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1 | 4205-4208 | 69 V)
MnO4
– + 8H+ + 5e– ® Mn2+ + 4H2O
(E
o = + 1 52 V)
We can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the
solution plays an important part in influencing the reaction Although
many reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,
kinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at
[H
+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow
unless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised |
1 | 4206-4209 | 52 V)
We can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the
solution plays an important part in influencing the reaction Although
many reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,
kinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at
[H
+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow
unless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:
1 |
1 | 4207-4210 | Although
many reactions can be understood by consideration of redox potential,
kinetics of the reaction is also an important factor Permanganate at
[H
+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow
unless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:
1 In acid solutions:
(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :
10I
– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ® 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5I2
(b) Fe
2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe
3+ (yellow):
5Fe
2+ + MnO4
– + 8H
+ ® Mn
2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe
3+
Rationalised 2023-24
108
Chemistry
(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:
5C2O4
2– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:
H2S —> 2H
+ + S
2–
5S
2– + 2MnO
–
4 + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or
sulphuric acid:
5SO3
2– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4
2–
(f)
Nitrite is oxidised to nitrate:
5NO2
– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 5NO3
– + 3H2O
2 |
1 | 4208-4211 | Permanganate at
[H
+] = 1 should oxidise water but in practice the reaction is extremely slow
unless either manganese(ll) ions are present or the temperature is raised A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:
1 In acid solutions:
(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :
10I
– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ® 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5I2
(b) Fe
2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe
3+ (yellow):
5Fe
2+ + MnO4
– + 8H
+ ® Mn
2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe
3+
Rationalised 2023-24
108
Chemistry
(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:
5C2O4
2– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:
H2S —> 2H
+ + S
2–
5S
2– + 2MnO
–
4 + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or
sulphuric acid:
5SO3
2– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4
2–
(f)
Nitrite is oxidised to nitrate:
5NO2
– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 5NO3
– + 3H2O
2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:
(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:
2MnO4
– + H2O + I
– ——> 2MnO2 + 2OH
– + IO3
–
(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:
8MnO4
– + 3S2O3
2– + H2O ——> 8MnO2 + 6SO4
2– + 2OH
–
(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate
or zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:
2MnO4
– + 3Mn
2+ + 2H2O ——> 5MnO2 + 4H
+
Note: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are
unsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine |
1 | 4209-4212 | A few important oxidising reactions of KMnO4 are given below:
1 In acid solutions:
(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :
10I
– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ® 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5I2
(b) Fe
2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe
3+ (yellow):
5Fe
2+ + MnO4
– + 8H
+ ® Mn
2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe
3+
Rationalised 2023-24
108
Chemistry
(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:
5C2O4
2– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:
H2S —> 2H
+ + S
2–
5S
2– + 2MnO
–
4 + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or
sulphuric acid:
5SO3
2– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4
2–
(f)
Nitrite is oxidised to nitrate:
5NO2
– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 5NO3
– + 3H2O
2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:
(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:
2MnO4
– + H2O + I
– ——> 2MnO2 + 2OH
– + IO3
–
(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:
8MnO4
– + 3S2O3
2– + H2O ——> 8MnO2 + 6SO4
2– + 2OH
–
(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate
or zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:
2MnO4
– + 3Mn
2+ + 2H2O ——> 5MnO2 + 4H
+
Note: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are
unsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is
used as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry |
1 | 4210-4213 | In acid solutions:
(a) Iodine is liberated from potassium iodide :
10I
– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ® 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5I2
(b) Fe
2+ ion (green) is converted to Fe
3+ (yellow):
5Fe
2+ + MnO4
– + 8H
+ ® Mn
2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe
3+
Rationalised 2023-24
108
Chemistry
(c) Oxalate ion or oxalic acid is oxidised at 333 K:
5C2O4
2– + 2MnO4
– + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
(d) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised, sulphur being precipitated:
H2S —> 2H
+ + S
2–
5S
2– + 2MnO
–
4 + 16H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 8H2O + 5S
(e) Sulphurous acid or sulphite is oxidised to a sulphate or
sulphuric acid:
5SO3
2– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 3H2O + 5SO4
2–
(f)
Nitrite is oxidised to nitrate:
5NO2
– + 2MnO4
– + 6H
+ ——> 2Mn
2+ + 5NO3
– + 3H2O
2 In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:
(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:
2MnO4
– + H2O + I
– ——> 2MnO2 + 2OH
– + IO3
–
(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:
8MnO4
– + 3S2O3
2– + H2O ——> 8MnO2 + 6SO4
2– + 2OH
–
(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate
or zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:
2MnO4
– + 3Mn
2+ + 2H2O ——> 5MnO2 + 4H
+
Note: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are
unsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is
used as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the
bleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation
of oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power |
1 | 4211-4214 | In neutral or faintly alkaline solutions:
(a) A notable reaction is the oxidation of iodide to iodate:
2MnO4
– + H2O + I
– ——> 2MnO2 + 2OH
– + IO3
–
(b) Thiosulphate is oxidised almost quantitatively to sulphate:
8MnO4
– + 3S2O3
2– + H2O ——> 8MnO2 + 6SO4
2– + 2OH
–
(c) Manganous salt is oxidised to MnO2; the presence of zinc sulphate
or zinc oxide catalyses the oxidation:
2MnO4
– + 3Mn
2+ + 2H2O ——> 5MnO2 + 4H
+
Note: Permanganate titrations in presence of hydrochloric acid are
unsatisfactory since hydrochloric acid is oxidised to chlorine Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is
used as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the
bleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation
of oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements
following lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following
actinium) |
1 | 4212-4215 | Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses
Uses: Besides its use in analytical chemistry, potassium permanganate is
used as a favourite oxidant in preparative organic chemistry Its uses for the
bleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation
of oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements
following lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following
actinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is
usually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the
general symbol Ln is often used |
1 | 4213-4216 | Its uses for the
bleaching of wool, cotton, silk and other textile fibres and for the decolourisation
of oils are also dependent on its strong oxidising power THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements
following lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following
actinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is
usually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the
general symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids
includes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series |
1 | 4214-4217 | THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids (the fourteen elements
following lanthanum) and actinoids (the fourteen elements following
actinium) Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is
usually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the
general symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids
includes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members
of ordinary transition elements in any series |
1 | 4215-4218 | Because lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is
usually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the
general symbol Ln is often used Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids
includes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members
of ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable
oxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to
examine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a
series of otherwise similar elements |
1 | 4216-4219 | Similarly, a discussion of the actinoids
includes actinium besides the fourteen elements constituting the series The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members
of ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable
oxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to
examine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a
series of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on
the other hand, much more complicated |
1 | 4217-4220 | The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members
of ordinary transition elements in any series They have only one stable
oxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to
examine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a
series of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on
the other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly
owing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these
elements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems
in their study; the two series will be considered separately here |
1 | 4218-4221 | They have only one stable
oxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to
examine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a
series of otherwise similar elements The chemistry of the actinoids is, on
the other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly
owing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these
elements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems
in their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some
ionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids
(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 |
1 | 4219-4222 | The chemistry of the actinoids is, on
the other hand, much more complicated The complication arises partly
owing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these
elements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems
in their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some
ionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids
(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9 |
1 | 4220-4223 | The complication arises partly
owing to the occurrence of a wide range of oxidation states in these
elements and partly because their radioactivity creates special problems
in their study; the two series will be considered separately here The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some
ionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids
(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9 4 |
1 | 4221-4224 | The names, symbols, electronic configurations of atomic and some
ionic states and atomic and ionic radii of lanthanum and lanthanoids
(for which the general symbol Ln is used) are given in Table 4 9 4 5
4 |
1 | 4222-4225 | 9 4 5
4 5
4 |
1 | 4223-4226 | 4 5
4 5
4 5
4 |
1 | 4224-4227 | 5
4 5
4 5
4 5
4 |
1 | 4225-4228 | 5
4 5
4 5
4 5 The
The
The
The
The
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
109
The d- and f- Block Elements
La
3+
Ce
3+
Pr
3+
Nd
3+
Pm
3+
Sm
3+
Eu
3+
Gd
3+
Tb
3+
Dy
3+
Ho
3+
Er
3+
Tm
3+
Yb
3+
Lu
3+
Ce
4+
Pr
4+
Tb
4+
Yb
2+
Tm
2+
Sm
2
Eu
2+
110
100
90
57
61
65
59
63
67
69
71
Ionic radii/pm
Atomic number
+
4 |
1 | 4226-4229 | 5
4 5
4 5 The
The
The
The
The
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
109
The d- and f- Block Elements
La
3+
Ce
3+
Pr
3+
Nd
3+
Pm
3+
Sm
3+
Eu
3+
Gd
3+
Tb
3+
Dy
3+
Ho
3+
Er
3+
Tm
3+
Yb
3+
Lu
3+
Ce
4+
Pr
4+
Tb
4+
Yb
2+
Tm
2+
Sm
2
Eu
2+
110
100
90
57
61
65
59
63
67
69
71
Ionic radii/pm
Atomic number
+
4 5 |
1 | 4227-4230 | 5
4 5 The
The
The
The
The
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
109
The d- and f- Block Elements
La
3+
Ce
3+
Pr
3+
Nd
3+
Pm
3+
Sm
3+
Eu
3+
Gd
3+
Tb
3+
Dy
3+
Ho
3+
Er
3+
Tm
3+
Yb
3+
Lu
3+
Ce
4+
Pr
4+
Tb
4+
Yb
2+
Tm
2+
Sm
2
Eu
2+
110
100
90
57
61
65
59
63
67
69
71
Ionic radii/pm
Atomic number
+
4 5 1 Electronic
Configurations
4 |
1 | 4228-4231 | 5 The
The
The
The
The
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
109
The d- and f- Block Elements
La
3+
Ce
3+
Pr
3+
Nd
3+
Pm
3+
Sm
3+
Eu
3+
Gd
3+
Tb
3+
Dy
3+
Ho
3+
Er
3+
Tm
3+
Yb
3+
Lu
3+
Ce
4+
Pr
4+
Tb
4+
Yb
2+
Tm
2+
Sm
2
Eu
2+
110
100
90
57
61
65
59
63
67
69
71
Ionic radii/pm
Atomic number
+
4 5 1 Electronic
Configurations
4 5 |
1 | 4229-4232 | 5 1 Electronic
Configurations
4 5 2 Atomic and
Ionic Sizes
It may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic
configuration with 6s
2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level
(Table 4 |
1 | 4230-4233 | 1 Electronic
Configurations
4 5 2 Atomic and
Ionic Sizes
It may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic
configuration with 6s
2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level
(Table 4 9) |
1 | 4231-4234 | 5 2 Atomic and
Ionic Sizes
It may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic
configuration with 6s
2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level
(Table 4 9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive
ions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the
form 4f
n (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) |
1 | 4232-4235 | 2 Atomic and
Ionic Sizes
It may be noted that atoms of these elements have electronic
configuration with 6s
2 common but with variable occupancy of 4f level
(Table 4 9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive
ions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the
form 4f
n (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to
lutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the
chemistry of the lanthanoids |
1 | 4233-4236 | 9) However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive
ions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the
form 4f
n (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to
lutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the
chemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching
consequences in the chemistry of the third
transition series of the elements |
1 | 4234-4237 | However, the electronic configurations of all the tripositive
ions (the most stable oxidation state of all the lanthanoids) are of the
form 4f
n (n = 1 to 14 with increasing atomic number) The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to
lutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the
chemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching
consequences in the chemistry of the third
transition series of the elements The decrease
in atomic radii (derived from the structures of
metals) is not quite regular as it is regular in
M
3+ ions (Fig |
1 | 4235-4238 | The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii from lanthanum to
lutetium (the lanthanoid contraction) is a unique feature in the
chemistry of the lanthanoids It has far reaching
consequences in the chemistry of the third
transition series of the elements The decrease
in atomic radii (derived from the structures of
metals) is not quite regular as it is regular in
M
3+ ions (Fig 4 |
1 | 4236-4239 | It has far reaching
consequences in the chemistry of the third
transition series of the elements The decrease
in atomic radii (derived from the structures of
metals) is not quite regular as it is regular in
M
3+ ions (Fig 4 6) |
1 | 4237-4240 | The decrease
in atomic radii (derived from the structures of
metals) is not quite regular as it is regular in
M
3+ ions (Fig 4 6) This contraction is, of
course, similar to that observed in an ordinary
transition series and is attributed to the same
cause, the imperfect shielding of one electron
by another in the same sub-shell |
1 | 4238-4241 | 4 6) This contraction is, of
course, similar to that observed in an ordinary
transition series and is attributed to the same
cause, the imperfect shielding of one electron
by another in the same sub-shell However, the
shielding of one 4 f electron by another is less
than one d electron by another with the increase
in nuclear charge along the series |
1 | 4239-4242 | 6) This contraction is, of
course, similar to that observed in an ordinary
transition series and is attributed to the same
cause, the imperfect shielding of one electron
by another in the same sub-shell However, the
shielding of one 4 f electron by another is less
than one d electron by another with the increase
in nuclear charge along the series There is
fairly regular decrease in the sizes with
increasing atomic number |
1 | 4240-4243 | This contraction is, of
course, similar to that observed in an ordinary
transition series and is attributed to the same
cause, the imperfect shielding of one electron
by another in the same sub-shell However, the
shielding of one 4 f electron by another is less
than one d electron by another with the increase
in nuclear charge along the series There is
fairly regular decrease in the sizes with
increasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of
the lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid
contraction, causes the radii of the members
of the third transition series to be very similar
to those of the corresponding members of the
second series |
1 | 4241-4244 | However, the
shielding of one 4 f electron by another is less
than one d electron by another with the increase
in nuclear charge along the series There is
fairly regular decrease in the sizes with
increasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of
the lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid
contraction, causes the radii of the members
of the third transition series to be very similar
to those of the corresponding members of the
second series The almost identical radii of Zr
(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of
the lanthanoid contraction, account for their
occurrence together in nature and for the
difficulty faced in their separation |
1 | 4242-4245 | There is
fairly regular decrease in the sizes with
increasing atomic number The cumulative effect of the contraction of
the lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid
contraction, causes the radii of the members
of the third transition series to be very similar
to those of the corresponding members of the
second series The almost identical radii of Zr
(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of
the lanthanoid contraction, account for their
occurrence together in nature and for the
difficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant
species |
1 | 4243-4246 | The cumulative effect of the contraction of
the lanthanoid series, known as lanthanoid
contraction, causes the radii of the members
of the third transition series to be very similar
to those of the corresponding members of the
second series The almost identical radii of Zr
(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of
the lanthanoid contraction, account for their
occurrence together in nature and for the
difficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant
species However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid
compounds are also obtained |
1 | 4244-4247 | The almost identical radii of Zr
(160 pm) and Hf (159 pm), a consequence of
the lanthanoid contraction, account for their
occurrence together in nature and for the
difficulty faced in their separation In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant
species However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid
compounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation
enthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled
or filled f subshell |
1 | 4245-4248 | In the lanthanoids, La(II) and Ln(III) compounds are predominant
species However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid
compounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation
enthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled
or filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce
IV is favoured by its
noble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the
common +3 state |
1 | 4246-4249 | However, occasionally +2 and +4 ions in solution or in solid
compounds are also obtained This irregularity (as in ionisation
enthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled
or filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce
IV is favoured by its
noble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the
common +3 state The E
o value for Ce
4+/ Ce
3+ is + 1 |
1 | 4247-4250 | This irregularity (as in ionisation
enthalpies) arises mainly from the extra stability of empty, half-filled
or filled f subshell Thus, the formation of Ce
IV is favoured by its
noble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the
common +3 state The E
o value for Ce
4+/ Ce
3+ is + 1 74 V which
suggests that it can oxidise water |
1 | 4248-4251 | Thus, the formation of Ce
IV is favoured by its
noble gas configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the
common +3 state The E
o value for Ce
4+/ Ce
3+ is + 1 74 V which
suggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very
slow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent |
1 | 4249-4252 | The E
o value for Ce
4+/ Ce
3+ is + 1 74 V which
suggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very
slow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy
also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 |
1 | 4250-4253 | 74 V which
suggests that it can oxidise water However, the reaction rate is very
slow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy
also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu
2+ is formed by losing
the two s electrons and its f
7 configuration accounts for the formation
of this ion |
1 | 4251-4254 | However, the reaction rate is very
slow and hence Ce(IV) is a good analytical reagent Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy
also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu
2+ is formed by losing
the two s electrons and its f
7 configuration accounts for the formation
of this ion However, Eu
2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the
common +3 state |
1 | 4252-4255 | Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy
also exhibit +4 state but only in oxides, MO2 Eu
2+ is formed by losing
the two s electrons and its f
7 configuration accounts for the formation
of this ion However, Eu
2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the
common +3 state Similarly Yb
2+ which has f
14 configuration is a
reductant |
1 | 4253-4256 | Eu
2+ is formed by losing
the two s electrons and its f
7 configuration accounts for the formation
of this ion However, Eu
2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the
common +3 state Similarly Yb
2+ which has f
14 configuration is a
reductant Tb
IV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant |
1 | 4254-4257 | However, Eu
2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the
common +3 state Similarly Yb
2+ which has f
14 configuration is a
reductant Tb
IV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The
behaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both
+2 and +3 oxidation states |
1 | 4255-4258 | Similarly Yb
2+ which has f
14 configuration is a
reductant Tb
IV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The
behaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both
+2 and +3 oxidation states 4 |
1 | 4256-4259 | Tb
IV has half-filled f-orbitals and is an oxidant The
behaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both
+2 and +3 oxidation states 4 5 |
1 | 4257-4260 | The
behaviour of samarium is very much like europium, exhibiting both
+2 and +3 oxidation states 4 5 3 Oxidation
States
Fig |
1 | 4258-4261 | 4 5 3 Oxidation
States
Fig 4 |
1 | 4259-4262 | 5 3 Oxidation
States
Fig 4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
110
Chemistry
Electronic configurations*
Radii/pm
Atomic
Name
Symbol
Ln
Ln
2+
Ln
3+
Ln
4+
Ln
Ln
3+
Number
57
Lanthanum
La
5d
16s
2
5d
1
4f
0
187
106
58
Cerium
Ce
4f
15d
16s
2
4f
2
4f
1
4f
0
183
103
59
Praseodymium
Pr
4f
36s
2
4f
3
4f
2
4f
1
182
101
60
Neodymium
Nd
4f
46s
2
4f
4
4f
3
4f
2
181
99
61
Promethium
Pm
4f
56s
2
4f
5
4f
4
181
98
62
Samarium
Sm
4f
66s
2
4f
6
4f
5
180
96
63
Europium
Eu
4f
76s
2
4f
7
4f
6
199
95
64
Gadolinium
Gd
4f
75d
16s
2
4f
75d
1
4f
7
180
94
65
Terbium
Tb
4f
96s
2
4f
9
4f
8
4f
7
178
92
66
Dysprosium
Dy
4f
106s
2
4f
10
4f
9
4f
8
177
91
67
Holmium
Ho
4f
116s
2
4f
11
4f
10
176
89
68
Erbium
Er
4f
126s
2
4f
12
4f
11
175
88
69
Thulium
Tm
4f
136s
2
4f
13
4f
12
174
87
70
Ytterbium
Yb
4f
146s
2
4f
14
4f
13
173
86
71
Lutetium
Lu
4f
145d
16s
2
4f
145d
1
4f
14
–
–
–
Table 4 |
1 | 4260-4263 | 3 Oxidation
States
Fig 4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
110
Chemistry
Electronic configurations*
Radii/pm
Atomic
Name
Symbol
Ln
Ln
2+
Ln
3+
Ln
4+
Ln
Ln
3+
Number
57
Lanthanum
La
5d
16s
2
5d
1
4f
0
187
106
58
Cerium
Ce
4f
15d
16s
2
4f
2
4f
1
4f
0
183
103
59
Praseodymium
Pr
4f
36s
2
4f
3
4f
2
4f
1
182
101
60
Neodymium
Nd
4f
46s
2
4f
4
4f
3
4f
2
181
99
61
Promethium
Pm
4f
56s
2
4f
5
4f
4
181
98
62
Samarium
Sm
4f
66s
2
4f
6
4f
5
180
96
63
Europium
Eu
4f
76s
2
4f
7
4f
6
199
95
64
Gadolinium
Gd
4f
75d
16s
2
4f
75d
1
4f
7
180
94
65
Terbium
Tb
4f
96s
2
4f
9
4f
8
4f
7
178
92
66
Dysprosium
Dy
4f
106s
2
4f
10
4f
9
4f
8
177
91
67
Holmium
Ho
4f
116s
2
4f
11
4f
10
176
89
68
Erbium
Er
4f
126s
2
4f
12
4f
11
175
88
69
Thulium
Tm
4f
136s
2
4f
13
4f
12
174
87
70
Ytterbium
Yb
4f
146s
2
4f
14
4f
13
173
86
71
Lutetium
Lu
4f
145d
16s
2
4f
145d
1
4f
14
–
–
–
Table 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids
* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated
All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air |
1 | 4261-4264 | 4 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
110
Chemistry
Electronic configurations*
Radii/pm
Atomic
Name
Symbol
Ln
Ln
2+
Ln
3+
Ln
4+
Ln
Ln
3+
Number
57
Lanthanum
La
5d
16s
2
5d
1
4f
0
187
106
58
Cerium
Ce
4f
15d
16s
2
4f
2
4f
1
4f
0
183
103
59
Praseodymium
Pr
4f
36s
2
4f
3
4f
2
4f
1
182
101
60
Neodymium
Nd
4f
46s
2
4f
4
4f
3
4f
2
181
99
61
Promethium
Pm
4f
56s
2
4f
5
4f
4
181
98
62
Samarium
Sm
4f
66s
2
4f
6
4f
5
180
96
63
Europium
Eu
4f
76s
2
4f
7
4f
6
199
95
64
Gadolinium
Gd
4f
75d
16s
2
4f
75d
1
4f
7
180
94
65
Terbium
Tb
4f
96s
2
4f
9
4f
8
4f
7
178
92
66
Dysprosium
Dy
4f
106s
2
4f
10
4f
9
4f
8
177
91
67
Holmium
Ho
4f
116s
2
4f
11
4f
10
176
89
68
Erbium
Er
4f
126s
2
4f
12
4f
11
175
88
69
Thulium
Tm
4f
136s
2
4f
13
4f
12
174
87
70
Ytterbium
Yb
4f
146s
2
4f
14
4f
13
173
86
71
Lutetium
Lu
4f
145d
16s
2
4f
145d
1
4f
14
–
–
–
Table 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids
* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated
All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being
steel hard |
1 | 4262-4265 | 6: Trends in ionic radii of lanthanoids
Rationalised 2023-24
110
Chemistry
Electronic configurations*
Radii/pm
Atomic
Name
Symbol
Ln
Ln
2+
Ln
3+
Ln
4+
Ln
Ln
3+
Number
57
Lanthanum
La
5d
16s
2
5d
1
4f
0
187
106
58
Cerium
Ce
4f
15d
16s
2
4f
2
4f
1
4f
0
183
103
59
Praseodymium
Pr
4f
36s
2
4f
3
4f
2
4f
1
182
101
60
Neodymium
Nd
4f
46s
2
4f
4
4f
3
4f
2
181
99
61
Promethium
Pm
4f
56s
2
4f
5
4f
4
181
98
62
Samarium
Sm
4f
66s
2
4f
6
4f
5
180
96
63
Europium
Eu
4f
76s
2
4f
7
4f
6
199
95
64
Gadolinium
Gd
4f
75d
16s
2
4f
75d
1
4f
7
180
94
65
Terbium
Tb
4f
96s
2
4f
9
4f
8
4f
7
178
92
66
Dysprosium
Dy
4f
106s
2
4f
10
4f
9
4f
8
177
91
67
Holmium
Ho
4f
116s
2
4f
11
4f
10
176
89
68
Erbium
Er
4f
126s
2
4f
12
4f
11
175
88
69
Thulium
Tm
4f
136s
2
4f
13
4f
12
174
87
70
Ytterbium
Yb
4f
146s
2
4f
14
4f
13
173
86
71
Lutetium
Lu
4f
145d
16s
2
4f
145d
1
4f
14
–
–
–
Table 4 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids
* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated
All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being
steel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but
samarium melts at 1623 K |
1 | 4263-4266 | 9: Electronic Configurations and Radii of Lanthanum and Lanthanoids
* Only electrons outside [Xe] core are indicated
All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being
steel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but
samarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are
good conductors of heat and electricity |
1 | 4264-4267 | The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, samarium being
steel hard Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but
samarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are
good conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties
change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm |
1 | 4265-4268 | Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but
samarium melts at 1623 K They have typical metallic structure and are
good conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties
change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state
and in aqueous solutions |
1 | 4266-4269 | They have typical metallic structure and are
good conductors of heat and electricity Density and other properties
change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state
and in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to
the presence of f electrons |
1 | 4267-4270 | Density and other properties
change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state
and in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to
the presence of f electrons Neither La
3+ nor Lu
3+ ion shows any colour
but the rest do so |
1 | 4268-4271 | Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state
and in aqueous solutions Colour of these ions may be attributed to
the presence of f electrons Neither La
3+ nor Lu
3+ ion shows any colour
but the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably
because of the excitation within f level |
1 | 4269-4272 | Colour of these ions may be attributed to
the presence of f electrons Neither La
3+ nor Lu
3+ ion shows any colour
but the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably
because of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other
than the f
0 type (La
3+ and Ce
4+) and the f
14 type (Yb
2+ and Lu
3+) are
all paramagnetic |
1 | 4270-4273 | Neither La
3+ nor Lu
3+ ion shows any colour
but the rest do so However, absorption bands are narrow, probably
because of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other
than the f
0 type (La
3+ and Ce
4+) and the f
14 type (Yb
2+ and Lu
3+) are
all paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around
600 kJ mol
–1, the second about 1200 kJ mol
–1 comparable with those
of calcium |
1 | 4271-4274 | However, absorption bands are narrow, probably
because of the excitation within f level The lanthanoid ions other
than the f
0 type (La
3+ and Ce
4+) and the f
14 type (Yb
2+ and Lu
3+) are
all paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around
600 kJ mol
–1, the second about 1200 kJ mol
–1 comparable with those
of calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation
enthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in
3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain
degree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals
f level |
1 | 4272-4275 | The lanthanoid ions other
than the f
0 type (La
3+ and Ce
4+) and the f
14 type (Yb
2+ and Lu
3+) are
all paramagnetic The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around
600 kJ mol
–1, the second about 1200 kJ mol
–1 comparable with those
of calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation
enthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in
3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain
degree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals
f level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third
ionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium |
1 | 4273-4276 | The first ionisation enthalpies of the lanthanoids are around
600 kJ mol
–1, the second about 1200 kJ mol
–1 comparable with those
of calcium A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation
enthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in
3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain
degree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals
f level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third
ionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series
are quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,
they behave more like aluminium |
1 | 4274-4277 | A detailed discussion of the variation of the third ionisation
enthalpies indicates that the exchange enthalpy considerations (as in
3d orbitals of the first transition series), appear to impart a certain
degree of stability to empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals
f level This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third
ionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series
are quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,
they behave more like aluminium Values for E
o for the half-reaction:
Ln
3+(aq) + 3e
– ® Ln(s)
4 |
1 | 4275-4278 | This is indicated from the abnormally low value of the third
ionisation enthalpy of lanthanum, gadolinium and lutetium In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series
are quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,
they behave more like aluminium Values for E
o for the half-reaction:
Ln
3+(aq) + 3e
– ® Ln(s)
4 5 |
1 | 4276-4279 | In their chemical behaviour, in general, the earlier members of the series
are quite reactive similar to calcium but, with increasing atomic number,
they behave more like aluminium Values for E
o for the half-reaction:
Ln
3+(aq) + 3e
– ® Ln(s)
4 5 4 General
Characteristics
Rationalised 2023-24
111
The d- and f- Block Elements
LnC2
with C
2773 K
N
Ln
heated with N
with H O
2
Ln O
2
3
H2
with acids
burns in O2
heated with S
with halogens
LnX 3
Ln(OH)3 + H2
Ln S
2
3
Ln
4 |
1 | 4277-4280 | Values for E
o for the half-reaction:
Ln
3+(aq) + 3e
– ® Ln(s)
4 5 4 General
Characteristics
Rationalised 2023-24
111
The d- and f- Block Elements
LnC2
with C
2773 K
N
Ln
heated with N
with H O
2
Ln O
2
3
H2
with acids
burns in O2
heated with S
with halogens
LnX 3
Ln(OH)3 + H2
Ln S
2
3
Ln
4 6
4 |
1 | 4278-4281 | 5 4 General
Characteristics
Rationalised 2023-24
111
The d- and f- Block Elements
LnC2
with C
2773 K
N
Ln
heated with N
with H O
2
Ln O
2
3
H2
with acids
burns in O2
heated with S
with halogens
LnX 3
Ln(OH)3 + H2
Ln S
2
3
Ln
4 6
4 6
4 |
1 | 4279-4282 | 4 General
Characteristics
Rationalised 2023-24
111
The d- and f- Block Elements
LnC2
with C
2773 K
N
Ln
heated with N
with H O
2
Ln O
2
3
H2
with acids
burns in O2
heated with S
with halogens
LnX 3
Ln(OH)3 + H2
Ln S
2
3
Ln
4 6
4 6
4 6
4 |
1 | 4280-4283 | 6
4 6
4 6
4 6
4 |
1 | 4281-4284 | 6
4 6
4 6
4 6 The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
are in the range of –2 |
1 | 4282-4285 | 6
4 6
4 6 The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
are in the range of –2 2 to –2 |
1 | 4283-4286 | 6
4 6 The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
are in the range of –2 2 to –2 4 V
except for Eu for which the value is
– 2 |
1 | 4284-4287 | 6 The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
The Actinoids
are in the range of –2 2 to –2 4 V
except for Eu for which the value is
– 2 0 V |
1 | 4285-4288 | 2 to –2 4 V
except for Eu for which the value is
– 2 0 V This is, of course, a small
variation |
1 | 4286-4289 | 4 V
except for Eu for which the value is
– 2 0 V This is, of course, a small
variation The metals combine with
hydrogen when gently heated in the
gas |
1 | 4287-4290 | 0 V This is, of course, a small
variation The metals combine with
hydrogen when gently heated in the
gas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2
are formed when the metals are heated
with carbon |
1 | 4288-4291 | This is, of course, a small
variation The metals combine with
hydrogen when gently heated in the
gas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2
are formed when the metals are heated
with carbon They liberate hydrogen
from dilute acids and burn in halogens
to form halides |
1 | 4289-4292 | The metals combine with
hydrogen when gently heated in the
gas The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2
are formed when the metals are heated
with carbon They liberate hydrogen
from dilute acids and burn in halogens
to form halides They form oxides M2O3
and
hydroxides
M(OH)3 |
1 | 4290-4293 | The carbides, Ln3C, Ln2C3 and LnC2
are formed when the metals are heated
with carbon They liberate hydrogen
from dilute acids and burn in halogens
to form halides They form oxides M2O3
and
hydroxides
M(OH)3 The
hydroxides are definite compounds, not
just hydrated oxides |
1 | 4291-4294 | They liberate hydrogen
from dilute acids and burn in halogens
to form halides They form oxides M2O3
and
hydroxides
M(OH)3 The
hydroxides are definite compounds, not
just hydrated oxides They are basic
like alkaline earth metal oxides and
hydroxides |
1 | 4292-4295 | They form oxides M2O3
and
hydroxides
M(OH)3 The
hydroxides are definite compounds, not
just hydrated oxides They are basic
like alkaline earth metal oxides and
hydroxides Their general reactions are
depicted in Fig |
1 | 4293-4296 | The
hydroxides are definite compounds, not
just hydrated oxides They are basic
like alkaline earth metal oxides and
hydroxides Their general reactions are
depicted in Fig 4 |
1 | 4294-4297 | They are basic
like alkaline earth metal oxides and
hydroxides Their general reactions are
depicted in Fig 4 7 |
1 | 4295-4298 | Their general reactions are
depicted in Fig 4 7 The best single use of the
lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes |
1 | 4296-4299 | 4 7 The best single use of the
lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A
well known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al |
1 | 4297-4300 | 7 The best single use of the
lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A
well known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint |
1 | 4298-4301 | The best single use of the
lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes A
well known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in
petroleum cracking |
1 | 4299-4302 | A
well known alloy is mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in
petroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors
in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces |
1 | 4300-4303 | A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in
petroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors
in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr |
1 | 4301-4304 | Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in
petroleum cracking Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors
in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,
symbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 |
1 | 4302-4305 | Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors
in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,
symbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10 |
1 | 4303-4306 | The actinoids include the fourteen elements from Th to Lr The names,
symbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10 Table 4 |
1 | 4304-4307 | The names,
symbols and some properties of these elements are given in Table 4 10 Table 4 10: Some Properties of Actinium and Actinoids
Electronic conifigurations*
Radii/pm
Atomic
Name
Symbol
M
M
3+
M
4+
M
3+
M
4+
Number
89
Actinium
Ac
6d
17s
2
5f
0
111
90
Thorium
Th
6d
27s
2
5f
1
5f
0
99
91
Protactinium
Pa
5f
26d
17s
2
5f
2
5f
1
96
92
Uranium
U
5f
36d
17s
2
5f
3
5f
2
103
93
93
Neptunium
Np
5f
46d
17s
2
5f
4
5f
3
101
92
94
Plutonium
Pu
5f
67s
2
5f
5
5f
4
100
90
95
Americium
Am
5f
77s
2
5f
6
5f
5
99
89
96
Curium
Cm
5f
76d
17s
2
5f
7
5f
6
99
88
97
Berkelium
Bk
5f
97s
2
5f
8
5f
7
98
87
98
Californium
Cf
5f
107s
2
5f
9
5f
8
98
86
99
Einstenium
Es
5f
117s
2
5f
10
5f
9
–
–
100
Fermium
Fm
5f
127s
2
5f
11
5f
10
–
–
101
Mendelevium
Md
5f
137s
2
5f
12
5f
11
–
–
102
Nobelium
No
5f
147s
2
5f
13
5f
12
–
–
103
Lawrencium
Lr
5f
146d
17s
2
5f
14
5f
13
–
–
Fig 4 |
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