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▁between ▁the ▁stations , ▁coll iding ▁with ▁a ▁following ▁second ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁exc urs ion . ▁ 1 4 ▁passengers ▁were ▁killed ▁and ▁ 5 0 ▁injured ▁in ▁the ▁dis aster . ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁the ▁Board ▁of ▁Trade ▁accident ▁inspect or , ▁Captain ▁H . ▁W . ▁Ty ler , ▁it ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁" dec ided ly ▁the ▁worst ▁railway ▁accident ▁that ▁has ▁ever ▁occurred ▁in ▁this ▁country ". ▁ ▁Circ um st ances ▁of ▁the ▁accident ▁▁ ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁August ▁ 1 8 5 8 ▁the ▁Oxford , ▁Wor c ester ▁and ▁Wol ver ham pton ▁Railway ▁ran ▁a ▁special ▁day ▁exc urs ion ▁from ▁Wol ver ham pton ▁to ▁Wor c ester ▁and ▁back . ▁It ▁was ▁intended ▁to ▁be ▁for ▁school ▁children ▁and ▁their ▁teachers ▁only , ▁but ▁this ▁r uling ▁was ▁not ▁ad her ed ▁to ▁and ▁the ▁train ▁was ▁pack ed ▁with ▁roughly ▁equal ▁numbers ▁( about ▁ 7 5 0 ▁of ▁each ) ▁of ▁children ▁and ▁adult s . ▁The ▁train ▁left ▁Wol ver ham pton ▁at ▁ 9 . 1 2 ▁AM , ▁compr ising ▁ 4 2 ▁four - w he e led ▁coach es ▁and ▁four ▁bra ke ▁v ans . ▁B rak ing ▁of ▁the ▁train ▁was ▁supplied ▁entirely ▁by ▁manual ▁application ▁of ▁bra kes ▁on ▁the ▁engine ▁( and ▁tender ) ▁and ▁the ▁four ▁bra ke ▁v ans ▁( each ▁van ▁man ned ▁by ▁a ▁guard ). ▁ ▁Guard ▁Co oke ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁rear |
▁bra ke ▁van ▁of ▁the ▁train , ▁together ▁with ▁six ▁passengers , ▁who ▁should ▁not ▁have ▁been ▁there . ▁Co oke ▁and ▁his ▁passengers ▁were ▁drink ing ▁and ▁sm oking ▁in ▁the ▁van , ▁and ▁Co oke ▁invited ▁passengers ▁to ▁apply ▁the ▁van ▁hand bra ke . ▁Correct ▁operation ▁of ▁the ▁bra ke ▁was ▁necessary , ▁not ▁only ▁to ▁slow ▁the ▁train , ▁but ▁also ▁to ▁control ▁the ▁t ension ▁in ▁the ▁carriage ▁cou pl ings . ▁There ▁were ▁three ▁separate ▁break ages ▁ ▁of ▁cou pl ings ▁ahead ▁of ▁the ▁rear ▁bra ke ▁van ▁on ▁the ▁out ward ▁journey : ▁at ▁Bre tt ell ▁Lane ▁and ▁H ag ley ▁both ▁the ▁main ▁sc rew ▁cou pl ings ▁and ▁side ▁safety ▁ch ains ▁failed , ▁and ▁at ▁D roit wich ▁it ▁was ▁found ▁that ▁another ▁sc rew ▁coupling ▁was ▁failed , ▁but ▁its ▁associated ▁side ▁ch ains ▁had ▁held . ▁Co oke ▁made ▁temporary ▁rep airs ▁on ▁all ▁three ▁occasions . ▁To ▁repair ▁the ▁first ▁two ▁break ages , ▁Co oke ▁managed ▁to ▁find ▁spare ▁three - link ▁or ▁sc rew ▁cou pl ings ; ▁but ▁at ▁D roit wich ▁he ▁was ▁only ▁able ▁to ▁patch ▁up ▁the ▁side ▁ch ains , ▁which ▁were ▁not ▁designed ▁to ▁hold ▁the ▁full ▁weight ▁of ▁a ▁train . ▁On ▁arrival ▁at ▁Wor c ester , ▁the ▁train ▁was ▁exam ined ▁by ▁the ▁inspect or ▁of ▁rolling ▁stock : ▁the ▁rep a ired / rep la ced ▁side ▁ch ains ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁four - link ▁goods |
▁cou pl ings ▁before ▁the ▁return ▁journey , ▁but ▁no ▁attempt ▁was ▁made ▁to ▁repair ▁or ▁replace ▁failed ▁centre ▁cou pl ings : ▁these ▁were ▁difficult ▁to ▁access , ▁and ▁the ▁inspect or ▁considered ▁that ▁a ▁re - made ▁sc rew ▁coupling ▁was ▁we aker ▁than ▁the ▁goods ▁cou pl ings ▁( which ▁he ▁considered ▁ade qu ate ). ▁ ▁The ▁accident ▁▁ ▁On ▁the ▁return ▁journey , ▁the ▁exc urs ion ▁train ▁was ▁divided ▁into ▁two ▁port ions : ▁the ▁first , ▁with ▁Guard ▁Co oke ▁in ▁the ▁rear ▁bra ke ▁van , ▁compr ised ▁ 2 8 ▁coach es ▁and ▁two ▁bra ke ▁v ans ▁pulled ▁by ▁one ▁locomot ive ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁St our bridge ▁where ▁a ▁second ▁locomot ive ▁was ▁attached ; ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁compr ised ▁ 1 4 ▁coach es ▁and ▁two ▁bra ke ▁v ans , ▁ha u led ▁by ▁one ▁locomot ive . ▁There ▁was ▁a ▁ 1 ▁in ▁ 7 5 ▁rising ▁gradient ▁between ▁Bre tt ell ▁Lane ▁and ▁Round ▁Oak , ▁and ▁the ▁line ▁was ▁worked ▁on ▁the ▁interval ▁system , ▁in ▁which ▁trains ▁were ▁allowed ▁to ▁follow ▁the ▁previous ▁train ▁without ▁positive ▁confirm ation ▁that ▁it ▁had ▁reached ▁the ▁next ▁station , ▁re lying ▁instead ▁on ▁it ▁having ▁been ▁an ▁ade qu ate ▁( spec ified ) ▁time ▁interval ▁ahead ▁at ▁the ▁last ▁station . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁train ▁reached ▁Round ▁Oak ▁at ▁about ▁ 8 . 1 0 ▁pm ; ▁as ▁it ▁drew ▁to ▁a ▁halt ▁a ▁for eman - pl |
atel ayer ▁heard ▁a ▁loud ▁' s nap ' ▁as ▁the ▁coupling ▁behind ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁coach ▁broke ▁and ▁ 1 7 ▁coach es ▁and ▁the ▁rear ▁bra ke ▁van ▁began ▁to ▁roll ▁back ▁down ▁the ▁incl ine ▁towards ▁Bre tt ell ▁Lane . ▁The ▁book ing ▁cl erk ▁at ▁Round ▁Oak , ▁seeing ▁the ▁run away , ▁attempted ▁to ▁te legraph ▁Bre tt ell ▁Lane ▁to ▁give ▁warning , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁attract ▁the ▁attention ▁of ▁the ▁cl erk ▁there . ▁ ▁The ▁second ▁train ▁had ▁reached ▁Bre tt ell ▁Lane ▁about ▁eleven ▁or ▁twelve ▁minutes ▁behind ▁the ▁first , ▁and ▁therefore ▁was ▁clear ▁to ▁proceed ▁to ▁Round ▁Oak . ▁ ▁The ▁line ▁ran ▁in ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁curves , ▁limit ing ▁forward ▁visibility , ▁the ▁night ▁was ▁dark , ▁there ▁were ▁no ▁lights ▁in ▁the ▁coach es , ▁exc urs ion ▁trains ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁red ▁light ▁on ▁the ▁re arm ost ▁vehicle , ▁and ▁smoke ▁was ▁blow ing ▁across ▁the ▁line ▁from ▁neighbour ing ▁fact ories ; ▁consequ ently ▁the ▁crew ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁train ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁the ▁run away ▁coach es ▁until ▁they ▁were ▁about ▁ 3 0 0 ▁yards ▁away . ▁The ▁second ▁train ▁had ▁virt ually ▁drawn ▁to ▁a ▁stand st ill ▁when ▁the ▁run away ▁coach es ▁coll ided ▁with ▁it . ▁The ▁locomot ive ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁train ▁remained ▁on ▁the ▁rails ▁and ▁was ▁only ▁super f icial ly ▁dam aged ; ▁the ▁same ▁was ▁not ▁true ▁of |
▁the ▁run away ▁coach es . ▁Co oke ' s ▁bra ke van ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁coach es ▁next ▁to ▁it ▁were , ▁in ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁the ▁inspect or ▁" bro ken ▁all ▁to ▁pieces ", ▁killing ▁ 1 4 ▁passengers ▁and ▁badly ▁inj uring ▁ 5 0 ▁more . ▁ ▁The ▁investigation ▁▁ ▁The ▁accident ▁was ▁investig ated ▁by ▁Captain ▁Ty ler ▁of ▁the ▁Railway ▁Ins pect or ate ; ▁there ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁coron er ' s ▁in quest ▁on ▁those ▁who ▁had ▁died ▁in ▁the ▁crash . ▁ ▁Ty ler ▁showed ▁by ▁experiment ▁that ▁when ▁a ▁string ▁of ▁carri ages ▁matching ▁the ▁run away ▁train ▁section ▁was ▁allowed ▁to ▁run ▁back ▁down ▁the ▁incl ine ▁for ▁quarter ▁of ▁a ▁mile ▁before ▁the ▁bra ke ▁was ▁applied , ▁application ▁of ▁the ▁bra ke ▁then ▁brought ▁the ▁carri ages ▁to ▁rest ▁well ▁before ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁the ▁collision . ▁Furthermore , ▁he ▁considered ▁that ▁the ▁sever ity ▁of ▁damage ▁showed ▁that ▁no ▁bra king ▁at ▁all ▁had ▁been ▁applied ▁to ▁the ▁run away . ▁ ▁The ▁bra kes cre w ▁on ▁the ▁run away ▁bra ke ▁van ▁had ▁been ▁bent ▁in ▁the ▁collision , ▁and ▁the ▁nut ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁bottom ▁of ▁the ▁working ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁sc rew , ▁indicating ▁that ▁the ▁bra ke ▁had ▁been ▁off ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁collision . ▁ ▁Ty ler ▁therefore ▁rejected ▁Co oke ' s ▁evidence ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁applied ▁the ▁bra ke ▁as ▁the ▁train ▁was ▁arriv ing ▁at ▁Round ▁Oak ; |
▁the ▁coupling ▁had ▁failed ▁when ▁he ▁released ▁the ▁bra ke , ▁but ▁he ▁had ▁re app lied ▁the ▁bra ke ▁on ▁becoming ▁aware ▁of ▁the ▁break away ; ▁this ▁had ▁initially ▁had ▁some ▁effect , ▁but ▁the ▁run away ▁had ▁then ▁sk idd ed ▁down ▁the ▁incl ine ▁with ▁gather ing ▁speed . ▁ ▁Instead , ▁Ty ler ▁thought , ▁Co oke ▁had ▁left ▁the ▁bra ke ▁van ▁as ▁it ▁arrived ▁at ▁Round ▁Oak , ▁without ▁applying ▁the ▁bra ke , ▁an ▁obviously ▁necessary ▁pre ca ution ▁against ▁a ▁' re bound ▁of ▁the ▁buff ers ' ▁( a ▁shock ▁loading ▁on ▁cou pl ings ▁as ▁coach es ▁hit ▁and ▁b ounced ▁back ▁from ▁the ▁coach ▁ahead ): ▁consequ ently ▁a ▁sc rew ▁coupling ▁had ▁failed ▁( the ▁failed ▁coupling ▁had ▁a ▁gross ly ▁defect ive ▁w eld , ▁as ▁did ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁cou pl ings ▁exam ined ▁on ▁other ▁coach es ▁in ▁the ▁train ) ▁and ▁the ▁side ▁ch ains ▁had ▁in ▁their ▁turn ▁been ▁unable ▁to ▁resist ▁the ▁shock ▁loading . ▁Co oke , ▁thought ▁Ty ler , ▁ ▁had ▁been ▁unable ▁to ▁reg ain ▁the ▁bra ke van ▁as ▁the ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁train ▁to ▁the ▁rear ▁of ▁the ▁failed ▁coupling ▁ran ▁away ▁but ▁had ▁either ▁travel led ▁down ▁on ▁the ▁run away ▁or ▁run ▁after ▁it ▁sufficiently ▁fast ▁to ▁reach ▁the ▁collision ▁site ▁soon ▁after ▁the ▁collision . ▁A ▁very ▁few ▁words ▁will ▁suff ice ▁for ▁sum ming ▁up , ▁in ▁conclusion , ▁the ▁causes ▁of ▁this ▁accident |
. ▁ ▁A ▁man ▁was ▁selected ▁by ▁the ▁company ▁for ▁the ▁important ▁duty ▁of ▁head ▁guard ▁to ▁a ▁heavy ▁train ▁who ▁proved ▁to ▁be ▁anything ▁but ▁trust worth y ▁and ▁careful , ▁and ▁who , ▁in ▁not ▁performing ▁that ▁duty ▁with ▁the ▁attention ▁that ▁it ▁required , ▁caused ▁the ▁f ract ure ▁of ▁a ▁defect ive ▁coupling , ▁and ▁permitted ▁the ▁greater ▁part ▁of ▁his ▁train ▁to ▁run ▁backwards ▁down ▁a ▁ste ep ▁gradient , ▁on ▁which ▁it ▁came ▁into ▁violent ▁collision ▁with ▁a ▁following ▁train . ▁ ▁Ty ler ▁had ▁not ▁restricted ▁his ▁criticism ▁to ▁Co oke . ▁The ▁best ▁ins urance ▁against ▁failure ▁of ▁cou pl ings ▁was ▁the ▁selection ▁of ▁intellig ent ▁men ▁of ▁known ▁character ▁and ▁stead iness ▁for ▁the ▁execution ▁of ▁responsible ▁duties . ▁Co oke ▁had ▁worked ▁for ▁the ▁company ▁as ▁a ▁goods ▁guard ▁for ▁eight ▁years , ▁and ▁had ▁acted ▁as ▁a ▁guard ▁on ▁exc urs ion ▁trains ▁over ▁several ▁sum mers . ▁It ▁cannot ▁for ▁a ▁moment ▁be ▁supposed ▁that ▁a ▁man ▁habit ually ▁trust worth y ▁should ▁on ▁this ▁occasion ▁only ▁have ▁so ▁far ▁forgotten ▁himself ▁as ▁to ▁inv ite ▁the ▁passengers ▁into ▁his ▁van , ▁to ▁smoke ▁and ▁drink ▁with ▁them , ▁to ▁employ ▁them ▁at ▁his ▁bra ke ▁handle , ▁and ▁four ▁times ▁to ▁f ract ure ▁the ▁cou pl ings ▁in ▁one ▁day ▁by ▁his ▁care less ness ; ▁and ▁if ▁the ▁company ▁or ▁their ▁officers ▁were ▁not ▁aware ▁of ▁his ▁character ▁previously , ▁then ▁it ▁can ▁only ▁be ▁said ▁that |
▁they ▁ought ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁aware ▁of ▁it , ▁and ▁that ▁they ▁ought ▁to ▁have ▁used ▁an ▁amount ▁of ▁circum spe ction ▁that ▁would ▁have ▁prevent ed ▁them ▁from ▁appoint ing ▁a ▁care less ▁man , ▁as ▁he ▁proves ▁clearly ▁to ▁have ▁been , ▁to ▁such ▁important ▁duties ▁▁ ▁For ▁a ▁train ▁of ▁ 2 8 ▁carri ages , ▁two ▁bra ke ▁v ans ▁were ▁in ade qu ate , ▁ ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 8 ▁carri ages ▁were ▁needed ▁to ▁hold ▁a ▁thousand ▁pleasure - se ek ing ▁exc urs ion ists ▁without ▁over - c row ding , ▁and ▁to ▁maintain ▁good ▁order ▁in ▁a ▁thousand ▁pleasure - se ek ing ▁exc urs ion ists ▁more ▁was ▁needed ▁than ▁two ▁gu ards ▁( who ▁had ▁their ▁normal ▁duties ▁to ▁perform ). ▁▁ ▁The ▁accident ▁would ▁not ▁have ▁been ▁avoided ▁or ▁mit ig ated ▁by ▁specifying ▁a ▁longer ▁interval ▁between ▁trains , ▁or ▁by ▁a ▁greater ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁te legraph . ▁Ty ler ▁also ▁noted ▁two ▁points ▁which , ▁whilst ▁having ▁no ▁bearing ▁on ▁the ▁accident , ▁were , ▁he ▁felt , ▁indic ative ▁of ▁' a ▁want ▁of ▁proper ▁discipline ▁in ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁company ' ▁▁ ▁the ▁st ip ulation ▁that ▁the ▁exc urs ion ▁was ▁restricted ▁to ▁school children ▁and ▁their ▁teachers ▁had ▁been ▁system atically ▁ignored ▁ ▁the ▁record - book ▁at ▁Round ▁Oak ▁station ▁( which ▁recorded ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁arrival ▁and ▁departure ▁of ▁trains ▁- ▁thereby ▁recording ▁whether ▁the ▁interval ▁system ▁was ▁being ▁correctly |
▁worked ▁to ) ▁had ▁been ▁filled ▁up ▁some ▁three ▁weeks ▁before ▁the ▁accident , ▁and ▁no ▁replacement ▁had ▁yet ▁been ▁proc ured ; ▁for ▁the ▁three ▁weeks ▁before ▁the ▁accident ▁no ▁record ▁had ▁been ▁kept . ▁ ▁Tri al ▁of ▁the ▁guard ▁A ▁coron er ' s ▁in quisition ▁was ▁also ▁held . ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁sum ming ▁up , ▁the ▁coron er ▁directed ▁the ▁j ury ▁as ▁follows ▁Al most ▁all ▁the ▁scientific ▁witness es ▁agreed ▁in ▁thinking ▁that ▁if ▁Cook , ▁the ▁guard , ▁had ▁applied ▁his ▁bra ke ▁in ▁a ▁proper ▁manner ▁when ▁the ▁carri ages ▁separated ▁at ▁the ▁Round ▁Oak ▁Station , ▁he ▁would ▁have ▁stopped ▁the ▁train ▁and ▁have ▁prevent ed ▁the ▁collision , ▁and ▁thus ▁have ▁avoided ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁the ▁un fortun ate ▁dece ased . ▁ ▁If ▁you ▁believe ▁that ▁Cook ▁could ▁have ▁done ▁that ▁in ▁the ▁ordinary ▁performance ▁of ▁his ▁duties , ▁as ▁guard ▁on ▁that ▁occasion , ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁do ▁so , ▁Cook ▁will ▁have ▁been ▁guilty ▁of ▁m ans la ugh ter ▁The ▁j ury ▁d uly ▁found ▁that ▁Co oke ▁should ▁be ▁charged ▁with ▁m ans la ugh ter . ▁The ▁case ▁was ▁considered ▁by ▁the ▁Grand ▁J ury ▁at ▁Staff ord shire ▁Ass izes ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 8 5 8 . ▁In ▁his ▁charge ▁to ▁the ▁Grand ▁J ury , ▁Mr ▁Baron ▁Br am well ▁took ▁a ▁very ▁different ▁view ▁of ▁the ▁case , ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁law , ▁from ▁the ▁coron er : ▁It ▁did ▁so ▁happen |
▁that ▁persons ▁in ▁the ▁situation ▁of ▁Cook ▁were ▁made ▁sc ap ego ats ▁of , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁m oll ify ▁public ▁ind ignation ▁at ▁such ▁occurr ences , ▁though ▁he ▁would ▁not ▁say ▁such ▁was ▁the ▁case ▁on ▁this ▁particular ▁occasion . ▁He ▁might ▁also ▁say ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁very ▁easy ▁thing ▁for ▁scientific ▁gentlemen ▁to ▁get ▁quietly ▁into ▁a ▁train ▁and ▁make ▁experiments , ▁with ▁the ▁knowledge ▁that ▁the ▁result ▁could ▁bring ▁them ▁into ▁no ▁trouble , ▁and ▁then ▁to ▁say ▁what ▁they ▁could ▁do ▁about ▁stopping ▁a ▁train . ▁ ▁This ▁was ▁very ▁different ▁from ▁what ▁a ▁man ▁would ▁do ▁in ▁the ▁hur ry ▁of ▁the ▁moment , ▁and ▁under ▁such ▁circumstances ▁in ▁which ▁Cook ▁was ▁placed . ▁If ▁the ▁guard ▁mis managed ▁his ▁bra ke , ▁not ▁from ▁want ▁of ▁any ▁intention ▁or ▁opportunity , ▁but ▁because ▁he ▁became ▁fright ened , ▁it ▁might ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁man ▁was ▁un fit ▁for ▁his ▁situation , ▁but ▁it ▁could ▁not ▁make ▁him ▁guilty ▁of ▁m ans la ugh ter . ▁ ▁" H is ▁lord ship , ▁having ▁observed ▁… ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁evidence ▁to ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁guard ▁was ▁doing ▁his ▁best ▁to ▁stop ▁the ▁train ▁by ▁applying ▁the ▁bra ke , ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁remark ▁that " ▁when ▁a ▁man ▁had ▁a ▁duty ▁to ▁perform , ▁if ▁he ▁performed ▁it ▁neg lig ently , ▁and ▁death ▁en su ed ▁in ▁consequence , ▁he ▁was ▁li able ▁for ▁the ▁consequences ; ▁but ▁a ▁man ▁was ▁not ▁guilty ▁of |
▁m ans la ugh ter ▁merely ▁because ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁do ▁that ▁which ▁a ▁stronger ▁or ▁more ▁clever ▁or ▁cool - head ed ▁person ▁would ▁have ▁done ▁under ▁similar ▁circumstances . ▁There ▁must , ▁in ▁fact , ▁be ▁cul p ability ▁or ▁something ▁bl ame able ▁in ▁the ▁prisoner ▁to ▁war rant ▁the ▁grand ▁j ury ▁in ▁finding ▁a ▁true ▁bill ▁The ▁grand ▁j ury ▁found ▁no ▁case ▁to ▁answer ; ▁Cook ▁was ▁then ▁charged ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁the ▁coron er ' s ▁in quisition , ▁but ▁no ▁evidence ▁was ▁offered ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁d uly ▁acqu itted . ▁ ▁Report ing ▁this , ▁the ▁Wor c esters hire ▁Chron icle ▁noted ▁" This ▁result ▁entirely ▁ful fil s ▁our ▁pro gn ost ic ations ▁as ▁to ▁the ▁failure ▁of ▁this ▁unf ounded ▁and ▁un just ifiable ▁pro sec ution ." ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Railway ▁coupling ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁ste ep est ▁grad ients ▁on ▁ad hes ion ▁rail ways ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Ext ract s ▁from ▁The ▁B irmingham ▁Post ▁: ▁The ▁Railway ▁Cat ast rop he ▁near ▁D ud ley ▁( 1 ▁October ▁ 1 8 5 8 ) ▁The ▁Railway ▁Acc ident ▁near ▁Bret ell ▁Lane , ▁ver dict ▁of ▁m ans la ugh ter ▁against ▁Co oke , ▁the ▁guard . ▁( 6 ▁October ▁ 1 8 5 8 ) ▁ ▁Category : R ail way ▁acc idents ▁and ▁inc idents ▁in ▁the ▁West ▁Mid lands ▁( count y ) ▁Category : |
R ail way ▁acc idents ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 8 ▁Category : 1 8 5 8 ▁in ▁England ▁Category : R ail ▁transport ▁in ▁D ud ley ▁Category : Run away ▁train ▁dis aster s ▁Category : 1 9 th ▁century ▁in ▁Wor c esters hire ▁Category : August ▁ 1 8 5 8 ▁events <0x0A> </s> ▁HD ▁ 2 0 2 2 5 9 ▁is ▁a ▁sus pected ▁variable ▁star ▁in ▁the ▁equ atorial ▁const ell ation ▁of ▁Aqu arius . ▁With ▁an ▁apparent ▁magnitude ▁of ▁ 6 . 3 9 , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁B ort le ▁scale ▁it ▁is ▁faint ly ▁visible ▁to ▁the ▁n aked ▁eye ▁from ▁dark ▁rural ▁sk ies . ▁It ▁has ▁a ▁stell ar ▁classification ▁of ▁M 1 III , ▁and ▁is ▁a ▁red ▁giant ▁located ▁along ▁the ▁asympt otic ▁giant ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁H R ▁diagram . ▁Loc ated ▁about ▁ 9 0 0 light ▁years ▁away , ▁its ▁radial ▁velocity ▁of ▁− 1 2 3 . 5 km / s ▁indicates ▁this ▁is ▁a ▁high - vel ocity ▁star . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Image ▁HD ▁ 2 0 2 2 5 9 ▁ ▁Category : A qu arius ▁( const ell ation ) ▁ 2 0 2 2 5 9 ▁Category : M - type ▁gi ants ▁ 8 1 2 1 ▁Category : S us pected ▁variables ▁ 1 0 4 8 7 2 ▁Category : D urch m uster ung ▁objects <0x0A> </s> ▁Museo ▁S |
arm iento ▁ ▁( S arm iento ▁Museum ) ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁three ▁museum s ▁dedicated ▁to ▁Dom ingo ▁S arm iento , ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁President ▁of ▁Argentina ▁( from ▁ 1 8 6 8 ▁to ▁ 1 8 7 4 ): ▁▁ ▁S arm iento ▁House , ▁in ▁the ▁northern ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁sub urb ▁of ▁Tig re ▁ ▁S arm iento ▁historic ▁museum , ▁in ▁the ▁Bel gr ano ▁district ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁ ▁Casa ▁Dom ingo ▁Fa ust ino ▁S arm iento , ▁in ▁San ▁Juan , ▁Argentina <0x0A> </s> ▁Seb eda ▁() ▁was ▁a ▁har bour ▁on ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁ancient ▁Ly cia . ▁ ▁Its ▁site ▁is ▁located ▁near ▁Bay ı nd ı r ▁Lim an , ▁A si atic ▁Turkey . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁ancient ▁Ly cia ▁Category : Form er ▁populated ▁places ▁in ▁Turkey <0x0A> </s> ▁A ▁fifth ▁refer endum ▁on ▁the ▁Comp act ▁of ▁Free ▁Association ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁Pal au ▁on ▁ 3 0 ▁June ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁after ▁the ▁previous ▁four ▁refer end ums ▁had ▁failed ▁to ▁achieve ▁the ▁ 7 5 % ▁in ▁favour ▁necessary . ▁V ot ers ▁were ▁asked ▁whether ▁they ▁approved ▁of ▁the ▁Comp act ▁of ▁Free ▁Association ▁between ▁Pal au ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁signed ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁January ▁ 1 9 8 6 . ▁It ▁was ▁approved ▁by ▁ 6 7 . 6 % ▁of ▁vot ers , ▁with ▁a ▁turn out ▁of ▁ 7 6 |
. 1 %. ▁Following ▁the ▁fifth ▁failure ▁to ▁achieve ▁the ▁necessary ▁majority , ▁a ▁constitution al ▁refer endum ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁August , ▁with ▁the ▁aim ▁of ▁reducing ▁the ▁majority ▁needed . ▁ ▁Results ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 7 ▁refer end ums ▁Category : 1 9 8 7 ▁in ▁Pal au ▁Category : Re fer end ums ▁in ▁Pal au <0x0A> </s> ▁Richard ▁Brit tain ▁( born ▁ 2 4 ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Scottish ▁former ▁professional ▁footballer ▁now ▁co aching ▁at ▁Ross ▁County ▁f c . ▁He ▁also ▁spent ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 ▁season ▁as ▁manager ▁of ▁the ▁club . ▁He ▁started ▁his ▁career ▁at ▁Living ston ▁and ▁has ▁also ▁played ▁for ▁Ra ith ▁Ro vers , ▁St ▁Mir ren ▁and ▁Ross ▁County . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Living ston ▁Brit tain ▁started ▁his ▁career ▁with ▁Al mond v ale ▁side ▁Living ston ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁playing ▁ 6 5 ▁league ▁games ▁and ▁scoring ▁four ▁goals . ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁a ▁victim ▁of ▁a ▁team - mate ▁dispute ▁after ▁new ▁signing ▁Ser gio ▁Bert i ▁sp at ▁at ▁him ▁during ▁a ▁pre - season ▁friendly . ▁This ▁led ▁to ▁Bert i ▁being ▁s ack ed ▁by ▁the ▁club , ▁although ▁this ▁decision ▁was ▁later ▁over turn ed ▁by ▁the ▁Scottish ▁Football ▁Association ▁following ▁an ▁appeal ▁by ▁Bert i ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁club ▁pay ing ▁£ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁plus ▁compens ation |
. ▁During ▁his ▁time ▁at ▁Living ston , ▁he ▁was ▁loan ed ▁out ▁to ▁Ra ith ▁Ro vers ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁cup - t ied ▁for ▁Living ston ' s ▁victory ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Scottish ▁League ▁Cup ▁Final ▁having ▁previously ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁competition ▁during ▁his ▁loan ▁spell ▁at ▁Ra ith . ▁ ▁St ▁Mir ren ▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁despite ▁interest ▁from ▁French ▁clubs ▁Mont pel lier ▁and ▁Racing ▁Club ▁Str as bourg , ▁Brit tain ▁chose ▁to ▁sign ▁for ▁Scottish ▁Premier ▁League ▁side ▁St ▁Mir ren ▁on ▁a ▁free ▁transfer . ▁At ▁St ▁Mir ren , ▁he ▁was ▁most ▁noted ▁for ▁his ▁goal ▁against ▁R angers ▁on ▁ 3 0 ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁which ▁was ▁his ▁only ▁league ▁goal ▁for ▁the ▁Sain ts . ▁ ▁Ross ▁County ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁released ▁by ▁St ▁Mir ren ▁in ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁and ▁signed ▁for ▁Scottish ▁First ▁Division ▁side ▁Ross ▁County ▁in ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁Upon ▁his ▁move ▁to ▁Ross ▁County , ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁reun ited ▁with ▁D erek ▁Adams , ▁the ▁club ' s ▁manager , ▁the ▁two ▁having ▁played ▁together ▁while ▁at ▁Living ston . ▁ ▁Brit tain ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁in ▁the ▁opening ▁game ▁of ▁the ▁season , ▁as ▁Ross ▁County ▁lost ▁ 2 – 1 ▁against ▁D und ee ▁before ▁scoring ▁his ▁first ▁goal ▁on ▁ 1 3 ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 |
8 , ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 – 1 ▁loss ▁against ▁St ▁John stone . ▁Brit tain ▁would ▁finish ▁his ▁first ▁season ▁at ▁the ▁club , ▁making ▁thirty - e ight ▁appearances ▁and ▁scoring ▁five ▁in ▁all ▁compet itions . ▁ ▁Brit tain ▁capt ained ▁Ross ▁County ▁through ▁vict ories ▁in ▁The ▁Scottish ▁Cup ▁against ▁S PL ▁sides ▁H ib s ▁and ▁C elt ic . ▁The ▁famous ▁ 2 – 0 ▁victory ▁over ▁C elt ic ▁at ▁H amp den ▁Park ▁in ▁the ▁semi - final ▁earned ▁Ross ▁County ▁a ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Scottish ▁Cup ▁Final , ▁the ▁club ' s ▁first ▁ever ▁major ▁final , ▁which ▁County ▁eventually ▁lost ▁ 3 – 0 ▁to ▁D und ee ▁United . ▁Brit tain ▁dedicated ▁the ▁win ▁against ▁C elt ic ▁to ▁his ▁late ▁friend ▁Graham ▁H eg gie . ▁During ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁signed ▁a ▁new ▁contract ▁with ▁the ▁club . ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁would ▁be ▁involved ▁in ▁leading ▁Ross ▁County ▁to ▁a ▁ 2 – 0 ▁win ▁against ▁Queen ▁of ▁the ▁South ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁of ▁the ▁Scottish ▁Challenge ▁Cup . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 ▁season , ▁and ▁into ▁the ▁first ▁six ▁games ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 , ▁Brit tain ▁capt ained ▁Ross ▁County ▁through ▁a ▁post ▁war ▁Scottish ▁record ▁of ▁ 4 0 ▁league |
▁games ▁und efe ated , ▁over ▁a ▁full ▁calendar ▁year . ▁This ▁run ▁helped ▁Ross ▁County ▁win ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 ▁Scottish ▁First ▁Division ▁by ▁a ▁record ▁margin ▁of ▁ 2 4 ▁points ▁and ▁promotion ▁to ▁the ▁Scottish ▁Premier ▁League ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁the ▁club ' s ▁history . ▁Brit tain ▁would ▁describe ▁as ▁his ▁" gre at est ▁day ▁of ▁my ▁career ". ▁Brit tain ▁would ▁sign ▁a ▁one - year ▁contract ▁with ▁the ▁club . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁club ' s ▁first ▁league ▁match ▁in ▁the ▁top - fl ight , ▁where ▁Ross ▁County ▁drew ▁ 0 – 0 ▁with ▁Mother well . ▁Brit tain ▁would ▁score ▁the ▁club ' s ▁first ▁goal ▁in ▁the ▁top - fl ight , ▁as ▁Ross ▁County ▁drew ▁ 1 – 1 ▁with ▁C elt ic . ▁and ▁scored ▁another ▁in ▁the ▁next ▁match , ▁giving ▁Ross ▁County ▁their ▁first ▁win ▁in ▁the ▁S PL , ▁against ▁D und ee . ▁ ▁For ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 , ▁Brit tain ▁agreed ▁to ▁join ▁St ▁John stone ▁on ▁a ▁two - year ▁deal ▁after ▁signing ▁a ▁pre - cont ract ▁with ▁the ▁club ▁on ▁ 9 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁previously ▁critic ised ▁by ▁St ▁John stone ▁Manager ▁Steve ▁L omas ▁earlier ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 2 |
– 1 3 ▁season , ▁calling ▁him ▁a ▁" che at ". ▁He ▁then ▁changed ▁his ▁mind ▁and ▁said ▁he ▁wanted ▁to ▁stay ▁at ▁Ross ▁County , ▁who ▁then ▁registered ▁him ▁as ▁their ▁player ▁prevent ing ▁St ▁John stone ▁from ▁doing ▁so . ▁When ▁Ross ▁County ▁and ▁St ▁John stone ▁played ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Brit tain ▁received ▁je ers ▁from ▁St ▁John stone ▁fans , ▁though ▁he ▁received ▁pra ised ▁from ▁Ross ▁County ▁fans . ▁During ▁the ▁match , ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁two ▁pen alt ies ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 – 2 ▁draw . ▁After ▁the ▁match , ▁Manager ▁Adams ▁pra ised ▁Brit tain ' s ▁performance ▁in ▁the ▁match . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 7 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁St ▁John stone ▁announced ▁they ▁had ▁reached ▁agreement ▁with ▁Ross ▁County ▁to ▁transfer ▁Brit tain ▁back ▁to ▁them ▁for ▁a ▁fee ▁of ▁£ 4 0 , 0 0 0 . ▁This ▁remains ▁the ▁highest ▁sum ▁St . John stone ▁have ▁received ▁for ▁a ▁player ▁that ▁did ▁not ▁actually ▁play ▁for ▁them . ▁Ross ▁County ▁though , ▁have ▁denied ▁any ▁transfer ▁fee ▁was ▁paid , ▁they ▁say ▁a ▁don ation ▁was ▁made ▁to ▁St ▁John stone ' s ▁community ▁programme . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁missed ▁two ▁games ▁at ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁after ▁being ▁susp ended ▁over ▁an ▁incident ▁in ▁a ▁pre - season ▁friendly ▁match . ▁After |
▁serving ▁his ▁two ▁match ▁susp ension , ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁a ▁bra ce ▁in ▁a ▁ 3 – 0 ▁win ▁over ▁St ▁Mir ren ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Four ▁weeks ▁later ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁against ▁He arts , ▁Brit tain ▁provided ▁an ▁assist ▁for ▁Mel vin ▁de ▁Lee uw ▁to ▁equal ised ▁and ▁in ▁return , ▁de ▁Lee uw ▁then ▁provided ▁assist ▁for ▁Brit tain ▁to ▁score ▁the ▁winning ▁goal , ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 – 1 ▁win . ▁In ▁the ▁return ▁game ▁against ▁He arts ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁then ▁sent - off ▁for ▁second ▁book able ▁off ense , ▁which ▁the ▁game ▁ended ▁a ▁ 2 – 2 ▁draw . ▁On ▁ 1 1 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Brit tain ▁provided ▁a ▁hat - tr ick ▁assist , ▁in ▁a ▁ 3 – 3 ▁draw ▁against ▁Part ick ▁Th ist le . ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁his ▁fourth ▁goal ▁of ▁the ▁season , ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 – 1 ▁loss ▁against ▁Hi bern ian ▁on ▁ 1 5 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁In ▁a ▁return ▁game ▁against ▁Part ick ▁Th ist le ▁on ▁ 1 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁his ▁fifth ▁goal ▁of ▁the ▁season , ▁which ▁they ▁drew ▁ 1 – 1 . ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁his ▁sixth ▁goal ▁of ▁the ▁season , ▁in ▁a |
▁ 2 – 1 ▁win ▁over ▁Kil mar no ck ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁On ▁ 6 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Brit tain ▁scored ▁the ▁winning ▁goal , ▁from ▁the ▁penalty ▁spot , ▁as ▁Ross ▁County ▁beat ▁Hi bern ian ▁ 1 – 0 , ▁a ▁result ▁that ▁confirmed ▁the ▁club ' s ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁Scottish ▁Prem iers hip ▁for ▁another ▁season . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁continued ▁as ▁club ▁captain , ▁however ▁his ▁season ▁was ▁over shadow ed ▁by ▁injury , ▁which ▁resulted ▁him ▁making ▁twenty - four ▁appearances ▁in ▁all ▁compet itions . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 ▁season , ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁released ▁by ▁the ▁" St agg ies ". ▁ ▁B ror a ▁R angers ▁Brit tain ▁signed ▁for ▁High land ▁League ▁club ▁B ror a ▁R angers ▁during ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁close ▁season , ▁while ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁starting ▁a ▁new ▁career ▁in ▁the ▁construction ▁industry . ▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Brit tain ▁was ▁appointed ▁player / manager ▁of ▁B ror a , ▁succeed ing ▁Dav ie ▁Kirk wood ▁as ▁manager . ▁Brit tain ▁res igned ▁as ▁manager ▁in ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁due ▁to ▁" occup ational ▁activities ▁and ▁family ▁commit ments ," ▁but ▁said ▁he ▁hoped ▁to ▁continue ▁as ▁a ▁player ▁at |
▁the ▁club . ▁ ▁Career ▁statistics ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁Brit tain ' s ▁re jection ▁of ▁a ▁move ▁to ▁St ▁John stone ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁caused ▁him ▁to ▁receive ▁hate ▁messages ▁on ▁Twitter . ▁His ▁wife , ▁D iane , ▁had ▁condem ned ▁the ▁ab use ▁the ▁family ▁was ▁receiving . ▁Brit tain ▁stated ▁he ▁stayed ▁at ▁Ross ▁County ▁for ▁family ▁reasons . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁Brit tain ▁became ▁a ▁father ▁after ▁his ▁wife ▁give ▁birth ▁to ▁a ▁baby ▁daughter . ▁Starting ▁a ▁family ▁" made ▁him ▁prior it ise ▁his ▁family ▁over ▁his ▁career ". ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁Player ▁Ross ▁County ▁Scottish ▁Challenge ▁Cup : ▁ 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 ▁ ▁Manager ▁B ror a ▁R angers ▁High land ▁League ▁Cup : ▁ 2 0 1 5 - 1 6 ▁ ▁Ind ividual ▁Scottish ▁Football ▁League ▁Player ▁of ▁the ▁Month : ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁football ers ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁Premier ▁League ▁players ▁Category : L iving ston ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : R a ith ▁Ro vers ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : St ▁Mir ren ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : R oss ▁County ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁mid field ers ▁Category |
: Pe ople ▁from ▁Bath gate ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁West ▁L oth ian ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁Professional ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : L oth ian ▁Th ist le ▁H utch ison ▁V ale ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : B ror a ▁R angers ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁football ▁man agers ▁Category : B ror a ▁R angers ▁F . C . ▁man agers ▁Category : High land ▁Football ▁League ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Mur um ulla ▁Sri ram ▁( born ▁ 2 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 9 2 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Indian ▁first - class ▁cr ick eter ▁who ▁plays ▁for ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Ind ian ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : And h ra ▁Pr adesh ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : C rick eters ▁from ▁Vis akh apat nam <0x0A> </s> ▁V ib rac ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁V ib rac , ▁Char ente ▁ ▁V ib rac , ▁Char ente - Mar itime <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁N ch ing idi ▁w orm ▁l izard ▁( Ch ir ind ia ▁r ondo ensis ) ▁is ▁a ▁w orm ▁l izard ▁species ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Am ph is ba en idae . ▁It ▁is ▁en demic ▁to ▁T anz ania . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Ch ir ind ia ▁Category : Re pt iles ▁described |
▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁Category : T ax a ▁named ▁by ▁Arthur ▁L over idge ▁Category : End em ic ▁fa una ▁of ▁T anz ania ▁Category : Re pt iles ▁of ▁T anz ania <0x0A> </s> ▁Ig or ▁Ly ov sh in ▁( born ▁ 1 8 ▁August ▁ 1 9 7 4 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Russian ▁hand ball ▁player ▁for ▁Perm ski ye ▁Med ved i ▁and ▁the ▁Russian ▁national ▁team . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Russ ian ▁male ▁hand ball ▁players ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁T iras pol <0x0A> </s> ▁V ost och ny ▁() ▁is ▁an ▁urban ▁local ity ▁( an ▁urban - type ▁settlement ) ▁in ▁O mut n in sky ▁District ▁of ▁K iro v ▁O blast , ▁Russia . ▁Population : ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : U r ban - type ▁settlement s ▁in ▁K iro v ▁O blast <0x0A> </s> ▁National ▁power ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁sum ▁of ▁all ▁resources ▁available ▁to ▁a ▁nation ▁in ▁the ▁purs uit ▁of ▁national ▁object ives . ▁Ass ess ing ▁the ▁national ▁power ▁of ▁political ▁entities ▁was ▁already ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁relev ance ▁during ▁the ▁classical ▁anti qu ity , ▁the ▁middle ▁ages ▁and ▁the ▁r ena issance ▁and ▁today . ▁ ▁Element s ▁of ▁national ▁power ▁National ▁power ▁st ems ▁from ▁various ▁elements , ▁also ▁called ▁instruments ▁or ▁attributes ; ▁these ▁may ▁be ▁put ▁into ▁two ▁groups ▁based ▁on ▁their ▁applic |
ability ▁and ▁origin ▁- ▁" natural " ▁and ▁" social ". ▁ ▁Natural : ▁ ▁Geography ▁ ▁Resources ▁ ▁Population ▁ ▁Social : ▁Econom ic ▁Political ▁Military ▁ ▁Psych ological ▁ ▁Inform ational ▁ ▁Geography ▁Import ant ▁fac ets ▁of ▁ge ography ▁such ▁as ▁location ▁( ge ography ), ▁climate , ▁top ography , ▁and ▁size ▁play ▁major ▁roles ▁in ▁the ▁ability ▁of ▁a ▁nation ▁to ▁gain ▁national ▁power . ▁Location ▁has ▁an ▁important ▁bearing ▁on ▁foreign ▁policy ▁of ▁a ▁nation . ▁The ▁relation ▁between ▁foreign ▁policy ▁and ▁ge ographic ▁location ▁gave ▁rise ▁to ▁the ▁discipline ▁of ▁ge opol it ics . ▁ ▁The ▁presence ▁of ▁a ▁water ▁obst acle ▁provided ▁protection ▁to ▁nation ▁states ▁such ▁as ▁Great ▁Britain , ▁Japan , ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁allowed ▁Japan ▁to ▁follow ▁isol ation ist ▁policies . ▁The ▁presence ▁of ▁large ▁accessible ▁se ab o ards ▁also ▁permitted ▁these ▁nations ▁to ▁build ▁strong ▁nav ies ▁and ▁expand ▁their ▁territ ories ▁peace fully ▁or ▁by ▁con quest . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁Poland , ▁with ▁no ▁obst acle ▁for ▁its ▁powerful ▁neighb ours , ▁even ▁lost ▁its ▁independence ▁as ▁a ▁nation , ▁being ▁partition ed ▁among ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Pr uss ia , ▁the ▁Russian ▁Empire , ▁and ▁Austria ▁from ▁ 1 7 9 5 ▁on wards ▁till ▁it ▁reg ained ▁independence ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 8 . ▁ ▁Cl imate ▁affect s ▁the ▁product ivity ▁of ▁Russian ▁agricult ure ▁as ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁nation ▁is ▁in ▁lat itudes ▁well ▁north ▁of ▁ideal ▁lat |
itudes ▁for ▁far ming . ▁Con vers ely , ▁Russia ' s ▁size ▁permitted ▁it ▁to ▁trade ▁space ▁for ▁time ▁during ▁the ▁Great ▁Patri otic ▁War . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Ge opol it ics ▁Power ▁projection ▁ ▁Power ▁in ▁international ▁relations ▁ ▁Compos ite ▁Index ▁of ▁National ▁Cap ability ▁ ▁Com pre h ensive ▁National ▁Power ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Intern ational ▁relations ▁termin ology <0x0A> </s> ▁Per sec ution ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁occurs ▁in ▁various ▁countries , ▁especially ▁in ▁Iran , ▁where ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁origin ated , ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁populations ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁is ▁located . ▁ ▁The ▁orig ins ▁of ▁the ▁per sec ution ▁stem ▁from ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁teach ings ▁which ▁are ▁incons istent ▁with ▁traditional ▁Islam ic ▁belief s , ▁including ▁the ▁final ity ▁of ▁Muhammad ' s ▁proph eth ood , ▁and ▁the ▁pla cement ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁outside ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁faith . ▁Thus , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁seen ▁as ▁apost ates ▁from ▁Islam , ▁and , ▁according ▁to ▁some ▁Islam ists , ▁must ▁choose ▁between ▁rep ent ance ▁and ▁death . ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁sp okes people , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁United ▁Nations , ▁Am n esty ▁International , ▁the ▁European ▁Union , ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁and ▁peer - review ed ▁academic ▁literature ▁have ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran ▁have |
▁been ▁subject ed ▁to ▁unw arr anted ▁arr ests , ▁false ▁imprison ment , ▁beat ings , ▁tort ure , ▁un just ified ▁execution s , ▁conf is cation ▁and ▁destruction ▁of ▁property ▁owned ▁by ▁individuals ▁and ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community , ▁den ial ▁of ▁employ ment , ▁den ial ▁of ▁government ▁benefits , ▁den ial ▁of ▁civil ▁rights ▁and ▁libert ies , ▁and ▁den ial ▁of ▁access ▁to ▁higher ▁education . ▁ ▁Historical ▁context ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 3 ▁by ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h ▁in ▁Iran . ▁E ight y - n ine ▁percent ▁of ▁Iran ians ▁ad here ▁to ▁the ▁Tw el ver ▁branch ▁of ▁Sh i ʻ a ▁Islam , ▁which ▁holds ▁as ▁a ▁core ▁doctrine ▁the ▁expected ▁advent ▁of ▁a ▁mess ian ic ▁figure ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Q a ' im ▁or ▁as ▁the ▁Im am ▁Mah di . ▁The ▁B áb ▁claimed ▁he ▁was ▁the ▁Im am ▁Mah di ▁and ▁thus ▁he ▁had ▁equal ▁status ▁to ▁Muhammad ▁with ▁the ▁power , ▁which ▁he ▁exerc ised , ▁to ▁ab rog ate ▁the ▁final ▁prov isions ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁law . ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h , ▁a ▁B áb í ▁who ▁claimed ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁one ▁for et old ▁by ▁the ▁B áb , ▁claimed ▁a ▁similar ▁station ▁for ▁himself ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 3 ▁as ▁a ▁Man ifest ation ▁of ▁God ▁and ▁as ▁the ▁promised ▁figure ▁for |
et old ▁in ▁the ▁sacred ▁script ures ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁religious ▁trad itions ▁of ▁the ▁past ▁and ▁founded ▁what ▁later ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith . ▁ ▁Conc ern ing ▁the ▁historical ▁context ▁of ▁the ▁per sec utions , ▁Friedrich ▁W . ▁Aff ol ter ▁in ▁" W ar ▁Cr imes , ▁Gen o cide , ▁& ▁Cr imes ▁against ▁Human ity " ▁writes : ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁this , ▁the ▁B áb í ▁religion , ▁the ▁for er un ner ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith , ▁did ▁not ▁pass ively ▁accept ▁its ▁per sec ution . ▁Friedrich ▁W . ▁Aff ol ter ▁writes : ▁ ▁O thers ▁have ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁B áb ís ▁originally ▁armed ▁themselves ▁and ▁prepared ▁for ▁a ▁holy ▁war ▁that ▁became ▁def ensive ▁when ▁they ▁encountered ▁state ▁troops ▁in ▁several ▁locations ▁and ▁that ▁two ▁to ▁three ▁thousand ▁B áb ís ▁were ▁killed . ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h ▁took ▁a ▁more ▁conc ili atory ▁position , ▁forb idd ing ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁holy ▁war ▁to ▁spread ▁his ▁faith . ▁Instead , ▁he ▁attempted ▁to ▁eng age ▁various ▁govern ments ▁in ▁dialog ue ; ▁however , ▁the ▁radical ▁nature ▁of ▁his ▁claim ▁to ▁proph eth ood ▁did ▁little ▁to ▁change ▁the ▁per ception ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁of ▁Iran . ▁To ▁this ▁day , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁a ▁widely ▁per sec uted ▁minor ity ▁group ▁in ▁Iran ▁and ▁other ▁pre domin antly ▁Muslim |
▁countries , ▁since ▁they ▁are ▁seen ▁as ▁apost ates ▁from ▁Islam , ▁and ▁supp or ters ▁of ▁the ▁West ▁and ▁Israel . ▁ ▁Iran ▁ ▁Leg al ▁context ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁constitution ▁that ▁was ▁draft ed ▁during ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Constitution al ▁Revolution ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁set ▁the ▁ground work ▁for ▁the ▁institution al ized ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁While ▁the ▁constitution ▁was ▁model led ▁on ▁Belg ium ' s ▁ 1 8 3 1 ▁constitution , ▁the ▁prov isions ▁guarantee ing ▁freedom ▁of ▁worship ▁were ▁omitted . ▁ ▁Sub sequ ent ▁legisl ation ▁provided ▁some ▁recognition ▁to ▁Z oro ast ri ans , ▁Jews ▁and ▁Christians ▁as ▁equal ▁citizens ▁under ▁state ▁law , ▁but ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁guarantee ▁freedom ▁of ▁religion ▁and ▁" g ave ▁un pre ced ented ▁institution al ▁powers ▁to ▁the ▁cler ical ▁establishment ." ▁ ▁The ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ▁of ▁Iran , ▁that ▁was ▁established ▁after ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁revolution , ▁recogn izes ▁four ▁relig ions , ▁whose ▁status ▁is ▁formally ▁protected : ▁Z oro ast rian ism , ▁J uda ism , ▁Christian ity , ▁and ▁Islam . ▁M embers ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁three ▁minor ity ▁relig ions ▁receive ▁special ▁treatment ▁under ▁Iran ian ▁law . ▁For ▁example , ▁their ▁members ▁are ▁allowed ▁to ▁drink ▁alco hol , ▁and ▁represent atives ▁of ▁several ▁minor ity ▁communities ▁are ▁guaranteed ▁seats ▁in ▁parliament . ▁ ▁However , ▁religious ▁freedom ▁in ▁Iran ▁is ▁far ▁from ▁absolute . ▁Con version ▁away ▁from ▁Islam |
▁( ap ost asy ) ▁is ▁forb idden , ▁with ▁both ▁converts ▁and ▁mission aries ▁risk ing ▁prison . ▁Those ▁seeking ▁to ▁start ▁a ▁new ▁religious ▁group ▁( wh ether ▁Muslim ▁or ▁not ) ▁face ▁severe ▁restrictions . ▁ ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁faces ▁an ▁additional , ▁technical ▁hur d le . ▁ ▁Iran ian ▁law ▁recogn izes ▁all ▁those ▁who ▁accept ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁God ▁and ▁the ▁proph eth ood ▁of ▁Muhammad ▁as ▁Muslim s . ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁accept ▁both ▁of ▁these ▁pre cept s ; ▁however , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁recognize ▁the ▁B áb ▁and ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h ▁as ▁additional ▁mess engers ▁that ▁have ▁appeared ▁after ▁Muhammad . ▁ ▁Muslim s , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁assert ▁the ▁final ity ▁of ▁Muhammad ' s ▁revel ation . ▁Iran ian ▁law ▁therefore ▁tre ats ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁as ▁" her et ics " ▁rather ▁than ▁members ▁of ▁an ▁independent ▁religion , ▁as ▁they ▁describe ▁themselves . ▁ ▁Other ▁un recogn ized ▁Iran ian ▁religious ▁minor ities ▁include ▁the ▁A hl - e ▁Ha qq , ▁the ▁Mand ae ans ▁and ▁Az alis . ▁Non - Mus lim s ▁compr ise ▁less ▁than ▁ 1 % ▁of ▁Iran ' s ▁population . ▁See ▁religious ▁minor ities ▁in ▁Iran . ▁ ▁Early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁and ▁the ▁P ah la vi ▁D ynast y ▁ ▁Political ▁context ▁At ▁least ▁one ▁scholar ▁has ▁described ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in |
▁Iran ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ▁as ▁" a ▁political ▁pa wn ". ▁Government ▁toler ation ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁being ▁in ▁accord ▁with ▁sec ular ▁Western ▁ideas ▁of ▁freedom ▁of ▁worship ▁was ▁" a ▁way ▁of ▁showing ▁mul lah s ▁who ▁was ▁b oss ." ▁Cor respond ingly , ▁since ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁a ▁relatively ▁small ▁minor ity ▁and ▁most ▁Iran ians ▁followed ▁traditional ▁belief s ▁of ▁Apost asy ▁in ▁Islam , ▁when ▁the ▁government ▁was ▁polit ically ▁weak ▁and ▁in ▁need ▁of ▁cler ical ▁support , ▁withdraw al ▁of ▁government ▁protection ▁to ▁" allow ▁active ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ," ▁was ▁a ▁" low ▁cost ▁pa wn ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁sacrific ed ▁to ▁the ▁mul lah s ". ▁Thus ▁during ▁the ▁he yd ay ▁of ▁sec ular ▁r uler ▁Re za ▁Shah ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁protected ; ▁while ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁when ▁Re za ▁Shah ' s ▁son , ▁Muhammad ▁Re za , ▁needed ▁cler ical ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁Bag hd ad ▁P act ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁Iran ian ▁coup ▁d ' état ▁only ▁two ▁years ▁past , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁attacked . ▁ ▁History ▁Starting ▁in ▁the ▁tw enti eth ▁century , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁repr ession ▁that ▁impact ed ▁individual ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁cent r ally - direct ed ▁campaign s ▁that ▁target ed ▁the ▁entire ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁and ▁institutions ▁were |
▁initi ated . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁per sec utions ▁were ▁recorded ▁by ▁mission aries ▁who ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁areas ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁mass ac res . ▁In ▁one ▁case ▁in ▁Y az d ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 3 ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁killed . ▁Later ▁on ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁schools , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Tar bi y at ▁boys ' ▁and ▁girl ' s ▁schools ▁in ▁Te h ran , ▁were ▁closed ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁and ▁' 4 0 s , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁mar ri ages ▁were ▁not ▁recognized ▁and ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁literature ▁was ▁cens ored . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Moh amm ad ▁Re za ▁P ah la vi , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁growing ▁national ism ▁and ▁the ▁economic ▁difficulties ▁in ▁the ▁country , ▁the ▁Shah ▁gave ▁up ▁control ▁over ▁certain ▁religious ▁affairs ▁to ▁the ▁cler gy ▁of ▁the ▁country . ▁ ▁Among ▁other ▁things , ▁the ▁power ▁sharing ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁campaign ▁of ▁per sec ution ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁Ak hav i ▁has ▁suggested ▁it ▁is ▁likely ▁the ▁government ▁had ▁hoped ▁that ▁by ▁orch estr ating ▁a ▁movement ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁it ▁could ▁serve ▁to ▁obsc ure ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁reven ues ▁obtained ▁by ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁oil ▁from ▁western ▁oil ▁companies ▁was ▁going ▁to ▁be ▁too ▁low ▁for ▁the ▁growing ▁national istic ▁sentiment ; ▁it ▁would ▁also ▁serve ▁to ▁gain ▁the ▁support |
▁of ▁the ▁cler gy ▁for ▁their ▁foreign ▁policy . ▁ ▁They ▁approved ▁and ▁coordin ated ▁the ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁campaign ▁to ▁in cite ▁public ▁passion ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁started ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 ▁and ▁included ▁the ▁spread ing ▁of ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁propag anda ▁in ▁national ▁radio ▁stations ▁and ▁official ▁newsp apers . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁month ▁of ▁Ram ad an ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁She ikh ▁Moh amm ad ▁Ta qi ▁F als af i , ▁a ▁popul ist ▁pre acher , ▁started ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁highest - profile ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁propag anda ▁schemes . ▁After ▁receiving ▁permission ▁from ▁the ▁Shah ▁to ▁state ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁r het or ic ▁in ▁his ▁ser m ons , ▁he ▁encourag ed ▁other ▁cler gy ▁to ▁discuss ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁issue ▁in ▁their ▁ser m ons . ▁ ▁These ▁ser m ons ▁caused ▁mob ▁violence ▁against ▁Bah á ʼ ís ; ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁properties ▁were ▁destroyed , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁cent res ▁were ▁lo oted , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁c em eter ies ▁des ec r ated , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁killed , ▁some ▁hack ed ▁to ▁pieces , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁women ▁were ▁ab duct ed ▁and ▁forced ▁to ▁marry ▁Muslim s , ▁and ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁exp elled ▁and ▁dismiss ed ▁from ▁schools ▁and ▁employ ment . |
▁During ▁the ▁third ▁week ▁of ▁the ▁ser m ons ▁the ▁National ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Centre ▁in ▁Te h ran ▁was ▁occupied ▁by ▁the ▁military ▁and ▁its ▁d ome ▁later ▁destroyed . ▁ ▁The ▁Minister ▁of ▁the ▁Inter ior , ▁Am ir ▁As ad ol lah ▁Al am , ▁wrote ▁in ▁his ▁mem oir s : ▁< blockquote > F als af i ▁managed ▁to ▁fool ▁both ▁the ▁Shah ▁and ▁the ▁military ▁authorities ▁and ▁start ▁a ▁campaign ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁that ▁drag ged ▁the ▁country ▁to ▁the ▁edge ▁of ▁dis aster . ▁It ▁was ▁Ram ad an . ▁[ F als af i ' s ] ▁no on ▁ser m ons ▁were ▁broadcast ▁throughout ▁the ▁nation ▁via ▁radio ▁and ▁caused ▁violence ▁and ▁terror ▁in ▁many ▁locations . ▁People ▁killed ▁a ▁few ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁here ▁and ▁there . ▁F als af i ▁just ified ▁these ▁acts ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁they ▁increased ▁the ▁Shah ' s ▁prest ige . ▁I ▁had ▁no ▁choice ▁but ▁to ▁order ▁him , ▁in ▁my ▁own ▁r ash ▁way , ▁to ▁ref rain ▁from ▁giving ▁further ▁speech es ▁until ▁order ▁was ▁re est ab lished ." ▁ ▁While ▁the ▁government ▁tried ▁to ▁stop ▁the ▁ser m ons , ▁F als af i ▁did ▁not ▁stop ▁his ▁ser m ons ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Ram ad an . ▁ ▁Through out ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s ▁the ▁cler gy ▁continued ▁to ▁initi ate ▁the ▁repr ession ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ; |
▁however , ▁their ▁efforts ▁were ▁checked ▁by ▁government ▁minister s ▁who , ▁while ▁they ▁were ▁sympath etic ▁to ▁the ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁sentiment , ▁fe ared ▁that ▁the ▁violence ▁would ▁get ▁out ▁of ▁control ▁and ▁cause ▁international ▁criticism . ▁ ▁Also ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s , ▁the ▁fundamental ist ▁Islam ic ▁organization ▁named ▁H oj j ati ye h , ▁whose ▁central ▁aim ▁was ▁to ▁combat ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith , ▁was ▁founded . ▁ ▁M embers ▁of ▁the ▁group ▁entered ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁communities , ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁arr ests , ▁imprison ments ▁and ▁execution s ▁are ▁often ▁attributed ▁to ▁H oj j ati ye h ▁members ▁having ▁access ▁to ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁registration ▁books . ▁Also ▁during ▁the ▁P ah le vi ▁era , ▁the ▁H oj j ati ye h ▁seem ▁to ▁have ▁co oper ated ▁with ▁S AV AK , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ' s ▁intelligence ▁ag ency ▁who ▁had ▁gathered ▁information ▁about ▁the ▁religious ▁affili ation ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁citizens , ▁to ▁attack ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁ ▁Eliz ▁San as arian ▁states ▁that ▁while ▁many ▁Iran ians ▁bl amed ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁per sec ution ▁on ▁H oj j ati ye h , ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁most ▁visible ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁force , ▁the ▁silent ▁Iran ian ▁majority ▁" c annot ▁avoid ▁personal ▁and ▁commun al ▁responsibility ▁for ▁the ▁per |
sec utions ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁in ▁this ▁extreme ▁manner . ▁To ▁provide ▁t ac it ▁support , ▁to ▁remain ▁silent , ▁... ▁do ▁not ▁exc use ▁the ▁majority ▁for ▁the ▁actions ▁based ▁on ▁pre jud ice ▁and ▁hate ▁against ▁an ▁Iran ian ▁religious ▁minor ity ▁group ." ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁the ▁Shah ' s ▁regime , ▁due ▁to ▁criticism ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁pro - West ern , ▁consist ently ▁lost ▁legit im acy . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁anti - Sh ah ▁movement ▁gained ▁ground ▁and ▁support , ▁revolution ary ▁propag anda ▁was ▁spread ▁that ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁Shah ' s ▁advis ors ▁were ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁port rayed ▁as ▁economic ▁thre ats , ▁supp or ters ▁of ▁Israel ▁and ▁the ▁West ▁and ▁popular ▁hat red ▁for ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁increased . ▁ ▁Islam ic ▁Revolution ▁and ▁Republic ▁The ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁Islam ic ▁Revolution ▁has ▁ref oc used ▁the ▁per sec utions ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith . ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁and ▁others ▁report ▁that ▁ 2 0 2 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁been ▁killed ▁since ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Revolution ▁( see ▁below ), ▁with ▁many ▁more ▁imprison ed , ▁exp elled ▁from ▁schools ▁and ▁work p laces , ▁denied ▁various ▁benefits ▁or ▁denied ▁registration ▁for ▁their ▁mar ri ages . ▁Additionally , ▁several ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁holy ▁sites ▁were ▁destroyed ▁in ▁the ▁revolution ' s |
▁after math , ▁including ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁the ▁B áb ▁in ▁Sh ira z , ▁the ▁house ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h ▁at ▁Tak ur ▁( in ▁Maz and aran ), ▁and ▁the ▁rest ing ▁place ▁of ▁Muhammad - A li ▁Bar fur ush i ▁( Q ud d ús ) ▁in ▁Te h ran . ▁ ▁The ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ▁has ▁often ▁stated ▁that ▁arrested ▁Bah a ' is ▁are ▁being ▁det ained ▁for ▁" security ▁issues " ▁and ▁are ▁members ▁of ▁" an ▁organized ▁establishment ▁linked ▁to ▁foreign ers , ▁the ▁Z ion ists ▁in ▁particular ," ▁but ▁according ▁to ▁B ani ▁D ug al , ▁the ▁principal ▁representative ▁of ▁the ▁Bah a ' i ▁International ▁Community ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Nations , ▁" the ▁best ▁proof " ▁that ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁being ▁per sec uted ▁for ▁their ▁faith , ▁not ▁for ▁anti - I ran ian ▁activity ▁" is ▁the ▁fact ▁that , ▁time ▁and ▁again , ▁Bah a ' is ▁have ▁been ▁offered ▁their ▁freedom ▁if ▁they ▁rec ant ▁their ▁Bah a ' i ▁belief s ▁and ▁convert ▁to ▁Islam ▁... " ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁revolution ▁attacks ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁increased . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁H oj j ati ye h ▁members ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁National ▁Centre ▁in ▁Te h ran ▁and ▁other ▁cities ▁and ▁exp elled ▁staff ▁and ▁seized ▁personnel ▁files ▁and ▁membership ▁lists . ▁ ▁These ▁files ▁were ▁later |
▁used ▁by ▁H oj j ati ye h ▁including ▁sending ▁fly ers ▁in ▁the ▁mail ▁warning ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁of ▁the ▁consequences ▁of ▁continu ing ▁to ▁believe ▁in ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁belief s . ▁ ▁Also , ▁once ▁again , ▁there ▁were ▁reports ▁of ▁mob ▁attacks , ▁ar son , ▁and ▁death s ▁and ▁mur ders ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁across ▁Iran ; ▁twenty - two ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁c em eter ies ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁hundreds ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁homes ▁and ▁business es ▁were ▁dam aged ▁or ▁destroyed . ▁During ▁December ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁in ▁Sar vest an , ▁a ▁city ▁south ▁of ▁Sh ira z , ▁it ▁was ▁reported ▁that ▁several ▁hundred ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁houses ▁were ▁set ▁on ▁fire , ▁and ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁left ▁hom eless . ▁ ▁Re ports ▁of ▁the ▁attacks ▁suggest ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁not ▁sp ont aneous , ▁but ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁initi ated ▁by ▁the ▁military ▁government ▁appointed ▁by ▁the ▁Shah , ▁that ▁S AV AK ▁provided ▁the ▁addresses ▁for ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁and ▁when ▁the ▁army ▁showed ▁up ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁take ▁action ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁fires ▁from ▁spread ing . ▁Further ▁attacks ▁happened ▁throughout ▁the ▁country ▁including ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁who ▁would ▁not ▁rec ant ▁being ▁fired ▁at ▁and ▁having ▁their ▁homes ▁destroyed ; ▁the ▁violence ▁continued ▁even ▁after ▁the ▁Shah ▁fled ▁Iran . ▁ ▁Islam ic ▁Republic |
▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Shah ▁left ▁Iran ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁Ay atol lah ▁K home ini ▁returned ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁and ▁started ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁creating ▁a ▁new ▁government . ▁ ▁During ▁an ▁interview ▁before ▁returning ▁to ▁Iran ▁with ▁Professor ▁James ▁C ock ro ft , ▁K home ini ▁stated ▁that ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁would ▁not ▁have ▁religious ▁freedom : ▁C ock ro ft : ▁Will ▁there ▁be ▁either ▁religious ▁or ▁political ▁freedom ▁for ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁under ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁government ? ▁K home ini : ▁They ▁are ▁a ▁political ▁fa ction ; ▁they ▁are ▁harm ful . ▁They ▁will ▁not ▁be ▁accepted . ▁C ock ro ft : ▁How ▁about ▁their ▁freedom ▁of ▁religion – ▁religious ▁practice ? ▁K home ini : ▁No . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁government ' s ▁sp okes man ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁said ▁that ▁while ▁religious ▁minor ities ▁would ▁retain ▁their ▁religious ▁rights ▁emphas ized ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁would ▁not ▁receive ▁the ▁same ▁treatment , ▁since ▁they ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁a ▁political ▁rather ▁than ▁religious ▁movement . ▁B az arg an , ▁the ▁prov is ional ▁prime - minister , ▁while ▁being ▁em ph atic ▁that ▁all ▁Iran ians ▁would ▁enjoy ▁the ▁same ▁rights , ▁ins isted ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁a ▁political ▁movement ▁and ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁toler ated . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁draft ing ▁of |
▁the ▁new ▁constitution ▁the ▁word ing ▁intention ally ▁ex cluded ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁from ▁protection ▁as ▁a ▁religious ▁community . ▁Refer ring ▁to ▁the ▁record ings ▁of ▁the ▁proceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁official ▁trans cript s ▁of ▁the ▁constitution ▁draft ing ▁process , ▁San as arian ▁states ▁that ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁thought ▁was ▁obvious ▁as ▁there ▁was ▁h agg ling ▁" over ▁every ▁word ▁and ▁expression ▁of ▁certain ▁articles ▁to ▁ass ure ▁the ▁ex clusion ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ." ▁The ▁final ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁constitution ▁explicitly ▁with h eld ▁recognition ▁from ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁by ▁stating ▁in ▁Article ▁ 1 3 ▁that ▁the ▁" Z oro ast rian , ▁Jewish ▁and ▁Christian ▁Iran ians ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁recognized ▁religious ▁minor ities ..." ▁Res pond ing ▁to ▁international ▁criticism ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁ex clusion ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁sp okes men ▁for ▁the ▁government ▁stated , ▁as ▁before , ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁a ▁" mis gu ided ▁group ... ▁whose ▁affili ation ▁and ▁association ▁with ▁world ▁Z ion ism ▁is ▁a ▁clear ▁fact " ▁and ▁that ▁" B ah á ʼ í sm ▁is ▁not ▁a ▁religion , ▁but ▁a ▁political ▁doctrine ." ▁ ▁Starting ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁the ▁new ▁government ▁of ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ▁of ▁Iran ▁system atically ▁target ed ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁by ▁foc using ▁on ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁National ▁Spirit |
ual ▁Assembly ▁( NS A ) ▁and ▁Local ▁Spirit ual ▁Ass emb lies ▁( L SA ). ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁Ali ▁Mur ad ▁Dav udi , ▁the ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁NS A , ▁was ▁kid n apped ▁and ▁never ▁seen ▁again . ▁In ▁August ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁all ▁nine ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Spirit ual ▁Assembly ▁were ▁arrested ▁while ▁meeting ▁at ▁a ▁private ▁home . ▁In ▁a ▁statement ▁on ▁September ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁then ▁speaker ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁Ali ▁Ak bar ▁Hash emi ▁Raf san j ani , ▁stated ▁that ▁an ▁order ▁for ▁the ▁arr ests ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁had ▁been ▁issued , ▁but ▁by ▁October ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁Raf san j ani ▁changed ▁his ▁statement ▁and ▁said ▁that ▁no ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁NS A ▁were ▁arrested . ▁There ▁has ▁been ▁no ▁further ▁news ▁regarding ▁the ▁nine ▁NS A ▁members ▁since ▁their ▁arrest ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁and ▁their ▁fate ▁remains ▁unknown , ▁although ▁there ▁are ▁reports ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁at ▁some ▁point ▁held ▁in ▁E vin ▁prison ; ▁they ▁are ▁now ▁pres umed ▁dead . ▁After ▁the ▁disapp earance ▁of ▁the ▁NS A ▁members , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁elected ▁a ▁new ▁NS A . ▁ ▁On ▁December ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁eight ▁of ▁the ▁nine ▁new ▁NS A ▁members ▁were ▁arrested ▁by ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁authorities , ▁and |
▁were ▁executed ▁on ▁December ▁ 2 7 , ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁without ▁trial . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁execution ▁of ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁two ▁National ▁Spirit ual ▁Ass emb lies , ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁Local ▁Spirit ual ▁Ass emb lies ▁throughout ▁the ▁country ▁were ▁also ▁killed . ▁Between ▁April ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁and ▁December ▁▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁at ▁least ▁eight ▁prominent ▁Te h ran ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁killed . ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁in ▁Y az d , ▁fifteen ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁arrested , ▁and ▁after ▁a ▁graph ic ▁trial ▁that ▁was ▁partially ▁tele vised , ▁seven ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁executed ; ▁the ▁remaining ▁eight ▁were ▁released ▁after ▁four ▁months . ▁ ▁In ▁Tab riz ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁two ▁prominent ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁executed ▁and ▁then ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁all ▁nine ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Tab riz ▁L SA ▁were ▁executed . ▁ ▁In ▁Ham ad an ▁seven ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁L SA ▁of ▁Ham aden ▁were ▁executed ▁by ▁firing ▁squad , ▁and ▁while ▁the ▁bodies ▁were ▁being ▁prepared ▁for ▁the ▁fun eral ▁it ▁was ▁found ▁that ▁six ▁of ▁the ▁men ▁were ▁phys ically ▁tort ured ▁before ▁their ▁death . ▁ ▁In ▁Sh ira z ▁between ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 1 , ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁the ▁B áb , ▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁holy ▁place , ▁was ▁destroyed , ▁five |
▁prominent ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁executed , ▁and ▁more ▁than ▁ 8 5 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁arrested ▁for ▁inter rog ations ; ▁then ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁six teen ▁more ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁executed . ▁ ▁On ▁August ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁the ▁government ▁announced ▁a ▁legal ▁ban ▁on ▁all ▁administrative ▁and ▁community ▁activities ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community , ▁which ▁required ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁third ▁National ▁Spirit ual ▁Assembly ▁and ▁about ▁ 4 0 0 ▁Local ▁Spirit ual ▁Ass emb lies . ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁comp lied ▁with ▁the ▁ban , ▁but ▁the ▁former ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁L S As ▁were ▁rout in ely ▁har ass ed , ▁and ▁seven ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁third ▁NS A ▁were ▁eventually ▁arrested ▁and ▁executed . ▁ ▁Secret ▁memor and um ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁a ▁confident ial ▁circular ▁issued ▁by ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Cultural ▁Revolution ▁Council ▁on ▁" the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁question " ▁ ▁and ▁signed ▁by ▁Supreme ▁Le ader ▁K ham ene i ▁himself , ▁sign aled ▁an ▁increase ▁in ▁efforts ▁to ▁suff oc ate ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁through ▁a ▁more ▁" sil ent " ▁means . ▁The ▁document ▁organized ▁the ▁methods ▁of ▁opp ression ▁used ▁to ▁per sec ute ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁and ▁contained ▁specific ▁recommend ations ▁on ▁how ▁to ▁block ▁the ▁progress ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁communities ▁both |
▁inside ▁and ▁outside ▁Iran . ▁The ▁document ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁most ▁excess ive ▁types ▁of ▁per sec utions ▁should ▁be ▁avoided ▁and ▁instead , ▁among ▁other ▁things ▁recommended , ▁that ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁be ▁exp elled ▁from ▁univers ities , ▁" once ▁it ▁becomes ▁known ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁Bah á ʼ ís ," ▁to ▁" den y ▁them ▁employ ment ▁if ▁they ▁identify ▁themselves ▁as ▁Bah á ʼ ís " ▁and ▁to ▁" den y ▁them ▁any ▁position ▁of ▁influence ." ▁ ▁The ▁existence ▁of ▁this ▁so ▁called ▁Gol pay g ani ▁Mem or and um ▁was ▁brought ▁to ▁the ▁attention ▁of ▁the ▁public ▁in ▁a ▁report ▁by ▁the ▁then ▁UN ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Commission er ▁Mr ▁Gal indo ▁P ohl ▁( E / CM 4 / 1 9 9 3 / 4 1 , ▁ 2 8 ▁January ▁ 1 9 9 3 ), ▁and ▁the ▁policy ▁recommend ations ▁of ▁the ▁document ▁are ▁still ▁in ▁force . ▁ ▁Current ▁situation ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁US ▁panel , ▁attacks ▁on ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in ▁Iran ▁have ▁increased ▁since ▁Mah m oud ▁A hm ad ine j ad ▁became ▁president . ▁In ▁the ▁ten ▁years ▁following ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁revolution , ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 0 ▁Bah a ' is ▁were ▁killed ▁or ▁executed , ▁hundreds ▁more ▁were ▁tort ured ▁or ▁imprison ed , ▁and ▁tens ▁of ▁thousands ▁lost ▁jobs , ▁access ▁to ▁education , ▁and ▁other ▁rights ▁– ▁all ▁sole ly ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁religious ▁belief . ▁Since ▁ |
2 0 0 5 , ▁more ▁than ▁ 7 1 0 ▁Bah a ' is ▁have ▁been ▁arrested , ▁and ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁Bah a ' is ▁in ▁prison ▁has ▁ris en ▁from ▁fewer ▁than ▁five ▁to ▁a ▁current ▁figure ▁of ▁ 1 3 6 ; ▁roughly ▁ 6 0 0 ▁more ▁are ▁engaged ▁with ▁the ▁pen al ▁system : ▁await ing ▁trial , ▁for ▁example , ▁or ▁await ing ▁sent encing . ▁The ▁in car cer ated ▁now ▁include ▁young ▁moth ers ▁of ▁n urs ing ▁children ▁( im pr ison ed ▁with ▁their ▁inf ants ). ▁Since ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁es cal ation ▁of ▁attacks ▁has ▁included ▁both ▁murder ▁and ▁attempted ▁murder . ▁These ▁attacks ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁hate ▁cr imes ▁that ▁are ▁religious ly ▁motiv ated . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁Iran ian ▁authorities ▁demol ished ▁the ▁shr ine ▁and ▁grave ▁site ▁of ▁Muhammad - A li ▁Bar fur ush i ▁( Q ud d ús ), ▁a ▁B áb í ▁leader . ▁In ▁late ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁an ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁media ▁campaign ▁was ▁launched ▁in ▁Iran , ▁as ser ting ▁that ▁the ▁religion ▁was ▁created ▁by ▁colonial ist ▁powers ▁to ▁sub vert ▁Islam ▁and ▁to ▁sub j ug ate ▁the ▁Muslim ▁pe op les ▁of ▁Iran . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Iran ian ▁officials ▁arrested ▁ 5 4 ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁mostly ▁young ▁people , |
▁in ▁Sh ira z . ▁In ▁March ▁and ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁the ▁seven ▁" sen ior ▁members " ▁who ▁form ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran ▁were ▁arrested . ▁Several ▁ag encies ▁and ▁exper ts ▁and ▁journ als ▁have ▁published ▁concerns ▁about ▁view ing ▁the ▁develop ments ▁as ▁a ▁case ▁of ▁gen o cide : ▁Rom éo ▁Dal la ire , ▁Gen o cide ▁Watch , ▁S entin el ▁Project ▁for ▁Gen o cide ▁Pre vention , ▁the ▁journ als ▁War ▁Cr imes , ▁Gen o cide , ▁& ▁Cr imes ▁against ▁Human ity ▁and ▁Journal ▁of ▁Gen o cide ▁Research . ▁A ▁summary ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁inc idents ▁of ▁prison ▁sentences , ▁fin es ▁and ▁pun ish ments ▁showed ▁that ▁these ▁were ▁more ▁than ▁twice ▁as ▁likely ▁to ▁apply ▁to ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁as ▁any ▁other ▁religious ▁minor ity ▁in ▁Iran ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁total ▁rate ▁of ▁such ▁cases ▁had ▁gone ▁up ▁by ▁ 3 6 % ▁over ▁ 2 0 1 2 . ▁ ▁Ar rest ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders ▁ ▁On ▁May ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁members ▁of ▁an ▁inform al ▁body ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Fri ends ▁( Y aran ) ▁that ▁o vers aw ▁the ▁needs ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran ▁were ▁arrested ▁and ▁taken ▁to ▁E vin ▁prison . ▁Offic ers ▁from ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Int elligence ▁in ▁Te h ran ▁searched ▁and |
▁ra ided ▁the ▁homes ▁of ▁the ▁six ▁people ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁hours ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 4 . ▁The ▁arrest ▁of ▁the ▁six ▁follow ▁the ▁det ention ▁of ▁another ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leader ▁in ▁March , ▁who ▁was ▁originally ▁taken ▁to ▁answer ▁questions ▁rel ating ▁to ▁the ▁bur ial ▁of ▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁in ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁c emetery ▁in ▁M ash ad . ▁ ▁The ▁Iran ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Document ation ▁Center ▁has ▁stated ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁concerned ▁for ▁the ▁safety ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁recent ▁events ▁are ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁disapp earance ▁of ▁ 2 5 ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁In ▁May ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁also ▁announced ▁an ▁Action ▁Alert ▁about ▁the ▁arr ests . ▁At ▁year ' s ▁end ▁all ▁seven ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁national ▁leadership ▁and ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁at ▁least ▁ 4 0 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁imprison ed ▁in ▁Iran . ▁On ▁February ▁ 1 7 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Iran ian ▁state ▁run ▁news ▁ag ency , ▁IR NA , ▁reported ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders ▁had ▁been ▁officially ▁accused ▁of ▁esp ion age . ▁ ▁In ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Nobel ▁La ure ate ▁Sh ir in ▁Eb adi ▁volunte ered ▁to ▁be ▁their ▁lawyer , ▁and ▁received ▁thre ats ▁against ▁her ▁life ▁for ▁def ending ▁the ▁Bah a ' |
i ▁community . ▁On ▁December ▁ 2 1 ▁Eb adi ' s ▁office ▁of ▁the ▁Center ▁for ▁the ▁Def ense ▁of ▁Human ▁Rights ▁was ▁ra ided ▁and ▁closed . ▁On ▁December ▁ 2 9 , ▁government ▁security ▁officers ▁pos ing ▁as ▁tax ▁officials ▁ra ided ▁Eb adi ' s ▁private ▁law ▁offices , ▁se izing ▁office ▁files ▁and ▁computers . ▁A ▁second ▁lawyer , ▁Abd olf att ah ▁Sol t ani , ▁reported ly ▁taking ▁up ▁the ▁case ▁is ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁disappeared ▁June ▁ 1 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁court ▁case ▁was ▁post pon ed ▁several ▁times , ▁but ▁went ▁ahead ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁Appar ently ▁no ▁obser vers ▁were ▁allowed ▁in ▁the ▁court , ▁and ▁the ▁defence ▁law y ers , ▁who ▁have ▁had ▁nearly ▁no ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁defend ants ▁for ▁two ▁years , ▁also ▁had ▁difficulty ▁entering ▁the ▁court . ▁The ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Commission ▁on ▁International ▁Relig ious ▁Fre edom ▁said ▁that ▁it ▁seems ▁that ▁the ▁government ▁has ▁already ▁pred et erm ined ▁the ▁outcome ▁of ▁the ▁case ▁and ▁is ▁viol ating ▁international ▁human ▁rights ▁law . ▁Further ▁sessions ▁were ▁held ▁on ▁February ▁ 7 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁April ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁and ▁June ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁On ▁August ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁it ▁became ▁known ▁that ▁the ▁court ▁sentence ▁was ▁ 2 |
0 ▁years ▁imprison ment ▁for ▁each ▁of ▁the ▁seven ▁prisoners , ▁which ▁was ▁later ▁reduced ▁to ▁ten ▁years . ▁After ▁the ▁sentence , ▁they ▁were ▁transferred ▁to ▁G oh ard as ht ▁prison . ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁the ▁sentences ▁were ▁re inst ated ▁to ▁the ▁original ▁ 2 0 ▁years . ▁ ▁There ▁have ▁been ▁w ides p read ▁calls ▁from ▁public ▁figures , ▁govern ments ▁and ▁organizations ▁to ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁to ▁release ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁especially ▁after ▁the ▁trial ▁was ▁announced ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁M embers ▁of ▁government ▁across ▁the ▁world ▁including ▁from ▁Brazil , ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁Canada , ▁Germany , ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁the ▁Netherlands , ▁Spain ▁and ▁Australia ▁have ▁either ▁released ▁statements ▁or ▁spons ored ▁resolution s ▁condem ning ▁the ▁government ▁of ▁Iran ▁for ▁the ▁arrest ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders . ▁ ▁The ▁Pres iden cy ▁of ▁the ▁European ▁Union ▁( E U ), ▁with ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁EU ▁associated ▁countries ▁den ounced ▁the ▁trial . ▁ ▁Human ▁rights ▁organizations ▁have ▁also ▁released ▁statements : ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁has ▁released ▁updated ▁Action ▁Alert s ▁about ▁the ▁trial ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁Fre edom ▁House ▁strongly ▁condem ned ▁the ▁trial , ▁and ▁World ▁Organisation ▁Again st ▁T ort ure ▁proposed ▁actions ▁to ▁secure ▁the ▁freedom ▁of ▁the ▁leadership ▁and ▁others ▁arrested . ▁Res pond ing ▁to ▁a ▁letter ▁from ▁Ro x ana |
▁Sab eri , ▁who ▁was ▁in ▁contact ▁with ▁two ▁of ▁the ▁women ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders ▁while ▁she ▁was ▁in ▁prison , ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Commission ▁on ▁International ▁Relig ious ▁Fre edom ▁demanded ▁the ▁seven ▁prisoners ▁be ▁fre ed ▁rather ▁than ▁stand ▁trial . ▁ ▁There ▁have ▁been ▁groups ▁of ▁individuals ▁also ▁speaking ▁out . ▁On ▁February ▁ 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁ 2 6 7 ▁non - B ah á ʼ í ▁Iran ian ▁academ ics , ▁writers , ▁artists , ▁journal ists ▁and ▁activ ists ▁ ▁from ▁some ▁ 2 1 ▁countries ▁including ▁Iran ▁signed ▁an ▁open ▁letter ▁of ▁ap ology ▁posted ▁to ▁Iran ian . com ▁and ▁stating ▁that ▁they ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁had ▁been ▁dep riv ed ▁of ▁their ▁rights ▁in ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Republic , ▁they ▁p led ged ▁their ▁support ▁to ▁ach ieving ▁for ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in ▁Iran ▁the ▁rights ▁detailed ▁in ▁the ▁Universal ▁Dec laration ▁of ▁Human ▁Rights . ▁British ▁entertain ers ▁wrote ▁an ▁open ▁letter ▁printed ▁in ▁The ▁Times ▁of ▁London ▁about ▁those ▁on ▁trial ▁stating ▁their ▁solid ar ity ▁with ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ." ▁ ▁A ▁prominent ▁group ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁si xty ▁profess ors ▁and ▁sch ol ars ▁who ▁special ize ▁in ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Iran ian ▁Studies ▁have ▁added ▁their ▁voices ▁in ▁protest ▁as ▁well . ▁O thers ▁who ▁have ▁spoken ▁out ▁include ▁Rain n ▁Wilson ▁and ▁Sh oh reh ▁Ag h dash lo o . ▁ ▁In ▁February |
▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁Iran ian ▁authorities ▁det ained ▁five ▁more ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁reported ly ▁including ▁N iki ▁Khan j ani , ▁daughter ▁of ▁Jam al odd in ▁Khan j ani , ▁one ▁of ▁seven ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁leaders ▁ja iled ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁Ar rest ▁of ▁ 5 4 ▁young ▁people ▁in ▁Sh ira z ▁On ▁May ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Iran ian ▁officials ▁arrested ▁ 5 4 ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁mostly ▁young ▁people , ▁in ▁Sh ira z , ▁according ▁to ▁represent atives ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Community . ▁ ▁Appar ently ▁the ▁group ▁was ▁arrested ▁during ▁its ▁participation ▁in ▁a ▁community - service ▁project ▁teaching ▁classes ▁to ▁under priv ile ged ▁children , ▁initi ated ▁by ▁a ▁local ▁non - g overn ment al ▁organization . ▁ ▁The ▁group ▁is ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁had ▁in ▁its ▁possession ▁a ▁letter ▁of ▁permission ▁from ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Council ▁of ▁Sh ira z ▁to ▁undert ake ▁this ▁service ▁project ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁its ▁arrest . ▁ ▁The ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁charges ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁is ▁unknown ▁at ▁present ▁as ▁are ▁the ▁conditions ▁under ▁which ▁the ▁d eta ine es ▁are ▁being ▁held . ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁very ▁same ▁day , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ 5 4 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁arrested ▁earlier ▁but ▁who ▁was ▁under ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 1 5 |
▁was ▁released ▁without ▁having ▁to ▁post ▁b ail . ▁Several ▁other ▁young ▁people ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁arrested ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁but ▁who ▁were ▁not ▁themselves ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁were ▁also ▁released ▁without ▁posting ▁b ail . ▁ ▁" The ▁arr ests ▁coinc ided ▁with ▁ra ids ▁on ▁six ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁homes ▁during ▁which ▁not ebook s , ▁computers , ▁books , ▁and ▁other ▁documents ▁were ▁conf isc ated ," ▁according ▁to ▁an ▁article ▁by ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁World ▁News ▁Service . ▁ ▁The ▁article ▁further ▁reports ▁that ▁since ▁January , ▁other ▁than ▁the ▁a for ement ioned ▁ 5 4 ▁d eta ine es , ▁" se ven ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁been ▁arrested ▁and ▁held ▁for ▁periods ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁one ▁month ▁in ▁K erm ans h ah , ▁Is fah an ▁and ▁Te h ran . ▁ ▁On ▁May ▁ 2 4 , ▁four teen ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁released , ▁each ▁having ▁been ▁required ▁to ▁provide ▁de eds ▁of ▁property ▁to ▁the ▁value ▁of ▁ten ▁million ▁tum ans ▁( appro xim ately ▁US $ 1 1 , 0 0 0 ). ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁following ▁day ▁ 3 6 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁released ▁on ▁the ▁strength ▁of ▁either ▁personal ▁guarante es ▁or ▁the ▁depos it ▁of ▁work ▁lic enses ▁with ▁the ▁court ▁as ▁sure ty ▁that ▁they ' d ▁appear ▁when ▁sum mon ed ▁to ▁court . ▁ ▁The ▁last ▁three ▁of ▁the ▁group ▁of |
▁ 5 4 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁released ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁June . ▁Although ▁the ▁judge ▁originally ▁demanded ▁a ▁bond ▁equivalent ▁to ▁$ 5 4 , 0 0 0 , ▁they ▁were ▁released ▁without ▁b ail ▁on ▁the ▁promise ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁return ▁for ▁a ▁later ▁court ▁appearance . ▁No ▁formal ▁charges ▁have ▁been ▁made ▁against ▁them . ▁However , ▁in ▁most ▁cases , ▁some ▁form ▁of ▁b ail , ▁such ▁as ▁de eds ▁of ▁property , ▁were ▁demanded ▁before ▁release . ▁Currently , ▁two ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁arrested ▁in ▁Te h ran ▁and ▁San and aj , ▁remain ▁in ▁prison . ▁ ▁On ▁January ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁Iran ' s ▁jud ici ary ▁sent enced ▁the ▁ 5 4 ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁to ▁four ▁years ▁in ▁prison ▁for ▁propag anda ▁against ▁the ▁regime . ▁ ▁Part ▁of ▁the ▁group , ▁ 5 1 ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁were ▁given ▁susp ended ▁one - year ▁j ail ▁sentences ▁conditional ▁on ▁their ▁attend ance ▁of ▁courses ▁held ▁by ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Pro pag anda ▁Organisation , ▁which ▁is ▁organized ▁by ▁the ▁government . ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁has ▁called ▁for ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁stating ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁" det ained ▁sole ly ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁religious ▁belief s , ▁or ▁their ▁peace ful ▁activities ▁teaching ▁under priv ile ged ▁children ." ▁ ▁On ▁October ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Int elligence ▁Department |
▁officers ▁arrested ▁Sh ira zi ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁residents , ▁Far zan ▁Mas ou mi , ▁K iana ▁Sho ae i , ▁and ▁Sor ous h ▁Ab adi . ▁Following ▁a ▁search ▁of ▁their ▁homes , ▁the ▁officers ▁conf isc ated ▁cell ▁ph ones , ▁comput ors , ▁and ▁la pt ops ▁and ▁other ▁personal ▁belong ings . ▁They ▁are ▁being ▁held ▁in ▁an ▁" und is closed ▁location , ▁according ▁to ▁H R AN A . ▁ ▁Mon itor ing ▁of ▁activities ▁A ▁confident ial ▁letter ▁sent ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁by ▁the ▁Chair man ▁of ▁the ▁Command ▁Head quarters ▁of ▁the ▁Ar med ▁Forces ▁in ▁Iran ▁states ▁that ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Le ader ▁of ▁Iran , ▁Ay atol lah ▁K ham ene i , ▁has ▁instruct ed ▁the ▁Command ▁Head quarters ▁to ▁identify ▁people ▁who ▁ad here ▁to ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁faith ▁and ▁to ▁monitor ▁their ▁activities ▁and ▁gather ▁any ▁and ▁all ▁information ▁about ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith . ▁The ▁letter ▁was ▁addressed ▁to ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Information , ▁the ▁Revolution ary ▁Guard ▁and ▁the ▁Police ▁Force . ▁The ▁letter ▁was ▁brought ▁to ▁the ▁attention ▁of ▁the ▁international ▁community ▁by ▁As ma ▁Jah ang ir , ▁the ▁Special ▁R app orte ur ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁Commission ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁on ▁freedom ▁of ▁religion ▁or ▁belief , ▁in ▁a ▁March ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁press ▁release . ▁ ▁In ▁the |
▁press ▁release , ▁the ▁Special ▁R app orte ur ▁states ▁that ▁she ▁" is ▁highly ▁concerned ▁by ▁information ▁she ▁has ▁received ▁concerning ▁the ▁treatment ▁of ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran ." ▁The ▁UN ' s ▁press ▁release ▁summar izing ▁M s . ▁Jah ang ir ' s ▁report ▁states : ▁ ▁The ▁monitoring ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁seen ▁in ▁other ▁official ▁government ▁documents ; ▁in ▁a ▁letter ▁dated ▁ 2 ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁from ▁the ▁Tr ades , ▁Production , ▁and ▁Techn ical ▁Services ▁Society ▁of ▁K erm ans h ah ▁ ▁to ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Union ▁of ▁B atter y ▁Man ufact ur ers , ▁it ▁was ▁asked ▁of ▁the ▁union ▁to ▁provide ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁members ▁of ▁" the ▁Bah a ' i ▁sect " ▁in ▁their ▁membership . ▁ ▁Furthermore , ▁in ▁a ▁letter ▁dated ▁ 1 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁Iran ' s ▁Ministry ▁of ▁the ▁Inter ior ▁to ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Polit ics ▁and ▁Security ▁in ▁Off ices ▁of ▁the ▁Govern ors ' ▁General ▁throughout ▁Iran ▁ordered ▁officials ▁to ▁step ▁up ▁the ▁surve ill ance ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁throughout ▁the ▁country . ▁Among ▁the ▁information ▁requested ▁in ▁a ▁detailed ▁question naire ▁about ▁the ▁activities ▁of ▁local ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁is ▁their ▁financial ▁status ▁and ▁social ▁interactions . ▁ ▁The ▁Anti - Def am ation ▁League ▁has ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁government ' s ▁effort ▁to ▁identify ▁and ▁monitor |
▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁what ▁the ▁Jews ▁faced ▁in ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Naz i ▁era : ▁they ▁wrote ▁the ▁orders ▁issued ▁were ▁" re min is cent ▁of ▁the ▁steps ▁taken ▁against ▁Jews ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁a ▁dangerous ▁step ▁toward ▁the ▁institution ▁of ▁N ure m berg - type ▁laws ." ▁ ▁Death s ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁and ▁others ▁report ▁that ▁ 2 0 2 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁been ▁killed ▁since ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Revolution ▁( see ▁below ). ▁The ▁most ▁recent ▁death ▁of ▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁in ▁the ▁cust ody ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁occurred ▁on ▁Dec , ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Y az d . ▁Z ab ih ul lah ▁Mah ram i ▁had ▁been ▁sent enced ▁to ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁but ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁this ▁was ▁comm uted ▁to ▁life ▁in ▁prison . ▁His ▁arrest ▁was ▁for ▁the ▁crime ▁of ▁apost asy ▁against ▁Islam , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁conv icted ▁of ▁sp ying ▁for ▁Israel . ▁He ▁was ▁approximately ▁ 5 9 ▁years ▁old . ▁He ▁died ▁in ▁his ▁prison ▁cell ▁of ▁unknown ▁causes . ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁condem ned ▁the ▁imprison ment ▁and ▁alleg ed ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁Z ab ih ul lah ▁Mah ram i , ▁and ▁State ▁Department ▁Deput y ▁Sp okes man , ▁Adam ▁E re li , ▁said ▁that ▁Mr . ▁Mah ram i ▁had ▁received |
▁death ▁thre ats ▁in ▁prison ▁and ▁been ▁forced ▁to ▁perform ▁ar du ous ▁physical ▁labour . ▁ ▁The ▁most ▁recent ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁execution ▁apparently ▁occurred ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁when ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁h anged ▁Ru hol lah ▁R oh ani ▁in ▁M ash ad ▁on ▁the ▁charge ▁of ▁converting ▁a ▁woman ▁to ▁the ▁faith ▁though ▁she ▁herself ▁stated ▁that ▁she ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁lif el ong ▁Bah á ʼ í . ▁New sp aper ▁accounts ▁describe ▁this ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁execution ▁in ▁six ▁years . ▁Death ▁sentences ▁had ▁also ▁been ▁passed ▁against ▁Sir us ▁Z ab hi - M og h add am ▁and ▁Hed ay at ▁Kas he fi - N aj ab adi , ▁which ▁have ▁apparently ▁not ▁yet ▁been ▁carried ▁out ▁and ▁A ta ol lah ▁Ham id ▁Naz ri za de h ▁has ▁received ▁a ▁ten - year ▁prison ▁sentence ▁for ▁related ▁off ences ▁ar ising ▁from ▁the ▁same ▁situation . ▁ ▁Bar riers ▁to ▁higher ▁education ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁youth ▁are ▁not ▁permitted ▁to ▁attend ▁institutions ▁of ▁higher ▁education ▁in ▁Iran ▁unless ▁pros pective ▁students ▁identify ▁themselves ▁as ▁follow ers ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁four ▁relig ions ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁state ▁on ▁university ▁entrance ▁ex ams . ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁has ▁said ▁that ▁if ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁identify ▁themselves ▁as ▁Muslim s ▁on ▁the ▁ex ams ▁they ▁would ▁be ▁allowed ▁to ▁en roll ▁but ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁as ▁a ▁matter ▁of |
▁religious ▁principle , ▁refuse ▁to ▁dis sim ulate ▁their ▁belief s . ▁Conf irm ing ▁these ▁find ings , ▁an ▁investigation ▁by ▁the ▁Committee ▁of ▁Conc ern ed ▁Scient ists ▁also ▁found ▁that ▁university ▁officials ▁in ▁Iran ▁had ▁" rece ived ▁orders ▁from ▁above ▁not ▁to ▁score ▁the ▁tests ▁of ▁Bah a ' i ▁students ," ▁or ▁that ▁these ▁officials ▁had ▁suggested ▁that ▁a ▁student ▁would ▁receive ▁his ▁test ▁scores ▁only ▁if ▁the ▁student ' s ▁family ▁ren ounced ▁their ▁faith . ▁ ▁The ▁Committee ▁called ▁for ▁the ▁complete ▁publication ▁of ▁all ▁test ▁scores ▁without ▁disc rim ination . ▁ ▁In ▁an ▁effort ▁which ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁called ▁" an ▁elaborate ▁act ▁of ▁commun al ▁self - pres ervation ," ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁established ▁its ▁own ▁program ▁of ▁higher ▁education ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁educational ▁needs ▁of ▁its ▁young ▁people , ▁which ▁evol ved ▁to ▁become ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Institute ▁for ▁High er ▁Education ▁( BI HE ), ▁whose ▁classes ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁private ▁homes ▁and ▁had ▁an ▁en roll ment ▁of ▁approximately ▁ 9 0 0 ▁students . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁( 2 9 ▁September ▁– ▁ 2 ▁October ), ▁Iran ian ▁authorities ▁broke ▁up ▁the ▁under ground ▁institution ▁inv ading ▁more ▁than ▁ 5 0 0 ▁homes ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁and ▁office ▁buildings ▁in ▁at ▁least ▁ 1 4 ▁cities ▁around ▁Iran . ▁H undred s ▁were ▁arrested . ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁books |
▁and ▁computer ▁equipment ▁conf isc ated , ▁personal ▁poss essions ▁such ▁as ▁silver ware ▁and ▁re fr iger ators ▁were ▁taken ▁in ▁what ▁was ▁described ▁as ▁" th ieve [ ry ] ▁in ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁Islam ." ▁ ▁Iran ian ▁column ist ▁I q bal ▁Lat if ▁calls ▁Iran ' s ▁den ial ▁of ▁access ▁to ▁university ▁education ▁for ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁"[ i ] nt el lect ual ▁cle ans ing ▁of ▁their ▁eth nic ▁brothers ▁by ▁the ▁cler gy - domin ated ▁regime ." ▁ ▁Dest ruction ▁of ▁holy ▁sites ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁soon ▁after ▁their ▁revolution , ▁Iran ian ▁authorities ▁ordered ▁and ▁en comp ass ed ▁the ▁demol ition ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁the ▁B áb ▁in ▁Sh ira z . ▁A ▁mos que ▁was ▁later ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁site . ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁Iran ian ▁authorities ▁demol ished ▁the ▁shr ine ▁and ▁grave ▁site ▁of ▁M ull á ▁Mu ḥ amm ad ▁' Al í - i - B ár fur ú sh i ▁( Q ud d ús ), ▁a ▁B áb í ▁leader . ▁The ▁following ▁June , ▁the ▁Te h ran ▁house ▁of ▁M ír zá ▁ ʻ A bb ás - i - N ú rí ▁( aka ▁M ír zá ▁B uz urg ), ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h ' s ▁father , ▁was ▁destroyed . ▁The ▁previous ▁such ▁incident ▁occurred ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁when |
▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁c emetery ▁in ▁Te h ran ▁was ▁bul ld oz ed ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁build ▁a ▁municipal ▁centre . ▁ ▁Media ▁attacks ▁In ▁the ▁later ▁months ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁an ▁int ensive ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁campaign ▁was ▁conducted ▁by ▁Iran ian ▁newsp apers ▁and ▁radio ▁stations . ▁The ▁state - run ▁and ▁influ ential ▁Kay han ▁newspaper , ▁whose ▁man aging ▁editor ▁is ▁appointed ▁by ▁Iran ' s ▁supre me ▁leader , ▁Ay atol lah ▁K ham ene i , ▁ran ▁nearly ▁three ▁dozen ▁articles ▁def aming ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith . ▁The ▁articles , ▁which ▁make ▁use ▁of ▁fake ▁historical ▁documents , ▁eng age ▁in ▁a ▁dist ort ion ▁of ▁history ▁to ▁f als ely ▁describe ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁moral ▁principles ▁in ▁a ▁manner ▁that ▁would ▁be ▁off ensive ▁to ▁Muslim s , ▁thus ▁indu cing ▁feelings ▁of ▁susp icion , ▁dist rust ▁and ▁hat red ▁for ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran . ▁ ▁The ▁articles ▁claim , ▁in ▁the ▁face ▁of ▁all ▁historical ▁data , ▁that ▁the ▁religion ▁was ▁invent ed ▁and ▁impl anted ▁by ▁colonial ist ▁powers ▁to ▁sub vert ▁Islam ▁and ▁to ▁sub j ug ate ▁the ▁Muslim ▁pe op les ▁of ▁Iran . ▁They ▁use ▁fake ▁historical ▁documents ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁mem oir s ▁of ▁Prince ▁Dol gor ou ki , ▁a ▁mid - n in ete enth ▁century ▁Russian ▁minister ▁in ▁Te h ran , |
▁to ▁subst anti ate ▁their ▁claims ; ▁the ▁mem oir s ▁were ▁however ▁manufact ured ▁in ▁Iran ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁and ▁have ▁long ▁since ▁been ▁exposed ▁as ▁for ger ies . ▁ ▁The ▁articles ▁also ▁state ▁that ▁the ▁B áb , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ' s ▁central ▁figures , ▁was ▁taught ▁simultaneously ▁by ▁the ▁Jews ▁and ▁the ▁Ts ar ist ▁government ▁of ▁Russia , ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁Ts ar ist ▁government ▁was ▁well - known ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁unf av ou rable ▁towards ▁the ▁Jews . ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁World ▁Centre ▁claims ▁that ▁the ▁linking ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁with ▁Z ion ism ▁serves ▁to ▁prov oke ▁susp icion ▁and ▁hat red ▁towards ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁ ▁An ▁Isra eli ▁mock ument ary ▁about ▁the ▁religion ▁called ▁Bah a ' is ▁In ▁My ▁Back yard ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁producer , ▁the ▁film ▁was ▁pir ated , ▁profession ally ▁dub bed ▁and ▁stream ed ▁by ▁an ▁Iran ian ▁website ▁then ▁alter ed ▁again ▁to ▁make ▁serious ▁accus ations ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁using ▁ex cer pts ▁from ▁the ▁film ▁on ▁another ▁Iran ian ▁website . ▁Another ▁attack ▁was ▁through ▁national ▁television ▁– ▁a ▁" document ary " ▁was ▁tele vised ▁called ▁The ▁Secret ▁of ▁Arm aged don ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁which ▁out lined ▁a ▁Jewish - B ah á ʼ í |
▁consp i racy ▁against ▁Iran ian ▁interests . ▁ ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁popular ▁Iran ian ▁conserv ative ▁newspaper ▁Ham sh ah ri , ▁known ▁to ▁take ▁a ▁critical ▁stand ▁towards ▁President ▁A hm ad ine j ad , ▁was ▁closed ▁down ▁tempor arily , ▁only ▁because ▁it ▁published ▁in ▁an ▁advert is ement ▁for ▁tour ism ▁travel ▁to ▁India ▁a ▁photograph ▁of ▁a ▁temple ▁of ▁the ▁Bah a ' i ▁Fa ith . ▁After ▁the ▁cont ested ▁Iran ian ▁election ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁and ▁the ▁continu ing ▁un rest , ▁the ▁government ▁increased ▁its ▁anti - B ah á ʼ í ▁r het or ic , ▁bl aming ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁for ▁the ▁demonstr ations , ▁which ▁obser vers ▁have ▁stated ▁is ▁without ▁mer it . ▁The ▁government ▁of ▁Iran ▁has ▁histor ically ▁defined ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁as ▁an ▁' other ' ▁to ▁draw ▁public ▁attention ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁government . ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁International ▁community ▁published ▁a ▁report ▁titled ▁" In c iting ▁Hat red : ▁Iran ' s ▁Media ▁Camp aign ▁to ▁Dem on ize ▁Bah a ' is ", ▁analyz ing ▁media ▁items ▁between ▁late ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁and ▁early ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁Other ▁events ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁D iane ▁A la ' i , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁sp ok esp erson ▁to ▁the ▁United |
▁Nations ▁in ▁Gene va , ▁described ▁other ▁forms ▁of ▁per sec ution ▁to ▁the ▁UN ▁Commission ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights : ▁ ▁A la ' i ▁also ▁said ▁that ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁in ▁Te h ran , ▁Iran ian ▁intelligence ▁agents ▁entered ▁the ▁homes ▁of ▁several ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁and ▁spent ▁hours ▁r ans ack ing ▁their ▁houses ▁before ▁cart ing ▁away ▁their ▁poss essions ▁and ▁taking ▁them ▁into ▁cust ody . ▁ ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ' s ▁New ▁York ▁sp ok esp erson , ▁B ani ▁D ug al , ▁clar ified ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁involved ▁in ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 5 : ▁ ▁D ug al ▁said ▁that ▁although ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁those ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁who ▁have ▁been ▁arrested ▁were ▁released , ▁nine ▁remained ▁in ▁prison ▁as ▁of ▁late ▁October ▁[ 2 0 0 5 ]. ▁ ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Albert ▁Lincoln , ▁secretary - general ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁International ▁Community , ▁stated ▁that ▁in ▁recent ▁months ▁there ▁had ▁been ▁cases ▁of ▁ar son , ▁thre ats , ▁kid n app ings ▁and ▁beat ings : ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁and ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁as ▁a ▁mark ▁of ▁solid ar ity ▁with ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁of ▁Iran , ▁Ay atol lah ▁Abd ol - H am id ▁Mas ou mi - Te h ran i ▁gift ed ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís |
▁a ▁call ig raph y ▁work ▁from ▁the ▁writ ings ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ u ' ll á h . ▁The ▁Ay atol lah ' s ▁call ▁for ▁religious ▁toler ance ▁and ▁co - ex istence ▁has ▁received ▁world wide ▁support ▁from ▁religious ▁leaders . ▁ ▁Stat ements ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁later ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁many ▁third ▁party ▁organizations ▁have ▁made ▁statements ▁regarding ▁the ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁asking ▁that ▁human ▁rights ▁be ▁maintained . ▁To ▁date , ▁the ▁United ▁Nations , ▁Am n esty ▁International , ▁the ▁European ▁Union , ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁Brazil , ▁Australia , ▁New ▁Zealand , ▁Austria , ▁Canada , ▁UK , ▁Germany , ▁France , ▁Netherlands , ▁Ireland , ▁Hung ary , ▁Norway ▁and ▁India ▁have ▁made ▁official ▁statements ▁condem ning ▁the ▁treatment ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁abroad , ▁in ▁particular , ▁in ▁Iran . ▁ ▁The ▁United ▁Nations ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁Commission ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁have ▁published ▁reports ▁on ▁the ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁since ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Revolution ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ; ▁in ▁every ▁year ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁except ▁for ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁Commission ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁has ▁passed ▁a ▁resolution ▁express ing ▁concern ▁about ▁human ▁rights ▁viol ations ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in ▁Iran . ▁The ▁Special ▁Represent ative ▁on ▁Iran , ▁Professor ▁Gal indo ▁P ohl , ▁Canadian ▁Jur ist ▁and |
▁U BC ▁Law ▁Professor , ▁Maurice ▁Cop ith or ne , ▁and ▁the ▁Special ▁R app orte ur ▁on ▁Relig ious ▁Int ol er ance , ▁Professor ▁Ab du ' l ▁F ata h ▁Am or , ▁have ▁all ▁reported ▁on ▁the ▁per sec utions ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁faced ▁in ▁Iran . ▁For ▁example , ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁the ▁commission ▁wrote ▁that ▁"... ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁whose ▁existence ▁as ▁a ▁vi able ▁religious ▁community ▁in ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ▁of ▁Iran ▁is ▁threatened ▁... " ▁and ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁they ▁wrote ▁that ▁"... ▁the ▁es cal ation ▁and ▁increased ▁frequency ▁of ▁disc rim ination ▁and ▁other ▁human ▁rights ▁viol ations ▁against ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁[ s ic ], ▁including ▁cases ▁of ▁arbitrary ▁arrest ▁and ▁det ention , ▁the ▁den ial ▁of ▁freedom ▁of ▁religion ▁or ▁of ▁public ly ▁carrying ▁out ▁commun al ▁affairs , ▁the ▁dis reg ard ▁of ▁property ▁rights , ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁sites ▁of ▁religious ▁importance , ▁the ▁susp ension ▁of ▁social , ▁educational ▁and ▁community - related ▁activities ▁and ▁the ▁den ial ▁of ▁access ▁to ▁higher ▁education , ▁employ ment , ▁p ensions , ▁ade qu ate ▁housing ▁and ▁other ▁benefits ▁... ". ▁ ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁has ▁also ▁documented ▁the ▁per sec ution ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran . ▁For ▁example ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁it ▁gave ▁statements ▁regarding ▁the ▁execution ▁of ▁a ▁Bah á |
ʼ í ▁prisoner : ▁" Am n esty ▁International ▁un res erved ly ▁condem ns ▁the ▁execution ▁of ▁Ru h ul lah ▁Rou h ani ▁and ▁fear s ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁executed ▁for ▁the ▁non vi ol ent ▁expression ▁of ▁his ▁belief s . ▁Am n esty ▁International ▁currently ▁knows ▁of ▁seven ▁cases ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁prisoners ▁under ▁the ▁sentence ▁of ▁death ▁and ▁is ▁calling ▁for ▁commut ation ▁of ▁these ▁and ▁all ▁other ▁death ▁sentences ▁without ▁delay " ▁ ▁The ▁European ▁Union ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁EU ▁Ann ual ▁Report ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁wrote : ▁ ▁Then ▁in ▁a ▁speech ▁given ▁at ▁the ▁European ▁Parliament ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁on ▁beh alf ▁of ▁the ▁European ▁Commission er ▁for ▁Education , ▁Training , ▁Culture ▁and ▁Mult iling ual ism , ▁Jan ▁Fig el ▁said : ▁ ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁Department ▁of ▁State ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Dem ocracy , ▁Human ▁Rights ▁and ▁Labor ▁stated ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Report ▁on ▁International ▁Relig ious ▁Fre edom ▁that ▁" The ▁Government ▁har ass es ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁by ▁arrest ing ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁arbitr arily ," ▁that ▁" the ▁property ▁rights ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁generally ▁dis reg arded , ▁... ▁the ▁Government ▁has ▁conf isc ated ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁private ▁and ▁business ▁properties ▁belonging ▁to ▁Bah á ʼ ís ," ▁and ▁that ▁" Public ▁and ▁private ▁univers ities ▁continue ▁to ▁den y ▁adm itt ance ▁to ▁Bah á ʼ í |
▁students " ▁ ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁respond s ▁to ▁these ▁statements ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁enemies ▁of ▁the ▁state , ▁were ▁supp or ters ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁Shah ' s ▁government ▁and ▁sp ies ▁employed ▁by ▁imperial ist ▁govern ments ▁of ▁the ▁West . ▁The ▁Ay atol lah ▁K home ini , ▁even ▁before ▁his ▁return ▁to ▁Iran ▁said ▁in ▁an ▁interview ▁that ▁he ▁believed ▁that ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁tra itors ▁— ▁Z ion ists ▁— ▁and ▁enemies ▁of ▁Islam . ▁ ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁representative ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁tried ▁several ▁times , ▁al beit ▁un success fully , ▁between ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁to ▁conv ince ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁diplom atic ▁community ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁is ▁a ▁polit ic ized ▁organization ▁with ▁a ▁record ▁of ▁criminal ▁activ ism ▁against ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁and ▁not ▁a ▁legit imate ▁religion ▁like ▁J uda ism , ▁Christian ity , ▁and ▁Z oro ast rian ism ▁which ▁are ▁protected ▁under ▁Iran ian ▁law ; ▁Iran ▁has ▁not ▁acknowled ged ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁is ▁a ▁religion . ▁ ▁The ▁United ▁Nations ▁respond ed ▁to ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ' s ▁accus ations ▁by ▁stating ▁that ▁there ▁has ▁been ▁no ▁evidence ▁of ▁Iran ' s ▁claims ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁in ▁Iran ▁prof esses ▁its ▁alleg iance ▁to ▁the ▁state . ▁The ▁United ▁Nations ▁pointed ▁to ▁the ▁Bah |
á ʼ í ▁teaching ▁of ▁ob ed ience ▁to ▁the ▁government ▁of ▁one ' s ▁country ▁and ▁stated ▁that ▁any ▁invol vement ▁in ▁any ▁sub vers ive ▁acts ▁against ▁the ▁government ▁would ▁be ▁ant ith et ical ▁to ▁pre cept s ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁religion . ▁The ▁United ▁Nations ▁also ▁stated ▁that ▁if ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁government ▁did ▁acknow ledge ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁is ▁a ▁religion , ▁it ▁would ▁be ▁an ▁ad mission ▁that ▁freedom ▁of ▁religion ▁does ▁not ▁apply ▁to ▁all ▁in ▁Iran ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁not ▁ab iding ▁by ▁the ▁Universal ▁Dec laration ▁of ▁Human ▁Rights ▁and ▁International ▁C oven ants ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁to ▁which ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁sign atory . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁many ▁Iran ians ▁who ▁have ▁published ▁how ▁and ▁why ▁Iran ians ▁think ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁as ▁out s iders . ▁Dr . ▁Moh amm ad ▁T av ak oli , ▁a ▁Muslim - I ran ian , ▁who ▁is ▁a ▁Professor ▁of ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁Studies ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁presents ▁in ▁Iran - Name h , ▁a ▁Pers ian ▁language ▁academic ▁journal , ▁a ▁study ▁that ▁exam ines ▁the ▁processes ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁gh etto ization ▁and ▁event ual ▁" other ing " ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in ▁Iran ▁by ▁the ▁political ▁and ▁religious ▁forces ▁within ▁Iran ian ▁society . ▁ ▁Egypt ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 5 , ▁Egypt ▁became ▁the ▁first ▁Islam ic ▁state ▁to ▁leg ally ▁recognize ▁the |
▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁as ▁an ▁independent ▁religion ▁apart ▁from ▁Islam . ▁Despite ▁a ▁histor ically ▁active ▁Egypt ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁tw enti eth ▁century , ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁institutions ▁and ▁community ▁activities ▁have ▁been ▁b anned ▁since ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁by ▁Law ▁ 2 6 3 . ▁This ▁law ▁was ▁decre ed ▁by ▁Egypt ian ▁President ▁Gam al ▁Ab del ▁N asser , ▁seven ▁years ▁after ▁the ▁found ing ▁of ▁the ▁Arab ▁Republic ▁of ▁Egypt . ▁All ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁properties , ▁including ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁cent ers , ▁libraries , ▁and ▁c em eter ies , ▁were ▁conf isc ated ▁by ▁the ▁government . ▁The ▁current ▁Egypt ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community , ▁estimated ▁to ▁number ▁between ▁several ▁hundred ▁and ▁two ▁thousand , ▁has ▁also ▁had ▁fat was ▁issued ▁against ▁it ▁by ▁Al - Az har ' s ▁Islam ic ▁Research ▁Center , ▁which ▁charges ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁with ▁apost asy . ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁ 1 8 ▁people , ▁mostly ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁were ▁arrested ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁So h ag ▁under ▁the ▁pret ence ▁of ▁having ▁viol ated ▁Article ▁ 9 8 ( F ) ▁of ▁the ▁Pen al ▁Code ▁(" ins ult ing ▁a ▁heaven ly ▁religion ") ▁and ▁other ▁possible ▁charges , ▁ 1 0 ▁of ▁whom ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁det ention ▁for ▁over ▁ 1 0 ▁months ▁without ▁being ▁formally ▁charged |
. ▁ ▁During ▁and ▁since ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Egypt ian ▁revolution ▁t ensions ▁have ▁remained ▁high ▁– ▁homes ▁have ▁been ▁bur nt ▁though ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁dialog ue . ▁Since ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁while ▁hope ful ▁remain ▁concerned ▁and ▁a ▁Sal af i ▁sp okes man ▁has ▁said ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁" We ▁will ▁pro sec ute ▁the ▁Bah ai ' s ▁( s ic ) ▁on ▁the ▁charge ▁of ▁tre ason ." ▁ ▁See ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Egypt . ▁ ▁Ident ification - card ▁controvers y ▁ ▁The ▁Egypt ian ▁identification ▁card ▁controvers y ▁began ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ▁when ▁the ▁government ▁modern ized ▁the ▁electronic ▁processing ▁of ▁identity ▁documents , ▁which ▁introduced ▁a ▁de ▁fact o ▁requirement ▁that ▁documents ▁must ▁list ▁the ▁person ' s ▁religion ▁as ▁Muslim , ▁Christian , ▁or ▁Jewish ▁( the ▁only ▁three ▁relig ions ▁officially ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁government ). ▁Con sequently , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁obtain ▁government ▁identification ▁documents ▁( such ▁as ▁national ▁identification ▁cards , ▁birth ▁certific ates , ▁death ▁certific ates , ▁marriage ▁or ▁divor ce ▁certific ates , ▁or ▁pass ports ) ▁necessary ▁to ▁exercise ▁their ▁rights ▁within ▁the ▁country ▁unless ▁they ▁li ed ▁about ▁their ▁religion , ▁which ▁conflicts ▁with ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁religious ▁principles . ▁Without ▁documents , ▁they ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁employed , ▁educated , ▁treated ▁in ▁hosp it als , |
▁travel ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁or ▁vote , ▁among ▁other ▁hard ships . ▁ ▁Following ▁a ▁prot ract ed ▁legal ▁process ▁cul min ating ▁in ▁a ▁court ▁r uling ▁favor able ▁to ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁the ▁interior ▁minister ▁of ▁Egypt ▁released ▁a ▁dec ree ▁on ▁April ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁am ending ▁the ▁law ▁to ▁allow ▁Egypt ians ▁who ▁are ▁not ▁Muslim , ▁Christian , ▁or ▁Jewish ▁to ▁obtain ▁identification ▁documents ▁that ▁list ▁a ▁dash ▁in ▁place ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁recognized ▁relig ions . ▁The ▁first ▁identification ▁cards ▁were ▁issued ▁to ▁two ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁under ▁the ▁new ▁dec ree ▁on ▁August ▁ 8 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁Under ▁this ▁comprom ise ▁solution , ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁is ▁still ▁un recogn ized ▁by ▁the ▁government ▁— ▁Islam , ▁Christian ity , ▁and ▁J uda ism ▁remain ▁the ▁only ▁recognized ▁relig ions . ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Egypt ian ▁revolution ▁and ▁comments ▁by ▁Dr . ▁I bra him ▁Gh on iem , ▁acting ▁Minister ▁of ▁Education ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Muslim ▁Bro ther hood , ▁in ▁late ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁it ▁seemed ▁that ▁the ▁Egypt ian ▁school ▁system ▁would ▁exclude ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁children ▁and ▁put ▁in ▁doubt ▁the ▁settlement ▁of ▁the ▁identification ▁card ▁controvers y . ▁ ▁Other ▁countries ▁While ▁the ▁most ▁significant ▁per sec ution ▁has ▁happened ▁in ▁Iran ▁and ▁Egypt ▁during ▁this ▁century |
▁and ▁the ▁last , ▁other ▁countries ▁have ▁restricted ▁or ▁per sec uted ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁In ▁several ▁countries ▁with ▁majority ▁Muslim ▁populations , ▁they ▁have ▁done ▁so ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁basis ▁as ▁Iran ▁and ▁Egypt — that ▁since ▁Islam ▁does ▁not ▁recognize ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith , ▁neither ▁should ▁the ▁government , ▁and ▁thus ▁all ▁manner ▁of ▁social ▁services ▁and ▁identity ▁are ▁circ ums cribed . ▁B anning ▁orders ▁have ▁been ▁made ▁against ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁activities ▁in ▁Al ger ia ▁( 1 9 6 9 ), ▁Ira q ▁( 1 9 7 0 ▁and ▁versions ▁since ) ▁and ▁Indones ia ▁( es pecially ▁but ▁not ▁exclus ively ▁ 1 9 6 2 – 2 0 0 0 ). ▁During ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁was ▁also ▁b anned ▁in ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁countries ▁in ▁sub - S ah aran ▁Africa ▁( B ur und i , ▁ 1 9 7 4 ; ▁M ali ▁ 1 9 7 6 ; ▁U g anda ▁ 1 9 7 7 ; ▁Congo , ▁ 1 9 7 8 ; ▁and ▁Niger , ▁ 1 9 7 8 ). ▁ ▁Afghan istan ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁per sec uted ▁and ▁imprison ed ▁in ▁Afghan istan ▁during ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁the ▁Tal ib an . ▁Post - T al ib an , ▁one ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁was ▁arrested ▁and ▁the ▁court ▁has ▁ruled ▁that ▁the ▁Bah á |
ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁is ▁not ▁a ▁recognized ▁religion ▁and ▁therefore , ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁no ▁rights ▁under ▁Islam ic ▁Law . ▁See ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Afghan istan . ▁ ▁A zer ba ij an ▁In ▁A zer ba ij an , ▁a ▁region ▁that ▁has ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁connections ▁with ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith , ▁there ▁have ▁been ▁several ▁news ▁stories ▁covering ▁severe ▁social , ▁b ureau cr atic ▁and ▁legal ▁limits ▁on ▁religious ▁communities , ▁including ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁since ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁are ▁trying ▁to ▁recover ▁properties ▁that ▁were ▁conf isc ated ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁T av ach ur ▁Al iev , ▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í , ▁claimed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁arrested ▁for ▁mention ing ▁his ▁religion ▁and ▁was ▁released ▁when ▁he ▁promised ▁not ▁to ▁mention ▁his ▁religion ▁again . ▁ ▁Furthermore ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁laws ▁were ▁being ▁considered ▁that ▁would ▁cur tail ▁the ▁rights ▁and ▁privileges ▁of ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁and ▁other ▁religious ▁minor ities . ▁See ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁A zer ba ij an . ▁ ▁Indones ia ▁In ▁Indones ia , ▁while ▁the ▁government ▁gave ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁the ▁freedom ▁to ▁exist ▁as ▁an ▁organization ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁the ▁ ▁national ▁registration ▁system ▁continues ▁to ▁restrict ▁the |
▁religious ▁freedom ▁of ▁persons ▁who ▁do ▁not ▁belong ▁to ▁the ▁five ▁officially ▁recognized ▁faith s ; ▁thus ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁cannot ▁register ▁their ▁mar ri ages ▁or ▁their ▁children ' s ▁birth s . ▁Cou ples ▁prevent ed ▁from ▁register ing ▁their ▁mar ri ages ▁or ▁the ▁birth s ▁of ▁their ▁children ▁in ▁accord ance ▁with ▁their ▁faith s ▁must ▁either ▁convert ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁five ▁recognized ▁faith s ▁or ▁mis re present ▁themselves . ▁Those ▁who ▁choose ▁not ▁to ▁register ▁their ▁mar ri ages ▁or ▁their ▁children ' s ▁birth s ▁risk ▁future ▁difficulties ; ▁for ▁example , ▁many ▁children ▁without ▁a ▁birth ▁certificate ▁cannot ▁en roll ▁in ▁school ▁or ▁may ▁not ▁qual ify ▁for ▁scholar ships ▁and ▁individuals ▁without ▁birth ▁certific ates ▁cannot ▁qual ify ▁for ▁government ▁jobs . ▁ ▁Muslim s ▁who ▁converted ▁to ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Sul aw esi ▁were ▁int im id ated ▁by ▁their ▁neighb ors ▁and ▁by ▁the ▁local ▁government ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁Of ▁seven ▁households ▁who ▁converted , ▁two ▁returned ▁to ▁Islam , ▁four ▁refused ▁to ▁change , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁ignored ▁requests ▁to ▁convert ▁again . ▁ ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁the ▁Indones ian ▁government ▁officially ▁recognized ▁the ▁mon othe istic ▁faith ▁as ▁a ▁religion , ▁and ▁the ▁then ▁Relig ious ▁Affairs ▁Minister ▁L uk man ▁H ak im ▁Sa if ud din ' s ▁made ▁a ▁statement ▁that ▁Bah a ' i ▁wor sh ipp ers ▁will ▁be |
▁protected ▁by ▁the ▁Constitution . ▁ ▁Mor oc co ▁In ▁Mor oc co ▁there ▁were ▁episodes ▁of ▁religious ▁per sec ution ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 2 – 1 9 6 3 , ▁when ▁ 1 5 ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁were ▁arrested ▁for ▁their ▁religious ▁conv ict ions ; ▁three ▁were ▁given ▁death ▁sentences ▁and ▁several ▁others ▁were ▁sent enced ▁to ▁years ▁of ▁prison ▁terms ▁at ▁hard ▁labour . ▁There ▁were ▁months ▁of ▁diplom atic ▁efforts ; ▁US ▁Senator ▁Kenneth ▁B . ▁Ke ating ▁stated ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Senate ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 9 6 3 , ▁" How ▁far ▁religious ▁freedom ▁under ▁the ▁Mor oc can ▁Constitution ▁really ▁applies , ▁will ▁be ▁revealed ▁in ▁the ▁coming ▁weeks ▁when ▁the ▁appeal ▁before ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁[ of ▁Mor oc co ] ▁is ▁heard ." ▁On ▁March ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁during ▁a ▁visit ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁Nations , ▁King ▁Has an ▁of ▁Mor oc co ▁was ▁interview ed ▁on ▁television ▁and ▁addressed ▁the ▁audience ▁saying ▁that ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁was ▁" ag ain st ▁good ▁order ▁and ▁also ▁mor als ", ▁he ▁would ▁p ardon ▁the ▁death ▁sentences . ▁Per sec ution ▁of ▁Bah a ' is ▁occurred ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁and ▁their ▁response ▁was ▁to ▁seek ▁diplom atic ▁red ress ▁emphas izing ▁the ▁non - part is ans hip ▁and ▁the ▁ob ed ience |
▁to ▁government ▁principles ▁of ▁the ▁religion . ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁have ▁more ▁recently ▁been ▁denied ▁pass ports ▁and ▁can ▁practice ▁their ▁religion ▁only ▁in ▁private . ▁See ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Mor oc co . ▁ ▁Roman ia ▁Roman ia ▁has ▁had ▁a ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁since ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁whose ▁members ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁included ▁Marie ▁of ▁Edinburgh , ▁Queen ▁of ▁Roman ia . ▁After ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁commun ism ▁in ▁Roman ia , ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁organized ▁itself ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁form ▁its ▁first ▁National ▁Spirit ual ▁Assembly ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁community ▁number ed ▁some ▁ 7 , 0 0 0 , ▁but ▁in ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁a ▁law ▁was ▁passed ▁that ▁im posed ▁restrict ive ▁requirements ▁on ▁religious ▁communities ▁that ▁wished ▁to ▁be ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁government , ▁which ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁and ▁ad her ents ▁of ▁other ▁minor ity ▁relig ions ▁could ▁not ▁meet . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁restrictions ▁include ▁waiting ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁twelve ▁years ▁after ▁pet ition ing ▁before ▁a ▁religious ▁community ▁can ▁start ▁to ▁apply ▁for ▁recognition ▁and ▁the ▁requirement ▁that ▁a ▁leg ally - recogn ized ▁religion ▁must ▁have ▁over ▁ 2 2 , 0 0 0 ▁members . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁by ▁country ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Niger |
▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Turk men istan ▁ ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁U g anda ▁ ▁Iran ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Document ation ▁Center ▁ ▁Mon a ▁Mah m ud n iz had ▁ ▁Iran ian ▁Tab oo , ▁a ▁document ary ▁film ▁ ▁Political ▁ob jections ▁to ▁the ▁Bah a ' i ▁Fa ith ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁B . ▁Fre lick . ▁Iran ian ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁and ▁gen o cide ▁early ▁warning . ▁Social ▁Science ▁Record , ▁ 2 4 ( 2 ): 3 5 – 3 7 , ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁▁ ▁Christopher ▁Buck . ▁Islam ▁and ▁Minor ities : ▁The ▁Case ▁of ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís . ▁Studies ▁in ▁Contempor ary ▁Islam , ▁ 5 ( 1 ): 8 3 – 1 0 6 , ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁Hand al , ▁Bor is . ▁" From ▁Mo or ish ▁Cord ova ▁to ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁of ▁Iran : ▁Islam ic ▁toler ance ▁and ▁int ol er ance ". ▁IDE A ▁journal ▁of ▁social ▁issues , ▁ 1 2 ( 1 ), ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁Naz ila ▁Gh ane a . ▁Human ▁Rights , ▁the ▁UN ▁& ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁in ▁Iran . ▁K lu wer ▁Law ▁International , ▁The ▁H ague / Lond on / New ▁York , ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁R . ▁Cooper . ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ ís ▁of ▁Iran . ▁The |
▁Minor ity ▁Rights ▁Group ▁Report ▁ 5 1 . ▁The ▁Minor ity ▁Rights ▁Group ▁L TD , ▁London , ▁UK , ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁The ▁Bah a ʼ i ▁Question ▁Re vis ited : ▁Per sec ution ▁and ▁Res ili ence ▁in ▁Iran , ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁report ▁from ▁the ▁Bah a ' i ▁International ▁Community . ▁The ▁Bah á ʼ í ▁Question : ▁Cultural ▁Cle ans ing ▁in ▁Iran , ▁a ▁Bah a ' i ▁International ▁Community ▁document ▁( 2 0 0 8 ). ▁Ass im ilation , ▁Ex od us , ▁Er adic ation : ▁Ira q ' s ▁minor ity ▁communities ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁a ▁report ▁by ▁Minor ity ▁Rights ▁Group ▁International . ▁Cr imes ▁Again st ▁Human ity : ▁The ▁Islam ic ▁Republic ' s ▁Att acks ▁on ▁the ▁Bah á ʼ ís , ▁by ▁Iran ▁Human ▁Rights ▁Document ation ▁Center . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Archives ▁of ▁Bah a ʼ i ▁Per sec ution ▁in ▁Iran ▁Iran ▁Update , ▁the ▁Bah a ' i ▁International ▁Community ' s ▁news ▁page ▁summar izing ▁the ▁current ▁human ▁rights ▁conditions ▁for ▁Bah a ' is ▁in ▁Iran . ▁Per sec ution ▁of ▁Bah a ' is ▁in ▁Iran ▁– ▁A ▁tim eline ▁from ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Revolution ▁to ▁the ▁present . ▁[ Arch ived ] ▁Iran ▁Press ▁Watch ▁- ▁A ▁research ▁entity ▁document ing ▁the ▁struggle ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Bah a ’ i ▁Community ▁to ▁gain |
▁legit imate ▁civil ▁rights ▁▁▁ ▁Category : B ah á ' í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Egypt ▁Category : B ah á ' í ▁Fa ith ▁in ▁Iran ▁Category : H uman ▁rights ▁in ▁Egypt ▁Category : H uman ▁rights ▁in ▁Iran ▁Category : Per sec ution ▁by ▁Muslim s <0x0A> </s> ▁Richard ▁Charles ▁B anks , ▁Ph . D . ▁( born ▁April ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 1 9 3 1 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁author , ▁orn ith ologist ▁and ▁Emer it us ▁Research ▁Zo ologist ▁on ▁staff ▁with ▁the ▁Pat ux ent ▁Wild life ▁Research ▁Center ▁run ▁by ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Ge ological ▁Survey ▁and ▁station ed ▁at ▁the ▁Smith son ian ▁Institution ▁in ▁Washington , ▁DC . ▁He ▁is ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁Or n ith ological ▁Council ▁and ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁study ▁of ▁the ▁mig rat ory ▁systems , ▁patterns , ▁and ▁ge ographic ▁variations ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁birds , ▁primarily ▁foc using ▁on ▁the ▁research ▁and ▁analysis ▁of ▁white - front ed ▁ge ese . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁B anks ▁was ▁named ▁to ▁the ▁Smith son ian ' s ▁newly ▁created ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame , ▁established ▁by ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Ver te br ate , ▁Zo ology . ▁The ▁honor ▁was ▁made ▁in ▁recognition ▁of ▁B anks ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influ ential ▁orn ith olog ists ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁National ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History ▁( N M N H ). ▁ ▁Personal ▁background ▁ ▁Richard ▁Charles ▁B anks |
▁was ▁born ▁on ▁April ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 1 9 3 1 ▁in ▁Ste uben ville , ▁Ohio . ▁He ▁attended ▁Ste uben ville ▁High ▁School , ▁gradu ating ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 9 . ▁ ▁During ▁his ▁youth , ▁B anks ▁was ▁an ▁E agle ▁Sc out ▁and ▁enjoyed ▁bird ▁watching . ▁He ▁often ▁participated ▁with ▁his ▁father , ▁who ▁was ▁an ▁amateur ▁bird watch er ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Wilson ▁Or n ith ological ▁Society . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 3 , ▁B anks ▁attended ▁his ▁first ▁Wilson ▁Or n ith ological ▁Society ▁meeting ▁with ▁his ▁parents . ▁ ▁In ▁fall ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁B anks ▁en rolled ▁in ▁classes ▁at ▁Ohio ▁State ▁University ▁and ▁participated ▁in ▁Reserve ▁Officer ▁Training ▁Corps ▁( RO TC ). ▁He ▁graduated ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁with ▁a ▁Bach elor ▁of ▁Science ▁degree ▁in ▁Wild life ▁Conserv ation , ▁after ▁which ▁he ▁joined ▁the ▁US ▁Army ▁in ▁post - war ▁South ▁Korea , ▁qual ifying ▁to ▁serve ▁in ▁the ▁Medical ▁Service ▁Corps , ▁due ▁to ▁his ▁training ▁in ▁bi ology . ▁▁ ▁After ▁B anks ▁returned ▁from ▁Korea ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁he ▁en rolled ▁in ▁gradu ate ▁school ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Ber keley . ▁He ▁earned ▁his ▁Masters ▁( 1 9 5 8 ) ▁and ▁Ph . D . ▁( 1 9 6 1 ) ▁degrees ▁under ▁the ▁guidance ▁of ▁doctor al ▁ad visor , ▁Ald en ▁H . ▁Miller |
. ▁He ▁was ▁subsequently ▁h ired ▁at ▁Ber keley ' s ▁Museum ▁of ▁Ver te br ate ▁Zo ology , ▁serving ▁as ▁an ▁assistant ▁cur ator , ▁special izing ▁in ▁the ▁research ▁and ▁study ▁of ▁white - c rown ed ▁sp arrow s . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 2 , ▁while ▁working ▁at ▁the ▁San ▁Diego ▁Natural ▁History ▁Museum , ▁he ▁met ▁his ▁future ▁wife , ▁Glad ys ▁S par ks . ▁They ▁married ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁T ogether , ▁they ▁have ▁two ▁sons , ▁R andy ▁and ▁David . ▁ ▁Professional ▁background ▁ ▁Tow ard ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁his ▁final ▁year ▁at ▁Ber keley , ▁B anks ▁participated ▁in ▁a ▁scientific ▁expedition ▁to ▁Cer ral vo ▁Island ▁in ▁the ▁G ulf ▁of ▁California . ▁While ▁expl oring , ▁he ▁recognized ▁differ ing ▁characteristics ▁in ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁mig rat ory ▁birds ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁collect ing . ▁This ▁discovery ▁led ▁him ▁to ▁apply ▁for ▁a ▁National ▁Science ▁Foundation ▁grant ▁to ▁continue ▁his ▁research . ▁As ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁his ▁find ings , ▁he ▁is ▁recognized ▁for ▁naming ▁three ▁sub species ▁of ▁birds ▁that ▁were ▁ind igen ous ▁to ▁the ▁island . ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 2 , ▁following ▁the ▁completion ▁of ▁his ▁grant , ▁he ▁was ▁offered ▁a ▁job ▁as ▁cur ator ▁of ▁the ▁birds ▁and ▁m amm als ▁collections ▁and ▁exhib its ▁at ▁the ▁San ▁Diego ▁Natural ▁History ▁Museum . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁B anks ▁joined ▁the ▁staff ▁at |
▁the ▁Fish ▁and ▁Wild life ▁Service ▁in ▁the ▁National ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History , ▁where ▁he ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁chief ▁of ▁the ▁bird ▁section . ▁After ▁Richard ▁H . ▁Man ville ▁retired , ▁B anks ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁director ▁of ▁the ▁Bird ▁and ▁M amm al ▁L abs ▁of ▁the ▁museum . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁cur ator ▁of ▁the ▁Bird ▁Project ▁for ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Survey , ▁US GS ▁Bi ological ▁Resources ▁Dis cipl ine , ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁N M N H ▁for ▁over ▁ 3 8 ▁years , ▁officially ▁ret iring ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁, ▁he ▁remains ▁active ▁at ▁the ▁National ▁Museum , ▁recognized ▁as ▁an ▁Emer it us ▁Research ▁Zo ologist . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁his ▁work ▁with ▁the ▁National ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History , ▁B anks ▁is ▁recognized ▁for ▁establish ing ▁the ▁Or n ith ological ▁Council . ▁He ▁became ▁active ▁in ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union , ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁elected ▁secretary ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 9 ▁and ▁served ▁as ▁president ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁to ▁ 1 9 9 6 , ▁having ▁previously ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁capacity ▁with ▁the ▁Wilson ▁Or n ith ological ▁Society ▁and ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 1 , ▁B anks ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ' s ▁Committee ▁on ▁Classification ▁and ▁N omen cl ature . ▁The ▁Committee ▁publish es ▁the ▁Check |
list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁official ▁source ▁on ▁the ▁tax onomy ▁of ▁birds ▁in ▁North ▁America . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁the ▁Union ▁began ▁publishing ▁a ▁quarter ly ▁news letter ▁at ▁the ▁recommendation ▁of ▁B anks , ▁who ▁was ▁named ▁as ▁editor . ▁The ▁Or n ith ological ▁News letter ▁was ▁eventually ▁published ▁on ▁a ▁b imon th ly ▁basis ▁and ▁circul ated ▁to ▁over ▁ 5 , 0 0 0 ▁orn ith olog ists . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁B anks ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁publication ▁of ▁the ▁sixth ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁Check list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s . ▁From ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁he ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁Chair ▁of ▁the ▁Committee . ▁He ▁o vers aw ▁publication ▁of ▁the ▁sevent h ▁edition ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁ ▁Hon ors ▁and ▁awards ▁▁▁ 1 9 9 1 – 1 9 9 3 : ▁President , ▁Wilson ▁Or n ith ological ▁Society ▁▁ 1 9 9 2 : ▁Honor ary ▁Member , ▁Cooper ▁Or n ith ological ▁Society ▁▁ 1 9 9 4 – 1 9 9 6 : ▁President , ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁▁ 1 9 9 8 : ▁Mar ion ▁J enk inson ▁Service ▁Award , ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁▁ 1 9 9 9 : ▁Scient ific ▁Ach iev ement ▁Award , ▁Pat ux ent ▁Wild life ▁Research ▁Center |
▁▁ 2 0 0 1 – : ▁President , ▁American ▁Association ▁of ▁Zo ological ▁N omen cl ature ▁▁ 2 0 0 8 : ▁William ▁and ▁Nancy ▁Kl amm ▁Service ▁Award ▁– ▁Wilson ▁Or n ith ological ▁Club ▁▁ 2 0 1 1 : ▁Smith son ian ▁Institution ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁– ▁Department ▁of ▁Ver te br ate ▁Zo ology ▁ ▁Pub lished ▁works ▁▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 0 ). ▁" B ird s ▁Import ed ▁into ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 8 ", ▁( F ish ▁and ▁Wild life ▁Service , ▁Special ▁Scient ific ▁Report — W ild life ) ▁ 6 4 ▁pages . ▁ ▁Hub b ard , ▁John ▁P .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 0 ). ▁" The ▁Types ▁of ▁Tax a ▁of ▁Harold ▁H . ▁Ba iley ", ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ 8 3 ( 3 0 ): ▁ 3 2 1 – 3 3 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 0 ). ▁" On ▁E cot yp ic ▁Vari ation ▁in ▁Bird s ", ▁E volution , ▁ 2 4 ( 4 ): ▁ 8 2 9 – 8 3 1 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 0 ). ▁" Re - evalu ation ▁of ▁Two ▁Supp osed ▁Hy brid ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁Wilson ▁Bul letin , ▁ |
8 2 ( 3 ): ▁ 3 3 1 – 3 3 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 0 ). ▁" The ▁Fox ▁S par row ▁on ▁the ▁West ▁Slo pe ▁of ▁the ▁Oregon ▁C asc ades ", ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 7 2 ( 3 ): ▁ 3 6 9 – 3 7 0 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 1 ). ▁" Public ation ▁D ates ▁of ▁the ▁North ▁American ▁Fa una ▁Series ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 8 8 ( 3 ): ▁ 6 7 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 2 ). ▁" Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁E ight y - n inth ▁St ated ▁Me eting ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 8 9 ( 1 ): ▁ 1 1 4 – 1 6 2 . ▁ ▁Lock e , ▁Louis ▁N .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 2 ). ▁" Av ian ▁Ch ol era ▁in ▁C ed ar ▁W ax w ings ▁in ▁Ohio ", ▁Journal ▁of ▁Wild life ▁D ise ases , ▁ 8 : ▁ 1 0 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 2 ). ▁" A ▁System atis ' s ▁View ", ▁Ro le ▁of ▁Hand - re ared ▁D uck s ▁in ▁Water f ow l |
▁Management : ▁A ▁Sym pos ium , ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Sport ▁Fish eries ▁and ▁Wild life , ▁and ▁the ▁Max ▁McG raw ▁Wild life ▁Foundation . ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Sport ▁Fish eries ▁and ▁Wild life ▁and ▁Max ▁McG raw ▁Foundation , ▁pp . 1 1 7 – 1 2 0 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cl en ch , ▁M . ▁H .; ▁and ▁Bar low , ▁J . ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 3 ). ▁" B ird ▁Col lections ▁in ▁United - St ates ▁and ▁Canada ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 9 0 ( 1 ): ▁ 1 3 6 – 1 7 0 . ▁ ▁S ka ar , ▁P . ▁D .; ▁Cla pp , ▁Roger ▁B .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 7 3 ). ▁" Re - E valu ation ▁of ▁some ▁Mont ana ▁Bird ▁Records ", ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 7 5 ( 1 ): ▁ 1 3 2 – 1 3 3 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 0 ). ▁" On ▁Getting ▁In vol ved ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 9 7 ( 3 ): ▁ 6 3 7 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Watson , ▁George ▁E . ▁( 1 9 8 4 ). ▁" Comment ary ", ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 8 6 ( 2 ): ▁ 2 2 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 |
9 8 5 ). ▁" American ▁Black ▁D uck ▁Record ▁from ▁Korea ", ▁Journal ▁of ▁Field ▁Or n ith ology , ▁ 5 6 ( 3 ): ▁ 2 7 7 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 6 ). ▁" Sub species ▁of ▁the ▁Gla uc ous ▁G ull , ▁Lar us - Hy per b ore us ", ▁( A ves , ▁Char ad ri iformes ). ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ 9 9 ( 1 ): ▁ 1 4 9 – 1 5 9 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 6 ). ▁" A ▁Tax onom ic ▁Re evalu ation ▁of ▁the ▁P lain ▁P ige on " ▁( Col um ba - In orn ata ). ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 0 3 ( 3 ): ▁ 6 2 9 – 6 3 1 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 6 ). ▁" Sub species ▁of ▁the ▁Gre ater ▁Sc au p ▁and ▁their ▁Names ", ▁Wilson ▁Bul letin , ▁ 9 8 ( 3 ): ▁ 4 3 3 – 4 4 4 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Mc Di arm id , ▁Roy ▁W .; ▁and ▁Gard ner , ▁Alfred ▁L . ▁( 1 9 8 7 ). ▁" Check list ▁of ▁Ver te br ates ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁the ▁U . ▁S . ▁Territ ories , |
▁and ▁Canada " ▁( U . ▁S . ▁Fish ▁and ▁Wild life ▁Service , ▁Resource ▁Public ation ) ▁ 7 9 ▁pages . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 8 ). ▁" Ge ographic - Vari ation ▁in ▁the ▁Y ellow - B illed ▁C uck oo ", ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 9 0 ( 2 ): ▁ 4 7 3 – 4 7 7 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 8 ). ▁" Ob sole te ▁English ▁Names ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ▁and ▁Their ▁Modern ▁Equ ival ents ", ▁Fish ▁and ▁Wild life ▁Service , ▁Resource ▁Public ation . ▁ 3 7 ▁pages . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 9 ). ▁"( Re view ▁of ) ▁Spe ci ation ▁and ▁Geographic ▁Vari ation ▁in ▁Black - ta iled ▁G nat catch ers ", ▁Wilson ▁Bul letin , ▁ 1 0 1 : ▁ 3 6 0 – 3 6 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 8 9 ). ▁" Supp osed ▁Northern ▁Records ▁of ▁the ▁Southern ▁Ful mar ", ▁Western ▁Bird s , ▁ 1 9 : ▁ 1 2 1 – 1 2 4 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Cal der , ▁W . ▁A . ▁III . ▁( 1 9 8 9 ). ▁" Did ▁Lewis ▁and ▁Clark ▁Disc over ▁the ▁Broad - ta iled ▁Hum ming bird ▁( S el |
as ph orus ▁pl aty cer ac us )? ", ▁Archives ▁of ▁Natural ▁History , ▁ 1 6 : ▁ 2 4 3 – 2 4 4 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 0 ). ▁" Ge ographic ▁Vari ation ▁in ▁the ▁Y ellow - bil led ▁C uck oo : ▁Cor re ctions ▁and ▁Comment s ", ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 9 2 ( 2 ): ▁ 5 3 8 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 0 ). ▁" T ax onom ic ▁Status ▁of ▁the ▁Co qu ette ▁Hum ming bird ▁of ▁Gu err ero , ▁Mexico ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 0 7 ( 1 ): ▁ 1 9 1 – 1 9 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 0 ). ▁" T ax onom ic ▁Status ▁of ▁the ▁R uf ous - Bel lied ▁Ch ach al aca " ▁( O rt alis - W ag ler i ), ▁The ▁Cond or , ▁ 9 2 ( 3 ): ▁ 7 4 9 – 7 5 3 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁D ove , ▁Car la ▁J . ▁( 1 9 9 2 ). ▁" The ▁Gener ic ▁Name ▁for ▁Cr ested ▁Car ac ar as " ▁( A ves , ▁Fal con idae ), ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ 1 0 5 ( 3 |
): ▁ 4 2 0 – 4 2 5 . ▁ ▁Clark , ▁W . ▁S .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 2 ). ▁" The ▁Tax onom ic ▁Status ▁of ▁the ▁White - T a iled ▁K ite ", ▁Wilson ▁Bul letin , ▁ 1 0 4 ( 4 ): ▁ 5 7 1 ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 3 ). ▁"[ Re view ▁of ] ▁Illustr ations ▁of ▁the ▁Bird s ▁of ▁California , ▁Texas , ▁Oregon , ▁British ▁and ▁Russian ▁America , ▁by ▁John ▁Cass in ", ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁repr int ▁of ▁ 1 8 5 6 ▁edition . ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 1 0 : ▁ 4 2 0 – 4 2 1 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Good man , ▁S . ▁M .; ▁L any on , ▁S . ▁M .; ▁and ▁Schul enberg , ▁T . ▁S . ▁( 1 9 9 3 ). ▁" Type ▁Spec im ens ▁and ▁Basic ▁Princi ples ▁of ▁Av ian ▁Tax onomy ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 1 0 ( 2 ): ▁ 4 1 3 – 4 1 4 . ▁ ▁Cla pp , ▁Roger ▁B .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 3 ). ▁" N est ing ▁seasons , ▁nest ▁sites , ▁and ▁cl utch ▁sizes ▁of ▁c rows ▁in ▁Virginia ", ▁The ▁R aven , ▁ 6 4 ( |
2 ): ▁ 9 0 – 9 8 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Springer , ▁P . ▁F . ▁( 1 9 9 4 ). ▁" A ▁Century ▁of ▁Population ▁Tr ends ▁of ▁Water f ow l ▁in ▁Western ▁North ▁America ", ▁Studies ▁in ▁Av ian ▁Bi ology , ▁ 1 5 : ▁ 1 3 4 – 1 4 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Brow ning , ▁M . ▁R . ▁( 1 9 9 5 ). ▁" Com ments ▁on ▁the ▁status ▁of ▁rev ived ▁old ▁names ▁for ▁some ▁North ▁American ▁birds ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 1 2 ( 3 ): ▁ 6 3 3 – 6 4 8 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 5 ). ▁" Or n ith ology ▁at ▁the ▁U . S . ▁National ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History ", ▁ ▁Cont ribution s ▁to ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Or n ith ology . ▁Mem oir s ▁of ▁the ▁N utt all ▁Or n ith ological ▁Club , ▁ 1 2 : ▁ 3 3 – 5 3 . ▁ ▁Brow ning , ▁M . ▁R .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 6 ). ▁" B om by c illa ▁ced ror um ▁Vie ill ot , ▁( 1 8 0 8 ) ▁and ▁Tro gl ody tes ▁a ed on ▁Vie ill ot , ▁( 1 8 0 9 )" ▁( |
A ves , ▁Pass er iformes ): ▁Pro posed ▁Conserv ation ▁of ▁the ▁Specific ▁Names , ▁Bul letin ▁of ▁Zo ological ▁N omen cl ature , ▁ 5 3 : ▁ 1 8 7 – 1 9 0 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 7 ). ▁" The ▁Name ▁of ▁Lawrence ' ▁Fly catch er ", ▁The ▁Era ▁of ▁All an ▁R . ▁Phill ips , ▁A ▁Fest ch rift , ▁Al bu quer que , ▁N M : ▁Hor iz ons ▁Communic ations , ▁pp . 2 1 – 2 4 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Fitz pat rick , ▁John ▁W .; ▁How ell , ▁Thomas ▁R .; ▁Johnson , ▁Ned ▁K .; ▁Mon roe ▁Jr ., ▁B urt ▁L .; ▁O uel let , ▁Henri ; ▁R ems en ▁Jr ., ▁J . ▁V .; ▁and ▁St orer , ▁Robert ▁W . ▁( 1 9 9 7 ). ▁" F ort y - first ▁Supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 1 4 ( 3 ): ▁ 5 4 2 – 5 5 2 . ▁ ▁D ove , ▁Car la ▁J .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 1 9 9 9 ). ▁" A ▁tax onom ic ▁study ▁of ▁cr ested ▁car ac ar as ", ▁( F al con idae ). ▁Wilson ▁Bul letin , |
▁ 1 1 1 ( 3 ): ▁ 3 3 0 – 3 3 9 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Brow ning , ▁M . ▁R . ▁( 1 9 9 9 ). ▁" Qu estions ▁about ▁Th ayer ' s ▁G ull ", ▁Ontario ▁Bird s , ▁ 1 7 : ▁ 1 2 4 – 1 3 0 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 0 0 ). ▁" The ▁Cub an ▁Martin ▁in ▁Florida ", ▁Florida ▁Field ▁Natural ist , ▁ 2 8 : ▁ 5 0 – 5 2 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁J . ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁A . ▁W .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V .; ▁R ising , ▁J . ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁D . ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 2 ). ▁" F ort y - third ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 1 9 ( 3 ): ▁ 8 9 7 – 9 0 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁J . ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁A . ▁W .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , |
▁J . ▁V .; ▁R ising , ▁J . ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁D . ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 3 ). ▁" F ort y - four th ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 0 ( 3 ): ▁ 9 2 3 – 9 3 1 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁J . ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁A . ▁W .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V .; ▁R ising , ▁J . ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁D . ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 4 ). ▁" F ort y - fif th ▁Supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 1 ( 3 ): ▁ 9 8 5 – 9 9 5 . ▁ ▁W ool f enden , ▁G . ▁E .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 0 4 ). ▁" A ▁spec imen ▁of ▁the ▁Var ied ▁Th r ush ▁from ▁Florida ", ▁Florida ▁Field ▁Natural ist , ▁ 3 2 : ▁ 4 8 – 5 0 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; |
▁D unn , ▁J . ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁A . ▁W .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V .; ▁R ising , ▁J . ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁D . ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 5 ). ▁" F ort y - six th ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁orn ith olog ists ' ▁union ▁check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 2 ( 3 ): ▁ 1 0 2 6 – 1 0 3 1 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁Jon ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁Andrew ▁W .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V ., ▁Jr .; ▁R ising , ▁James ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁Douglas ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 6 ). ▁" F ort y - se vent h ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - list ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁birds ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 3 ( 3 ): ▁ 9 2 6 – 9 3 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Ch esser , ▁Robert ▁Terry ; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁Jon ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁Andrew ▁W .; ▁Lov ette , ▁R by ▁J .; ▁R asm ussen |
, ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V ., ▁Jr .; ▁R ising , ▁James ▁D .; ▁and ▁St ot z , ▁Douglas ▁F . ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁" F ort y - e ighth ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁orn ith olog ists ' ▁union ▁Check - List ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 4 ( 3 ): ▁ 1 1 0 9 – 1 1 1 5 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁and ▁Gib son , ▁Daniel ▁D . ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁" The ▁correct ▁type ▁local ity ▁of ▁Sp iz ella ▁bre wer i ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 4 ( 3 ): ▁ 1 0 8 3 – 1 0 8 5 . ▁ ▁Ol son , ▁St or rs ▁L .; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁" L ect ot yp ification ▁of ▁Lar us ▁sm ith son ian us ▁Cou es , ▁ 1 8 6 2 ", ▁( A ves : ▁Lar idae ), ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ 1 2 0 ( 4 ): ▁ 3 8 2 – 3 8 6 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁Ch esser , ▁Robert ▁Terry ; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁J . ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁A . ▁W .; ▁Lov |
ette , ▁I . ▁J .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V .; ▁R ising , ▁J . ▁D .; ▁St ot z , ▁D . ▁F .; ▁and ▁W ink er , ▁Kevin . ▁( 2 0 0 8 ). ▁" F ort y - n inth ▁supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁- ▁Check - list ▁of ▁north ▁American ▁birds ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 5 ( 3 ): ▁ 7 5 6 – 7 6 6 . ▁ ▁Ch esser , ▁Robert ▁T .; ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁B ark er , ▁F . ▁Keith ; ▁Cic ero , ▁Car la ; ▁D unn , ▁Jon ▁L .; ▁Kr atter , ▁Andrew ▁W .; ▁Lov ette , ▁Ir by ▁J .; ▁R asm ussen , ▁Pam ela ▁C .; ▁R ems en , ▁J . ▁V . ▁Jr .; ▁R ising , ▁James ▁D .; ▁St ot z , ▁Douglas ▁F .; ▁and ▁W ink er , ▁Kevin . ▁( 2 0 0 9 ). ▁" F ift i eth ▁Supp lement ▁to ▁the ▁American ▁Or n ith olog ists ' ▁Union ▁Check - List ▁of ▁North ▁American ▁Bird s ", ▁The ▁A uk , ▁ 1 2 6 ( 3 ): ▁ 7 0 5 – 7 1 4 . ▁doi : 1 0 . 1 5 2 5 / au k . 2 0 0 9 . 8 |
7 0 9 ▁ ▁Lov ette , ▁Ir by ▁J .; ▁Pere z - E man , ▁Jorge ▁L .; ▁S ull ivan , ▁John ▁P .; ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C .; ▁F ior ent ino , ▁Isabel la ; ▁Cord oba - C ord oba , ▁Ser gio ; ▁E che ver ry - G al vis , ▁Maria ; ▁B ark er , ▁F . ▁Keith ; ▁Burn s , ▁Kevin ▁J .; ▁K lic ka , ▁John ; ▁L any on , ▁Scott ▁M .; ▁and ▁B erm ingham , ▁E ld red ge . ▁( 2 0 1 0 ). ▁" A ▁compreh ensive ▁mult il ocus ▁ph y log eny ▁for ▁the ▁wood - war bl ers ▁and ▁a ▁re vised ▁classification ▁of ▁the ▁Par ul idae ", ▁( A yes ), ▁M ole cular ▁Ph y log en et ics ▁and ▁E volution , ▁ 5 7 ( 2 ): ▁ 7 5 3 – 7 7 0 . ▁doi : 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . ym pe v . 2 0 1 0 . 0 7 . 0 1 8 ▁ ▁Gib son , ▁Daniel ▁D . ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 1 0 ). ▁" Re vised ▁type ▁local ity ▁of ▁the ▁Wh isk ered ▁A uk let ▁A eth ia ▁pyg ma ea ", ▁( A yes : ▁Alc idae ), ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ |
1 2 3 ▁( 3 ): ▁ 1 9 3 – 1 9 5 . ▁ ▁K lic ka , ▁John ; ▁and ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 1 1 ). ▁" A ▁generic ▁name ▁for ▁some ▁sp arrow s " ▁( A ves : ▁Em ber iz idae ), ▁Z oot ax a , ▁ 2 7 9 3 : ▁ 6 7 – 6 8 . ▁ ▁B anks , ▁Richard ▁C . ▁( 2 0 1 1 ). ▁" T ax onomy ▁of ▁Gre ater ▁White - front ed ▁Ge ese ", ▁( A ves : ▁An at idae ), ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Bi ological ▁Society ▁of ▁Washington , ▁ 1 2 4 ( 3 ): ▁ 2 2 6 – 2 3 3 . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Smith son ian ▁Mig rat ory ▁Bird ▁Center ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : E agle ▁Sc outs ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Ste uben ville , ▁Ohio ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁zo olog ists ▁Category : Oh io ▁State ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁California , ▁Ber keley ▁al umn i ▁Category : Smith son ian ▁Institution ▁people ▁Category : American ▁orn ith olog ists <0x0A> </s> ▁M ing - J un ▁La i ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁math ematic ian , ▁currently ▁a ▁Professor ▁of ▁Mathemat ics ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of |
▁Georgia . ▁His ▁area ▁of ▁research ▁is ▁ ▁spl ines ▁and ▁their ▁numerical ▁analysis . ▁He ▁has ▁published ▁a ▁text ▁on ▁spl ines ▁called ▁S pl ines ▁Function s ▁on ▁Tri ang ulations . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁H ang z hou , ▁China . ▁ ▁La i ▁received ▁a ▁B . Sc . ▁from ▁H ang z hou ▁University ▁and ▁a ▁Ph . D . ▁in ▁mathematics ▁from ▁the ▁Texas ▁A & M ▁University ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁ ▁His ▁dis sert ation ▁was ▁entitled ▁" On ▁Const ruction ▁of ▁B ivari ate ▁and ▁T riv ari ate ▁Ver tex ▁S pl ines ▁on ▁Ar bitr ary ▁M ixed ▁Grid ▁Part itions " ▁and ▁super vised ▁by ▁Charles ▁K . ▁Ch ui . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : H ang z hou ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : Tex as ▁A & M ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Ut ah ▁al umn i ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁mathemat icians ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁mathemat icians ▁Category : Ch inese ▁em igr ants ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Georgia ▁fac ulty <0x0A> </s> ▁Aleks ander ▁K og oj ▁is ▁a ▁Sloven ian ▁film ▁director , ▁born ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁in ▁L jub lj ana . ▁His ▁interest ▁in ▁film ▁making ▁began ▁at ▁an ▁early ▁age . |
▁As ▁a ▁te en ager ▁he ▁wrote ▁a ▁good ▁deal , ▁and ▁his ▁pass ions ▁were ▁special ▁effects . ▁His ▁skills ▁as ▁a ▁music ian ▁meant ▁he ▁could ▁combine ▁sound ▁and ▁visual s , ▁which ▁led ▁to ▁his ▁first ▁experimental ▁film , ▁' K ek etz '. ▁ ▁His ▁first ▁television ▁show ▁was ▁called ▁' Music ▁B out ique ' ▁( G las ben i ▁but ik ). ▁When ▁he ▁was ▁a ▁student ▁he ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁script ▁writer ▁for ▁commer ci als . ▁Since ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁he ▁has ▁made ▁numerous ▁commer ci als ▁and ▁music ▁videos . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁he ▁received ▁the ▁TV ▁Sloven ia ▁Award ▁for ▁Best ▁Cre ation . ▁He ▁special izes ▁in ▁comedy ▁and ▁story t elling , ▁and ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁master ▁at ▁special ▁effects ▁and ▁compos iting . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Aleks ander ▁K og oj ▁web ▁page ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S lo ven ian ▁film ▁direct ors ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁L jub lj ana <0x0A> </s> ▁Mexico ' s ▁Next ▁Top ▁Model , ▁sometimes ▁abbre vi ated ▁as ▁M x NT M , ▁is ▁a ▁Mexican ▁reality ▁television ▁series , ▁based ▁on ▁Ty ra ▁B anks ' ▁America ' s ▁Next ▁Top ▁Model . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁second ▁franch ise ▁in ▁Latin ▁America ▁after ▁Brazil ' s ▁Next ▁Top ▁Model , ▁and ▁like ▁the ▁latter , ▁the ▁Mexican ▁version ▁is ▁broadcast ▁on |
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