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time ▁advoc ate ▁of ▁child care ▁and ▁previously ▁worked ▁on ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁day car es ▁in ▁Cob ourg . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Rud d ▁was ▁among ▁six ▁award ▁recip ients ▁of ▁the ▁R BC ▁Canadian ▁Women ▁Entre pr ene ur ▁Award . ▁Cont ribution s ▁to ▁econom ies ▁locally , ▁nation ally , ▁and ▁glob ally ▁were ▁among ▁the ▁criteria ▁for ▁winning ▁the ▁award . ▁ ▁Elect oral ▁record ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : L iber al ▁Party ▁of ▁Canada ▁MP s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁from ▁Ontario ▁Category : W omen ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Canadian ▁polit icians ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Canadian ▁women ▁polit icians ▁Category : 1 9 5 7 ▁birth s <0x0A> </s> ▁Cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁ 2 A 1 3 ▁is ▁a ▁protein ▁that ▁in ▁humans ▁is ▁encoded ▁by ▁the ▁C Y P 2 A 1 3 ▁gene . ▁ ▁This ▁gene ▁enc odes ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁super family ▁of ▁en zym es . ▁The ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁prote ins ▁are ▁mon o ox y gen ases ▁which ▁catal y ze ▁many ▁re actions ▁involved ▁in ▁drug ▁met abol ism ▁and ▁synth esis ▁of ▁ch ol ester ol , ▁ster oid s ▁and ▁other ▁lip ids . ▁This ▁protein ▁local
izes ▁to ▁the ▁end op las mic ▁ret icul um . ▁Although ▁its ▁end ogen ous ▁substr ate ▁has ▁not ▁been ▁determined , ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁to ▁met abol ize ▁ 4 -( m eth yl nit ros am ino )- 1 -( 3 - py rid yl )- 1 - but an one , ▁a ▁major ▁nit ros am ine ▁specific ▁to ▁to b acco . ▁This ▁gene ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁cluster ▁of ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁gen es ▁from ▁the ▁C Y P 2 A , ▁C Y P 2 B ▁and ▁C Y P 2 F ▁sub famil ies ▁on ▁chrom os ome ▁ 1 9 q . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Further ▁reading <0x0A> </s> ▁D ense ish a ▁( 電 <0xE7> <0x9B> <0x9B> 社 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Japanese ▁information ▁technology ▁Kab ush iki ▁ga ish a ▁founded ▁by ▁Tak ashi ▁M iz awa ▁( 三 <0xE6> <0xBE> <0xA4> ▁ 隆 ) ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 2 0 . ▁Currently , ▁the ▁corpor ation ▁head qu arter ed ▁in ▁K um am oto ▁emp lo ys ▁ 2 7 1 ▁workers ▁at ▁the ▁seven ▁main ▁offices ▁ ▁the ▁headquarters , ▁IT ▁and ▁E T ▁administration ▁in ▁K um am oto , ▁ ▁the ▁system ▁engineering ▁technology ▁center ▁in ▁K um am oto , ▁ ▁a ▁branch ▁office ▁in ▁Fu ku oka , ▁ ▁the ▁" sol ution ▁center " ▁in ▁Fu ku oka , ▁ ▁the ▁" mobile ▁engineering ▁office "
▁in ▁Fu ku oka ▁and ▁ ▁a ▁sales ▁office ▁in ▁U ras oe . ▁ ▁The ▁service ▁field ▁compr ises ▁the ▁development ▁and ▁installation ▁of ▁enter prise ▁and ▁hospital ▁network ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁electric , ▁IT ▁and ▁personnel ▁communication ▁facilities . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Te chn ology ▁companies ▁of ▁Japan ▁Category : Te chn ology ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Category : 1 9 2 0 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Japan <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ang lon ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁ 5 4 3 ▁AD , ▁during ▁the ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁of ▁S as an ian - ru led ▁Armen ia ▁(" Pers ar men ia ") ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁phase ▁of ▁the ▁Laz ic ▁War . ▁ ▁After ▁receiving ▁information ▁about ▁a ▁re bell ion ▁in ▁Pers ia ▁and ▁an ▁ep ide mic ▁in ▁the ▁main ▁Pers ian ▁army , ▁the ▁By z antine ▁arm ies ▁in ▁the ▁East ▁under ▁the ▁orders ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Justin ian ▁I ▁initi ated ▁a ▁hast y ▁invasion ▁of ▁Pers ar men ia . ▁The ▁out number ed ▁Pers ian ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁successfully ▁performed ▁a ▁met icul ous ▁amb ush ▁at ▁Ang lon , ▁decis ively ▁ending ▁the ▁By z antine ▁campaign . ▁ ▁Background ▁The ▁S as an ian ▁r uler ▁Kh os row ▁I ▁began ▁an ▁invasion ▁of ▁Comm ag ene ▁in ▁ 5 4 2 , ▁but ▁retre ated ▁to ▁Ad urb ad agan ▁and ▁halt ed ▁at ▁Ad h ur ▁G ush
n asp , ▁int ending ▁to ▁begin ▁a ▁campaign ▁against ▁By z antine ▁Armen ia . ▁The ▁By z ant ines ▁approached ▁Kh os row ▁I ▁to ▁begin ▁negoti ations , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁this ▁they ▁received ▁information ▁about ▁the ▁ep ide mic ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁Pl ague ▁of ▁Justin ian ▁in ▁Kh os row ▁I ' s ▁force ▁and ▁a ▁re bell ion ▁in ▁Pers ia ▁by ▁the ▁prince ▁An osh az ad . ▁See ing ▁this ▁as ▁an ▁opportunity , ▁Emperor ▁Justin ian ▁I ▁commanded ▁all ▁By z antine ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁east ▁to ▁initi ate ▁an ▁invasion ▁of ▁Pers ar men ia . ▁ ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁Martin ▁was ▁the ▁newly - app oint ed ▁mag ister ▁milit um ▁per ▁Orient em ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁but ▁according ▁to ▁primary ▁sources ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁much ▁authority ▁over ▁other ▁gener als . ▁The ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁force , ▁which ▁number ed ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁total , ▁was ▁initially ▁scattered : ▁ ▁Martin ▁and ▁his ▁forces , ▁station ed ▁in ▁C ith ar iz um ▁with ▁Il de ger ▁and ▁The oct ist us ▁ ▁Peter ▁and ▁Ad ol ius ▁and ▁their ▁forces ▁ ▁Val er ian , ▁the ▁mag ister ▁milit um ▁per ▁Armen iam , ▁station ed ▁near ▁The od osi opol is ; ▁joined ▁by ▁N ars es ▁( a ▁Pers ar men ian ) ▁and ▁his ▁regiment ▁of ▁Her ules ▁( under ▁Ph ile mouth ▁and ▁Ber
os ) ▁and ▁Armen ians ▁These ▁forces ▁un ited ▁only ▁after ▁crossing ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁border , ▁in ▁the ▁plain ▁of ▁D vin . ▁Just us , ▁Per an ius , ▁Dom n enti ol us , ▁John , ▁son ▁of ▁Nic et as , ▁and ▁John ▁the ▁Gl utton ▁stayed ▁at ▁Ph ison , ▁near ▁Mart y ropol is , ▁performing ▁minor ▁inc urs ions ▁into ▁Pers ia . ▁ ▁S as an ian ▁forces ▁in ▁Pers ar men ia ▁number ed ▁ 4 , 0 0 0 ▁and ▁were ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁N ab edes . ▁They ▁concentr ated ▁themselves ▁at ▁the ▁mountain ous ▁village ▁of ▁Ang lon ▁( pro bably ▁identical ▁to ▁An kes , ▁D s akh god n ▁C anton , ▁A yr ar at ▁Province , ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Armen ia ) ▁which ▁featured ▁a ▁for tr ess ▁and ▁was ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁D vin ▁plain . ▁They ▁prepared ▁a ▁def ensive ▁position ▁for ▁an ▁elaborate ▁amb ush ▁by ▁blocking ▁the ▁ent ran ces ▁to ▁the ▁village , ▁dig ging ▁tren ches , ▁and ▁setting ▁up ▁amb ush es ▁in ▁the ▁houses ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁outside ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁while ▁mar sh alling ▁the ▁army ▁below . ▁According ▁to ▁Pro cop ius , ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als ▁lack ed ▁a ▁proper ▁union ▁among ▁themselves . ▁The ▁By z antine ▁forces ▁proceeded ▁into ▁the ▁rough ▁terrain ▁of ▁Ang lon , ▁and ▁hast ily ▁formed ▁a ▁single - line ▁formation ▁after ▁the ▁command ers ▁were
▁informed ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁presence , ▁with ▁Martin ▁forming ▁the ▁center , ▁Peter ▁forming ▁the ▁right , ▁and ▁Val er ian ▁( pro bably ▁joined ▁by ▁N ars es ) ▁forming ▁the ▁left . ▁N ars es ▁and ▁his ▁regular s ▁and ▁Her ules ▁were ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁eng age . ▁Appar ently , ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁army ▁was ▁defeated , ▁and ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁caval ry ▁fe igned ▁retre at ▁toward ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁and ▁their ▁flight ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁Her ules ▁and ▁others ▁as ▁k ours ores . ▁The ▁Pers ians , ▁including ▁their ▁arch ers , ▁then ▁launched ▁their ▁amb ush ▁from ▁the ▁buildings ▁outside ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁easily ▁routing ▁the ▁light ly - arm ored ▁Her ules , ▁while ▁their ▁commander ▁N ars es ▁was ▁mort ally ▁hit ▁in ▁the ▁temple ▁in ▁close ▁combat . ▁A ▁general ▁Pers ian ▁counter - att ack ▁then ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁routing ▁of ▁the ▁By z ant ines . ▁The ▁Pers ians ▁did ▁not ▁purs ue ▁them ▁beyond ▁the ▁rough ▁terrain ▁out ▁of ▁fear ▁of ▁an ▁amb ush . ▁Ad ol ius ▁was ▁among ▁those ▁killed ▁in ▁the ▁retre at . ▁ ▁Analysis ▁The ▁only ▁source ▁describing ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁the ▁By z antine ▁historian ▁Pro cop ius , ▁whose ▁account ▁is ▁especially ▁critical ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁army ' s ▁performance ▁in ▁the ▁campaign . ▁However , ▁modern ▁sources ▁have ▁disput ed ▁his ▁assess ments . ▁ ▁The ▁force ▁in ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁considered
▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁" ina de qu acy " ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁rec ru ited ▁soldiers . ▁O thers ▁note ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁coord ination ▁between ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als . ▁According ▁to ▁J . ▁B . ▁B ury , ▁Pro cop ius ▁( who ▁was ▁a ▁companion ▁of ▁General ▁Bel is arius ) ▁has ▁ex agger ated ▁the ▁in comp et ence ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als ▁in ▁the ▁battle ▁and ▁the ▁sever ity ▁of ▁their ▁defeat . ▁Peters en ▁also ▁considered ▁aspects ▁of ▁Pro cop ius ' ▁description ▁of ▁the ▁battle — including ▁alleg ed ▁poor ▁organization ▁and ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁force , ▁and ▁By z antine ▁soldiers ▁march ing ▁in ▁dis array ▁and ▁" m ixed ▁in ▁with ▁the ▁b agg age ▁terrain " — to ▁be ▁a ▁dist orted ▁description ▁of ▁what ▁were ▁actually ▁intent ional ▁strateg ies ▁and ▁tact ics . ▁O thers ▁have ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁met icul ous ▁amb ush ▁by ▁the ▁def enders , ▁describing ▁it ▁as ▁" h ero ic ". ▁ ▁Ang lon ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁less ▁common ▁form ▁of ▁def ensive ▁fort ification ▁in ▁which ▁settlement s ▁are ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁def ensive ▁structures ; ▁this ▁is ▁sometimes ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁C au cas us , ▁another ▁example ▁is ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁sie ge ▁of ▁T z acher / S ider oun ▁in ▁ 5 5 7 . ▁ ▁The ▁outcome ▁of ▁the ▁battle ▁gave ▁the ▁Pers ians ▁the ▁momentum ▁in ▁the ▁Laz ic
▁War . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : L az ic ▁War ▁Category : S as an ian ▁Armen ia ▁Category : 5 4 0 s ▁conflicts ▁Category : 6 th ▁century ▁in ▁Armen ia ▁Category : In vas ions ▁of ▁Armen ia ▁Category : 5 4 3 ▁Ang lon ▁Category : Am b ush es ▁Category : 6 th ▁century ▁in ▁Iran ▁Category : 5 4 0 s ▁in ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Gust ▁La it uri ▁Hom est ead , ▁in ▁Valley ▁County , ▁Id aho ▁near ▁Lake ▁F ork , ▁Id aho , ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁built ▁by ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁by ▁Gust ▁La it uri , ▁who ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 6 . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁Finn ish ▁Log ▁Str ucture ▁in ▁Long ▁Valley , ▁Id aho . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁in ▁plan . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁about ▁ ▁n ortheast ▁of ▁Lake f ork , ▁Id aho ▁off ▁Pear son ▁Road . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Valley ▁County , ▁Id aho ▁Category : Build ings ▁and ▁structures ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 5 <0x0A> </s> ▁Hel io che ilus ▁fer vens ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁moth ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁No ctu idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁China , ▁Japan , ▁the ▁Korean ▁Pen ins ula , ▁northern ▁India , ▁Pakistan ▁and ▁the
▁Russian ▁Far ▁East ▁( Prim ory e , ▁southern ▁K hab ar ov sk ▁and ▁the ▁southern ▁Am ur ▁region ) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Korean ▁insect s ▁ ▁Category : Hel io che ilus ▁Category : M oth s ▁of ▁Asia <0x0A> </s> ▁Spring water ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁these ▁places : ▁▁ ▁Spring water , ▁New ▁York , ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Ontario , ▁Canada ▁Spring water ▁( Bar rie ▁Air park ) ▁Aer od rome , ▁located ▁near ▁Spring water , ▁Ontario , ▁Canada ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Oregon , ▁United ▁States ▁Spring water ▁Cor rid or , ▁a ▁b icy cle ▁and ▁ped est rian ▁trail ▁named ▁for ▁Spring water , ▁Oregon , ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Wisconsin , ▁United ▁States ▁Other ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁a ▁pseud onym ▁for ▁the ▁music ian ▁Phil ▁Cord ell <0x0A> </s> ▁AD ▁( B ud ) ▁Craig , ▁Jr . ▁( born ▁August ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 1 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁ne uro an atom ist ▁and ▁neu ros cient ist . ▁ ▁Career ▁Craig ▁attended ▁Michigan ▁State ▁University ▁from ▁which ▁he ▁earned ▁the ▁Bach elor ▁of ▁Science ▁degree ▁in ▁Mathemat ics ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 7 3 . ▁He ▁completed ▁his ▁doctor ate ▁degree ▁at ▁Corn ell ▁University , ▁I th aca , ▁NY ▁in ▁ne uro phys i ology , ▁ne uro an atom y , ▁and ▁elect rical ▁engineering ▁and ▁received ▁a ▁Ph . D . ▁in ▁January
▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁He ▁worked ▁with ▁Daniel ▁N . ▁T apper , ▁Ph . D . ▁on ▁electro phys i ology ▁of ▁som atos ens ory ▁processing ▁in ▁the ▁sp inal ▁cord . ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁his ▁th esis ▁was ▁" An atomic ▁and ▁Elect ro phys i olog ic ▁Studies ▁on ▁the ▁Later al ▁C erv ical ▁N uc le us ▁in ▁Cat ▁and ▁Dog ". ▁ ▁Research ▁Following ▁gradu ate ▁school , ▁Craig ▁spent ▁two ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology ▁& ▁Bi oph ys ics , ▁Washington ▁University ▁School ▁of ▁Medicine ▁in ▁St . ▁Louis , ▁MO ▁as ▁a ▁post - do ctor al ▁fellow ▁and ▁one ▁year ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁An atom y ▁& ▁Ne uro bi ology ▁as ▁Research ▁Associ ate . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁Germany ▁to ▁become ▁" W issenschaft licher ▁Ass istent " ▁( Res earch ▁Associ ate ) ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁K iel ▁and ▁then ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁Akadem ischer ▁Rat ▁auf ▁Zeit ▁( Res earch ▁Ass istant ▁Professor ) ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Wür zburg ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁Craig ▁joined ▁Bar row ▁Ne uro log ical ▁Institute ▁( B NI ) ▁to ▁direct ▁the ▁At kin son ▁P ain ▁Research ▁Labor atory ▁ ▁Rec ogn ition ▁Craig ▁is ▁a ▁recip ient ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Mer it ▁Sch olar ship
▁Award ▁( 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 7 3 ). ▁He ▁was ▁awarded ▁with ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Medicine ▁( MD ), ▁honor is ▁causa , ▁from ▁Link ö ping ▁University ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁He ▁received ▁the ▁Kenneth ▁Cra ik ▁Award ▁in ▁Ex perimental ▁Psych ology ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Craig ▁received ▁the ▁Freder ic ▁W . L . ▁K err ▁Award ▁from ▁the ▁American ▁P ain ▁Society ▁and ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁foreign ▁member ▁of ▁Royal ▁Society ▁of ▁Sciences ▁and ▁Let ters ▁in ▁Goth enburg . ▁ ▁Craig ▁holds ▁appoint ments ▁as ▁Research ▁Professor ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Cell ▁Bi ology ▁and ▁An atom y ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Arizona ▁College ▁of ▁Medicine ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Psych ology ▁at ▁Arizona ▁State ▁University . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : American ▁neu ros cient ists ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : C orn ell ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : 1 9 5 1 ▁birth s <0x0A> </s> ▁Can th on ▁ch al c ites ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁( former ly ▁can th on ini ) ▁in ▁the ▁be et le ▁family ▁Sc arab ae idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁North ▁America . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Del to ch il ini ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Be et les ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 4 3 <0x0A> </s>
▁The ▁Pal lava ▁dynast y ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁dynast y ▁that ▁existed ▁from ▁ 2 7 5 ▁CE ▁to ▁ 8 9 7 ▁CE , ▁r uling ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁southern ▁India . ▁They ▁gained ▁prom in ence ▁after ▁the ▁eclipse ▁of ▁the ▁Sat av ah ana ▁dynast y , ▁whom ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁served ▁as ▁fe ud ator ies . ▁ ▁Pal lav as ▁became ▁a ▁major ▁power ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ▁CE ) ▁and ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ▁CE ) ▁and ▁domin ated ▁the ▁Tel ug u ▁and ▁northern ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁T amil ▁region ▁for ▁about ▁ 6 0 0 ▁years ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century . ▁Through out ▁their ▁reign ▁they ▁were ▁in ▁constant ▁conflict ▁with ▁both ▁Chal uky as ▁of ▁Bad ami ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁and ▁the ▁T amil ▁kingdom s ▁of ▁Ch ola ▁and ▁P andy as ▁in ▁the ▁south . ▁Pal lava ▁was ▁finally ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁Ch ola ▁r uler ▁Ad ity a ▁I ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century ▁CE . ▁ ▁Pal lav as ▁are ▁most ▁noted ▁for ▁their ▁patron age ▁of ▁architecture , ▁the ▁fin est ▁example ▁being ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple , ▁a ▁UN ES CO ▁World ▁Heritage ▁Site ▁in ▁Mam al lap ur am . ▁The ▁Pal lav as , ▁who ▁left ▁behind ▁magnific ent ▁sculpt ures ▁and ▁tem ples ,
▁established ▁the ▁found ations ▁of ▁medieval ▁South ▁Indian ▁architecture . ▁They ▁developed ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁from ▁which ▁Gran tha ▁ultimately ▁desc ended . ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁gave ▁rise ▁to ▁several ▁other ▁sout heast ▁Asian ▁scripts . ▁Chinese ▁trav eller ▁X u anz ang ▁visited ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁during ▁Pal lava ▁rule ▁and ▁ext ol led ▁their ▁ben ign ▁rule . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁Pal lava ▁means ▁a ▁cre eper ▁or ▁branch ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁They ▁were ▁also ▁called ▁T ond ai yar ▁after ▁the ▁word ▁T ond ai , ▁meaning ▁cre eper ▁in ▁T amil . ▁ ▁Orig ins ▁ ▁The ▁orig ins ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁have ▁been ▁deb ated ▁by ▁sch ol ars . ▁. The ▁available ▁historical ▁materials ▁include ▁three ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants ▁of ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁CE , ▁all ▁issued ▁from ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁but ▁found ▁in ▁various ▁parts ▁of ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh , ▁and ▁another ▁ins cription ▁of ▁Sim hav ar man ▁half ▁century ▁earlier ▁in ▁the ▁Pal an adu ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁western ▁G unt ur ▁district . ▁All ▁the ▁early ▁documents ▁are ▁in ▁P rak rit , ▁and ▁sch ol ars ▁find ▁similar ities ▁in ▁pale ography ▁and ▁language ▁with ▁the ▁Sat av ah anas ▁and ▁the ▁Ma ury as . ▁Their ▁early ▁co ins ▁are ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁similar ▁to ▁those ▁of ▁Sat
av ah anas . ▁Two ▁main ▁theories ▁of ▁the ▁orig ins ▁have ▁emer ged ▁from ▁this ▁data : ▁one ▁that ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁former ▁subs idi aries ▁of ▁Sat av ah anas ▁in ▁the ▁And hr ades a ▁( the ▁region ▁north ▁of ▁Pen na ▁River ▁in ▁modern ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ) ▁and ▁later ▁expanded ▁south ▁up ▁to ▁Kan chi , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁that ▁they ▁initially ▁rose ▁to ▁power ▁in ▁Kan chi ▁and ▁expanded ▁north ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁river . ▁ ▁The ▁pro ponents ▁of ▁the ▁And h ra ▁origin ▁theory ▁include ▁S . ▁Kr ish nas w ami ▁A iy ang ar ▁and ▁K . ▁A . ▁Nil ak anta ▁S ast ri . ▁They ▁believe ▁that ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁originally ▁fe ud ator ies ▁of ▁the ▁Sat av ah anas ▁in ▁the ▁south - e astern ▁part ▁of ▁their ▁emp ire ▁who ▁became ▁independent ▁when ▁the ▁Sat av ah ana ▁power ▁decl ined . ▁They ▁are ▁seen ▁to ▁be ▁" str angers ▁to ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ", ▁un related ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁lines ▁of ▁Ch eras , ▁P andy as ▁and ▁Ch olas . ▁Since ▁Sim hav ar man ' s ▁grant ▁be ars ▁no ▁reg al ▁titles , ▁they ▁believe ▁that ▁he ▁might ▁have ▁been ▁a ▁subs idi ary ▁to ▁the ▁And h ra ▁I k sh v ak us ▁who ▁were ▁in ▁power ▁in ▁And hr ades a ▁at ▁that ▁time . ▁In ▁the ▁following ▁half - century ,
▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁became ▁independent ▁and ▁expanded ▁up ▁to ▁Kan chi . ▁ ▁Another ▁theory ▁is ▁prop ounded ▁by ▁histor ians ▁R . ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁and ▁D . ▁C . ▁S irc ar , ▁with ▁end ors ements ▁by ▁Hermann ▁K ul ke , ▁Diet mar ▁Roth erm und ▁and ▁Bur ton ▁Stein . ▁S irc ar ▁points ▁out ▁that ▁the ▁family ▁leg ends ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁speak ▁of ▁an ▁ancest or ▁desc ending ▁from ▁Ash w at th ama , ▁the ▁legend ary ▁Bra h min ▁war rior ▁of ▁Mah ab har ata , ▁and ▁his ▁union ▁with ▁a ▁N aga ▁prin cess . ▁According ▁P to le my , ▁the ▁A ru van adu ▁region ▁between ▁the ▁northern ▁and ▁southern ▁Pen ner ▁rivers ▁( P en na ▁and ▁P onna i yar ) ▁was ▁ruled ▁by ▁a ▁king ▁Bas aron aga ▁around ▁ 1 4 0 ▁CE . ▁By ▁marry ing ▁into ▁this ▁N aga ▁family , ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁would ▁have ▁acquired ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁region ▁near ▁kan chi . ▁While ▁S irc ar ▁allows ▁that ▁Pal lav as ▁might ▁have ▁been ▁provincial ▁r ul ers ▁under ▁the ▁later ▁Sat av ah anas ▁with ▁a ▁partial ▁northern ▁line age , ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁sees ▁them ▁as ▁n atives ▁of ▁T onda im andal am ▁( the ▁core ▁region ▁of ▁A ru van adu ). ▁He ▁arg ues ▁that ▁they ▁could ▁well ▁have ▁adopted ▁north ▁Indian ▁practices ▁under ▁the ▁Ma
ury an ▁As oka ' s ▁rule . ▁He ▁rel ates ▁the ▁name ▁" P alla va " ▁to ▁Pul ind as , ▁whose ▁her itage ▁is ▁bor ne ▁by ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁" P ul in adu " ▁and ▁" P uli y urk ott am " ▁in ▁the ▁region . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁C . ▁V . ▁Va id ya , ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁Mah ar as ht rian ▁A ry ans ▁who ▁spoke ▁Mah ar as ht ri ▁P rak rit ▁for ▁centuries ▁and ▁hence ▁retained ▁it ▁even ▁in ▁the ▁midst ▁of ▁surrounding ▁D rav id ian ▁languages . ▁They ▁may ▁even ▁be ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁' Mar ath as ' ▁for ▁their ▁name ▁was ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁still ▁preserved ▁in ▁the ▁Mar ath a ▁family ▁name ▁of ▁' P ā lave ' ▁( which ▁is ▁just ▁P rak rit ▁form ▁of ▁Pal lava ). ▁And ▁a ▁further ▁cor ro bor ation ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁got ra ▁of ▁the ▁P ā lave ▁Mar ath a ▁family ▁is ▁B har ad w aja , ▁same ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁which ▁Pal lav as ▁have ▁attributed ▁to ▁themselves ▁in ▁their ▁records . ▁ ▁Over la id ▁on ▁these ▁theories ▁is ▁another ▁hypothesis ▁of ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁which ▁claims ▁that ▁" P alla va " ▁is ▁a ▁derivative ▁of ▁P ah lava ▁( the ▁S ansk rit ▁term ▁for ▁Par th ians ). ▁According ▁to ▁him , ▁partial ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁theory ▁can ▁be ▁derived ▁from ▁a ▁crown
▁sh aped ▁like ▁an ▁ele ph ant ' s ▁scal p ▁dep icted ▁on ▁some ▁sculpt ures , ▁which ▁seems ▁to ▁res emble ▁the ▁crown ▁of ▁Dem et ri us ▁I . ▁ ▁R ival ries ▁ ▁With ▁Ch olas ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁captured ▁Kan chi ▁from ▁the ▁Ch olas ▁as ▁recorded ▁in ▁the ▁Vel ur pal ai y am ▁Pl ates , ▁around ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁the ▁fifth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line ▁K umar av ish nu ▁I . ▁There after ▁Kan chi ▁figures ▁in ▁ins cri ptions ▁as ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as . ▁The ▁Ch olas ▁drove ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁away ▁from ▁Kan chi ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 4 th ▁century , ▁in ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁V ish ug op a , ▁the ▁t enth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line . ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁re - capt ured ▁Kan chi ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 6 th ▁century , ▁possibly ▁in ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Sim hav ish nu , ▁the ▁four teenth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line , ▁whom ▁the ▁Kas ak udi ▁pl ates ▁state ▁as ▁" the ▁l ion ▁of ▁the ▁earth ". ▁There after ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁held ▁on ▁to ▁Kan chi ▁until ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century , ▁until ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁their ▁last ▁king , ▁V ij aya - N ri pat ung av ar man . ▁ ▁With ▁K ad amb as ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁in ▁conflict ▁with ▁major ▁kingdom s ▁at ▁various
▁periods ▁of ▁time . ▁A ▁contest ▁for ▁political ▁supre m acy ▁existed ▁between ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁the ▁K ad amb as . ▁N umer ous ▁K ad amba ▁ins cri ptions ▁provide ▁details ▁of ▁Pal lava - K ad amba ▁host ilities . ▁ ▁K ad amba ▁dynast y ' s ▁founder ▁May ur ash arma ▁first ▁succeeded ▁in ▁establish ing ▁himself ▁in ▁the ▁for ests ▁of ▁Sri par vat am ▁( poss ibly ▁modern ▁S ris ail am ▁in ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ) ▁by ▁defe ating ▁the ▁Anth ar ap al as ▁( gu ards ) ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁sub du ing ▁the ▁Ban as ▁of ▁K olar ▁in ▁ 3 4 5 ▁CE . ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁under ▁Sk and av ar man ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁contain ▁May ur ash arma ▁and ▁recogn ised ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁so ver eign ▁in ▁the ▁regions ▁from ▁the ▁Am ara ▁Ocean ▁( West ern ▁Ocean ) ▁to ▁Pre h ara ▁( Mal ap rab ha ▁River ). ▁Some ▁histor ians ▁feel ▁that ▁May ur ash arma ▁was ▁initially ▁appointed ▁as ▁a ▁commander ▁( D and an ay aka ) ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as , ▁as ▁the ▁ins cription ▁uses ▁such ▁terms ▁as ▁Sen ani ▁and ▁calls ▁May ur ash arma ▁Sh ad an ana ▁( six - fac ed ▁god ▁of ▁war ). ▁After ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁time , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁confusion ▁caused ▁by ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁V
ish n ug op a ▁by ▁Sam ud rag upt a ▁( Al la hab ad ▁ins cri ptions ), ▁May ur ash arma ▁formed ▁his ▁kingdom ▁with ▁Ban avas i ▁( near ▁Tal ag unda ) ▁as ▁his ▁capital . ▁ ▁With ▁Kal ab hr as ▁During ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁V ish n ug op av ar man ▁II ▁( approx . ▁ 5 0 0 – 5 2 5 ), ▁political ▁conv ulsion ▁eng ulf ed ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁Kal ab h ra ▁invasion ▁of ▁the ▁T amil ▁country . ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁close ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁stuck ▁a ▁blow ▁against ▁the ▁Kal ab hr as . ▁The ▁P andy as ▁followed ▁suit . ▁There after ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ▁was ▁divided ▁between ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁with ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁as ▁their ▁capital , ▁and ▁P andy as ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁with ▁Mad ur ai ▁as ▁their ▁capital . ▁ ▁Bir ud as ▁The ▁royal ▁custom ▁of ▁using ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁descript ive ▁honor ific ▁titles , ▁Bir ud as , ▁was ▁particularly ▁pre val ent ▁among ▁the ▁Pal lav as . ▁The ▁bir ud as ▁of ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁are ▁in ▁S ansk rit , ▁T amil ▁and ▁Tel ug u . ▁The ▁Tel ug u ▁bir ud as ▁show ▁Mah endra var man ' s ▁invol vement ▁with ▁the ▁And h ra ▁region ▁continued ▁to ▁be
▁strong ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁he ▁was ▁creating ▁his ▁cave - tem ples ▁in ▁the ▁T amil ▁region . ▁The ▁suffix ▁" M alla " ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁r ul ers . ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁used ▁the ▁bir uda , ▁Sat rum alla , ▁" a ▁war rior ▁who ▁over th rows ▁his ▁enemies ", ▁and ▁his ▁grand son ▁Par ames var a ▁I ▁was ▁called ▁Ek am alla ▁" the ▁sole ▁war rior ▁or ▁wrest ler ". ▁Pal lava ▁k ings , ▁pres umably ▁ex alt ed ▁ones , ▁were ▁known ▁by ▁the ▁title ▁Mah am alla ▁(" gre at ▁wrest ler "). ▁ ▁L anguages ▁used ▁ ▁All ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁royal ▁ins cri ptions ▁were ▁either ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁or ▁P rak rit , ▁considered ▁the ▁official ▁languages ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y ▁while ▁the ▁official ▁scripts ▁were ▁Pal lava ▁and ▁later ▁Gran tha . ▁Similarly , ▁ins cri ptions ▁found ▁in ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ▁and ▁K arn ata ka ▁State ▁are ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁P rak rit . ▁The ▁phenomen on ▁of ▁using ▁P rak rit ▁as ▁official ▁languages ▁in ▁which ▁r ul ers ▁left ▁their ▁ins cri ptions ▁and ▁ep ig raph ies ▁continued ▁till ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century . ▁It ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁in ▁the ▁interest ▁of ▁the ▁r uling ▁el ite ▁to ▁protect ▁their ▁privileges ▁by ▁perpet u ating ▁their ▁h eg em ony ▁of ▁P rak rit ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁exclude ▁the ▁common ▁people ▁from ▁sharing
▁power ▁( M ah ade van ▁ 1 9 9 5 a : ▁ 1 7 3 – 1 8 8 ). ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁their ▁T amil ▁country ▁used ▁T amil ▁and ▁S ansk rit ▁in ▁their ▁ins cri ptions . ▁ ▁T amil ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁main ▁language ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁their ▁ins cri ptions , ▁though ▁a ▁few ▁records ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁This ▁language ▁was ▁first ▁adopted ▁by ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁himself ▁in ▁a ▁few ▁records ▁of ▁his ; ▁but ▁from ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I , ▁the ▁practice ▁came ▁into ▁v og ue ▁of ▁ins cri bing ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁record ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁the ▁rest ▁in ▁T amil . ▁Al most ▁all ▁the ▁co pper ▁plate ▁records , ▁viz ., ▁Kas ak udi , ▁T and ant ott am , ▁P att att alm ang alm , ▁U day end ir am ▁and ▁Vel ur pal ai y am ▁are ▁composed ▁both ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁T amil . ▁ ▁Writing ▁system ▁ ▁Under ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁dynast y , ▁a ▁unique ▁form ▁of ▁Gran tha ▁script , ▁a ▁desc endant ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁Bra hm ic ▁script , ▁was ▁used . ▁Ar ound ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁it ▁was ▁export ed ▁east wards ▁and ▁influenced ▁the ▁gen esis ▁of ▁almost ▁all ▁S out heast ▁Asian ▁scripts
. ▁ ▁Religion ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁follow ers ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁and ▁made ▁g ifts ▁of ▁land ▁to ▁gods ▁and ▁Bra hm ins . ▁In ▁line ▁with ▁the ▁pre val ent ▁custom s , ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁r ul ers ▁performed ▁the ▁As w amed ha ▁and ▁other ▁V edic ▁sacrific es . ▁They ▁were , ▁however , ▁toler ant ▁of ▁other ▁faith s . ▁The ▁Chinese ▁mon k ▁X u anz ang ▁who ▁visited ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁reported ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Buddh ist ▁monaster ies , ▁and ▁ 8 0 ▁tem ples ▁in ▁Kan ch ip ur am . ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁architecture ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁instrument al ▁in ▁the ▁transition ▁from ▁rock - cut ▁architecture ▁to ▁stone ▁tem ples . ▁The ▁earliest ▁examples ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁constru ctions ▁are ▁rock - cut ▁tem ples ▁d ating ▁from ▁ 6 1 0 – 6 9 0 ▁and ▁struct ural ▁tem ples ▁between ▁ 6 9 0 – 9 0 0 . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁rock - cut ▁cave ▁tem ples ▁bear ▁the ▁ins cription ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁king , ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁and ▁his ▁success ors . ▁ ▁Among ▁the ▁accomplish ments ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁architecture ▁are ▁the ▁rock - cut ▁tem ples ▁at ▁Mam al lap ur am . ▁There ▁are ▁exc av ated ▁p illa red ▁h alls ▁and ▁mon ol ith ic ▁shr ines
▁known ▁as ▁R ath as ▁in ▁Mah ab al ip ur am . ▁Early ▁tem ples ▁were ▁mostly ▁dedicated ▁to ▁Sh iva . ▁The ▁K ail as an ath a ▁temple ▁in ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁and ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple ▁built ▁by ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II , ▁rock ▁cut ▁temple ▁in ▁Mah end rav adi ▁by ▁Mah endra var man ▁are ▁fine ▁examples ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁style ▁tem ples . ▁The ▁temple ▁of ▁N al anda ▁Ged ige ▁in ▁K andy , ▁Sri ▁L anka ▁is ▁another . ▁The ▁famous ▁T ond es war am ▁temple ▁of ▁Ten av ar ai ▁and ▁the ▁ancient ▁K ones war am ▁temple ▁of ▁Tr in com ale e ▁were ▁patron ised ▁and ▁struct ur ally ▁developed ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁century . ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁society ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁period ▁beginning ▁with ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 7 5 ▁AD 9 0 0 ▁AD ) ▁was ▁a ▁trans itional ▁stage ▁in ▁southern ▁Indian ▁society ▁with ▁monument ▁building , ▁foundation ▁of ▁dev ot ional ▁( b h ak ti ) ▁sect s ▁of ▁Al vars ▁and ▁N ay an ars , ▁the ▁flow ering ▁of ▁rural ▁bra h man ical ▁institutions ▁of ▁S ansk rit ▁learning , ▁and ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁ch ak rav art in ▁model ▁of ▁king ship ▁over ▁a ▁territory ▁of ▁diverse ▁people ; ▁which ▁ended ▁the ▁pre - P alla van ▁era ▁of ▁territorial ly ▁segment ed ▁people , ▁each
▁with ▁their ▁culture , ▁under ▁a ▁trib al ▁ch ie ft ain . ▁While ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁ranked ▁relationship ▁among ▁groups ▁existed ▁in ▁the ▁classical ▁period , ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁period ▁ext ol led ▁ranked ▁relationships ▁based ▁on ▁rit ual ▁pur ity ▁as ▁enjo ined ▁by ▁the ▁sh astr as . ▁Bur ton ▁distingu ishes ▁between ▁the ▁ch ak rav atin ▁model ▁and ▁the ▁k sh atri ya ▁model , ▁and ▁lik ens ▁k sh atri y as ▁to ▁locally ▁based ▁war riors ▁with ▁rit ual ▁status ▁sufficiently ▁high ▁enough ▁to ▁share ▁with ▁Bra hm ins ; ▁and ▁states ▁that ▁in ▁south ▁India ▁the ▁k sh atri ya ▁model ▁did ▁not ▁emer ge . ▁As ▁per ▁Bur ton , ▁south ▁India ▁was ▁aware ▁of ▁the ▁Ind o - A ry an ▁var na ▁organ ised ▁society ▁in ▁which ▁decis ive ▁sec ular ▁authority ▁was ▁v ested ▁in ▁the ▁k sh atri y as ; ▁but ▁apart ▁from ▁the ▁Pal lava , ▁Ch ola ▁and ▁V ij ay an agar ▁line ▁of ▁war riors ▁which ▁claimed ▁ch ak rav art in ▁status , ▁only ▁few ▁local ity ▁war rior ▁families ▁achieved ▁the ▁pr estig ious ▁kin - link ed ▁organisation ▁of ▁northern ▁war rior ▁groups . ▁ ▁Chron ology ▁ ▁S ast ri ▁chron ology ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁documentation ▁on ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁is ▁the ▁three ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants , ▁now ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁the ▁May id av olu , ▁H ire had ag ali ▁and ▁the ▁British ▁Museum ▁pl
ates ▁( D urg a ▁Pr as ad , ▁ 1 9 8 8 ) ▁belonging ▁to ▁Sk and av ar man ▁I ▁and ▁written ▁in ▁P rak rit . ▁Sk and av ar man ▁appears ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁first ▁great ▁r uler ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as , ▁though ▁there ▁are ▁references ▁to ▁other ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁who ▁were ▁probably ▁prede cess ors ▁of ▁Sk and av ar man . ▁Sk and av ar man ▁extended ▁his ▁domin ions ▁from ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁to ▁the ▁P enn ar ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁Bell ary ▁district ▁in ▁the ▁West . ▁He ▁performed ▁the ▁As w amed ha ▁and ▁other ▁V edic ▁sacrific es ▁and ▁bore ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁" S up reme ▁King ▁of ▁Kings ▁devoted ▁to ▁d har ma ". ▁ ▁The ▁H ira had ag ali ▁co pper ▁plate ▁( B ell ary ▁District ) ▁record ▁in ▁P rak rit ▁is ▁dated ▁in ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁year ▁of ▁S iv ask anda ▁Var man ▁to ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE ▁and ▁confir ms ▁the ▁gift ▁made ▁by ▁his ▁father ▁who ▁is ▁described ▁merely ▁as ▁" B appa - de va " ▁( re ver ed ▁father ) ▁or ▁Bo ppa . ▁It ▁will ▁thus ▁be ▁clear ▁that ▁this ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁P rak rit ▁char ters ▁beginning ▁with ▁" B appa - de va " ▁were ▁the ▁historical ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁domin ion ▁in ▁South ▁India .
▁ ▁The ▁H ira had ag al li ▁Pl ates ▁were ▁found ▁in ▁H ire had ag ali , ▁Bell ary ▁district ▁and ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁co pper ▁pl ates ▁in ▁K arn ata ka ▁and ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁r uler ▁Sh iv ask anda ▁Var ma . ▁Pal lava ▁King ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁of ▁Kan chi ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁ruled ▁from ▁ 2 7 5 ▁to ▁ 3 0 0 ▁CE , ▁and ▁issued ▁the ▁char ter ▁in ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE ▁in ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁year ▁of ▁his ▁reign . ▁ ▁V ij aya ▁Sk and av ar man ▁( S iv ask and av ar man ) ▁was ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁kingdom ▁at ▁Bell ary ▁region ▁in ▁And h ra , ▁and ▁vic ero y ▁of ▁Sam ud rag upt a ▁at ▁Kan ch ip ur am . ▁The ▁writer ▁of ▁the ▁grant ▁was ▁priv y ▁coun c ill or ▁Bh atti ▁Sh ar man ▁and ▁was ▁supposed ▁to ▁be ▁valid ▁for ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁years . ▁ ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁H ira had ag al li ▁Pl ates ▁of ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE , ▁Pal lava ▁King ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁granted ▁an ▁imm unity ▁viz ▁the ▁garden ▁of ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka , ▁which ▁was ▁formerly ▁given ▁by ▁Lord ▁B appa ▁to ▁the ▁Bra hm ins , ▁free
hold ers ▁of ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka ▁and ▁inhabitants ▁of ▁Ap itt i . ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka ▁has ▁been ▁identified ▁by ▁some ▁as ▁ancient ▁village ▁Ch ill ar ige ▁in ▁Bell ary , ▁K arn ata ka . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Sim hav ar man ▁IV , ▁who ▁asc ended ▁the ▁throne ▁in ▁ 4 3 6 , ▁the ▁territ ories ▁lost ▁to ▁the ▁V ish n uk und ins ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁were ▁recovered . ▁The ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁history ▁from ▁this ▁period ▁on wards ▁is ▁furn ished ▁by ▁a ▁dozen ▁or ▁so ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁They ▁are ▁all ▁dated ▁in ▁the ▁reg nal ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁k ings . ▁▁ ▁The ▁following ▁chron ology ▁was ▁composed ▁from ▁these ▁char ters ▁by ▁Nil ak anta ▁S ast ri ▁in ▁his ▁A ▁History ▁of ▁South ▁India : ▁ ▁Early ▁Pal lav as ▁▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁I ▁( 2 7 5 – 3 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁( unknown ) ▁ ▁Vis n ug op a ▁( 3 5 0 – 3 5 5 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁I ▁( 3 5 0 – 3 7 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁II ▁( 3 7 0 – 3 8 5 ) ▁ ▁V ira var man ▁( 3 8 5 – 4 0 0 )
▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁III ▁( 4 0 0 – 4 3 6 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁II ▁( 4 3 6 – 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁IV ▁( 4 6 0 – 4 8 0 ) ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁I ▁( 4 8 0 – 5 1 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁II ▁( 5 1 0 – 5 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Bud d hav ar man ▁( 5 3 0 – 5 4 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁III ▁( 5 4 0 – 5 5 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁III ▁( 5 5 0 – 5 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁The ▁inc urs ion ▁of ▁the ▁Kal ab hr as ▁and ▁the ▁confusion ▁in ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ▁was ▁broken ▁by ▁the ▁P and ya ▁K ad ung on ▁and ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Sim hav ish nu . ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁extended ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁so ver eign s . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁orn ate ▁monuments ▁and ▁tem ples ▁in ▁southern ▁India , ▁car ved ▁out ▁of ▁solid ▁rock , ▁were ▁introduced ▁under ▁his ▁rule . ▁He ▁also ▁wrote ▁the ▁play ▁Matt av il asa ▁Pra has ana . ▁ ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁kingdom ▁began ▁to ▁gain ▁both ▁in ▁territory ▁and ▁influence ▁and ▁were ▁a ▁regional ▁power ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the
▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁defe ating ▁k ings ▁of ▁C ey lon ▁and ▁main land ▁T amil ak k am . ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁and ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁stand ▁out ▁for ▁their ▁achiev ements ▁in ▁both ▁military ▁and ▁architect ural ▁spher es . ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁built ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple . ▁▁ ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 7 5 – 6 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 6 0 0 – 6 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( M am alla ) ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁II ▁( 6 6 8 – 6 7 2 ) ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 7 0 – 6 9 5 ) ▁ ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁( R aja ▁Sim ha ) ▁( 6 9 5 – 7 2 2 ) ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁( 7 0 5 – 7 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁Line ▁ ▁The ▁k ings ▁that ▁came ▁after ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁coll ater al ▁line ▁of ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁were ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Bh im av ar man , ▁the ▁brother ▁of ▁Sim hav ish nu . ▁They ▁called ▁themselves ▁as ▁K ad avas , ▁K ad
aves a ▁and ▁K ad uv etti . ▁Hir any av ar man , ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁N and iv ar man ▁Pal lav am alla ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁K ad av ak ula ▁in ▁ep ig raph s . ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁himself ▁is ▁described ▁as ▁" one ▁who ▁was ▁born ▁to ▁raise ▁the ▁prest ige ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁family ". ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( Pal lav am alla ) ▁( 7 3 2 – 7 9 6 ) ▁son ▁of ▁Hir any av ar man ▁of ▁K ad av ak ula ▁ ▁D ant iv ar man ▁( 7 9 5 – 8 4 6 ) ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 4 6 – 8 6 9 ) ▁ ▁A par aj it av ar man ▁( 8 7 9 – 8 9 7 ) ▁ ▁A iy ang ar ▁chron ology ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁available ▁ins cri ptions ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as , ▁historian ▁S . ▁Kr ish nas w ami ▁A iy ang ar ▁propos es ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁could ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁four ▁separate ▁families ▁or ▁dynast ies ; ▁some ▁of ▁whose ▁connections ▁are ▁known ▁and ▁some ▁unknown . ▁A iy ang ar ▁states ▁ ▁We ▁have ▁a ▁certain ▁number ▁of ▁char ters ▁in ▁P rak rit ▁of ▁which ▁three ▁are ▁important ▁ones . ▁Then ▁follows ▁a ▁dynast y ▁which ▁issued ▁their ▁char ters ▁in ▁S ansk rit ;
▁following ▁this ▁came ▁the ▁family ▁of ▁the ▁great ▁Pal lav as ▁beginning ▁with ▁Sim ha ▁V ish nu ; ▁this ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁us ur per ▁N and i ▁Var man , ▁another ▁great ▁Pal lava . ▁We ▁are ▁over looking ▁for ▁the ▁present ▁the ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁G anga - Pal lav as ▁post ulated ▁by ▁the ▁Ep ig raph ists . ▁The ▁earliest ▁of ▁these ▁Pal lava ▁char ters ▁is ▁the ▁one ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁May id av olu ▁ 1 ▁( G unt ur ▁district ) ▁co pper - plates . ▁ ▁Based ▁on ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁d yn astic ▁pl ates ▁and ▁gr ants ▁from ▁the ▁period , ▁A iy ang ar ▁proposed ▁their ▁rule ▁thus : ▁ ▁Early ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁B app ade van ▁( 2 5 0 – 2 7 5 ) mar ried ▁a ▁N aga ▁of ▁M av il anga ▁( K an chi ) ▁– ▁The ▁Great ▁Found er ▁of ▁a ▁Pal lava ▁line age ▁ ▁Sh iv ask and av ar man ▁I ▁( 2 7 5 – 3 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁( 3 0 0 – 3 2 0 ) ▁ ▁Bh ud d av ar man ▁( 3 2 0 – 3 3 5 ) ▁ ▁Bh ud dy ank ur an ▁( 3 3 5 – 3 4 0 ) ▁ ▁Middle ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁Vis n ug op a ▁( 3 4 0 – 3
5 5 ) ▁( Y uv am ah ar aja ▁V ish n ug op a ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁I ▁( 3 5 5 – 3 7 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁II ▁( 3 7 0 – 3 8 5 ) ▁ ▁V ira ▁Var man ▁( 3 8 5 – 4 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁III ▁( 4 0 0 – 4 3 5 ) ▁ ▁Sim ha ▁Var man ▁II ▁( 4 3 5 – 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁IV ▁( 4 6 0 – 4 8 0 ) ▁ ▁N and i ▁Var man ▁I ▁( 4 8 0 – 5 0 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁II ▁( ▁ 5 0 0 – 5 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Bud d ha ▁Var man ▁( ▁ 5 1 0 – 5 2 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁III ▁( ▁ 5 2 0 – 5 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim ha ▁Var man ▁III ▁( ▁ 5 3 0 – 5 3 7 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 3 7 – 5 7 0 ) ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ) ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( M am alla ) ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁Mah endra var man ▁II ▁( 6 6 8 – 6
7 2 ) ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 7 2 – 7 0 0 ) ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁( R aja ▁Sim ha ) ▁( 7 0 0 – 7 2 7 ) ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁( 7 0 5 – 7 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁Line ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( Pal lav am alla ) ▁( 7 3 2 – 7 9 6 ) ▁son ▁of ▁Hir any av ar man ▁of ▁K ad av ak ula ▁D ant iv ar man ▁( 7 7 5 – 8 2 5 ) ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 2 5 – 8 6 9 ) ▁N ir up ath ung an ▁( 8 6 9 – 8 8 2 ) ▁A par aj it av ar man ▁( 8 8 2 – 8 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Gene al ogy ▁of ▁M ā mal lap ur am ▁Pra ś ast i ▁ ▁The ▁gene al ogy ▁of ▁Pal lav as ▁mentioned ▁in ▁the ▁M ā mal lap ur am ▁Pra ś ast i ▁is ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁V ish nu ▁ ▁Bra h ma ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁B har adv aja ▁ ▁D ron a ▁ ▁Ash vat th aman ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e
ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁I ▁( ▁ 2 7 5 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁IV ▁( 4 3 6 – ▁ 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sk and ash ish ya ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav is nu ▁( ▁ 5 5 0 – 5 8 5 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( ▁ 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Mah a - mal la ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 6 9 – 6 9 0 ) ▁ ▁Raj as im ha ▁Nar as im hav aram ▁II ▁( 6 9 0 – 7 2 8 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Pal lav am alla ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( 7 3 1 – 7 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 4 6 – 8 6 9 )
▁ ▁Other ▁relationships ▁Pal lava ▁royal ▁line ages ▁were ▁influ ential ▁in ▁the ▁old ▁kingdom ▁of ▁K ed ah ▁of ▁the ▁Mal ay ▁Pen ins ula ▁under ▁Rud ra var man ▁I , ▁Champ a ▁under ▁Bh ad ra var man ▁I ▁and ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁the ▁Fun an ▁in ▁Camb odia . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁T amil ▁monarch s ▁K ad ava ▁dynast y ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : T amil ▁monarch s ▁Category : History ▁of ▁Tir uch ira pp al li ▁Category : St ates ▁and ▁territ ories ▁established ▁in ▁the ▁ 3 rd ▁century ▁Category : St ates ▁and ▁territ ories ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century ▁Category : 3 rd - century ▁establish ments ▁in ▁India ▁Category : 9 th - century ▁dis est ab lish ments ▁in ▁India ▁Category : T el ug u ▁monarch s <0x0A> </s> ▁" And ▁Then ▁There ▁Was ▁Sil ence " ▁is ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁power ▁metal ▁band ▁Bl ind ▁Guardian . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁as ▁the ▁lead ▁single ▁from ▁their ▁album , ▁A ▁Night ▁at ▁the ▁Opera . ▁ ▁Writ ten ▁by ▁singer ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁and ▁composed ▁by ▁K ür sch ▁and ▁guitar ist ▁André ▁Ol br ich , ▁the ▁song ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁The ▁I li ad ▁by ▁H omer ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁A ene id ▁by ▁Vir g il , ▁and ▁narr ates ▁the ▁final
▁days ▁of ▁T roy , ▁as ▁for ese en ▁by ▁Cass andra , ▁daughter ▁of ▁the ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁destroyed ▁city ▁who ▁for es aw ▁the ▁event . ▁ ▁The ▁song ▁is ▁so ▁intr icate ▁and ▁long ▁with ▁so ▁many ▁tracks ▁that ▁it ▁alone ▁required ▁as ▁much ▁production ▁time ▁as ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁A ▁Night ▁at ▁the ▁Opera ▁album . ▁At ▁over ▁ 1 4 ▁minutes , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁longest ▁track ▁recorded ▁by ▁Bl ind ▁Guardian . ▁It ▁was ▁re - record ed ▁into ▁a ▁new ▁version ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁as ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁compilation ▁album ▁Mem ories ▁of ▁a ▁Time ▁to ▁Come . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁" And ▁Then ▁There ▁Was ▁Sil ence " ▁ ▁– ▁ 1 4 : 0 6 ▁ ▁" Har vest ▁of ▁Sor row " ▁ ▁– ▁ 3 : 4 0 <0x09> ▁ ▁" B orn ▁in ▁a ▁M our ning ▁Hall " ▁( mult imedia ▁track ) ▁– ▁ 5 : 1 7 ▁ ▁Line up ▁ ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁– ▁vocals ▁and ▁backing ▁vocals ▁ ▁André ▁Ol br ich ▁– ▁lead , ▁rh ythm ▁and ▁ac oust ic ▁guitar ▁ ▁Marcus ▁Sie pen ▁– ▁rh ythm ▁guitar ▁ ▁Th omen ▁St auch ▁– ▁drums ▁and ▁per cussion ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Person nel ▁ ▁An ry ▁N emo ▁– ▁cover ▁art ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 1 ▁singles ▁Category : Bl ind ▁Guardian ▁songs ▁Category : 2 0 0 1 ▁songs ▁Category
: V ir gin ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : S ongs ▁based ▁on ▁po ems ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁André ▁Ol br ich ▁Category : Work s ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁I li ad ▁Category : Work s ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁A ene id <0x0A> </s> ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁a ▁bounded ▁rural ▁local ity ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ire ▁of ▁Tow ong ▁local ▁government ▁area ▁in ▁Victoria , ▁Australia . ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁on ▁the ▁Murray ▁River ▁close ▁to ▁Cor ry ong . ▁At ▁the ▁, ▁Tow ong ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 2 8 1 . ▁ ▁History ▁Tow ong ▁Post ▁Office ▁opened ▁on ▁ 1 0 J anu ary ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁and ▁closed ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁historic ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club , ▁hosting ▁thorough bre d ▁horse ▁racing ▁since ▁ 1 8 7 1 . ▁Currently ▁Country ▁Racing ▁Victoria ▁sched ules ▁two ▁race ▁meet ings ▁per ▁year ▁at ▁the ▁ven ue , ▁the ▁Tow ong ▁Cup ▁meeting ▁( trad itionally ▁held ▁in ▁early ▁March ) ▁and ▁the ▁S qu iz zy ▁Taylor ▁D ash ▁meeting ▁( trad itionally ▁held ▁in ▁late ▁December ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club ▁Website ▁ ▁Category : T own s ▁in ▁Victoria ▁( Austral ia ) <0x0A> </s> ▁S j ur ▁Joh ns en ▁( 2 0 ▁June ▁
1 8 9 1 ▁– ▁ 2 ▁October ▁ 1 9 7 8 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Norwegian ▁wrest ler . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Vik . ▁He ▁competed ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Ant werp ▁where ▁he ▁placed ▁fourth ▁in ▁Gre co - R oman ▁middle weight , ▁after ▁losing ▁the ▁bronze ▁match ▁to ▁Mas a ▁Per tt il ä . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁national ▁champion ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁and ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 9 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 7 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Vik ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁wrest lers ▁of ▁Norway ▁Category : W rest lers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁male ▁sport ▁wrest lers <0x0A> </s> ▁Dom ingo ▁C ull en ▁( 1 7 9 1 ▁– ▁ 2 1 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 9 ) ▁was ▁the ▁governor ▁of ▁province ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁Argentina ▁during ▁ 1 8 3 8 . ▁ ▁Biography ▁C ull en ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁T ener ife , ▁Can ary ▁Islands , ▁but ▁moved ▁to ▁Argentina ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 2 0 s ▁after ▁establish ing ▁commercial ▁activities ▁( link ed ▁with ▁fl uv ial ▁trade ) ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁He ▁met ▁Santa ▁Fe ' s ▁ca ud illo ▁Est an is la o ▁López ▁when ▁serving ▁as ▁a ▁deput y ▁of ▁the ▁Cab ild
o ▁of ▁Monte video . ▁After ▁being ▁involved ▁in ▁activ ism ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁independence ▁of ▁Uruguay ▁and ▁the ▁resistance ▁against ▁Brazil ▁( see ▁C is pl at ine ▁War ), ▁he ▁returned ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁settled ▁in ▁a ▁ran ch , ▁and ▁married ▁Jo aqu ina ▁Rodríguez ▁del ▁F res no , ▁the ▁young ▁wid ow ▁of ▁Pedro ▁Ald ao ▁and ▁sister - in - law ▁of ▁López . ▁In ▁ 1 8 2 8 ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁coun sel or ▁of ▁López , ▁and ▁his ▁Minister ▁of ▁Government ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 3 . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁López ' s ▁death ▁on ▁ 1 5 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 8 , ▁C ull en ▁was ▁in ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁as ▁representative ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁trying ▁to ▁find ▁a ▁peace ful ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁on going ▁French ▁block ade ▁of ▁the ▁port ▁( ca used ▁by ▁a ▁law ▁of ▁ 1 8 2 1 ▁that ▁oblig ated ▁resident ▁foreign ▁citizens ▁of ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁to ▁serve ▁in ▁cons cription ). ▁C ull en ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁block ade ▁was ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁a ▁provincial ▁law ▁and ▁therefore ▁the ▁other ▁provinces ▁were ▁not ▁bound ▁to ▁help ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁Juan ▁Manuel ▁de ▁Ros as , ▁the ▁powerful ▁governor ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires , ▁cont ended ▁that ▁this ▁viol ated ▁the ▁Federal ▁P act . ▁ ▁When ▁C ull en ▁returned ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁he ▁became ▁governor , ▁but ▁his ▁election ▁was ▁not ▁acknowled ged ▁by ▁Ros
as ▁and ▁by ▁P asc ual ▁E ch ag ü e , ▁governor ▁of ▁the ▁neighbour ing ▁Entre ▁R íos ▁Province . ▁Without ▁López ' s ▁support , ▁he ▁faced ▁opposition ▁from ▁his ▁personal ▁enemies ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁and ▁from ▁those ▁lo y als ▁to ▁Ros as . ▁In ▁the ▁end , ▁all ▁provinces ▁including ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁ended ▁up ▁supporting ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁against ▁the ▁French , ▁and ▁C ull en ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁res ign ▁and ▁go ▁to ▁ex ile . ▁ ▁Acc used ▁of ▁consp iring ▁with ▁the ▁Unit ari ans ▁( en em ies ▁of ▁Ros as ) ▁and ▁the ▁French , ▁he ▁sought ▁as yl um ▁in ▁Santiago ▁del ▁Est ero , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁bet rayed ▁by ▁his ▁host ▁and ▁delivered ▁to ▁Ros as ' s ▁men , ▁to ▁be ▁tried ▁in ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁However , ▁right ▁after ▁crossing ▁the ▁Ar roy o ▁del ▁Med io ▁and ▁entering ▁the ▁territory ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁Province , ▁his ▁capt ors ▁announced ▁they ▁had ▁orders ▁to ▁kill ▁him . ▁C ull en ▁was ▁assist ed ▁by ▁a ▁priest ▁in ▁San ▁Nicol ás ▁de ▁los ▁Ar roy os ▁and ▁wrote ▁a ▁letter ▁to ▁his ▁wife ; ▁he ▁was ▁then ▁killed ▁by ▁a ▁firing ▁squad , ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 9 . ▁He ▁was ▁buried ▁in ▁the ▁spot . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 4 0 ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁General ▁Juan ▁Lav alle ▁passed ▁by ▁the ▁place ▁on ▁its ▁way ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁and ▁C ull en
' s ▁body ▁was ▁ex hum ed ▁at ▁the ▁request ▁of ▁Pedro ▁Rodríguez ▁del ▁F res no , ▁an ▁officer ▁of ▁Lav alle ' s ▁and ▁C ull en ' s ▁brother - in - law . ▁He ▁was ▁taken ▁to ▁the ▁Con vent ▁of ▁Saint ▁Domin ic ▁in ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁where ▁they ▁remain ▁today , ▁next ▁to ▁the ▁bodies ▁of ▁his ▁son ▁Pat ric io ▁and ▁several ▁other ▁important ▁leaders . ▁ ▁Des cent ▁C ull en ' s ▁family ▁was ▁of ▁Irish ▁origin , ▁desc ended ▁from ▁Thomas ▁C ull en ▁Mah er , ▁who ▁em igr ated ▁from ▁Kil ken ny ▁to ▁the ▁Can ary ▁Islands ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 3 . ▁Dom ingo ▁C ull en ▁( full ▁name : ▁Dom ingo ▁Ale j andro ▁Lorenzo ▁C ull en ▁y ▁Fer raz ), ▁born ▁in ▁T ener ife , ▁was ▁C ull en ▁Mah er ' s ▁third ▁grand son , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Gu ill ermo ▁F eli pe ▁C ull en ▁and ▁Áng ela ▁Is id ra ▁Fer raz ▁de ▁la ▁Guard ia . ▁ ▁C ull en ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁Río ▁de ▁la ▁Pl ata ▁region , ▁first ▁sett ling ▁in ▁Monte video , ▁Uruguay , ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 1 , ▁and ▁moving ▁then ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 3 . ▁This ▁Argent ine ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁has ▁given ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁many ▁influ ential ▁characters ▁in ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁politics . ▁ ▁C ull en ▁had
▁seven ▁children . ▁José ▁María ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁first born , ▁and ▁Pat ric io ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁second ▁son , ▁both ▁served ▁as ▁govern ors ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁( Tom ás ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁last ▁son , ▁was ▁also ▁ad ▁inter im ▁governor ). ▁His ▁third ▁child , ▁Jo aqu ina , ▁was ▁the ▁wife ▁of ▁N icas io ▁O ro ño , ▁governor ▁and ▁political ▁chief ▁of ▁Ros ario , ▁and ▁the ▁fourth , ▁Jose fa , ▁was ▁married ▁to ▁Juan ▁María ▁G uti ér rez ▁Gran ados , ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution al ▁Assembly ▁that ▁craft ed ▁the ▁Argent ine ▁Constitution ▁of ▁ 1 8 5 3 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 7 9 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 8 3 9 ▁death s ▁Category : G overn ors ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁Province ▁Category : Exec uted ▁Spanish ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁executed ▁by ▁Argentina ▁by ▁firing ▁squad ▁Category : Ext raj ud icial ▁kill ings ▁Category : Exec uted ▁polit icians ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁execution s ▁by ▁Argentina ▁Category : Ar gent ine ▁people ▁of ▁Irish ▁descent ▁Category : Ar gent ine ▁people ▁of ▁Spanish ▁descent ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁T ener ife ▁Category : Exec uted ▁Argent ine ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁of ▁the ▁Spanish ▁American ▁wars ▁of ▁independence ▁Category : Pe ople ▁of ▁the ▁Latin ▁American ▁wars ▁of ▁independence ▁Category : R ío ▁de ▁la ▁Pl ata <0x0A> </s> ▁Rub inal
d ▁R of ino ▁Pr onk ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁July ▁), ▁born ▁and ▁raised ▁in ▁The ▁H ague , ▁is ▁a ▁dan se ur ▁performing ▁with ▁the ▁Mor ph oses / The ▁Whe eld on ▁Company . ▁He ▁trained ▁at ▁the ▁Royal ▁( D utch ) ▁Conserv atory ▁of ▁Dance ▁and ▁joined ▁the ▁Dutch ▁National ▁Bal let ▁at ▁age ▁ 1 6 ▁and ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁solo ist . ▁Rub inal d ▁performed ▁works ▁by ▁ch ore ograph ers ▁including ▁Sir ▁Frederick ▁As ht on , ▁George ▁Bal anch ine , ▁William ▁F ors y the , ▁Jac opo ▁God ani , ▁Mar tha ▁Graham ▁and ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁Past or . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁he ▁joined ▁D w ight ▁Rh oden ▁and ▁Des mond ▁Richard son ' s ▁Complex ions ▁Contempor ary ▁Bal let , ▁performing ▁works ▁by ▁Rh oden ▁and ▁U ly ss es ▁D ove . ▁He ▁is ▁a ▁guest ▁artist ▁with ▁Dutch ▁National ▁Bal let ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 - 2 0 1 1 ▁with ▁Polish ▁National ▁Bal let . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Facebook ▁page ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : D utch ▁male ▁bal let ▁d anc ers ▁Category : M orph oses ▁d anc ers ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁The ▁H ague <0x0A> </s> ▁Mary ▁Dar ling ▁is ▁the ▁CE O ▁and ▁co - owner ▁of ▁West W ind ▁Pictures , ▁which ▁she ▁joined ▁in
▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁She ▁helped ▁West W ind ▁evol ve ▁from ▁a ▁minor ▁to ▁a ▁major ▁player ▁in ▁Canada ' s ▁film ▁and ▁television ▁industry . ▁She ▁conce ived ▁of ▁the ▁hit ▁design ▁show , ▁Design er ▁Gu ys , ▁and ▁its ▁subsequent ▁rela unch ▁with ▁new ▁hosts . ▁ ▁As ▁well ▁as ▁providing ▁West W ind ▁Pictures ▁overall ▁management , ▁cre ative ▁and ▁executive ▁producer ▁services ▁on ▁all ▁of ▁its ▁series , ▁Dar ling ▁heads ▁up ▁West W ind ▁Re le asing ▁which ▁develop s ▁and ▁dist ributes ▁most ▁of ▁West W ind ' s ▁diverse ▁properties . ▁In ▁particular , ▁she ▁was ▁the ▁executive ▁producer ▁for ▁the ▁Canadian ▁television ▁comedy ▁Little ▁Mos que ▁on ▁the ▁Pra irie , ▁which ▁she ▁later ▁sho pped ▁to ▁American ▁broad c aster s . ▁ ▁Dar ling ▁was ▁the ▁recip ient ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁Women ▁in ▁Film ▁and ▁Television ▁International ▁award ▁for ▁International ▁Ach iev ement ▁- ▁Ex cell ence ▁in ▁In nov ation ▁( T ele vision ) ▁an ▁award ▁she ▁claims ▁to ▁share ▁with ▁her ▁husband , ▁Clark ▁D onn elly , ▁even ▁though ▁it ▁s its ▁on ▁her ▁des k . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁television ▁produ cers ▁Category : W omen ▁television ▁produ cers <0x0A> </s> ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁is ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁moth s ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Ge omet r idae ▁described
▁by ▁Pr out ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 . ▁ ▁Species ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁heter og yn o ides ▁( We hr li , ▁ 1 9 2 7 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁l ys im eles ▁( Pr out , ▁ 1 9 2 4 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁p ell uc ida ▁( St aud inger , ▁ 1 8 9 9 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁sol an ik ovi ▁( I vin sk is ▁& ▁S ald ait is , ▁ 2 0 0 1 ) ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : G n oph ini ▁Category : Ge omet r idae ▁gener a <0x0A> </s> ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁( O AG N ) ▁is ▁a ▁constitution al ▁body ▁and ▁the ▁supre me ▁aud it ▁institution ▁of ▁Nep al . ▁It ▁der ives ▁its ▁mand ate ▁from ▁Article ▁ 2 4 1 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al ▁and ▁Aud it ▁Act , ▁ 2 0 7 5 ▁( 2 0 1 9 ▁A . D .). ▁The ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁is ▁emp ower ed ▁to ▁undert ake ▁aud its ▁of ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁President ▁and ▁Vice - Pres ident , ▁Supreme ▁Court , ▁Federal ▁Parliament , ▁Provin cial ▁Ass emb lies , ▁Provin cial ▁Govern ments , ▁Constitution al ▁bodies ▁or ▁their ▁offices , ▁courts , ▁the ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Att orney ▁General ▁and ▁the ▁Nep al ▁Army , ▁Nep al ▁Police ▁and ▁Ar med ▁Police ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁of ▁all ▁other
▁government ▁offices ▁and ▁courts ▁with ▁due ▁consideration ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁regular ity , ▁economy , ▁efficiency , ▁effect iveness ▁and ▁the ▁propri ety ▁of ▁government ▁exp end it ures . ▁ ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁According ▁to ▁Article ▁ 2 4 0 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al , ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁is ▁appointed ▁by ▁the ▁President ▁on ▁the ▁recommendation ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution al ▁Council ▁for ▁a ▁single ▁term ▁of ▁six ▁years . ▁The ▁current ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁T anka ▁Man i ▁Sh arma , ▁was ▁appointed ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Organ ization ▁and ▁Str ucture ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁there ▁are ▁ 6 1 4 ▁staff ▁members ▁in ▁the ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General . ▁These ▁staff ▁members ▁are ▁ 4 ▁Deput y ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁ 1 4 ▁Ass istant ▁Aud itor ▁Gener als , ▁Direct ors , ▁Aud it ▁Offic ers , ▁Aud it ▁super int end ents , ▁Aud it ▁Ins pect ors ▁and ▁support ▁staff . ▁The ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁staff ▁are ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Aud it ▁Service ▁of ▁the ▁Nep al ▁Civil ▁Service ▁who ▁are ▁chosen ▁through ▁an ▁open ▁compet itive ▁exam ▁of ▁the ▁Public ▁Service ▁Commission . ▁The ▁office ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁four ▁divisions ▁each ▁head ed ▁by ▁a ▁Deput y ▁Aud itor ▁General . ▁Under ▁the ▁divisions ▁are ▁ 1 4 ▁General ▁Director ates ▁which ▁is ▁further ▁divided ▁into ▁ 2 7 ▁sector ▁wise ▁Director ates . ▁ ▁Div
isions ▁ ▁Organ ization ▁development ▁and ▁Management ▁Division ▁ ▁Econom ic ▁and ▁Social ▁Services ▁Division ▁ ▁In frastr ucture ▁Development ▁Division ▁ ▁Constitution al ▁ ▁Bod ies , ▁Security ▁and ▁Local ▁Development ▁Division ▁ ▁Ann ual ▁Report ▁The ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁subm its ▁an ▁annual ▁report ▁which ▁includes ▁an ▁opinion ▁regarding ▁the ▁financial ▁statements ▁of ▁the ▁Government ▁of ▁Nep al ▁to ▁the ▁President ▁as ▁per ▁Article ▁ 2 9 4 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al . ▁The ▁President ▁then ▁presents ▁the ▁report ▁for ▁discussion ▁to ▁the ▁Federal ▁Parliament , ▁through ▁the ▁Prime ▁Minister . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : G overn ment ▁of ▁Nep al ▁Nep al ▁Category : S up reme ▁aud it ▁institutions <0x0A> </s> ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁L RT ▁station ▁is ▁an ▁under ground ▁rapid ▁trans it ▁station , ▁named ▁after ▁and ▁serving ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur , ▁in ▁Malays ia . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁( former ly ▁known ▁as ▁P UT RA ). ▁The ▁station ▁was ▁opened ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁line ' s ▁second ▁and ▁latest ▁extension , ▁which ▁includes ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁ 1 2 ▁stations ▁( not ▁including ▁Sri ▁R amp ai ▁station ), ▁and ▁an ▁under ground ▁line ▁that ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁connected ▁to . ▁The ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁currently ▁one ▁of ▁only ▁five ▁under ground
▁stations ▁in ▁the ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line . ▁ ▁Location ▁Loc ated ▁on ▁the ▁southern ▁edge ▁of ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u , ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁located ▁directly ▁beside ▁the ▁A mp ang – K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁E lev ated ▁Highway ▁and ▁K lang ▁River . ▁The ▁ad jo ining ▁K L CC ▁station , ▁as ▁is ▁the ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁City ▁Centre ▁( K L CC ) ▁itself , ▁is ▁situated ▁across ▁the ▁K lang ▁River , ▁ 7 0 0 ▁metres ▁away . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁primarily ▁intended ▁to ▁serve ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁area . ▁ ▁Layout ▁and ▁design ▁ ▁The ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station , ▁like ▁all ▁other ▁under ground ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁stations , ▁is ▁of ▁a ▁simpl istic ▁construction ▁consisting ▁of ▁only ▁three ▁levels : ▁the ▁entrance ▁level ▁at ▁street ▁level , ▁and ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁and ▁platform ▁levels ▁under ground . ▁All ▁levels ▁are ▁linked ▁via ▁es cal ators ▁and ▁st air ways , ▁while ▁elev ators ▁are ▁addition ally ▁provided ▁between ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁level ▁and ▁the ▁platform ▁level . ▁The ▁station ▁contains ▁only ▁one ▁island ▁platform ▁for ▁two ▁tracks ▁of ▁opposite ▁directions , ▁with ▁floor - to - ce iling ▁platform ▁screen ▁doors ▁se aling ▁the ▁platform ▁from ▁the ▁tracks . ▁ ▁The ▁station ▁has ▁two ▁access ▁points ▁from ▁street ▁level , ▁of ▁which ▁one ▁is ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁other ▁and ▁is ▁the ▁primary ▁entrance .
▁The ▁secondary ▁access ▁point ▁to ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁level , ▁just ▁ 4 0 ▁m ▁east ▁from ▁the ▁main ▁entrance , ▁is ▁closed ▁to ▁the ▁public . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁rail ▁trans it ▁stations ▁in ▁K lang ▁Valley ▁ ▁Category : K el ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 <0x0A> </s> ▁In ▁cel est ial ▁mechan ics , ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁an ▁angular ▁parameter ▁that ▁defines ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁a ▁body ▁moving ▁along ▁a ▁Ke pler ian ▁orbit . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁angle ▁between ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁per ia ps is ▁and ▁the ▁current ▁position ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁as ▁seen ▁from ▁the ▁main ▁focus ▁of ▁the ▁el lipse ▁( the ▁point ▁around ▁which ▁the ▁object ▁or bits ). ▁ ▁The ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁usually ▁denoted ▁by ▁the ▁Greek ▁letters ▁ ▁or ▁, ▁or ▁the ▁Latin ▁letter ▁, ▁and ▁is ▁usually ▁restricted ▁to ▁the ▁range ▁ 0 – 3 6 0 ° ▁( 0 – 2 π ). ▁ ▁As ▁shown ▁in ▁the ▁image , ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁three ▁angular ▁parameters ▁( an om al ies ) ▁that ▁defines ▁a ▁position ▁along ▁an ▁orbit , ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁being ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁and ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly . ▁ ▁Form ulas ▁ ▁From ▁state ▁vectors ▁For ▁elli ptic ▁or bits , ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁can ▁be ▁calculated ▁from ▁orb ital ▁state ▁vectors ▁as : ▁ ▁(
if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁ ▁by ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁▁ ▁v ▁is ▁the ▁orb ital ▁velocity ▁vector ▁of ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body , ▁ ▁e ▁is ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ity ▁vector , ▁ ▁r ▁is ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁( segment ▁F P ▁in ▁the ▁figure ) ▁of ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body . ▁ ▁Circ ular ▁orbit ▁For ▁circular ▁or bits ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁undefined , ▁because ▁circular ▁or bits ▁do ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁uniqu ely ▁determined ▁per ia ps is . ▁Instead ▁the ▁argument ▁of ▁latitude ▁u ▁is ▁used : ▁ ▁( if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁ ▁n ▁is ▁a ▁vector ▁pointing ▁towards ▁the ▁asc ending ▁node ▁( i . e . ▁the ▁z - component ▁of ▁n ▁is ▁zero ). ▁ ▁r z ▁is ▁the ▁z - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁r ▁ ▁Circ ular ▁orbit ▁with ▁zero ▁incl ination ▁For ▁circular ▁or bits ▁with ▁zero ▁incl ination ▁the ▁argument ▁of ▁latitude ▁is ▁also ▁undefined , ▁because ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁uniqu ely ▁determined ▁line ▁of ▁nodes . ▁One ▁uses ▁the ▁true ▁longitude ▁instead : ▁ ▁( if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁ ▁by ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁ ▁r x ▁is ▁the ▁x - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁r ▁ ▁v x ▁is ▁the ▁x - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁velocity ▁vector ▁v . ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁The ▁relation ▁between ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom
aly ▁E ▁is : ▁ ▁or ▁using ▁the ▁s ine ▁and ▁tang ent : ▁ ▁or ▁equival ently : ▁ ▁so ▁ ▁An ▁equivalent ▁form ▁avoid s ▁the ▁singular ity ▁as ▁e → 1 , ▁however ▁it ▁does ▁not ▁produce ▁the ▁correct ▁value ▁for ▁: ▁ ▁or , ▁with ▁the ▁same ▁problem ▁as ▁e → 1 , ▁ ▁. ▁ ▁In ▁both ▁of ▁the ▁above , ▁the ▁function ▁ ▁arg ( x , y ) ▁is ▁the ▁polar ▁argument ▁of ▁the ▁vector ▁( x y ), ▁available ▁in ▁many ▁programming ▁languages ▁as ▁the ▁library ▁function ▁named ▁at an 2 ( y , x ) ▁( note ▁the ▁revers ed ▁order ▁of ▁x ▁and ▁y ). ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly ▁The ▁true ▁anom aly ▁can ▁be ▁calculated ▁directly ▁from ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly ▁via ▁a ▁Fourier ▁expansion : ▁ ▁where ▁the ▁" big - O " ▁notation ▁means ▁that ▁the ▁omitted ▁terms ▁are ▁all ▁of ▁order ▁e 4 . ▁ ▁The ▁expression ▁ ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁equation ▁of ▁the ▁center . ▁ ▁Rad ius ▁from ▁true ▁anom aly ▁The ▁radius ▁( distance ▁from ▁the ▁focus ▁of ▁att raction ▁and ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body ) ▁is ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁by ▁the ▁formula ▁ ▁where ▁a ▁is ▁the ▁orbit ' s ▁semi - major ▁axis . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Ke pler ' s ▁laws ▁of ▁planet ary ▁motion ▁ ▁E cc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁ ▁Mean ▁anom aly ▁ ▁El lipse
▁ ▁Hyper bol a ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Murray , ▁C . ▁D . ▁& ▁D erm ott , ▁S . ▁F ., ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁Sol ar ▁System ▁Dynam ics , ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press , ▁Cambridge . ▁▁ ▁Pl um mer , ▁H . ▁C ., ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁An ▁Int ro duct ory ▁Tre at ise ▁on ▁Dynam ical ▁Astronom y , ▁D over ▁Publications , ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁( Re print ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press ▁edition .) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Federal ▁A viation ▁Administration ▁- ▁Descri bing ▁Or bits ▁ ▁Category : Or bits <0x0A> </s> ▁Eth el ▁Hudson ▁( born ▁ 2 ▁February ▁ 1 9 7 0 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Indones ian ▁long - distance ▁runner . ▁He ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁men ' s ▁mar athon ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : A th let es ▁( track ▁and ▁field ) ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁long - distance ▁run ners ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁mar athon ▁run ners ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁athlet es ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁Category : Place ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁cross ▁country ▁run ners <0x0A> </s> ▁Saint - C res pin -
sur - Mo ine ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁Maine - et - Lo ire ▁department ▁in ▁western ▁France . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 5 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Le ▁Long er on , ▁Mont f au con - Mont ign é , ▁La ▁Rena udi ère , ▁R ous say , ▁Saint - And ré - de - la - Mar che , ▁Saint - C res pin - sur - Mo ine , ▁Saint - G erm ain - sur - Mo ine , ▁Saint - Mac aire - en - M au ges , ▁T illi ères ▁and ▁Tor f ou ▁merged ▁becoming ▁one ▁commune ▁called ▁S è v rem o ine . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Comm unes ▁of ▁the ▁Maine - et - Lo ire ▁department ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁IN SEE ▁commune ▁file ▁ ▁Saint c resp ins ur mo ine <0x0A> </s> ▁C ul bre ath ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁People : ▁Jim ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 2 ), ▁former ▁American ▁football ▁running ▁back ▁Jordan ▁C ul bre ath , ▁former ▁running ▁back ▁Josh ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 3 2 ), ▁American ▁ath lete ▁Lyn n ▁C ul bre ath ▁No el ▁( born ▁ 1 9 2 6 ), ▁African - American ▁news ▁rep orter ▁O amo ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 8 7 ), ▁professional ▁Canadian ▁football ▁off ensive ▁lin eman ▁ ▁Places :
▁C ul bre ath ▁Bay ou , ▁neighborhood ▁within ▁the ▁city ▁limits ▁of ▁T ampa , ▁Florida ▁C ul bre ath ▁Is les , ▁neighborhood ▁within ▁the ▁South ▁T ampa ▁district ▁of ▁T ampa ▁ ▁Sh ips : ▁SS ▁Harry ▁C ul bre ath ▁ ▁SS ▁Harry ▁C ul bre ath ▁( 1 9 4 2 ) <0x0A> </s> ▁D rap et odes ▁mit aria ▁is ▁a ▁moth ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁D rep an idae . ▁It ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁Ach ille ▁Gu en ée ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁and ▁from ▁India ▁to ▁Singapore ▁and ▁in ▁Taiwan . ▁ ▁Ad ult s ▁are ▁on ▁wing ▁in ▁June ▁and ▁July . ▁ ▁The ▁lar va e ▁feed ▁on ▁Hed ych ium ▁species . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M oth s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 ▁Category : D rep an inae <0x0A> </s> ▁Bur iti ▁Bra vo ▁is ▁a ▁municipality ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Mar anh ão ▁in ▁the ▁N ortheast ▁region ▁of ▁Brazil . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁municipal ities ▁in ▁Mar anh ão ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M unicip al ities ▁in ▁Mar anh ão <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁of ▁Alexand ria ▁() ▁was ▁a ▁By z antine ▁medical ▁writer ▁who ▁lived ▁in ▁Alexand ria , ▁in ▁present - day ▁Egypt . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁Gal en ' s ▁De ▁sect is , ▁a ▁Latin ▁version ▁of ▁which ▁surv
ives ▁in ▁several ▁manuscript s . ▁He ▁wrote ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁Hi pp ocr ates ' ▁book ▁about ▁the ▁fo et us ▁( In ▁Hi pp ocrat is ▁De ▁natur a ▁pu eri ▁comment arium ), ▁which ▁surv ives ▁in ▁one ▁Greek ▁manuscript ▁and ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 3 th - century ▁Latin ▁version ▁made ▁for ▁King ▁Man fred ▁of ▁Sic ily . ▁He ▁also ▁wrote ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁the ▁sixth ▁book ▁of ▁Hi pp ocr ates ' ▁Ep ide m ics ▁( In ▁Hi pp ocrat is ▁Ep ide mi ar um ▁li br um ▁VI ▁comment ari i ▁fragment a ), ▁known ▁from ▁an ▁anonymous ▁Latin ▁translation ▁and ▁from ▁extract s ▁from ▁the ▁Greek ▁original , ▁entered ▁in ▁the ▁marg ins ▁of ▁a ▁Greek ▁translation ▁of ▁an ▁Arab ic ▁medical ▁text . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁death s ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁people ▁Category : By z antine ▁phys icians ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Alexand ria ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁phys icians ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁scient ists ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁writers <0x0A> </s> ▁Y ach uli ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁Indian ▁state ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh . ▁Lower ▁Sub ans iri ▁is ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁district ▁that ▁contains ▁village ▁Y ach uli . ▁ ▁Y ach uli ▁is ▁located ▁ ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁district ▁headquarters ▁of ▁Z iro .
▁It ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 0 ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh . ▁The ▁current ▁Member ▁of ▁the ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁for ▁this ▁constitu ency ▁() ▁is ▁L ik ha ▁Sa aya . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Lower ▁Sub ans iri ▁district ▁Category : Assembly ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh <0x0A> </s> ▁S as am oto ▁( written : ▁ <0xE7> <0xAC> <0xB9> 本 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Japanese ▁surname . ▁Notable ▁people ▁with ▁the ▁surname ▁include : ▁ ▁, ▁Japanese ▁artist ▁, ▁Japanese ▁sport ▁wrest ler ▁, ▁Japanese ▁photograph er ▁, ▁Japanese ▁writer ▁, ▁Japanese ▁voice ▁actress ▁ ▁Category : J apan ese - language ▁s urn ames <0x0A> </s> ▁African ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁femin ism ▁innov ated ▁by ▁African ▁women ▁that ▁specifically ▁addresses ▁the ▁conditions ▁and ▁needs ▁of ▁contin ental ▁African ▁women ▁( A fr ican ▁women ▁who ▁res ide ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent ). ▁African ▁femin ism ▁includes ▁many ▁stra ins ▁of ▁its ▁own , ▁including ▁Mother ism , ▁Fem al ism , ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁Fem in ism , ▁Woman ism / w omen ▁p ala ver ing , ▁N ego - f em in ism , ▁ ▁and ▁African ▁Woman ism . ▁Because ▁Africa ▁is ▁not ▁a
▁mon ol ith , ▁these ▁femin isms ▁are ▁not ▁all ▁reflect ive ▁of ▁the ▁experiences ▁African ▁women ▁have . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁femin isms ▁are ▁more ▁specific ▁to ▁certain ▁groups ▁of ▁African ▁women . ▁African ▁femin ism ▁is ▁sometimes ▁aligned ▁with , ▁in ▁dialog ue , ▁or ▁in ▁conflict ▁with ▁Black ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁or ▁African ▁woman ism ▁( which ▁is ▁perce ived ▁as ▁by ▁and ▁for ▁African ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁di as por a , ▁rather ▁than ▁African ▁women ▁on ▁or ▁recently ▁from ▁the ▁continent ) ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁other ▁femin isms ▁and ▁femin ist ▁movements , ▁including ▁nation ally ▁based ▁ones , ▁such ▁as ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Sweden , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁India , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Mexico , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Japan , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Germany , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁South ▁Africa , ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁ ▁Need ▁for ▁an ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Some ▁argue ▁that ▁African ▁women ▁are ▁the ▁first ▁femin ists , ▁were ▁already ▁deeply ▁engaged ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁Women ' s ' ▁Conference , ▁and ▁have ▁long ▁been ▁recogn izing ▁each ▁other ' s ▁contributions . ▁O thers ▁feel ▁African ▁femin ism ▁became ▁necessary ▁in ▁part ▁due ▁to ▁white ▁Western ▁femin ism ' s ▁ex clusion ▁of ▁the ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁black ▁woman ▁and ▁the ▁contin ental ▁African ▁woman . ▁White ▁Western ▁femin isms ▁does ▁not ▁take ▁into ▁account ▁the ▁particular ▁issues ▁black ▁women ▁face ▁at ▁the ▁intersection ▁of ▁both ▁their ▁black ness ▁and ▁their ▁woman hood . ▁Currently
, ▁white ▁femin ism ▁often ▁class ifies ▁African ▁women ▁as ▁" w omen ▁of ▁color ," ▁which ▁groups ▁and ▁thereby ▁repr esses ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁historical ▁traject ory ▁and ▁specific ▁experience . ▁Haz el ▁Car by ▁in ▁" White ▁Women ▁List en ! ▁Black ▁Fem in ism ▁and ▁the ▁B ound aries ▁of ▁Sister hood " ▁notes ▁why ▁white ▁femin ism ▁is ▁considered ▁the ▁norm ative ▁experience ▁of ▁all ▁women . ▁She ▁writes , ▁" History ▁has ▁constructed ▁our ▁sexual ity ▁and ▁our ▁femin inity ▁as ▁devi ating ▁from ▁those ▁qual ities ▁with ▁which ▁white ▁women , ▁as ▁the ▁prize ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world , ▁have ▁been ▁end owed ." ▁However , ▁white ▁femin ism ▁cannot ▁continue ▁to ▁er ase ▁Africa ▁or ▁African ▁women ▁from ▁femin ist ▁theory ▁or ▁femin ist ▁advoc acy , ▁because ▁as ▁the ▁Mother ▁Cont inent ▁of ▁human ity , ▁the ▁narr atives ▁and ▁experiences ▁of ▁Africa ' s ▁women ▁will ▁always ▁be ▁relevant . ▁ ▁African ▁femin ism ▁was ▁not ▁wh olly ▁a ▁reaction ▁to ▁being ▁ex cluded ▁from ▁white ▁femin ists ' ▁vision ▁of ▁femin ism , ▁but ▁also ▁from ▁their ▁own ▁ing enu ity ▁and ▁desire ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁femin ism ▁that ▁emb rac ed ▁their ▁background s ▁and ▁experiences . ▁African ▁femin ism ▁voices ▁the ▁real ities ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁varying ▁African ▁countries . ▁Women ' s ▁needs , ▁reality , ▁opp ression ▁and ▁emp ower ment ▁are ▁best ▁addressed ▁by ▁having ▁an ▁inclus ive ▁and ▁accommod ating ▁understanding ▁of ▁the ▁generic ▁and
▁more ▁general ▁issues ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁peculiar ities ▁and ▁group ▁attitude ▁to ▁self - definition ▁as ▁women . ▁Na omi ▁N ke al ah ▁writes ▁that ▁African ▁femin ism ▁" st riv es ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁new , ▁liberal , ▁product ive ▁and ▁self - re li ant ▁African ▁woman ▁within ▁the ▁heter ogeneous ▁cult ures ▁of ▁Africa . ▁Fem in isms ▁in ▁Africa , ▁ultimately , ▁aim ▁at ▁modifying ▁culture ▁as ▁it ▁affect s ▁women ▁in ▁different ▁soci eties ." ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁Africa ▁is ▁not ▁a ▁mon ol ith ▁and ▁so ▁some ▁have ▁crit iqu ed ▁any ▁idea ▁of ▁" A fr ican ▁femin ism ." ▁There ▁exist ▁differences ▁region ally , ▁eth n ically , ▁polit ically , ▁and ▁in ▁religion , ▁which ▁all ▁work ▁to ▁impact ▁how ▁women ▁concept ual ize ▁what ▁femin ism ▁and ▁freedom ▁looks ▁like ▁for ▁them . ▁While ▁African ▁women ▁from , ▁for ▁example , ▁Egypt , ▁Ken ya , ▁South ▁Africa ▁and ▁Sen eg al ▁will ▁have ▁some ▁common al ities , ▁there ▁will ▁be ▁variations ▁in ▁the ▁way ▁they ▁understand ▁gender ▁and ▁gender ▁strugg les . ▁Therefore , ▁these ▁varying ▁cult ures ▁alter ▁the ▁way ▁these ▁African ▁women ▁experience ▁the ▁world . ▁Thus , ▁one ▁cannot ▁simply ▁merge ▁all ▁woman ▁under ▁an ▁un real istic ▁expectation ▁of ▁sister hood , ▁but ▁instead ▁to ▁recognize ▁and ▁respect ▁the ▁differences ▁that ▁exist ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁these ▁divers ities . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁common ality ▁to ▁the ▁strugg les ▁women ▁face
▁across ▁the ▁world ▁since ▁the ▁common ▁factor ▁is ▁male ▁privile ge . ▁The ▁modern ▁African ▁woman ▁is ▁strong , ▁smart , ▁and ▁res il ient ▁and ▁has ▁w oken ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁options ▁she ▁has . ▁She ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁satisfied ▁with ▁the ▁options ▁created ▁for ▁her , ▁but ▁see ks ▁to ▁create ▁new ▁options ▁and ▁choices ▁for ▁the ▁generation ▁of ▁other ▁African ▁women ▁that ▁will ▁come ▁after ▁her . ▁Gh ana ian ▁femin ists , ▁for ▁example , ▁contribute ▁to ▁this ▁by ▁using ▁social ▁media ▁to ▁change ▁the ▁public ▁disc ourse ▁around ▁femin ism . ▁ ▁Some ▁sch ol ars ▁have ▁called ▁for ▁more ▁attention ▁in ▁African ▁femin ist ▁theory ▁to ▁sex ▁work , ▁the ▁white ▁sav ior ▁complex ▁and ▁violence ▁against ▁African ▁women , ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁military , ▁field work ▁with ▁African ▁women , ▁same - sex ▁int ima cies , ▁contempor ane ity , ▁and ▁activ ists ' ▁thought . ▁ ▁African ▁femin ism ▁has ▁been ▁divided ▁around ▁issues ▁of ▁sexual ity : ▁" A fr ican ▁femin ists ▁are ▁sharp ly ▁divided , ▁with ▁the ▁bulk ▁of ▁the ▁majority ▁resist ant ▁to ▁challeng ing ▁heter osex ism ▁and ▁hom oph ob ia ▁in ▁their ▁pra xis ▁against ▁patri archy . ▁... ▁Only ▁a ▁few ▁radical ▁African ▁femin ists ▁address ▁heter on orm ativity , ▁while ▁a ▁much ▁smaller ▁cor pus ▁of ▁individual ▁que er ▁African ▁femin ists ▁incorpor ate ▁non - ess ential ist ▁fluid ▁and ▁dynamic ▁understand ings ▁of ▁gender ▁that ▁dig ress ▁the ▁fixed ▁binary ▁opposition
▁of ▁men ▁and ▁women , ▁male ▁and ▁female ." ▁ ▁Princi ples ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁African ▁femin isms ▁address ▁cultural ▁issues ▁that ▁they ▁feel ▁per tain ▁to ▁the ▁complex ▁experiences ▁faced ▁by ▁all ▁women ▁of ▁all ▁cult ures ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent . ▁In ▁regards ▁to ▁femin ist ▁the or izing , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁authors ▁of ▁such ▁theories ▁origin ate ▁from ▁West ▁Africa ▁and ▁Niger ia ▁in ▁particular .[ 1 ] ▁ ▁In ▁her ▁article , ▁" West ▁African ▁Fem in isms ▁and ▁Their ▁Ch alleng es ", ▁Na omi ▁N ke al ah ▁discuss es ▁the ▁various ▁forms ▁of ▁African ▁femin isms . ▁First , ▁she ▁points ▁to ▁woman ism , ▁which ▁she ▁arg ues ▁is ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁as ▁it ▁per tain s ▁to ▁African ▁women ▁of ▁the ▁di as por a ▁and ▁not ▁contin ental ▁African ▁women . ▁Second , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁st iw an ism , ▁which , ▁on ▁the ▁contrary , ▁places ▁African ▁women ▁at ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁disc ourse ▁because ▁st iw an ism ▁is ▁deeply ▁root ed ▁in ▁the ▁experiences ▁and ▁real ities ▁African ▁women ▁face . ▁Third , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁Mother ism , ▁a ▁mat ernal ▁form ▁of ▁femin ism ▁that ▁sees ▁rural ▁women ▁as ▁performing ▁the ▁necessary ▁task ▁of ▁n urt uring ▁society . ▁Four th , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁fem al ism , ▁which ▁puts ▁the ▁woman ' s ▁body ▁at ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁femin ist ▁convers ations . ▁Finally , ▁she ▁looks
▁at ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁and ▁sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism , ▁which ▁ur ge ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁men ▁in ▁discuss ions ▁and ▁advoc acy ▁for ▁femin ism ▁and ▁both ▁argue ▁that ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁men ▁is ▁necessary ▁to ▁the ▁freedom ▁of ▁women . ▁ ▁These ▁modes ▁of ▁femin isms ▁share ▁several ▁common al ities . ▁First , ▁they ▁all ▁challenge ▁the ▁term ▁" f em in ism ," ▁both ▁its ▁Western ▁term ▁and ▁roots , ▁because ▁they ▁bring ▁to ▁the ▁fore front ▁the ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁woman . ▁Second , ▁because ▁they ▁are ▁dependent ▁on ▁ind igen ous ▁blue print s , ▁they ▁take ▁from ▁the ▁histor ies ▁and ▁cult ures ▁of ▁African ▁pe op les ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁necessary ▁tools ▁needed ▁to ▁emb old en ▁women ▁and ▁educ ate ▁men . ▁Third , ▁they ▁incorpor ate ▁" gender ▁inclusion , ▁collaboration ▁and ▁accommod ation ▁to ▁ensure ▁that ▁both ▁women ▁and ▁men ▁contribute ▁( even ▁if ▁not ▁equally ) ▁to ▁impro ving ▁the ▁material ▁conditions ▁of ▁women ." ▁ ▁The ▁variety ▁in ▁femin isms ▁displays ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁active ▁eng agement ▁with ▁gender ▁relations . ▁ ▁Vari ants ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Woman ism ▁▁ ▁Catherine ▁Ach ol on u ▁notes ▁that ▁femin ism ▁is ▁useful . ▁" F em in ism , ▁has ▁as ▁its ▁ult imate ▁goal ▁the ▁tri um phal ▁em an cip ation ▁of ▁the ▁woman ▁as ▁a ▁unique , ▁distinct ▁individual ▁with ▁a ▁mind ▁un cl
utter ed ▁by ▁patri arch al ▁belief s ▁and ▁ab us ive ▁submission ▁to ▁tradition ." ▁However , ▁though ▁the ▁general ▁notion ▁of ▁femin ism ▁a ims ▁to ▁provide ▁women ▁with ▁political , ▁social , ▁and ▁econom ical ▁fre ed oms , ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁critic ized ▁as ▁ex cluding ▁the ▁narr atives ▁and ▁experiences ▁of ▁women ▁of ▁color , ▁especially ▁black ▁women . ▁Because ▁of ▁this ▁ex clusion ▁in ▁femin ism , ▁woman ism ▁has ▁emer ged ▁as ▁the ▁African - American ▁and ▁African ▁variant . ▁ ▁African ▁Woman ism ▁addresses ▁femin ism ▁from ▁( 1 ) ▁an ▁African ▁perspective ; ▁( 2 ) ▁an ▁African ▁ge opol it ical ▁location ; ▁( 3 ) ▁and ▁an ▁African ▁ide ological ▁view point . ▁Woman ism ▁is ▁important ▁because ▁it ▁places ▁the ▁femin ist ▁vision ▁within ▁black ▁women ' s ▁experiences ▁with ▁culture , ▁colonial ism ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁forms ▁of ▁dom ination ▁and ▁sub j ug ation ▁that ▁impact ▁African ▁women ' s ▁lives . ▁ ▁Woman ism ▁" a ims ▁at ▁ident ifying ▁the ▁problems ▁rel ating ▁to ▁male ▁domin ance ▁in ▁society ▁while ▁seeking ▁solutions ▁to ▁women ’ s ▁marg inal ization ▁by ▁looking ▁in ward ▁and ▁out ward ." ▁ ▁A ▁variant ▁of ▁Woman ism ▁put ▁forth ▁by ▁Cl en ora ▁Hudson - We ems ▁is ▁Afr icana ▁Woman ism , ▁termin ology ▁which ▁she ▁co ined ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Her ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁" A fr icana " ▁indicates ▁that
▁women - f oc used ▁activ ism ▁should ▁be ▁inclus ive ▁of ▁women ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent ▁and ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁African ▁D ias por a . ▁She ▁arg ues ▁a ▁complete ▁break ▁from ▁white ▁femin ism , ▁a ▁movement ▁which ▁was ▁created ▁by ▁and ▁for ▁white ▁women ▁without ▁any ▁incorpor ation ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁experience . ▁She ▁also ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Afr icana ▁men ▁and ▁women ▁have ▁more ▁in ▁common ▁than ▁Afr icana ▁women ▁do ▁with ▁white ▁women , ▁further ▁reason ▁to ▁develop ▁a ▁new ▁kind ▁of ▁activ ism . ▁ ▁St iw an ism ▁ ▁F ounded ▁by ▁Om ol ara ▁Og und ipe - Les lie , ▁St iw an ism ▁focus es ▁more ▁on ▁the ▁structures ▁that ▁opp ress ▁women ▁and ▁the ▁way ▁women ▁react ▁to ▁these ▁institution al ized ▁structures . ▁Og und ipe - Les lie ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁struggle ▁for ▁African ▁women ▁is ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁colonial ▁and ▁ne o - colon ial ▁structure ▁that ▁often ▁place ▁African ▁males ▁at ▁the ▁a pe x ▁of ▁social ▁strat ification . ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁struggle ▁African ▁women ▁face ▁are ▁also ▁im part ▁to ▁the ▁way ▁they ▁have ▁internal ized ▁the ▁patri archy ▁and ▁have ▁come ▁to ▁end or se ▁the ▁system ▁themselves . ▁ ▁N ego - f em in ism ▁ ▁African ▁femin ist , ▁writer , ▁and ▁scholar ▁Ob i oma ▁N na eme ka ▁discuss es ▁and ▁defines ▁the ▁term ▁" N ego - f em in ism " ▁in ▁her ▁article ▁N ego
- F em in ism : ▁The or izing , ▁Pract icing , ▁and ▁Pr uning ▁Africa ' s ▁Way ." ▁She ▁writes , ▁" N ego - f em in ism ▁is ▁the ▁femin ism ▁of ▁neg ot iation ; ▁second , ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁stands ▁for ▁' no ▁e go ' ▁femin ism ▁and ▁is ▁struct ured ▁by ▁cultural ▁imper atives ▁and ▁mod ulated ▁by ▁ever sh ifting ▁local ▁and ▁global ▁ex igen cies ." ▁Most ▁African ▁cult ures ▁have ▁a ▁culture ▁of ▁neg ot iation ▁and ▁comprom ise ▁when ▁it ▁comes ▁to ▁reaching ▁agre ements . ▁In ▁N ego - f em in ism , ▁negoti ations ▁play ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁giving ▁and ▁taking . ▁For ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁win ▁challeng es , ▁femin ists ▁must ▁negoti ate ▁and ▁sometimes ▁comprom ise ▁enough ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁gain ▁fre ed oms . ▁N na eme ka ▁writes ▁that ▁African ▁femin ism ▁works ▁by ▁knowing ▁" when , ▁where , ▁and ▁how ▁to ▁det on ate ▁and ▁go ▁around ▁patri arch al ▁land ▁mines ." ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁knows ▁how ▁to ▁util ize ▁the ▁culture ▁of ▁neg ot iation ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁de construct ▁the ▁patri archy ▁for ▁the ▁woman ' s ▁benefit . ▁ ▁Mother ism ▁ ▁In ▁her ▁book , ▁Mother ism : ▁The ▁Af ro cent ric ▁Altern ative ▁to ▁Fem in ism , ▁Catherine ▁Ob ian u ju ▁Ach ol on u ▁writes
▁that ▁Africa ' s ▁alternative ▁to ▁Western ▁femin ism ▁is ▁Mother ism ▁and ▁Mother ism ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁mother hood , ▁nature , ▁and ▁n urt ure . ▁When ▁defined , ▁Mother ism ▁is ▁a ▁mult id im ensional ▁theory ▁that ▁involves ▁the ▁" d ynam ics ▁of ▁ordering , ▁re order ing , ▁creating ▁structures , ▁building ▁and ▁re building ▁in ▁co operation ▁with ▁mother ▁nature ▁at ▁all ▁levels ▁of ▁human ▁ende avor ." ▁A ▁mother ist ▁is ▁someone ▁who ▁is ▁committed ▁to ▁the ▁surv ival ▁and ▁maintenance ▁of ▁Mother ▁Earth ▁and ▁someone ▁who ▁em bra ces ▁the ▁human ▁struggle . ▁Ach ol on u ▁makes ▁it ▁clear , ▁though , ▁that ▁a ▁mother ist ▁can ▁be ▁a ▁woman ▁or ▁a ▁man . ▁Mother ism ▁has ▁no ▁sex ▁bar riers ▁because ▁at ▁the ▁core ▁of ▁mother ism ▁is ▁partners hip , ▁co operation , ▁toler ance , ▁love , ▁understanding , ▁and ▁p atience . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁for ▁mother ism ▁to ▁work , ▁there ▁must ▁be ▁a ▁male - f em ale ▁complement ar ity ▁that ▁ens ures ▁the ▁wh ol eness ▁of ▁human ▁existence ▁in ▁a ▁bal anced ▁e cos ystem . ▁ ▁Fem al ism ▁The ▁fem al ist ▁model ▁was ▁developed ▁by ▁Chi oma ▁O para . ▁O para ▁describes ▁fem al ism ▁as ▁" A ▁h ue ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁is ▁a ▁so fter ▁tone ▁than ▁liberal ▁femin ism ▁and ▁highly ▁polar ized ▁from ▁radical ▁femin ism ." ▁At ▁its ▁core , ▁fem al ism
▁is ▁African ▁and ▁it ▁acc ent u ates ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁body . ▁ ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁proposed ▁by ▁Ak achi ▁Ad im ora - E ze ig bo . ▁This ▁femin ism ▁encourag es ▁Niger ian ▁woman ▁to ▁work ▁slowly ▁like ▁a ▁sn ail ' s ▁movement ▁in ▁her ▁deal ings ▁with ▁men ▁in ▁the ▁" t ough ▁and ▁very ▁difficult ▁patri arch al ▁[ N iger ian ] ▁society ▁they ▁live ▁in ." ▁E ze ig bo ▁propos es ▁that ▁women ▁" must ▁learn ▁surv ival ▁strateg ies ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁overcome ▁the ▁imped iments ▁placed ▁before ▁her ▁and ▁live ▁a ▁good ▁life ." ▁ ▁Mis ov ir ism ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Mis ov ir ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁In vent ed ▁by ▁Cam ero onian ▁think er ▁W ere w ere ▁L ik ing . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Cultural ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁invent ed ▁by ▁Niger ian ▁author ▁Buch i ▁E me ch eta , ▁which ▁she ▁called ▁" f em in ism ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁f ." ▁ ▁Ex amples ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Fem in ism ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁ ▁Although ▁not ew orth y ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁have ▁spr out ed ▁across ▁the ▁African ▁continent , ▁the ▁femin ist ▁movement ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁serves ▁as ▁a ▁prime ▁example ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism . ▁Following ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁national ▁conference , ▁the
▁inaug uration ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁( WIN ) ▁presented ▁femin ism ▁in ▁its ▁present ▁form ▁- ▁consistent , ▁organized , ▁with ▁clear ▁object ives ▁and ▁ide ology . ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁rough ▁beg inn ings , ▁many ▁sch ol ars ▁pay ▁t ribute ▁to ▁W IN ▁for ▁acting ▁as ▁training ▁grounds ▁for ▁the ▁emer gence ▁of ▁organized ▁femin ist ▁strugg les ▁in ▁Niger ia . ▁ ▁During ▁its ▁first ▁ten ▁years , ▁W IN ▁facil itated ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁self - ident ified ▁femin ists ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁today . ▁W IN ▁adopted ▁an ▁open ▁membership ▁policy ▁of ▁‘ come ▁one ▁- ▁come ▁all ’ , ▁where ▁anyone , ▁male ▁or ▁female , ▁was ▁accepted ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁such ▁a ▁person ▁accepted ▁the ▁prov isions ▁of ▁W IN ' s ▁Constitution . ▁W IN ' s ▁open ▁membership ▁policy ▁allowed ▁the ▁entry ▁of ▁many ▁persons ▁who ▁had ▁no ▁clue ▁about ▁the ▁core ▁values ▁of ▁femin ism ▁and ▁principles ▁of ▁gender ▁justice . ▁ ▁From ▁its ▁in ception , ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁spons ored ▁research ▁projects ▁while ▁eng aging ▁in ▁policy ▁advoc acy ▁and ▁activ ism ▁that ▁hol ist ically ▁aim ed ▁towards ▁en han cing ▁the ▁so cio e conom ic ▁conditions ▁under ▁which ▁many ▁women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁experienced . ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁uniqu eness ▁of ▁W IN ▁der ives ▁from ▁its ▁conscious ness ▁of ▁both ▁class ▁and ▁gender ▁in ▁relation ▁to ▁the ▁struggle ▁for ▁the ▁em an cip ation ▁of ▁Niger ian ▁women
. ▁Therefore , ▁W IN ▁recognized ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁female ▁experience ▁as ▁essentially ▁as ▁“ double ▁je op ard y ,” ▁where ▁explo itation ▁and ▁opp ression ▁of ▁women ▁marked ▁as ▁dual ▁forms ▁of ▁in just ices , ▁both ▁as ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁sub ordinate ▁class ▁and ▁as ▁women . ▁ ▁W IN ▁to ▁N FF ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁femin ist ▁movement ▁inaugur ated ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁Fem in ist ▁Forum ▁( N FF ) ▁- ▁which ▁established ▁a ▁larger ▁and ▁more ▁coh er ent ▁coal ition ▁than ▁W IN . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 0 0 s , ▁the ▁N FF ▁was ▁created ▁after ▁an ▁inc ub ation ▁period ▁that ▁started ▁with ▁the ▁launch ing ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁Fem in ist ▁Forum ▁( A FF ) ▁in ▁Acc ra , ▁Gh ana . ▁The ▁A FF ▁published ▁the ▁Char ter ▁of ▁the ▁Fem in ist ▁Princi ples ▁which ▁serves ▁as ▁an ▁inform ative ▁guide ▁for ▁African ▁Fem in ists ▁that ▁clearly ▁states ▁how ▁African ▁femin ists ▁define ▁themselves , ▁it ▁del ivers ▁the ▁understanding ▁of ▁Fem in ism ▁and ▁Patri archy , ▁and ▁ampl ifies ▁the ▁identity , ▁eth ics ▁and ▁proper ▁knowledge ▁of ▁femin ist ▁leadership ▁across ▁the ▁continent ▁of ▁Africa . ▁ ▁After ▁much ▁success ▁at ▁the ▁grass ro ots ▁level , ▁the ▁N FF ▁effectively ▁expanded ▁and ▁replaced ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁( WIN ) ▁as ▁the ▁official ▁Niger ian ▁Fem in ist ▁Mov ement . ▁Furthermore ,
▁these ▁newly ▁evol ved ▁Niger ian ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁took ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁contin ental ▁( Pan ▁African ) ▁femin ist ▁movement , ▁where ▁thousands ▁of ▁femin ist ▁activ ists ▁from ▁all ▁over ▁the ▁region ▁were ▁brought ▁together ▁to ▁fight ▁against ▁the ▁Patri archy . ▁ ▁Ch alleng es ▁ ▁The ▁so cio - e conom ic ▁impact s ▁of ▁in equ ity ▁and ▁in just ice ▁towards ▁African ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁serve ▁as ▁det r iment al ▁stress ors ▁that ▁in hib it ▁women ' s ▁rights , ▁which ▁t amp ers ▁with ▁their ▁overall ▁political ▁movement . ▁Over all , ▁most ▁women ▁are ▁un emp loy ed , ▁where ▁in ▁most ▁cases ▁even ▁if ▁they ▁are ▁employed , ▁women ▁are ▁often ▁employed ▁as ▁cas uals , ▁or ▁temps . ▁This ▁ultimately ▁h amp ers ▁women ' s ▁ability ▁to ▁organ ize , ▁mobil ize ▁and ▁collect ively ▁advoc ate . ▁Another ▁difficulty ▁is ▁how ▁strong ▁the ▁patri archy ▁is ▁in ▁both ▁urban ▁and ▁rural ▁African ▁communities . ▁This ▁influ ences ▁domestic ▁politics ▁within ▁the ▁household ▁and ▁ultimately ▁in ▁every ▁community , ▁which ▁s ways ▁women ▁to ▁act ▁against ▁their ▁own ▁belief s ▁and ▁against ▁other ▁women ▁as ▁well . ▁ ▁South ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁Background ▁History ▁of ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁In ▁Sud an , ▁religion ▁is ▁an ▁integral ▁part ▁of ▁how ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁women ▁are ▁govern ed ▁( H al im ▁ 3 8 9 ). ▁Since ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁in
▁Sud an ▁follows ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁faith , ▁they ▁ad here ▁to ▁Sh aria , ▁the ▁religious ▁law ▁enfor ced ▁through ▁the ▁l ens ▁of ▁the ▁Q ur an ▁( H ale ▁ 9 0 ). ▁The ▁Sh aria ▁law ▁was ▁implemented ▁by ▁President ▁Ga af ar ▁Moh amed ▁N ime iry ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁gain ▁support ▁in ▁a ▁time ▁of ▁inst ability ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁It ▁creates ▁rules ▁for ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁people ▁that ▁would ▁silence ▁the ▁un rest , ▁especially ▁concerning ▁the ▁control ▁over ▁women ' s ▁conduct . ▁Although ▁this ▁regime ▁was ▁ended ▁by ▁a ▁brief ▁dem ocracy , ▁it ▁did ▁nothing ▁to ▁combat ▁the ▁Sh aria ▁laws ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 0 ). ▁Many ▁reg imes ▁have ▁stated ▁the ▁equality ▁of ▁sex es ▁in ▁their ▁constitution s , ▁still , ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁are ▁targets ▁during ▁times ▁of ▁inst ability ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 0 ). ▁ ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ist ▁Gr oups ▁ ▁The ▁Sud an ese ▁Women ' s ▁Union ▁( SW U ) ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influ ential ▁organizations ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 0 s ▁when ▁Sud an ▁was ▁under ▁Ang lo - Europe an ▁rule ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 1 ). ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁SW U ▁occurred ▁simultaneously ▁with ▁the ▁national ▁movement , ▁both ▁combined ▁their ▁efforts ▁to ▁separate ▁from ▁Ang lo - E gypt ian ▁rule ▁( H al
im ▁ 3 9 1 ). ▁The ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁SW U , ▁Al ▁A min ▁and ▁Ah med ▁Ab del ▁M age id ▁explained ▁that ▁due ▁to ▁pre jud ices ▁about ▁women ' s ▁participation ▁in ▁public ▁activities , ▁they ▁were ▁not ▁allowed ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁Gr adu ates ▁con gress ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 1 ). ▁The ▁union ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁a ▁social ▁organization ▁that ▁was ▁concerned ▁with ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁domestic ▁sphere ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 1 ). ▁Progress ▁was ▁made ▁through ▁a ▁restricted ▁right ▁to ▁vote ▁under ▁the ▁pre ten se , ▁the ▁women ▁were ▁educated . ▁They ▁also ▁created ▁a ▁magazine ▁called ▁the ▁“ W omen ’ s ▁Vo ice ” ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁political ▁out let ▁encourag ement ▁of ▁dem ocracy ▁and ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁Still , ▁women ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁SW U ▁denied ▁any ▁invol vement ▁with ▁The ▁Sud an ese ▁Commun ist ▁party , ▁regardless ▁of ▁their ▁political ▁activity ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁The ▁S CP ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁allow ▁women ▁to ▁join , ▁attract ing ▁educated ▁women ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁The ▁idea ▁of ▁political ▁membership ▁is ▁what ▁divided ▁the ▁SW U , ▁and ▁created ▁the ▁Patri otic ▁women ' s ▁front ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁The ▁SW U ▁women ▁were ▁left ▁very ▁sus cept ible ▁to ▁imprison ment ▁and ▁har
ass ment ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁invol vement ▁in ▁politics ▁( Bad ri ▁ 9 ). ▁The ▁N imer i ▁regime , ▁even ▁covered ▁up ▁the ▁SW U ' s ▁effort ▁by ▁putting ▁out ▁their ▁success es ▁like ▁first ▁woman ▁minister ▁and ▁woman ▁jud ges . ▁Then ▁he ▁implemented ▁the ▁September ▁laws ▁that ▁made ▁women ▁inferior ▁to ▁men . ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁women ' s ▁femin ist ▁movement ▁was ▁at ▁a ▁halt ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁military ▁government , ▁still ▁the ▁Women ' s ▁voice ▁continued ▁to ▁highlight ▁the ▁in just ices ▁of ▁the ▁regime ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 3 ). ▁ ▁The ▁Republican ▁Sister s ▁ <0x09> ▁This ▁women ' s ▁organization ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Republican ▁party ▁of ▁brothers ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁battle ▁against ▁the ▁first ▁military ▁regime ▁in ▁Sud an ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 3 ). ▁They ▁were ▁supported ▁by ▁their ▁male ▁counter parts , ▁and ▁together ▁campaign ed ▁for ▁equal ▁rights . ▁The ▁brothers ▁were ▁a ▁huge ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁struggle ▁for ▁equality ▁and ▁supports ▁women ▁during ▁their ▁speech es ▁and ▁dist ribute ▁their ▁publications ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 5 ). ▁They ▁tra ve led ▁around ▁cities ▁and ▁held ▁campaign s ▁and ▁deb ates ▁to ▁question ▁att itudes ▁against ▁women ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 4 ). ▁Their ▁objective ▁was ▁to ▁spread ▁their ▁theories ▁and ▁encou rage ▁a ▁new ▁perspective ▁about ▁women ' s ▁rights . ▁The ▁Republican ▁women ▁faced ▁grave ▁in just
ices ▁by ▁the ▁security ▁b ureau ▁and ▁ultimately ▁ended ▁in ▁the ▁leader ' s ▁death ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 5 ). ▁Us at dh ▁Mah m oud ▁started ▁the ▁party ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and ▁started ▁to ▁public ize ▁his ▁book ▁The ▁Second ▁Message ▁of ▁Islam , ▁he ▁wrote ▁about ▁the ▁rules ▁of ▁Islam ▁and ▁the ▁implementation ▁of ▁equality ▁of ▁sex es ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 3 ). ▁U stad h ▁published ▁motiv ation ▁for ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁through ▁lect ures , ▁discuss ions , ▁and ▁pushing ▁women ▁to ▁be ▁part ▁of ▁intellectual ▁spaces ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 5 ). ▁ ▁Go als ▁of ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ist ▁Gr oups ▁ ▁Women ▁groups ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁a ▁method ▁of ▁western izing ▁Muslim ▁life ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 5 ). ▁Women ▁in ▁the ▁Union ▁fought ▁hard ▁for ▁equal ▁pay ▁p ension ▁and ▁the ▁access ibility ▁to ▁work ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 5 ). ▁They ▁argued ▁it ▁was ▁the ▁trad itions ▁in ▁place ▁that ▁restricted ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁and ▁wanted ▁to ▁separate ▁religion ▁and ▁traditional ▁practices ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 6 ). ▁The ▁main ▁dem ands ▁of ▁the ▁SW U ▁were ▁the ▁em an cip ation ▁of ▁women , ▁higher ▁status ▁through ▁education , ▁night - sch ools ▁to ▁teach ▁liter acy , ▁equal ▁pay , ▁and ▁fighting ▁against ▁traditional ist ▁practices . ▁The ▁Republican ▁Sister s ▁believed ▁equality ▁was
▁a ▁part ▁of ▁religion ▁that ▁was ▁a ▁natural ▁right ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 6 ). ▁They ▁took ▁their ▁goals ▁further ▁and ▁also ▁fought ▁against ▁laws ▁that ▁opp ress ed ▁women . ▁The ▁women ' s ▁union ▁work ▁was ▁focused ▁on ▁creating ▁change ▁through ▁politics ▁and ▁Republic ation ▁st riv ed ▁for ▁legal ▁action ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 6 ). ▁ ▁Iss ues ▁and ▁Fem in ist ▁A ctions ▁in ▁Response : ▁ ▁Mar riage ▁& ▁Div or ce ▁ ▁Origin ally , ▁women ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁some ▁control ▁over ▁who ▁got ▁married ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁contract ▁between ▁the ▁father ▁and ▁husband . ▁This ▁caused ▁many ▁women ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁forced ▁mar ri ages , ▁the ▁Women ' s ▁union ▁made ▁it ▁aware ▁of ▁people ▁the ▁over wh el ming ▁number ▁of ▁suic ides ▁caused ▁by ▁this ▁and ▁consent ▁was ▁enfor ced ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 8 ). ▁Dow ry ▁is ▁central ▁to ▁marriage , ▁yet ▁many ▁men ▁could ▁not ▁afford ▁to ▁pay ▁them , ▁so ▁the ▁Women ' s ▁Union ▁and ▁they ▁campaign ed ▁for ▁a ▁lower ▁amount ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 9 ). ▁Their ▁main ▁concern ▁was ▁to ▁make ▁sure ▁women ▁would ▁marry ▁who ▁they ▁wanted ▁to ▁marry ▁without ▁the ▁expensive ▁dow ries ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 9 ). ▁They ▁also ▁published ▁less ▁sp ending , ▁education ▁for ▁girls , ▁and ▁the ▁re inst at ement ▁of ▁marriage ▁as ▁a ▁peace ful ▁agreement ▁( H al
im ▁ 3 9 9 ). ▁Many ▁women ▁were ▁subject ed ▁to ▁the ▁d angers ▁of ▁ab us ive ▁hus b ands ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁law ▁that ▁women ▁had ▁to ▁be ▁returned ▁by ▁police ▁if ▁dis ob ed ient ▁and ▁ran ▁away ▁( H al im ▁ 4 0 0 ). ▁The ▁Women ' s ▁Union ▁made ▁sure ▁that ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁forcing ▁a ▁return ▁on ▁a ▁women ▁was ▁repe aled ▁( H al im ▁ 4 0 0 ). ▁ <0x09> The ▁Republican ▁Sister s ▁took ▁a ▁different ▁path way ▁by ▁res h aping ▁the ▁perspective ▁on ▁women ▁about ▁respect ▁and ▁gender ▁roles . ▁They ▁released ▁the ▁book ▁called ▁F ocus ▁on ▁Personal ▁Status ▁law , ▁it ▁talked ▁about ▁creating ▁change ▁from ▁Sh ar ’ ia ▁laws ▁( H al im ▁ 4 0 1 ). ▁They ▁supported ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁simple ▁and ▁in exp ensive ▁wed d ings ▁and ▁a ▁focus ▁on ▁no ▁guard ians hip ▁in ▁marriage . ▁They ▁also ▁re impl anted ▁the ▁basic ▁right ▁to ▁divor ce ▁women ▁and ▁handling ▁divor ces ▁outside ▁of ▁court ▁( H al im ▁ 4 0 2 ). ▁Last , ▁they ▁campaign ed ▁for ▁the ▁dedu ction ▁of ▁dow ry ▁to ▁be ▁put ▁into ▁value ▁as ▁dign ity ▁for ▁women ▁( H al im ▁ 4 0 2 ). ▁ ▁Pres ent ▁Activ ism ▁ ▁Pro tests ▁ ▁Currently ▁in ▁Sud an , ▁Sud an ese ▁women ▁are ▁unit ing ▁to ▁protest ▁against ▁the ▁Sud an ▁government ▁in ▁hopes ▁of ▁ach ieving
▁justice ▁and ▁equality ▁for ▁women ▁( S ar ai ). ▁There ▁are ▁large ▁groups ▁of ▁protest ▁that ▁have ▁taken ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁streets ▁of ▁Sud an ▁where ▁women ▁are ▁chant ing ▁and ▁holding ▁up ▁signs ▁demand ing ▁for ▁a ▁new ▁government . ▁The ▁protest ing ▁women ▁are ▁fighting ▁for ▁a ▁ 5 0 % ▁representation ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁government . ▁However , ▁currently ▁the ▁qu ota ▁rate ▁is ▁ 3 0 %, ▁which ▁shows ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁female ▁representation ▁in ▁the ▁government , ▁resulting ▁in ▁a ▁large ▁to ll ▁on ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁women . ▁Although ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁women ▁are ▁fighting ▁to ▁create ▁change , ▁the ▁protest s ▁have ▁brought ▁great ▁danger ▁to ▁the ▁safety ▁of ▁women ▁( B hal la ). ▁The ▁government ' s ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁protest s ▁have ▁been ▁several ▁cases ▁of ▁ra pe ▁on ▁the ▁protest ing ▁women ▁that ▁were ▁committed ▁by ▁security ▁forces ▁( B hal la ). ▁However , ▁there ▁has ▁not ▁been ▁justice ▁done ▁for ▁the ▁cases , ▁which ▁has ▁further ▁driven ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁women ▁to ▁protest ▁and ▁fight ▁for ▁their ▁rights . ▁Even ▁with ▁the ▁d angers ▁the ▁protest s ▁bring ▁on ▁the ▁women , ▁the ▁women ▁continue ▁to ▁st rive ▁and ▁fight ▁for ▁an ▁equal ▁representation ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁Sud an ▁government ▁and ▁to ▁achieve ▁equal ▁rights ▁and ▁justice ▁( B hal la ). ▁ ▁Facebook ▁Gr oups ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁protest s , ▁Sud an ese ▁women ▁have ▁made ▁private ▁Facebook ▁groups
▁to ▁find ▁police ▁officers ▁who ▁are ▁act ively ▁pun ishing ▁the ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁protest s ▁( Gr iff in ). ▁Their ▁goal ▁is ▁to ▁public ly ▁expose ▁the ▁police ▁officers ▁in ▁order ▁for ▁people ▁to ▁find ▁the ▁officer ' s ▁home ▁and ▁phys ically ▁attack ▁them . ▁Only ▁women ▁are ▁allowed ▁in ▁the ▁groups , ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁upload ▁pictures ▁of ▁the ▁officers ▁and ▁people ▁can ▁respond ▁with ▁his ▁information ▁so ▁that ▁people ▁can ▁locate ▁him . ▁The ▁Facebook ▁groups ▁have ▁pos ed ▁such ▁a ▁threat ▁to ▁the ▁officers , ▁that ▁it ▁has ▁made ▁it ▁difficult ▁for ▁them ▁to ▁show ▁their ▁faces ▁in ▁public ▁without ▁covering ▁them ▁( Gr iff in ) ▁. ▁It ▁is ▁evident ▁that ▁the ▁groups ▁have ▁given ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁women ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁power ▁over ▁the ▁government ▁and ▁have ▁become ▁cru cial ▁in ▁their ▁attempts ▁to ▁push ▁for ▁women ▁representation ▁in ▁the ▁government . ▁ ▁S over eign ▁Council ▁ <0x09> In ▁attempts ▁to ▁female ▁representation ▁in ▁Sud an ' s ▁government , ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁solemn ▁ceremony ▁that ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁Kh art ou m , ▁Sud an ▁where ▁ 1 1 ▁people ▁were ▁sw orn ▁in ▁to ▁lead ▁the ▁country ▁( Sol omon ). ▁The ▁ 1 1 ▁people ▁sw orn ▁in ▁were ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁group ▁named ▁the ▁so ver eign ▁council , ▁in ▁which ▁two ▁of ▁them ▁were ▁women . ▁This ▁is ▁significant ▁in ▁bringing ▁more ▁female ▁representation ▁in
▁the ▁government , ▁which ▁will ▁allow ▁for ▁more ▁rights ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁women ▁and ▁an ▁opportunity ▁for ▁the ▁women ▁to ▁voice ▁their ▁opinions ▁more ▁freely . ▁R aja ▁Nicola ▁Iss a ▁Abd ul - M asse h , ▁a ▁female ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁so ver eign ▁council , ▁states , ▁“ We ▁shall ▁try ▁to ▁re build ▁our ▁country , ▁we ▁shall ▁try ▁to ▁re build ▁our ▁economy , ▁we ▁shall ▁begin ▁to ▁stop ▁all ▁the ▁armed ▁movements ▁and ▁work ▁for ▁peace ▁and ▁justice ▁for ▁all ▁Sud an ese ▁on ▁an ▁equal ▁basis ▁regardless ▁of ▁race ▁or ▁religion ▁or ▁any ▁political ▁opinion ▁or ▁any ▁affili ation ” ▁( Sol omon ). ▁The ▁two ▁female ▁members ▁in ▁the ▁so ver eign ▁council ▁are ▁st riv ing ▁to ▁bring ▁more ▁equality ▁and ▁justice ▁for ▁women ▁in ▁Sud an . ▁ ▁Prom inent ▁Niger ian ▁femin ists ▁ ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁R ans ome - K uti ▁( 1 9 0 0 ▁- ▁ 1 9 7 8 ) ▁▁ ▁Ser ving ▁as ▁a ▁teacher , ▁an ▁education ist , ▁and ▁a ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁activ ist , ▁Frances ▁Ab ig ail ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁R ans ome - K uti ▁is ▁widely ▁well ▁known ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁Niger ia ' s ▁earliest ▁and ▁for em ost ▁champions ▁of ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁during ▁the ▁colonial ▁period . ▁At ▁a ▁time ▁where ▁most ▁girls ▁were ▁not ▁granted ▁access ▁to ▁Western ▁education , ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁had
▁the ▁distinction ▁of ▁being ▁the ▁first ▁female ▁student ▁of ▁St . ▁John ▁Primary ▁School , ▁A be ok uta , ▁from ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 1 3 . ▁Being ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁set ▁of ▁girls ▁to ▁attend ▁school ▁in ▁Niger ia , ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁was ▁then ▁sent ▁to ▁study ▁abroad ▁in ▁England ▁to ▁finish ▁her ▁higher ▁education ▁at ▁Win ch am ▁Hall ▁College ▁in ▁York shire . ▁She ▁studied ▁Music , ▁Education , ▁Dom estic ▁Science ▁and ▁French , ▁where ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 3 , ▁she ▁returned ▁to ▁Niger ia ▁fully ▁equ ipped ▁for ▁a ▁teaching ▁career . ▁ ▁Although ▁she ▁participated ▁in ▁numerous ▁domestic ▁improvements ▁in ▁Niger ia , ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁manif ested ▁remarkable ▁contributions ▁to ▁the ▁African ▁women ' s ▁movement ▁that ▁cred ited ▁her ▁the ▁most ▁fame . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁Ol uf un mil ay o , ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁few ▁pe ers , ▁founded ▁the ▁A be ok uta ▁Lad ies ▁Club ▁( AL C ), ▁essentially ▁“ des igned ▁as ▁a ▁social ▁club ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁educated ▁women ▁like ▁her ▁who ▁felt ▁comp elled ▁to ▁help ▁other ▁less ▁privile ged ▁women .” ▁In ▁this ▁club , ▁these ▁women ▁would ▁learn ▁some ▁voc ational ▁skills , ▁where ▁the ▁A LC ▁would ▁encou rage ▁them ▁to ▁read ▁and ▁write . ▁With ▁other ▁femin ist ▁organizations ▁gradually ▁mer ging ▁with ▁the ▁A be ok uta ▁Women ' s ▁Union ▁(
AW U ) ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 , ▁Mrs . ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁was ▁chosen ▁as ▁president ▁of ▁a ▁coal ition ▁that ▁became ▁a ▁form id able ▁instrument ▁for ▁comb ating ▁against ▁all ▁forms ▁of ▁disc rim ination ▁towards ▁African ▁women . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁colonial ▁era , ▁the ▁So le ▁Native ▁Author ity ▁( S NA ), ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁government ▁introduced ▁by ▁the ▁colonial ▁administration ▁in ▁A be ok uta , ▁were ▁the ▁main ▁pro ponents ▁behind ▁all ▁opp ression ▁towards ▁African ▁women . ▁All ▁power ▁res ided ▁at ▁the ▁hands ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁r uler ▁and ▁local ▁el ites . ▁Where ▁women ▁were ▁entirely ▁ex cluded ▁from ▁Niger ian ▁govern ance , ▁which ▁meant ▁no ▁female ▁participation ▁in ▁commun al ▁affairs ▁or ▁Niger ian ▁politics . ▁Under ▁colonial ism , ▁the ▁women ▁of ▁A be ok uta ▁naturally ▁believed ▁that ▁their ▁economic ▁and ▁commun al ▁roles ▁were ▁decl ining , ▁while ▁their ▁tax es ▁were ▁stead ily ▁increasing . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁Ol uf un mil ay o ▁R ans ome - K uti ▁led ▁a ▁protest ▁against ▁the ▁So le ▁Native ▁Author ity ▁in ▁A be ok uta , ▁where ▁the ▁A W U ▁argued ▁for ▁representation ▁in ▁local ▁government ▁and ▁advoc ated ▁for ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁the ▁separate ▁tax ▁rate ▁for ▁women . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁the ▁Eg ba ▁Inter im ▁Council ▁was ▁formed , ▁which ▁included ▁four ▁( 4 ) ▁women ▁representing ▁the ▁four ▁sections ▁of
▁A be ok uta ▁town . ▁ ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁A ina ▁A dem ola ▁( 1 9 1 3 ▁- ▁ 2 0 0 2 ) ▁ ▁An ▁active ▁volunte er ▁and ▁ener get ic ▁social ▁worker , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁A ina ▁A dem ola ▁has ▁not ably ▁been ▁recognized ▁as ▁a ▁distinguished ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁activ ist ▁and ▁remarkable ▁education ist . ▁Com ing ▁from ▁a ▁rather ▁privile ged ▁background , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁tra ve led ▁to ▁England ▁and ▁completed ▁her ▁secondary ▁school ▁education ▁at ▁Port way ▁College . ▁So on ▁after , ▁she ▁was ▁granted ▁ad mission ▁to ▁University ▁of ▁Oxford , ▁where ▁she ▁graduated ▁with ▁a ▁b ach elor ' s ▁degree ▁in ▁English . ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁has ▁the ▁honor ▁of ▁being ▁the ▁first ▁African ▁woman ▁to ▁be ▁admitted ▁to ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Oxford , ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁ ▁The ▁most ▁educated , ▁el ite ▁women ▁coming ▁from ▁Lag os ▁were ▁members ▁of ▁prominent ▁Christian ▁families ▁of ▁nin ete enth ▁and ▁tw enti eth - century ▁Niger ia . ▁Niger ian ▁pione ers ▁like ▁Charlotte ▁O la j um oke ▁Ob asa , ▁O y ink an ▁Ab ay omi , ▁and ▁K of ow or ola ▁A dem ola , ▁among ▁others , ▁completed ▁a ▁Western ▁education ▁in ▁an ▁array ▁of ▁subjects ▁r anging ▁from ▁music , ▁law , ▁social ▁science , ▁to ▁education , ▁n urs ing
▁and ▁journal ism ▁in ▁both ▁Niger ia ▁and ▁abroad . ▁Collect ively , ▁these ▁women ▁broke ▁notable ▁bar riers ▁and ▁certain ▁tab o os ▁that ▁were ▁social ▁norm s ▁within ▁the ▁Victor ian ▁and ▁post - V ict or ian ▁era . ▁ ▁With ▁a ▁Western ▁education ▁from ▁Oxford , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁returned ▁to ▁Niger ia ▁and ▁briefly ▁taught ▁at ▁Queen ' s ▁College , ▁Lag os . ▁As ▁a ▁teacher , ▁K of ow or ola ▁encourag ed ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁girls ▁to ▁work ▁hard ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁become ▁ach ie vers ; ▁her ▁famous ▁s log an ▁was ▁“ brains ▁have ▁no ▁gender ”. ▁With ▁her ▁passion ▁towards ▁girls ’ ▁education , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁encourag ed ▁her ▁communities ▁to ▁establish ▁non - g overn ment al ▁organizations ▁that ▁stim ulate ▁the ▁education ▁of ▁women . ▁With ▁grad ual ▁pace , ▁she ▁became ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁found ing ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁Association ▁of ▁University ▁Women , ▁whose ▁sole ▁aim ▁was ▁the ▁ult imate ▁encourag ement ▁of ▁girls ’ ▁education ▁in ▁Niger ia . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁increase ▁the ▁rather ▁limited ▁opportun ities ▁for ▁Niger ian ▁girls ▁in ▁secondary ▁education , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁was ▁heavily ▁involved ▁in ▁found ing ▁new ▁secondary ▁schools ▁for ▁girls . ▁An ▁example ▁could ▁be ▁the ▁New ▁Era ▁Girls ’ ▁College , ▁a ▁secondary ▁school ▁where ▁she ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁Head m ist ress . ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁was ▁a ▁prominent
▁volunte er ▁for ▁the ▁Red ▁Cross ▁Society ▁where ▁she ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁Niger ian ▁Director ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Region ▁branch . ▁In ▁recognition ▁of ▁her ▁contribution ▁in ▁several ▁respect ed ▁fields , ▁Lady ▁K of ow or ola ▁was ▁best owed ▁with ▁many ▁hon ors . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 9 , ▁she ▁became ▁a ▁Member ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Empire ▁( MB E ), ▁where ▁she ▁was ▁later ▁granted , ▁Officer ▁of ▁the ▁Federal ▁Republic ▁of ▁Niger ia ▁( OF R ). ▁ ▁Ro le ▁of ▁men ▁in ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁The ▁goal ▁of ▁femin ism ▁is ▁to ▁emp ower ▁women ▁so ▁as ▁to ▁ensure ▁equality ▁to ▁men . ▁For ▁some ▁people , ▁the ▁term ▁femin ism ▁incorrectly ▁came ▁to ▁mean ▁a ▁movement ▁that ▁was ▁anti - male , ▁anti - c ulture ▁and ▁anti - rel ig ion . ▁For ▁purposes ▁of ▁inclusion , ▁some ▁women ▁prefer ▁to ▁eng age ▁themselves ▁in ▁gender ▁theory ▁and ▁activ ism ▁by ▁including ▁men ▁into ▁the ▁discussion ▁because ▁it ▁prom otes ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁femin ism ▁is ▁about ▁equality ▁among ▁all ▁g enders ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁important ▁to ▁note ▁that ▁they ▁also ▁face ▁hard ships ▁as ▁males . ▁Because ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁policy - m akers ▁in ▁many ▁African ▁countries ▁are ▁men , ▁some ▁believe ▁that ▁inclus ivity ▁is ▁important ▁if ▁women ▁are ▁to ▁gain ▁ground ▁in ▁policy ▁changes ▁that ▁impact ▁them . ▁The ▁importance ▁that ▁many ▁women ▁place ▁on ▁commun al ism ▁and ▁family ▁results ▁in ▁their ▁desire ▁to ▁work ▁with ▁men
▁to ▁develop ▁an ▁inclus ive ▁approach ▁to ▁solving ▁gender ▁issues . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁er ad icate ▁the ▁opp ression ▁women ▁face ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁gender , ▁working ▁with ▁men ▁has ▁become ▁a ▁necessity . ▁The ▁role ▁of ▁African ▁men ▁in ▁femin ism ▁is ▁nu anced ▁and ▁depends ▁on ▁location , ▁environment , ▁and ▁personal ▁ide ology . ▁ ▁Notable ▁African ▁femin ist ▁critics ▁▁ ▁Mol ara ▁Og und ipe ▁▁ ▁Na omi ▁N ke al ah ▁▁ ▁Ak achi ▁E ze ig bo ▁▁ ▁Catherine ▁Ach ol on u ▁▁ ▁Mary ▁Mod u pe ▁K ola wo le ▁▁ ▁Ch ik wen ye ▁Ok on jo ▁Og un y emi ▁▁ ▁Ob i oma ▁N na eme ka ▁▁ ▁Am ede ▁Ob ior a ▁ ▁Ch im am anda ▁N go zi ▁Ad ich ie ▁ ▁Syl via ▁Tam ale ▁ ▁Jos ina ▁Mach el ▁ ▁Fun mil ay o ▁R ans ome - K uti ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁* <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Poland ▁() ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁introduction ▁and ▁subsequent ▁spread ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland . ▁The ▁imp et us ▁to ▁the ▁process ▁was ▁the ▁Bapt ism ▁of ▁Poland ▁( ), ▁the ▁personal ▁bapt ism ▁of ▁M iesz ko ▁I , ▁the ▁first ▁r uler ▁of ▁the ▁future ▁Polish ▁state , ▁and ▁much ▁of ▁his ▁court . ▁The ▁ceremony ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁the ▁Holy ▁Saturday ▁of ▁ 1 4 ▁April ▁ 9 6 6 , ▁although ▁the ▁exact ▁location ▁is ▁still ▁disput ed ▁by ▁histor ians ,
▁with ▁the ▁cities ▁of ▁Poz na ń ▁and ▁G nie z no ▁being ▁the ▁most ▁likely ▁sites . ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁wife , ▁Dob raw a ▁of ▁Boh emia , ▁is ▁often ▁cred ited ▁as ▁a ▁major ▁influence ▁on ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁decision ▁to ▁accept ▁Christian ity . ▁ ▁While ▁the ▁spread ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland ▁took ▁centuries ▁to ▁finish , ▁the ▁process ▁was ▁ultimately ▁successful , ▁as ▁within ▁several ▁dec ades ▁Poland ▁joined ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁established ▁European ▁states ▁recogn ised ▁by ▁the ▁pap acy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁According ▁to ▁histor ians , ▁the ▁bapt ism ▁of ▁Poland ▁marks ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁Polish ▁state hood . ▁Nevertheless , ▁the ▁Christian ization ▁was ▁a ▁long ▁and ▁ar du ous ▁process , ▁as ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁population ▁remained ▁pag an ▁until ▁the ▁pag an ▁reaction ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 0 3 0 s . ▁ ▁Background ▁ ▁Before ▁the ▁ad option ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁modern - day ▁Poland , ▁there ▁were ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁different ▁pag an ▁tribes . ▁S vet ov id ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁most ▁w ides p read ▁pag an ▁gods ▁worship ed ▁in ▁Poland . ▁Christian ity ▁arrived ▁around ▁the ▁late ▁ 9 th ▁century , ▁most ▁likely ▁around ▁the ▁time ▁when ▁the ▁V ist ul an ▁tribe ▁encountered ▁the ▁Christian ▁r ite ▁in ▁deal ings ▁with ▁their ▁neighb ors , ▁the ▁Great ▁Mor avia ▁( B oh em ian ) ▁state . ▁ ▁The ▁Mor av ian ▁cultural ▁influence
▁played ▁a ▁significant ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁spread ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁onto ▁the ▁Polish ▁lands ▁and ▁the ▁subsequent ▁ad option ▁of ▁that ▁religion . ▁In ▁the ▁opinion ▁of ▁Dav ies , ▁the ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Poland ▁through ▁the ▁Czech – Pol ish ▁al liance ▁represented ▁a ▁conscious ▁choice ▁on ▁the ▁part ▁of ▁Polish ▁r ul ers ▁to ▁al ly ▁themselves ▁with ▁the ▁Czech ▁state ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁German ▁one . ▁In ▁a ▁similar ▁fashion , ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁later ▁political ▁strugg les ▁involved ▁the ▁Polish ▁Church ▁ref using ▁to ▁sub ordinate ▁itself ▁to ▁the ▁German ▁hierarchy ▁and ▁instead ▁being ▁directly ▁sub ordinate ▁to ▁the ▁V at ican . ▁ ▁Bapt ism ▁ ▁The ▁" B apt ism ▁of ▁Poland " ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁ceremony ▁when ▁the ▁first ▁r uler ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁state , ▁M iesz ko ▁I ▁and ▁much ▁of ▁his ▁court , ▁converted ▁to ▁the ▁Christian ▁religion . ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁wife ▁Dob raw a ▁of ▁Boh emia , ▁a ▁ze alous ▁Christian , ▁played ▁a ▁significant ▁role ▁in ▁prom oting ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland , ▁and ▁might ▁have ▁had ▁significant ▁influence ▁on ▁converting ▁M iesz ko ▁himself . ▁ ▁The ▁exact ▁place ▁of ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁bapt ism ▁is ▁disput ed ; ▁Most ▁histor ians ▁argue ▁that ▁G nie z no ▁or ▁Poz na ń ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁likely ▁sites . ▁However , ▁other ▁histor ians ▁have ▁suggested ▁alternative ▁locations , ▁such ▁as ▁O str ów ▁Led nick i , ▁or ▁even ▁in ▁German ▁Reg ens burg
. ▁The ▁date ▁of ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁bapt ism ▁was ▁on ▁the ▁Holy ▁Saturday ▁of ▁ 1 4 ▁April ▁ 9 6 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁ceremony ▁was ▁preced ed ▁by ▁a ▁week ▁of ▁or al ▁c ate ch ism ▁and ▁several ▁days ▁of ▁fast ing . ▁The ▁actual ▁ceremony ▁involved ▁pour ing ▁water ▁over ▁the ▁seg reg ated ▁groups ▁of ▁men ▁and ▁women , ▁although ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁their ▁heads ▁were ▁imm ers ed ▁instead , ▁and ▁an oint ed ▁with ▁the ▁chr ism . ▁ ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Poland ▁The ▁bapt ism al ▁mission ▁which ▁began ▁in ▁the ▁two ▁major ▁cities ▁of ▁G nie z no ▁and ▁Poz na ń ▁with ▁the ▁bapt ism ▁of ▁M iesz ko ▁and ▁his ▁court ▁spread ▁throughout ▁the ▁country . ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁and ▁ 1 1 th ▁centuries ▁various ▁ecc les iast ical ▁org ans ▁were ▁established ▁in ▁Poland . ▁This ▁included ▁the ▁building ▁of ▁churches ▁and ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁cler gy . ▁The ▁first ▁Bishop ▁of ▁Poland , ▁Jordan , ▁was ▁appointed ▁by ▁Pope ▁John ▁XIII ▁in ▁ 9 6 8 . ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁son ▁B oles ław ▁I ▁Ch rob ry ▁supported ▁Christian ization ▁miss ions ▁to ▁neighbor ing ▁lands , ▁not ably ▁the ▁mission ▁of ▁future ▁Saint ▁Ad al bert ▁of ▁Prag ue ▁to ▁Old ▁Pr us si ans , ▁and ▁established ▁the ▁Arch bishop ric ▁of ▁G nie z no ▁in ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Although
▁at ▁first ▁the ▁Christian ▁religion ▁was ▁" un pop ular ▁and ▁al ien ", ▁M iesz ko ' s ▁bapt ism ▁was ▁highly ▁influ ential ▁but ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁enfor ced ▁by ▁the ▁state , ▁and ▁ran ▁into ▁some ▁popular ▁opposition , ▁including ▁an ▁u pr ising ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 0 3 0 s ▁( part icular ly ▁inten se ▁in ▁the ▁years ▁of ▁ 1 0 3 5 – 1 0 3 7 ). ▁Non eth eless , ▁by ▁that ▁time ▁Poland ▁had ▁won ▁recognition ▁as ▁a ▁proper ▁European ▁state , ▁both ▁from ▁the ▁pap acy ▁and ▁from ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁Out ▁of ▁various ▁provinces ▁of ▁today ' s ▁Poland , ▁Christian ity ' s ▁spread ▁was ▁slow est ▁in ▁P omer ania , ▁where ▁it ▁gained ▁a ▁significant ▁following ▁only ▁around ▁the ▁ 1 2 th ▁century . ▁Initial ly , ▁the ▁cler gy ▁came ▁from ▁the ▁Western ▁Christian ▁European ▁countries ; ▁native ▁Polish ▁cler gy ▁took ▁three ▁or ▁four ▁gener ations ▁to ▁emer ge , ▁and ▁were ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁monaster ies ▁and ▁fri ars ▁that ▁grew ▁increasing ly ▁common ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 2 th ▁century . ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 3 th ▁century ▁Roman ▁Catholic ism ▁had ▁become ▁the ▁dominant ▁religion ▁throughout ▁Poland . ▁ ▁In ▁adopt ing ▁Christian ity ▁as ▁the ▁state ▁religion , ▁M iesz ko ▁sought ▁to ▁achieve ▁several ▁personal ▁goals . ▁He ▁saw ▁Poland ' s ▁bapt ism ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁of ▁strength ening ▁his ▁hold ▁on ▁power , ▁as
▁well ▁as ▁using ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁un ifying ▁force ▁for ▁the ▁Polish ▁people . ▁It ▁replaced ▁several ▁smaller ▁cult s ▁with ▁a ▁single , ▁central ▁one , ▁clearly ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁royal ▁court . ▁It ▁would ▁also ▁improve ▁the ▁position ▁and ▁respect ability ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁state ▁on ▁the ▁international , ▁European ▁scene . ▁The ▁Church ▁also ▁helped ▁to ▁strength en ▁the ▁monarch ' s ▁authority , ▁and ▁brought ▁to ▁Poland ▁much ▁experience ▁with ▁regard ▁to ▁state ▁administration . ▁Thus , ▁the ▁Church ▁organisation ▁supported ▁the ▁state , ▁and ▁in ▁return , ▁b ish ops ▁received ▁important ▁government ▁titles ▁( in ▁the ▁later ▁era , ▁they ▁were ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Senate ▁of ▁Poland ). ▁ ▁Mill enn ial ▁celebr ations ▁of ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁ ▁The ▁prepar ations ▁for ▁the ▁mill enn ial ▁celebr ations ▁begun ▁with ▁the ▁Great ▁Nov ena ▁of ▁ 1 9 5 7 , ▁which ▁marked ▁a ▁nine ▁years ▁period ▁of ▁fast ▁and ▁prayer . ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁the ▁People ' s ▁Republic ▁of ▁Poland ▁witness ed ▁large ▁festiv ities ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 - year ▁anni versary ▁of ▁those ▁events , ▁with ▁the ▁Church ▁celebr ating ▁the ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁years ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland , ▁while ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁government ▁celebrated ▁the ▁sec ular ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁State , ▁cul min ated ▁in ▁twice ▁den ying ▁Pope ▁Paul ▁VI ▁permission ▁to ▁visit ▁Poland ▁that ▁year .
▁The ▁desire ▁of ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁party ▁to ▁separate ▁religion ▁from ▁the ▁state ▁made ▁the ▁festiv ities ▁a ▁culture ▁cl ash ▁between ▁the ▁state ▁and ▁the ▁Church . ▁While ▁the ▁Church ▁was ▁foc using ▁on ▁the ▁religious , ▁ecc les iast ical ▁aspects ▁of ▁the ▁bapt ism , ▁with ▁s log ans ▁( in ▁Latin ) ▁like ▁Sac rum ▁Pol onia e ▁Mill enium ▁( Pol and ' s ▁Sac red ▁Mill en ni um ), ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁was ▁fr aming ▁the ▁celebr ations ▁as ▁a ▁sec ular , ▁political ▁anni versary ▁of ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁state , ▁with ▁s log ans ▁( in ▁Polish ) ▁like ▁T ys ią cle cie ▁Pa ńst wa ▁Pol skiego ▁( A ▁Th ous and ▁Years ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁State ). ▁As ▁Norman ▁Dav ies ▁noted , ▁both ▁the ▁Church ▁and ▁the ▁Party ▁had ▁" rival , ▁and ▁mut ually ▁exclusive , ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁[ Pol and ' s ▁bapt ism ] ▁significance ." ▁ ▁On ▁ 3 0 ▁July ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Eng ra ving ▁and ▁Print ing ▁issued ▁ 1 2 8 , 4 7 5 , 0 0 0 ▁comm emor ative ▁st amps ▁hon oring ▁the ▁mill en ni um ▁anni versary ▁of ▁the ▁ad option ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland . ▁ ▁An ▁anni versary ▁para de ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁Palace ▁of ▁Culture ▁and ▁Science ▁on ▁Par ade ▁Square ▁on ▁ 2 2
▁July ▁to ▁co inci de ▁with ▁the ▁annual ▁National ▁Day ▁of ▁the ▁Reb irth ▁of ▁Poland ▁celebr ations ▁( set ▁on ▁the ▁anni versary ▁of ▁the ▁signing ▁of ▁the ▁PK WN ▁Man if esto ). ▁It ▁was ▁attended ▁by ▁W ład ys ław ▁G om u ł ka , ▁the ▁then ▁First ▁Secretary ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁United ▁Work ers ' ▁Party , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁P U WP ▁and ▁the ▁Polish ▁Council ▁of ▁State . ▁The ▁para de ▁inspect or ▁was ▁Marsh al ▁of ▁Poland ▁Marian ▁Sp ych al ski ▁while ▁it ▁was ▁commanded ▁by ▁the ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁Wars aw ▁Military ▁District ▁Major ▁General ▁C zes ław ▁W ary sz ak ▁( 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 7 9 ). ▁Tro ops ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁People ' s ▁Army ▁were ▁on ▁para de , ▁featuring ▁units ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Represent ative ▁Honor ▁Guard ▁of ▁the ▁L WP , ▁the ▁Band ▁of ▁the ▁L WP ▁( led ▁by ▁Colonel ▁Lis z tok ), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁cad ets ▁of ▁military ▁academ ies ▁and ▁other ▁cer emon ial ▁units ▁dressed ▁in ▁Polish ▁historical ▁military ▁uniform s ▁d ating ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁Pi ast ▁dynast y . ▁The ▁para de ▁is ▁today ▁regarded ▁as ▁the ▁largest ▁military ▁para de ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁Poland . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Le ch , ▁Czech , ▁and ▁Rus ▁ ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Boh emia ▁ ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁K ie van ▁Rus ' ▁ ▁D ag ome ▁I ude x ▁ ▁History
▁of ▁Poland ▁( 9 6 6 – 1 3 8 5 ) ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁arch b ish ops ▁of ▁G nie z no ▁and ▁prim ates ▁of ▁Poland ▁ ▁Northern ▁Cr us ades ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Category : History ▁of ▁Christian ity ▁in ▁Poland ▁Category : B apt ism ▁Category : 1 0 th - century ▁Christian ity ▁Category : 9 6 6 ▁Category : 1 0 th ▁century ▁in ▁Poland ▁Category : Christ ian ization ▁of ▁Europe <0x0A> </s> ▁Ul la ▁Mi il mann ▁( born ▁ 1 9 7 2 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Dan ish ▁fla ut ist . ▁Since ▁ 1 9 9 4 , ▁she ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁principal ▁fla ut ist ▁of ▁the ▁Dan ish ▁National ▁Sym phony ▁Orchestra . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁she ▁was ▁nominated ▁for ▁a ▁Gram my ▁Award ▁in ▁the ▁category ▁Best ▁Solo ist ▁Performance ▁with ▁Orchestra . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Mi il mann ▁was ▁brought ▁up ▁in ▁V em med rup ▁near ▁K ø ge ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁of ▁Zealand . ▁Her ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁fl ute ▁started ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁eight ▁when ▁she ▁the ▁saw ▁instrument ▁being ▁played ▁on ▁a ▁television ▁programme . ▁Two ▁years ▁later , ▁her ▁parents ▁gave ▁her ▁a ▁fl ute ▁for ▁her ▁birth day . ▁When ▁they ▁saw ▁how ▁interested ▁she ▁had ▁become ▁in ▁playing ▁it , ▁they ▁arranged ▁for ▁her ▁to ▁have ▁music ▁less ons ▁in ▁H iller ø d , ▁driving ▁her ▁there ▁every ▁Saturday . ▁Her ▁parents ' ▁interest ▁in ▁her
▁progress ▁encourag ed ▁her , ▁motiv ating ▁her ▁to ▁practice ▁for ▁several ▁hours ▁a ▁day . ▁She ▁progress ed ▁quickly , ▁winning ▁the ▁Ber lings ke ▁Music ▁Compet ition ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁and ▁playing ▁as ▁a ▁solo ist ▁with ▁the ▁C open hagen ▁Phil harm onic ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁it ▁became ▁fashion able ▁for ▁te en agers ▁to ▁go ▁to ▁America ▁as ▁exchange ▁students . ▁Mi il mann ▁received ▁a ▁place ▁at ▁the ▁School ▁of ▁the ▁Arts ▁in ▁North ▁Carolina . ▁She ▁quickly ▁adapted ▁to ▁the ▁school ' s ▁int ensive ▁curr icul um , ▁pract ising ▁every ▁day ▁from ▁ 5 ▁a . m ., ▁then ▁following ▁classes ▁until ▁late ▁in ▁the ▁afternoon . ▁She ▁remained ▁at ▁the ▁school ▁until ▁she ▁was ▁ 2 0 , ▁successfully ▁comple ting ▁her ▁education ▁with ▁a ▁b ach elor ' s ▁degree ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 . ▁ ▁The ▁years ▁she ▁had ▁spent ▁there ▁had ▁however ▁been ▁quite ▁a ▁stra in . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁when ▁she ▁returned ▁to ▁Den mark ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 2 0 , ▁she ▁took ▁on ▁a ▁job ▁as ▁a ▁post man . ▁But ▁when ▁she ▁saw ▁an ▁advert is ement ▁for ▁a ▁post ▁with ▁the ▁Royal ▁Dan ish ▁Orchestra , ▁she ▁immediately ▁started ▁to ▁pract ise ▁again , ▁gain ing ▁ad mission ▁when ▁she ▁was ▁just ▁ 2 1 . ▁The ▁following ▁year , ▁she ▁became ▁solo ▁fla
ut ist ▁with ▁the ▁Dan ish ▁National ▁Sym phony ▁Orchestra ▁attached ▁to ▁Dan marks ▁Radio , ▁a ▁position ▁she ▁still ▁holds ▁today . ▁ ▁Mi il mann ▁also ▁plays ▁in ▁the ▁Dan ish ▁Radio ▁Wood wind ▁Quint et ▁which ▁she ▁helped ▁to ▁establish ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁She ▁has ▁appeared ▁as ▁a ▁solo ist ▁with ▁all ▁the ▁major ▁orch est ras ▁in ▁C open hagen ▁and ▁has ▁played ▁with ▁other ▁notable ▁solo ists ▁including ▁the ▁pian ist ▁K atr ine ▁G is ling e ▁and ▁the ▁viol in ist ▁G id on ▁Kre mer . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁she ▁appeared ▁with ▁the ▁Phil harm onia ▁M oment ▁Musical ▁at ▁a ▁Dan ish ▁music ▁event ▁in ▁Tai pe i . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁Mi il mann ▁received ▁a ▁Gram my ▁nom ination ▁for ▁" Best ▁Solo ist ▁Performance ▁with ▁Orchestra " ▁for ▁her ▁recording ▁of ▁Ole ▁Schmidt ' s ▁Con cer to ▁for ▁Fl ute ▁and ▁Orchestra . ▁Although ▁she ▁did ▁not ▁win ▁the ▁award , ▁the ▁nom ination ▁and ▁her ▁treatment ▁at ▁the ▁event ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁encourag ed ▁her ▁to ▁stick ▁to ▁playing ▁the ▁fl ute ▁at ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁she ▁had ▁been ▁considering ▁moving ▁into ▁another ▁profession . ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Mi il mann ▁was ▁the ▁solo ist ▁in ▁Carl ▁N iel sen ' s ▁Fl ute ▁Con cer to ▁which ▁she ▁first ▁played ▁when ▁she ▁was ▁about ▁ 1 3 ▁years
▁old . ▁" It ' s ▁only ▁over ▁the ▁past ▁four ▁or ▁five ▁years ▁that ▁I ▁have ▁really ▁begun ▁to ▁understand ▁it ... ▁The ▁older ▁I ▁get , ▁the ▁more ▁I ▁am ▁ready ▁to ▁follow ▁my ▁inner ▁feelings , ▁even ▁though ▁they ▁may ▁not ▁be ▁in ▁line ▁with ▁the ▁accepted ▁trad itions . ▁In ▁this ▁way , ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁I ▁can ▁see ▁I ▁am ▁beginning ▁to ▁understand ▁Carl ▁N iel sen ' s ▁Fl ute ▁Con cer to ." ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Ul la ▁Mi il mann ' s ▁website ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Dan ish ▁fla ut ists ▁Category : W omen ▁fla ut ists ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁women ▁mus icians <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁top ▁end ▁fire tail ▁sk ink ▁( Mor eth ia ▁stor ri ) ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁sk ink ▁found ▁in ▁Northern ▁Territ ory ▁and ▁Western ▁Australia . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁The ▁specific ▁name , ▁stor ri , ▁is ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁her pet ologist ▁Glen ▁Mil ton ▁St orr . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Mor eth ia ▁Category : Re pt iles ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁Category : Sk inks ▁of ▁Australia ▁Category : End em ic ▁fa una ▁of ▁Australia ▁Category : T ax a ▁named ▁by ▁Allen ▁Edd y ▁Gre er <0x0A> </s> ▁ 5 lo ▁is ▁a ▁computer ▁virus ▁that ▁increases ▁file ▁size ▁and ▁does ▁little ▁more ▁than ▁rep
licate . ▁Size : ▁ 1 , 0 3 2 ▁bytes ▁ ▁In fection ▁ 5 lo ▁inf ect s ▁resident ▁. EX E ▁files ▁only . ▁When ▁it ▁inf ect s ▁a ▁file , ▁it ▁increases ▁the ▁file ▁size ▁by ▁about ▁ 1 0 0 0 - 1 1 0 0 ▁bytes ▁( though ▁a ▁typical ▁value ▁is ▁ 1 0 3 2 ▁bytes .) ▁At ▁the ▁file ' s ▁direct ▁end , ▁this ▁message ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁( result ing ▁in ▁the ▁virus ' s ▁name ): ▁▁ 9 2 . 0 5 . 2 4 . 5 lo . 2 . 2 3 M Z ▁▁ ▁Other ▁strings ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁virus ' s ▁code : ▁ ▁? ?? ?? ?? ?. EX E ▁and ▁*. EX E ▁▁ 5 lo ▁stays ▁resident . ▁When ever ▁a ▁. EX E ▁file ▁is ▁run , ▁ 5 lo ▁will ▁inf ect ▁it ▁( and ▁another ▁. EX E ▁file ). ▁The ▁virus ▁also ▁changes ▁the ▁file ' s ▁timestamp ▁to ▁the ▁date ▁and ▁time ▁of ▁in fection . ▁After ▁these ▁in fe ctions , ▁a ▁counter ▁within ▁the ▁virus ▁starts . ▁However , ▁this ▁counter ▁is ▁never ▁checked , ▁so ▁the ▁virus ▁doesn ' t ▁activ ate . ▁ 5 lo ▁app ends ▁its ▁code ▁into ▁inf ected ▁files . ▁It ▁also ▁changes ▁the ▁field ▁ 0 Ch ▁in ▁the ▁. EX E ▁file ' s ▁header ▁to ▁F FA Ah . ▁The ▁virus ▁ident ifies ▁itself ▁from ▁memory
▁by ▁using ▁the ▁interrupt ▁INT ▁ 2 1 , ▁A X = 3 5 2 1 h ▁which ▁it ▁has ▁hook ed . ▁All ▁the ▁checks ▁work ▁correctly ▁and ▁the ▁virus ▁won ' t ▁inf ect ▁files ▁multiple ▁times ▁and ▁it ▁install s ▁itself ▁to ▁memory ▁only ▁once . ▁ ▁When ▁ 5 lo ▁is ▁running ▁in ▁memory , ▁it ▁isn ' t ▁discover able ▁by ▁typing ▁in ▁M EM ▁/ C . ▁This ▁is ▁because ▁when ▁the ▁virus ▁install s , ▁it ▁t ies ▁itself ▁to ▁the ▁operating ▁system . ▁Free ▁memory ▁decre ases ▁by ▁about ▁ 2 ▁K B . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Sym ante c ' s ▁page ▁on ▁ 5 lo ▁ ▁Category : D OS ▁file ▁vir uses <0x0A> </s> ▁A ▁geometric ▁lat he ▁was ▁used ▁for ▁making ▁orn amental ▁patterns ▁on ▁the ▁pl ates ▁used ▁in ▁printing ▁bank ▁notes ▁and ▁post age ▁st amps . ▁It ▁is ▁sometimes ▁called ▁a ▁gu illo ché ▁lat he . ▁It ▁was ▁developed ▁early ▁in ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century ▁when ▁efforts ▁were ▁introduced ▁to ▁combat ▁forg ery , ▁and ▁is ▁an ▁adaptation ▁of ▁an ▁orn amental ▁turning ▁lat he . ▁The ▁lat he ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁generate ▁intersect ing ▁and ▁inter la cing ▁patterns ▁of ▁fine ▁lines ▁in ▁various ▁shapes , ▁which ▁were ▁almost ▁impossible ▁to ▁for ge ▁by ▁hand - eng ra ving . ▁They ▁were ▁used ▁by ▁many ▁national ▁m ints . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁Peter ▁B ower , ▁' E conom ic ▁war fare :
▁Bank note ▁F org ery ▁as ▁a ▁deliber ate ▁weapon ', ▁and ▁Ma ure en ▁Green land , ▁' Comp ound ▁plate ▁printing ▁and ▁nin ete enth - century ▁bank ▁notes , ▁ ▁in ▁Virginia ▁H ew itt , ▁ed . ▁The ▁Bank er ' s ▁Art : ▁Studies ▁in ▁paper ▁money , ▁pp ▁ 4 6 – 6 3 , ▁and ▁pp ▁ 8 4 – 8 7 , ▁The ▁British ▁Museum ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁() ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Security ▁printing ▁ ▁S pi ro graph ▁▁ ▁G ear ▁▁ ▁T us i ▁couple ▁ ▁Gu illo ché ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Or n amental ▁Turn ing ▁ ▁Category : M oney ▁forg ery ▁Category : Autom atic ▁l ath es ▁( me chan ically ▁autom ated ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Dave ▁Brown ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Mont ana ▁House ▁of ▁Representatives . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Brown ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁November ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁in ▁Pom pe y ' s ▁P ill ar , ▁Mont ana . ▁He ▁p led ▁guilty ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁to ▁five ▁counts ▁of ▁failing ▁to ▁file ▁federal ▁income ▁tax ▁returns . ▁▁ ▁He ▁died ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 3 , ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁in ▁Mad ison , ▁Wisconsin . ▁ ▁Career ▁Brown ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Representatives ▁from ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁to ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M embers
▁of ▁the ▁Mont ana ▁House ▁of ▁Representatives ▁Category : 1 9 4 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Y ellow stone ▁County , ▁Mont ana ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁polit icians <0x0A> </s> ▁Barry ▁Railway ▁Class ▁K ▁were ▁ 0 - 6 - 2 T ▁steam ▁tank ▁engines ▁of ▁the ▁Barry ▁Railway ▁in ▁South ▁Wales . ▁ ▁They ▁were ▁designed ▁by ▁J . ▁H . ▁H os good ▁and ▁built ▁by ▁an ▁American ▁company , ▁Co oke ▁Lo comot ive ▁and ▁Machine ▁Works ▁of ▁Pat erson , ▁New ▁Jersey . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁the ▁Barry ▁wanted ▁to ▁order ▁these ▁locomot ives , ▁British ▁manufact ur ers ▁already ▁had ▁a ▁full ▁order ▁book . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁not ▁to ▁face ▁an ▁in defin ite ▁wait , ▁inv itations ▁to ▁tender ▁were ▁advert ised ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁H os good ' s ▁aim ▁was ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁tank ▁engine ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁“ Class ▁B 1 ”. ▁ ▁However , ▁because ▁of ▁his ▁desire ▁for ▁a ▁speed y ▁delivery , ▁he ▁agreed ▁to ▁certain ▁comprom ises ▁in ▁the ▁design . ▁ ▁The ▁order ▁was ▁placed ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 8 9 9 ▁and ▁was ▁delivered ▁later ▁that ▁year . ▁ ▁Tra ffic ▁duties ▁Although ▁originally ▁intended ▁for ▁ha uling ▁main ▁line ▁min eral ▁traffic , ▁they ▁proved ▁to ▁be ▁very ▁heavy ▁on ▁coal ▁and ▁water ▁and ▁therefore ▁not ▁a ▁feas ible ▁prospect ▁for ▁this ▁kind ▁of ▁work

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