_id
stringlengths 77
96
| datasets_id
int32 0
1.38M
| wiki_id
stringlengths 2
9
| start_paragraph
int32 2
1.17k
| start_character
int32 0
70.3k
| end_paragraph
int32 4
1.18k
| end_character
int32 1
70.3k
| article_title
stringlengths 1
250
| section_title
stringlengths 0
1.12k
| passage_text
stringlengths 1
14k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 243} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 243 | Aluminium Bahrain | History & Ownership | Aluminium Bahrain History Alba was officially incorporated in 1968 and began operations in 1971 with an annual capacity of 120,000 metric tonnes per annum. After modernisation and expansion works the smelter's capacity rose to 450,000 tonnes in 1992. In March 2005 Alba commissioned a new reduction line, Line 5, which increased the company's capacity to over 860,000 tonnes of aluminium at that time. Ownership The shareholders of Alba are Bahrain Mumtalakat Holding Company (69.38%), SABIC Investment Company (20.62%) and the General Public (10%).
The company went public in 2010, launched its first IPO, and was listed on the Bahrain Bourse and |
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 10, "sc": 243, "ep": 18, "ec": 129} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 10 | 243 | 18 | 129 | Aluminium Bahrain | Ownership & Plant & Standard Ingots | the London Stock Exchange, under the symbol "ALBH". Plant The Alba plant comprises five reduction lines, two cast houses, a dedicated carbon plant, a 550,000 mtpa coke calcining plant, a water desalination plant, 11 fume treatment plants, a marine terminal, and a 2,249 MW ISO power plant, consisting of 4 power stations. The plant also features a 13 hectare oasis, with more than 15,000 trees and shrubs, a fruit and vegetable garden, and an artificial lake. Standard Ingots Standard ingots are for downstream users who wish to re-melt this residual form of aluminium in their own furnaces, and then cast |
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 18, "sc": 129, "ep": 30, "ec": 125} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 18 | 129 | 30 | 125 | Aluminium Bahrain | Standard Ingots & Rolling Slabs & Foundry Alloy Ingots & Extrusion Billets | it to produce a variety of end products. Alba's production capacity of standard ingots stands at approximately 400,000 metric tonnes per annum. Rolling Slabs Sheet ingots, or rolling slabs, are used in rolling mills for manufacturing aluminium foil and sheet products. The total annual production capacity of rolling slabs currently stands at approximately 140,000 metric tonnes per annum. Foundry Alloy Ingots Foundry alloy ingots are mainly used by the automotive industry for manufacturing automotive wheels, truck hubs and gas pump nozzles. Extrusion Billets Extrusion ingots are widely used in the construction industry (for windows and door frames), transportation, engineering, and |
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 30, "sc": 125, "ep": 46, "ec": 5} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 30 | 125 | 46 | 5 | Aluminium Bahrain | Extrusion Billets & Liquid Metal & Calcined Coke & Anodes & Power | consumer durables. Alba produces around 380,000 metric tonnes per annum of extrusion ingots. Liquid Metal The Liquid is supplied in liquid form to downstream industries in Bahrain and is transferred in crucibles. It takes 5 hours for the liquid metal to solidify. Calcined Coke Alba is one of only two smelters in the world to have a dedicated coke calciner, its production capacity is nearly 550,000 metric tonnes per annum. Anodes Alba has three carbon plants that produce about 550,000 metric tonnes of anodes every year. Carbon anodes are produced from calcined petroleum coke and coal tar pitch. Power With |
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 46, "sc": 4, "ep": 58, "ec": 7} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 46 | 4 | 58 | 7 | Aluminium Bahrain | Power & Water & Environment Conservation & Line 6 Expansion Project | its four power stations having a total power generating capacity of 2,249 MW ISO, equivalent to the average power consumed in Bahrain as a whole, Alba's energy needs are fulfilled independently. Water Alba's seawater desalination plant was commissioned in 2001. It utilises waste heat from the calcining process to generate steam for the production and supply of 41,000 cubic metres per day of potable water. Environment Conservation Alba has invested more than US$589 million environmental conservation and earned international praise and recognition for being committed to implementing highest environmental standards across the organisation. Line 6 Expansion Project Alba's |
{"datasets_id": 161987, "wiki_id": "Q447457", "sp": 58, "sc": 6, "ep": 58, "ec": 562} | 161,987 | Q447457 | 58 | 6 | 58 | 562 | Aluminium Bahrain | Line 6 Expansion Project | Line 6 Expansion Project is one of the largest brownfield developments in the region. Expected to begin production by January 1, 2019, this Project will boost the smelter's per-annum production by 540,000 metric tonnes, bringing its total production capacity to 1.5 million metric tonnes per year.
The Line 6 Expansion Project will make Alba the world's largest single-site aluminium smelter and be a significant economic boost for the Kingdom of Bahrain due to the many co-investment opportunities through local and foreign aluminium investments. |
{"datasets_id": 161988, "wiki_id": "Q2356505", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 12, "ec": 10} | 161,988 | Q2356505 | 2 | 0 | 12 | 10 | Amfepramone | Abuse & Pharmacology & Chemistry | Amfepramone Abuse Amfepramone is believed to have relatively low abuse potential. but recently there have been reports of teens and adults in the UK abusing this drug, known as "tombstones" to the abusers. Pharmacology Amfepramone itself lacks any affinity for the monoamine transporters and instead functions as a prodrug to ethcathinone. Ethcathinone (and therefore amfepramone as well) is a very weak dopaminergic and serotonergic, and is approximately 10x and 20x stronger on norepinephrine in comparison, respectively. As a result, ethcathinone and amfepramone can essentially be considered a member of the class of drugs known as norepinephrine releasing agents (NRAs). Chemistry |
{"datasets_id": 161988, "wiki_id": "Q2356505", "sp": 14, "sc": 0, "ep": 22, "ec": 266} | 161,988 | Q2356505 | 14 | 0 | 22 | 266 | Amfepramone | Chemistry & Names & Legality | Amfepramone can be synthesized from propiophenone by bromination, followed by reaction with diethylamine. Names Another medically-utilized name is diethylpropion (BAN and AAN). Chemical names include: α-methyl-β-keto-N,N-diethylphenethylamine, N,N-diethyl-β-ketoamphetamine and N,N-diethylcathinone. Brand names include: Anorex, Linea, Nobesine, Prefamone, Regenon, Tepanil and Tenuate. Legality Amfepramone is classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance in the United States. It is also a Schedule IV controlled substance in Canada. In the UK Amfepramone is a class C drug and as a medicine, it is a Schedule 3 Controlled Drug which requires safe custody. |
{"datasets_id": 161989, "wiki_id": "Q4747447", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 582} | 161,989 | Q4747447 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 582 | Amod Cassimjee | Business | Amod Cassimjee Business He joined his brother Suleman, trading as Suleman Cassimjee & Co. for a few years. Amod then established his first business in Kranskop. Amod later returned to Pietermaritzburg and entered into partnership as Amod Mahomed & Co. The partnership was dissolved in 1913 and Amod Cassimjee assumed his sole ownership of the business and traded under his own name. It was one of the best known firms in Upper Church Street in the African trade with a European department boasting a large clientele. Also entered the Shoe Manufacturing Field. One of the most colourful personalities in the |
{"datasets_id": 161989, "wiki_id": "Q4747447", "sp": 6, "sc": 582, "ep": 10, "ec": 103} | 161,989 | Q4747447 | 6 | 582 | 10 | 103 | Amod Cassimjee | Business & Personal and community leadership | City and popularly known by a wide African custom as "Khandalemvu". He was interested in all Indian activities and as a Grand Old man laid the foundation stone of the Mohammedian Oriental School. Attached to the Upper Church Street Mosque.
Amod and Suleman Cassimjee formed a company called Suleman Cassimjee & Co. The business was started in Winterton, Kwa-Zulu Natal. Mahomed Cassimjee and Amod joined their brother in the company Suleman Cassimjee & Co. for a few years. Personal and community leadership Amod Cassimjee was keenly interested in the welfare of the Muslims as well as the Indian community as a |
{"datasets_id": 161989, "wiki_id": "Q4747447", "sp": 10, "sc": 103, "ep": 14, "ec": 131} | 161,989 | Q4747447 | 10 | 103 | 14 | 131 | Amod Cassimjee | Personal and community leadership & Death | whole. He laid the foundation for the establishment of the Muhammadan Oriental School (now Government-aided). He was ever prepared to assist all movements directed for the good of the community. Death Amod Cassimjee died on 16 May 1951 at the age of 80. He was buried in the Mountain Rise Cemetery in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. |
{"datasets_id": 161990, "wiki_id": "Q2364122", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 77} | 161,990 | Q2364122 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 77 | Andrey Kobelev | Playing career & Coaching career | Andrey Kobelev Playing career During his career Kobelev played for FC Dynamo Moscow (three spells, more than 250 Russian Premier League appearances and nearly 50 goals), Real Betis and FC Zenit St. Petersburg, retiring at 34. With the Spanish side, he played in two Segunda División seasons, and was still in roster for the 1994–95 campaign, but failed to compete in La Liga.
Kobelev was capped for Russia once. Additionally, he helped win the 1985 UEFA European Under-16 Football Championship and the 1990 Under-21 European Championship. Coaching career In 2006, Kobelev took up coaching, starting with his first team Dynamo Moscow |
{"datasets_id": 161990, "wiki_id": "Q2364122", "sp": 10, "sc": 77, "ep": 10, "ec": 575} | 161,990 | Q2364122 | 10 | 77 | 10 | 575 | Andrey Kobelev | Coaching career | following the sacking of Yuri Semin due to poor results. On 27 April 2010 he was fired himself, being replaced by Miodrag Božović.
In June 2011, Kobelev was appointed at FC Krylia Sovetov Samara. In November of the following year, following a poor start to the season, he resigned and left his place to caretaker Aleksandr Tsygankov.
He returned to Dynamo in 2015, first as director of sports and then as a manager. Due to a string of poor results, he left the club on 10 May 2016. |
{"datasets_id": 161991, "wiki_id": "Q529508", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 557} | 161,991 | Q529508 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 557 | Anette Börjesson | Badminton & Football | Anette Börjesson Badminton Börjesson is a five time women's singles champion at the Swedish National Badminton Championships. Football She captained Sweden to their win in the 1984 European Competition for Women's Football. In the final against England, Börjesson struck the first penalty in Sweden's shootout victory. She won a total of 70 caps between 1975 and 1987, scoring 12 goals. In 1985 she scored a hat-trick of penalty kicks against France.
Börjesson won the Årets Fotbollstjej Award, the forerunner of the Diamantbollen, in 1982.
After her retirement from playing, Börjesson founded a magazine dedicated to women's football, called nya mål.
Börjesson can be |
{"datasets_id": 161991, "wiki_id": "Q529508", "sp": 10, "sc": 557, "ep": 10, "ec": 646} | 161,991 | Q529508 | 10 | 557 | 10 | 646 | Anette Börjesson | Football | seen in the Sveriges Television documentary television series The Other Sport from 2013. |
{"datasets_id": 161992, "wiki_id": "Q236748", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 209} | 161,992 | Q236748 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 209 | Arash (singer) | Early life & Career | Arash (singer) Early life Arash Labaf was born in Tehran, Iran. At age ten, he and his family moved to Sweden, where he still resides. In an interview with BBC Persian Television, he has mentioned that his mother and father are from the Iranian cities of Shiraz and Isfahan, respectively. Also in one of his interviews, he stated his great grandfather is Iranian Azerbaijani. Career Arash has said that the reason he chooses to sing in his native language is because of his "deep attachment to Iran and Persian culture."
His debut album, Arash, was released by the Warner Music Sweden |
{"datasets_id": 161992, "wiki_id": "Q236748", "sp": 10, "sc": 209, "ep": 10, "ec": 893} | 161,992 | Q236748 | 10 | 209 | 10 | 893 | Arash (singer) | Career | in June 2005, after he had finished college. His singles, "Boro Boro" ("Go Away") and "Temptation" (featuring Rebecca) made it to the hit lists around Europe, and their respective videos garnered significant airplay on more than 20 MTV outlets across the world. In addition to successes in his home countries' music charts, namely Sweden and Iran, the platinum-selling singer and producer Arash has had hits notably in Eastern European and South-East European charts like Russia, Ukraine, Greece, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania, Turkey and in Asian music charts like in Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and |
{"datasets_id": 161992, "wiki_id": "Q236748", "sp": 10, "sc": 893, "ep": 10, "ec": 1525} | 161,992 | Q236748 | 10 | 893 | 10 | 1,525 | Arash (singer) | Career | throughout the Arab Middle Eastern countries. His singles have charted many times on Swiss and Finnish charts and he is especially famous in Poland.
Arash's records were certified gold in 5 countries: his album Arash in Germany, Russia, Slovenia and Greece and single "Boro Boro" in Sweden. This song was also featured in the Hindi Bollywood film Bluffmaster! and he was the featured Artist of the Month on MTV India.
Helena did not take part in the music video of "Pure Love", although her voice was used in it. The video starred Arash, together with the Venezuelan beauty queen, Marianne Puglia.
Arash has |
{"datasets_id": 161992, "wiki_id": "Q236748", "sp": 10, "sc": 1525, "ep": 10, "ec": 2118} | 161,992 | Q236748 | 10 | 1,525 | 10 | 2,118 | Arash (singer) | Career | produced along with Thomas G:son, Robert Uhlmann, and Johan Bejerholm the Swedish entry to the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010 "Allt jag vill ha" that was performed by Josefine Ridell.
In early 2009, it was revealed that the Azerbaijani entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 would be the song "Always" which was written and composed by Arash. The song was performed by Aysel Teymurzadeh and Arash in a duet in Semifinal 2 of the Eurovision competition. The song qualified for the Eurovision Song Contest final which took place on 16 May 2009, and was placed third. In one of |
{"datasets_id": 161992, "wiki_id": "Q236748", "sp": 10, "sc": 2118, "ep": 14, "ec": 72} | 161,992 | Q236748 | 10 | 2,118 | 14 | 72 | Arash (singer) | Career & Personal life | his interviews Arash explained his decision to represent Azerbaijan in this contest: "Why did I take part in the contest? I'm originally [ethnically] Azerbaijani, and I would like to have a part in this country's confident ascent in the history of Eurovision." Personal life Labaf married his longtime fiancée, Behnaz Ansari, in Dubai in May 2011. |
{"datasets_id": 161993, "wiki_id": "Q4708192", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 330} | 161,993 | Q4708192 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 330 | Archibald Henderson | Early life & Career | Archibald Henderson Early life Born in Colchester, Fairfax County, Virginia, Henderson was one of six sons of successful merchant Alexander Henderson and Sarah (Sally) Moore. He was raised at the Henderson House in Dumfries, Virginia until he joined the Marine Corps at the age of 18. Career Archibald Henderson was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps on 4 June 1806 and served aboard USS Constitution during her famous victories in the War of 1812. He participated in several shipboard engagements and was decorated for bravery. He was brevetted a major in 1814.
From 16 September 1818 to 2 March |
{"datasets_id": 161993, "wiki_id": "Q4708192", "sp": 10, "sc": 330, "ep": 10, "ec": 938} | 161,993 | Q4708192 | 10 | 330 | 10 | 938 | Archibald Henderson | Career | 1819, Henderson was the acting Commandant. On 17 October 1820, at age 37, Lt. Colonel Henderson was appointed the Commandant of the Marine Corps. He served for a little over 38 years, the longest of any officer to hold that position.
Henderson is credited with thwarting attempts by President Andrew Jackson to combine the Marine Corps with the Army in 1829. Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, ensuring the Marines would remain part of the United States Department of the Navy. He was promoted to colonel the same year.
He went into the |
{"datasets_id": 161993, "wiki_id": "Q4708192", "sp": 10, "sc": 938, "ep": 10, "ec": 1557} | 161,993 | Q4708192 | 10 | 938 | 10 | 1,557 | Archibald Henderson | Career | field as Commandant during the Indian campaigns in Florida and Georgia during 1836 and 1837, and was promoted brevet brigadier general in 1843 for his actions in these campaigns. Tradition says that he pinned a note to his door: "Gone to Florida to fight the Indians. Will be back when the war is over."
Marines also served in the Mexican–American War during Henderson's tenure as Commandant. The sword presented to him at the war's end was inscribed, "From the Halls of Montezuma, to the Shores of Tripoli", giving the opening words to the Marines' hymn.
Archibald Henderson died suddenly on 6 January |
{"datasets_id": 161993, "wiki_id": "Q4708192", "sp": 10, "sc": 1557, "ep": 14, "ec": 69} | 161,993 | Q4708192 | 10 | 1,557 | 14 | 69 | Archibald Henderson | Career & Legacy | 1859. He was buried in the Congressional Cemetery. According to Marine lore, the Colonel Commandant had attempted to will his home — actually government-provided quarters in which he had lived for 38 years — to his heirs, having forgotten that they were government owned. Legacy USS Henderson (AP-1), and Henderson Hall Barracks were named for him. |
{"datasets_id": 161994, "wiki_id": "Q4787958", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 561} | 161,994 | Q4787958 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 561 | Ardenne High School | History | Ardenne High School History In 1907, just after the great earthquake that destroyed much of Kingston, the Rev. George and Nellie Olson came to Jamaica as Church of God missionaries from Anderson, Indiana in the United States, where the Church of God has its headquarters. In 1927, they began the first school at High Holborn Street in Kingston with an enrollment of five students including the Olson's daughter Mary Olson. In 1929 the Ardenne property of 12 acres was purchased through funds received from the Missionary Board of the Church of God in the U.S. and other private donors. The |
{"datasets_id": 161994, "wiki_id": "Q4787958", "sp": 6, "sc": 561, "ep": 6, "ec": 1183} | 161,994 | Q4787958 | 6 | 561 | 6 | 1,183 | Ardenne High School | History | main block of buildings was erected. However, it was not until January 1938 that the school was transferred to its present location.
Nellie Olson, the first principal, held office until 1944 when she was succeeded by her daughter Mary Olson. Mary Olson served as principal through most of the schools formative years until 1969 when E.M. Claire Gayle, who had previously served as vice principal, succeeded her. Gayle was succeeded by the fourth principal, Roy J. Ebanks in 1979. When he retired in 1996, Winston Roberts became the fifth principal after serving as vice principal from 1979. During the interim May |
{"datasets_id": 161994, "wiki_id": "Q4787958", "sp": 6, "sc": 1183, "ep": 10, "ec": 401} | 161,994 | Q4787958 | 6 | 1,183 | 10 | 401 | Ardenne High School | History & School Song | 1998 to December 1999, as a result of Roberts' illness and ultimate death, Erma J. Hutton served as acting principal. Esther Tyson assumed responsibility as the sixth principal in January 2000, until September 2011. The Reverend Claude Ellis served as acting principal until Nadine Molloy was appointed the school's seventh principal in September 2012. School Song School Song: (written by Vincent Kelly,alumnus)
Ye valiant youth arise, and join
life's glorious fray,
With God as guide, he will strength
provide to conquer day to day.
In hallowed hall or field, we'll
strive but never yield;
We will fight with our might,
undefeated |
{"datasets_id": 161994, "wiki_id": "Q4787958", "sp": 10, "sc": 401, "ep": 10, "ec": 1087} | 161,994 | Q4787958 | 10 | 401 | 10 | 1,087 | Ardenne High School | School Song | be the conflict mild or heated:
Brave and strong, shunning wrong
we will march along
To the future's brighter ray.
With loyalty and pride, we'll
shield our noble name,
What'er assail it shall ne’er
prevail, we'll conquer just the same:
With banner high, unfurled, a
symbol to the world
Of the zeal that we feel in
pursuing what we’re doing, ever viewing
The bright crest of the best
That will crown our quest,
And fan Ardenne's glorious flame. |
{"datasets_id": 161995, "wiki_id": "Q8357169", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 347} | 161,995 | Q8357169 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 347 | Arena Motorsport | Renault Laguna (1999) & Honda and Team Honda (2001–2005) | Arena Motorsport Renault Laguna (1999) Arena's first season saw the team running a year-old Renault Laguna for Russell Spence, who was later replaced by Will Hoy. The team then disappeared from the series. Honda and Team Honda (2001–2005) In 2001 Arena approached Honda about running a Civic on an independent basis. However, Honda chose to give the team full manufacturer backing for the 2002 season, with Alan Morrison and Andy Priaulx driving. There was some initial success, and in 2003 newcomer Matt Neal finished third in the standings for them, in what was Arena's best year in |
{"datasets_id": 161995, "wiki_id": "Q8357169", "sp": 10, "sc": 347, "ep": 14, "ec": 17} | 161,995 | Q8357169 | 10 | 347 | 14 | 17 | Arena Motorsport | Honda and Team Honda (2001–2005) & WTCC | the BTCC with six wins and finishing second in the Teams' and Manufacturers' Championships.
However Honda chose to reduce their support, leaving Arena running a single car for Tom Chilton in 2004 and claim two wins. Honda's support was gone altogether in 2005 but despite missing the opening and closing meetings of the year Chilton went on to take four wins in the campaign before they decided to sell off their Civic to Fast-Tec Motorsport, although Arena provided some assistance with setting up the car. Arena then moved on to a full-time sports car team. WTCC The team switched |
{"datasets_id": 161995, "wiki_id": "Q8357169", "sp": 14, "sc": 17, "ep": 14, "ec": 326} | 161,995 | Q8357169 | 14 | 17 | 14 | 326 | Arena Motorsport | WTCC | to the World Touring Car Championship for 2012, with Tom Chilton and James Nash driving. The season was unsuccessful, with the car struggling for pace during the majority of the season.
This season would turn out to be the team's last, as during the final weeks of 2012, the team was formally closed. |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 667} | 161,996 | Q868 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 667 | Aristotle | Life | Aristotle Life In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 667, "ep": 6, "ec": 1346} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 667 | 6 | 1,346 | Aristotle | Life | making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 1346, "ep": 6, "ec": 1963} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 1,346 | 6 | 1,963 | Aristotle | Life | and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 1963, "ep": 6, "ec": 2585} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 1,963 | 6 | 2,585 | Aristotle | Life | royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 2585, "ep": 6, "ec": 3179} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 2,585 | 6 | 3,179 | Aristotle | Life | Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 3179, "ep": 6, "ec": 3917} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 3,179 | 6 | 3,917 | Aristotle | Life | publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 6, "sc": 3917, "ep": 10, "ec": 25} | 161,996 | Q868 | 6 | 3,917 | 10 | 25 | Aristotle | Life & Logic | in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Logic With the Prior Analytics, |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 10, "sc": 25, "ep": 14, "ec": 382} | 161,996 | Q868 | 10 | 25 | 14 | 382 | Aristotle | Logic & Metaphysics | Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion. Metaphysics The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 14, "sc": 382, "ep": 18, "ec": 81} | 161,996 | Q868 | 14 | 382 | 18 | 81 | Aristotle | Metaphysics & Substance | divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):
if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way, because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being. Substance Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 18, "sc": 81, "ep": 18, "ec": 666} | 161,996 | Q868 | 18 | 81 | 18 | 666 | Aristotle | Substance | "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 18, "sc": 666, "ep": 22, "ec": 487} | 161,996 | Q868 | 18 | 666 | 22 | 487 | Aristotle | Substance & Immanent realism | formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. Immanent realism Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 22, "sc": 487, "ep": 22, "ec": 997} | 161,996 | Q868 | 22 | 487 | 22 | 997 | Aristotle | Immanent realism | other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 22, "sc": 997, "ep": 26, "ec": 51} | 161,996 | Q868 | 22 | 997 | 26 | 51 | Aristotle | Immanent realism & Epistemology | proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Epistemology Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 26, "sc": 51, "ep": 30, "ec": 282} | 161,996 | Q868 | 26 | 51 | 30 | 282 | Aristotle | Epistemology & Natural philosophy | is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles. Natural philosophy Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 30, "sc": 282, "ep": 32, "ec": 7} | 161,996 | Q868 | 30 | 282 | 32 | 7 | Aristotle | Natural philosophy & Optics | fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. Optics |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 34, "sc": 0, "ep": 38, "ec": 222} | 161,996 | Q868 | 34 | 0 | 38 | 222 | Aristotle | Optics & Chance and spontaneity | Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 38, "sc": 222, "ep": 46, "ec": 10} | 161,996 | Q868 | 38 | 222 | 46 | 10 | Aristotle | Chance and spontaneity & Astronomy & Geology | is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. Astronomy In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." Geology Aristotle |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 46, "sc": 9, "ep": 50, "ec": 124} | 161,996 | Q868 | 46 | 9 | 50 | 124 | Aristotle | Geology & Empirical research | was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."' Empirical research Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 50, "sc": 124, "ep": 50, "ec": 782} | 161,996 | Q868 | 50 | 124 | 50 | 782 | Aristotle | Empirical research | years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.
Aristotle reports on the sea-life |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 50, "sc": 782, "ep": 50, "ec": 1433} | 161,996 | Q868 | 50 | 782 | 50 | 1,433 | Aristotle | Empirical research | visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 50, "sc": 1433, "ep": 50, "ec": 2054} | 161,996 | Q868 | 50 | 1,433 | 50 | 2,054 | Aristotle | Empirical research | neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 50, "sc": 2054, "ep": 54, "ec": 274} | 161,996 | Q868 | 50 | 2,054 | 54 | 274 | Aristotle | Empirical research & Scientific style | the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct. Scientific style Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 54, "sc": 274, "ep": 54, "ec": 974} | 161,996 | Q868 | 54 | 274 | 54 | 974 | Aristotle | Scientific style | embryo's heart beating inside.
Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 54, "sc": 974, "ep": 58, "ec": 73} | 161,996 | Q868 | 54 | 974 | 58 | 73 | Aristotle | Scientific style & Soul | of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. Soul Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 58, "sc": 73, "ep": 58, "ec": 673} | 161,996 | Q868 | 58 | 73 | 58 | 673 | Aristotle | Soul | posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 58, "sc": 673, "ep": 62, "ec": 91} | 161,996 | Q868 | 58 | 673 | 62 | 91 | Aristotle | Soul & Memory | form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. Memory According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 62, "sc": 91, "ep": 62, "ec": 707} | 161,996 | Q868 | 62 | 91 | 62 | 707 | Aristotle | Memory | in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 62, "sc": 707, "ep": 62, "ec": 1382} | 161,996 | Q868 | 62 | 707 | 62 | 1,382 | Aristotle | Memory | retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 62, "sc": 1382, "ep": 62, "ec": 2052} | 161,996 | Q868 | 62 | 1,382 | 62 | 2,052 | Aristotle | Memory | search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 62, "sc": 2052, "ep": 62, "ec": 2744} | 161,996 | Q868 | 62 | 2,052 | 62 | 2,744 | Aristotle | Memory | numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 62, "sc": 2744, "ep": 66, "ec": 546} | 161,996 | Q868 | 62 | 2,744 | 66 | 546 | Aristotle | Memory & Dreams | of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. Dreams Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.
Dreams do not involve actually |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 66, "sc": 546, "ep": 66, "ec": 1123} | 161,996 | Q868 | 66 | 546 | 66 | 1,123 | Aristotle | Dreams | sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 66, "sc": 1123, "ep": 66, "ec": 1727} | 161,996 | Q868 | 66 | 1,123 | 66 | 1,727 | Aristotle | Dreams | However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 66, "sc": 1727, "ep": 66, "ec": 2333} | 161,996 | Q868 | 66 | 1,727 | 66 | 2,333 | Aristotle | Dreams | their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 66, "sc": 2333, "ep": 66, "ec": 2907} | 161,996 | Q868 | 66 | 2,333 | 66 | 2,907 | Aristotle | Dreams | being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 66, "sc": 2907, "ep": 70, "ec": 408} | 161,996 | Q868 | 66 | 2,907 | 70 | 408 | Aristotle | Dreams & Just war theory | shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. Just war theory Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 70, "sc": 408, "ep": 74, "ec": 20} | 161,996 | Q868 | 70 | 408 | 74 | 20 | Aristotle | Just war theory & Ethics | Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".
Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above). Ethics Aristotle considered |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 74, "sc": 20, "ep": 74, "ec": 595} | 161,996 | Q868 | 74 | 20 | 74 | 595 | Aristotle | Ethics | ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 74, "sc": 595, "ep": 74, "ec": 1255} | 161,996 | Q868 | 74 | 595 | 74 | 1,255 | Aristotle | Ethics | reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 74, "sc": 1255, "ep": 78, "ec": 270} | 161,996 | Q868 | 74 | 1,255 | 78 | 270 | Aristotle | Ethics & Politics | which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher. Politics In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 78, "sc": 270, "ep": 78, "ec": 861} | 161,996 | Q868 | 78 | 270 | 78 | 861 | Aristotle | Politics | prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
The common modern understanding of a political |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 78, "sc": 861, "ep": 78, "ec": 1478} | 161,996 | Q868 | 78 | 861 | 78 | 1,478 | Aristotle | Politics | community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 78, "sc": 1478, "ep": 78, "ec": 2116} | 161,996 | Q868 | 78 | 1,478 | 78 | 2,116 | Aristotle | Politics | is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:
For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 78, "sc": 2116, "ep": 82, "ec": 86} | 161,996 | Q868 | 78 | 2,116 | 82 | 86 | Aristotle | Politics & Economics | choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods. Economics Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 82, "sc": 86, "ep": 82, "ec": 752} | 161,996 | Q868 | 82 | 86 | 82 | 752 | Aristotle | Economics | the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 82, "sc": 752, "ep": 82, "ec": 1334} | 161,996 | Q868 | 82 | 752 | 82 | 1,334 | Aristotle | Economics | they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 82, "sc": 1334, "ep": 82, "ec": 1932} | 161,996 | Q868 | 82 | 1,334 | 82 | 1,932 | Aristotle | Economics | way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 82, "sc": 1932, "ep": 86, "ec": 446} | 161,996 | Q868 | 82 | 1,932 | 86 | 446 | Aristotle | Economics & Rhetoric and poetics | useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". Rhetoric and poetics Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorises rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 86, "sc": 446, "ep": 86, "ec": 1091} | 161,996 | Q868 | 86 | 446 | 86 | 1,091 | Aristotle | Rhetoric and poetics | an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 86, "sc": 1091, "ep": 86, "ec": 1739} | 161,996 | Q868 | 86 | 1,091 | 86 | 1,739 | Aristotle | Rhetoric and poetics | that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 86, "sc": 1739, "ep": 86, "ec": 2361} | 161,996 | Q868 | 86 | 1,739 | 86 | 2,361 | Aristotle | Rhetoric and poetics | forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 86, "sc": 2361, "ep": 86, "ec": 2967} | 161,996 | Q868 | 86 | 2,361 | 86 | 2,967 | Aristotle | Rhetoric and poetics | pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 86, "sc": 2967, "ep": 94, "ec": 162} | 161,996 | Q868 | 86 | 2,967 | 94 | 162 | Aristotle | Rhetoric and poetics & Views on women & Influence | fables of Aesop. Views on women Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men. Influence More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 94, "sc": 162, "ep": 94, "ec": 815} | 161,996 | Q868 | 94 | 162 | 94 | 815 | Aristotle | Influence | then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 94, "sc": 815, "ep": 98, "ec": 320} | 161,996 | Q868 | 94 | 815 | 98 | 320 | Aristotle | Influence & On his successor, Theophrastus | rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought". On his successor, Theophrastus Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 98, "sc": 320, "ep": 102, "ec": 614} | 161,996 | Q868 | 98 | 320 | 102 | 614 | Aristotle | On his successor, Theophrastus & On later Greek philosophers | pragmatically describing how plants functioned. On later Greek philosophers The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 102, "sc": 614, "ep": 106, "ec": 323} | 161,996 | Q868 | 102 | 614 | 106 | 323 | Aristotle | On later Greek philosophers & On Hellenistic science | Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" On Hellenistic science After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 106, "sc": 323, "ep": 110, "ec": 30} | 161,996 | Q868 | 106 | 323 | 110 | 30 | Aristotle | On Hellenistic science & On Byzantine scholars | Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." On Byzantine scholars Greek Christian scribes played |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 110, "sc": 30, "ep": 110, "ec": 713} | 161,996 | Q868 | 110 | 30 | 110 | 713 | Aristotle | On Byzantine scholars | a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 110, "sc": 713, "ep": 114, "ec": 529} | 161,996 | Q868 | 110 | 713 | 114 | 529 | Aristotle | On Byzantine scholars & On the medieval Islamic world | and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. On the medieval Islamic world Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 114, "sc": 529, "ep": 118, "ec": 316} | 161,996 | Q868 | 114 | 529 | 118 | 316 | Aristotle | On the medieval Islamic world & On Early Modern scientists | for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. On Early Modern scientists In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 118, "sc": 316, "ep": 122, "ec": 350} | 161,996 | Q868 | 118 | 316 | 122 | 350 | Aristotle | On Early Modern scientists & On 19th-century thinkers | establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. On 19th-century thinkers The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 122, "sc": 350, "ep": 126, "ec": 52} | 161,996 | Q868 | 122 | 350 | 126 | 52 | Aristotle | On 19th-century thinkers & Modern rejection and rehabilitation | Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. Modern rejection and rehabilitation During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 126, "sc": 52, "ep": 126, "ec": 754} | 161,996 | Q868 | 126 | 52 | 126 | 754 | Aristotle | Modern rejection and rehabilitation | criticised. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 126, "sc": 754, "ep": 126, "ec": 1454} | 161,996 | Q868 | 126 | 754 | 126 | 1,454 | Aristotle | Modern rejection and rehabilitation | senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 126, "sc": 1454, "ep": 126, "ec": 2141} | 161,996 | Q868 | 126 | 1,454 | 126 | 2,141 | Aristotle | Modern rejection and rehabilitation | attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 126, "sc": 2141, "ep": 134, "ec": 120} | 161,996 | Q868 | 126 | 2,141 | 134 | 120 | Aristotle | Modern rejection and rehabilitation & Corpus Aristotelicum & Loss and preservation | function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. Corpus Aristotelicum The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. Loss and preservation Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 134, "sc": 120, "ep": 134, "ec": 768} | 161,996 | Q868 | 134 | 120 | 134 | 768 | Aristotle | Loss and preservation | groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now |
{"datasets_id": 161996, "wiki_id": "Q868", "sp": 134, "sc": 768, "ep": 138, "ec": 288} | 161,996 | Q868 | 134 | 768 | 138 | 288 | Aristotle | Loss and preservation & Eponyms | possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today. Eponyms The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form |
Subsets and Splits