chunk_id
stringlengths 3
8
| chunk
stringlengths 1
1k
|
|---|---|
9543_34 | From the 1920s to the 1930s, school counseling grew because of the rise of progressive education in schools. This movement emphasized personal, social, and moral development. Many schools reacted to this movement as anti-educational, saying that schools should teach only the fundamentals of education. Combined with the economic hardship of the Great Depression, both challenges led to a decline in school counseling. At the same time, the National Association for College Admission Counseling was established as the first professional association focused on counseling and advising high school students into college. In the early 1940s, the school counseling movement was influenced by the need for counselors to help assess students for wartime needs. At the same time, researcher Carl Rogers emphasized the power of non-directive helping relationships and counseling for all ages and the profession of counseling was influenced to shift from directive "guidance" to non-directive or |
9543_35 | person-centered "counseling" as the basis for school counseling. |
9543_36 | In the 1950s the government established the Guidance and Personnel Services Section in the Division of State and Local School Systems. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. Out of concern that the Russians were winning the space race and that there were not enough scientists and mathematicians, the government passed the National Defense Education Act, spurring growth in vocational and career counseling through larger funding. In the 1950s the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was founded as one of the early divisions of what is now known as the American Counseling Association (ACA). |
9543_37 | In the 1960s, new legislation and professional developments refined the school counseling profession (Schmidt, 2003). The 1960s continued large amounts of federal funding for land-grant colleges and universities to establish Counselor Education master's and doctoral programs. School counseling shifted from a primary focus on career development to adding social-emotional issues paralleling the rise of social justice and civil rights movements. In the early 1970s, Dr. Norm Gysbers's research and advocacy helped the profession shift from school counselors as solitary professionals focused on individual academic, career, and social-emotional student issues to a comprehensive developmental school counseling program for all students K-12 that included individual and group counseling for some students and classroom lessons and annual advising/planning and activities for every student. He and his colleagues' research evidenced strong correlations between fully implemented school counseling |
9543_38 | programs and student academic success; a critical part of the evidence base for the school counseling profession was their work in Missouri. Dr. Chris Sink & associates showed similar evidence-based success for school counseling programs at the elementary and middle school levels in Washington State. |
9543_39 | School counseling in the 1980s and early 1990s was not influenced by corporate educational reform efforts. The profession had little evidence of systemic effectiveness for school counselors and only correlational evidence of the effectiveness of school counseling programs. In response, Campbell & Dahir consulted with elementary, middle, and high school counselors and created the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Student Standards with three core domains (Academic, Career, Personal/Social), nine standards, and specific competencies and indicators for K-12 students. There was no research base, however, for school counseling standards as an effective educational reform strategy. A year later, Whiston & Sexton published the first systemic meta-analysis of school counseling outcome research in academic, career, and personal/social domains and individual counseling, group counseling, classroom lessons, and parent/guardian workshop effectiveness. |
9543_40 | In the late 1990s, former mathematics teacher, school counselor, and administrator Pat Martin, was hired by corporate-funded educational reform group, the Education Trust, to focus the school counseling profession on equity issues by helping close achievement and opportunity gaps harming children and adolescents of color, poor and working class children and adolescents, bilingual children and adolescents, and children and adolescents with disabilities. Martin, under considerable heat from Counselor Educators who were not open to her equity-focused message of change, developed focus groups of K-12 students, parents, guardians, teachers, building leaders, and superintendents, and interviewed professors of School Counselor Education. She hired Oregon State University School Counselor Education professor emeritus Dr. Reese House, and after several years of work in the late 1990s they created, in 2003, the National Center for Transforming School Counseling (NCTSC). |
9543_41 | The NCTSC focused on changing school counselor education at the graduate level and changing school counselor practice in state and local districts to teach school counselors how to help recognize, prevent, and close achievement and opportunity gaps. In their initial focus groups, they found what Hart & Jacobi had indicated years earlier—too many school counselors were gatekeepers for the status quo instead of advocates for the academic success of every child and adolescent. Too many school counselors used inequitable practices, supported inequitable school policies, and were unwilling to change. |
9543_42 | This professional behavior kept many students from non-dominant backgrounds (i.e., students of color, poor and working class students, students with disabilities, and bilingual students) from receiving challenging coursework (AP, IB, and honors classes) and academic, career, and college access/affordability/admission skills needed to successfully graduate from high school and pursue post-secondary options including college. In 1998, the Education Trust received a grant from the DeWitt Wallace/Reader's Digest to fund six $500,000 grants for Counselor Education/School Counseling programs, with a focus on rural and urban settings, to transform School Counselor Education programs to teach advocacy, leadership, teaming and collaboration, equity assessment using data, and culturally competent program counseling and coordination skills in addition to counseling: Indiana State University, the University of Georgia, the University of West Georgia, the University of California-Northridge, the |
9543_43 | University of North Florida, and, the Ohio State University were the recipients. Over 25 additional Counselor Education/School Counseling programs nationwide became companion institutions in the following decade with average grants of $3000. By 2008, NCTSC consultants had worked in over 100 school districts and major cities and rural areas to transform the work of school counselors nationwide. |
9543_44 | In 2002, the American School Counselor Association released Dr. Trish Hatch and Dr. Judy Bowers' work: the ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs comprising key school counseling components: ASCA National Standards, and the skill-based focus for closing achievement and opportunity gaps from the Education Trust's new vision of school counseling into one document. The model drew from major theoreticians in school counseling with four key areas: Foundation (school counseling program mission statements, vision, statements, belief statements, and annual goals); Delivery (direct services including individual and group counseling; classroom counseling lessons; planning and advising for all students); Management (use of action plans and results reports for closing gaps, small group work and classroom lessons; a school counseling program assessment, an administrator-school counselor annual agreement, a time-tracker tool, and a school counseling data tool; and |
9543_45 | Accountability (school counselor annual evaluation and use of a School Counseling Program Advisory Council to monitor data, outcomes, and effectiveness). In 2003, Dr. Jay Carey and Dr. Carey Dimmitt created the Center for School Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation (CSCORE) at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst as a clearinghouse for evidence-based practice with regular research briefs, original research projects, and eventual co-sponsorship of the annual Evidence-Based School Counseling conference in 2013. |
9543_46 | In 2004, the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors was revised to focus on issues of equity, closing achievement and opportunity gaps, and ensuring all K-12 students received access to a school counseling program. Also in 2004, an equity-focused entity on school counselors' role in college readiness and admission counseling, the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) emerged at the College Board led by Pat Martin and Dr. Vivian Lee. NOSCA developed scholarships for research on college counseling by K-12 school counselors taught in School Counselor Education programs. |
9543_47 | In 2008, the first NOSCA study was released by Dr. Jay Carey and colleagues focused on innovations in selected College Board "Inspiration Award" schools where school counselors collaborated inside and outside their schools for high college-going rates and strong college-going cultures in schools with large numbers of students of non-dominant backgrounds. In 2008, ASCA released School Counseling Competencies focused on assisting school counseling programs to effectively implement the ASCA National Model.
In 2010, the Center for Excellence in School Counseling and Leadership (CESCAL) at San Diego State University co-sponsored the first of four school counselor and educator conferences devoted to the needs of lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgender students in San Diego, California. ASCA published a 5th edition of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors. |
9543_48 | In 2011, Counseling at the Crossroads: The perspectives and promise of school counselors in American education, the largest survey of high school and middle school counselors in the United States with over 5,300 interviews, was released by Pat Martin and Dr. Vivian Lee by the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy, the National Association of Secondary School Principals, and the American School Counselor Association. The study shared school counselors' views on educational policies, practices, and reform, and how many of them, especially in urban and rural school settings, were not given the chance to focus on what they were trained to do, especially career and college access and readiness counseling for all students, in part due to high caseloads and inappropriate tasks. |
9543_49 | School counselors suggested changes in their role to be accountable for success of all students and how school systems needed to change so school counselors could be key advocates and leaders for every student's success. Implications for public policy and district and school-wide change were addressed. The National Center for Transforming School Counseling released a brief, Poised to Lead: How School Counselors Can Drive Career and College Readiness, challenging all schools to utilize school counselors for equity and access for challenging coursework (AP, IB, honors) for all students and ensuring college and career access skills and competencies as a major focus for school counselors K-12. |
9543_50 | In 2012, CSCORE assisted in evaluating and publishing six statewide research studies assessing the effectiveness of school counseling programs based on statewide systemic use of school counseling programs such as the ASCA National Model and published their outcomes in the American School Counselor Association research journal Professional School Counseling. Research indicated strong correlational evidence between fully implemented school counseling programs and low school counselor-to-student ratios provided better student academic success, greater career and college access/readiness/admission, and reduced social-emotional issue concerns included better school safety, reduced disciplinary issues, and better attendance.
Also in 2012, the American School Counselor Association released the third edition of the ASCA National Model. |
9543_51 | From 2014–16, the White House, under the Office of the First Lady Michelle Obama, partnered with key school counselor educators and college access professionals nationwide to focus on the roles of school counselors and college access professionals. Their collaboration resulted in a series of national Reach Higher/School Counseling and College Access convenings at Harvard University, San Diego State University, the University of North Florida, and American University. Michelle Obama and her staff also began the Reach Higher and Better Make Room programs to focus on college access for underrepresented students, and she began hosting the American School Counselor Association's School Counselor of the Year awards ceremony at the White House. The initiatives culminated in an unprecedented collaboration among multiple major professional associations focused on school counseling and college access including the American Counseling Association, the American School Counselor Association, the |
9543_52 | National Association for College Admission Counseling, the College Board, and ACT raising the profile and prominence of the role of school counselors collaborating on college access, affordability, and admission for all students. |
9543_53 | In 2015, ASCA replaced the ASCA National Student Standards with the evidence-based ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors for Student Success: K-12 College and Career Readiness Standards for Every Student, created from meta-analyses done by the University of Chicago's Consortium on Educational Reform showing key components of raising student academic success over multiple well-designed research studies. While an improvement over the lack of research in the ASCA student standards that they replaced, school counselors shared feedback that they do not go into enough depth for career, college access/admission/affordability, and social-emotional competencies.
In 2016, ASCA published a newly revised sixth version of the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors using two rounds of feedback from practicing school counselors in all 50 states; it also included, for the first time, a Glossary of ethical terms for heightened clarity. |
9543_54 | In 2019, ASCA released the 4th edition of the ASCA National Model, a Framework for School Counseling Programs. Changes included fewer templates and combined templates from the 3rd edition after school counselor feedback that the 3rd edition had become too complex and onerous. The four outside-the-diamond skills from the first three editions: advocacy, leadership, teaming and collaboration, and systemic change were incorporated throughout the model and no longer part of the diamond graphic organizer. The four quadrants of the model were changed to verbs and action-oriented words to better clarify the key components:
1. Define (formerly Foundation)
2. Deliver (formerly Delivery System)
3. Manage (formerly Management System)
4. Assess (formerly Accountability System).
The three types of data collected by school counselors in school counseling programs have shifted in name to:
1. Participation data (formerly process) |
9543_55 | 2. Mindsets & Behaviors data (formerly perception, i.e., learning)
3. Outcome data (results)
The 4th edition, while easier to read and use than prior editions, did not cover the history of how the model changed over time and neglected any mention of the original authors, Drs. Trish Hatch and Judy Bowers.
Venezuela
School counseling is mandated in Venezuela and it has focused on cultural competency.
Vietnam
School counseling is mandated in Vietnam. |
9543_56 | Roles, school counseling programs, ethics, and school counseling professional associations
Professional school counselors ideally implement a school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012).
A framework for appropriate and inappropriate school counselor responsibilities and roles is outlined in the ASCA National Model (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012). School counselors, in USA states, have a master's degree in school counseling from a Counselor Education graduate program. China requires at least three years of college experience. In Japan, school counselors were added in the mid-1990s, part-time, primarily focused on behavioral issues. In Taiwan, they are often teachers with recent legislation requiring school counseling licensure focused on individual and group counseling for academic, career, and personal issues. In Korea, school counselors are mandated in middle and high schools. |
9543_57 | School counselors are employed in elementary, middle, and high schools, in district supervisory settings, in Counselor Education faculty positions (usually with an earned Ph.D. in Counselor Education in the USA or related graduate doctorates abroad), and post-secondary settings doing academic, career, college access/affordability/admission, and social-emotional counseling, consultation, and program coordination. Their work includes a focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages (Schmidt, 2003). |
9543_58 | Professional school counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development and college access/affordability/admission, and social-emotional development (Dahir & Campbell, 1997; Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012). Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom instruction, appraisal, consultation, counseling, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods (such as the Self-Directed Search [SDS] or Career Key [based on the Holland Codes]) to help students explore career and college needs and interests. |
9543_59 | Schools play a key role in assessment, access to services, and possible referral to appropriate outside support systems. They provide intervention, prevention, and services to support students' academic, career, and post-secondary education as well as social-emotional growth. The role of school counselors is expansive. School counselors address mental health issues, crisis intervention, and advising for course selection. School counselors consult with all stakeholders to support student needs and may also focus on experiential learning, cooperative education, internships, career shadowing, and entrance to specialized high school programs. |
9543_60 | School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the school counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral , and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to family members such as college access/affordability/admission, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and adolescent development, mental health issues, and help with school-home transitions. |
9543_61 | School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access/affordability/admission planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and social-emotional topics. The topics of mental health, multiculturalism (Portman, 2009), anti-racism, and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama (Schmidt, 2003).
School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver academic, career, college access/affordability/admission, and social-emotional competencies to all students in their schools. For example, the ASCA National Model (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012) includes the following four main areas: |
9543_62 | Foundation (Define as of 2019) - a school counseling program mission statement, a vision statement, a beliefs statement, SMART Goals; ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors & ASCA Code of Ethics;
Delivery System (Deliver as of 2019) - how school counseling core curriculum lessons, planning for every student, and individual and group counseling are delivered in direct and indirect services to students (80% of school counselor time);
Management System (Manage as of 2019) - calendars; use of data tool; use of time tool; administrator-school counselor agreement; school counseling program advisory council; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing the gap action plans; and
Accountability System (Assess as of 2019) - school counseling program assessment; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing-the-gap results reports; and school counselor performance evaluations based on school counselor competencies. |
9543_63 | The school counseling program model (ASCA, 2012, 2019) is implemented using key skills from the National Center for Transforming School Counseling's Transforming School Counseling Initiative: Advocacy, Leadership, Teaming and Collaboration, and Systemic Change.
Many provinces in Canada offer a career pathway program, which helps to prepare students for the employment market and support a smooth school-to-work transition.
School Counselors are expected to follow a professional code of ethics in many countries. For example, In the US, they are the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) School Counselor Ethical Code, the American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics, and the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC) Statement of Principles of Good Practice (SPGP). |
9543_64 | Some school counselors experience role confusion, given the many tasks they are expected to perform. The demands on the school counselor to be a generalist who performs roles in leadership, advocacy, essential services, and curriculum development can be too much if there is not a clear mission, vision, and comprehensive school counseling program in place. Additionally, some school counselors are stretched too thin to provide mental health support on top of their other duties.
The role of a school counselor is critical and needs to be supported by all stakeholders to ensure equity and access for all students, particularly those with the fewest resources. The roles of school counselors are expanding and changing with time As roles change, school counselors help students prosper in academics, career, post-secondary, and social-emotional domains. School counselors reduce and bridge the inequalities facing students in educational systems. |
9543_65 | School counselors around the world are affiliated with various national and regional school counseling associations, and abide by their guidelines. These associations include: |
9543_66 | African Counseling Association (AfCA)
(AAC-Argentina)
(APPCPC-Portugal)
Australian Guidance and Counselling Association (AGCA)
Hong Kong Association of Guidance Masters and Career Masters (HKAGMCM)
Cypriot Association of School Guidance Counsellors (OELMEK)
European Counseling Association (ECA)
France Ministry of Education
Hellenic Society of Counselling and Guidance (HESCOG-Greece)
International Baccalaureate (IB)
International Society of Psychotherapy and Counselling (ISPC)
International Vanguard of Counsellors (IVC)
International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG)
(AIOSP)
(IVSBB)
(AIOEP)
Institute of Guidance Counselors (IGC) (Ireland)
Kenya Association of Professional Counselors (KAPC)
Department of Education-Malta
New Zealand Association of Counsellors/ (NZAC)
Counseling Association of Nigeria (CASSON)
Philippine Guidance and Counseling Association (PGCA)
Counseling & Psychotherapy in Scotland (COSCA) |
9543_67 | Singapore Association for Counseling (SAC)
(FEOP-Spain)
The Taiwan Guidance and Counseling Association (TGCA)
Counselling Children and Young People (BACP affiliate, UK)
British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP-UK)
American Counseling Association (ACA-USA)
American School Counselor Association (ASCA-USA)
Center for Excellence in School Counseling and Leadership (CESCaL) (USA)
Center for School Counseling Outcome Research (CSCOR-USA) Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP-USA and international)
National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC, USA)
National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) at The College Board (USA)
National Center for Transforming School Counseling (NCTSC) at The Education Trust (USA)
Overseas Association of College Admissions Counselors (OACAC an affiliate of National Association of College Admissions Counselors-USA) |
9543_68 | Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association - National School Counsellors Chapter (CPPA)
Newfoundland and Labrador Counsellors’ and Psychologists’ Association
PEI Counselling Association
British Columbia School Counsellors
Guidance Council of the Alberta Teachers' Association
Ontario School Counsellors' Association
Nova Scotia School Counsellors Association |
9543_69 | Elementary school counseling
Elementary school counselors provide academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of young children K-6. Transitions from pre-school to elementary school and from elementary school to middle school are an important focus for elementary school counselors. Increased emphasis is placed on accountability for helping close achievement and opportunity gaps at the elementary level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results. |
9543_70 | School counseling programs that deliver specific competencies to all students help to close achievement and opportunity gaps. To facilitate individual and group school counseling interventions, school counselors use developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy theories and techniques. Sink & Stroh (2003) released a research study showing the effectiveness of elementary school counseling programs in Washington state.
Middle school counseling
Middle school counselors provide school counseling curriculum lessons on academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college access planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the needs of older children/early adolescents in grades 7 and 8. |
9543_71 | Middle School College Access curricula have been developed to assist students and their families before reaching high school. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to high school are a key area including career exploration and assessment with seventh and eighth grade students. Sink, Akos, Turnbull, & Mvududu released a study in 2008 confirming the effectiveness of middle school comprehensive school counseling programs in Washington state. |
9543_72 | High school counseling |
9543_73 | High school counselors provide academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies with developmental classroom lessons and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of adolescents (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005, 2012). Emphasis is on college access counseling at the early high school level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement, opportunity, and attainment gaps ensuring all students have access to school counseling programs and early college access/affordability/admission activities. The breadth of demands high school counselors face, from educational attainment (high school graduation and some students' preparation for careers and college) to student social and mental health, has led to ambiguous role definition. Summarizing a 2011 national survey of more than |
9543_74 | 5,330 middle school and high school counselors, researchers argued: "Despite the aspirations of counselors to effectively help students succeed in school and fulfill their dreams, the mission and roles of counselors in the education system must be more clearly defined; schools must create measures of accountability to track their effectiveness; and policymakers and key stakeholders must integrate counselors into reform efforts to maximize their impact in schools across America". |
9543_75 | Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to college, other post-secondary educational options, and careers are a key area. The high school counselor helps students and their families prepare for post-secondary education including college and careers (e.g. college, careers) by engaging students and their families in accessing and evaluating accurate information on what the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy calls the eight essential elements of college and career counseling: (1) College Aspirations, (2) Academic Planning for Career and College Readiness, (3) Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement, (4) College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes, (5) College and Career Assessments, (6) College Affordability Planning, (7) College and Career Admission Processes, and (8) Transition from High School Graduation to College Enrollment. Some students turn to private college admissions advisors but there is no research evidence that private college admissions |
9543_76 | advisors have any effectiveness in assisting students attain selective college admissions. |
9543_77 | Lapan, Gysbers & Sun showed correlational evidence of the effectiveness of fully implemented school counseling programs on high school students' academic success. Carey et al.'s 2008 study showed specific best practices from high school counselors raising college-going rates within a strong college-going environment in multiple USA-based high schools with large numbers of students of non-dominant cultural identities.
Education credentials, certification, and accreditation
The education of school counselors around the world varies based on the laws and cultures of countries and the historical influences of their educational and credentialing systems and professional identities related to who delivers academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social information, advising, curriculum, and counseling and related services. |
9543_78 | Canada
In Canada, the educational requirements to become a school counselor vary by province. Below is an overview of the general provincial requirements for school counselors:
China
In China, there is no national certification or licensure system for school counselors.
Korea
Korea requires school counselors in all middle and high schools.
Philippines
In the Philippines, school counselors must be licensed with a master's degree in counseling.
Taiwan
Taiwan instituted school counselor licensure for public schools (2006) through advocacy from the Chinese Guidance and Counseling Association. |
9543_79 | United States
In the US, a school counselor is a certified educator with a master's degree in school counseling (usually from a Counselor Education graduate program) with school counseling graduate training including qualifications and skills to address all students’ academic, career, college access and personal/social needs. Once one has completed a master's degree one can take one of the certification options in order to become fully licensed as a professional school counselor.
Over half of all Counselor Education programs that offer school counseling are accredited by the Council on the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) and all in the US with one in Canada. In 2010 one was under review in Mexico. CACREP maintains a current list of accredited programs and programs in the accreditation process on their website. CACREP desires to accredit more international counseling university programs. |
9543_80 | According to CACREP, an accredited school counseling program offers coursework in Professional Identity and Ethics, Human Development, Counseling Theories, Group Work, Career Counseling, Multicultural Counseling, Assessment, Research and Program Evaluation, and Clinical Coursework—a 100-hour practicum and a 600-hour internship under supervision of a school counseling faculty member and a certified school counselor site supervisor (CACREP, 2001).
When CACREP released the 2009 Standards, the accreditation process became performance-based including evidence of school counselor candidate learning outcomes. In addition, CACREP tightened the school counseling standards with specific evidence needed for how school counseling students receive education in foundations; counseling prevention and intervention; diversity and advocacy; assessment; research and evaluation; academic development; collaboration and consultation; and leadership in K-12 school counseling contexts. |
9543_81 | Certification practices for school counselors vary internationally. School counselors in the USA may opt for national certification through two different boards. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) requires a two-to-three year process of performance based assessment, and demonstrate (in writing) content knowledge in human growth/development, diverse populations, school counseling programs, theories, data, and change and collaboration. In February 2005, 30 states offered financial incentives for this certification. |
9543_82 | Also in the US, the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) requires passing the National Certified School Counselor Examination (NCSC), including 40 multiple choice questions and seven simulated cases assessing school counselors' abilities to make critical decisions. Additionally, a master's degree and three years of supervised experience are required. NBPTS also requires three years of experience, however state certification is required (41 of 50 states require a master's degree). At least four states offer financial incentives for the NCSC certification.
Job growth and earnings |
9543_83 | The rate of job growth and earnings for school counselors depends on the country that one is employed in and how the school is funded—public or independent. School counselors working in international schools or "American" schools globally may find similar work environments and expectations to the USA. School counselor pay varies based on school counselor roles, identity, expectations, and legal and certification requirements and expectations of each country. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH), the median salary for school counselors in the US in 2010 was (USD) $53,380 or $25.67 hourly. According to an infographic designed by Wake Forest University, the median salary of school counselors in the US was $43,690. The USA has 267,000 employees in titles such as school counselor or related titles in education and advising and college and career counseling. The projected growth for school counselors is 14-19% or faster than average than other occupations in the US with a |
9543_84 | predicted 94,000 job openings from 2008–2018. In Australia, a survey by the Australian Guidance and Counseling Association found that school counselor salary ranged from (AUD) the high 50,000s to the mid-80,000s. |
9543_85 | Among all counseling specialty areas, public elementary, middle and high school counselors are (2009) paid the highest salary on average of all counselors. Budget cuts, however, have affected placement of public school counselors in Canada, Ireland, the United States, and other countries. In the United States, rural areas and urban areas traditionally have been under-served by school counselors in public schools due to both funding shortages and often a lack of best practice models. With the expectation of school counselors to work with data, research, and evidence-based practice, school counselors who show and share results in assisting to close achievement, opportunity, and attainment gaps are in the best position to argue for increased school counseling resources and positions for their programs (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012). |
9543_86 | Notable school counselors
Jamaal Bowman, US politician
Fernando Cabrera, US politician
Ern Condon, Canadian politician
Derrick Dalley, Canadian politician
Susie Sadlowski Garza, US politician
François Gendron, Canadian politician
Steve Lindberg, US politician
Lillian Ortiz-Self, US politician
Tony Resch, US lacrosse player
Tom Tillberry, US politician
Tom Villa, US politician
See also
Advocacy
Career counseling
Career development
Character education
Counseling
Counselor education
Education
Educational equity
Educational leadership
Frank Parsons
List of counseling topics
Mental health counseling
Multicultural education
Play therapy
School social worker
School psychology
Social justice
Teacher
References
Evidence- and research-based school counseling articles, books, DVDs
Abilities, disabilities, gifts, talents, and special education in school counseling |
9543_87 | Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Marshak, L. E., Dandeneau, C. J., Prezant, F. P., & L'Amoreaux, N. A. (2009). The school counselor's guide to helping students with disabilities. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Trolley, B. C., Haas, H. S., & Patti, D. C. (2009). The school counselor's guide to special education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Academic interventions, closing achievement gaps
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Hatch, T. (2014). "The use of data in school counseling: Hatching results for students programs, and the profession." Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2007). School counseling to close the achievement gap: A social justice framework for success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. |
9543_88 | Johnson, R. S. (2002). Using data to close the achievement gap: How to measure equity in our schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Schellenberg, R. (2008). The new school counselor: Strategies for universal academic achievement. Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield Education.
Squier, K. L., Nailor, P., & Carey, J. C. (2014). Achieving excellence in school counseling through motivation, self-direction, self-knowledge, and relationships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Weinbaum, A. T., Allen, D., Blythe, T., Simon, K., Seidel, S., & Rubin, C. (2004). Teaching as inquiry: Asking hard questions to improve student achievement. New York: Teachers College Press.
Accountability; evidence- and data-based school counseling program curricula, evaluation, and practices |
9543_89 | Astramovich, R. L., Hoskins, W. J., & Coker, J. K. (2008). The Accountability Bridge: A model for evaluating school counseling programs. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Brigman, G., Lemberger, M., & Moor, M. (2012). Striving to evince educational excellence: Measures for Adlerian counselors to demonstrate impact on student achievement and behavior. Journal of Individual Psychology.
Brigman, G., Villares, E., & Webb, L. (2013). The efficacy of individual psychology approaches for improving student achievement and behavior. Journal of Individual Psychology.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Dimmitt, C., Carey, J. C., & Hatch, T. (2007). Evidence-based school counseling: Making a difference with data-driven practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. |
9543_90 | Hatch, T. (2014). "The use of data in school counseling: Hatching results for students programs, and the profession." Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Mariani, M., Webb, L., Villares, E., & Brigman, G. (2012). Effects of participation in student success skills on pro-social and bullying behavior.
Stone, C. B., & Dahir, C. A. (2011). School counselor accountability: A MEASURE of student success (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Villares, E., Brigman, G., & Maier, A. (2010). Student Success Skills: Building quality worlds and advocating for school counseling programs. International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy, 1.
Villares, E., Frain, M., Brigman, G., Webb, L., & Peluso, P. (2012). The impact of Student Success Skills on standardized test scores: A meta-analysis Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation,doi 2150137811434041
Young, A., & Kaffenberger, C. (2009). Making data work (2nd ed.) Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association. |
9543_91 | Advocacy, empowerment, equity, social justice
Bryan, J., Moore-Thomas, C., Day-Vines, N. L., Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Mitchell, N. (2009). Characteristics of students who receive school counseling services: Implications for practice and research. Journal of School Counseling, 7 .
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Cox, A. A., & Lee, C. C. (2007). Challenging educational inequities: School counselors as agents of social justice. In C. C. Lee, (Ed.)., Counseling for social justice, 2nd ed. (pp. 3–14). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Ockerman, M. S., Mason, E. C. M., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2013). School counseling supervision in challenging times: The CAFE supervisor model. Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 5(2), Article 4. DOI:10.7729/51.0024 http://repository.wcsu.edu/jcps/vol5/iss2/4/ |
9543_92 | Studer, J. R. (2005). The professional school counselor: An advocate for students. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
ASCA National Model, school counseling programs, closing gaps
Alberta Education, Special Education Branch (1995). From position to program: Building a comprehensive school guidance and counselling program: Planning and resource guide. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Author.
American School Counselor Association/Hatch, T. & Bowers, J. (2012). The ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs, (3rd ed.) Alexandria, VA: Author.
Campbell, C. A., & Dahir, C. A. (1997). Sharing the vision: The national standards for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. |
9543_93 | De Leon, Angela P., 2011. "A Model Prekindergarten through 4th Year of College (P-16) Individual Graduation Plan Proposal." Applied Research Projects, Texas State University-San Marcos. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/364
Fezler, B., & Brown, C. (2011). The international model for school counseling programs. Pembroke Pines, FL: Association of American Schools in South America (AASSA). https://www.aassa.com/uploaded/Educational_Research/US_Department_of_State/Counseling_Standards/International_Counseling_Model_Handbook.pdf |
9543_94 | Hatch, T. (2008). Professional challenges in school counseling: Organizational, institutional and political. Journal of School Counseling, 6(22). Retrieved from http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v6n22.pdf.
Hatch, T. (2014). The use of data in school counseling: Hatching results for students, programs and the professions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Hatch, T., & Bowers, J. (2003, 2005, 2012). The ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.
Lapan, R. T. (2001). Results-based comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: A framework for planning and evaluation. Professional School Counseling, 4 .
Lee, V. V., & Goodnough, G. E. (2011). Systemic, data-driven school counseling practice and programming for equity. In B. T. Erford, (Ed.)., "Transforming the school counseling profession." (pp. 129–153). Boston: Pearson. |
9543_95 | Nova Scotia Department of Education. (2002). Comprehensive guidance and counselling program. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Author.
Schwallie-Giddis, P., ter Maat, M., & Pak, M. (2003). Initiating leadership by introducing and implementing the ASCA National Model. Professional School Counseling, 6 170-17 .
Bilingual school counseling
Bruhn, R. A., Irby, B. J., Lou, M., Thweatt, W. T. III, & Lara-Alecio, R. (2005). A model for training bilingual school counselors. In J. Tinajero and V. Gonzales (Eds.), Review of research and practice, (pp. 145–161). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Career and college access/admission/readiness; closing opportunity/attainment gaps |
9543_96 | Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Saud Maxwell, K., & Bailey, D. F. (2009). Equity-based school counseling: Ensuring career and college readiness for every student. DVD. Hanover, MA: Microtraining Associates.
The College Board. (2008). Inspiration & innovation: Ten effective counseling practices from the College Board's Inspiration Award schools. Washington, D.C.: Author.
The College Board. (2010). The college counseling sourcebook: Advice and strategies from experienced school counselors. (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. |
9543_97 | De Leon, Angela P., 2011. A Model Prekindergarten Through 4th Year of College (P-16) Individual Graduation Plan Proposal. Applied Research Projects, Texas State University-San Marcos. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/364
Fallon, M. A. C. (2011). Enrollment management's sleeping giant: The net price calculator mandate. Journal of College Admissions, Spring, 6-13.
Fitzpatrick, C., & Costantini, K. (2011). Counseling 21st Century students for optimal college and career readiness: A 9th-12th grade curriculum. New York, NY: Routledge. |
9543_98 | Hatch, T., & Bardwell, R. (2012). School counselors using data. In National Association for College Admission Counseling (Ed.), NACAC's Fundamentals of College Admission Counseling (3rd ed.). Arlington, VA: Counseling.
Hatch, T. (2012). School counselors: Creating a college-going culture in K-12 schools. In National Association for College Admission Counseling (Ed.), NACAC's Fundamentals of College Admission Counseling (3rd ed.). Arlington, VA: National Association for College Admission Counseling.
Horn, L., & Berktold, J. (1999). Students with disabilities in postsecondary education: A profile of preparation, participation, and outcomes. (National Center for Education Statistics No. 187). Washington, D. C.: United States Department of Education.
Hossler, D., Schmidt, J., & Vesper, N. (1998). Going to college: How social, economic, and educational factors influence the decisions students make. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. |
9543_99 | National Association of College Admission Counseling. (2008). Fundamentals of college admission counseling (2d ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt.
Caseloads, collaboration, resources, schedule changes, school counselor/student ratios
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Counseling theories in schools
Henderson, D. A. & Thompson, C. L. (2010). Counseling children. New York: Brooks/Cole/Cengage.
Perusse, R., and Goodnough, G. E., (Eds.). (2004). Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage. |
9543_100 | Sklare, G. B. (2014). Brief counseling that works: A solution-focused therapy approach for school counselors and other mental health professionals (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Winslade, J. M., & Monk G. D. (2007). Narrative counseling in schools: Powerful and brief (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Credentialing exams for school counselors
Schellenberg, R. (2012). The school counselor’s study guide for credentialing exams. New York: Routledge.
Cultural competence, ethnic/racial identity development in schools
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Holcomb-McCoy, C. & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2011). Culturally competent school counselors: Affirming diversity by challenging oppression. In B. T. Erford, (Ed). Transforming the school counseling profession. (3rd ed). (pp. 90–109). Boston: Pearson. |
9543_101 | Counseling core curriculum, lesson plans, classroom management
Fitzpatrick, C., & Costantini, K. (2011). Counseling 21st Century students for optimal college and career readiness: A 9th-12th grade curriculum. New York, NY: Routledge.
Goodnough, G. E., Perusse, R., & Erford, B. T. (2011). Developmental classroom guidance. In B. T. Erford, (Ed.)., Transforming the school counseling profession (3rd ed.). (pp. 154–177). Boston: Pearson.
Perusse, R., & Goodnough, G. E., (Eds.). (2004). Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Villares, E., Brigman, G., & Maier, A. (2010). Student Success Skills: Building quality worlds and advocating for school counseling programs. International Journal of Choice Theory and Reality Therapy, 1. |
9543_102 | Villares, E., Frain, M., Brigman, G., Webb, L., & Peluso, P. (2012). The impact of Student Success Skills on standardized test scores: A meta-analysis Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation,doi 2150137811434041
Ethics and law in school counseling
Stone, C. B. (2005). School counseling principles: Ethics and law. Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender school counseling
Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2012). Counseling and advocacy with a gay father, a straight mom, and a transgender adolescent. In S. H. Dworkin & M. Pope, (Eds.)., Casebook for counseling lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons and their families (pp. 45–52). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. |
9543_103 | Chen-Hayes, S. F., & Haley-Banez, L. (2000). Lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgendered counseling in schools and families (1, 2). DVDs. Hanover, MA: Microtraining Associates.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Fisher, E. S., & Komosa-Hawkins, K., (Eds.). (2013). Creating safe and supportive learning environments: A guide for working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning youth and families. New York: Routledge.
Ryan, C., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2013). Educating and empowering families of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning students. In E. S. Fisher & K. Komosa-Hawkins, (Eds.)., Creating safe and supportive learning environments: A guide for working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning youth and families (pp. 209–229). New York: Routledge. |
9543_104 | Smith, S. D., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2004). Leadership and advocacy strategies for lesbian, bisexual, gay, transgendered, and questioning (LBGTQ) students: Academic, career, and interpersonal success. In R. Perusse and G. E. Goodnough (Eds.), Leadership, advocacy, and direct service strategies for professional school counselors (pp. 187–221). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole/Cengage.
Group counseling in schools
Brigman, G., & Early, B. (2001). Group counseling for school counselors: A practical guide. Portland, ME: Walch.
International school counseling
Aluede, O. O., Adomeh, I. O. C., & Afen-Akpaida, J. E. (2004). Some thoughts about the future of guidance and counseling in Nigeria. Education Winter, 2004. |
9543_105 | Erhard, R., & Harel, Y. (2005). International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 27 87–98.
Harris, B. (2013). International school-based counselling scoping report. https://www.bacp.co.uk/media/2050/counselling-minded-international-school-based-counselling-harris.pdf
Hosenshil, T. H., Amundson, N. E., & Niles, S. G. (2013). Counseling around the world: An international handbook. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Fezler, B., & Brown, C. (2011). The international model for school counseling programs. Pembroke Pines, FL: Association of American Schools in South America (AASSA). https://www.aassa.com/uploaded/Educational_Research/US_Department_of_State/Counseling_Standards/International_Counseling_Model_Handbook.pdf |
9543_106 | Jiang, G. R. (2007). The development of school counseling in the Chinese mainland. Journal of Basic Education, 14" 65-82.
Lee, S. M., Oh, I., & Suh, S. (2007). Comparison study of Korean and
American school counseling for developing a Korean school counseling model. Korean Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19, 539-567.
Thomason, T. C., & Qiong, X. (2007). School counseling in China Today. Journal of School Counseling, Downloaded from June 19, 2009.
Leadership, systemic change, principal perceptions of school counseling
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Miller, E. M., Bailey, D. F., Getch, Y. Q., & Erford, B. T. (2011). Leadership and achievement advocacy for every student. In B. T. Erford, (Ed)., Transforming the school counseling profession (3rd ed.) (pp. 110–128). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. |
9543_107 | Devoss, J. A., & Andrews, M. F. (2006). School counselors as educational leaders. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Johnson, J., Rochkind, J., Ott, A., & DuPont, S. (2010). Can I get a little advice here? How an overstretched high school guidance system is undermining students' college aspirations. San Francisco: Public Agenda.
Reynolds, S. E., & Hines, P. L. (2001). Guiding all kids: Systemic guidance for achievement in schools. (2nd ed.). Bloomington, IN: American Student Achievement Institute.
Reynolds, S. E., & Hines, P. L. (2001). Vision-to-action: A step-by-step activity guide for systemic educational reform. (6th ed.). Bloomington, IN: American Student Achievement Institute.
Outcome research in school counseling
Brooks-McNamara, V., & Torres, D. (2008). The reflective school counselor's guide to practitioner research: Skills and strategies for successful inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. |
9543_108 | Lapan, R. T., Whitcomb, S. A., & Aleman, N. M. (2012). Connecticut professional school counselors: College and career counseling services and smaller ratios benefit students. " Professional School Counseling 16," 117-124.
Personal/social interventions: abuse, addictions, anxiety, bullying, conflict, obesity, peer mediation, self-mutilation, violence)
Carney, J. V. (2008). Perceptions of bullying and associate trauma during adolescence. Professional School Counseling, 11, 179–188.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Curtis, R., Van Horne, J. W., Robertson, P., & Karvonen, M. (2010). Outcomes of a school-wide positive behavioral support program. Professional School Counseling, 13 159-164. |
9543_109 | Walley, C. T., & Grothaus, T. (2013). A qualitative examination of school counselors’ training to recognize and respond to adolescent mental health issues Journal of School Counseling 11(11). Retrieved from http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v11n11.pdf
Poverty, homelessness, classism
Rural school counseling
School-family-community partnerships; parenting interventions for academic success
Bryan, J., & Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2010). Collaboration and partnerships with families and communities. Professional School Counseling, 14 ii-v.
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Griffen, D., & Farris, A. (2010). School counselors and school-family-community collaboration: Finding resources through community asset mapping, 13 248–256. |
9543_110 | Suarez-Orozco, C., Onaga, M., & de Lardemelle, C. (2010). Promoting academic engagement among immigrant adolescents through school-family-community collaboration. Professional School Counseling, 14 15-26.
Supervision, site supervisors, and school counselor education
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Ockerman, M. S., Mason, E. C. M., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2013). School counseling supervision in challenging times: The CAFE supervisor model. Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 5(2), Article 4. DOI:10.7729/51.0024 http://repository.wcsu.edu/jcps/vol5/iss2/4/ |
9543_111 | Schellenberg, R. (2012). The school counselor's guide to credentialing exams. New York: Routledge.
Stoltenberg, C. D., & McNeil, B. W. (2009). IDM supervision: An integrated developmental model for supervising counselors and therapists (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Studer, J. R. (2006). Supervising the school counselor trainee: Guidelines for practice. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Studer, J. R., & Diambra, J. F. (2010). A guide to practicum and internship for school counselor trainees. New York: Routledge.
Technology and school counseling
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. |
9543_112 | Sabella, R. (2008). GuardingKids.com: A practical guide to keeping kids out of high-tech trouble. Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media.
Sabella, R. (2004). Counseling in the 21st Century: Using technology to improve practice. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Sabella, R. (2003). SchoolCounselor.com: A friendly and practical guide to the World Wide Web (2nd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media.
Schellenberg, R. C. (2008). The new school counselor: Strategies for universal academic achievement. Rowman Littlefield Education.
Transforming school counseling roles and professional identity
Chen-Hayes, S. F., Ockerman, M. S., & Mason, E. C. M. (2014). 101 solutions for school counselors and leaders in challenging times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Hart, P. J., & Jacobi, M. (1992). From gatekeeper to advocate: Transforming the role of the school counselor. New York: College Entrance Examination Board. |
9543_113 | Kurosawa, S. (2000). Sukuru kaunseringu katsudo no gohonbasira/Five important roles in school counselling. In M. Murayama (Ed.), Rinsyoshinrisi niyoru sukuru kaunsera: Jissai to tenbo (pp. 89–99). Tokyo, Shibundo.
Martin, P. J., Robinson, S. G., & Erford, B. T. (2011). Transforming the school counseling profession. In B. T. Erford, Ed., Transforming the school counseling profession (3rd ed). (pp. 1–18). Boston: Pearson. |
9543_114 | Murayama, S. (2002). Rinsyoshinrisi niyoru sukuru maunsera no tenkai/The development of school counsellors by clinical psychologists. In M. Murayama (Ed.), Rinsyoshinrisi niyoru sukuru kaunsera: Jissai to tenbo (pp. 9–22). Tokyo: Shibundo.
Ockerman, M. S., Mason, E. C. M., & Chen-Hayes, S. F. (2013). School counseling supervision in challenging times: The CAFE supervisor model. Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision, 5(2), Article 4. DOI:10.7729/51.0024 http://repository.wcsu.edu/jcps/vol5/iss2/4/
Okamoto, J. (2002). Sukuru kaunsera tono renkei/Collaboration with school counsellors. In T. Matsuhara (Ed.), Sukuru kausera to renkei shita shido (pp. 4–13). Tokyo: Kyoikukaihatsukenkyusyo. |
9543_115 | Schellenberg, R. (2012). The school counselor's study guide for credentialing exams. New York: Routledge.
Schellenberg, R. (2008). The new school counselor: Strategies for universal academic achievement. Rowman Littlefield.
Sink, C. (2011). School-wide responsive services and the value of collaboration. Professional School Counseling, 14 ii-iv.
Stone, C. B., & Dahir, C. A. (2006). The transformed school counselor. Boston, MA: Lahaska Press/Houghton Mifflin.
External links
American School Counselor Association
Center for Excellence in School Counseling and Leadership
Center for School Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation
Evidence Based School Counseling Conference
School and Career Counselors
National Association for College Admission Counseling
National Career Development Association
Education and training occupations
People who work with children
ja:スクールカウンセラー |
9544_0 | In computer science, storage virtualization is "the process of presenting a logical view of the physical storage resources to" a host computer system, "treating all storage media (hard disk, optical disk, tape, etc.) in the enterprise as a single pool of storage."
A "storage system" is also known as a storage array, disk array, or filer. Storage systems typically use special hardware and software along with disk drives in order to provide very fast and reliable storage for computing and data processing. Storage systems are complex, and may be thought of as a special purpose computer designed to provide storage capacity along with advanced data protection features. Disk drives are only one element within a storage system, along with hardware and special purpose embedded software within the system. |
9544_1 | Storage systems can provide either block accessed storage, or file accessed storage. Block access is typically delivered over Fibre Channel, iSCSI, SAS, FICON or other protocols. File access is often provided using NFS or SMB protocols.
Within the context of a storage system, there are two primary types of virtualization that can occur: |
9544_2 | Block virtualization used in this context refers to the abstraction (separation) of logical storage (partition) from physical storage so that it may be accessed without regard to physical storage or heterogeneous structure. This separation allows the administrators of the storage system greater flexibility in how they manage storage for end users.
File virtualization addresses the NAS challenges by eliminating the dependencies between the data accessed at the file level and the location where the files are physically stored. This provides opportunities to optimize storage use and server consolidation and to perform non-disruptive file migrations.
Block virtualization
Address space remapping
Virtualization of storage helps achieve location independence by abstracting the physical location of the data. The virtualization system presents to the user a logical space for data storage and handles the process of mapping it to the actual physical location. |
9544_3 | It is possible to have multiple layers of virtualization or mapping. It is then possible that the output of one layer of virtualization can then be used as the input for a higher layer of virtualization. Virtualization maps space between back-end resources, to front-end resources. In this instance, "back-end" refers to a logical unit number (LUN) that is not presented to a computer, or host system for direct use. A "front-end" LUN or volume is presented to a host or computer system for use.
The actual form of the mapping will depend on the chosen implementation. Some implementations may limit the granularity of the mapping which may limit the capabilities of the device. Typical granularities range from a single physical disk down to some small subset (multiples of megabytes or gigabytes) of the physical disk. |
9544_4 | In a block-based storage environment, a single block of information is addressed using a LUN identifier and an offset within that LUN known as a logical block addressing (LBA).
Metadata
The virtualization software or device is responsible for maintaining a consistent view of all the mapping information for the virtualized storage. This mapping information is often called metadata and is stored as a mapping table.
The address space may be limited by the capacity needed to maintain the mapping table. The level of granularity, and the total addressable space both directly impact the size of the meta-data, and hence the mapping table. For this reason, it is common to have trade-offs, between the amount of addressable capacity and the granularity or access granularity.
One common method to address these limits is to use multiple levels of virtualization. In several storage systems deployed today, it is common to utilize three layers of virtualization. |
9544_5 | Some implementations do not use a mapping table, and instead calculate locations using an algorithm. These implementations utilize dynamic methods to calculate the location on access, rather than storing the information in a mapping table.
I/O redirection
The virtualization software or device uses the metadata to re-direct I/O requests. It will receive an incoming I/O request containing information about the location of the data in terms of the logical disk (vdisk) and translates this into a new I/O request to the physical disk location.
For example, the virtualization device may :
Receive a read request for vdisk LUN ID=1, LBA=32
Perform a meta-data look up for LUN ID=1, LBA=32, and finds this maps to physical LUN ID=7, LBA0
Sends a read request to physical LUN ID=7, LBA0
Receives the data back from the physical LUN
Sends the data back to the originator as if it had come from vdisk LUN ID=1, LBA32
Capabilities |
9544_6 | Most implementations allow for heterogeneous management of multi-vendor storage devices within the scope of a given implementation's support matrix. This means that the following capabilities are not limited to a single vendor's device (as with similar capabilities provided by specific storage controllers) and are in fact possible across different vendors' devices.
Replication |
9544_7 | Data replication techniques are not limited to virtualization appliances and as such are not described here in detail. However most implementations will provide some or all of these replication services.
When storage is virtualized, replication services must be implemented above the software or device that is performing the virtualization. This is true because it is only above the virtualization layer that a true and consistent image of the logical disk (vdisk) can be copied. This limits the services that some implementations can implement or makes them seriously difficult to implement. If the virtualization is implemented in the network or higher, this renders any replication services provided by the underlying storage controllers useless. |
9544_8 | Remote data replication for disaster recovery
Synchronous Mirroring where I/O completion is only returned when the remote site acknowledges the completion. Applicable for shorter distances (<200 km)
Asynchronous Mirroring where I/O completion is returned before the remote site has acknowledged the completion. Applicable for much greater distances (>200 km)
Point-In-Time Snapshots to copy or clone data for diverse uses
When combined with thin provisioning, enables space-efficient snapshots
Pooling
The physical storage resources are aggregated into storage pools, from which the logical storage is created. More storage systems, which may be heterogeneous in nature, can be added as and when needed, and the virtual storage space will scale up by the same amount. This process is fully transparent to the applications using the storage infrastructure.
Disk management |
9544_9 | The software or device providing storage virtualization becomes a common disk manager in the virtualized environment. Logical disks (vdisks) are created by the virtualization software or device and are mapped (made visible) to the required host or server, thus providing a common place or way for managing all volumes in the environment.
Enhanced features are easy to provide in this environment:
Thin Provisioning to maximize storage utilization
This is relatively easy to implement as physical storage is only allocated in the mapping table when it is used.
Disk expansion and shrinking
More physical storage can be allocated by adding to the mapping table (assuming the using system can cope with online expansion)
Similarly disks can be reduced in size by removing some physical storage from the mapping (uses for this are limited as there is no guarantee of what resides on the areas removed)
Benefits
Non-disruptive data migration |
9544_10 | One of the major benefits of abstracting the host or server from the actual storage is the ability to migrate data while maintaining concurrent I/O access.
The host only knows about the logical disk (the mapped LUN) and so any changes to the meta-data mapping is transparent to the host. This means the actual data can be moved or replicated to another physical location without affecting the operation of any client. When the data has been copied or moved, the meta-data can simply be updated to point to the new location, therefore freeing up the physical storage at the old location.
The process of moving the physical location is known as data migration. Most implementations allow for this to be done in a non-disruptive manner, that is concurrently while the host continues to perform I/O to the logical disk (or LUN). |
9544_11 | The mapping granularity dictates how quickly the meta-data can be updated, how much extra capacity is required during the migration, and how quickly the previous location is marked as free. The smaller the granularity the faster the update, less space required and quicker the old storage can be freed up.
There are many day to day tasks a storage administrator has to perform that can be simply and concurrently performed using data migration techniques.
Moving data off an over-utilized storage device.
Moving data onto a faster storage device as needs require
Implementing an Information Lifecycle Management policy
Migrating data off older storage devices (either being scrapped or off-lease)
Improved utilization |
9544_12 | Utilization can be increased by virtue of the pooling, migration, and thin provisioning services. This allows users to avoid over-buying and over-provisioning storage solutions. In other words, this kind of utilization through a shared pool of storage can be easily and quickly allocated as it is needed to avoid constraints on storage capacity that often hinder application performance.
When all available storage capacity is pooled, system administrators no longer have to search for disks that have free space to allocate to a particular host or server. A new logical disk can be simply allocated from the available pool, or an existing disk can be expanded.
Pooling also means that all the available storage capacity can potentially be used. In a traditional environment, an entire disk would be mapped to a host. This may be larger than is required, thus wasting space. In a virtual environment, the logical disk (LUN) is assigned the capacity required by the using host. |
9544_13 | Storage can be assigned where it is needed at that point in time, reducing the need to guess how much a given host will need in the future. Using Thin Provisioning, the administrator can create a very large thin provisioned logical disk, thus the using system thinks it has a very large disk from day one.
Fewer points of management
With storage virtualization, multiple independent storage devices, even if scattered across a network, appear to be a single monolithic storage device and can be managed centrally.
However, traditional storage controller management is still required. That is, the creation and maintenance of RAID arrays, including error and fault management.
Risks
Backing out a failed implementation |
9544_14 | Once the abstraction layer is in place, only the virtualizer knows where the data actually resides on the physical medium. Backing out of a virtual storage environment therefore requires the reconstruction of the logical disks as contiguous disks that can be used in a traditional manner.
Most implementations will provide some form of back-out procedure and with the data migration services it is at least possible, but time consuming.
Interoperability and vendor support
Interoperability is a key enabler to any virtualization software or device. It applies to the actual physical storage controllers and the hosts, their operating systems, multi-pathing software and connectivity hardware. |
9544_15 | Interoperability requirements differ based on the implementation chosen. For example, virtualization implemented within a storage controller adds no extra overhead to host based interoperability, but will require additional support of other storage controllers if they are to be virtualized by the same software.
Switch based virtualization may not require specific host interoperability — if it uses packet cracking techniques to redirect the I/O.
Network based appliances have the highest level of interoperability requirements as they have to interoperate with all devices, storage and hosts.
Complexity
Complexity affects several areas : |
9544_16 | Management of environment: Although a virtual storage infrastructure benefits from a single point of logical disk and replication service management, the physical storage must still be managed. Problem determination and fault isolation can also become complex, due to the abstraction layer.
Infrastructure design: Traditional design ethics may no longer apply, virtualization brings a whole range of new ideas and concepts to think about (as detailed here)
The software or device itself: Some implementations are more complex to design and code network based, especially in-band (symmetric) designs in particular — these implementations actually handle the I/O requests and so latency becomes an issue.
Metadata management |
9544_17 | Information is one of the most valuable assets in today's business environments. Once virtualized, the metadata are the glue in the middle. If the metadata are lost, so is all the actual data as it would be virtually impossible to reconstruct the logical drives without the mapping information.
Any implementation must ensure its protection with appropriate levels of back-ups and replicas. It is important to be able to reconstruct the meta-data in the event of a catastrophic failure.
The metadata management also has implications on performance. Any virtualization software or device must be able to keep all the copies of the metadata atomic and quickly updateable. Some implementations restrict the ability to provide certain fast update functions, such as point-in-time copies and caching where super fast updates are required to ensure minimal latency to the actual I/O being performed.
Performance and scalability |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.