to have been coined by the humorist and essayist Akio Nakamori in his 1983 series , printed in the lolicon magazine Manga Burikko. Animators like Haruhiko Mikimoto and Shōji Kawamori used the term among themselves as an honorific second-person pronoun since the late 1970s. After its wild spread usage by other Japanese people, however, it became pejorative and increasingly offensive in the 1990s, implying that a person is |
9841_2 | socially inept. Otaku can be seen as being similar to the English terms geek or nerd. |
9841_3 | However, the term started to be used by anime and manga fans themselves again starting in the 2000s, in a more general and positive way, and today it is often used by those outside of the fandom to refer to fans of anime or manga. However, older generation otaku, like Otaking (King of Otakus) Toshio Okada, in his book Otaku Wa Sude Ni Shindeiru (オタクはすでに死んでいる) said the newer generation of self-proclaimed otakus are not real otakus, as they lack the passion and research sense into a particular sub-culture subject, and are only common fans which only over spent in buying products.
History of the community |
9841_4 | Anime and manga fandom traces back to at least the 1970s when fans of the series Space Battleship Yamato banded together to get it back on the air after it stopped airing on Japanese television. In Japan, anime and manga are referred to collectively as the content industry: anime, video games, manga, and other related merchandise are different types of media focused around the same content.
English-language fan communities
The fan community in the English-speaking world began in the 1970s and steadily grew. According to Japanophile Fred Patten, the very first fan club devoted to Japanese animation was the Cartoon/Fantasy Organization, which began in Los Angeles in 1977. Its growth characterized by waves that Gilles Poitras as well as Bruce Lewis and Cathy Sterling name as specific "generations", often instigated by a singular work. |
9841_5 | In the Philippines, GMA-7 began airing Voltes V in 1978. It was the first exposure of Filipinos to Japanese animation. Voltes V soon became very popular between children all around the Philippines which led to the sudden popularity of other anime series' related to the Super Robot genre in the Philippines. It was soon banned in 1979 by then president Ferdinand Marcos, four episodes before the end of the series, along with the other anime series' airing at the time, supposedly for its violence and warlike themes. This however, did not hinder the Filipinos' growing love of anime, leading to the large popularity of anime and manga throughout the Philippines. |
9841_6 | Poitras identifies the first generation as the "Astro Boy Generation". Despite being the first and most popular animated Japanese television series, Astro Boy did not create many hardcore fans, but it exposed viewers to the medium and increased their receptivity towards it later on. The "Early Fans" or "Old Timers" generation that consumed titles like Speed Racer, Eighth Man, and Battle of the Planets as staples. These fans were much more aware that what they were consuming was Japanese and took the initiative to search for more. The "Yamato" or "Star Blazers" generation originating from the series Space Battleship Yamato that originally aired in 1979–80. Poitras states that this generation was so loyal because Star Blazers strong narration required viewers to never miss an episode. The Poitras dubs the next generation the "Robotech Generation", after the 1985 television series Robotech, is the earliest major generation in the USA and is distinguished by fans clearly recognizing anime |
9841_7 | as a Japanese product with significant differences from American animation. Fans from this generation and the Yamato Generation were to make up the significant portion of organized fandom throughout the 1980s. The film Akira, which played in art theaters in December 1989, produced a cult following that Poitras names the "Akira Generation". Akira inspired some to move on to other works but stalled many becoming an isolated work in their eyes, overshadowing the creative context of anime and manga it represented. |
9841_8 | Then in the 1990s, Poitras states that "something new happened in the U.S.", the "Sailor Moon Generation" was born. Previous generations consisted mostly of college age fans, however in 1995 Sailor Moon was adapted into English and caught the attention of people even as young as grade school in age, many of them female. In the span of a few months, the fan demographic changed dramatically and as their interests diversified, so did the titles adapted into English. Poitras, Lewis and Sterling describe current generation of fans as the "Otaku Generation", however not necessarily applying the word "otaku" to current fans. For this generation, the release of a title onto the television in the past was unusual enough that fans often remember their first anime experience as something special. Poitras remarked that as of the "Otaku Generation", the influx of fans into the fandom is better characterized by a continuous stream than as waves as it was in the past. |
9841_9 | In the United States, the fan community began as an offshoot of science fiction fan community, with fans bringing imported copies of Japanese manga to conventions. Before anime began to be licensed in the U.S., fans who wanted to get a hold of anime would leak copies of anime movies and subtitle them, thus marking the start of fansubs. By 1994, anime had become more common in the U.S., and had begun being translated into English and shown on television, most commonly shōnen series such as Pokémon and Astro Boy. |
9841_10 | Marathon viewing sessions of Japanese anime television series have been a common trend in anime fandom for decades, dating back to the late 1970s to 1980s. According to an early American anime cosplayer, Karen Schnaubelt, Japanese anime were "incredibly difficult to come by" with "nothing available except broadcast TV until" VHS videotapes became commonly available in the late 1970s, allowing fans to import anime shows from Japan; she noted that a friend "would record the episodes" and then "a group of us would gather at his apartment and watch a marathon of the episodes." At comic conventions and sci-fi conventions in the 1980s, fans brought video tapes to hold marathon anime screenings; BayCon 1986, for example, held an 80-hour long anime marathon. |
9841_11 | According to Mike Tatsugawa, the founder and CEO of the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation, the first milestone for anime in the U.S. was in the 1980s with the advent of the Internet. With the Internet, fans were able to more easily communicate with each other and thus better able to exchange fan-subtitled tapes and higher quality versions of anime. Some experts, such as Susan Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, say that Akira marked the first milestone. However, most experts agree that the next milestone was in 1992 when U.S. Renditions, a film importer, released the first English-subtitled anime videotape that year, entitled Gunbuster. According to Tatsugawa, the success of Gunbuster triggered a flurry of releases. |
9841_12 | Due to the localization process, many people who grew up watching anime did so not realizing that it originated in Japan. After the success of Power Rangers (which first aired in 1993), U.S. television companies began broadcasting Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z in 1995 and 1996 respectively. However, due to the relative failure of the latter two (both shows brought success when aired at a later time on Cartoon Network), anime did not seem like it would become mainstream. However, the anime boom in the U.S. began with the airing of the anime series Pokémon in syndication in 1998, which served as proof to U.S. broadcasters and distributors that Japanese media could succeed in the U.S. market. It was only after Pokémon and Power Rangers left the mainstream that U.S. audiences became aware of anime's Japanese origins. |
9841_13 | Anime streaming outlets in the United States |
9841_14 | In the United States there are multiple streaming outlets that fans can use to view anime and manga, while also being able to connect with those communities. One such outlet is Crunchyroll, a streaming service that lets users view popular anime from the past and new anime episodes released to the website. Crunchyroll was created in 2006 as a distribution outlet for anime. Crunchyroll has since evolved into becoming something more for fans in the anime community. They have added an addition to their website that allows anime and manga fans to get news about anime releases, events, and topics related to the community. This has also evolved to the creation of the Crunchyroll Expo. This exposition is a large scale event in San Jose, CA that allows anime and manga fans to connect. The streaming service also features a store where you can purchase anime related products such as: figures, Japanese snacks, apparel, posters, video games and manga. |
9841_15 | In addition, another streaming service within the United States is Funimation. Similar to Crunchyroll, Funimation allows you to view newly released anime while also offering a store with products similar to Crunchyroll. Funimation's website also has a section created for events related to anime and manga that allows their members to connect at the local and national level. There is also a blog section that allows those with an account on Funimation to connect with other fans and talk about their favorite, or maybe even least favorite, anime and episode.
Mass streaming services like Netflix and Prime Video have also expanded into licensing and distributing anime since the early-2010s. |
9841_16 | European fan communities (France, Italy, Spain and Germany) |
9841_17 | In the 1970s, Japanese Animation reached Europe mainly with productions aimed at European and Japanese children with the main results being Heidi, Vicky the Vicking and Barbapapa. However, these works were not recognized as Japanese productions and did not earn much of a dedicated fanbase. Italy, Spain and France, however, grew an interest for more Japanese animation for their television programming, due to success of previous co-productions, Japan's productive output and cheap selling price in comparison to US animation. Particularly Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. Like in the Philippines, the Super Robot Genre became very popular with series such as UFO Robot Grendizer and Mazinger Z. However many more genres got added to the mix, with space opera such as Captain Harlock, shojo shows like Candy Candy and Rose of Versailles, sports like Captain Tsubasa and more. Germany however largely rejected Anime other than western literature adaptations of Nippon Animation, with |
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