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li ers ' ▁effects ▁are ▁ex acer b ated . ▁ ▁The ▁pl ots ▁below ▁show ▁the ▁boot strap ▁distributions ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁dev iation , ▁the ▁median ▁absolute ▁dev iation ▁( M AD ) ▁and ▁the ▁R ous see uw – C rou x ▁( Q n ) ▁estim ator ▁of ▁scale . ▁The ▁pl ots ▁are ▁based ▁on ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁boot strap ▁samples ▁for ▁each ▁estim ator , ▁with ▁some ▁Gaussian ▁noise ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁res am pled ▁data ▁( sm oot hed ▁boot strap ). ▁Panel ▁( a ) ▁shows ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁dev iation , ▁( b ) ▁of ▁the ▁M AD ▁and ▁( c ) ▁of ▁Q n . ▁ ▁The ▁distribution ▁of ▁standard ▁dev iation ▁is ▁err atic ▁and ▁wide , ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁out li ers . ▁The ▁M AD ▁is ▁better ▁beh aved , ▁and ▁Q n ▁is ▁a ▁little ▁bit ▁more ▁efficient ▁than ▁M AD . ▁This ▁simple ▁example ▁demonstr ates ▁that ▁when ▁out li ers ▁are ▁present , ▁the ▁standard ▁dev iation ▁cannot ▁be ▁recommended ▁as ▁an ▁estimate ▁of ▁scale . ▁ ▁Man ual ▁screening ▁for ▁out li ers ▁ ▁Trad itionally , ▁statist icians ▁would ▁manually ▁screen ▁data ▁for ▁out li ers , ▁and ▁remove ▁them , ▁usually ▁checking ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁the ▁data ▁to ▁see ▁whether ▁the ▁out li ers ▁were ▁err one ously ▁recorded . ▁Indeed , ▁in ▁the ▁speed - of - light ▁example ▁above , ▁it ▁is ▁easy ▁to ▁see |
▁and ▁remove ▁the ▁two ▁out li ers ▁prior ▁to ▁proceed ing ▁with ▁any ▁further ▁analysis . ▁However , ▁in ▁modern ▁times , ▁data ▁sets ▁often ▁consist ▁of ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁variables ▁being ▁measured ▁on ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁experimental ▁units . ▁Therefore , ▁manual ▁screening ▁for ▁out li ers ▁is ▁often ▁imp ract ical . ▁ ▁Out li ers ▁can ▁often ▁interact ▁in ▁such ▁a ▁way ▁that ▁they ▁mask ▁each ▁other . ▁As ▁a ▁simple ▁example , ▁consider ▁ ▁a ▁small ▁un iv ari ate ▁data ▁set ▁containing ▁one ▁modest ▁and ▁one ▁large ▁out l ier . ▁The ▁estimated ▁standard ▁dev iation ▁will ▁be ▁gross ly ▁infl ated ▁by ▁the ▁large ▁out l ier . ▁The ▁result ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁modest ▁out l ier ▁looks ▁relatively ▁normal . ▁As ▁soon ▁as ▁the ▁large ▁out l ier ▁is ▁removed , ▁the ▁estimated ▁standard ▁dev iation ▁shr inks , ▁and ▁the ▁modest ▁out l ier ▁now ▁looks ▁unusual . ▁ ▁This ▁problem ▁of ▁mask ing ▁gets ▁worse ▁as ▁the ▁complexity ▁of ▁the ▁data ▁increases . ▁For ▁example , ▁in ▁reg ression ▁problems , ▁diagnostic ▁pl ots ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁identify ▁out li ers . ▁However , ▁it ▁is ▁common ▁that ▁once ▁a ▁few ▁out li ers ▁have ▁been ▁removed , ▁others ▁become ▁visible . ▁The ▁problem ▁is ▁even ▁worse ▁in ▁higher ▁dimensions . ▁ ▁Rob ust ▁methods ▁provide ▁automatic ▁ways ▁of ▁detect ing , ▁down weight ing ▁( or ▁removing ), ▁and ▁flag ging ▁out li ers , ▁largely ▁removing ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁manual ▁screening . |
▁▁ ▁Care ▁must ▁be ▁taken ; ▁initial ▁data ▁showing ▁the ▁o zone ▁hole ▁first ▁appearing ▁over ▁Ant ar ct ica ▁were ▁rejected ▁as ▁out li ers ▁by ▁non - human ▁screening . ▁ ▁Var iety ▁of ▁applications ▁ ▁Although ▁this ▁article ▁deals ▁with ▁general ▁principles ▁for ▁un iv ari ate ▁statistical ▁methods , ▁robust ▁methods ▁also ▁exist ▁for ▁reg ression ▁problems , ▁general ized ▁linear ▁models , ▁and ▁parameter ▁estimation ▁of ▁various ▁distributions . ▁ ▁Me asures ▁of ▁robust ness ▁ ▁The ▁basic ▁tools ▁used ▁to ▁describe ▁and ▁measure ▁robust ness ▁are , ▁the ▁breakdown ▁point , ▁the ▁influence ▁function ▁and ▁the ▁sensitivity ▁curve . ▁ ▁Break down ▁point ▁ ▁Int uit ively , ▁the ▁breakdown ▁point ▁of ▁an ▁estim ator ▁is ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁incorrect ▁observations ▁( e . g . ▁arbitr arily ▁large ▁observations ) ▁an ▁estim ator ▁can ▁handle ▁before ▁giving ▁an ▁incorrect ▁( e . g ., ▁arbitr arily ▁large ) ▁result . ▁For ▁example , ▁given ▁ ▁independent ▁random ▁variables ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁corresponding ▁real izations ▁, ▁we ▁can ▁use ▁ ▁to ▁estimate ▁the ▁mean . ▁Such ▁an ▁estim ator ▁has ▁a ▁breakdown ▁point ▁of ▁ 0 ▁because ▁we ▁can ▁make ▁ ▁arbitr arily ▁large ▁just ▁by ▁changing ▁any ▁of ▁ ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁higher ▁the ▁breakdown ▁point ▁of ▁an ▁estim ator , ▁the ▁more ▁robust ▁it ▁is . ▁Int uit ively , ▁we ▁can ▁understand ▁that ▁a ▁breakdown ▁point ▁cannot ▁exceed ▁ 5 0 % ▁because ▁if ▁more ▁than ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁observations ▁are ▁cont am inated |
, ▁it ▁is ▁not ▁possible ▁to ▁distinguish ▁between ▁the ▁underlying ▁distribution ▁and ▁the ▁cont amin ating ▁distribution ▁. ▁Therefore , ▁the ▁maximum ▁breakdown ▁point ▁is ▁ 0 . 5 ▁and ▁there ▁are ▁estim ators ▁which ▁achieve ▁such ▁a ▁breakdown ▁point . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁median ▁has ▁a ▁breakdown ▁point ▁of ▁ 0 . 5 . ▁The ▁X % ▁trim med ▁mean ▁has ▁breakdown ▁point ▁of ▁X %, ▁for ▁the ▁chosen ▁level ▁of ▁X . ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁contain ▁more ▁details . ▁The ▁level ▁and ▁the ▁power ▁breakdown ▁points ▁of ▁tests ▁are ▁investigated ▁in ▁. ▁ ▁Statistics ▁with ▁high ▁breakdown ▁points ▁are ▁sometimes ▁called ▁res istant ▁statistics . ▁ ▁Example : ▁speed - of - light ▁data ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁speed - of - light ▁example , ▁removing ▁the ▁two ▁lowest ▁observations ▁causes ▁the ▁mean ▁to ▁change ▁from ▁ 2 6 . 2 ▁to ▁ 2 7 . 7 5 , ▁a ▁change ▁of ▁ 1 . 5 5 . ▁The ▁estimate ▁of ▁scale ▁produced ▁by ▁the ▁Q n ▁method ▁is ▁ 6 . 3 . ▁We ▁can ▁divide ▁this ▁by ▁the ▁square ▁root ▁of ▁the ▁sample ▁size ▁to ▁get ▁a ▁robust ▁standard ▁error , ▁and ▁we ▁find ▁this ▁quantity ▁to ▁be ▁ 0 . 7 8 . ▁Thus , ▁the ▁change ▁in ▁the ▁mean ▁resulting ▁from ▁removing ▁two ▁out li ers ▁is ▁approximately ▁twice ▁the ▁robust ▁standard ▁error . ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 0 % ▁trim med ▁mean ▁for ▁the ▁speed - of - light ▁data ▁is ▁ 2 7 . 4 |
3 . ▁Rem oving ▁the ▁two ▁lowest ▁observations ▁and ▁re comput ing ▁gives ▁ 2 7 . 6 7 . ▁Clearly , ▁the ▁trim med ▁mean ▁is ▁less ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁out li ers ▁and ▁has ▁a ▁higher ▁breakdown ▁point . ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁replace ▁the ▁lowest ▁observation , ▁− 4 4 , ▁by ▁− 1 0 0 0 , ▁the ▁mean ▁becomes ▁ 1 1 . 7 3 , ▁whereas ▁the ▁ 1 0 % ▁trim med ▁mean ▁is ▁still ▁ 2 7 . 4 3 . ▁In ▁many ▁areas ▁of ▁applied ▁statistics , ▁it ▁is ▁common ▁for ▁data ▁to ▁be ▁log - transform ed ▁to ▁make ▁them ▁near ▁symmet rical . ▁Very ▁small ▁values ▁become ▁large ▁negative ▁when ▁log - transform ed , ▁and ▁zero es ▁become ▁neg atively ▁infinite . ▁Therefore , ▁this ▁example ▁is ▁of ▁practical ▁interest . ▁ ▁Emp irical ▁influence ▁function ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁The ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁function ▁is ▁a ▁measure ▁of ▁the ▁dependence ▁of ▁the ▁estim ator ▁on ▁the ▁value ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁points ▁in ▁the ▁sample . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁model - free ▁measure ▁in ▁the ▁sense ▁that ▁it ▁simply ▁rel ies ▁on ▁calcul ating ▁the ▁estim ator ▁again ▁with ▁a ▁different ▁sample . ▁On ▁the ▁right ▁is ▁Tu key ' s ▁bi weight ▁function , ▁which , ▁as ▁we ▁will ▁later ▁see , ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁what ▁a ▁" good " ▁( in ▁a ▁sense ▁defined ▁later ▁on ) ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁function ▁should ▁look ▁like . ▁ ▁In ▁mathematical ▁terms , ▁an |
▁influence ▁function ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁a ▁vector ▁in ▁the ▁space ▁of ▁the ▁estim ator , ▁which ▁is ▁in ▁turn ▁defined ▁for ▁a ▁sample ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁subset ▁of ▁the ▁population : ▁▁ ▁is ▁a ▁probability ▁space , ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁measure ▁space ▁( state ▁space ), ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁parameter ▁space ▁of ▁dimension ▁, ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁measure ▁space , ▁ ▁For ▁example , ▁▁ ▁is ▁any ▁probability ▁space , ▁, ▁ ▁, ▁ ▁The ▁definition ▁of ▁an ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁function ▁is : ▁Let ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁are ▁i . i . d . ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁sample ▁from ▁these ▁variables . ▁ ▁is ▁an ▁estim ator . ▁Let ▁. ▁The ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁function ▁ ▁at ▁observation ▁ ▁is ▁defined ▁by : ▁▁▁▁ ▁What ▁this ▁actually ▁means ▁is ▁that ▁we ▁are ▁replacing ▁the ▁i - th ▁value ▁in ▁the ▁sample ▁by ▁an ▁arbitrary ▁value ▁and ▁looking ▁at ▁the ▁output ▁of ▁the ▁estim ator . ▁Altern atively , ▁the ▁E IF ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁( sc aled ▁by ▁n + 1 ▁instead ▁of ▁n ) ▁effect ▁on ▁the ▁estim ator ▁of ▁adding ▁the ▁point ▁ ▁to ▁the ▁sample . ▁ ▁In flu ence ▁function ▁and ▁sensitivity ▁curve ▁ ▁Instead ▁of ▁re lying ▁solely ▁on ▁the ▁data , ▁we ▁could ▁use ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁random ▁variables . ▁The ▁approach ▁is ▁quite ▁different ▁from ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁previous ▁paragraph . ▁What ▁we ▁are ▁now ▁trying ▁to ▁do ▁is ▁to ▁see ▁what ▁happens ▁to ▁an ▁estim ator ▁when ▁we ▁change ▁the ▁distribution |
▁of ▁the ▁data ▁slightly : ▁it ▁assumes ▁a ▁distribution , ▁and ▁measures ▁sensitivity ▁to ▁change ▁in ▁this ▁distribution . ▁By ▁contrast , ▁the ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁assumes ▁a ▁sample ▁set , ▁and ▁measures ▁sensitivity ▁to ▁change ▁in ▁the ▁samples . ▁ ▁Let ▁ ▁be ▁a ▁convex ▁subset ▁of ▁the ▁set ▁of ▁all ▁finite ▁signed ▁measures ▁on ▁. ▁We ▁want ▁to ▁estimate ▁the ▁parameter ▁ ▁of ▁a ▁distribution ▁ ▁in ▁. ▁Let ▁the ▁functional ▁ ▁be ▁the ▁asympt otic ▁value ▁of ▁some ▁estim ator ▁sequence ▁. ▁We ▁will ▁suppose ▁that ▁this ▁functional ▁is ▁Fisher ▁consistent , ▁i . e . ▁. ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁at ▁the ▁model ▁, ▁the ▁estim ator ▁sequence ▁asympt ot ically ▁measures ▁the ▁correct ▁quantity . ▁ ▁Let ▁ ▁be ▁some ▁distribution ▁in ▁. ▁What ▁happens ▁when ▁the ▁data ▁doesn ' t ▁follow ▁the ▁model ▁ ▁exactly ▁but ▁another , ▁slightly ▁different , ▁" going ▁towards " ▁? ▁ ▁We ' re ▁looking ▁at : ▁, ▁ ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁one - s ided ▁Gate aux ▁derivative ▁of ▁ ▁at ▁, ▁in ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Let ▁. ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁probability ▁measure ▁which ▁gives ▁mass ▁ 1 ▁to ▁. ▁We ▁choose ▁. ▁The ▁influence ▁function ▁is ▁then ▁defined ▁by : ▁ ▁It ▁describes ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁an ▁inf init es imal ▁cont amination ▁at ▁the ▁point ▁ ▁on ▁the ▁estimate ▁we ▁are ▁seeking , ▁standard ized ▁by ▁the ▁mass ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁cont amination ▁( the ▁asympt otic ▁bias ▁caused ▁by ▁cont amination ▁in ▁the ▁observations ). ▁For |
▁a ▁robust ▁estim ator , ▁we ▁want ▁a ▁bounded ▁influence ▁function , ▁that ▁is , ▁one ▁which ▁does ▁not ▁go ▁to ▁in finity ▁as ▁x ▁becomes ▁arbitr arily ▁large . ▁ ▁Des irable ▁properties ▁▁ ▁Properties ▁of ▁an ▁influence ▁function ▁which ▁best ow ▁it ▁with ▁des irable ▁performance ▁are : ▁Fin ite ▁re jection ▁point ▁, ▁Small ▁gross - error ▁sensitivity ▁, ▁Small ▁local - shift ▁sensitivity ▁. ▁ ▁Re jection ▁point ▁ ▁G ross - error ▁sensitivity ▁ ▁Local - shift ▁sensitivity ▁▁ ▁This ▁value , ▁which ▁looks ▁a ▁lot ▁like ▁a ▁L ips ch itz ▁constant , ▁represents ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁shifting ▁an ▁observation ▁slightly ▁from ▁ ▁to ▁a ▁neighbour ing ▁point ▁, ▁i . e ., ▁add ▁an ▁observation ▁at ▁ ▁and ▁remove ▁one ▁at ▁. ▁ ▁M - est im ators ▁▁ ▁( The ▁mathematical ▁context ▁of ▁this ▁paragraph ▁is ▁given ▁in ▁the ▁section ▁on ▁emp irical ▁influence ▁functions .) ▁ ▁Histor ically , ▁several ▁approaches ▁to ▁robust ▁estimation ▁were ▁proposed , ▁including ▁R - est im ators ▁and ▁L - est im ators . ▁However , ▁M - est im ators ▁now ▁appear ▁to ▁dom inate ▁the ▁field ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁their ▁gener ality , ▁high ▁breakdown ▁point , ▁and ▁their ▁efficiency . ▁See ▁. ▁ ▁M - est im ators ▁are ▁a ▁general ization ▁of ▁maximum ▁likelihood ▁estim ators ▁( MLE s ). ▁What ▁we ▁try ▁to ▁do ▁with ▁M LE ' s ▁is ▁to ▁maxim ize ▁ ▁or , ▁equival ently , ▁minimize ▁. ▁In |
▁ 1 9 6 4 , ▁Hub er ▁proposed ▁to ▁general ize ▁this ▁to ▁the ▁minim ization ▁of ▁, ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁some ▁function . ▁M LE ▁are ▁therefore ▁a ▁special ▁case ▁of ▁M - est im ators ▁( hen ce ▁the ▁name : ▁" Max imum ▁likelihood ▁type " ▁estim ators ). ▁ ▁Min im izing ▁ ▁can ▁often ▁be ▁done ▁by ▁different i ating ▁ ▁and ▁solving ▁, ▁where ▁ ▁( if ▁ ▁has ▁a ▁derivative ). ▁ ▁Several ▁choices ▁of ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁have ▁been ▁proposed . ▁The ▁two ▁figures ▁below ▁show ▁four ▁ ▁functions ▁and ▁their ▁corresponding ▁ ▁functions . ▁ ▁For ▁squ ared ▁errors , ▁ ▁increases ▁at ▁an ▁acceler ating ▁rate , ▁whilst ▁for ▁absolute ▁errors , ▁it ▁increases ▁at ▁a ▁constant ▁rate . ▁When ▁W ins or izing ▁is ▁used , ▁a ▁mixture ▁of ▁these ▁two ▁effects ▁is ▁introduced : ▁for ▁small ▁values ▁of ▁x , ▁ ▁increases ▁at ▁the ▁squ ared ▁rate , ▁but ▁once ▁the ▁chosen ▁threshold ▁is ▁reached ▁( 1 . 5 ▁in ▁this ▁example ), ▁the ▁rate ▁of ▁increase ▁becomes ▁constant . ▁ ▁This ▁W ins or ised ▁estim ator ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Hub er ▁loss ▁function . ▁ ▁Tu key ' s ▁bi weight ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁bis quare ) ▁function ▁beh aves ▁in ▁a ▁similar ▁way ▁to ▁the ▁squ ared ▁error ▁function ▁at ▁first , ▁but ▁for ▁larger ▁errors , ▁the ▁function ▁t apers ▁off . ▁ ▁Properties ▁of ▁M - est im ators ▁ ▁M - |
est im ators ▁do ▁not ▁necessarily ▁relate ▁to ▁a ▁probability ▁density ▁function . ▁Therefore , ▁off - the - s hel f ▁approaches ▁to ▁in ference ▁that ▁arise ▁from ▁likelihood ▁theory ▁can ▁not , ▁in ▁general , ▁be ▁used . ▁ ▁It ▁can ▁be ▁shown ▁that ▁M - est im ators ▁are ▁asympt ot ically ▁normally ▁distributed , ▁so ▁that ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁their ▁standard ▁errors ▁can ▁be ▁computed , ▁an ▁approximate ▁approach ▁to ▁in ference ▁is ▁available . ▁ ▁Since ▁M - est im ators ▁are ▁normal ▁only ▁asympt ot ically , ▁for ▁small ▁sample ▁sizes ▁it ▁might ▁be ▁appropriate ▁to ▁use ▁an ▁alternative ▁approach ▁to ▁in ference , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁boot strap . ▁However , ▁M - est im ates ▁are ▁not ▁necessarily ▁unique ▁( i . e ., ▁there ▁might ▁be ▁more ▁than ▁one ▁solution ▁that ▁satisfies ▁the ▁equations ). ▁Also , ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁any ▁particular ▁boot strap ▁sample ▁can ▁contain ▁more ▁out li ers ▁than ▁the ▁estim ator ' s ▁breakdown ▁point . ▁Therefore , ▁some ▁care ▁is ▁needed ▁when ▁designing ▁boot strap ▁schemes . ▁ ▁Of ▁course , ▁as ▁we ▁saw ▁with ▁the ▁speed - of - light ▁example , ▁the ▁mean ▁is ▁only ▁normally ▁distributed ▁asympt ot ically ▁and ▁when ▁out li ers ▁are ▁present ▁the ▁approximation ▁can ▁be ▁very ▁poor ▁even ▁for ▁quite ▁large ▁samples . ▁However , ▁classical ▁statistical ▁tests , ▁including ▁those ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁mean , ▁are ▁typically ▁bounded ▁above ▁by ▁the ▁nom inal ▁size ▁of ▁the ▁test . ▁The |
▁same ▁is ▁not ▁true ▁of ▁M - est im ators ▁and ▁the ▁type ▁I ▁error ▁rate ▁can ▁be ▁substant ially ▁above ▁the ▁nom inal ▁level . ▁ ▁These ▁consider ations ▁do ▁not ▁" invalid ate " ▁M - est imation ▁in ▁any ▁way . ▁They ▁merely ▁make ▁clear ▁that ▁some ▁care ▁is ▁needed ▁in ▁their ▁use , ▁as ▁is ▁true ▁of ▁any ▁other ▁method ▁of ▁estimation . ▁ ▁In flu ence ▁function ▁of ▁an ▁M - est im ator ▁ ▁It ▁can ▁be ▁shown ▁that ▁the ▁influence ▁function ▁of ▁an ▁M - est im ator ▁ ▁is ▁proport ional ▁to ▁, ▁which ▁means ▁we ▁can ▁derive ▁the ▁properties ▁of ▁such ▁an ▁estim ator ▁( such ▁as ▁its ▁re jection ▁point , ▁gross - error ▁sensitivity ▁or ▁local - shift ▁sensitivity ) ▁when ▁we ▁know ▁its ▁ ▁function . ▁▁▁▁ ▁with ▁the ▁ ▁given ▁by : ▁ ▁Choice ▁of ▁ ψ ▁and ▁ ρ ▁ ▁In ▁many ▁practical ▁situations , ▁the ▁choice ▁of ▁the ▁ ▁function ▁is ▁not ▁critical ▁to ▁gaining ▁a ▁good ▁robust ▁estimate , ▁and ▁many ▁choices ▁will ▁give ▁similar ▁results ▁that ▁offer ▁great ▁improvements , ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁efficiency ▁and ▁bias , ▁over ▁classical ▁estimates ▁in ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁out li ers . ▁ ▁The oret ically , ▁ ▁functions ▁are ▁to ▁be ▁preferred , ▁and ▁Tu key ' s ▁bi weight ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁bis quare ) ▁function ▁is ▁a ▁popular ▁choice . ▁ ▁recommend ▁the ▁bi weight ▁function ▁with ▁efficiency ▁at ▁the ▁normal ▁set ▁to ▁ 8 5 |
%. ▁ ▁Rob ust ▁param etric ▁approaches ▁ ▁M - est im ators ▁do ▁not ▁necessarily ▁relate ▁to ▁a ▁density ▁function ▁and ▁so ▁are ▁not ▁fully ▁param etric . ▁F ully ▁param etric ▁approaches ▁to ▁robust ▁modeling ▁and ▁in ference , ▁both ▁Bay esian ▁and ▁likelihood ▁approaches , ▁usually ▁deal ▁with ▁heavy ▁t ailed ▁distributions ▁such ▁as ▁Student ' s ▁t - d istribution . ▁ ▁For ▁the ▁t - d istribution ▁with ▁ ▁degrees ▁of ▁freedom , ▁it ▁can ▁be ▁shown ▁that ▁▁▁▁ ▁For ▁, ▁the ▁t - d istribution ▁is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁C auch y ▁distribution . ▁The ▁degrees ▁of ▁freedom ▁is ▁sometimes ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁k urt osis ▁parameter . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁parameter ▁that ▁controls ▁how ▁heavy ▁the ▁t ails ▁are . ▁In ▁principle , ▁ ▁can ▁be ▁estimated ▁from ▁the ▁data ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁way ▁as ▁any ▁other ▁parameter . ▁In ▁practice , ▁it ▁is ▁common ▁for ▁there ▁to ▁be ▁multiple ▁local ▁max ima ▁when ▁ ▁is ▁allowed ▁to ▁vary . ▁As ▁such , ▁it ▁is ▁common ▁to ▁fix ▁ ▁at ▁a ▁value ▁around ▁ 4 ▁or ▁ 6 . ▁The ▁figure ▁below ▁displays ▁the ▁- function ▁for ▁ 4 ▁different ▁values ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Example : ▁speed - of - light ▁data ▁ ▁For ▁the ▁speed - of - light ▁data , ▁allowing ▁the ▁k urt osis ▁parameter ▁to ▁vary ▁and ▁maxim izing ▁the ▁likelihood , ▁we ▁get ▁▁▁▁ ▁Fix ing ▁ ▁and ▁maxim izing ▁the ▁likelihood ▁gives ▁ ▁Related ▁concepts ▁ ▁A ▁p iv otal |
▁quantity ▁is ▁a ▁function ▁of ▁data , ▁whose ▁underlying ▁population ▁distribution ▁is ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁a ▁param etric ▁family , ▁that ▁is ▁not ▁dependent ▁on ▁the ▁values ▁of ▁the ▁parameters . ▁An ▁anc ill ary ▁stat istic ▁is ▁such ▁a ▁function ▁that ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁stat istic , ▁meaning ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁computed ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁the ▁data ▁alone . ▁Such ▁functions ▁are ▁robust ▁to ▁parameters ▁in ▁the ▁sense ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁independent ▁of ▁the ▁values ▁of ▁the ▁parameters , ▁but ▁not ▁robust ▁to ▁the ▁model ▁in ▁the ▁sense ▁that ▁they ▁assume ▁an ▁underlying ▁model ▁( param etric ▁family ), ▁and ▁in ▁fact ▁such ▁functions ▁are ▁often ▁very ▁sensitive ▁to ▁viol ations ▁of ▁the ▁model ▁assumptions . ▁Thus ▁test ▁statistics , ▁frequently ▁constructed ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁these ▁to ▁not ▁be ▁sensitive ▁to ▁assumptions ▁about ▁parameters , ▁are ▁still ▁very ▁sensitive ▁to ▁model ▁assumptions . ▁ ▁Re pl acing ▁out li ers ▁and ▁missing ▁values ▁▁ ▁Re pl acing ▁missing ▁data ▁is ▁called ▁im put ation . ▁If ▁there ▁are ▁relatively ▁few ▁missing ▁points , ▁there ▁are ▁some ▁models ▁which ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁estimate ▁values ▁to ▁complete ▁the ▁series , ▁such ▁as ▁replacing ▁missing ▁values ▁with ▁the ▁mean ▁or ▁median ▁of ▁the ▁data . ▁Simple ▁linear ▁reg ression ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁estimate ▁missing ▁values . ▁In ▁addition , ▁out li ers ▁can ▁sometimes ▁be ▁accommod ated ▁in ▁the ▁data ▁through ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁trim med ▁means , ▁other ▁scale ▁estim ators ▁apart ▁from ▁standard ▁dev iation ▁( e . g ., |
▁M AD ) ▁and ▁W ins or ization . ▁In ▁calculations ▁of ▁a ▁trim med ▁mean , ▁a ▁fixed ▁percentage ▁of ▁data ▁is ▁dropped ▁from ▁each ▁end ▁of ▁an ▁ordered ▁data , ▁thus ▁elim inating ▁the ▁out li ers . ▁The ▁mean ▁is ▁then ▁calculated ▁using ▁the ▁remaining ▁data . ▁W ins or izing ▁involves ▁accommod ating ▁an ▁out l ier ▁by ▁replacing ▁it ▁with ▁the ▁next ▁highest ▁or ▁next ▁smallest ▁value ▁as ▁appropriate . ▁ ▁However , ▁using ▁these ▁types ▁of ▁models ▁to ▁predict ▁missing ▁values ▁or ▁out li ers ▁in ▁a ▁long ▁time ▁series ▁is ▁difficult ▁and ▁often ▁unre li able , ▁particularly ▁if ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁values ▁to ▁be ▁in - filled ▁is ▁relatively ▁high ▁in ▁comparison ▁with ▁total ▁record ▁length . ▁The ▁accuracy ▁of ▁the ▁estimate ▁depends ▁on ▁how ▁good ▁and ▁representative ▁the ▁model ▁is ▁and ▁how ▁long ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁missing ▁values ▁extends . ▁The ▁in ▁a ▁case ▁of ▁a ▁dynamic ▁process , ▁so ▁any ▁variable ▁is ▁dependent , ▁not ▁just ▁on ▁the ▁historical ▁time ▁series ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁variable ▁but ▁also ▁on ▁several ▁other ▁variables ▁or ▁parameters ▁of ▁the ▁process . ▁In ▁other ▁words , ▁the ▁problem ▁is ▁an ▁exercise ▁in ▁mult iv ari ate ▁analysis ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁un iv ari ate ▁approach ▁of ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁methods ▁of ▁estim ating ▁missing ▁values ▁and ▁out li ers ; ▁a ▁mult iv ari ate ▁model ▁will ▁therefore ▁be ▁more ▁representative ▁than ▁a ▁un iv ari ate ▁one ▁for ▁predict ing ▁missing ▁values . ▁The ▁ ▁K |
oh onen ▁self ▁organ ising ▁map ▁( KS OM ) ▁offers ▁a ▁simple ▁and ▁robust ▁mult iv ari ate ▁model ▁for ▁data ▁analysis , ▁thus ▁providing ▁good ▁possibilities ▁to ▁estimate ▁missing ▁values , ▁taking ▁into ▁account ▁its ▁relationship ▁or ▁correlation ▁with ▁other ▁pert inent ▁variables ▁in ▁the ▁data ▁record . ▁ ▁Standard ▁Kal man ▁filters ▁are ▁not ▁robust ▁to ▁out li ers . ▁To ▁this ▁end ▁ ▁have ▁recently ▁shown ▁that ▁a ▁modification ▁of ▁Mas rel ie z ' s ▁theorem ▁can ▁deal ▁with ▁out li ers . ▁ ▁One ▁common ▁approach ▁to ▁handle ▁out li ers ▁in ▁data ▁analysis ▁is ▁to ▁perform ▁out l ier ▁detection ▁first , ▁followed ▁by ▁an ▁efficient ▁estimation ▁method ▁( e . g ., ▁the ▁least ▁squ ares ). ▁While ▁this ▁approach ▁is ▁often ▁useful , ▁one ▁must ▁keep ▁in ▁mind ▁two ▁challenges . ▁First , ▁an ▁out l ier ▁detection ▁method ▁that ▁rel ies ▁on ▁a ▁non - rob ust ▁initial ▁fit ▁can ▁suffer ▁from ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁mask ing , ▁that ▁is , ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁out li ers ▁can ▁mask ▁each ▁other ▁and ▁escape ▁detection . ▁Second , ▁if ▁a ▁high ▁breakdown ▁initial ▁fit ▁is ▁used ▁for ▁out l ier ▁detection , ▁the ▁follow - up ▁analysis ▁might ▁inherit ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁in eff ici encies ▁of ▁the ▁initial ▁estim ator . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Rob ust ▁confidence ▁intervals ▁Rob ust ▁reg ression ▁Unit - weight ed ▁reg ression ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁. ▁. ▁Repub lished ▁in ▁paper back , ▁ 2 |
0 0 5 . ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁ 2 nd ▁ed ., ▁CRC ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁. ▁Repub lished ▁in ▁paper back , ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁ 2 nd ▁ed ., ▁W iley , ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁Repub lished ▁in ▁paper back , ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁. ▁Pre print ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁. ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Brian ▁R ip ley ' s ▁ ▁robust ▁statistics ▁course ▁notes . ▁Nick ▁Fi eller ' s ▁course ▁notes ▁on ▁Stat ist ical ▁Mod elling ▁and ▁Comput ation ▁contain ▁material ▁on ▁robust ▁reg ression . ▁David ▁Ol ive ' s ▁site ▁contains ▁course ▁notes ▁on ▁robust ▁statistics ▁and ▁some ▁data ▁sets . ▁Online ▁experiments ▁using ▁R ▁and ▁JS X Graph <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁contrast ▁of ▁white ▁and ▁black ▁( light ▁and ▁darkness , ▁day ▁and ▁night ) ▁has ▁a ▁long ▁tradition ▁of ▁met aphor ical ▁usage , ▁trace able ▁to ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Near ▁East , ▁and ▁explicitly ▁in ▁the ▁Py th ag ore an ▁Table ▁of ▁Opp os ites . ▁In ▁Western ▁culture ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁in ▁Conf uc ian ism , ▁the ▁contrast ▁symbol izes ▁the ▁moral ▁dich ot omy ▁of ▁good ▁and ▁evil . ▁ ▁Description ▁ ▁Day , ▁light , ▁and ▁good ▁are ▁often ▁linked ▁together , ▁in ▁opposition ▁to ▁night , ▁darkness , ▁and ▁evil . ▁These ▁contrast ing ▁met aph ors ▁may ▁go ▁back ▁as ▁far ▁as |
▁human ▁history , ▁and ▁appear ▁in ▁many ▁cultures , ▁including ▁both ▁the ▁ancient ▁Chinese ▁and ▁the ▁ancient ▁Pers ians . ▁The ▁philosophy ▁of ▁ne op lat on ism ▁is ▁strongly ▁im b ued ▁with ▁the ▁met aphor ▁of ▁goodness ▁as ▁light . ▁ ▁Examples ▁ ▁Relig ion ▁and ▁myth ology ▁▁▁ ▁The ▁Gen esis ▁creation ▁narrative ▁has ▁God ▁" separ ate ▁light ▁from ▁darkness " ▁on ▁the ▁First ▁Day . ▁ ▁The ▁Bible ▁associ ates ▁light ▁with ▁God , ▁truth , ▁and ▁virtue ; ▁darkness ▁is ▁associated ▁with ▁sin ▁and ▁the ▁Dev il . ▁Pain ters ▁such ▁as ▁Rem brand t ▁port rayed ▁divine ▁light ▁ill umin ating ▁an ▁otherwise ▁dark ▁world . ▁War ▁of ▁the ▁S ons ▁of ▁Light ▁Against ▁the ▁S ons ▁of ▁Dark ness , ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Dead ▁Sea ▁Sc roll s . ▁The ▁under world ▁( H ades , ▁T art ar us ) ▁was ▁imagined ▁as ▁a ▁ch thon ic ▁place ▁of ▁darkness , ▁contrast ing ▁with ▁the ▁cel est ial ▁realm ▁of ▁the ▁gods . ▁Christian ▁not ions ▁of ▁heaven ▁and ▁hell ▁inherit ▁this ▁con ception , ▁as ▁do ▁the ▁" dark ▁ang els " ▁vs . ▁the ▁un fall en ▁ang els , ▁often ▁with ▁a ure ola ▁( hal os ), ▁in ▁Christian ▁myth ology . ▁Day ▁and ▁night ▁are ▁person ified ▁as ▁de ities ▁in ▁various ▁myth ologies ▁( e . g . ▁Nor se ▁D agr ▁and ▁N ó tt , ▁Greek ▁Hem era ▁and ▁Ny x , ▁et ▁c eter a |
). ▁ ▁D ress ▁▁▁ ▁White ▁often ▁represents ▁pur ity ▁or ▁innoc ence ▁in ▁Western ▁culture , ▁particularly ▁as ▁white ▁clothing ▁or ▁objects ▁can ▁be ▁st ained ▁easily . ▁ ▁In ▁most ▁Western ▁countries ▁white ▁is ▁the ▁color ▁worn ▁by ▁br ides ▁at ▁wed dings . ▁ ▁Ang els ▁are ▁typically ▁depicted ▁as ▁cl ot hed ▁in ▁white ▁rob es . ▁In ▁many ▁Hollywood ▁Western s , ▁bad ▁cow boys ▁wear ▁black ▁h ats ▁while ▁the ▁good ▁ones ▁wear ▁white . ▁ ▁Mel od r ama ▁vill ains ▁are ▁dressed ▁in ▁black ▁and ▁hero ines ▁in ▁white ▁dress es . ▁ ▁This ▁can ▁be ▁revers ed ▁as ▁a ▁deliber ate ▁play ▁on ▁convent ions , ▁by ▁having ▁the ▁evil ▁character ▁dress ▁in ▁white , ▁as ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁their ▁hyp oc ris y ▁or ▁arrog ance . ▁For ▁example , ▁Don ▁F an ucc i ▁in ▁The ▁God father , ▁Part ▁II ▁is ▁an ▁evil ▁character , ▁but ▁we ars ▁an ▁expensive ▁all - white ▁suit ▁as ▁a ▁sign ▁of ▁his ▁este em , ▁power ▁and ▁prest ige . ▁Sometimes ▁protagon ists ▁can ▁wear ▁black ▁too , ▁as ▁in ▁Return ▁of ▁the ▁J edi , ▁wherein ▁Luke ▁Sky walk er ▁we ars ▁black ▁during ▁the ▁final ▁battle . ▁This ▁may ▁symbol ize ▁the ▁danger ▁of ▁Luke ▁turning ▁to ▁the ▁dark ▁side , ▁but ▁once ▁he ▁has ▁prev ailed ▁( in ▁the ▁scene ▁where ▁he ▁rem oves ▁D arth ▁V ader ' s ▁helmet ), ▁his ▁jacket ▁has ▁opened ▁up ▁to ▁reveal ▁that ▁it |
▁has ▁a ▁lighter ▁color ▁in ▁the ▁inside , ▁as ▁if ▁to ▁indicate ▁that ▁Luke ▁" on ▁the ▁inside " ▁was ▁always ▁good . ▁D arth ▁V ader ▁himself , ▁while ▁still ▁in ▁the ▁grip ▁of ▁the ▁dark ▁side , ▁dress es ▁all ▁in ▁black ▁and ▁may ▁be ▁regarded ▁as ▁a ▁science ▁fiction ▁version ▁of ▁a ▁Dark ▁Knight . ▁The ▁chief ▁ant agon ist ▁of ▁the ▁Star ▁Wars ▁franchise , ▁the ▁evil ▁Emperor ▁Pal pat ine , ▁we ars ▁a ▁black ▁clo ak . ▁In ▁computer ▁security , ▁a ▁black ▁hat ▁is ▁an ▁attack er ▁with ▁evil ▁intentions , ▁while ▁a ▁white ▁hat ▁bears ▁no ▁such ▁ill ▁will . ▁ ▁( This ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁Western ▁movie ▁convention .) ▁ ▁Magic ▁▁ ▁He aling ▁or ▁" good " ▁par an ormal ▁magic ▁is ▁called ▁White ▁magic . ▁Black ▁magic ▁is ▁a ▁destruct ive ▁or ▁evil ▁form ▁of ▁magic . ▁ ▁A ▁Treat ise ▁on ▁White ▁Magic ▁is ▁a ▁book ▁by ▁Alice ▁Ba iley , ▁a ▁The osoph ist . ▁ ▁White ▁witch . ▁ ▁Ev il ▁w itches ▁are ▁stere ot yp ically ▁dressed ▁in ▁black ▁and ▁good ▁fair ies ▁in ▁white . ▁ ▁In ▁popular ▁culture ▁▁ ▁The ▁to pos ▁of ▁" light ▁and ▁darkness " ▁is ▁also ▁reflected ▁in ▁numerous ▁titles ▁in ▁popular ▁culture , ▁such ▁as ▁Heart ▁of ▁Dark ness ▁( 1 8 9 9 ), ▁Light ▁in ▁My ▁Dark ness ▁( 1 9 2 7 ), ▁Dark ness ▁and ▁the ▁Light ▁( 1 9 4 2 ), ▁Creat ures |
▁of ▁Light ▁and ▁Dark ness ▁( 1 9 6 9 ), ▁From ▁Dark ness ▁to ▁Light ▁( 1 9 7 3 ), ▁Dark ness ▁and ▁Light ▁( 1 9 8 9 ), ▁The ▁Lord ▁of ▁the ▁Light ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁Dark ness ▁( 1 9 9 3 ), ▁the ▁Star ▁Tre k : ▁Deep ▁Space ▁ 9 ▁episode ▁" The ▁Dark ness ▁and ▁the ▁Light " ▁( 1 9 9 7 ), ▁the ▁Bab ylon ▁ 5 ▁episode ▁" Bet ween ▁the ▁Dark ness ▁and ▁the ▁Light " ▁( 1 9 9 7 ), ▁and ▁Out ▁of ▁the ▁Dark ness , ▁Into ▁the ▁Light ▁( 1 9 9 8 ). ▁ ▁In ▁works ▁of ▁fantasy ▁fiction , ▁the ▁main ▁ant agon ist ▁is ▁often ▁called ▁a ▁" Dark ▁Lord ", ▁for ▁example ▁S aur on ▁in ▁The ▁Lord ▁of ▁the ▁R ings . ▁ ▁The ▁space - op era ▁franchise ▁Star ▁Wars ▁also ▁dep icts ▁Light ▁and ▁Dark ▁aspects ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁fict ional ▁energy ▁field ▁called ▁The ▁Force ▁where ▁there ▁are ▁two ▁sides , ▁light ▁side ▁and ▁dark ▁side ▁wherein ▁the ▁protagon ists , ▁the ▁J edi ▁practice ▁and ▁propag ate ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁and ▁the ▁ant agon ists , ▁the ▁S ith ▁use ▁the ▁latter . ▁▁ ▁George ▁Or well ▁makes ▁a ▁bitter ly ▁iron ic ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁" light ▁and ▁darkness " ▁to pos ▁in ▁his ▁Nin ete en ▁Eight y ▁Four . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁book ▁the ▁protagon ist ▁gets ▁a |
▁promise ▁that ▁" We ▁will ▁meet ▁in ▁the ▁place ▁where ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁darkness " ▁– ▁which ▁he ▁inter pre ts ▁as ▁referring ▁to ▁a ▁place ▁where ▁the ▁opp ress ive ▁total itarian ▁state ▁does ▁not ▁rule . ▁But ▁the ▁man ▁who ▁made ▁the ▁promise ▁was ▁in ▁fact ▁an ▁agent ▁of ▁the ▁Thought ▁Police ▁– ▁and ▁they ▁eventually ▁meet ▁as ▁prisoner ▁and ▁interrog ator ▁where ▁there ▁is ▁indeed ▁no ▁darkness , ▁in ▁det ention ▁cells ▁where ▁the ▁light ▁remains ▁on ▁permanently , ▁day ▁and ▁night , ▁as ▁an ▁additional ▁means ▁of ▁tort uring ▁det aine es . ▁ ▁The ▁Dark ▁Cry stal ▁explains ▁the ▁two ▁split ▁hal ves ▁of ▁a ▁balanced ▁whole , ▁reflect ing ▁the ▁im poss ibility ▁of ▁acknowled ging ▁any ▁met aphor ical ▁divine ▁balance ▁without ▁the ▁combination ▁of ▁both ▁the ▁light ( the ▁Myst ics ) ▁and ▁the ▁dark ( the ▁Sk esis ). ▁ ▁Other ▁examples ▁▁ ▁The ▁Dark ▁A ges ▁vs . ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁En light en ment . ▁ ▁" Black ▁and ▁white ▁thinking " ▁is ▁the ▁false ▁dich ot omy ▁of ▁assuming ▁anything ▁not ▁good ▁is ▁evil ▁and ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Black ▁and ▁white ▁thinking ▁ ▁D ial ect ics ▁of ▁Nature ▁ ▁Fant asy ▁trop es ▁and ▁convent ions ▁ ▁Table ▁of ▁Opp os ites ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ar min ▁L ange , ▁Eric ▁M . ▁Mey ers ▁( eds .), ▁Light ▁Against ▁Dark ness : ▁D ual ism ▁in ▁Anc ient ▁Mediterranean ▁Relig ion ▁and ▁the |
▁Cont emporary ▁World , ▁ ▁V anden ho e ck ▁& ▁R up recht ▁( 2 0 1 1 ). ▁Font aine , ▁Pet rus ▁Francis c us ▁Maria , ▁The ▁Light ▁and ▁the ▁Dark : ▁A ▁Cultural ▁History ▁of ▁D ual ism , ▁ 2 1 ▁volumes ▁( 1 9 8 6 ). ▁ ▁Category : Met aph ors ▁Category : D ual ism ▁Category : D ich ot om ies <0x0A> </s> ▁T urb in ic arp us ▁al onso i ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁plant ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁C act aceae . ▁It ▁is ▁end emic ▁to ▁Mexico . ▁ ▁Its ▁natural ▁habitat ▁is ▁hot ▁des erts . ▁ ▁C ult iv ation ▁T urb in ic arp us ▁al onso i ▁is ▁easily ▁grown ▁in ▁cultiv ation , ▁however ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁large ▁tap root , ▁it ▁requires ▁por ous ▁soil ▁with ▁plenty ▁of ▁in organ ic ▁material ▁such ▁as ▁stones ▁and ▁d ries ▁as ▁quickly ▁as ▁possible . ▁Water ▁inf requ ently ▁and ▁only ▁when ▁it ▁is ▁dry . ▁Full ▁sun ▁to ▁part ▁shade ▁is ▁preferred , ▁as ▁it ▁will ▁encourage ▁slow , ▁compact ▁and ▁steady ▁growth ▁during ▁spring ▁and ▁summer ▁months . ▁ ▁During ▁its ▁winter ▁qu ies cent ▁period , ▁keep ▁dry ▁to ▁prevent ▁rot . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁al onso i ▁Category : C act i ▁of ▁Mexico ▁Category : End emic ▁fl ora ▁of ▁Mexico ▁Category : C rit ically ▁end ang ered ▁plants ▁Category : End ang ered |
▁bi ota ▁of ▁Mexico ▁Category : Tax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 1 5 ▁Rice ▁O w ls ▁football ▁team ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁football ▁team ▁that ▁represented ▁Rice ▁University ▁as ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁South west ▁Conference ▁( SW C ) ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 5 ▁college ▁football ▁season . ▁In ▁its ▁fourth ▁season ▁under ▁head ▁coach ▁Philip ▁Ar b uck le , ▁the ▁team ▁compiled ▁a ▁ 5 – 3 ▁record ▁( 1 – 2 ▁against ▁SW C ▁opponents ) ▁and ▁was ▁out sc ored ▁by ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ 1 4 3 ▁to ▁ 1 2 2 . ▁ ▁Schedule ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Rice ▁Category : R ice ▁O w ls ▁football ▁seasons ▁Rice <0x0A> </s> ▁ 5 - I od ow ill ardi ine ▁is ▁a ▁select ive ▁ag on ist ▁for ▁the ▁k ain ate ▁re ceptor , ▁with ▁only ▁limited ▁effects ▁at ▁the ▁A MP A ▁re ceptor . ▁It ▁is ▁select ive ▁for ▁k ain ate ▁re cept ors ▁composed ▁of ▁Gl u R 5 ▁sub units . ▁It ▁is ▁an ▁excit ot ox ic ▁neuro to x in ▁in ▁v ivo , ▁but ▁has ▁proved ▁highly ▁useful ▁for ▁character ising ▁the ▁sub types ▁and ▁function ▁of ▁the ▁various ▁k ain ate ▁re cept ors ▁in ▁the ▁brain ▁and ▁sp inal ▁cord . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Ne uro to x ins ▁Category : K ain ate ▁re ceptor ▁ag on ists ▁Category : P |
yr im id ines ▁Category : A min o ▁acid ▁deriv atives ▁Category : I odo aren es <0x0A> </s> ▁Pub li us ▁Corn el ius ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁was ▁a ▁states man ▁and ▁military ▁commander ▁from ▁the ▁early ▁Roman ▁Republic ▁who ▁served ▁as ▁D ict ator ▁in ▁ 4 0 8 ▁BC . ▁ ▁Family ▁ ▁C oss us ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁g ens ▁Corn elia , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁pat ric ian ▁gent es ▁of ▁the ▁Republic . ▁ ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁named ▁Marcus , ▁and ▁his ▁grandfather ▁Lu cius , ▁but ▁no ▁mag istr acy ▁is ▁recorded ▁for ▁them . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁however ▁the ▁brother ▁of ▁the ▁more ▁famous ▁A ulus ▁Corn el ius ▁C oss us , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁only ▁three ▁Romans ▁awarded ▁the ▁sp olia ▁op ima ▁for ▁having ▁killed ▁the ▁king ▁of ▁Ve ii ▁Lars ▁Tol umn ius ▁in ▁single ▁combat . ▁ ▁A ulus ▁was ▁then ▁cons ul ▁in ▁ 4 2 8 , ▁and ▁cons ular ▁trib une ▁in ▁ 4 2 6 . ▁ ▁Pub li us ' ▁had ▁at ▁least ▁two ▁nep he ws : ▁G na e us , ▁cons ular ▁trib une ▁in ▁ 4 1 4 ▁and ▁cons ul ▁in ▁ 4 0 9 , ▁and ▁Pub li us , ▁cons ular ▁trib une ▁in ▁ 4 0 8 . ▁ ▁A ulus , ▁dict ator ▁in ▁ 3 8 5 ▁and ▁perhaps ▁cons ul ▁in ▁ 4 1 3 , ▁may ▁have |
▁also ▁been ▁his ▁nep hew . ▁ ▁The ▁Corn el ii ▁C oss i ▁were ▁thus ▁among ▁the ▁fore most ▁families ▁of ▁the ▁Republic ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁century ▁BC . ▁ ▁Career ▁In ▁ 4 0 8 ▁BC , ▁a ▁large ▁army ▁compr ising ▁mainly ▁Vol sc i ▁and ▁A equ i ▁assembled ▁at ▁Ant ium . ▁When ▁news ▁of ▁this ▁reached ▁Rome , ▁the ▁Senate , ▁thinking ▁the ▁situation ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁dangerous ▁one , ▁called ▁for ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁a ▁dict ator ▁to ▁lead ▁the ▁war ▁effort . ▁ ▁This ▁caused ▁const ern ation ▁among ▁two ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁Cons ular ▁trib unes , ▁G ai us ▁Jul ius ▁I ulus ▁and ▁Pub li us ▁Corn el ius ▁C oss us , ▁who ▁wanted ▁the ▁command ▁to ▁stay ▁with ▁them . ▁ ▁The ▁disag reement ▁st oked ▁the ▁existing ▁t ensions ▁in ▁Rome ▁during ▁the ▁Conf lict ▁of ▁the ▁Or ders , ▁but ▁Liv y ' s ▁narrative ▁is ▁confused ▁on ▁these ▁events . ▁ ▁The ▁situation ▁was ▁only ▁resolved ▁when ▁the ▁third ▁trib une , ▁G ai us ▁Serv ili us ▁Struct us ▁Ah ala , ▁seeing ▁that ▁I ulus ▁and ▁Corn el ius ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁persu aded , ▁rose ▁to ▁nom inate ▁R util us ▁C oss us , ▁Corn el ius ' ▁uncle . ▁ ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁then ▁appointed ▁Ah ala ▁as ▁his ▁mag ister ▁equ it um , ▁which ▁is ▁doubt less ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁a ▁power |
- sh aring ▁neg ot iation ▁between ▁the ▁cons ular ▁trib unes . ▁ ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁and ▁Ah ala ▁then ▁led ▁the ▁army ▁out ▁to ▁Ant ium . ▁They ▁defeated ▁the ▁Vol sc ian ▁coalition ▁in ▁one ▁battle ▁before ▁laying ▁waste ▁to ▁the ▁countryside ▁and ▁storm ing ▁the ▁Vol sc ian ▁fort ress ▁at ▁Lake ▁F uc inus . ▁As ▁many ▁as ▁ 3 . 0 0 0 ▁Vol sc i ▁were ▁taken ▁prisoner . ▁ ▁When ▁C oss us ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁city , ▁he ▁lay ▁down ▁the ▁office ▁of ▁dict ator ▁and , ▁according ▁to ▁Liv y , ▁did ▁not ▁receive ▁much ▁ac claim ▁for ▁his ▁success . ▁ ▁Indeed , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Fast i ▁Tri umph ales , ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁was ▁not ▁awarded ▁a ▁triumph . ▁▁ ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁was ▁elected ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁cons ular ▁trib unes ▁for ▁the ▁year ▁ 4 0 6 ▁BC , ▁alongside ▁G na e us ▁Corn el ius ▁C oss us , ▁his ▁distant ▁cousin , ▁N umer ius ▁Fab ius ▁Amb ust us , ▁and ▁Lu cius ▁Val er ius ▁Pot it us . ▁ ▁The ▁Senate ▁ordered ▁a ▁new ▁war ▁on ▁Ve ii , ▁but ▁the ▁cons ular ▁trib unes ▁opposed ▁it , ▁arguing ▁that ▁the ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁Vol sc i ▁was ▁not ▁over . ▁ ▁R util us ▁C oss us ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁command ▁against ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Ec et ra , ▁while ▁Fab |
ius ▁took ▁An x ur . ▁ ▁The ▁cons ular ▁trib unes ▁then ▁shared ▁the ▁boot y ▁with ▁the ▁soldiers , ▁which ▁improved ▁the ▁relations ▁between ▁ple be ians ▁and ▁pat ric ians . ▁ ▁The ▁Senate ▁followed ▁and ▁ordered ▁that ▁citizens ▁must ▁be ▁paid ▁while ▁serving , ▁whereas ▁they ▁had ▁to ▁cover ▁their ▁own ▁expenses ▁before . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Anc ient ▁sources ▁▁▁ ▁Liv y , ▁Ab ▁Ur be ▁Cond ita . ▁ ▁John ▁the ▁L yd ian , ▁de ▁mag istr at ib us . ▁ ▁Fast i ▁Cons ula res . ▁Fast i ▁Tri umph ales . ▁ ▁Modern ▁sources ▁▁ ▁T . ▁Robert ▁S . ▁B rought on , ▁The ▁Mag istr ates ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Republic , ▁American ▁Phil ological ▁Association , ▁ 1 9 5 2 – 1 9 8 6 . ▁ ▁Category : An c ient ▁Roman ▁dict ators ▁Category : 5 th - century ▁BC ▁Romans <0x0A> </s> ▁George ▁Washington ▁Don ag he y ▁( J uly ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 8 5 6 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 9 3 7 ) ▁was ▁the ▁ 2 2 nd ▁Governor ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁state ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁from ▁ 1 9 0 9 ▁to ▁ 1 9 1 3 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁born ▁as ▁the ▁oldest ▁of ▁five ▁children ▁to ▁Christopher ▁Columb us ▁and ▁Elizabeth ▁( née ▁In gram ) ▁Don ag he y , |
▁in ▁the ▁Oak land ▁Community ▁in ▁Union ▁Par ish ▁in ▁north ▁Louisiana . ▁His ▁father ' s ▁family ▁was ▁from ▁Ireland ▁and ▁his ▁mother ' s ▁from ▁Scotland . ▁His ▁father ▁Christopher ▁was ▁a ▁farmer ▁who ▁moved ▁from ▁Alabama ▁to ▁northern ▁Louisiana , ▁purchasing ▁land ▁there , ▁and ▁later ▁moved ▁to ▁Arkansas ▁where ▁he ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁Confeder ate ▁Army . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 7 5 , ▁without ▁letting ▁his ▁family ▁know , ▁Don ag he y ▁moved ▁to ▁Texas ▁where ▁he ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁cow boy ▁on ▁the ▁Ch ish ol m ▁Trail ▁and ▁farmer , ▁but ▁later ▁moved ▁again ▁to ▁Arkansas ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 6 ▁due ▁to ▁cow boy ▁lifestyle ▁and ▁health ▁issues . ▁From ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁to ▁ 1 8 8 3 , ▁he ▁attended ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁at ▁F ay ette ville . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁school ▁teacher ▁and ▁car p enter , ▁and ▁studied ▁both ▁architecture ▁and ▁structural ▁engineering . ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 3 , ▁Don ag he y ▁established ▁his ▁residence ▁at ▁Con way , ▁Arkansas , ▁and ▁adopted ▁that ▁city ▁as ▁his ▁hom et own . ▁There , ▁he ▁later ▁met ▁his ▁wife ▁Lou ven ia ▁Wallace ; ▁they ▁had ▁no ▁children . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁streets ▁there ▁bears ▁his ▁name . ▁He ▁served ▁one ▁term ▁as ▁town ▁mar shal ▁and ▁was ▁an ▁un successful ▁prohib ition ▁candidate ▁for ▁mayor ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 5 . ▁ ▁Having ▁himself ▁lack ed ▁a ▁formal ▁education |
, ▁Don ag he y ▁worked ▁dil ig ently ▁to ▁bring ▁institutions ▁of ▁higher ▁learning ▁to ▁Con way . ▁He ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁boards ▁of ▁Phil ander ▁Smith ▁College ▁in ▁Little ▁Rock , ▁Hend rix ▁College ▁( to ▁which ▁he ▁don ated ▁$ 7 5 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 ), ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Central ▁Arkansas , ▁State ▁Normal ▁School ▁( where ▁he ▁was ▁the ▁principal ▁speaker ▁for ▁its ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁ded ication ) ▁and ▁Little ▁Rock ▁Junior ▁College ▁( both ▁now ▁part ▁of ▁University ▁of ▁Central ▁Arkansas ) ▁in ▁Con way , ▁where ▁his ▁service ▁extended ▁from ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁until ▁his ▁death . ▁Additionally , ▁he ▁gave ▁gener ously ▁to ▁both ▁institutions . ▁ ▁Business ▁Don ag he y ▁entered ▁business ▁as ▁a ▁contract or ▁and ▁constructed ▁cour th ouses ▁in ▁Texas ▁and ▁Arkansas , ▁including ▁the ▁first ▁bank ▁building ▁in ▁Con way ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 0 . ▁Short ly ▁afterward , ▁he ▁det oured ▁into ▁the ▁merc ant ile ▁business — for ▁his ▁contract ing ▁business ▁was ▁not ▁profitable ▁in ▁its ▁early ▁years — and ▁suffered ▁significant ▁losses ▁after ▁building ▁the ▁second ▁F aul k ner ▁County ▁cour th ouse . ▁When ▁he ▁returned , ▁he ▁recon struct ed ▁the ▁Arkansas ▁Ins ane ▁As yl um ▁after ▁a ▁torn ado ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 4 . ▁He ▁built ▁ice ▁plants ▁and ▁roads ▁in ▁Arkansas , ▁and ▁water ▁tanks ▁and ▁rail road ▁stations ▁for ▁the ▁Ch oct aw |
, ▁Oklahoma ▁and ▁Gulf ▁Rail road , ▁and ▁often ▁invested ▁in ▁farm ▁and ▁tim ber ▁land . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 9 9 , ▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁appointed ▁to ▁the ▁commission ▁task ed ▁with ▁construct ing ▁the ▁new ▁state ▁capit ol . ▁The ▁project ▁was ▁not ▁complete ▁until ▁a ▁dozen ▁years ▁later ; ▁during ▁much ▁of ▁that ▁time ▁Jefferson ▁" J eff " ▁Davis ▁was ▁state ▁governor ▁and ▁firmly ▁opposed ▁all ▁the ▁new ▁plans . ▁This ▁obst ruction ▁imp elled ▁Don ag he y ▁to ▁enter ▁politics ; ▁eventually ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 7 ▁he ▁sought ▁the ▁nom ination ▁for ▁governor , ▁in ▁the ▁teeth ▁of ▁opposition ▁from ▁Davis ▁( who ▁had ▁been ▁elected ▁U . S . ▁sen ator ▁for ▁Arkansas ) ▁and ▁Davis ' s ▁al ly ▁William ▁F . ▁Kir by . ▁ ▁As ▁governor ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 8 , ▁Don ag he y ▁won ▁a ▁three - way ▁primary ▁election ▁that ▁broke ▁the ▁hold ▁of ▁Jeff ▁Davis ▁on ▁the ▁Arkansas ▁Democratic ▁Party . ▁He ▁then ▁att ained ▁an ▁easy ▁victory ▁in ▁the ▁g ubern ator ial ▁general ▁election ▁with ▁ 1 0 6 , 5 1 2 ▁votes , ▁over ▁Republican ▁John ▁I . ▁Wor thing ton ▁( 4 2 , 9 7 9 ) ▁and ▁Social ist ▁J . ▁Sam ▁Jones ▁( 6 , 5 3 7 ). ▁Wor thing ton ▁had ▁also ▁run ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁against ▁Davis . ▁Don ag he y ▁had ▁to ▁wait ▁ten ▁months |
▁to ▁take ▁office . ▁In ▁the ▁meantime ▁he ▁traveled ▁the ▁country , ▁and ▁as ▁professor ▁Cal vin ▁Led bet ter , ▁Jr . ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁at ▁Little ▁Rock ▁points ▁out ▁in ▁his ▁book ▁The ▁Car p enter ▁from ▁Con way , ▁Don ag he y ▁educated ▁himself ▁for ▁the ▁political ▁office ▁which ▁await ed ▁him . ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 9 0 9 , ▁he ▁appointed ▁the ▁fourth ▁and ▁final ▁state ▁capit ol ▁commission ▁and ▁hired ▁Cass ▁Gilbert ▁for ▁the ▁architecture ▁project . ▁ ▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁re e lected ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁defe ating ▁another ▁Republican , ▁Andrew ▁L . ▁Roland , ▁by ▁ 1 0 1 , 6 1 2 ▁votes ▁to ▁ 3 8 , 8 7 0 . ▁Another ▁ 9 , 1 9 6 ▁ball ots ▁were ▁cast ▁for ▁the ▁Social ist ▁candidate , ▁Dan ▁H ogan . ▁That ▁same ▁year ▁he ▁negoti ated ▁with ▁the ▁Southern ▁Regional ▁Education ▁Board ▁to ▁bring ▁its ▁campaign ▁to ▁Arkansas , ▁which ▁had ▁successful ▁results ▁in ▁the ▁state , ▁and ▁he ▁also ▁supported ▁four ▁agricultural ▁high ▁schools ▁that ▁later ▁formed ▁into ▁Arkansas ▁Tech ▁University , ▁Arkansas ▁State ▁University , ▁Southern ▁Arkansas ▁University ▁and ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁at ▁Mont ic ello . ▁His ▁actions ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁also ▁included ▁helping ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁Bo one ville ▁T uber cul osis ▁San ator ium , ▁thus ▁improving ▁public ▁health ; ▁he ▁later ▁also ▁negoti ated ▁with ▁the ▁Roc ke f eller |
▁San itary ▁Commission ▁to ▁er ad icate ▁hook w orm . ▁During ▁his ▁term , ▁Arkansas ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁state ▁in ▁the ▁country ▁to ▁require ▁small p ox ▁vacc inations ▁for ▁all ▁school children ▁and ▁school ▁personnel , ▁and ▁the ▁C ros set t ▁mal aria ▁control ▁experiment ▁camp a igned ▁against ▁the ▁mos qu itos . ▁Don ag he y ' s ▁achievements ▁included ▁establishment ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁state ▁board ▁of ▁education , ▁support ▁for ▁high ▁schools , ▁and ▁the ▁passage ▁of ▁a ▁law ▁making ▁consolid ation ▁easier . ▁ ▁Although ▁several ▁of ▁the ▁prisoners ▁he ▁p ard oned ▁from ▁the ▁conv ict ▁lease ▁program ▁were ▁black , ▁Don ag he y ▁still ▁supported ▁seg regation . ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁at ▁the ▁state ▁Bapt ist ▁Col ored ▁Convention ▁in ▁Little ▁Rock , ▁he ▁said ▁" It ▁is ▁not ▁for ▁any ▁political ▁purpose ▁that ▁I ▁come ▁to ▁talk ▁to ▁you . ▁It ▁is ▁not ▁for ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁getting ▁your ▁votes , ▁this ▁you ▁know ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁I ▁do , ▁because ▁your ▁people ▁don ' t ▁vote ▁much . ▁This , ▁perhaps , ▁is ▁best ▁for ▁you . ▁The ▁greatest ▁man ▁in ▁your ▁race ▁[ Book er ▁T . ▁Washington ] ▁has ▁said ▁that ▁you ▁should ▁keep ▁out ▁of ▁politics ▁and ▁in ▁this ▁I ▁agree ▁with ▁him . ▁I ▁think ▁it ▁is ▁best ▁that ▁you ▁stay ▁out ▁of ▁politics ▁and ▁look ▁after ▁the ▁condition ▁of ▁your ▁people , ▁and ▁in ▁this ▁you ▁have ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁you ▁can ▁do |
". ▁In ▁autumn ▁ 1 9 1 1 , ▁he ▁appeared ▁with ▁Book er ▁T . ▁Washington ▁at ▁the ▁National ▁Negro ▁Business ▁League ▁and ▁said ▁to ▁an ▁audience ▁of ▁one ▁thousand ▁black ▁men ▁to ▁" not ▁waste ▁their ▁time ▁running ▁around ▁begg ing ▁for ▁social ▁equality ". ▁The ▁Chicago ▁Def ender ▁quoted ▁him ▁as ▁saying ▁" You ▁must ▁ride ▁in ▁the ▁last ▁two ▁seats ▁in ▁our ▁street ▁cars ; ▁you ▁must ▁not ▁sit ▁in ▁a ▁Pull man ▁car ; ▁you ▁must ▁not ▁ride ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁deck , ▁nor ▁eat ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁restaurant , ▁nor ▁drink ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁sal oon ▁as ▁me ... You ▁are ▁a ▁race ▁of ▁degener ates , ▁your ▁women ▁are ▁le wd ▁and ▁we ▁cannot ▁afford ▁to ▁have ▁our ▁white ▁women ▁and ▁children ▁associate ▁with ▁you ". ▁ ▁Don ag he y ' s ▁progressive ▁stance ▁proc ured ▁passage ▁of ▁the ▁Init iative ▁and ▁Refer end um ▁Act ▁by ▁which ▁Ark ans ans ▁can ▁take ▁government al ▁matters ▁into ▁their ▁own ▁hands ▁and ▁by pass ▁the ▁state ▁legisl ature . ▁He ▁recru ited ▁William ▁Jenn ings ▁Bryan ▁to ▁help ▁campaign ▁for ▁the ▁am endment ' s ▁adoption ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 . ▁Arkansas ▁is ▁the ▁only ▁state ▁in ▁the ▁American ▁South ▁to ▁grant ▁its ▁citizens ▁such ▁power . ▁The ▁initiative , ▁which ▁began ▁in ▁South ▁Dakota , ▁is ▁otherwise ▁particularly ▁known ▁in ▁California ▁and ▁Colorado . ▁ ▁The ▁Don ag he y ▁administration ▁focused ▁on ▁roads , ▁public ▁health , ▁and ▁rail ro ads . |
▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁ve he ment ly ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁prisoners ▁for ▁contract - leased ▁labor , ▁especially ▁for ▁building ▁rail ro ads . ▁He ▁particularly ▁learned ▁about ▁conv ict ▁lease ▁while ▁at ▁a ▁Southern ▁govern ors ' ▁conference ▁in ▁West ▁Virginia ▁in ▁autumn ▁ 1 9 1 2 . ▁Un able ▁to ▁get ▁the ▁legisl ature ▁to ▁abol ish ▁the ▁practice , ▁he ▁prior ▁to ▁leaving ▁office ▁p ard oned ▁ 3 6 0 ▁prisoners , ▁ 4 4 ▁in ▁country ▁farms ▁and ▁ 3 1 6 ▁out ▁of ▁ 8 5 0 ▁in ▁pen it enti aries ▁and ▁ 3 7 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁inc ar cer ated ▁population . ▁This ▁left ▁the ▁lease ▁system ▁with ▁ins ufficient ▁available ▁prisoners ▁for ▁util ization ▁in ▁construction . ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 3 , ▁a ▁year ▁after ▁Don ag he y ▁left ▁office , ▁the ▁legisl ature ▁finally ▁ended ▁the ▁practice ▁and ▁a ▁new ▁prison ▁board ▁was ▁formed . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 2 , ▁he ▁was ▁eager ▁for ▁a ▁third ▁term , ▁hoping ▁to ▁take ▁care ▁of ▁state wide ▁prohib ition ▁and ▁the ▁much - need ed ▁tax ▁reform , ▁but ▁the ▁legisl ature ▁rejected ▁his ▁reform s ▁and ▁the ▁elect or ate ▁rejected ▁his ▁prohib ition ▁plans . ▁During ▁his ▁campaign ▁for ▁the ▁third ▁term ▁the ▁state ▁capit ol ▁project ▁ran ▁out ▁of ▁money , ▁and ▁Don ag he y ' s ▁appropri ation ▁plans ▁were ▁not ▁successful . ▁What ▁also ▁helped ▁bring ▁on |
▁his ▁defeat ▁was ▁that ▁former ▁governor ▁Jeff ▁Davis ▁and ▁his ▁allies ▁also ▁camp a igned ▁for ▁governor , ▁along ▁with ▁emerging ▁power bro ker ▁Joseph ▁Taylor ▁Robinson . ▁ ▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁Arkansas ▁governor ▁who ▁could ▁ind is put ably ▁be ▁labeled ▁' progress ive ' ▁but ▁was ▁also ▁within ▁the ▁southern ▁progressive ▁tradition , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁business man ▁to ▁become ▁governor ▁of ▁Arkansas . ▁ ▁After ▁being ▁governor ▁After ▁his ▁bid ▁for ▁a ▁third ▁term ▁as ▁governor ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁Joseph ▁Taylor ▁Robinson ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 2 , ▁Don ag he y ▁pers isted ▁in ▁his ▁quest ▁to ▁complete ▁the ▁Cap itol . ▁A ▁critical ▁year ▁was ▁ 1 9 1 3 . ▁Senator ▁Jeff ▁Davis ▁died ▁two ▁days ▁into ▁the ▁year . ▁Robinson , ▁by ▁this ▁time ▁state ▁governor , ▁was ▁named ▁by ▁the ▁legisl ature ▁as ▁Davis ' s ▁success or . ▁J . ▁M . ▁Fut tre ll , ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁Arkansas ▁Senate , ▁became ▁acting ▁governor . ▁The ▁result ▁was ▁that ▁Fut tre ll ▁and ▁the ▁Cap itol ▁Building ▁Commission ▁asked ▁Don ag he y ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁commission ▁member ▁and ▁take ▁charge ▁of ▁completing ▁construction , ▁which ▁he ▁did . ▁The ▁Cap itol , ▁valued ▁at ▁more ▁than ▁$ 3 0 0 ▁million ▁today , ▁was ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 7 ▁for ▁$ 2 . 2 ▁million , ▁ending ▁an ▁ 1 8 - year ▁effort . ▁As ▁a ▁hall mark ▁to ▁completion , ▁Don |
ag he y ▁personally ▁built ▁the ▁governor ' s ▁conference ▁table , ▁which ▁sets ▁today ▁as ▁the ▁center piece ▁of ▁the ▁governor ' s ▁conference ▁room ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁wing ▁of ▁the ▁Cap itol . ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁former ▁governor , ▁Don ag he y ▁served ▁on ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁boards ▁and ▁comm issions ▁responsible ▁for ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁tasks ▁such ▁as ▁const ructions , ▁education , ▁and ▁char ities . ▁He ▁p enn ed ▁the ▁book ▁Build ▁a ▁State ▁Cap itol , ▁which ▁details ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁Arkansas ▁capit ol ▁building . ▁ ▁Don ag he y ▁died ▁from ▁a ▁heart ▁attack ▁in ▁Little ▁Rock ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁and ▁is ▁inter red ▁there ▁at ▁the ▁Ros ela wn ▁Memorial ▁Park ▁C emetery . ▁His ▁estate ▁is ▁managed ▁by ▁George ▁W . ▁Don ag he y ▁Foundation ▁in ▁Little ▁Rock . ▁ ▁Former ▁Arkansas ▁Governor ▁( 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 3 ) ▁Sid ▁Mc Math ▁said ▁in ▁his ▁mem oir ▁Prom ises ▁Ke pt : ▁a ▁Mem oir ▁that ▁Don ag he y ▁was ▁" without ▁a ▁doubt , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁great ▁govern ors ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁and ▁served ▁as ▁an ▁inspiration ▁to ▁my ▁administration ▁and ▁to ▁others , ▁particularly ▁in ▁the ▁continuing ▁struggle ▁for ▁human ▁rights , ▁and ▁I ▁decided ▁to ▁continue ▁what ▁he ▁had ▁begun ". ▁One ▁book ▁called ▁him ▁" arg u ably ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁best ▁and ▁most ▁influential ▁govern ors ▁and ▁phil anth rop ists ▁in ▁Arkansas ▁history ". |
▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁the ▁Log ▁Cab in ▁Democrat ▁named ▁him ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ten ▁most ▁influential ▁people ▁in ▁F aul k ner ▁County ' s ▁history . ▁ ▁Don ag he y ' s ▁Mon ument ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 1 , ▁Don ag he y , ▁who ▁felt ▁a ▁kin ship ▁to ▁both ▁Arkansas ▁and ▁Louisiana , ▁established ▁a ▁monument ▁at ▁the ▁Union ▁Par ish / Union ▁County ▁state ▁line ▁near ▁his ▁birth place . ▁The ▁Art ▁Dec o - style ▁monument ▁contains ▁intr icate ▁car v ings ; ▁it ▁includes ▁references ▁to ▁transportation ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 1 ▁and ▁ 1 9 3 1 , ▁and ▁ment ions ▁Governor ▁H ue y ▁P . ▁Long , ▁Jr ., ▁whose ▁educational ▁program ▁Don ag he y ▁adm ired . ▁The ▁land ▁was ▁not ▁registered ▁with ▁state ▁parks ▁offices ▁in ▁either ▁state , ▁tim ber ▁companies ▁cut ▁trees ▁around ▁it , ▁and ▁the ▁marker ▁was ▁forgotten . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 5 , ▁an ▁employee ▁of ▁the ▁Louisiana ▁Department ▁of ▁Transport ation ▁came ▁across ▁the ▁abandoned ▁monument ▁and ▁informed ▁then - State ▁Represent ative ▁Louise ▁B . ▁Johnson ▁of ▁Bern ice ▁of ▁his ▁discovery . ▁In ▁an ▁article ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Louisiana ▁Historical ▁Association ▁Journal ▁( after ward ▁North ▁Louisiana ▁History ), ▁Johnson ▁explained ▁that ▁she ▁asked ▁the ▁O link raft ▁Tim ber ▁Company ▁of ▁West ▁Mon roe , ▁Louisiana , ▁to ▁ce ase ▁cutting ▁trees ▁on ▁the ▁property ▁and ▁to ▁help ▁with ▁the |
▁restoration ▁of ▁the ▁monument . ▁She ▁introduced ▁a ▁bill ▁to ▁c ede ▁the ▁state ' s ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁property ▁to ▁the ▁state ▁parks ▁system . ▁Governor ▁Ed win ▁Washington ▁Edwards ▁signed ▁what ▁became ▁Act ▁ 7 3 4 ▁of ▁ 1 9 7 5 , ▁and ▁a ▁re - ded ication ▁ceremony ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁and ▁Johnson ▁planted ▁a ▁tree . ▁Month s ▁later , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Arkansas ▁Historic ▁Pres ervation ▁Program , ▁Arkansas ▁sold ▁its ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁land ▁to ▁O lin ▁Math ies on ▁Chem ical ▁Corporation . ▁Since ▁that ▁time , ▁chunks ▁of ▁the ▁monument ▁have ▁been ▁lost ▁or ▁spray - p ainted ▁by ▁v and als . ▁Rest oration ▁efforts ▁were ▁un ve iled ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁ ▁The ▁Mon ument ▁was ▁dedicated ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 ; ▁Don ag he y ▁died ▁four ▁years ▁later . ▁At ▁one ▁time ▁there ▁were ▁plans ▁for ▁a ▁Don ag he y ▁State ▁Park , ▁but ▁these ▁were ▁never ▁implemented . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁En cycl op edia ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁ ▁Arkansas ▁Secretary ▁of ▁State ▁ ▁Category : G overn ors ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁Category : Ar k ansas ▁Democrats ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Union ▁Par ish , ▁Louisiana ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Con way , ▁Arkansas ▁Category : Pol it icians ▁from ▁Little ▁Rock , ▁Arkansas ▁Category : 1 8 5 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 7 ▁deaths ▁Category : Univers |
ity ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Arkansas ▁at ▁Little ▁Rock ▁people ▁Category : American ▁real ▁estate ▁business people ▁Category : Bus iness people ▁from ▁Little ▁Rock , ▁Arkansas ▁Category : Dem ocratic ▁Party ▁state ▁govern ors ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁pe ach - th ro ated ▁monitor ▁( Var an us ▁job iens is ), ▁also ▁known ▁commonly ▁as ▁the ▁Sep ik ▁monitor , ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁monitor ▁l izard ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Var an idae . ▁The ▁species ▁is ▁native ▁to ▁New ▁Gu inea . ▁ ▁Tax onomy ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁sub gen us ▁E up re pi os aurus , ▁which ▁includes ▁species ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁blue - t ailed ▁monitor ▁and ▁m ang ro ve ▁monitor , ▁both ▁of ▁which ▁it ▁is ▁sym pat ric ▁with ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁its ▁range . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁likely ▁that ▁this ▁species ▁is ▁actually ▁a ▁species ▁complex ▁of ▁multiple ▁different ▁species ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁diver ging ▁since ▁the ▁P li oc ene , ▁and ▁diver ged ▁from ▁the ▁V . ▁indic us ▁species ▁complex ▁ 4 . 7 ▁million ▁years ▁ago . ▁ ▁Distribution ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁is ▁end emic ▁to ▁New ▁Gu inea ▁and ▁surrounding ▁islands ▁such ▁as ▁Bi ak , ▁Sal aw ati , ▁Y ap en , ▁Norman by , ▁and ▁Wa ige o . ▁It ▁occurs ▁in ▁rain fore sts ▁at ▁alt itudes ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Description ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁grows |
▁up ▁to ▁ ▁in ▁total ▁length ▁( including ▁tail ). ▁The ▁colour ▁of ▁the ▁throat ▁is ▁white - y ellow ▁to ▁red , ▁to ▁which ▁one ▁of ▁its ▁common ▁names ▁refers . ▁ ▁Diet ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁primarily ▁e ats ▁insect s , ▁and ▁sometimes ▁fro gs , ▁but ▁may ▁also ▁take ▁fresh water ▁fish ▁and ▁small ▁mamm als . ▁ ▁As ▁food ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁is ▁h unted ▁for ▁human ▁consumption ▁in ▁New ▁Gu inea . ▁ ▁Rep roduction ▁V . ▁job iens is ▁is ▁ov ip ar ous . ▁ ▁E ty m ology ▁The ▁specific ▁name , ▁job iens is , ▁which ▁is ▁Latin , ▁means ▁" from ▁Job i ". ▁Job i ▁is ▁the ▁island ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Y ap en , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁type ▁local ity ▁of ▁this ▁species . ▁ ▁The ▁junior ▁syn onym , ▁Var an us ▁k arl sch mid ti , ▁was ▁named ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁American ▁her pet ologist ▁Karl ▁P atter son ▁Sch midt . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁A hl ▁E ▁( 1 9 3 2 ). ▁" E ine ▁neue ▁E ide ch se ▁und ▁zwei ▁neue ▁Fr ö sche ▁von ▁der ▁In sel ▁Job i ▁". ▁Mit teil ungen ▁aus ▁dem ▁Z ool og ischen ▁Museum ▁in ▁Berlin ▁ 1 7 : ▁ 8 9 2 – 8 9 9 . ▁( Var an us ▁indic us ▁job iens is , ▁new ▁sub spec ies , ▁p . ▁ 8 9 2 |
). ▁( in ▁German ). ▁M ert ens ▁R ▁( 1 9 5 1 ). ▁" A ▁New ▁L izard ▁of ▁the ▁Gen us ▁Var an us ▁from ▁New ▁Gu inea ". ▁Field iana ▁Z ool ogy ▁ 3 1 ▁( 4 3 ): ▁ 4 6 7 – 4 7 1 . ▁( Var an us ▁k arl sch mid ti , ▁new ▁species ). ▁Z ieg ler ▁T , ▁Sch mit z ▁A , ▁K och ▁A , ▁B ö h me ▁W ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁" A ▁review ▁of ▁the ▁sub gen us ▁E up re pi os aur as ▁of ▁Var an us ▁( S qu am ata : ▁Var an idae ): ▁morph ological ▁and ▁molecular ▁ph y log eny , ▁distribution ▁and ▁zo oge ography , ▁with ▁an ▁identification ▁key ▁for ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁V . ▁indic us ▁and ▁V . ▁pr as inus ▁species ▁groups ". ▁Z oot ax a ▁ 1 4 7 2 : ▁ 1 - 2 8 . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Photo ▁at ▁Var an us . net ▁Care ▁of ▁Var an us ▁job iens is ▁at ▁Re ptic zone . com ▁ ▁Category : Monitor ▁l iz ards ▁Category : Re pt iles ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 2 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁department ▁of ▁the ▁Federal ▁Government ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁which ▁provides ▁services ▁to ▁Malays ian ▁Cit iz ens , ▁P erman ent ▁Res idents ▁and ▁Foreign ▁Vis itors |
. ▁ ▁The ▁functions ▁of ▁the ▁department ▁are ▁as ▁follows :- ▁▁ 1 . ▁Iss uing ▁of ▁pass ports ▁and ▁travel ▁documents ▁to ▁Malays ian ▁Cit iz ens ▁and ▁P erman ent ▁Res idents . ▁▁ 2 . ▁Iss uing ▁of ▁vis as , ▁passes ▁and ▁perm its ▁to ▁Foreign ▁Nation als ▁entering ▁Malaysia . ▁▁ 3 . ▁Ad minister ing ▁and ▁managing ▁the ▁movement ▁of ▁people ▁at ▁author ised ▁entry ▁and ▁exit ▁points . ▁▁ 4 . ▁En for cing ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Act ▁ 1 9 5 9 / 6 3 , ▁Imm igration ▁Reg ulations ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁and ▁Pass port ▁Act ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁department ▁is ▁a ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Home ▁Affairs . ▁M ES BE H ▁AR 6 8 6 1 3 9 ▁ ▁History ▁ 1 . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁years ▁before ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁conducted ▁surveillance ▁and ▁inspection ▁work ▁involving ▁the ▁inspection ▁of ▁trav ellers ▁and ▁travel ▁documents ▁at ▁entry ▁points . ▁▁ 2 . ▁ ▁Imm igration ▁matters ▁were ▁administer ed ▁by ▁a ▁Senior ▁Officer ▁of ▁the ▁Mal ay an ▁Civil ▁Service ▁who ▁bore ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁‘ Im m igration ▁Officer ▁of ▁the ▁Str ait s ▁S ett lement ▁and ▁Feder ated ▁Mal ay ▁States ’. ▁He ▁was ▁assist ed ▁by ▁the ▁Deputy ▁Imm igration ▁Officer , ▁who ▁was ▁actually ▁a ▁police ▁officer , ▁temporarily ▁second ed ▁to ▁the ▁post . ▁They ▁were ▁based ▁in ▁Pen ang ▁which ▁was |
▁the ▁main ▁entry ▁point ▁into ▁Mal aya . ▁Other ▁entry ▁points ▁were ▁Ch ang lo on , ▁Pad ang ▁Bes ar , ▁K ro h ▁and ▁Port ▁Sw et ten ham . ▁The ▁administrative ▁centre ▁was ▁based ▁in ▁Singapore . ▁▁ 3 . ▁ ▁After ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁was ▁known ▁as ▁The ▁Ref uge es ▁and ▁Dis posal ▁Pers ons ▁Bureau ▁which ▁was ▁based ▁in ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁and ▁led ▁by ▁a ▁British ▁Military ▁Administration ▁Officer . ▁Its ▁main ▁role ▁was ▁to ▁bring ▁people ▁str anded ▁in ▁other ▁countries ▁due ▁to ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁back ▁to ▁Malaysia . ▁▁ 4 . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁immigration ▁law ▁was ▁the ▁Pass enger ▁Rest r iction ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁which ▁was ▁en forced ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁July ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁entries ▁into ▁this ▁country . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 0 , ▁the ▁Al iens ▁Imm igration ▁Rest r iction ▁Ord in ance ▁was ▁en act ed ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁the ▁arriv als ▁and ▁to ▁monitor ▁the ▁labour ers ▁especially ▁those ▁from ▁China ▁where ▁the ▁qu ota ▁system ▁was ▁used . ▁A ▁review ▁of ▁the ▁law ▁was ▁done ▁as ▁a ▁step ▁to ▁increase ▁the ▁control . ▁The ▁Al iens ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁took ▁effect ▁on ▁ 1 ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁▁ 5 . ▁ ▁A ▁treat y ▁on ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁Feder ated ▁Mal ay ▁States ▁and |
▁the ▁Decl aration ▁of ▁Emer gency ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁better ▁Imm igration ▁and ▁Pass port ▁Law ▁which ▁compris es ▁the ▁following : ▁ ▁The ▁Emer gency ▁( Tr avel ▁Rest r iction ) ▁Reg ulation ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁The ▁Pass port ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁The ▁Pass port ▁Reg ulations ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁and ▁The ▁Emer gency ▁( Entry ▁By ▁Land ▁From ▁Thailand ) ▁Reg ulations ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁ 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁immigration ▁laws ▁used ▁during ▁the ▁State ▁of ▁Emer gency ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 5 2 . ▁It ▁became ▁the ▁main ▁immigration ▁law ▁used ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁and ▁monitor ▁the ▁entries ▁of ▁all ▁British ▁nation als , ▁people ▁under ▁the ▁British ▁colony ▁and ▁‘ ali ens ’ ▁to ▁the ▁Feder ated ▁Mal ay ▁States . ▁The ▁law ▁was ▁also ▁en forced ▁in ▁Singapore . ▁▁ 7 . ▁ ▁The ▁Im migr at ation ▁Department ▁was ▁then ▁placed ▁under ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Foreign ▁Affairs . ▁Besides ▁being ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁entry , ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁was ▁also ▁responsible ▁for ▁the : ▁ ▁Iss uing ▁of ▁pass ports ▁at ▁the ▁pass port ▁iss uing ▁offices ▁in ▁Singapore , ▁Pen ang , ▁Res idents ’ ▁Off ices ▁and ▁the ▁office ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁advis or ; ▁Iss u ance ▁of ▁vis as ▁and ▁citizens hip ▁applications ▁for ▁Commonwealth ▁countries ▁on ▁behalf ▁of ▁the |
▁British ▁government ▁ 8 . ▁ ▁After ▁independence , ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 5 9 , ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Reg ulations ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁and ▁The ▁Pass port ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁were ▁introduced ▁to ▁replace ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Ord in ance ▁ 1 9 4 9 . ▁These ▁laws ▁provided ▁greater ▁power ▁for ▁reg ulating ▁the ▁entry ▁of ▁foreign ers ▁and ▁visitors ▁into ▁the ▁Feder ated ▁Mal ay ▁States . ▁▁ 9 . ▁ ▁The ▁formation ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁had ▁extended ▁the ▁immigration ▁requirements ▁to ▁the ▁states ▁of ▁Sab ah ▁and ▁Sar aw ak . ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁( Trans itional ▁Pro vis ions ) ▁Act ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁was ▁en act ed ▁to ▁protect ▁the ▁interests ▁of ▁both ▁States . ▁Apart ▁from ▁reg ulating ▁and ▁controlling ▁the ▁entry ▁and ▁exit ▁of ▁non ▁citizens , ▁the ▁Sab ah ▁and ▁Sar aw ak ' s ▁immigration ▁office ▁also ▁controlled ▁the ▁entry ▁of ▁Malays ian ▁citizens ▁origin ating ▁from ▁Pen ins ular ▁Malaysia ▁( West ▁Malaysia ). ▁▁ 1 0 . ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 4 , ▁the ▁management ▁of ▁immigration ▁matters ▁was ▁placed ▁under ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Home ▁Affairs . ▁The ▁administration ▁was ▁handed ▁over ▁to ▁a ▁Malays ian . ▁Mr . ▁I bra him ▁bin ▁Ali ▁was ▁appointed ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁National ▁Imm igration ▁Controller . ▁The ▁appointment ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁ 1 ▁January ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁Starting ▁from ▁ |
1 3 ▁April ▁ 1 9 6 5 , ▁the ▁immigration ▁head ▁office ▁was ▁located ▁at ▁J al an ▁T ugu , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur . ▁▁ 1 1 . ▁On ▁ 1 ▁December ▁ 1 9 7 1 , ▁immigration ▁administrative ▁matters ▁of ▁the ▁Mal ay ▁States ▁came ▁under ▁the ▁Malays ian ▁Imm igration ▁Head quarters . ▁The ▁immigration ▁laws ▁en forced ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁were ▁reviewed ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 4 , ▁a ▁special ▁provision ▁for ▁the ▁states ▁of ▁Sab ah ▁and ▁Sar aw ak ▁was ▁included . ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Act ▁ 1 9 5 9 / 6 3 ▁( Act ▁No . ▁ 1 5 5 ) ▁and ▁the ▁Pass port ▁Act ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁( Act ▁No . ▁ 1 5 0 ) ▁were ▁used ▁nation wide . ▁These ▁Act s ▁were ▁rev ised ▁and ▁am ended ▁from ▁time ▁to ▁time ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁current ▁situation ▁and ▁need . ▁The ▁title , ▁Imm igration ▁Controller ▁was ▁replaced ▁with ▁the ▁Director ▁General ▁of ▁Imm igration ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 9 . ▁▁ 1 2 . ▁Since ▁its ▁establishment ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁the ▁Head quarters ▁of ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁was ▁in ▁Pen ang . ▁On ▁ 1 3 ▁April ▁ 1 9 6 5 , ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Head quarters ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁J al an ▁T ugu , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur . ▁In ▁January ▁ 1 9 8 1 , ▁the |
▁office ▁moved ▁to ▁BU K OT A ▁Building , ▁J al an ▁P ant ai ▁Bah aru , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur , ▁before ▁moving ▁to ▁P us at ▁Band ar ▁Dam ans ara , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 8 . ▁Now , ▁the ▁headquarters ▁of ▁the ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁are ▁located ▁at ▁Put raj aya . ▁The ▁move ▁of ▁prem ises ▁started ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁done ▁in ▁stages ▁to ▁ensure ▁that ▁the ▁quality ▁of ▁services ▁to ▁the ▁public ▁was ▁maintained . ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁Cor ruption ▁ ▁The ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁has ▁a ▁long standing ▁history ▁of ▁corruption , ▁allowing ▁for ▁threats ▁of ▁terror ism ▁and ▁human ▁traff icking ▁to ▁become ▁significant ▁problems ▁for ▁the ▁country . ▁Despite ▁the ▁Malays ian ▁government ' s ▁desire ▁to ▁promote ▁an ▁image ▁of ▁Malaysia ▁as ▁a ▁progressive ▁nation , ▁widespread ▁ab uses ▁of ▁immigration ▁controls ▁since ▁at ▁least ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 s ▁have ▁sull ied ▁that ▁image . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁government ▁minister ▁Dat uk ▁Ser i ▁I dr is ▁Har on ▁named ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Imm igration ▁in ▁Mal ac ca ▁as ▁the ▁most ▁corrupt ▁civil ▁service ▁department ▁in ▁the ▁state . ▁After ▁being ▁promoted ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁Malaysia ' s ▁Department ▁of ▁Imm igration ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁Dat uk ▁Ser i ▁Must af ar ▁Ali ▁revealed ▁that ▁an ▁internal ▁audit ▁and ▁an |
▁investigation ▁by ▁the ▁Malays ian ▁Anti - Cor ruption ▁Commission ▁( MAC C ) ▁had ▁un covered ▁a ▁pass port ▁fraud ▁scheme ▁being ▁committed ▁by ▁officers ▁in ▁Sel ang or ▁since ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁that , ▁according ▁to ▁MAC C ▁deputy ▁commission er ▁Dat uk ▁Az am ▁B aki , ▁" could ▁be ▁happening ▁at ▁most ▁Imm igration ▁offices ▁nation wide ." ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁massive ▁corruption ▁was ▁discovered ▁involving ▁the ▁dis abling ▁of ▁the ▁national ▁electronic ▁security ▁system ▁at ▁Malaysia ' s ▁international ▁air ports ▁by ▁immigration ▁officers ▁prof iting ▁from ▁b rib es ▁by ▁human ▁traff icking ▁synd icates ▁to ▁allow ▁illegal ▁passage ▁of ▁migr ants ▁into ▁the ▁country , ▁raising ▁questions ▁about ▁the ▁system ' s ▁effectiveness ▁at ▁keeping ▁terror ists ▁from ▁streaming ▁into ▁Malaysia . ▁ ▁Un iform s ▁Since ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁immigration ▁officials ▁use ▁white ▁uniform ▁and ▁dark ▁blue ▁uniform ▁color . ▁In ▁early ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁a ▁new ▁color ▁uniform ▁immigration ▁officers ▁have ▁been ▁converted ▁to ▁black ▁overall . ▁Features ▁new ▁uniform s ▁are ▁black ▁ber et , ▁bad ge ▁over ▁the ▁left ▁shoulder ▁and ▁right , ▁tags ▁and ▁bad ges ▁on ▁the ▁chest ▁to ▁the ▁right ▁service . ▁They ▁have ▁also ▁introduced ▁digital ▁uniform s ▁for ▁enforcement ▁duties ▁and ▁tasks ▁in ▁the ▁immigration ▁det ention ▁centre . ▁The ▁need ▁to ▁change ▁uniform s ▁was ▁deemed ▁necessary ▁as ▁the ▁previous ▁white ▁and ▁dark ▁blue ▁uniform s ▁have ▁remained ▁in ▁service ▁since ▁the ▁ |
1 9 6 0 s . ▁In ▁addition , ▁the ▁application ▁ranks ▁were ▁changed ▁to ▁avoid ▁confusion ▁with ▁the ▁ranks ▁of ▁other ▁agencies . ▁ ▁We apon ry ▁and ▁equipment ▁Hi att ▁speed c uffs , ▁T - bat on , ▁LED ▁flash light , ▁ri ot ▁shield s , ▁hel m ets ▁and ▁walk ie - talk ies ▁are ▁supplied ▁to ▁the ▁officer ▁when ▁on ▁duty ▁to ▁enforce ▁immigration ▁law . ▁The ▁need ▁for ▁better ▁weapons ▁is ▁necessary ▁to ▁ensure ▁the ▁safety ▁of ▁officers ▁during ▁the ▁operation ▁and ▁control ▁of ▁det aine es ▁in ▁immigration ▁det ention . ▁ ▁The ▁Department ▁of ▁Imm igration ▁bear ▁fire arms , ▁but ▁not ▁all ▁immigration ▁officers ▁are ▁supplied ▁with ▁them . ▁Imm igration ▁officers ▁are ▁licensed ▁by ▁the ▁particular ▁State ▁Imm igration ▁Director ▁to ▁carry ▁fire arms ▁in ▁the ▁possession ▁of ▁immigration ▁like ▁the ▁standard ▁issued ▁ones : ▁▁ ▁Smith ▁& ▁W ess on ▁Model ▁ 3 8 ▁ ▁H K ▁US P ▁Comp act ▁ ▁V ek tor ▁SP 1 ▁▁ ▁Fr anch i ▁SP AS - 1 2 ▁ ▁Rem ington ▁Model ▁ 8 7 0 ▁ ▁M oss berg ▁ 5 0 0 ▁ ▁Report ed ▁that ▁Imm igration ▁only ▁have ▁ 1 9 0 ▁of ▁them ▁carry ▁fire arms , ▁compare ▁to ▁their ▁ 1 4 , 0 0 0 ▁personnel . ▁Imm igration ▁officers ▁also ▁not ▁supplied ▁with ▁rif les , ▁SM G s ▁and ▁carb ines . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁indication ▁that ▁immigration ▁will ▁use ▁better ▁weapons ▁with |
▁better ▁fire power ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁used ▁by ▁Royal ▁Malays ian ▁Police ▁or ▁Malays ian ▁Pr ison ▁Department . ▁However , ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁superior ▁weapons ▁and ▁better ▁equipment ▁were ▁planned . ▁ ▁Imm igration ▁Det ention ▁Centre ▁Im migr ants ▁who ▁commit ▁off enses ▁will ▁be ▁held ▁in ▁immigration ▁det ention ▁facilities ▁are ▁located ▁in ▁every ▁state ▁in ▁Malaysia ▁to ▁further ▁investigation ▁and ▁rep atri ation ▁to ▁the ▁country ▁of ▁origin . ▁Det ention ▁over c row ding ▁in ▁det ention ▁cent res ▁across ▁the ▁country ▁and ▁dil ap id ated ▁buildings ▁has ▁resulted ▁in ▁efforts ▁to ▁combat ▁the ▁problem ▁of ▁illegal ▁immigrants ▁to ▁be ▁difficult . ▁The ▁problem ▁is ▁being ▁resolved ▁by ▁up grad ing ▁det ention ▁and ▁det ention ▁capacity . ▁Cong est ion ▁also ▁due ▁to ▁documentation ▁problems ▁involved ▁countries ▁and ▁UN H CR ▁refugees . ▁Imm igration ▁officers ▁working ▁in ▁det ention ▁cent res ▁receive ▁training ▁tactics ▁and ▁techniques ▁to ▁control ▁prisoners , ▁un armed ▁combat , ▁training ▁T - bat on ▁and ▁so ▁by ▁certified ▁train ers ▁from ▁within ▁and ▁outside ▁the ▁department . ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁has ▁also ▁set ▁up ▁a ▁special ▁anti - ri ot ▁team ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" P as uk an ▁K aw al an ▁K has ". ME S BE H ▁AR 6 8 6 1 3 9 ▁ ▁Pas uk an ▁K aw al an ▁K has ▁Imm igration ▁Department ▁introduced ▁the ▁Special ▁Control ▁Team ▁( ), ▁which ▁was ▁created ▁to ▁address ▁the |
▁threat ▁situation , ▁the ▁ri ot ▁of ▁illegal ▁immigrants ▁in ▁the ▁dep ot ▁and ▁the ▁accompanying ▁department ▁officials ▁and ▁other ▁V IP s . ▁It ▁is ▁an ▁elite ▁team ▁and ▁first ▁trained ▁immigration ▁training ▁modules ▁of ▁the ▁Federal ▁Reserve ▁Unit ▁( FR U ) ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Malaysia ▁Police ▁( R MP ). ▁Students ▁who ▁pract iced ▁the ▁team ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁two , ▁namely ▁Pre vent ▁R i ots ▁and ▁Close ▁Quarter ▁Battle ▁( C Q B ) ▁skills , ▁mart ial ▁arts ▁and ▁un armed ▁combat ▁situations ▁or ▁dangerous ▁and ▁high - r isk ▁operations . ▁The ▁team ▁is ▁under going ▁training ▁under ▁the ▁super vision ▁of ▁teaching ▁staff ▁is ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁a ▁mix ▁of ▁professional ▁train ers ▁who ▁commissioned ▁from ▁abroad , ▁a ▁former ▁police ▁trainer ▁and ▁former ▁FR U ▁train ers . ▁The ▁team ▁who ▁received ▁the ▁anti - ri ot ▁training ▁and ▁the ▁skills ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁T - ▁bat on , ▁hand c uffs ▁and ▁spray ▁tear ▁from ▁qualified ▁experts ▁concerned . ▁The ▁team ▁is ▁equipped ▁with ▁digital ▁uniform ▁and ▁gun ▁last ▁for ▁setting ▁up ▁of ▁any ▁unexpected ▁situations ▁occur . ▁The ▁Br avo ▁pl ato on ▁was ▁assigned ▁as ▁teams ▁T and em ▁control ▁involving ▁dign it aries ▁who ▁faced ▁a ▁high ▁risk ▁situation ▁either ▁from ▁the ▁department ▁or ▁the ▁department ▁yet . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁service ▁is ▁required ▁to ▁accompany ▁the ▁team ▁super iors ▁and ▁operations ▁department ▁following ▁the ▁terrorist ▁attack ▁is ▁likely . ▁ ▁In ▁popular ▁culture ▁ ▁Ger ak ▁K has |
▁season ▁ 1 8 ▁( 2 0 1 8 ) ▁cooperation ▁with ▁Sk op ▁Production ▁and ▁Royal ▁Malaysia ▁Police ▁which ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁episodes ▁about ▁operation ▁against ▁Human ▁traff icking ▁and ▁murder ▁Imm igration ▁officer ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Imm igration ▁Malaysia ▁Category : Im m igration ▁to ▁Malaysia ▁Category : Min istry ▁of ▁Home ▁Affairs ▁( Mal ays ia ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Sam ▁Jamie ▁Bird ▁( born ▁ 9 ▁January ▁ 1 9 8 7 ) ▁is ▁a ▁British ▁professional ▁racing ▁driver ▁who ▁currently ▁drives ▁for ▁En vision ▁Virgin ▁Racing ▁in ▁Formula ▁E ▁and ▁for ▁AF ▁Cor se ▁in ▁the ▁F IA ▁World ▁End urance ▁Championship . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Formula ▁BM W ▁Bird ▁made ▁his ▁name ▁in ▁single ▁se ater ▁racing ▁in ▁the ▁Formula ▁BM W ▁category , ▁coming ▁four teenth ▁overall ▁in ▁his ▁debut ▁season ▁and ▁second ▁in ▁the ▁ro ok ie ▁cup . ▁He ▁came ▁runner ▁up ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁which ▁was ▁only ▁his ▁second ▁season ▁in ▁the ▁category ▁and ▁also ▁came ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁Formula ▁BM W ▁world ▁final , ▁the ▁race ▁itself ▁was ▁won ▁by ▁German ▁Marco ▁Hol zer . ▁ ▁Formula ▁Ren ault ▁For ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁Bird ▁entered ▁the ▁British ▁Formula ▁Ren ault ▁series , ▁where ▁he ▁won ▁four ▁races ▁and ▁came ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁championship , ▁ 1 1 1 ▁points ▁behind ▁series ▁champion ▁Sebastian ▁Ho hen thal . ▁ ▁Formula ▁Three ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Bird ▁r aced |
▁in ▁the ▁British ▁Formula ▁ 3 ▁Championship ▁with ▁Carl in ▁Mot ors port , ▁racing ▁in ▁a ▁Mercedes ▁powered ▁D all ara . ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Bird ▁secured ▁spons orship ▁from ▁B P , ▁" The ▁brand ▁is ▁already ▁prominent ▁in ▁the ▁World ▁R ally ▁Championship " ▁Mark ▁Read er , ▁B P ' s ▁UK ▁Fu els ▁Marketing ▁Manager , ▁commented , ▁" Sam ' s ▁an ▁incredible ▁prospect ▁and ▁we ' re ▁excited ▁to ▁be ▁getting ▁into ▁a ▁relationship ▁at ▁this ▁stage ▁of ▁his ▁career " ▁he ▁added . ▁Bird ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁the ▁Motor ▁Sports ▁Association ▁Race ▁El ite ▁Sche me ▁in ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁along ▁with ▁ 5 ▁other ▁drivers ▁in ▁various ▁British ▁series ▁and ▁also ▁participated ▁in ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁aer od ynamic ▁tests ▁with ▁the ▁AT & T ▁Williams ▁F 1 ▁Team . ▁ ▁Bird ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁Man or ▁Mot ors port ▁and ▁the ▁Formula ▁ 3 ▁Euro ▁Series ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁testing ▁year , ▁finishing ▁ele vent h ▁in ▁the ▁championship ▁with ▁ 2 3 ▁points – ▁ 1 6 ▁of ▁which ▁came ▁from ▁second ▁places ▁during ▁Saturday ▁races ▁at ▁Catal un ya ▁and ▁Le ▁Mans ▁and ▁only ▁picked ▁up ▁points ▁from ▁three ▁other ▁races . ▁For ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁he ▁joined ▁Mc L aren ▁Aut os port ▁BR DC ▁Award ▁winner ▁Alexander ▁Sim s , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁M ü cke ▁driver ▁Christian |
▁Viet or is ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁Formula ▁BM W ▁Europe ▁runner - up ▁Marco ▁W itt mann ▁at ▁M ü cke ▁Mot ors port . ▁He ▁earned ▁his ▁first ▁pole ▁position ▁and ▁fastest ▁l aps , ▁but ▁failed ▁to ▁win ▁a ▁race ▁en ▁route ▁to ▁e ighth ▁in ▁the ▁championship . ▁ ▁GP 2 ▁Series ▁Bird ▁missed ▁the ▁final ▁round ▁of ▁the ▁F 3 ▁Euro series ▁season ▁to ▁join ▁up ▁with ▁the ▁AR T ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁team ▁for ▁a ▁GP 2 ▁Asia ▁Series ▁test ▁at ▁the ▁Y as ▁Marina ▁Circ uit ▁in ▁Abu ▁D hab i . ▁He ▁r aced ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 ▁season ▁for ▁the ▁team , ▁where ▁he ▁finished ▁seventh ▁in ▁the ▁series , ▁with ▁a ▁second ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁round . ▁ ▁Bird ▁cont ested ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁GP 2 ▁Series ▁with ▁AR T , ▁having ▁long ▁cov eted ▁a ▁drive ▁with ▁the ▁French ▁team . ▁He ▁was ▁fast ▁but ▁frequently ▁un l ucky , ▁losing ▁several ▁potential ▁results ▁due ▁to ▁technical ▁issues , ▁engine ▁failures ▁and ▁coll isions ▁for ▁which ▁he ▁was ▁not ▁at ▁fault . ▁However , ▁he ▁managed ▁to ▁claim ▁his ▁maid en ▁series ▁win ▁at ▁the ▁first ▁race ▁at ▁Mon za , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁claiming ▁his ▁third ▁fastest ▁lap ▁of ▁the ▁season . ▁ ▁For ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Bird ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁i S port ▁International ▁team ▁alongside ▁Marcus ▁Eric sson . ▁His ▁GP 2 ▁Asia ▁campaign ▁resulted |
▁in ▁three ▁retire ments ▁from ▁four ▁races , ▁but ▁after ▁a ▁strong ▁start ▁to ▁the ▁main ▁series ▁season , ▁he ▁was ▁second ▁in ▁the ▁D ri vers ' ▁Championship ▁after ▁four ▁rounds , ▁with ▁the ▁same ▁number ▁of ▁points ▁as ▁leader ▁Rom ain ▁G ros je an . ▁After ▁this ▁point , ▁however , ▁he ▁gradually ▁slipped ▁back ▁in ▁the ▁stand ings ▁and ▁finished ▁sixth ▁overall ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁season . ▁ ▁Bird ▁competed ▁for ▁the ▁new ▁Russian ▁Time ▁squad ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁and ▁enjoyed ▁a ▁hug ely ▁successful ▁season . ▁The ▁English man ▁took ▁five ▁wins ▁on ▁the ▁way ▁to ▁second ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁championship , ▁having ▁taken ▁the ▁championship ▁race ▁down ▁to ▁the ▁very ▁last ▁weekend . ▁Bird ' s ▁performances ▁alongside ▁team mate ▁Tom ▁D ill mann ▁secured ▁Russian ▁Time ▁first ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁GP 2 ▁construct ors ' ▁championship . ▁ ▁Formula ▁Ren ault ▁ 3 . 5 ▁ ▁Between ▁his ▁last ▁two ▁seasons ▁in ▁the ▁GP 2 ▁series , ▁Bird ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁Formula ▁Ren ault ▁ 3 . 5 ▁season . ▁He ▁won ▁two ▁races ▁and ▁took ▁five ▁further ▁pod ium ▁positions ▁to ▁head ▁into ▁the ▁final ▁round ▁at ▁Catal un ya ▁in ▁a ▁three - way ▁battle ▁for ▁the ▁title ▁with ▁Robin ▁F rij ns ▁and ▁J ules ▁B ian chi . ▁He ▁lost ▁out ▁on ▁the ▁title ▁by ▁just ▁ 1 0 ▁points ▁and ▁ended ▁up ▁finishing ▁third ▁in ▁the ▁championship . ▁ ▁Formula ▁One |
▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁he ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁young ▁drivers ▁test ▁in ▁Abu ▁D hab i ▁driving ▁for ▁Mercedes ▁GP . ▁ ▁World ▁End urance ▁Championship ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Bird ▁made ▁two ▁guest ▁appearances ▁for ▁the ▁Ferr ari ▁AF ▁Cor se ▁team . ▁The ▁first ▁was ▁at ▁his ▁home ▁race ▁in ▁Britain ▁for ▁the ▁ 6 ▁hours ▁of ▁Silver stone ▁where ▁he ▁came ▁ 3 rd ▁in ▁the ▁G TE ▁Am ateur ▁class . ▁His ▁second ▁appearance ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁legendary ▁ 2 4 ▁H ours ▁of ▁Le ▁Mans . ▁Bird ▁took ▁pole ▁position ▁in ▁the ▁G TE ▁Am ▁class , ▁ 2 nd ▁overall ▁of ▁all ▁GT ▁cars . ▁He ▁ran ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁st int ▁of ▁the ▁race , ▁holding ▁the ▁G TE ▁Am ▁lead ▁until ▁he ▁coll ided ▁with ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁front - running ▁L MP 1 ▁cars , ▁the ▁number ▁ 3 ▁A udi ▁and ▁a ▁Toy ota , ▁in ▁wet ▁conditions ▁on ▁the ▁M uls anne ▁Stra ight ▁putting ▁him ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁race ▁in ▁the ▁second ▁hour . ▁ ▁Formula ▁E ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 - 1 5 ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 ▁Formula ▁E ▁season , ▁Bird ▁began ▁driving ▁for ▁Richard ▁Br anson ' s ▁Virgin ▁Racing ▁alongside ▁Ja ime ▁Al gu ers u ari . ▁He ▁claimed ▁third ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁race , ▁the ▁Beijing ▁e P rix , ▁before ▁domin ating ▁the ▁second ▁race |
▁of ▁the ▁season ▁in ▁Put raj aya ▁to ▁claim ▁victory ▁from ▁second ▁on ▁the ▁grid . ▁At ▁the ▁following ▁race ▁in ▁Pun ta ▁del ▁Este , ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁manage ▁to ▁qualify ▁and ▁so ▁started ▁from ▁ 1 8 th ▁place ▁and ▁soon ▁retired ▁from ▁the ▁race ▁after ▁a ▁collision . ▁The ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁Long ▁Beach ▁e P rix ▁was ▁another ▁race ▁to ▁forget ▁for ▁Bird : ▁after ▁starting ▁ 1 1 th , ▁he ▁suffered ▁a ▁suspension ▁failure ▁on ▁lap ▁ 1 1 ▁and ▁retired ▁from ▁the ▁race . ▁Bird ▁managed ▁to ▁avoid ▁the ▁massive ▁first ▁lap ▁collision ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁Mon aco ▁e P rix ▁and ▁went ▁from ▁his ▁qual ifying ▁position ▁of ▁ 1 2 th ▁to ▁finish ▁fourth . ▁The ▁final ▁round ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁was ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁London ▁e P rix ▁where ▁Bird ▁started ▁from ▁fourth ▁and ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁line ▁second ▁at ▁his ▁home ▁e P rix . ▁Race ▁winner ▁St é ph ane ▁Sar raz in ▁received ▁a ▁ 4 9 - second ▁penalty ▁and ▁so ▁Bird ▁was ▁handed ▁the ▁win . ▁He ▁finished ▁the ▁season ▁with ▁ 1 0 3 ▁points ▁and ▁secured ▁ 5 th ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁championship ▁after ▁his ▁home ▁win . ▁▁ 2 0 1 5 - 1 6 ▁At ▁the ▁first ▁race ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁in ▁Beijing , ▁Bird ▁only ▁managed ▁to ▁finish ▁ 7 th . ▁In ▁the ▁next ▁race ▁in ▁Put raj aya , ▁Bird |
▁took ▁ 2 nd ▁place ▁after ▁Ren ault ▁had ▁a ▁mechanical ▁failure ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁Dragon ▁cars ▁of ▁Lo ic ▁Du val ▁and ▁Jer ome ▁d ' A mb ros io ▁had ▁suspension ▁failure ▁while ▁running ▁ 2 nd ▁and ▁ 3 rd ▁respectively . ▁In ▁the ▁next ▁race ▁at ▁Pun ta ▁del ▁Este , ▁Bird ▁finished ▁ 2 nd ▁just ▁behind ▁Sebast ien ▁Bu emi ; ▁in ▁Buenos ▁Aires , ▁Bird ▁won ▁after ▁f ending ▁off ▁Bu emi ▁who ▁started ▁ 1 8 th ▁and ▁last . ▁Further ▁ 6 th ▁places ▁fin ishes ▁were ▁achieved ▁in ▁Mexico , ▁Long ▁Beach ▁and ▁Paris , ▁before ▁an ▁ 1 1 th ▁place ▁finish ▁in ▁Berlin ▁after ▁contact ▁in ▁the ▁race . ▁At ▁home ▁in ▁the ▁double - season ▁finale ▁in ▁London , ▁Bird ▁finish ▁ 7 th ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁race , ▁but ▁in ▁next ▁the ▁next ▁race ▁he ▁retired ▁because ▁of ▁thro tt le ▁failure . ▁Bird ▁eventually ▁finished ▁the ▁season ▁ 4 th ▁place ▁with ▁ 8 8 ▁points ▁after ▁being ▁over t aken ▁by ▁Pro st ▁after ▁Pro st ▁won ▁the ▁double - header ▁in ▁London . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 - 1 7 ▁▁ 2 0 1 7 - 1 8 ▁▁ 2 0 1 8 - 1 9 ▁Sam ' s ▁first ▁pod ium ▁finish ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁came ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Mar r akes h ▁e P rix , ▁finishing ▁in ▁ 3 rd ▁after ▁taking ▁pole ▁position . ▁In ▁ 2 |
0 1 9 , ▁Bird ▁became ▁the ▁first ▁Formula ▁E ▁driver ▁to ▁win ▁a ▁race ▁in ▁every ▁Formula ▁E ▁season , ▁after ▁winning ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Santiago ▁e P rix . ▁▁ 2 0 1 9 - 2 0 ▁Bird ▁won ▁the ▁opening ▁race ▁of ▁the ▁season , ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Dir iy ah ▁e P rix , ▁for ▁En vision ▁Virgin ▁Racing . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁He ▁was ▁educated ▁at ▁Mill field ▁School ▁in ▁Som erset . ▁He ▁successfully ▁proposed ▁marriage ▁to ▁his ▁partner , ▁Holl ie , ▁after ▁winning ▁the ▁G TE - Pro ▁class ▁race ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁ 6 ▁H ours ▁of ▁B ahr ain . ▁Their ▁wedding ▁was ▁held ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁in ▁Lake ▁Como , ▁Italy . ▁ ▁Racing ▁record ▁ ▁Career ▁summary ▁ ▁† ▁As ▁Bird ▁was ▁a ▁guest ▁driver , ▁he ▁was ▁in el igible ▁for ▁points . ▁* ▁Season ▁still ▁in ▁progress . ▁ ▁Complete ▁Formula ▁ 3 ▁Euro ▁Series ▁results ▁key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁Complete ▁GP 2 ▁Series ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁Complete ▁GP 2 ▁Asia ▁Series ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁Complete ▁Formula ▁Ren |
ault ▁ 3 . 5 ▁Series ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁Complete ▁F IA ▁World ▁End urance ▁Championship ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁▁ 2 4 ▁H ours ▁of ▁Le ▁Mans ▁results ▁ ▁Complete ▁We ather T ech ▁Sports Car ▁Championship ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁Complete ▁Formula ▁E ▁results ▁( key ) ▁( R aces ▁in ▁bold ▁indicate ▁pole ▁position ; ▁races ▁in ▁ital ics ▁indicate ▁fastest ▁lap ) ▁ ▁† ▁Driver ▁did ▁not ▁finish ▁the ▁race , ▁but ▁was ▁classified ▁as ▁he ▁completed ▁over ▁ 9 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁race ▁distance . ▁* ▁Season ▁still ▁in ▁progress . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Sam ▁Bird ' s ▁ESP NF 1 ▁column ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁R oe ham pton ▁Category : People ▁educated ▁at ▁Mill field ▁Category : English ▁racing ▁drivers ▁Category : Mc L aren ▁Aut os port ▁BR DC ▁Award ▁nom ine es ▁Category : Form ula ▁BM W ▁UK ▁drivers ▁Category : B rit ish ▁Formula ▁Ren ault ▁ 2 . 0 ▁drivers ▁Category : B rit ish ▁Formula ▁Three ▁Championship ▁drivers ▁Category : Form ula ▁ 3 ▁Euro ▁Series |
▁drivers ▁Category : GP 2 ▁Asia ▁Series ▁drivers ▁Category : GP 2 ▁Series ▁drivers ▁Category : World ▁Series ▁Formula ▁V 8 ▁ 3 . 5 ▁drivers ▁Category : 2 4 ▁H ours ▁of ▁Day ton a ▁drivers ▁Category : 2 4 ▁H ours ▁of ▁Le ▁Mans ▁drivers ▁Category : We ather T ech ▁Sports Car ▁Championship ▁drivers ▁Category : FI A ▁World ▁End urance ▁Championship ▁drivers ▁Category : Form ula ▁E ▁drivers <0x0A> </s> ▁B aid i ▁( , ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁small ▁village ▁in ▁ ▁B aid i ▁Township , ▁Nag arz ê ▁County , ▁L h oka ▁( Sh ann an ) ▁P ref ect ure , ▁Tibet ▁Aut onom ous ▁Region , ▁China . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁at ▁the ▁western ▁end ▁of ▁Yam dro k ▁Lake . ▁Near ▁the ▁village ▁the ▁Yam dro k ▁H yd rop ower ▁Station , ▁the ▁largest ▁power ▁station ▁in ▁Tibet , ▁was ▁completed ▁and ▁dedicated ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Sh ann an , ▁Tibet ▁Category : N ag arz ê ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁Make ▁Way ▁for ▁a ▁Lady ▁is ▁a ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁romantic ▁comedy / ▁drama ▁directed ▁by ▁David ▁Bur ton , ▁star ring ▁Herbert ▁Marshall ▁and ▁Anne ▁Shir ley . ▁June ▁D rew ▁( An ne ▁Shir ley ) ▁is ▁the ▁teen aged ▁" l ady " ▁based ▁on ▁Elizabeth ▁Jordan ' s ▁novel ▁Daddy ▁and ▁I . ▁ ▁Plot ▁ ▁June ▁D rew ▁( An |
ne ▁Shir ley ) ▁is ▁the ▁daughter ▁of ▁wid owed ▁Christopher ▁D rew ▁( Her bert ▁Marshall ), ▁who ▁suff ers ▁in ▁silence ▁as ▁his ▁daughter ▁tries ▁to ▁" match " ▁him ▁with ▁every ▁eligible ▁woman ▁in ▁sight . ▁ ▁Cast ▁ ▁Herbert ▁Marshall ▁as ▁Christopher ▁' Ch ris ' ▁D rew ▁▁▁ ▁Anne ▁Shir ley ▁as ▁June ▁D rew ▁▁▁ ▁Ger tr ude ▁Michael ▁as ▁Miss ▁E lean or ▁Em erson ▁▁▁ ▁Marg ot ▁Gra h ame ▁as ▁Val erie ▁B rought on ▁▁▁ ▁Taylor ▁Holmes ▁as ▁George ▁Terry ▁▁▁ ▁Clara ▁B land ick ▁as ▁Mrs . ▁D ell , ▁D rew ' s ▁M aid ▁▁▁ ▁Frank ▁C og h lan ▁Jr . ▁as ▁Billy ▁Hop kins ▁▁▁ ▁Max ine ▁Jenn ings ▁as ▁Miss ▁Marian ▁Moore ▁▁▁ ▁Mary ▁Jo ▁Ell is ▁as ▁M ild red ▁Jackson ▁▁▁ ▁Murray ▁K inn ell ▁as ▁Doctor ▁Barn es ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 6 ▁films ▁Category : 1 9 3 0 s ▁romantic ▁comedy - dr ama ▁films ▁Category : American ▁romantic ▁comedy - dr ama ▁films ▁Category : American ▁films ▁Category : American ▁black - and - white ▁films ▁Category : English - language ▁films ▁Category : Fil ms ▁based ▁on ▁American ▁novels <0x0A> </s> ▁V ay app ar app adi ▁is ▁a ▁location ▁in ▁Man jer i ▁Municip ality ▁in ▁Mal app ur am ▁district ▁of ▁Ker ala ▁State ▁of ▁south ▁India . ▁ ▁Culture ▁V ay app ar ap adi ▁village ▁is ▁a |
▁predomin antly ▁Muslim ▁pop ulated ▁area . ▁ ▁Hind us ▁exist ▁in ▁compar atively ▁smaller ▁numbers . ▁ ▁So ▁the ▁culture ▁of ▁the ▁local ity ▁is ▁based ▁upon ▁Muslim ▁traditions . ▁ ▁D uff ▁M utt u , ▁Kol k ali ▁and ▁Ar avan am utt u ▁are ▁common ▁folk ▁arts ▁of ▁this ▁local ity . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁many ▁libraries ▁attached ▁to ▁mos ques ▁giving ▁a ▁rich ▁source ▁of ▁Islamic ▁studies . ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁books ▁are ▁written ▁in ▁Arab i - Mal ay al am ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁Mal ay al am ▁language ▁written ▁in ▁Arab ic ▁script . ▁ ▁People ▁gather ▁in ▁mos ques ▁for ▁the ▁evening ▁prayer ▁and ▁continue ▁to ▁sit ▁there ▁after ▁the ▁prayers ▁discussing ▁social ▁and ▁cultural ▁issues . ▁ ▁Business ▁and ▁family ▁issues ▁are ▁also ▁sorted ▁out ▁during ▁these ▁evening ▁meetings . ▁ ▁The ▁Hindu ▁minority ▁of ▁this ▁area ▁keeps ▁their ▁rich ▁traditions ▁by ▁celebr ating ▁various ▁fest ivals ▁in ▁their ▁tem ples . ▁ ▁Hindu ▁rit uals ▁are ▁done ▁here ▁with ▁a ▁regular ▁dev otion ▁like ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁Ker ala . ▁ ▁Transport ation ▁V ay app ar ap adi ▁village ▁connect s ▁to ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁India ▁through ▁Man jer i ▁town . ▁ ▁National ▁highway ▁No . 6 6 ▁passes ▁through ▁Par app an ang adi ▁and ▁the ▁northern ▁stretch ▁connect s ▁to ▁Go a ▁and ▁M umb ai . ▁ ▁The ▁southern ▁stretch ▁connect s ▁to ▁Co ch in ▁and ▁T riv and rum . ▁▁ ▁National |
▁Highway ▁No . 9 6 6 ▁connect s ▁to ▁Pal ak k ad ▁and ▁Co im bat ore . ▁ ▁The ▁nearest ▁airport ▁is ▁at ▁K oz h ik ode . ▁ ▁The ▁nearest ▁major ▁railway ▁station ▁is ▁at ▁T ir ur . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Man jer i <0x0A> </s> ▁Gu ill ermo ▁E spin osa ▁Rodr í gue z ▁is ▁a ▁Cub an ▁nurse , ▁journalist , ▁blog ger ▁and ▁human ▁rights ▁activ ist . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁he ▁was ▁dismissed ▁from ▁his ▁job ▁with ▁the ▁public ▁health ▁service ▁and ▁arrested ▁after ▁reporting ▁on ▁an ▁outbreak ▁of ▁d eng ue ▁fever . ▁Since ▁then ▁he ▁has ▁been ▁repeatedly ▁arrested ▁for ▁his ▁human ▁rights ▁activities . ▁ ▁Until ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Gu ill ermo ▁E spin osa ▁Rodr í gue z ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁nurse ▁in ▁the ▁public ▁health ▁service ▁and ▁as ▁a ▁part - time ▁reporter . ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁E spin osa ▁Rodr í gue z ▁filed ▁a ▁report ▁on ▁an ▁event ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba ▁attended ▁by ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁young ▁people ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁campaign ▁for ▁the ▁prevention ▁of ▁A IDS . ▁Police ▁tried ▁to ▁remove ▁a ▁participant , ▁but ▁were ▁forced ▁to ▁retreat ▁when ▁the ▁crowd ▁turned ▁against ▁them . ▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁E spin osa ▁submitted ▁reports ▁on ▁an ▁outbreak ▁of ▁d eng ue ▁fever ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba ▁to ▁the ▁independent ▁agency ▁Ag encia |
▁de ▁P ren sa ▁Lib re ▁Ori ental ▁( AP LO ). ▁ ▁Short ly ▁afterwards ▁he ▁was ▁dismissed ▁from ▁his ▁job . ▁Cuba ▁suppress es ▁reports ▁of ▁epid em ics ▁to ▁avoid ▁disturb ing ▁the ▁tourists . ▁Before ▁E spin osa ▁published ▁his ▁reports , ▁the ▁official ▁media ▁had ▁refused ▁to ▁recognize ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁d eng ue ▁fever ▁in ▁Cuba . ▁The ▁reports ▁seem ▁to ▁have ▁triggered ▁his ▁arrest . ▁ ▁E spin osa ▁Rodr í gue z ▁was ▁arrested ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁along ▁with ▁Arm ando ▁Bet anc ourt ▁Re ina ▁and ▁Ray m undo ▁Per dig on ▁Brit o . ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁he ▁was ▁convicted ▁under ▁article ▁ 7 2 ▁of ▁the ▁Cub an ▁Pen al ▁Code ▁in ▁a ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba ▁court ▁on ▁grounds ▁of ▁" social ▁dangerous ness ." ▁He ▁was ▁sent enced ▁to ▁two ▁years ▁of ▁home ▁conf inement . ▁Although ▁he ▁had ▁lost ▁his ▁job ▁with ▁the ▁public ▁health ▁service , ▁E spin osa ▁was ▁told ▁he ▁should ▁find ▁another ▁job ▁with ▁a ▁government ▁department ▁or ▁he ▁would ▁have ▁to ▁serve ▁his ▁house ▁arrest ▁in ▁jail . ▁In ▁a ▁call ▁for ▁E spin osa ' s ▁release ▁on ▁ 8 ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁Rep orters ▁Without ▁B orders ▁noted ▁that ▁" social ▁dangerous ness " ▁meant ▁he ▁might ▁commit ▁a ▁crime ▁although ▁he ▁had ▁not ▁in ▁fact ▁committed ▁any . ▁The ▁authorities ▁could ▁use ▁this ▁charge ▁to ▁imprison ▁anyone ▁they ▁wanted ▁to |
. ▁In ▁a ▁press ▁release ▁on ▁ 2 9 ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁the ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Special ▁Rap port eur ▁for ▁Freedom ▁of ▁Expression ▁of ▁the ▁Inter - American ▁Commission ▁on ▁Human ▁Rights ▁noted ▁that ▁E spin osa ▁had ▁been ▁j ailed ▁and ▁said ▁it ▁" re iter ates ▁its ▁great ▁concern ▁over ▁the ▁systematic ▁and ▁continuous ▁situation ▁of ▁utter ▁and ▁complete ▁dis respect ▁for ▁freedom ▁of ▁thought ▁and ▁expression ▁in ▁Cuba ." ▁ ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁E spin osa ▁was ▁working ▁for ▁the ▁Center ▁of ▁Ap plied ▁Marketing ▁and ▁Political ▁Public ity ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba . ▁He ▁was ▁det ained ▁and ▁then ▁placed ▁under ▁house ▁arrest ▁for ▁his ▁activities ▁on ▁the ▁sixth ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁arrest ▁of ▁ 7 5 ▁activ ists ▁in ▁the ▁" Black ▁Spring " ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁E spin osa ▁was ▁det ained ▁for ▁comm emor ating ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Or lando ▁Z ap ata , ▁a ▁political ▁prisoner , ▁one ▁year ▁earlier . ▁He ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁many ▁arrested ▁during ▁mar ches ▁held ▁across ▁the ▁country . ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁during ▁a ▁pap al ▁mass ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba ▁a ▁diss ident ▁named ▁Andr és ▁Car ri ón ▁Al vare z ▁shouted ▁" down ▁with ▁commun ism " ▁and ▁was ▁prompt ly ▁arrested . ▁A ▁sc uffle ▁broke ▁out , ▁and ▁Car ri ón ▁was ▁attacked ▁by ▁a ▁Red ▁Cross ▁stret cher ▁bear er |
. ▁E spin osa ▁went ▁to ▁Car ri ón ' s ▁aid , ▁and ▁was ▁himself ▁arrested ▁for ▁" cont empt ▁of ▁authority ". ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁E spin osa ▁was ▁under ▁house ▁arrest ▁for ▁three ▁years ▁for ▁his ▁pro - dem ocr acy ▁activities . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : C ub an ▁journalists ▁Category : M ale ▁journalists ▁Category : C ub an ▁blog gers ▁Category : C ub an ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Cuba ▁Category : C ub an ▁nurses ▁Category : M ale ▁blog gers ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Al add in ▁Theater ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁The ▁Historic ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Play house ) ▁is ▁an ▁historic ▁theater ▁in ▁C oco a , ▁Florida , ▁United ▁States . ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁at ▁ 3 0 0 ▁B rev ard ▁Avenue ▁and ▁originally ▁opened ▁its ▁doors ▁on ▁August ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 9 2 4 . ▁On ▁October ▁ 1 7 , ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁it ▁was ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁U . S . ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces . ▁ ▁B rev ard ▁Community ▁College ▁owned ▁the ▁theater ▁from ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁In ▁the ▁mid - eight ies , ▁the ▁college ▁had ▁resc ued ▁the ▁theater ▁from ▁a ▁dil ap id ated ▁state . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁the |
▁college ▁offered ▁ownership ▁to ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁C oco a . ▁The ▁theater ▁has ▁its ▁own ▁board ▁of ▁directors . ▁ ▁The ▁annual ▁budget ▁for ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁was ▁about ▁$ 2 6 3 , 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁History ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 4 ▁the ▁Al add in ▁Theater ▁first ▁started ▁showing ▁silent ▁movies ▁and ▁live ▁acts . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁built ▁for ▁$ 8 0 , 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁The ▁Sp arks ▁Theater ▁chain ▁purchased ▁the ▁Al add in ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁and ▁changed ▁its ▁name ▁to ▁the ▁" State ▁Theater ." ▁ ▁The ▁Kent ▁Theater ▁Chain ▁purchased ▁the ▁building ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁and ▁renamed ▁it ▁the ▁Fine ▁Arts ▁Theater . ▁ ▁Sub sequently , ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁C oco a ▁bought ▁the ▁building ▁and ▁renamed ▁it ▁the ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Play house . ▁The ▁city ▁sold ▁it ▁to ▁B rev ard ▁Community ▁College ▁for ▁$ 1 ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 4 . ▁Through ▁don ations , ▁and ▁grants , ▁the ▁building ▁was ▁restored ▁from ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁through ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 0 , ▁the ▁play house ▁began ▁st aging ▁community ▁based ▁musical s . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁a ▁$ 2 . 8 ▁million ▁an nex ▁was ▁started . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁the ▁building ▁was ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁C oco a . ▁ ▁In ▁ |
2 0 1 2 , ▁there ▁were ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁paying ▁customers ▁annually . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Play house ▁( off icial ▁site ) ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Play house ▁( add itional ▁info ▁via ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Publishing ) ▁B rev ard ▁County ▁list ings ▁at ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁Florida ' s ▁Office ▁of ▁Cultural ▁and ▁Historical ▁Program s ▁B rev ard ▁County ▁list ings ▁C oco a ▁Village ▁Play house ▁C oco a - R ock ledge ▁Historical ▁Trail ▁( Arch ived ▁ 2 0 0 9 - 1 0 - 2 4 ) ▁at ▁Historic ▁H iking ▁Tra ils ▁( Arch ived ▁ 2 0 0 9 - 1 0 - 2 4 ) ▁ ▁Category : Build ings ▁and ▁structures ▁in ▁B rev ard ▁County , ▁Florida ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁in ▁B rev ard ▁County , ▁Florida ▁Category : The at res ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁in ▁Florida ▁Category : T our ist ▁attra ctions ▁in ▁B rev ard ▁County , ▁Florida ▁Category : The at res ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 4 ▁Category : C oco a , ▁Florida ▁Category : 1 9 2 4 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Florida <0x0A> </s> ▁White ▁Station ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁White ▁Station , ▁Mississippi , ▁an ▁un inc or por ated ▁community ▁located ▁in ▁Clay ▁County ▁White ▁Station , ▁Mem ph is , |
▁Tennessee , ▁an ▁un inc or por ated ▁area ▁in ▁Shel by ▁County ▁White ▁Station ▁High ▁School , ▁in ▁Mem ph is , ▁Tennessee ▁White ▁Station ▁Middle ▁School , ▁in ▁Mem ph is , ▁Tennessee ▁White ▁Station ▁Tower , ▁a ▁high - rise ▁office ▁building ▁in ▁Mem ph is , ▁Tennessee <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 3 ▁Championships ▁is ▁a ▁bien n ial ▁athlet ics ▁competition ▁for ▁European ▁athletes ▁under ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 2 3 , ▁which ▁is ▁organized ▁by ▁the ▁European ▁Athlet ic ▁Association . ▁The ▁oldest ▁of ▁the ▁' age - group ' ▁track ▁and ▁field ▁events ▁held ▁by ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁- ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 0 ▁Championships ▁( pre viously ▁called ▁' J un ior ▁Championships ') ▁are ▁held ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁odd ▁number ed ▁years , ▁while ▁the ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 1 8 ▁Championships , ▁previously ▁the ▁' Y outh ▁Championships ' ▁are ▁held ▁in ▁even ▁number ed ▁years . ▁ ▁The ▁event ▁was ▁first ▁held ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁and ▁was ▁a ▁replacement ▁for ▁the ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 3 ▁Cup ▁– ▁a ▁bien n ial ▁event ▁which ▁had ▁" A " ▁and ▁" B " ▁level ▁le agues ▁that ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Ed itions ▁ ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 3 ▁Cup ▁ ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 3 ▁Championships ▁ ▁Championships ▁records ▁ ▁Men ▁ ▁Women ▁ ▁All - time ▁medal ▁table ▁Medal |
▁table ▁includes ▁ 1 9 9 7 – 2 0 1 7 ▁Championships . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁European ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁ ▁European ▁Athlet ics ▁U 2 3 ▁Championships ▁– ▁European ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁▁▁ ▁U 2 3 ▁Category : Under - 2 3 ▁athlet ics ▁compet itions ▁Category : Contin ental ▁athlet ics ▁championship s ▁Category : B ien n ial ▁athlet ics ▁compet itions <0x0A> </s> ▁Loss ▁of ▁significance ▁is ▁an ▁und es irable ▁effect ▁in ▁calculations ▁using ▁finite - prec ision ▁ar ith metic ▁such ▁as ▁floating - point ▁ar ith metic . ▁It ▁occurs ▁when ▁an ▁operation ▁on ▁two ▁numbers ▁increases ▁relative ▁error ▁substant ially ▁more ▁than ▁it ▁increases ▁absolute ▁error , ▁for ▁example ▁in ▁sub tract ing ▁two ▁nearly ▁equal ▁numbers ▁( known ▁as ▁cat astro ph ic ▁cancellation ). ▁The ▁effect ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁significant ▁dig its ▁in ▁the ▁result ▁is ▁reduced ▁un accept ably . ▁W ays ▁to ▁avoid ▁this ▁effect ▁are ▁studied ▁in ▁numerical ▁analysis . ▁ ▁Dem on str ation ▁of ▁the ▁problem ▁The ▁effect ▁can ▁be ▁demonstrated ▁with ▁decimal ▁numbers . ▁The ▁following ▁example ▁demonstr ates ▁loss ▁of ▁significance ▁for ▁a ▁decimal ▁floating - point ▁data ▁type ▁with ▁ 1 0 ▁significant ▁dig its : ▁ ▁Consider ▁the ▁decimal ▁number ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁x ▁= ▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ▁ ▁A ▁floating - point ▁representation ▁of ▁this ▁number ▁on ▁a |
▁machine ▁that ▁keeps ▁ 1 0 ▁floating - point ▁dig its ▁would ▁be ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁y ▁= ▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ▁ ▁which ▁is ▁fairly ▁close ▁when ▁measuring ▁the ▁error ▁as ▁a ▁percentage ▁of ▁the ▁value . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁very ▁different ▁when ▁measured ▁in ▁order ▁of ▁precision . ▁The ▁value ▁' x ' ▁is ▁accurate ▁to ▁, ▁while ▁the ▁value ▁' y ' ▁is ▁only ▁accurate ▁to ▁. ▁ ▁Now ▁perform ▁the ▁calculation ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁x ▁- ▁y ▁= ▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ▁− ▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ▁ ▁The ▁answer , ▁accurate ▁to ▁ 2 0 ▁significant ▁dig its , ▁is ▁▁▁▁▁▁ 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ▁ ▁However , ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 0 - dig it ▁floating - point ▁machine , ▁the ▁calculation ▁yields ▁▁▁▁▁▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 ▁− ▁ 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ▁= ▁ 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ▁ ▁In ▁both ▁cases ▁the ▁result ▁is ▁accurate ▁to ▁same ▁order ▁of ▁magnitude ▁as ▁the ▁inputs ▁( − 2 0 ▁and ▁− 1 0 ▁respectively |
). ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁second ▁case , ▁the ▁answer ▁seems ▁to ▁have ▁one ▁significant ▁digit , ▁which ▁would ▁amount ▁to ▁loss ▁of ▁significance . ▁ ▁However , ▁in ▁computer ▁floating - point ▁ar ith metic , ▁all ▁operations ▁can ▁be ▁viewed ▁as ▁being ▁performed ▁on ▁an til og arith ms , ▁for ▁which ▁the ▁rules ▁for ▁significant ▁figures ▁indicate ▁that ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁significant ▁figures ▁remains ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁the ▁smallest ▁number ▁of ▁significant ▁figures ▁in ▁the ▁mant iss as . ▁ ▁The ▁way ▁to ▁indicate ▁this ▁and ▁represent ▁the ▁answer ▁to ▁ 1 0 ▁significant ▁figures ▁is ▁ ▁Work ar ounds ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁to ▁do ▁comput ations ▁using ▁an ▁exact ▁fraction al ▁representation ▁of ▁rational ▁numbers ▁and ▁keep ▁all ▁significant ▁dig its , ▁but ▁this ▁is ▁often ▁prohib it ively ▁slower ▁than ▁floating - point ▁ar ith metic . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁parts ▁of ▁numerical ▁analysis ▁is ▁to ▁avoid ▁or ▁minimize ▁loss ▁of ▁significance ▁in ▁calculations . ▁If ▁the ▁underlying ▁problem ▁is ▁well - posed , ▁there ▁should ▁be ▁a ▁stable ▁algorithm ▁for ▁solving ▁it . ▁ ▁Loss ▁of ▁significant ▁bits ▁▁ ▁Let ▁x ▁and ▁y ▁be ▁positive ▁normalized ▁floating - point ▁numbers . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁sub tr action ▁x ▁− ▁y , ▁r ▁significant ▁bits ▁are ▁lost ▁where ▁ ▁for ▁some ▁positive ▁inte gers ▁p ▁and ▁q . ▁ ▁Inst ability ▁of ▁the ▁quadr atic ▁equation ▁▁ ▁For ▁example , ▁consider ▁the ▁quadr atic ▁equation ▁ ▁with ▁the ▁two ▁exact ▁solutions : ▁ ▁This ▁formula ▁may |
▁not ▁always ▁produce ▁an ▁accurate ▁result . ▁ ▁For ▁example , ▁when ▁ ▁is ▁very ▁small , ▁loss ▁of ▁significance ▁can ▁occur ▁in ▁either ▁of ▁the ▁root ▁calculations , ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁sign ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁case ▁, ▁, ▁ ▁will ▁serve ▁to ▁illustr ate ▁the ▁problem : ▁ ▁We ▁have ▁ ▁In ▁real ▁ar ith metic , ▁the ▁roots ▁are ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 0 - dig it ▁floating - point ▁ar ith metic : ▁ ▁Notice ▁that ▁the ▁solution ▁of ▁greater ▁magnitude ▁is ▁accurate ▁to ▁ten ▁dig its , ▁but ▁the ▁first ▁non zero ▁digit ▁of ▁the ▁solution ▁of ▁lesser ▁magnitude ▁is ▁wrong . ▁ ▁Because ▁of ▁the ▁sub tr action ▁that ▁occurs ▁in ▁the ▁quadr atic ▁equation , ▁it ▁does ▁not ▁const itute ▁a ▁stable ▁algorithm ▁to ▁calculate ▁the ▁two ▁roots . ▁ ▁A ▁better ▁algorithm ▁ ▁A ▁careful ▁floating - point ▁computer ▁implementation ▁comb ines ▁several ▁strategies ▁to ▁produce ▁a ▁robust ▁result . ▁Ass uming ▁that ▁the ▁discrim in ant ▁ ▁is ▁positive , ▁and ▁b ▁is ▁non zero , ▁the ▁computation ▁would ▁be ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁Here ▁s gn ▁denotes ▁the ▁sign ▁function , ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁ 1 ▁if ▁ ▁is ▁positive , ▁and ▁− 1 ▁if ▁ ▁is ▁negative . ▁This ▁avoid s ▁cancellation ▁problems ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁square ▁root ▁of ▁the ▁discrim in ant ▁by ▁ensuring ▁that ▁only ▁numbers ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁sign ▁are ▁added . ▁ ▁To ▁illustr ate ▁the ▁inst ability ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁quadr atic ▁formula ▁compared ▁to ▁this |
▁formula , ▁consider ▁a ▁quadr atic ▁equation ▁with ▁roots ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁To ▁ 1 6 ▁significant ▁dig its , ▁roughly ▁corresponding ▁to ▁double - prec ision ▁accuracy ▁on ▁a ▁computer , ▁the ▁mon ic ▁quadr atic ▁equation ▁with ▁these ▁roots ▁may ▁be ▁written ▁as ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁standard ▁quadr atic ▁formula ▁and ▁maintaining ▁ 1 6 ▁significant ▁dig its ▁at ▁each ▁step , ▁the ▁standard ▁quadr atic ▁formula ▁yields ▁ ▁Note ▁how ▁cancellation ▁has ▁resulted ▁in ▁ ▁being ▁computed ▁to ▁only ▁ 8 ▁significant ▁dig its ▁of ▁accuracy . ▁ ▁The ▁variant ▁formula ▁presented ▁here , ▁however , ▁yields ▁the ▁following : ▁ ▁Note ▁the ▁ret ention ▁of ▁all ▁significant ▁dig its ▁for ▁. ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁while ▁the ▁above ▁form ulation ▁avoid s ▁cat astro ph ic ▁cancellation ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁, ▁there ▁remains ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁cancellation ▁between ▁the ▁terms ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁discrim in ant , ▁which ▁can ▁still ▁lead ▁to ▁loss ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁half ▁of ▁correct ▁significant ▁dig its . ▁ ▁The ▁discrim in ant ▁ ▁needs ▁to ▁be ▁computed ▁in ▁ar ith metic ▁of ▁twice ▁the ▁precision ▁of ▁the ▁result ▁to ▁avoid ▁this ▁( e . g . ▁quad ▁precision ▁if ▁the ▁final ▁result ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁accurate ▁to ▁full ▁double ▁precision ). ▁ ▁This ▁can ▁be ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁f used ▁multip ly - add ▁operation . ▁ ▁To ▁illustr ate ▁this , ▁consider ▁the ▁following ▁quadr atic ▁equation , ▁adapted ▁from ▁K ahan ▁( 2 0 0 4 ): ▁ |
▁This ▁equation ▁has ▁ ▁and ▁roots ▁▁ ▁However , ▁when ▁computed ▁using ▁I EEE ▁ 7 5 4 ▁double - prec ision ▁ar ith metic ▁corresponding ▁to ▁ 1 5 ▁to ▁ 1 7 ▁significant ▁dig its ▁of ▁accuracy , ▁ ▁is ▁rounded ▁to ▁ 0 . 0 , ▁and ▁the ▁computed ▁roots ▁are ▁▁▁ ▁which ▁are ▁both ▁false ▁after ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁significant ▁digit . ▁This ▁is ▁despite ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁super fic ially , ▁the ▁problem ▁seems ▁to ▁require ▁only ▁ 1 1 ▁significant ▁dig its ▁of ▁accuracy ▁for ▁its ▁solution . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Round - off ▁error ▁ ▁K ahan ▁sum m ation ▁algorithm ▁ ▁Karl s ru he ▁Acc ur ate ▁Ar ith metic ▁ ▁Ex sec ant ▁ ▁Ex ponential ▁min us ▁ 1 ▁ ▁Natural ▁log arith m ▁plus ▁ 1 ▁ ▁Example ▁in ▁w ik ib ook s : ▁C ancell ation ▁of ▁significant ▁dig its ▁in ▁numerical ▁comput ations ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : N umer ical ▁analysis <0x0A> </s> ▁Sh ih ua ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁of ▁G uc heng ▁County ▁in ▁north western ▁H ube i ▁province , ▁China , ▁located ▁against ▁the ▁immediate ▁back drop ▁of ▁the ▁D aba ▁Mountains . ▁, ▁it ▁has ▁ 8 ▁residential ▁communities ▁( 社 区 ) ▁and ▁ 3 8 ▁villages ▁under ▁its ▁administration . ▁ ▁Administr ative ▁divisions ▁Eight ▁residential ▁communities : ▁ ▁D ong men j ie ▁( ), ▁X i he j ie ▁( ), ▁Sh ix ij ie |
▁( ), ▁C ang ta ij ie ▁( ), ▁Hou fan ▁( ), ▁Min ying j ing j iqu ▁( ), ▁Day u q ia oj ie ▁( ), ▁La oj un ta i ▁() ▁ ▁Th irty - eight ▁villages : ▁ ▁J ie p ai ya ▁( ), ▁Hong m am iao ▁( ), ▁T iem ia og ou ▁( ), ▁Hu ang ji ay ing ▁( ), ▁P ing ch uan ▁( ), ▁Pe ij ia q iao ▁( ), ▁G ong j ia wan ▁( ), ▁Yang xi wan ▁( ), ▁Sh u ix ing ta i ▁( ), ▁X ia x ind ian ▁( ), ▁Z hou j ia wan ▁( ), ▁Sh ij ia wan ▁( ), ▁P eng j ia wan ▁( ), ▁Ca iji ay ing ▁( ), ▁G ao ji ach ong ▁( ), ▁Day u ▁( ), ▁Sh ao j ial ou ▁( ), ▁Dou pod ian ▁( ), ▁B ia oj iam iao ▁( ), ▁Tu q ia og ou ▁( ), ▁T ong be im iao ▁( ), ▁Y inf an ▁( ), ▁Li ang sh u ijing ▁( ), ▁P eng j ial ing ▁( ), ▁X iji aya ▁( ), ▁W uj iaz hou ▁( ), ▁Yan wan ▁( ), ▁C ang y u ▁( ), ▁Ba iji ay an ▁( ), ▁T ong sh an ▁( ), ▁C ui hu ap u ▁( ), ▁Ji ang j un sh an ▁( ), ▁Yang j ia hu ▁( ), |
▁X ia ot ans han ▁( ), ▁Chen j ial ou ▁( ), ▁Long ji ag ou ▁( ), ▁Long wan ▁() ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁town ship - level ▁divisions ▁of ▁H ube i ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : T own ship - level ▁divisions ▁of ▁H ube i <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Western ▁world , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁West , ▁refers ▁to ▁various ▁regions , ▁nations ▁and ▁states , ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁context , ▁most ▁often ▁consisting ▁of ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Europe , ▁Austral asia , ▁and ▁the ▁Amer icas . ▁There ▁are ▁many ▁accepted ▁definitions , ▁all ▁closely ▁inter related . ▁The ▁Western ▁world ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Occ ident ▁( from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁occ id ens , ▁" sun set , ▁West "), ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁O rient ▁( from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁or iens , ▁" rise , ▁East "), ▁or ▁Eastern ▁world . ▁It ▁might ▁mean ▁the ▁Northern ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁North – South ▁divide . ▁ ▁Anc ient ▁Greece ▁and ▁Anc ient ▁Rome ▁are ▁generally ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁birth pl aces ▁of ▁Western ▁civilization — G ree ce ▁having ▁heavily ▁influenced ▁Rome — the ▁former ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁impact ▁on ▁philosophy , ▁democracy , ▁science , ▁aest het ics ▁and ▁art , ▁building ▁designs ▁and ▁proport ions , ▁architecture ; ▁the ▁latter ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁influence ▁on ▁law , ▁war fare , ▁govern ance , ▁republic an ism , ▁engineering ▁and ▁religion . ▁Western ▁civilization |
▁is ▁also ▁strongly ▁associated ▁with ▁Christianity , ▁which ▁is ▁in ▁turn ▁shaped ▁by ▁H ellen istic ▁philosophy , ▁Jud a ism ▁and ▁Roman ▁culture . ▁In ▁the ▁modern ▁era , ▁Western ▁culture ▁has ▁been ▁heavily ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Rena issance , ▁the ▁A ges ▁of ▁Dis covery ▁and ▁En light en ment ▁and ▁the ▁Industrial ▁and ▁Scient ific ▁Rev olutions . ▁Through ▁extensive ▁imperial ism , ▁colonial ism ▁and ▁Christian ization ▁by ▁Western ▁powers ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁to ▁ 2 0 th ▁centuries , ▁and ▁later ▁export ation ▁of ▁mass ▁culture , ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁has ▁been ▁extens ively ▁influenced ▁by ▁Western ▁culture , ▁in ▁a ▁phenomenon ▁often ▁called ▁Western ization . ▁ ▁The ▁concept ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁earth ▁has ▁its ▁roots ▁in ▁the ▁the ological , ▁method ological ▁and ▁em ph at ical ▁division ▁between ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁Ch urches . ▁West ▁was ▁originally ▁literal , ▁oppos ing ▁Catholic ▁Europe ▁with ▁the ▁cultures ▁and ▁civil izations ▁of ▁Orth odox ▁Europe , ▁the ▁Middle ▁East ▁and ▁North ▁Africa , ▁Sub - S ah aran ▁Africa , ▁South ▁Asia , ▁Sout heast ▁Asia ▁and ▁the ▁remote ▁Far ▁East , ▁which ▁early - mod ern ▁Europe ans ▁saw ▁as ▁the ▁East . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁mid - 2 0 th ▁century , ▁Western ▁culture ▁was ▁export ed ▁worldwide ▁through ▁the ▁emer gent ▁mass ▁media : ▁film , ▁radio , ▁television ▁and ▁recorded ▁music ; ▁and ▁the ▁development ▁and ▁growth ▁of |
▁international ▁transport ▁and ▁tele commun ication ▁( such ▁as ▁trans at l antic ▁cable ▁and ▁the ▁radi ote le phone ) ▁played ▁a ▁decis ive ▁role ▁in ▁modern ▁global ization . ▁In ▁modern ▁usage , ▁Western ▁world ▁sometimes ▁refers ▁to ▁Europe ▁and ▁to ▁areas ▁whose ▁populations ▁have ▁had ▁a ▁large ▁European ▁eth n ical ▁presence ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century ▁Age ▁of ▁Dis covery . ▁ ▁Introduction ▁ ▁Western ▁culture ▁was ▁influenced ▁by ▁many ▁older ▁civil izations ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Near ▁East , ▁such ▁as ▁Ph oen icia , ▁Anc ient ▁Israel , ▁M ino an ▁Cre te , ▁S umer , ▁Bab yl onia , ▁and ▁also ▁Anc ient ▁Egypt . ▁It ▁origin ated ▁in ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁bas in ▁and ▁its ▁vic inity ; ▁Anc ient ▁Greece ▁and ▁Rome ▁are ▁often ▁cited ▁as ▁its ▁birth pl aces . ▁ ▁Over ▁time , ▁their ▁associated ▁em pires ▁grew ▁first ▁to ▁the ▁east ▁and ▁west ▁to ▁include ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁Mediterranean ▁and ▁Black ▁Sea ▁coastal ▁areas , ▁conqu ering ▁and ▁absor bing . ▁Later , ▁they ▁expanded ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁Sea ▁to ▁include ▁Western , ▁Central , ▁and ▁Sout he astern ▁Europe . ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Ireland ▁( 5 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Bulgar ia ▁( 9 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁K ie van ▁Rus ' ▁( R ussia , ▁Ukraine , ▁Bel ar us ; ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Sc and in avia ▁( Den mark , ▁Norway , |
▁Sweden ; ▁ 1 2 th ▁century ) ▁and ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁L ith u ania ▁( 1 4 th ▁century ) ▁brought ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁present - day ▁European ▁territory ▁into ▁Western ▁civilization . ▁ ▁Histor ians , ▁such ▁as ▁Car roll ▁Qu ig ley ▁in ▁" The ▁Ev olution ▁of ▁Civil izations ", ▁cont end ▁that ▁Western ▁civilization ▁was ▁born ▁around ▁AD ▁ 5 0 0 , ▁after ▁the ▁total ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁leaving ▁a ▁vacuum ▁for ▁new ▁ideas ▁to ▁flour ish ▁that ▁were ▁impossible ▁in ▁Class ical ▁societies . ▁In ▁either ▁view , ▁between ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁Rena issance , ▁the ▁West ▁( or ▁those ▁regions ▁that ▁would ▁later ▁become ▁the ▁heart land ▁of ▁the ▁cult ur ally ▁" western ▁sphere ") ▁experienced ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁first , ▁considerable ▁decline , ▁and ▁then ▁read apt ation , ▁re orient ation ▁and ▁considerable ▁renew ed ▁material , ▁technological ▁and ▁political ▁development . ▁This ▁whole ▁period ▁of ▁roughly ▁a ▁mill enn ium ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁its ▁early ▁part ▁forming ▁the ▁" Dark ▁A ges ", ▁design ations ▁that ▁were ▁created ▁during ▁the ▁Rena issance ▁and ▁reflect ▁the ▁perspective ▁on ▁history , ▁and ▁the ▁self - image , ▁of ▁the ▁latter ▁period . ▁ ▁The ▁knowledge ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Western ▁world ▁was ▁partly ▁preserved ▁during ▁this ▁period ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁survival ▁of ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁introduction ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ; ▁it ▁was ▁also ▁greatly |
▁expanded ▁by ▁the ▁Arab ▁import ation ▁of ▁both ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Gre co - R oman ▁and ▁new ▁technology ▁through ▁the ▁Ar abs ▁from ▁India ▁and ▁China ▁to ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁Rena issance , ▁the ▁West ▁evolved ▁beyond ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Gree ks ▁and ▁Romans ▁and ▁the ▁Islamic ▁world , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁successful ▁Second ▁Agricult ural , ▁Commercial , ▁Scient ific , ▁and ▁Industrial ▁rev olutions ▁( prop ellers ▁of ▁modern ▁banking ▁concepts ). ▁The ▁West ▁rose ▁further ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ' s ▁Age ▁of ▁En light en ment ▁and ▁through ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁Expl oration ' s ▁expansion ▁of ▁peoples ▁of ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁European ▁em pires , ▁particularly ▁the ▁globe - sp anning ▁colonial ▁em pires ▁of ▁ 1 8 th ▁and ▁ 1 9 th ▁centuries . ▁ ▁N umer ous ▁times , ▁this ▁expansion ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁Catholic ▁mission aries , ▁who ▁attempted ▁to ▁pros ely t ize ▁Christianity . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁debate ▁among ▁some ▁as ▁to ▁whether ▁Latin ▁America ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁is ▁in ▁a ▁category ▁of ▁its ▁own . ▁Whether ▁Russia ▁should ▁be ▁categor ized ▁as ▁" E ast " ▁or ▁" West " ▁has ▁been ▁" an ▁ongoing ▁discussion " ▁for ▁centuries . ▁ ▁Western / Europe an ▁culture ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" W estern ▁culture " ▁is ▁used ▁very ▁broad ly ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁a ▁heritage ▁of ▁social ▁norm s , ▁ethical ▁values , ▁traditional ▁customs , ▁religious ▁beliefs , ▁political ▁systems , ▁and ▁specific |
▁art ifacts ▁and ▁technologies . ▁ ▁Specific ally , ▁Western ▁culture ▁may ▁imply : ▁a ▁B iblical ▁Christian ▁cultural ▁influence ▁in ▁spiritual ▁thinking , ▁customs ▁and ▁either ▁eth ic ▁or ▁moral ▁traditions , ▁around ▁the ▁Post - Class ical ▁Era ▁and ▁after . ▁European ▁cultural ▁influences ▁concerning ▁artistic , ▁musical , ▁fol kl oric , ▁eth ic ▁and ▁oral ▁traditions , ▁whose ▁themes ▁have ▁been ▁further ▁developed ▁by ▁Rom antic ism . ▁a ▁Gra ec o - R oman ▁Class ical ▁and ▁Rena issance ▁cultural ▁influence , ▁concerning ▁artistic , ▁philosoph ic , ▁literary , ▁and ▁legal ▁themes ▁and ▁traditions , ▁the ▁cultural ▁social ▁effects ▁of ▁migration ▁period ▁and ▁the ▁her it ages ▁of ▁Celt ic , ▁German ic , ▁Sl av ic ▁and ▁other ▁ethnic ▁groups , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁a ▁tradition ▁of ▁rational ism ▁in ▁various ▁spher es ▁of ▁life , ▁developed ▁by ▁H ellen istic ▁philosophy , ▁Sch ol astic ism , ▁Rena issance ▁human ism , ▁the ▁Scient ific ▁Revolution ▁and ▁En light en ment . ▁ ▁The ▁concept ▁of ▁Western ▁culture ▁is ▁generally ▁linked ▁to ▁the ▁classical ▁definition ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world . ▁In ▁this ▁definition , ▁Western ▁culture ▁is ▁the ▁set ▁of ▁literary , ▁scientific , ▁political , ▁artistic ▁and ▁philosoph ical ▁principles ▁that ▁set ▁it ▁apart ▁from ▁other ▁civil izations . ▁Much ▁of ▁this ▁set ▁of ▁traditions ▁and ▁knowledge ▁is ▁collected ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁canon . ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁has ▁come ▁to ▁apply ▁to ▁countries ▁whose ▁history ▁is ▁strongly ▁marked ▁by ▁European ▁immigration ▁or ▁settlement , |
▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁and ▁O ce ania , ▁and ▁is ▁not ▁restricted ▁to ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Some ▁tend encies ▁that ▁define ▁modern ▁Western ▁societies ▁are ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁political ▁plural ism , ▁sec ular ism , ▁general ization ▁of ▁middle ▁class , ▁prominent ▁sub c ult ures ▁or ▁counter c ult ures ▁( such ▁as ▁New ▁Age ▁movements ), ▁increasing ▁cultural ▁syn cret ism ▁resulting ▁from ▁global ization ▁and ▁human ▁migration . ▁The ▁modern ▁shape ▁of ▁these ▁societies ▁is ▁strongly ▁based ▁upon ▁the ▁Industrial ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁societies ' ▁associated ▁social ▁and ▁environmental ▁problems , ▁such ▁as ▁class ▁and ▁pollution , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁reactions ▁to ▁them , ▁such ▁as ▁synd ical ism ▁and ▁environmental ism . ▁ ▁Historical ▁divisions ▁ ▁The ▁ge opol it ical ▁divisions ▁in ▁Europe ▁that ▁created ▁a ▁concept ▁of ▁East ▁and ▁West ▁origin ated ▁in ▁the ▁ancient ▁t yr ann ical ▁and ▁imperial istic ▁Gra ec o - R oman ▁times . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Mediterranean ▁was ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁highly ▁urban ized ▁cultures ▁that ▁had ▁Greek ▁as ▁their ▁common ▁language ▁( owing ▁to ▁the ▁older ▁empire ▁of ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁H ellen istic ▁success ors .), ▁whereas ▁the ▁West ▁was ▁much ▁more ▁rural ▁in ▁its ▁character ▁and ▁more ▁readily ▁adopted ▁Latin ▁as ▁its ▁common ▁language . ▁After ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Med ieval ▁times ▁( or ▁Middle ▁A ges ), ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁Europe ▁were ▁substant ially ▁cut ▁off ▁from ▁the ▁East ▁where ▁By |
z antine ▁Greek ▁culture ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Christianity ▁became ▁founding ▁influences ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁European ▁world ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Southern ▁Sl av ic ▁peoples . ▁ ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁Europe , ▁as ▁such , ▁maintained ▁a ▁distinct ▁identity ▁particularly ▁as ▁it ▁began ▁to ▁re develop ▁during ▁the ▁Rena issance . ▁Even ▁following ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation , ▁Protest ant ▁Europe ▁continued ▁to ▁see ▁itself ▁as ▁more ▁tied ▁to ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Europe ▁than ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁perceived ▁civil ized ▁world . ▁Use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁West ▁as ▁a ▁specific ▁cultural ▁and ▁ge opol it ical ▁term ▁developed ▁over ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁Expl oration ▁as ▁Europe ▁spread ▁its ▁culture ▁to ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁Roman ▁Cath ol ics ▁were ▁the ▁first ▁major ▁religious ▁group ▁to ▁immigr ate ▁to ▁the ▁New ▁World , ▁as ▁sett lers ▁in ▁the ▁colon ies ▁of ▁Portugal ▁and ▁Spain ▁( and ▁later , ▁France ) ▁belonged ▁to ▁that ▁faith . ▁English ▁and ▁Dutch ▁colon ies , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁t ended ▁to ▁be ▁more ▁relig iously ▁diverse . ▁S ett lers ▁to ▁these ▁colon ies ▁included ▁Ang lic ans , ▁Dutch ▁Cal vin ists , ▁English ▁Pur it ans ▁and ▁other ▁non con form ists , ▁English ▁Cath ol ics , ▁Scottish ▁Pres by ter ians , ▁French ▁Hug uen ots , ▁German ▁and ▁Swedish ▁Luther ans , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Qu akers , ▁M enn on ites , ▁Am ish , ▁and ▁Mor av ians . ▁ ▁Anc |
ient ▁Greek - H ellen istic ▁worlds ▁( 1 3 th – 1 st ▁centuries ▁BC ) ▁ ▁Anc ient ▁Greek ▁civilization ▁had ▁been ▁growing ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁mill enn ium ▁BC ▁into ▁wealthy ▁pole is , ▁so - called ▁city - states ▁( ge ograph ically ▁loose ▁political ▁entities ▁which ▁in ▁time , ▁inev itably ▁end ▁giving ▁way ▁to ▁larger ▁organisations ▁of ▁society , ▁including ▁the ▁empire ▁and ▁the ▁nation - state ) ▁such ▁as ▁At hens , ▁Sp arta , ▁The bes , ▁and ▁Cor inth , ▁by ▁Middle ▁and ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁ones ▁( S umer ian ▁cities ▁such ▁as ▁U ru k ▁and ▁Ur ; ▁Anc ient ▁Egyptian ▁city - states , ▁such ▁as ▁The bes ▁and ▁Mem ph is ; ▁the ▁Ph oen ician ▁Ty re ▁and ▁Sid on ; ▁the ▁five ▁Phil ist ine ▁city - states ; ▁the ▁Ber ber ▁city - states ▁of ▁the ▁G aram antes ). ▁ ▁The ▁then ▁H ellen ic ▁division ▁between ▁the ▁bar bar ians ▁( term ▁used ▁by ▁Anc ient ▁Gree ks ▁for ▁all ▁non - G reek - spe aking ▁people ) ▁and ▁the ▁Gree ks ▁contrast ed ▁in ▁many ▁societies ▁the ▁Greek - spe aking ▁culture ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁settlement s ▁around ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁to ▁the ▁surrounding ▁non - G reek ▁cultures . ▁Her odot us ▁considered ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁Wars ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁ 5 th ▁century ▁BC ▁a ▁conflict ▁of ▁Europa ▁versus ▁Asia ▁( which ▁he ▁considered ▁all ▁land ▁north ▁and ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁Sea ▁of |
▁Mar m ara , ▁respectively ). ▁ ▁The ▁terms ▁" West " ▁and ▁" E ast " ▁were ▁not ▁used ▁by ▁any ▁Greek ▁author ▁to ▁describe ▁that ▁conflict . ▁The ▁an ach ron istic ▁application ▁of ▁those ▁terms ▁to ▁that ▁division ▁ent ails ▁a ▁stark ▁logical ▁contrad iction , ▁given ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁" West " ▁has ▁been ▁used ▁to ▁distinguish ▁Latin - spe aking ▁peoples ▁from ▁their ▁Greek - spe aking ▁neighbors . ▁ ▁Greek ▁culture ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁influenced ▁Roman ▁civilization ▁in ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁society , ▁from ▁architecture ▁to ▁philosophy , ▁art ▁and ▁war . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁few ▁writers , ▁the ▁future ▁con quest ▁of ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁by ▁German ic ▁peoples ▁and ▁the ▁subsequent ▁domin ance ▁by ▁the ▁Western ▁Christian ▁Pap acy ▁( which ▁held ▁combined ▁political ▁and ▁spiritual ▁authority , ▁a ▁state ▁of ▁affairs ▁absent ▁from ▁Greek ▁civilization ▁in ▁all ▁its ▁stages ), ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁ru pt ure ▁of ▁the ▁previously ▁existing ▁ties ▁between ▁the ▁Latin ▁West ▁and ▁Greek ▁thought , ▁including ▁Christian ▁Greek ▁thought . ▁ ▁Anc ient ▁Roman ▁world ▁( 5 0 9 ▁BC – AD ▁ 4 7 6 ) ▁ ▁Anc ient ▁Rome ▁( 7 5 3 ▁BC ▁– ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 ) ▁was ▁a ▁civilization ▁that ▁grew ▁from ▁a ▁city - state ▁founded ▁on ▁the ▁Italian ▁Pen insula ▁about ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁BC ▁to ▁a ▁massive ▁empire ▁str add ling ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁Sea . ▁In ▁its ▁ 1 0 - cent uries ▁expansion |
, ▁Roman ▁civilization ▁shifted ▁from ▁a ▁small ▁mon archy ▁( 7 5 3 ▁– ▁ 5 0 9 ▁BC ), ▁to ▁a ▁republic ▁( 5 0 9 ▁– ▁ 2 7 ▁BC ), ▁to ▁an ▁aut ocratic ▁empire ▁( 2 7 ▁BC ▁– ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 ). ▁It ▁came ▁to ▁dom inate ▁Western , ▁Central ▁and ▁Sout he astern ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁entire ▁area ▁surrounding ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁Sea ▁through ▁con quest ▁using ▁the ▁Roman ▁leg ions ▁and ▁then ▁through ▁cultural ▁ass im ilation ▁by ▁eventually ▁giving ▁Roman ▁citizens hip ▁privile ges ▁to ▁the ▁whole ▁population . ▁Non etheless , ▁despite ▁its ▁great ▁legacy , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁factors ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁event ual ▁decline ▁and ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁succeeded ▁the ▁approximately ▁ 5 0 0 - year - old ▁Roman ▁Republic ▁( ▁ 5 1 0 ▁BC ▁– ▁ 3 0 ▁BC ), ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁weak ened ▁by ▁the ▁conflict ▁between ▁G ai us ▁Mar ius ▁and ▁Sull a ▁and ▁the ▁civil ▁war ▁of ▁Jul ius ▁Ca esar ▁against ▁Pom pe y ▁and ▁Marcus ▁Br ut us . ▁ ▁During ▁these ▁struggles ▁hundreds ▁of ▁sen ators ▁were ▁killed , ▁and ▁the ▁Roman ▁Senate ▁had ▁been ▁ref illed ▁with ▁loyal ists ▁of ▁the ▁First ▁Tri um vir ate ▁and ▁later ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁Tri um vir ate . ▁In ▁ 3 5 0 ▁years , ▁from ▁the ▁successful ▁and ▁dead liest ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Ph oen icians ▁began ▁in ▁ 2 1 8 |
▁BC ▁to ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Had rian ▁by ▁AD ▁ 1 1 7 , ▁Anc ient ▁Rome ▁expanded ▁up ▁to ▁twenty - five ▁times ▁its ▁area . ▁The ▁same ▁time ▁passed ▁before ▁its ▁fall ▁in ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 . ▁Rome ▁had ▁expanded ▁long ▁before ▁the ▁empire ▁reached ▁its ▁z en ith ▁with ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁D acia ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 0 6 , ▁under ▁Emperor ▁Tra jan . ▁During ▁its ▁territor ial ▁peak , ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁controlled ▁about ▁ ▁of ▁land ▁surface ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 ▁million . ▁From ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁Ca esar ▁( 1 0 0 ▁– ▁ 4 4 ▁BC ) ▁to ▁the ▁Fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁Rome ▁dominated ▁Southern ▁Europe , ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁coast ▁of ▁Northern ▁Africa ▁and ▁the ▁Western ▁Middle ▁East , ▁including ▁the ▁ancient ▁trade ▁routes ▁with ▁population ▁living ▁outside . ▁Anc ient ▁Rome ▁has ▁contributed ▁greatly ▁to ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁law , ▁war , ▁art , ▁literature , ▁architecture , ▁technology ▁and ▁language ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁world , ▁and ▁its ▁history ▁continues ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁major ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁world ▁today . ▁Latin ▁language ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁base ▁from ▁which ▁Rom ance ▁languages ▁evolved ▁and ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁and ▁all ▁Catholic ▁religious ▁ceremon ies ▁all ▁over ▁Europe ▁until ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁an ▁or ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁countries ▁such ▁as ▁Poland ▁( 9 th – 1 8 th ▁centuries |
). ▁ ▁In ▁AD ▁ 3 9 5 , ▁a ▁few ▁decades ▁before ▁its ▁Western ▁collapse , ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁formally ▁split ▁into ▁a ▁Western ▁and ▁an ▁Eastern ▁one , ▁each ▁with ▁their ▁own ▁em per ors , ▁cap itals , ▁and ▁governments , ▁although ▁ost ens ibly ▁they ▁still ▁belonged ▁to ▁one ▁formal ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁provin ces ▁eventually ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁Northern ▁European ▁German ic ▁ruled ▁kingdom s ▁in ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁century ▁due ▁to ▁civil ▁wars , ▁corruption , ▁and ▁devast ating ▁German ic ▁invas ions ▁from ▁such ▁tribes ▁as ▁the ▁G oth s , ▁the ▁Fr anks ▁and ▁the ▁V and als ▁by ▁their ▁late ▁expansion ▁throughout ▁Europe . ▁The ▁three - day ▁Vis ig oth s ' s ▁AD ▁ 4 1 0 ▁s ack ▁of ▁Rome ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁ra iding ▁Greece ▁not ▁long ▁before , ▁a ▁shock ing ▁time ▁for ▁Gra ec o - Rom ans , ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁after ▁almost ▁ 8 0 0 ▁years ▁that ▁Rome ▁had ▁fallen ▁to ▁a ▁foreign ▁enemy , ▁and ▁St . ▁Jer ome , ▁living ▁in ▁Beth le hem ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁wrote ▁that ▁" The ▁City ▁which ▁had ▁taken ▁the ▁whole ▁world ▁was ▁itself ▁taken ." ▁There ▁followed ▁the ▁s ack ▁of ▁AD ▁ 4 5 5 ▁lasting ▁ 1 4 ▁days , ▁this ▁time ▁conducted ▁by ▁the ▁V and als , ▁ret aining ▁Rome ' s ▁eternal ▁spirit ▁through ▁the ▁Holy ▁See ▁of ▁Rome ▁( the ▁Latin ▁Church ) ▁for |
▁centuries ▁to ▁come . ▁The ▁ancient ▁Bar bar ian ▁tribes , ▁often ▁composed ▁of ▁well - trained ▁Roman ▁soldiers ▁paid ▁by ▁Rome ▁to ▁guard ▁the ▁extensive ▁borders , ▁had ▁become ▁milit arily ▁sophisticated ▁' rom an ized ▁bar bar ians ', ▁and ▁mer cil ess ly ▁slaughter ed ▁the ▁Romans ▁conqu ering ▁their ▁Western ▁territor ies ▁while ▁lo oting ▁their ▁poss essions . ▁ ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁is ▁where ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁" the ▁West " ▁began ▁to ▁emerge . ▁By ▁Rome ' s ▁central ▁location ▁at ▁the ▁heart ▁of ▁the ▁Empire , ▁" West " ▁and ▁" E ast " ▁were ▁terms ▁used ▁to ▁denote ▁provin ces ▁west ▁and ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁capital ▁itself . ▁Therefore , ▁I ber ia ▁( Port ug al ▁and ▁Spain ), ▁G aul ▁( Fr ance ), ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁coast ▁of ▁North ▁Africa ▁( T un is ia , ▁Al ger ia , ▁and ▁Mor oc co ) ▁and ▁Brit ann ia ▁were ▁all ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁" West ", ▁while ▁Greece , ▁Cy pr us , ▁An at olia , ▁Leb anon , ▁Syria , ▁Israel , ▁Palest ine , ▁Egypt , ▁and ▁Lib ya ▁were ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁" E ast ". ▁Italy ▁itself ▁was ▁considered ▁central , ▁until ▁the ▁reform s ▁of ▁Di oc let ian ▁divid ing ▁the ▁Empire ▁into ▁true ▁two ▁hal ves : ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western . ▁ ▁The ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁half ▁( nom in ally ▁in ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 , ▁but ▁in ▁truth ▁a |
▁long ▁process ▁that ▁ended ▁by ▁AD ▁ 8 0 0 ) ▁left ▁only ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁alive . ▁The ▁East ▁continued ▁to ▁call ▁themselves ▁Eastern ▁Romans ▁even ▁after ▁AD ▁ 6 1 0 ▁– ▁ 8 0 0 ▁when ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁Latin , ▁and ▁the ▁Pope ▁c rowned ▁Char lemagne ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Romans . ▁The ▁West ▁began ▁thinking ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁Western ▁Lat ins ▁( th ose ▁living ▁in ▁the ▁old ▁Western ▁Empire ) ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Gree ks ▁( th ose ▁inside ▁the ▁Roman ▁rem nant ▁to ▁the ▁east ). ▁ ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁governed ▁from ▁Constant in ople , ▁is ▁usually ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁after ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 , ▁the ▁traditional ▁date ▁for ▁the ▁" fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire " ▁and ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Early ▁Middle ▁A ges . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁surviving ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁protected ▁Roman ▁legal ▁and ▁cultural ▁traditions , ▁combining ▁them ▁with ▁Greek ▁and ▁Christian ▁elements , ▁for ▁another ▁thousand ▁years . ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁was ▁used ▁after ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁ended , ▁the ▁inhabitants ▁calling ▁themselves ▁Romans ▁since ▁the ▁term ▁“ R oman ” ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁sign ify ▁all ▁Christians . ▁ ▁Middle ▁A ges : ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁( AD ▁ 3 9 5 – 1 4 5 0 ), ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( AD ▁ 8 0 0 / 9 6 2 – 1 8 |
0 6 ), ▁East - West ▁Sch ism ▁( AD ▁ 1 0 5 4 ), ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁( 1 5 0 0 s ) ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁( AD ▁ 3 3 0 ), ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁Constant ine ▁the ▁Great ▁had ▁established ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Constant in ople ▁( former ly ▁ancient ▁By z ant ium ) ▁as ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁later ▁called ▁" By z antine ▁Empire " ▁by ▁modern ▁histor ians . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁included ▁lands ▁south - west ▁of ▁the ▁Black ▁Sea ▁and ▁bord ering ▁on ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Mediterranean ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Ad ri atic ▁Sea . ▁This ▁division ▁into ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Emp ires ▁was ▁reflected ▁in ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Greek ▁Orth odox ▁churches , ▁with ▁Rome ▁and ▁Constant in ople ▁deb ating ▁over ▁whether ▁either ▁city ▁was ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁Western ▁religion . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁Eastern ▁( Or th odox ) ▁and ▁Western ▁( C ath olic ) ▁churches ▁spread ▁their ▁influence , ▁the ▁line ▁between ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western ▁Christianity ▁was ▁moving . ▁Its ▁movement ▁was ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁empire ▁and ▁the ▁fluct u ating ▁power ▁and ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁church ▁in ▁Rome . ▁The ▁ge ographic ▁line ▁of ▁religious ▁division ▁approximately ▁followed ▁a ▁line ▁of ▁cultural ▁divide . ▁The ▁influential ▁American ▁conservative ▁political ▁scientist , ▁adv iser ▁and ▁academic ▁Samuel ▁P . ▁Hun ting ton ▁argued ▁that ▁this |
▁cultural ▁division ▁still ▁existed ▁during ▁the ▁Cold ▁War ▁as ▁the ▁approximate ▁Western ▁boundary ▁of ▁those ▁countries ▁that ▁were ▁all ied ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁ ▁In ▁AD ▁ 8 0 0 ▁under ▁Char lemagne , ▁the ▁Early ▁Med ieval ▁Fr anks ▁established ▁an ▁empire ▁that ▁was ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁Pope ▁in ▁Rome ▁as ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( L atin ▁Christian ▁rev ival ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁under ▁perpet ual ▁German ic ▁rule ▁from ▁AD ▁ 9 6 2 ) ▁inher iting ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁prest ige ▁but ▁off ending ▁the ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁Constant in ople . ▁The ▁crow ning ▁of ▁the ▁Emperor ▁by ▁the ▁Pope ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁assumption ▁that ▁the ▁highest ▁power ▁was ▁the ▁pap al ▁hierarchy , ▁qu int ess ential ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁spiritual ▁heritage ▁authority , ▁establishing ▁then , ▁until ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation , ▁the ▁civilization ▁of ▁Western ▁Christ end om . ▁ ▁The ▁Latin ▁R ite ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁of ▁western ▁and ▁central ▁Europe ▁split ▁with ▁the ▁eastern ▁Greek - spe aking ▁Patri arch ates ▁in ▁the ▁Christian ▁East – West ▁Sch ism , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" Great ▁Sch ism ", ▁during ▁the ▁Greg or ian ▁Re forms ▁( call ing ▁for ▁a ▁more ▁central ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁Inst itution ), ▁three ▁months ▁after ▁Pope ▁Leo ▁IX ' s ▁death ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 0 5 4 . ▁Following ▁the ▁ 1 0 5 4 ▁Great ▁Sch ism , ▁both ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ▁and |
▁Eastern ▁Church ▁continued ▁to ▁consider ▁themselves ▁uniqu ely ▁orth odox ▁and ▁c ath olic . ▁August ine ▁wrote ▁in ▁On ▁True ▁Relig ion : ▁“ Rel ig ion ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁sought ... ▁only ▁among ▁those ▁who ▁are ▁called ▁Catholic ▁or ▁orth odox ▁Christians , ▁that ▁is , ▁guard ians ▁of ▁truth ▁and ▁followers ▁of ▁right .” ▁Over ▁time , ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ▁gradually ▁identified ▁with ▁the ▁" C ath olic " ▁label , ▁and ▁people ▁of ▁Western ▁Europe ▁gradually ▁associated ▁the ▁" Or th odox " ▁label ▁with ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Church ▁( although ▁in ▁some ▁languages ▁the ▁" C ath olic " ▁label ▁is ▁not ▁necessarily ▁identified ▁with ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ). ▁This ▁was ▁in ▁note ▁of ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁both ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁were ▁in ▁use ▁as ▁ec cles i ast ical ▁ad ject ives ▁as ▁early ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁and ▁ 4 th ▁centuries ▁respectively . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁both ▁Christ end oms ▁expanded , ▁as ▁German ic ▁peoples , ▁Bo hem ia , ▁Poland , ▁Hung ary , ▁Sc and in avia , ▁Balt ic ▁peoples , ▁British ▁Is les ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁non - Christ ian ▁lands ▁of ▁the ▁north west ▁were ▁converted ▁by ▁the ▁Western ▁Church , ▁while ▁Eastern ▁Sl av ic ▁peoples , ▁Bulgar ia , ▁Ser bia , ▁Mont en eg ro , ▁Russian ▁territor ies , ▁V l ach s ▁and ▁Georgia ▁were ▁converted ▁by ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Church . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 0 7 1 , ▁the ▁By |
z antine ▁army ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁Muslim ▁Tur co - Pers ians ▁of ▁medieval ▁Asia , ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁most ▁of ▁Asia ▁Minor . ▁The ▁situation ▁was ▁a ▁serious ▁threat ▁to ▁the ▁future ▁of ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁By z antine ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Emperor ▁sent ▁a ▁ple a ▁to ▁the ▁Pope ▁in ▁Rome ▁to ▁send ▁military ▁aid ▁to ▁restore ▁the ▁lost ▁territor ies ▁to ▁Christian ▁rule . ▁The ▁result ▁was ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁western ▁European ▁military ▁campaigns ▁into ▁the ▁eastern ▁Mediterranean , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Cr us ades . ▁Unfortunately ▁for ▁the ▁By z ant ines , ▁the ▁cr us aders ▁( bel ong ing ▁to ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁nob ility ▁from ▁France , ▁German ▁territor ies , ▁the ▁Low ▁countries , ▁England , ▁Italy ▁and ▁Hung ary ) ▁had ▁no ▁alleg iance ▁to ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Emperor ▁and ▁established ▁their ▁own ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁conqu ered ▁regions , ▁including ▁the ▁heart ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁would ▁diss olve ▁on ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁after ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁by ▁Napoleon . ▁ ▁Decl ine ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁( 1 3 th – 1 5 th ▁centuries ) ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁Latin ▁Christian ▁Fourth ▁Cr us ade ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 2 0 2 – 0 4 , ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁events , ▁solid ifying ▁the ▁sch |
ism ▁between ▁the ▁Christian ▁churches ▁of ▁Greek ▁By z antine ▁R ite ▁and ▁Latin ▁Roman ▁R ite . ▁An ▁anti - W estern ▁ri ot ▁in ▁ 1 1 8 2 ▁broke ▁out ▁in ▁Constant in ople ▁target ing ▁Lat ins . ▁The ▁extremely ▁wealthy ▁( after ▁previous ▁Cr us ades ) ▁Ven et ians ▁in ▁particular ▁made ▁a ▁successful ▁attempt ▁to ▁maintain ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁Catholic ▁present - day ▁Cro at ia ▁( specific ally ▁the ▁Dal mat ia , ▁a ▁region ▁of ▁interest ▁to ▁the ▁mar itime ▁medieval ▁Ven et ian ▁Republic ▁money l enders ▁and ▁its ▁riv als , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Gen oa ) ▁reb elling ▁against ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁economic ▁dom ination . ▁What ▁followed ▁dealt ▁an ▁ir rev oc able ▁blow ▁to ▁the ▁already ▁weak ened ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁Cr us ader ▁army ' s ▁s ack ▁of ▁Constant in ople ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 2 0 4 , ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁Christian - cont rolled ▁By z antine ▁Empire , ▁described ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁profitable ▁and ▁dis gr ace ful ▁s acks ▁of ▁a ▁city ▁in ▁history . ▁This ▁p aved ▁the ▁way ▁for ▁Muslim ▁conqu ests ▁in ▁present - day ▁Turkey ▁and ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁in ▁the ▁coming ▁centuries ▁( only ▁a ▁handful ▁of ▁the ▁Cr us aders ▁followed ▁to ▁the ▁stated ▁destination ▁there after , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Land ). ▁The ▁ge ographical ▁identity ▁of ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁is ▁histor ically ▁known |
▁as ▁a ▁cross ro ads ▁of ▁cultures , ▁a ▁jun ct ure ▁between ▁the ▁Latin ▁and ▁Greek ▁bodies ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁the ▁destination ▁of ▁a ▁massive ▁infl ux ▁of ▁pag ans ▁( mean ing ▁" non - Christ ians ") ▁Bul g ars ▁and ▁Sl av s , ▁an ▁area ▁where ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁Christianity ▁met , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁meeting ▁point ▁between ▁Islam ▁and ▁Christianity . ▁The ▁Pap al ▁In quis ition ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 2 2 9 ▁on ▁a ▁permanent ▁basis , ▁run ▁largely ▁by ▁cl erg ym en ▁in ▁Rome , ▁and ▁abol ished ▁six ▁centuries ▁later . ▁Before ▁AD ▁ 1 1 0 0 , ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁supp ressed ▁what ▁they ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁her es y , ▁usually ▁through ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁ec cles i ast ical ▁pro scription ▁or ▁imprison ment , ▁but ▁without ▁using ▁torture , ▁and ▁sel dom ▁resort ing ▁to ▁execut ions . ▁ ▁This ▁very ▁profitable ▁Central ▁European ▁Fourth ▁Cr us ade ▁had ▁prompt ed ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century ▁Rena issance ▁( transl ated ▁as ▁' Reb irth ') ▁of ▁Italian ▁city - states ▁including ▁the ▁Pap al ▁States , ▁on ▁e ve ▁of ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁and ▁Coun ter - Re formation ▁( which ▁established ▁the ▁Roman ▁In quis ition ▁to ▁succeed ▁the ▁Med ieval ▁In quis ition ). ▁There ▁followed ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁continent , ▁and ▁consequ ent ▁diss olution ▁of ▁West ▁Christ end om ▁as ▁even |
▁a ▁theoretical ▁unit ary ▁political ▁body , ▁later ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁religious ▁Eight y ▁Years ▁War ▁( 1 5 6 8 – 1 6 4 8 ) ▁and ▁Th irty ▁Years ▁War ▁( 1 6 1 8 – 1 6 4 8 ) ▁between ▁various ▁Protest ant ▁and ▁Catholic ▁states ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( and ▁emer gence ▁of ▁relig iously ▁diverse ▁conf essions ). ▁In ▁this ▁context , ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁( 1 5 1 7 ) ▁may ▁be ▁viewed ▁as ▁a ▁sch ism ▁within ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁German ▁mon k ▁Martin ▁Luther , ▁in ▁the ▁wake ▁of ▁pre curs ors , ▁broke ▁with ▁the ▁po pe ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁emperor ▁by ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ' s ▁ab usive ▁commercial ization ▁of ▁indul g ences ▁in ▁the ▁Late ▁Med ieval ▁Period , ▁backed ▁by ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁prin ces ▁and ▁helped ▁by ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁printing ▁press , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁reform ▁corruption ▁within ▁the ▁church . ▁ ▁Both ▁these ▁religious ▁wars ▁ended ▁with ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West ph alia ▁( 1 6 4 8 ), ▁which ▁en sh r ined ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁the ▁nation - state , ▁and ▁the ▁principle ▁of ▁absolute ▁national ▁sovere ig nt y ▁in ▁international ▁law . ▁As ▁European ▁influence ▁spread ▁across ▁the ▁globe , ▁these ▁West ph al ian ▁principles , ▁especially ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁sovere ign ▁states , ▁became ▁central ▁to ▁international ▁law ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁prev ailing ▁world ▁order . ▁ ▁Col onial ▁West : ▁discovery |
▁of ▁America , ▁merc ant il ism ▁and ▁imperial ism ▁( 1 5 th – 2 0 th ▁centuries ) ▁ ▁Later ▁concepts ▁of ▁a ▁world ▁of ▁nation - states ▁born ▁by ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West ph alia ▁in ▁ 1 6 4 8 , ▁coupled ▁with ▁the ▁ide ologies ▁of ▁the ▁En light en ment , ▁the ▁coming ▁of ▁modern ity , ▁the ▁Scient ific ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁Industrial ▁Revolution , ▁would ▁produce ▁powerful ▁social ▁transform ations , ▁political ▁and ▁economic ▁institutions ▁that ▁have ▁come ▁to ▁influence ▁( or ▁been ▁imposed ▁upon ) ▁most ▁nations ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁today . ▁Histor ians ▁agree ▁that ▁the ▁Industrial ▁Revolution ▁has ▁been ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁events ▁in ▁history . ▁ ▁This ▁process ▁of ▁influence ▁( and ▁im position ) ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁voy ages ▁of ▁discovery , ▁colon ization , ▁con quest , ▁and ▁explo itation ▁of ▁Portugal ▁en forced ▁as ▁well ▁by ▁pap al ▁bull s ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 0 s ▁( by ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ), ▁grant ing ▁Portugal ▁navigation , ▁war ▁and ▁trade ▁mon opol y ▁for ▁any ▁newly ▁discovered ▁lands , ▁and ▁competing ▁Spanish ▁navig ators . ▁It ▁continued ▁with ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁by ▁the ▁dest abil ising ▁Spanish ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁World , ▁and ▁the ▁creation ▁and ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁English ▁and ▁French ▁colonial ▁em pires , ▁and ▁others . ▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁reach ▁of ▁these ▁em pires , ▁Western ▁institutions ▁expanded ▁throughout ▁the |
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