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64_17 | A manifold M is orientable if and only if the first Stiefel–Whitney class vanishes. In particular, if the first cohomology group with Z/2 coefficients is zero, then the manifold is orientable. Moreover if M is orientable and w1 vanishes, then parametrizes the choices of orientations. This characterization of orientability extends to orientability of general vector bundles over M, not just the tangent bundle.
The orientation double cover
Around each point of M there are two local orientations. Intuitively, there is a way to move from a local orientation at a point to a local orientation at a nearby point : when the two points lie in the same coordinate chart , that coordinate chart defines compatible local orientations at and . The set of local orientations can therefore be given a topology, and this topology makes it into a manifold. |
64_18 | More precisely, let O be the set of all local orientations of M. To topologize O we will specify a subbase for its topology. Let U be an open subset of M chosen such that is isomorphic to Z. Assume that α is a generator of this group. For each p in U, there is a pushforward function . The codomain of this group has two generators, and α maps to one of them. The topology on O is defined so that
is open.
There is a canonical map that sends a local orientation at p to p. It is clear that every point of M has precisely two preimages under . In fact, is even a local homeomorphism, because the preimages of the open sets U mentioned above are homeomorphic to the disjoint union of two copies of U. If M is orientable, then M itself is one of these open sets, so O is the disjoint union of two copies of M. If M is non-orientable, however, then O is connected and orientable. The manifold O is called the orientation double cover.
Manifolds with boundary |
64_19 | If M is a manifold with boundary, then an orientation of M is defined to be an orientation of its interior. Such an orientation induces an orientation of ∂M. Indeed, suppose that an orientation of M is fixed. Let be a chart at a boundary point of M which, when restricted to the interior of M, is in the chosen oriented atlas. The restriction of this chart to ∂M is a chart of ∂M. Such charts form an oriented atlas for ∂M.
When M is smooth, at each point p of ∂M, the restriction of the tangent bundle of M to ∂M is isomorphic to , where the factor of R is described by the inward pointing normal vector. The orientation of Tp∂M is defined by the condition that a basis of Tp∂M is positively oriented if and only if it, when combined with the inward pointing normal vector, defines a positively oriented basis of TpM.
Orientable double cover |
64_20 | A closely related notion uses the idea of covering space. For a connected manifold M take M, the set of pairs (x, o) where x is a point of M and o is an orientation at x; here we assume M is either smooth so we can choose an orientation on the tangent space at a point or we use singular homology to define orientation. Then for every open, oriented subset of M we consider the corresponding set of pairs and define that to be an open set of M. This gives M a topology and the projection sending (x, o) to x is then a 2-to-1 covering map. This covering space is called the orientable double cover, as it is orientable. M is connected if and only if M is not orientable. |
64_21 | Another way to construct this cover is to divide the loops based at a basepoint into either orientation-preserving or orientation-reversing loops. The orientation preserving loops generate a subgroup of the fundamental group which is either the whole group or of index two. In the latter case (which means there is an orientation-reversing path), the subgroup corresponds to a connected double covering; this cover is orientable by construction. In the former case, one can simply take two copies of M, each of which corresponds to a different orientation.
Orientation of vector bundles |
64_22 | A real vector bundle, which a priori has a GL(n) structure group, is called orientable when the structure group may be reduced to , the group of matrices with positive determinant. For the tangent bundle, this reduction is always possible if the underlying base manifold is orientable and in fact this provides a convenient way to define the orientability of a smooth real manifold: a smooth manifold is defined to be orientable if its tangent bundle is orientable (as a vector bundle). Note that as a manifold in its own right, the tangent bundle is always orientable, even over nonorientable manifolds.
Related concepts
Lorentzian geometry |
64_23 | In Lorentzian geometry, there are two kinds of orientability: space orientability and time orientability. These play a role in the causal structure of spacetime. In the context of general relativity, a spacetime manifold is space orientable if, whenever two right-handed observers head off in rocket ships starting at the same spacetime point, and then meet again at another point, they remain right-handed with respect to one another. If a spacetime is time-orientable then the two observers will always agree on the direction of time at both points of their meeting. In fact, a spacetime is time-orientable if and only if any two observers can agree which of the two meetings preceded the other.
Formally, the pseudo-orthogonal group O(p,q) has a pair of characters: the space orientation character σ+ and the time orientation character σ−, |
64_24 | Their product σ = σ+σ− is the determinant, which gives the orientation character. A space-orientation of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold is identified with a section of the associated bundle
where O(M) is the bundle of pseudo-orthogonal frames. Similarly, a time orientation is a section of the associated bundle
See also
Curve orientation
Orientation sheaf
References
External links
Orientation of manifolds at the Manifold Atlas.
Orientation covering at the Manifold Atlas.
Orientation of manifolds in generalized cohomology theories at the Manifold Atlas.
The Encyclopedia of Mathematics article on Orientation.
Differential topology
Surfaces
Articles containing video clips
de:Orientierung (Mathematik)#Orientierung einer Mannigfaltigkeit |
65_0 | The , usually translated as Elder, was one of the highest-ranking government posts under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. The term refers either to individual Elders, or to the Council of Elders as a whole; under the first two shōguns, there were only two Rōjū. The number was then increased to five, and later reduced to four. The Rōjū were appointed from the ranks of the fudai daimyōs with domains of between 25,000 and 50,000 koku.
Duties
The Rōjū had a number of responsibilities, most clearly delineated in the 1634 ordinance that reorganized the government and created a number of new posts: |
65_1 | Relations with the Emperor, the Court, and the Prince-Abbots.
Supervision of those daimyō who controlled lands worth at least 10,000 koku.
Managing the forms taken by official documents in official communications.
Supervision of the internal affairs of the Shogun's domains.
Coinage, public works, and enfiefment.
Governmental relations and supervision of monasteries and shrines.
Compilation of maps, charts, and other government records.
The Rōjū served not simultaneously, but in rotation, each serving the Shogun for a month at a time, communicating with the Shogun through a chamberlain, called Soba-yōnin. However, the Rōjū also served as members of the Hyōjōsho council, along with the Ō-Metsuke and representatives of various Bugyō (Commissions or Departments). As part of the Hyōjōsho, the Rōjū sometimes served a role similar to that of a supreme court, deciding succession disputes and other such disputed matters of state. |
65_2 | Under the reign of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1680–1709) the Rōjū lost nearly all their power, as the Shogun began to work more closely with the Tairō, Chamberlains, and others, including Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu, who held the power of a Tairō, but not the title. The Rōjū became little more than messengers, going through the motions of their proper roles as intermediaries between the Shogun and other offices, but not being able to exercise any power to change or decide policy. As Arai Hakuseki, a major Confucian poet and politician of the time wrote, "All the Rōjū did was to pass on his [Yoshiyasu's] instructions" (Sansom 141). Even after Tsunayoshi's death, the Rōjū did not regain their former power. They continued to exist, however, as a government post and a council with, officially if not in fact, all the powers and responsibilities they originally held, through the Edo period. |
65_3 | List of Rōjū
Each office-holder is listed once. Some may have served under multiple shōguns, and as a result of multiple terms, the list may not fully accurate reflect the order in which the office was held. For example, Hotta Masayoshi served in 1857–58 after Abe Masahiro (1843–57), but also served earlier, and is listed earlier; he is not also listed after Abe.
Under Tokugawa Ieyasu
Ōkubo Tadachika (大久保忠隣)(1593–1614)
Ōkubo Nagayasu (大久保長安)(1600–1613)
Honda Masanobu (本多正信)(1600–1615)
Naruse Masanari (成瀬正成)(1600–1616)
Andō Naotsugu (安藤直次)(1600–1616)
Honda Masazumi (本多正純)(1600–1622)
Naitō Kiyonari (内藤清成)(1601–1606)
Aoyama Tadanari (青山忠成)(1601–1606)
Under Tokugawa Hidetada
Aoyama Narishige (青山成重)(1608–1613)
Sakai Tadatoshi (酒井忠利)(1609–1627)
Sakai Tadayo (酒井忠世)(1610–1634)
Doi Toshikatsu (土井利勝)(1610–1638)
Andō Shigenobu (安藤重信)(1611–1621)
Naitō Kiyotsugu (内藤清次)(1616–1617)
Aoyama Tadatoshi (青山忠俊)(1616–1623)
Inoue Masanari (井上正就)(1617–1628)
Nagai Naomasa (永井尚政)(1622–1633) |
65_4 | Under Tokugawa Iemitsu
Abe Masatsugu (阿部正次)(1623–1626)
Inaba Masakatsu (稲葉正勝)(1623–1634)
Naitō Tadashige (内藤忠重)(1623–1633)
Sakai Tadakatsu (酒井忠勝)(1624–1638)
Morikawa Shigetoshi (森川重俊)(1628–1632)
Aoyama Yukinari (青山幸成)(1628–1633)
Matsudaira Nobutsuna (松平信綱)(1632–1662)
Abe Tadaaki (阿部忠秋)(1633–1666)
Hotta Masamori (堀田正盛)(1635–1651)
Abe Shigetsugu (阿部重次)(1638–1651)
Matsudaira Norinaga (松平乗寿)(1642–1654)
Under Tokugawa Ietsuna
Sakai Tadakiyo (酒井忠清)(1653–1666)
Inaba Masanori (稲葉正則)(1657–1681)
Kuze Hiroyuki (久世広之)(1663–1679)
Itakura Shigenori (板倉重矩)(1665–1668, 1670–1673)
Tsuchiya Kazunao (土屋数直)(1665–1679)
Abe Masayoshi (阿部正能)(1673–1676)
Ōkubo Tadatomo (大久保忠朝)(1677–1698)
Hotta Masatoshi (堀田正俊)(1679–1681)
Doi Toshifusa (土井利房)(1679–1681)
Itakura Shigetane (板倉重種)(1680–1681) |
65_5 | Under Tokugawa Tsunayoshi
Toda Tadamasa (戸田忠昌)(1681–1699)
Abe Masatake (阿部正武)(1681–1704)
Matsudaira Nobuyuki (松平信之)(1685–1686)
Tsuchiya Masanao (土屋政直)(1687–1718)
Ogasawara Nagashige (小笠原長重)(1697–1705, 1709–1710)
Akimoto Takatomo (秋元喬知)(1699–1707)
Inaba Masamichi (稲葉正往)(1701–1707)
Honda Masanaga (本多正永)(1704–1711)
Ōkubo Tadamasu (大久保忠増)(1705–1713)
Inoue Masamine (井上正岑)(1705–1722)
Under Tokugawa Ienobu and Ietsugu
Abe Masataka (阿部正喬)(1711–1717)
Kuze Shigeyuki (久世重之)(1713–1720)
Matsudaira Nobutsune (松平信庸)(1714–1716)
Toda Tadazane (戸田忠真)(1714–1729) |
65_6 | Under Tokugawa Yoshimune
Mizuno Tadayuki (水野忠之)(1717–1730)
Andō Nobutomo (安藤信友)(1722–1732)
Matsudaira Norisato (松平乗邑)(1723–1745)
Matsudaira Tadachika (松平忠周)(1724–1728)
Ōkubo Tsuneharu (大久保常春)(1728)
Sakai Tadaoto (酒井忠音)(1728–1735)
Matsudaira Nobutoki (松平信祝)(1730–1744)
Matsudaira Terusada (松平輝貞)(1730–1745)
Kuroda Naokuni (黒田直邦)(1732–1735)
Honda Tadanaga (本多忠良)(1734–1746).
Toki Yoritoshi (土岐頼稔)(1742–1744)
Sakai Tadazumi (酒井忠恭)(1744–1749)
Matsudaira Norikata (松平乗賢)(1745–1746)
Hotta Masasuke (堀田正亮)(1745–1761)
Under Tokugawa Ieshige
Nishio Tadanao (西尾忠尚)(1746–1760)
Honda Masayoshi (本多正珍)(1746–1758)
Matsudaira Takechika (松平武元)(1746–1779)
Sakai Tadayori (酒井忠寄)(1749–1764)
Matsudaira Terutaka (松平輝高)(1758–1781)
Inoue Masatsune (井上正経)(1760–1763)
Akimoto Sumitomo (秋元凉朝)(1747–1764, 1765–1767) |
65_7 | Under Tokugawa Ieharu
Matsudaira Yasutoshi (松平康福)(1762–1788)
Abe Masasuke (阿部正右)(1764–1769)
Itakura Katsukiyo (板倉勝清)(1769–1780)
Tanuma Okitsugu (田沼意次)(1769–1786)
Abe Masachika (阿部正允)(1780)
Kuze Hiroakira (久世広明)(1781–1785)
Mizuno Tadatomo (水野忠友)(1781–1788, 1796–1802)
Torii Tadaoki (鳥居忠意)(1781–1793)
Makino Sadanaga (牧野貞長)(1784–1790) |
65_8 | Under Tokugawa Ienari
Abe Masatomo (阿部正倫)(1787–1788)
Matsudaira Sadanobu (松平定信)(1787–1793)
Matsudaira Nobuakira (松平信明)(1788–1803, 1806–1817)
Matsudaira Norisada (松平乗完)(1789–1793)
Honda Tadakazu (本多忠籌)(1790–1798)
Toda Ujinori (戸田氏教)(1790–1806)
Ōta Sukeyoshi (太田資愛)(1793–1801)
Andō Nobunari (安藤信成)(1793–1810)
Makino Tadakiyo (牧野忠精)(1801–1816, 1828–1831)
Doi Toshiatsu (土井利厚)(1802–1822)
Aoyama Tadahiro (青山忠裕)(1804–1835)
Matsudaira Noriyasu (松平乗保)(1810–1826)
Sakai Tadayuki (酒井忠進)(1815–1828)
Mizuno Tadanari (水野忠成)(1817–1834)
Abe Masakiyo (阿部正精)(1817–1823)
Ōkubo Tadazane (大久保忠真)(1818–1837)
Matsudaira Norihiro (松平乗寛)(1822–1839)
Matsudaira Terunobu (松平輝延)(1823–1825)
Uemura Ienaga (植村家長)(1825–1828)
Matsudaira Yasutō (松平康任)(1826–1835)
Mizuno Tadakuni (水野忠邦)(1828–1843, 1844–1845)
Matsudaira Muneakira (松平宗発)(1831–1840)
Ōta Sukemoto (太田資始)(1834–1841, 1858–1859, 1863)
Wakisaka Yasutada (脇坂安董)(1836–1841)
Matsudaira Nobuyori (松平信順)(1837)
Hotta Masayoshi (堀田正睦)(1837–1843, 1855–1858) |
65_9 | Under Tokugawa Ieyoshi
Doi Toshitsura (土井利位)(1838–1844)
Inoue Masaharu (井上正春)(1840–1843)
Manabe Akikatsu (間部詮勝)(1840–1843, 1858–1859)
Sanada Yukitsura (真田幸貫)(1841–1844)
Hori Chikashige (堀親寚)(1843–1845)
Toda Tadaharu (戸田忠温)(1843–1851)
Makino Tadamasa (牧野忠雅)(1843–1857)
Abe Masahiro (阿部正弘)(1843–1857)
Aoyama Tadanaga (青山忠良)(1844–1848)
Matsudaira Noriyasu (松平乗全)(1845–1855, 1858–1860)
Matsudaira Tadakata (松平忠優)(1848–1855, 1857–1858)
Kuze Hirochika (久世広周)(1851–1858, 1860–1862)
Naitō Nobuchika (内藤信親)(1851–1862)
Under Tokugawa Iesada
Wakisaka Yasuori (脇坂安宅)(1857–1860, 1862) |
65_10 | Under Tokugawa Iemochi and Yoshinobu
Andō Nobumasa (安藤信正)(1860–1862)
Honda Tadamoto (本多忠民)(1860–1862, 1864–1865)
Matsudaira Nobuyoshi (松平信義)(1860–1863)
Ogasawara Nagamichi (小笠原長行)(1862–1863, 1865, 1866–1868)
Itakura Katsukiyo (板倉勝静)(1862–1864, 1865–1868)
Inoue Masanao (井上正直)(1862–1864)
Mizuno Tadakiyo (水野忠精)(1862–1866)
Sakai Tadashige (酒井忠績)(1863–1864)
Arima Michizumi (有馬道純)(1863–1864)
Makino Tadayuki (牧野忠恭)(1863–1865)
Matsumae Takahiro (松前崇広)(1864–1865)
Abe Masato (阿部正外)(1864–1865)
Suwa Tadamasa (諏訪忠誠)(1864–1865)
Inaba Masakuni (稲葉正邦)(1864–1865, 1866–1868)
Matsudaira Munehide (松平宗秀)(1864–1866)
Inoue Masanao (井上正直)(1865–1867)
Matsudaira Yasuhide (松平康英)(1865–1868)
Mizuno Tadanobu (水野忠誠)(1866)
Matsudaira Norikata (松平乗謨)(1866–1868)
Inaba Masami (稲葉正巳)(1866–1868)
Matsudaira Sadaaki (松平定昭)(1867)
Ōkōchi Masatada (大河内正質)(1867–1868)
Sakai Tadatō (酒井忠惇)(1867–1868)
Tachibana Taneyuki (立花種恭)(1868)
Notes |
65_11 | References
The list of rōjū is taken from the Japanese Wikipedia article.
Sansom, George Bailey. (1963). A History of Japan: 1615–1867. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Officials of the Tokugawa shogunate
Japanese historical terms |
66_0 | Queenston is a compact rural community and unincorporated place north of Niagara Falls in the Town of Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada. It is bordered by Highway 405 to the south and the Niagara River to the east; its location at the eponymous Queenston Heights on the Niagara Escarpment led to the establishment of the Queenston Quarry in the area. Across the river and the Canada–US border is the village of Lewiston, New York. The Lewiston-Queenston Bridge links the two communities.
This village is at the point where the Niagara River began eroding the Niagara Escarpment. During the ensuing 12,000 years the Falls cut an long gorge in the Escarpment southward to its present-day position.
In the early 19th century, the community's name was spelled as Queenstown. |
66_1 | Queenston marks the southern terminus of the Bruce Trail. The cairn marking the trail's terminus is in a parking lot, about 160 metres (520 ft) from General Brock's Monument on the easterly side of the monument's park grounds.
History
Queenston was first settled in the 1770s by Loyalist refugees and immigrants from the United States. By 1807, the village had 100 homes and a population of 300.
A new portage around Niagara Falls was developed in the 1780s with Queenston at its north end. Wharves, storehouses and a block-house were built. Initially called Lower Landing, it was named Queenston by Lieut.-Governor Simcoe. A great deal of fighting occurred here during the War of 1812, in the settlement and at nearby Fort George. In that era, Laura Secord lived in this area. Rebel William Lyon Mackenzie lived in Queenston in the 1820s and operated his publishing operation here. |
66_2 | On 13 October 1812, American troops took possession of Queenston Heights. Major-General Sir Isaac Brock arrived from Fort George, Ontario with a small force and was killed while trying to regain the heights. The British, Mohawk and militia troops under Major-General Roger Hale Sheaffe, with reinforcements from Chippawa, Ontario were able to take the hill and captured nearly 1000 prisoners. The victory and Brock's death are commemorated by Brock's Monument atop the Niagara Escarpment with a large stone statue of Brock overlooking the village below. Nearby is a smaller monument to Brock's gray horse, Alfred, which may, or may not, have been at Queenston during the battle. Queenston Heights is one of the National Historic Sites of Canada, so recognized in June 1968.
The settlement of Queenston was destroyed on 10 December 1813. British Captain William Hamilton Merritt later said that he saw "nothing but heaps of coals, and the streets full of furniture". |
66_3 | In the 1830s, Queenston was terminus for a first horse-drawn railway, the Erie and Ontario. The subsequent steam railroad that started in around 1854 bypassed Queenston.
In nearby St. David's, the Queenston Quarry was founded in 1837, and for 150 years stone was shipped here to help build many of Ontario's cities. Toronto buildings that benefitted from the supply of stone included Queen's Park, the Royal Ontario Museum, Union Station and the Gibraltar Point Lighthouse.
By the mid-1800s, the Welland Canal became the primary method of shipping goods and the village of Queenston received little trade.
Queenston became part of the town of Niagara-on-the-Lake in 1970. |
66_4 | RiverBrink Art Museum is located in Queenston. It is home to a unique collection of over 1,400 artworks and artefacts by Canadian and international artists, assembled by Samuel E. Weir. Completed in 1970, the building features Georgian-style architecture, including a mansard roof and gabled windows. It served as Weir's country residence, and was converted into an art museum following his death in 1981.
See also
Laura Secord Legacy Trail
Gallery
References
Other map sources
External links
Location of Queenston with photos and links to web sites related to the area
Images of Queenston Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Images of Queenston Dock Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Images of Queenston Heights Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
Neighbourhoods in Niagara-on-the-Lake
Quarries in Canada
Surface mines in Canada
Populated places established in the 1770s |
67_0 | Saline County ( ) is located in the U.S. state of Arkansas. As of the 2010 census, the population was 107,118. Its county seat and largest city is Benton. Saline County was formed on November 2, 1835, and named for the salt water (brine) springs in the area, despite a differing pronunciation from saline. Until November 2014, it was an alcohol prohibition or dry county.
Saline County is included in the Central Arkansas region.
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.9%) is water.
Major highways
Interstate 30
Interstate 30 Business Loop
Interstate 530
U.S. Highway 65
U.S. Highway 67
U.S. Highway 70
U.S. Highway 167
Highway 5
Highway 9
Highway 35
Adjacent counties
Perry County (northwest)
Pulaski County (northeast)
Grant County (southeast)
Hot Spring County (southwest)
Garland County (west)
National protected area
Ouachita National Forest (part)
Demographics
2020 census |
67_1 | As of the 2020 United States census, there were 123,416 people, 45,455 households, and 31,395 families residing in the county.
2000 census
As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 83,529 people, 31,778 households, and 24,500 families residing in the county. The population density was 116 people per square mile (45/km2). There were 33,825 housing units at an average density of 47 per square mile (18/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 95.27% White, 2.20% Black or African American, 0.49% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.45% from other races, and 1.00% from two or more races. 1.30% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. |
67_2 | There were 31,778 households, out of which 35.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.80% were married couples living together, 9.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.90% were non-families. 19.60% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 25.50% under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 30.20% from 25 to 44, 24.20% from 45 to 64, and 12.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.30 males. |
67_3 | The median income for a household in the county was $42,569, and the median income for a family was $48,717. Males had a median income of $32,052 versus $23,294 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,214. About 5.00% of families and 7.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.80% of those under age 18 and 7.30% of those age 65 or over.
Media
The area is served online and in print by The Saline Courier.
Government
Over the past few election cycles Saline County has trended heavily towards the GOP. The last Democrat (as of 2020) to carry this county was Bill Clinton in 1996.
Communities
Cities
Alexander
Benton (county seat)
Bryant
Haskell
Shannon Hills
Traskwood
Town
Bauxite
Census-designated places
Avilla
East End
Hot Springs Village
Salem
Unincorporated communities
Brooks
Lakeside
Owensville
Paron
Townships |
67_4 | Banner (contains most of East End)
Bauxite (contains Bauxite, most of Benton)
Beaver (contains Avilla, part of Bryant)
Bryant (contains most of Alexander and Bryant, small parts of Benton and Shannon Hills)
Dyer (contains part of Hot Springs Village)
Fairplay
Haskell (contains Haskell)
Holland
Hurricane (contains small part of East End)
Jefferson
Kentucky
Liberty
Marble (contains part of Hot Springs Village)
Newcomb
Otter (contains most of Shannon Hills, small parts of Alexander and East End)
Owen (contains some of Bryant, small part of Alexander)
Salem (contains Salem, small part of Bryant)
Shaw
Smith
Traskwood (contains Traskwood)
Union
Source:
See also
List of lakes in Saline County, Arkansas
National Register of Historic Places listings in Saline County, Arkansas
Lanny Fite
References
External links |
67_5 | Government
Saline County Sheriff's Office
General information
Saline County, Arkansas at ARGenWeb (argenweb.net)
Saline County at Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture
Saline County in the Civil War at The Historical Marker Database (HMdb.org)
Saline County Library
1835 establishments in Arkansas Territory
Arkansas counties
Little Rock–North Little Rock–Conway metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1835 |
68_0 | "Mommy Dearest" is the 14th episode of season 3 of the supernatural drama television series Grimm and the 58th episode overall, which premiered on March 7, 2014, on the broadcast network NBC. The episode was written by Brenna Kouf, and was directed by Norberto Barba.
Plot
Opening quote: "I am going off to a house and entering it like a snake... I will devour their babes and make their hearts ache."
Meisner (Damien Puckler) aids Adalind (Claire Coffee) in giving birth to the baby, and also restoring Adalind's powers as a Hexenbiest. Back in Portland, a creature follows a pregnant woman, Dana Tomas (Tess Paras), to her room and uses his extremely large tongue to poke into her belly button. Dana awakes and attempts to cut the creature's tongue before it flees and she falls back unconscious. |
68_1 | Wu (Reggie Lee) and Sgt. Franco (Robert Blanche) are called to the scene to investigate, whom Wu recognizes as friends that moved to Portland from the Philippines under his recommendation, so now feels guilty. Nick (David Giuntoli) and Hank (Russell Hornsby) are also called and while trying to regain consciousness, Dana whispers "Aswang". Dana's husband, Sam (Alain Uy) calls his brother in Manila to inform and question about the events. Then, he too woges into a creature similar to that which attacked his wife Dana before. |
68_2 | Meisner calls Renard (Sasha Roiz) for help after aiding Adalind, informing him that he has a baby daughter and making sure that they will leave Austria safely. Wu begins to reminisce about an old story he heard as a boy about a mythical creature - an "Aswang" - a monster from the Philippines that stalks pregnant woman and then eats their children. Large quantities of Valerian root is inexplicably found in Dana's system, who has recovered enough to leave the hospital to go home. Sam knows that his mother could be involved in the attack and confronts her in her hotel room. Lani (Freda Foh Shen) explains that if she doesn't kill the baby, she will die, but Sam does not listen and brushes her off, angering her. She insists it's Aswang tradition that first born grandsons are always sacrificed to extend the life of elderly grandmothers, and as her son he owes her; then pleads with him that she doesn't want to die. Still, he refuses and hands her a ticket back to Manila, stating that death |
68_3 | is a natural progression of life, she must just accept it! |
68_4 | Nick, Hank, Monroe (Silas Weir Mitchell) and Rosalee (Bree Turner) find that the Aswang use their tongue to transmit the tranquilizing effects of the valerian root and siphon off the amniotic fluid - both of which can kill a foetus; but that only those with a familiar tie to the victim can successfully insert their tongue into the belly. They consider telling Wu the truth about the Wesen world but decide that he isn’t ready to learn it. |
68_5 | That night, Lani breaks into the house, knocks Sam unconscious and goes after Dana, pretending to be there as a caregiver. Wu, standing guard outside, is surprised to see the creature (Lani) so swiftly climbing the tree & entering the house through the window for such an old lady. When he follows, he can't quite believe what he encounters again attacking/siphoning Dana. When he attempts to intervene, he's attacked by the Aswang. Nick and Hank arrive just in time to kill Lani with a shot to the head but Wu is now thoroughly shocked after seeing the creature transform back into Lani. |
68_6 | Wu checks himself into a psychiatric hospital after the experience. Nick and Hank visit him, and attempt to explain away things - that Lani had a history of aggressive violence, that Dana and the baby are safe, and he's therefore a hero. Not convinced, Wu nevertheless continues to have dreams and hallucinations of the Aswang attacking him...
Reception |
68_7 | Viewers
The episode was viewed by 5.65 million people, earning a 1.5/5 in the 18-49 rating demographics on the Nielson ratings scale, ranking second on its timeslot and fourth for the night in the 18-49 demographics, behind Dateline NBC, 20/20, and Shark Tank. This was a 6% increase in viewership from the previous episode, which was watched by 5.32 million viewers with a 1.4/5. This means that 1.5 percent of all households with televisions watched the episode, while 5 percent of all households watching television at that time watched it. With DVR factoring in, the episode was watched by 8.38 million viewers with a 2.6 ratings share in the 18-49 demographics. |
68_8 | Critical reviews
"Mommy Dearest" received positive reviews. The A.V. Club's Kevin McFarland gave the episode a "B" grade and wrote, "Still, at this point I'm not sure that Grimm really needed an episode that focuses on Sgt. Wu, especially one where one of the big reveals about his character is that his first name is Drew. Sure, he's the one character on the show who has been there since the beginning that the show hasn't gone into detail about. But he's also the character on the show who doesn't know anything about Nick's life as a Grimm. He's the outsider, a necessary foil to the rest of the group, able to stand in not as a fool, but as a barometer for how people without a familiarity with the Wesen world would look at what Nick and Hank do." |
68_9 | Nick McHatton from TV Fanatic, gave a 4.5 star rating out of 5, stating: "Poor Sergeant Drew Wu. Just when it looks like he's going to be in on the Wesen secret in Grimm Season 3 Episode 14, his 'gateway Wesen' was an Aswang. You know, just your typical, average amniotic fluid sucking Wesen."
MaryAnn Sleasman from TV.com, wrote, "That was pretty grim, even for Grimm. First there was all the uncomfortable preggo-tummy torture and then Wu, OMG Wu. I just think it's a little messed up—maybe messed up in a good way, but only maybe — when the least traumatic thing that happens in an episode is that a lady-witch gives birth to a monster-baby in the middle of the woods."
References
External links
Grimm (season 3) episodes
2014 American television episodes |
69_0 | Abolghassem Nadjm (Najm ol-Molk) (), Abolqāsem Najm/Abolqassem Najm (11 May 1892 – October 19, 1983) was an Iranian politician, cabinet minister, and diplomat.
Early life and education
His father was Mirza Mahmoud Shirazi, a merchant, who died when Abolqasem was an infant. His mother was the daughter of Iran's first modern physicist and astronomer, Mirza Abdulqaffar Nadjm ol-Molk. Abdulqaffar, who taught mathematics and physics at Dar ul-Funun, took Abolqasem under his custody after Abolqasem was orphaned. Abolqasem received his basic education from his grandfather and later inherited his grandfather's title of "Nadjm ol-Molk" (star of the nation) after Mirza Abdulqaffar's retirement. He studied at the Tehran School of Political Sciences.
Diplomatic career |
69_1 | After graduation he entered the service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1912 as an attaché. He was Iran's ambassador to the Third Reich, but was appointed to France upon his own request just prior to the outbreak of the Second World War. |
69_2 | In 1937, when Nadjm was Iran's ambassador to France, the French journal L'Europe Nouvelle criticized the economic condition of Iran. Reza Shah Pahlavi demanded an apology and received one. A French columnist reopened the wound one month later by rehearsing the incident under the punning headline "n'y avait pas la de quoi fouetter un Shah". This was a parody of the French phrase "there was nothing there with which to beat a cat", (playing on the words "shah" and "chat", which is French for cat) suggesting that the King of Kings had made a fuss about nothing. The poor pun was enough to make Reza Shah Pahlavi immediately recall Nadjm to Tehran "for an explanation", and withdraw his promise to lend Iranian art objects to the coming Paris International Exhibition which was planned for May 1937. |
69_3 | Nadjm later served as Iran's ambassador to Japan, until the relations between the two countries were severed due to Iran's declaration of war to the Axis in April 1943. Nadjm was summoned to Tehran and the Japanese delegation were ordered to leave Tehran at the same time.
He was then appointed as the ambassador to Afghanistan. As a neighboring country and a Persian-speaking monarchy, Afghanistan was considered very important and the post of ambassador in Kabul had more significance attached to it than it has had in more modern times.
Political career
He was the minister of finance in Ebrahim Hakimi's cabinet and tried to fight corruption, but was held back by interference from the royal family. This resulted in his resignation and the downfall of the cabinet. These events are described by Mehdiqoli Hedayat in his memoirs: |
69_4 | His last government job was as the governor of the oil-rich Khuzestan province. He resigned from this post, citing interference from the royal family in his day-to-day governance of the province. He was elected as a senator in the first Senate and served only one term. During this time, he was a member of the Oil Commission, a group of politicians whose work eventually resulted in the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry.
Later years
Nadjm spent the last 30 years of his life in retirement. Long after retirement from politics, Nadjm retained his good name as one of the few Pahlavi era politicians who were clean of financial and ethical corruption. Near the end of his life, the Shah, embattled by the Iranian revolution, called on him to return to the government as a part of the reforms intended to quell the revolutionary fervor. The ailing Nadjm could not comply. Abolghassem Nadjm died in Tehran at the age of 89, shortly after the Iranian Revolution. |
69_5 | His brother Mohammad Hossein Nadjm was also an Iranian diplomat, who served as Iranian ambassador to Lebanon and chargé d'affaires in Paris.
See also
Pahlavi dynasty
List of prime ministers of Iran
References
Iran in the Last 3rd Centuries by Alireza Avsati. Published Tehran, 2003. Vol 1 Vol 2
1892 births
1983 deaths
Foreign ministers of Iran
Iranian governors
Members of the National Consultative Assembly
Ambassadors of Iran to Germany
Ambassadors of Iran to France
Ambassadors of Iran to Japan
Ambassadors of Iran to Afghanistan
20th-century Iranian politicians
Politicians from Tehran |
70_0 | Route 33 is a state highway in the US state of New Jersey. The highway extends , from Trenton at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 (US 1) and Route 129 to an intersection with Route 71 in Neptune Township. There are several intersections on Route 33 with future developments. |
70_1 | Route 33 begins in Trenton on a two-lane road. It passes through central Mercer County, joining northbound US 130 in Robbinsville Township. It leaves the U.S. highway in East Windsor and becomes a local town road into the borough of Hightstown. It turns east again as it passes the east end of the Hightstown Bypass, where it becomes a divided arterial with four lanes as it makes its way through Monmouth County toward the shore. Around Freehold, it becomes a freeway. It then crosses the Garden State Parkway's Exit 100 in Tinton Falls and Route 18 in Neptune. Here, it is locally known as Corlies Avenue. Route 33 ends at Route 71 in Neptune. It has two concurrencies along the route, one with Route 34 and the second with US 130.
Route description |
70_2 | Route 33 begins at an interchange with the Trenton Freeway (US 1) and the northern terminus of Route 129 in the state capital of Trenton, Mercer County. The route heads southeast on Market Street as a four-lane divided highway, passing over NJ Transit's River Line and Amtrak's Northeast Corridor, just south of Trenton Transit Center. After intersecting Clinton Avenue, Route 33 becomes Greenwood Avenue and heads east as a two-lane road through residential neighborhoods on the east side of the city, passing north of Trenton Central High School and serving a few small businesses. Greenwood Avenue then enters Hamilton Township and enters a slightly more commercialized area before passing north of a cemetery. At this point, Greenwood Avenue ends, and Route 33 merges with Nottingham Way and becomes a four-lane boulevard lined with many homes and businesses. After reaching a modified interchange with Interstate 295 (I-295), Route 33 turns right off of Nottingham Way and becomes a two-lane |
70_3 | road with a center left-turn lane. The route passes many business and crosses through a wooded residential area before coming back into a commercial area and entering Robbinsville Township, where Route 33 turns northeast onto US 130 and the two routes run concurrently on a four-lane divided highway. |
70_4 | Route 33 and US 130 pass through a wooded area with several business lining the route before entering East Windsor Township, where Route 33 splits off of US 130 onto the two-lane Mercer Street. The road passes through woods before emerging into Hightstown, where it serves several businesses and bisects a cemetery before entering the downtown area. Here, Mercer Street ends, and Route 33 runs northeast along Main Street before turning right onto Franklin Street and coming back into East Windsor Township. The route widens to four lanes as it passes under the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) and becomes a divided highway, reaching an interchange with the Route 133 freeway, which serves the turnpike. |
70_5 | After the intersection with Twin Rivers Drive, Route 33 enters Monroe Township, Middlesex County, where it serves many residential communities. Continuing east, activity along the sides of the highway disappears, and the route enters Millstone Township, Monmouth County, where businesses begin to reappear. Crossing into Manalapan Township, Route 33 passes through a mix of farmland and commercial areas before reaching the western terminus of Route 33 Business, an old alignment of Route 33. At this point, Route 33 becomes a freeway known as the Freehold Bypass, and enters Freehold Township. The freeway passes south of Freehold Raceway Mall and bypasses Freehold Borough, reaching interchanges with County Route 537 (CR 537) and US 9 at the southern terminus of Route 79. Heading into more rural areas, Route 33 enters Howell Township and meets the eastern terminus of Route 33 Business as the freeway ends. |
70_6 | Now a two-lane road, Route 33 passes through a largely wooded area south of Naval Weapons Station Earle and serves several businesses and residential neighborhoods before merging with Route 34 and becoming a four-lane divided highway. The two routes run concurrently and pass over Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Southern Secondary line before entering Wall Township, where several businesses line the route. At Collingwood Circle, Route 34 splits from Route 33, and the latter continues east as a four-lane undivided highway and enters Tinton Falls. The westbound and eastbound lanes eventually split apart as the highway reaches the western terminus of Route 66 and an interchange with the Garden State Parkway. Past this point, Route 33 becomes Corlies Avenue and enters Neptune Township, passing through many residential neighborhoods. After an interchange with the Route 18 freeway, Route 33 forms the border between Neptune Township to the north and Neptune City to the south. The road then |
70_7 | crosses entirely back into Neptune Township and passes south of Jersey Shore University Medical Center and K. Hovnanian Children's Hospital. After an intersection with Route 35, Route 33 narrows to a two-lane road with a center left-turn lane before crossing NJ Transit's North Jersey Coast Line and reaching its eastern terminus at Route 71. |
70_8 | History
West of Robbinsville, the road was maintained by the Trenton and Allentown Turnpike, which was chartered in 1856; east of Robbinsville, the turnpike followed modern-day County Route 526 to Allentown. From the border of Manalapan and Millstone townships east to the intersection with Woodward Road, the road was maintained by the Manalapan and Patton's Corner Turnpike; the road from there to Freehold was maintained as the Freehold and Manalapan Turnpike, chartered in 1858. The Freehold and Manalapan bought the portion of the Manalapan and Patton's Corner now signed Route 33. In addition, a small portion of the Englishtown and Millstone Turnpike was built along Route 33 from County Route 527A west to Millstone Road, though this was overtaken in the construction of the Freehold and Manalapan Turnpike, chartered in 1866 to connect Freehold and Manalapan. From Freehold to Jerseyville, Route 33 Business was maintained by the Freehold and Jerseyville Turnpike, chartered in 1866. |
70_9 | Route 33 originally was part of two auto trails: the Cranbury Trail, an alternative to the Lincoln Trail running from New Brunswick to Trenton; and the Jersey Link, running from Hightstown to Ocean Grove. These routes were incorporated in 1916 into two new routes: New Jersey Route 1 in parts of the road south of Hightstown, and Route 7 from Hightstown to its terminus at Route 71. Both roads were changed into Route 33 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering.
Route 33 was originally planned as a freeway from U.S. Route 1 in Trenton across New Jersey to Route 18 in Neptune. However, in 1967, the NJDOT scaled back proposals to the current seven-mile (11 km) Freehold Bypass. The bypass from near County Route 527 in Manalapan to Halls Mills Road in Freehold was completed and opened in segments from 1971 to 1988; however, the remainder of the bypass east to Fairfield Road in Howell was not completed until 2003. The project cost $33.7 million in 2003 USD. |
70_10 | The Route 33 bypass has three abandoned segments. The first of these is the cloverleaf ramp from Route 79 southbound to the Route 33 freeway eastbound. It has been mostly destroyed, to make way for a new reverse jughandle for U.S. Route 9 northbound to Schanck Road. The merging part of the ramp still remains abandoned along the right side of the eastbound freeway.
The original alignment for the freeway east of Halls Mills Road (CR 55) can be seen now as an NJDOT maintenance shed. The new alignment curves to the left after the interchange, in order to avoid what the NJDOT believed to be a suspected (but never identified) turtle bog habitat. The pavement is accessible from the eastbound on-ramp, but is fenced off.
Howell Road was never given access from Route 33 eastbound and thus the ramp still remains barricaded off, slowly decaying. |
70_11 | Up until late 1988, Route 33 westbound ran underneath US 130, then merged with 130's southbound lanes. This was because Route 33 ran parallel to Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) Camden & Amboy route at that point, requiring a massive concrete overpass. (Route 33 eastbound also ascended the bridge approach about halfway before branching off like an exit ramp—a sign with flashing lights read "Hightstown, Shore Points" at the fork.) PRR abandoned the Hightstown–Windsor segment in 1967, reducing the importance of the hulking bridge. NJDOT eventually demolished the crumbling structure in 1989, with its approaches flattened to grade. Route 33 now meets US 130 at the north end of the multiplex with a traffic signal. |
70_12 | A similar bridge carried Route 33 over the same PRR (now Conrail Shared Assets Operations [CSAO]) line further south in Robbinsville. NJDOT replaced the overpass with a wider, linear roadway in 2009. As the CSAO line was dormant, no railroad street crossing was installed. Trackage was dismantled two years later in 2011 in between Robbinsville and Windsor.
In 2001, the Freehold Bypass was designated as the Theodore J. Narozanick Highway.
Until 2003, the 33/130 junction in Robbinsville was configured as an at-grade wye interchange, employing curved ramps for the directional movements. The junction has since been modified to a signalized intersection with ordinary turning lanes. It has also been converted from a T-intersection to a 4-way, with the construction of a new road on the southeast side of US-130. |
70_13 | On December 31, 2006, the Turnpike Authority released its proposals regarding Interchange 8. The old Interchange 8 was to be demolished and replaced with a new interchange. The new Exit 8 would end at the intersection with Route 33, Milford Road, and the 133 bypass (on the east side of the expressway, instead of the west). This new Exit 8 would grant direct access to the bypass (without going through any traffic lights), as well as to 33, using grade-separated interchanges. The new toll gate was to feature a total of 10 lanes at the new facility. The new interchange opened in January 2013.
Major intersections
Business route |
70_14 | Route 33 Business is a short state highway in New Jersey that is the original alignment of Route 33 before a freeway was built as a bypass of Freehold. This business route stretches through Manalapan Township, Freehold Township, Freehold Borough and Howell Township. The highway holds the distinction of being the only business route state highway in all of New Jersey. |
70_15 | Route 33 Business begins at the interchange with Route 33, its parent route, in Manalapan Township, New Jersey. A short distance after, the interchange from Route 33 eastbound merges into Route 33 Business, and the route passes to the south of Monmouth Battlefield State Park and enters Freehold Township. Soon after entering the borough of Freehold, Route 33 Business interchanges with U.S. Route 9. Route 33 Business turns to the southeast, passing to the north of Freehold Raceway. A short distance later, Route 33 Business intersects at a traffic light with New Jersey Route 79 (South Street) in downtown Freehold. At the intersection with Fairfield Road, Route 33 Business enters the interchange with Route 33 and the freeway, where the designation terminates. |
70_16 | Route 33 Business originates as an alignment of Route 33, designated across the state in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering as a replacement to Routes 1 and 7, which were assigned in the 1920s. The route remained intact for several decades, continuing as the proposals for the crosstown Route 33 Freeway during the 1960s were drawn up. The new Route 33 Freeway was to be long, starting at U.S. Route 1 in Trenton, crossing through Princeton and into Hightstown, where it would connect with the current-day New Jersey Route 133, heading eastward, where it would connect with the unbuilt Driscoll Expressway in Freehold. The freeway would continue, interchanging with the Garden State Parkway near Exit 100 in Neptune and terminate at the Route 18 freeway in Neptune. However, the next year, the New Jersey Department of Transportation had to scale down the project to a new bypass of Freehold, and prevent the congestion of traffic through the borough. Design studies began that year, and |
70_17 | the entire bypass was constructed during the 70s and 80s, with most of the freeway finished in 1988. This new bypass was designated as Route 33 Bypass from 1965 until Route 33 was re-aligned off the local roads onto the new freeway in 1990, which at that time, Route 33 Business was designated on the former alignment. |
70_18 | Major intersections
Related routes
Route 133
See also
References
External links
An expanded view of road jurisdiction in Trenton at the confluence of US 1, US 206, NJ 29, NJ 33 and NJ 129
Photos of Route 33 by Gribblenation.net
Steve Alpert's NJ 33 Page
033
Two-lane freeways in the United States
Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey
Transportation in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Transportation in Monmouth County, New Jersey
Limited-access roads in New Jersey |
71_0 | A superspreading event (SSEV) is an event in which an infectious disease is spread much more than usual, while an unusually contagious organism infected with a disease is known as a superspreader. In the context of a human-borne illness, a superspreader is an individual who is more likely to infect others, compared with a typical infected person. Such superspreaders are of particular concern in epidemiology.
Some cases of superspreading conform to the 80/20 rule, where approximately 20% of infected individuals are responsible for 80% of transmissions, although superspreading can still be said to occur when superspreaders account for a higher or lower percentage of transmissions. In epidemics with such superspreader events, the majority of individuals infect relatively few secondary contacts. |
71_1 | SSEVs are shaped by multiple factors including a decline in herd immunity, nosocomial infections, virulence, viral load, misdiagnosis, airflow dynamics, immune suppression, and co-infection with another pathogen.
Definition
Although loose definitions of superspreader events exist, some effort has been made at defining what qualifies as a superspreader event (SSEV). Lloyd-Smith et al. (2005) define a protocol to identify a superspreader event as follows:
estimate the effective reproductive number, R, for the disease and population in question;
construct a Poisson distribution with mean R, representing the expected range of Z due to stochasticity without individual variation;
define an SSEV as any infected person who infects more than Z(n) others, where Z(n) is the nth percentile of the Poisson(R) distribution.
This protocol defines a 99th-percentile SSEV as a case which causes more infections than would occur in 99% of infectious histories in a homogeneous population. |
71_2 | During the SARS-CoV-1 2002–2004 SARS outbreak from China, epidemiologists defined a superspreader as an individual with at least eight transmissions of the disease.
Superspreaders may or may not show any symptoms of the disease.
SSEVs can further be classified into 'societal' and 'isolated' events.
In April 2020 Jonathan Kay reported in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic:
Factors in transmission
Superspreaders have been identified who excrete a higher than normal number of pathogens during the time they are infectious. This causes their contacts to be exposed to higher viral/bacterial loads than would be seen in the contacts of non-superspreaders with the same duration of exposure. |
71_3 | Basic reproductive number
The basic reproduction number R0 is the average number of secondary infections caused by a typical infective person in a totally susceptible population. The basic reproductive number is found by multiplying the average number of contacts by the average probability that a susceptible individual will become infected, which is called the shedding potential.
Individual reproductive number
The individual reproductive number represents the number of secondary infections caused by a specific individual during the time that individual is infectious. Some individuals have significantly higher than average individual reproductive numbers and are known as superspreaders. Through contact tracing, epidemiologists have identified superspreaders in measles, tuberculosis, rubella, monkeypox, smallpox, Ebola hemorrhagic fever and SARS. |
71_4 | Co-infections with other pathogens
Studies have shown that men with HIV who are co-infected with at least one other sexually transmitted disease, such as gonorrhea, hepatitis C, and herpes simplex 2 virus, have a higher HIV shedding rate than men without co-infection. This shedding rate was calculated in men with similar HIV viral loads. Once treatment for the co-infection has been completed, the HIV shedding rate returns to levels comparable to men without co-infection. |
71_5 | Lack of herd immunity |
71_6 | Herd immunity, or herd effect, refers to the indirect protection that immunized community members provide to non-immunized members in preventing the spread of contagious disease. The greater the number of immunized individuals, the less likely an outbreak can occur because there are fewer susceptible contacts. In epidemiology, herd immunity is known as a dependent happening because it influences transmission over time. As a pathogen that confers immunity to the survivors moves through a susceptible population, the number of susceptible contacts declines. Even if susceptible individuals remain, their contacts are likely to be immunized, preventing any further spread of the infection. The proportion of immune individuals in a population above which a disease may no longer persist is the herd immunity threshold. Its value varies with the virulence of the disease, the efficacy of the vaccine, and the contact parameter for the population. That is not to say that an outbreak can't occur, |
71_7 | but it will be limited. |
71_8 | Superspreaders during outbreaks or pandemics |
71_9 | COVID-19 pandemic: 2020–present |
71_10 | The South Korean spread of confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection jumped suddenly starting on 19–20 February 2020. On 19 February, the number of confirmed cases increased by 20. On 20 February, 58 or 70 new cases were confirmed, giving a total of 104 confirmed cases, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Korea (KCDC). According to Reuters, KCDC attributed the sudden jump to 70 cases linked to "Patient 31", who had participated in a gathering in Daegu at the Shincheonji Church of Jesus the Temple of the Tabernacle of the Testimony. On 20 February, the streets of Daegu were empty in reaction to the Shincheonji outbreak. A resident described the reaction, stating "It's like someone dropped a bomb in the middle of the city. It looks like a zombie apocalypse." On 21 February, the first death was reported. According to the mayor of Daegu, the number of suspected cases as of 21 February is 544 among 4,400 examined followers of the church. Later in the outbreak, in May, |
71_11 | A 29-year-old man visited several Seoul nightclubs in one night and resulted in accumulated infections of at least 79 other people. |
71_12 | A business conference in Boston (MA) from February 26–28 was a superspreading event.
Between 27 February and 1 March, a Tablighi Jamaat event at Masjid Jamek, Seri Petaling in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia attended by approximately 16,000 people resulted in a major outbreak across the country. By May 16, 3,348 COVID-19 cases - 48% of Malaysia's total at the time - were linked to the event, and with approximately 10% of attendees visiting from overseas, the event resulted in the virus spreading across Southeast Asia. Cases in Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brunei, the Philippines and Thailand were traced back to the mosque gathering. |
71_13 | In New York, a lawyer contracted the illness then spread it to at least twenty other individuals in his community in New Rochelle, creating a cluster of cases that quickly passed 100, accounting for more than half of SARS-CoV2 coronavirus cases in the state during early March 2020. For comparison, the basic reproduction number of the virus, which is the average number of additional people that a single case will infect without any preventative measures, is between 1.4 and 3.9. |
71_14 | On March 6, preacher Baldev Singh returned to India after being infected while traveling in Italy and Germany. He subsequently died, becoming the first coronavirus fatality in the State of Punjab. Testing revealed that he'd infected 26 locals, including 19 relatives, while tracing discovered that he'd had direct contact with more than 550 people. Fearing an outbreak, India's government instituted a local quarantine on 27 March 2020, affecting 40,000 residents from 20 villages. Initial reports claimed that Baldev Singh had ignored self-quarantine orders, and police collaborated with singer Sidhu Moose Wala to release a rap music video blaming the dead man for bringing the virus to Punjab. But Baldev Singh's fellow travelers insisted that no such order had been given, leading to accusations that local authorities had scapegoated him to avoid scrutiny of their own failures. |
71_15 | A Tablighi Jamaat religious congregation that took place in Delhi's Nizamuddin Markaz Mosque in early March 2020 was a coronavirus super-spreader event, with more than 4,000 confirmed cases and at least 27 deaths linked to the event reported across the country. Over 9,000 missionaries may have attended the congregation, with the majority being from various states of India, and 960 attendees from 40 foreign countries. On 18 April, 4,291 confirmed cases of COVID-19 linked to this event by the Union Health Ministry represented a third of all the confirmed cases of India. Around 40,000 people, including Tablighi Jamaat attendees and their contacts, were quarantined across the country.
On 11 May 2020, it came to light that a worker at a fish processing plant in Tema, Ghana was believed to have infected over 500 other people with COVID-19. |
71_16 | As of 18 July 2020, more than one thousand suspected superspreading events had been logged, for example a cluster of 187 people who were infected after eating at a Harper's Restaurant and Brew Pub in East Lansing, Michigan.
On 26 September 2020, President Trump announced his Supreme Court Justice nominee, Amy Coney Barrett. The announcement took place at the White House Rose Garden, where around 30 people attentively watched. The outbreak event has since been dubbed a “superspreader” event. Less than a week after the event, President Trump himself was diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2, as well as others who attended the Rose Garden event. By October 7, the Federal Emergency Management Agency memo revealed that 34 White House staff members, housekeepers, and other contacts had contracted the virus. |
71_17 | Public health experts have said that the 2021 United States Capitol attack was a potential COVID-19 superspreading event. Few members of the crowd attacking the Capitol wore face coverings, with many coming from out of town, and few of the rioters were immediately detained and identified.
On 30 July 2021, it came to light that a Peruvian man, resident of Córdoba, Argentina, brought the Delta variant of COVID-19 after travelling to Europe, but he did not quarantine himself, infecting 17 relatives and putting in isolation over 800 other people. He and other three people got arrested for disease propagation. 24 days later, the Peruvian man died of a severe pneumonia, being the first death of the Delta variant in the country. |
71_18 | On 26 November 2021, Scatec ASA, a Norwegian company specializing in renewable energy systems, held a Christmas party in Oslo, Norway attended by 120 people, all of whom were fully vaccinated against COVID-19 and tested negative for COVID-19 prior to the party being held. One person who attended the party had recently returned from South Africa, the epicenter of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant outbreak and a country where the company has a solar panel project. It was later found that the attendee from South Africa had been infected with the Omicron variant. More than half of the party's attendees have since tested positive for COVID-19 and of those attendees, at least 13 of them were confirmed to have the variant.
Several factors are identified as contributing to superspreading events with COVID-19: closed spaces with poor ventilation, crowds, and close contact settings ("three Cs"). |
71_19 | Statistical analyses of the frequency of coronavirus superspreading events, including SARS-CoV-2 and SARS, have shown that they correspond to fat-tailed events, indicating that they are extreme, but likely, occurrences.
A SARS-CoV-2 superspreading events database maintained by a group of researchers at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine includes more than 1,600 superspreading events from around the world.
SARS outbreak: 2003 |
71_20 | The first cases of SARS occurred in mid-November 2002 in the Guangdong Province of China. This was followed by an outbreak in Hong Kong in February 2003. A Guangdong Province doctor, Liu Jianlun, who had treated SARS cases there, had contracted the virus and was symptomatic. Despite his symptoms, he traveled to Hong Kong to attend a family wedding. He stayed on the ninth floor of the Metropole Hotel in Kowloon, infecting 16 other hotel guests also staying on that floor. The guests then traveled to Canada, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam, spreading SARS to those locations and transmitting what became a global epidemic. |
71_21 | In another case during this same outbreak, a 54-year-old male was admitted to a hospital with coronary heart disease, chronic kidney failure and type II diabetes mellitus. He had been in contact with a patient known to have SARS. Shortly after his admission he developed fever, cough, myalgia and sore throat. The admitting physician suspected SARS. The patient was transferred to another hospital for treatment of his coronary artery disease. While there, his SARS symptoms became more pronounced. Later, it was discovered he had transmitted SARS to 33 other patients in just two days. He was transferred back to the original hospital where he died of SARS.
In his post-mortem reflection, Low remained puzzled as to the reason for this phenomenon and speculated that "possible explanations for (the superspreaders') enhanced infectivity include the lack of early implementation of infection control precautions, higher load of SCoV, or larger amounts of respiratory secretions." |
71_22 | The SARS outbreak was eventually contained, but not before it caused 8,273 cases and 775 deaths. Within two weeks of the original outbreak in Guangdong Province, SARS had spread to 29 countries.
Measles outbreak: 1989
Measles is a highly contagious, air-borne virus that reappears even among vaccinated populations. In one Finnish town in 1989, an explosive school-based outbreak resulted in 51 cases, several of whom had been previously vaccinated. One child alone infected 22 others. It was noted during this outbreak that when vaccinated siblings shared a bedroom with an infected sibling, seven out of nine became infected as well. |
71_23 | Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever is a human-specific disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. It is highly contagious and becoming resistant to antibiotics. S. typhi is susceptible to creating asymptomatic carriers. The most famous carriers are Mary Mallon, known as Typhoid Mary, from New York City, and Mr. N. the Milker, from Folkstone, England. Both were active around the same time. Mallon infected 51 people from 1902 to 1909. Mr. N. infected more than 200 people over 14 years from 1901 to 1915. At the request of health officials, Mr. N. gave up working in food service. Mallon was at first also compliant, choosing other work – but eventually she returned to cooking and caused further outbreaks. She was involuntarily quarantined at Brothers Island in New York, where she stayed until she died in November 1938, aged 69. |
71_24 | It has been found that Salmonella typhi persists in infected mice macrophages that have cycled from an inflammatory state to a non-inflammatory state. The bacteria remain and reproduce without causing further symptoms in the mice, and this helps to explain why carriers are asymptomatic.
See also
Scale-free network – A model in which most people spread an infection to few people, but a few people spread infection to many
References
External links
World Health Organisation (WHO) – authoritative source of information about global health issues
Past pandemics that ravaged Europe at the BBC
Influenza pandemic phases at the US Center for Disease Control (CDC)
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
TED-Education video – How pandemics spread
Biological hazards
Epidemics
Epidemiology
Global health
Infectious diseases
Pandemics
Zoonoses |
72_0 | G protein-gated ion channels are a family of transmembrane ion channels in neurons and atrial myocytes that are directly gated by G proteins.
Overview of mechanisms and function
Generally, G protein-gated ion channels are specific ion channels located in the plasma membrane of cells that are directly activated by a family of associated proteins. Ion channels allow for the selective movement of certain ions across the plasma membrane in cells. More specifically, in nerve cells, along with ion transporters, they are responsible for maintaining the electrochemical gradient across the cell. |
72_1 | G proteins are a family of intracellular proteins capable of mediating signal transduction pathways. Each G protein is a heterotrimer of three subunits: α-, β-, and γ- subunits. The α-subunit (Gα) typically binds the G protein to a transmembrane receptor protein known as a G protein-coupled receptor, or GPCR. This receptor protein has a large, extracellular binding domain which will bind its respective ligands (e.g. neurotransmitters and hormones). Once the ligand is bound to its receptor, a conformational change occurs. This conformational change in the G protein allows Gα to bind GTP. This leads to yet another conformational change in the G protein, resulting in the separation of the βγ-complex (Gβγ) from Gα. At this point, both Gα and Gβγ are active and able to continue the signal transduction pathway. Different classes of G protein-coupled receptors have many known functions including the cAMP and Phosphatidylinositol signal transduction pathways. A class known as |
72_2 | metabotropic glutamate receptors play a large role in indirect ion channel activation by G proteins. These pathways are activated by second messengers which initiate signal cascades involving various proteins which are important to the cell's response. |
72_3 | G protein-gated ion channels are associated with a specific type of G protein-coupled receptor. These ion channels are transmembrane ion channels with selectivity filters and a G protein binding site. The GPCRs associated with G protein-gated ion channels are not involved in signal transduction pathways. They only directly activate these ion channels using effector proteins or the G protein subunits themselves (see picture). Unlike most effectors, not all G protein-gated ion channels have their activity mediated by Gα of their corresponding G proteins. For instance, the opening of inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels is mediated by the binding of Gβγ.
G protein-gated ion channels are primarily found in CNS neurons and atrial myocytes, and affect the flow of potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+), and chloride (Cl−) across the plasma membrane.
Types of G Protein-gated ion channels
Potassium channels
Structure |
72_4 | Four G protein gated inwardly-rectifying potassium (GIRK) channel subunits have been identified in mammals: GIRK1, GIRK2, GIRK3, and GIRK4. The GIRK subunits come together to form GIRK ion channels. These ion channels, once activated, allow for the flow of potassium ions (K+) from the extracellular space surrounding the cell across the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm. Each channel consists of domains which span the plasma membrane, forming the K+-selective pore region through which the K+ ions will flow. Both the N-and C-terminal ends of the GIRK channels are located within the cytoplasm. These domains interact directly with the βγ-complex of the G protein, leading to activation of the K+ channel. . These domains on the N-and C-terminal ends which interact with the G proteins contain certain residues which are critical for the proper activation of the GIRK channel. In GIRK4, the N-terminal residue is His-64 and the C-terminal residue is Leu-268; in GIRK1 they are His-57 and |
72_5 | Leu-262, respectively. Mutations in these domains lead to the channel's desensitivity to the βγ-complex and therefore reduce the activation of the GIRK channel. |
72_6 | The four GIRK subunits are 80-90% similar in their pore-forming and transmembrane domains, a feature accountable by the similarities in their structures and sequences. GIRK2, GIRK3, and GIRK4 share an overall identity of 62% with each other, while GIRK1 only shares 44% identity with the others. Because of their similarity, the GIRK channel subunits can come together easily to form heteromultimers (a protein with two or more different polypeptide chains). GIRK1, GIRK2, and GIRK3 show abundant and overlapping distribution in the central nervous system (CNS) while GIRK1 and GIRK4 are found primarily in the heart. GIRK1 combines with GIRK2 in the CNS and GIRK4 in the atrium to form heterotetramers; each final heterotetramer contains two GIRK1 subunits and two GIRK2 or GIRK4 subunits. GIRK2 subunits can also form homotetramers in the brain, while GIRK4 subunits can form homotetramers in the heart. GIRK1 subunits have not been shown to be able to form functional homotetramers. Though |
72_7 | GIRK3 subunits are found in the CNS, their role in forming functional ion channels is still unknown. |
72_8 | Subtypes and respective functions
GIRKs found in the heart |
Subsets and Splits