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# Automated theorem proving
## First-order theorem proving {#first_order_theorem_proving}
In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson\'s resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the *Notices of the American Mathematical Society* before solutions were formally published.
First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling *fully* automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.
### Relationship with SMT {#relationship_with_smt}
There is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers. Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers. The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.
## Popular techniques {#popular_techniques}
- First-order resolution with unification
- Model elimination
- Method of analytic tableaux
- Superposition and term rewriting
- Model checking
- Mathematical induction
- Binary decision diagrams
- DPLL
- Higher-order unification
- Quantifier elimination
## Software systems`{{anchor|Comparison}}`{=mediawiki} {#software_systems}
Name License type Web service Library Standalone Last update `{{small|([[strftime|YYYY-mm-dd format]])}}`{=mediawiki}
------------------------------ ----------------------------- ------------- --------- ------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
ACL2 3-clause BSD
Prover9/Otter Public Domain
Jape GPLv2
PVS GPLv2
EQP
PhoX
E GPL
SNARK Mozilla Public License 1
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# Astronomical year numbering
**Astronomical year numbering** is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).
The prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year *n* BC/BCE is numbered \"−(*n* − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − *n*). The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general *n* AD/CE is simply *n* or +*n*. For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.
The system is so named due to its use in astronomy. Few other disciplines outside history deal with the time before year 1, some exceptions being dendrochronology, archaeology and geology, the latter two of which use \'years before the present\'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.
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# Astronomical year numbering
## Usage of the year zero {#usage_of_the_year_zero}
In his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled *Christi* (Christ\'s) between years labeled *Ante Christum* (Before Christ) and *Post Christum* (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled `{{nowrap|''Christum 0''}}`{=mediawiki} at the end of years labeled *ante Christum* (BC), and immediately before years labeled *post Christum* (AD) on the mean motion pages in his *Tabulæ Astronomicæ*, thus adding the designation *0* to Kepler\'s *Christi*. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini `{{nowrap|(Cassini II)}}`{=mediawiki}, who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his *Tables astronomiques*, simply labeling this year *0*, which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled *avant Jesus-Christ* (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled *après Jesus-Christ* (after Jesus Christ or AD).
Cassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0: `{{Blockquote|The year 0 is that in which one supposes that Jesus Christ was born, which several chronologists mark 1 before the birth of Jesus Christ and which we marked 0, so that the sum of the years before and after Jesus Christ gives the interval which is between these years, and where numbers divisible by 4 mark the leap years as so many before or after Jesus Christ.|Jacques Cassini}}`{=mediawiki}
Fred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time. Jean Meeus gives the following explanation: `{{Blockquote|There is a disagreement between astronomers and historians about how to count the years preceding year 1. In [''Astronomical Algorithms''], the 'B.C.' years are counted astronomically. Thus, the year before the year +1 is the year zero, and the year preceding the latter is the year −1. The year which historians call 585 B.C. is actually the year −584.
The astronomical counting of the negative years is the only one suitable for arithmetical purpose. For example, in the historical practice of counting, the rule of divisibility by 4 revealing Julian leap-years no longer exists; these years are, indeed, 1, 5, 9, 13, ... B.C. In the astronomical sequence, however, these leap-years are called 0, −4, −8, −12, ..., and the rule of divisibility by 4 subsists.|Jean Meeus, ''Astronomical Algorithms''}}`{=mediawiki}
## Signed years without the year zero {#signed_years_without_the_year_zero}
Although he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel (1890--1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.
Version 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes **date** and **dateTime**. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility
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# Adam of Bremen
**Adam of Bremen** (*Adamus Bremensis*; *Adam von Bremen*; before 1050 -- 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle *Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum* (*Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church*). He was \"one of the foremost historians and early ethnographers of the medieval period\".
In his chronicle, he included a chapter mentioning the Norse outpost of Vinland, and was thus the first European to write about the New World.
## Life
Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen, then its own margravate. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085). From his chronicles, it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of *Magister Adam* shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the *Magdeburger Domschule*.
In 1066 or 1067, he was invited by Archbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the Bremen Cathedral\'s school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his *Gesta*.
His position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history and the geography of Northern Germany. A stay at the court of Sweyn II of Denmark gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark and the other Scandinavian countries. Among other things he wrote about in Scandinavia were the sailing passages across Øresund such as today\'s Helsingør--Helsingborg ferry route
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# Arapaoa Island
**Arapaoa Island** (formerly spelled **Arapawa Island**) is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north-east tip of the South Island of New Zealand. The island has a land area of 75 km². Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route between Wellington in the North Island to Picton. Cook Strait\'s narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island\'s Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island.
## History
According to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.
It was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, and confirmed that what the indigenous people had told him was correct -- Aotearoa is composed of two main islands. Cook is not known for naming places after himself, and it is speculated that Joseph Banks bestowed the name Cook Strait. This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis. A monument at Cook\'s Lookout was erected in 1970.
From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827, however initially could only salvage baleen until the station was equipped to process whale oil from 1830 onwards, targeting right whales. Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand). The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation. In the 2000s the former whalers from the Perano and Heberley families, who live on Arapawa, joined a Department of Conservation whale spotting programme to assess how the humpback whale population has recovered since the end of whaling.
An Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft struck the 11,000-volt power lines linking the island and the mainland over Tory Channel in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family died, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other family from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.
In August 2014, the spelling of the island\'s name was officially changed from *Arapawa* to *Arapaoa*.
## Conservation
Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island. Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow. About 200 ha at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.
Arapaoa Island is known for the breeds of domestic animals found only on the island -- the Arapawa pig, Arapawa sheep and Arapawa goat. They became established in the 19th century, but the origin of the breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers. These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.
The small Brothers Islands, which lie off the northeast coast of Arapaoa Island, are a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara
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# Arthur Phillip
**Arthur Phillip** (11 October 1738 -- 31 August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales.
Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753. He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship *Fortune*. With the outbreak of the Seven Years\' War against France, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain\'s servant to Michael Everitt aboard `{{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}}`{=mediawiki}. With Everitt, Phillip also served on `{{HMS|Union|1756|6}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}}`{=mediawiki}. Phillip was promoted to lieutenant on 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763. Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, he served in the war against Spain. Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip, in command of `{{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}`{=mediawiki}, was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before he reached his destination. In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe.
In 1786, Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales. On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson -- the site of Sydney, Australia, today. Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts. However, his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet\'s voyage had been rejected. Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply. Phillip wanted harmonious relations with the local indigenous peoples, in the belief that everyone in the colony was a British citizen and was protected by the law as such; therefore the indigenous peoples had the same rights as everyone under Phillip\'s command. Eventually, cultural differences between the two groups of people led to conflict. The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources. By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place.
On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones. He had planned to return to Australia, but medical advisors recommended he resign from the governorship. His health recovered and he returned to active duty in the Navy in 1796, holding a number of commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles. He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805. He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814. As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Early life {#early_life}
Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London. He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman. His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard `{{HMS|Tartar|1702|6}}`{=mediawiki} on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip\'s birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.
There are no surviving records of Phillip\'s early childhood. His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income. Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel aged nine. On 22 June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In accordance with the school\'s curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography. His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was \"unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes\".
Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year. At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard *Fortune*, a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead. Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1 December, and spent the next few months aboard the *Fortune*, awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season.
Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes. A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his \"smooth pear of a skull\" as quoted by Robert Hughes.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Early maritime career {#early_maritime_career}
### Whaling and merchant expeditions {#whaling_and_merchant_expeditions}
In April 1754 *Fortune* headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice Phillip\'s responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce, and *Fortune*{{\'}}s 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird\'s eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. Phillip remained aboard as *Fortune* undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year\'s whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July.
### Royal Navy and the Seven Years\' War {#royal_navy_and_the_seven_years_war}
upright=1.5\|thumb\|HMS *Buckingham*, Phillip\'s first posting after joining the Navy in 1755. Vessel pictured on the stocks at Deptford Dockyard on the River Thames, c. 1751. Painting by John Cleveley the Elder. National Maritime Museum, London.
On 16 October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain\'s servant aboard the 68-gun `{{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}}`{=mediawiki}, commanded by his mother\'s cousin, Captain Michael Everitt. As a member of *Buckingham*{{\'}}s crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng\'s Mediterranean fleet. The *Buckingham* was Rear-Admiral Temple West\'s flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20 May 1756.
Phillip moved on 1 August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun `{{HMS|Union|1756|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5--12 June 1758. Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28 December 1758 to the 64-gun `{{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana. On 7 June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service. With the coming of peace on 25 April 1763, he was retired on half-pay.
### Retirement and the Portuguese Navy {#retirement_and_the_portuguese_navy}
In July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison (`{{nee|Tibbott}}`{=mediawiki}), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. Margaret Phillip died in August 1792 and is buried at Llanycil, Bala, North Wales with her companion, Mrs Cane. The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard `{{HMS|Egmont|1768|6}}`{=mediawiki}, a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.
In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, *Nossa Senhora do Pilar*. On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship *San Agustín*, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the *Santo Agostinho*, under Phillip\'s command. The action was reported in the English press:
> Madrid, 28 Aug. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Early maritime career {#early_maritime_career}
### Recommissioned into Royal Navy {#recommissioned_into_royal_navy}
In 1778, with Britain again at war, Phillip was recalled to Royal Navy service and on 9 October was appointed first lieutenant of the 74-gun `{{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} as part of the Channel fleet. Promoted to commander on 2 September 1779 and given command of the 8-gun fireship HMS *Basilisk*. With Spain\'s entry into the conflict, Phillip had a series of private meetings with the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich, sharing his charts and knowledge about the South American coastlines.
Phillip was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun `{{HMS|Ariadne|1776|6}}`{=mediawiki}. *Ariadne* was sent to the Elbe to escort a transport ship carrying a detachment of Hanoverian troops, arriving at the port of Cuxhaven on 28 December, the estuary froze over trapping *Ariadne* in the harbour. In March 1782, Phillip arrived in England with the Hanoverian troops. In the following months *Ariadne* got a new lieutenant, Philip Gidley King, whom Phillip took under his wing. *Ariadne* was used to patrol the Channel where on 30 June, she captured the French frigate *Le Robecq*.
With a change of government on 27 March 1782, Sandwich retired from the Admiralty, Lord Germain was replaced as Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs by Earl of Shelburne, before 10 July 1782, in another change of government Thomas Townshend replaced him, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like Sandwich and Germain, he turned to Phillip for planning advice. The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy\'s East India squadron for an attack on Manila. On 27 December 1782, Phillip, took charge of the 64-gun `{{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}`{=mediawiki}. The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun `{{HMS|Grafton|1771|6}}`{=mediawiki}, the 74-gun `{{HMS|Elizabeth|1769|6}}`{=mediawiki}, *Europa*, and the 32-gun frigate `{{HMS|Iphigenia|1780|6}}`{=mediawiki}, sailed on 16 January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Shortly after the ships\' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.
### Survey work in Europe {#survey_work_in_europe}
After his return to England in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France, and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Colonial service {#colonial_service}
Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales. Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Under Banks\' guidance, Matra rapidly produced \"A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales\" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia. This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion.
In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet. His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay. Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island\'s native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes.
### Voyage to Colony of New South Wales {#voyage_to_colony_of_new_south_wales}
On 25 October 1786, the 20-gun `{{HMS|Sirius|1786|6}}`{=mediawiki}, lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip. The armed tender HMAT *Supply* (often confused with `{{HMS|Supply|1793|6}}`{=mediawiki}), under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition. On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to *Sirius* to command in the absence of Phillip, who as governor of the colony, would be where the seat of government was to be fixed.
The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip\'s command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787; `{{HMS|Hyaena|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} provided an escort out of British waters. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month to resupply. The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay. On 25 November, Phillip transferred from the *Sirius* to the faster *Supply*, and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet. However, this \"flying squadron\", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. *Supply* reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including *Sirius*, arrived on 20 January. thumb\|upright=1.35\|The landing of the First Fleet in Port Jackson, Australia in 1788
Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source. Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip\'s differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, \"custodian of over a thousand convicts\" for whom he was responsible. After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney. This date later became Australia\'s national day, Australia Day. Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7 February 1788 in Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: \"being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World \[\...\] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security.\"
### Establishing a settlement {#establishing_a_settlement}
On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George III. The next day, sailors from *Sirius*, a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents. The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days. Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp. His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west. During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement\'s provisions. On 29 January, the governor\'s portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day. The female convicts disembarked on 6 February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor\'s house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins. On 7 February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated.
On 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of 23, including 15 convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Colonial service {#colonial_service}
### Governor of New South Wales {#governor_of_new_south_wales}
When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent. Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately.
Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the *Alexander*, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables\' possessions.
Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: \"The laws of this country \[England\] will of course, be introduced in \[New\] South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty\'s forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves.\" Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences. The settlement\'s supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males\' rations. In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies. They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day. Phillip gave the rest a reprieve. They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water.
The governor also expanded the settlement\'s knowledge of the landscape. Two officers from *Sirius*, Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove. Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay.
The fleet\'s ships left over the next months, with *Sirius* and *Supply* remaining in the colony under command of the governor. They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways. Scurvy broke out, so *Sirius* left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies. The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony.
As an experienced farmhand, Phillip\'s appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better. James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791. When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony\'s first land grant.
In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but `{{HMS|Guardian|1784|6}}`{=mediawiki}, carrying more supplies, was disabled en route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again. *Supply*, the only ship left under colonial command after *Sirius* was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies. The colony\'s isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London.
In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps. On 11 December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the *Atlantic*, which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet. Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23 July 1793.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Colonial service {#colonial_service}
### Military personnel in colony {#military_personnel_in_colony}
The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps. As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition. Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen.
Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO\'s, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship\'s Complement of Marines aboard *Sirius* and *Supply*, bringing the total to 246 who departed England.
Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor\'s actions to the Home Office. Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities. Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect. In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there.
Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of `{{HMS|Gorgon|1785|6}}`{=mediawiki} on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps. On 18 December 1791, *Gorgon* left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines. There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip\'s aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps. Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers. The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, with Governor Phillip on *Atlantic*.
Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Colonial service {#colonial_service}
### Relations with indigenous peoples {#relations_with_indigenous_peoples}
Phillip\'s official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to \"conciliate their affections\", to \"live in amity and kindness with them\", and to punish anyone who should \"wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations\". The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay. When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do. Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished.
After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement. Part of Phillip\'s early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora\'s language, beliefs, and customs.
By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors. The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs. Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population. Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained. Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped.
Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly. Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way. Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering. He ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it. Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family.
Even though there were now friendly relations with the Indigenous people around Sydney Cove, the same couldn\'t be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists. Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, \"to put to death ten \... \[and\] cut off the heads of the slain \... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief\". Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended.
On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the *Atlantic*.
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# Arthur Phillip
## Later life and death {#later_life_and_death}
Phillip\'s estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno\'s Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Parish Church, in the Church of England on 8 May 1794.
His health recovered, he was reappointed in March 1796 to command the 74-gun `{{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} as part of the Channel fleet. In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun `{{HMS|Swiftsure|1787|6}}`{=mediawiki}. In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun `{{HMS|Blenheim|1761|6}}`{=mediawiki}, command of which he held until December of that year. During 1798--99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts.
In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801. Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814.
Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed. He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath. He was buried nearby at St Nicholas\'s Church, Bathampton. His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location. An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip\'s birthdate by the Britain--Australia Society.
In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson alleged that Phillip\'s remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: \"Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies.\"
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# Arthur Phillip
## Legacy
A number of places in Australia bear Phillip\'s name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, and St Phillip\'s Church, Sydney.
A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred\'s Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul\'s Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow. There is a memorial fountain honouring him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney. There is a 1786 portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London, and another by the same painter painted in 1787 in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his *Dictionary of Australian Biography*:
### 200th anniversary {#th_anniversary}
As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: \"This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton.\" A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James\' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014. A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney, and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Phillip has been played by a number of actors in movies and television programs, including:
- Sir Cedric Hardwicke in *Botany Bay* (1953)
- Edward Hepple in *The Hungry Ones* (1963)
- Wynn Roberts in *Prelude to Harvest* (1963)
- Peter Collingwood in *The Timeless Land* (1980)
- Sam Neill in *The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant* (2005)
- David Wenham in *Banished* (2015)
He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker\'s play *Our Country\'s Good*, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of *The Recruiting Officer*. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers.
His life was the focus of *I\'ll Meet You in Botany Bay*, a 1945 radio play
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# Angus, Scotland
**Angus** (*Angus*; *Aonghas*) is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross. Main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the east of the county.
Angus was historically a province, and later a sheriffdom and county (called **Forfarshire** or the **County of Forfar** until 1928), bordering Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west; southwards it faced Fife across the Firth of Tay. The county included Dundee until 1894, when it was made a county of a city. The pre-1894 boundaries of Angus continue to be used as a registration county. Between 1975 and 1996 Angus was a lower-tier district within the Tayside region. The district took on its modern form and powers in 1996, since when the local authority has been Angus Council.
## History
### Etymology
The name \"Angus\" indicates the territory of the eighth-century Pictish king, Óengus I.
### Prehistory
The area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period. Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.
Bronze Age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town. These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet. Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan, as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.
### Medieval and later history {#medieval_and_later_history}
The county is traditionally associated with the Pictish territory of Circin, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Cé (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South. The most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.
Angus is first recorded as one of the provinces of Scotland in 937, when Dubacan, the Mormaer of Angus, is recorded in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* as having died at the Battle of Brunanburh.
The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotland\'s establishment as an independent nation. Partly on this basis, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland. It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Lighthouse, described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World.
During the 16th and 17th century, several witch trials took place in Forfar, the last of which took place in 1662 and in which 52 people were accused. At the time, Forfar was a town of around 1,000 inhabitants, with an additional 2,000 people residing in the county.
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# Angus, Scotland
## History
### Administrative history {#administrative_history}
Angus was one of the ancient provinces of Scotland, under the authority of the Mormaer or Earl of Angus. From at least the thirteenth century the area formed the basis for a shire (the area administered by a sheriff) based in Forfar: the Sheriff of Forfar.
Over time, Scotland\'s shires became more significant than the old provinces, with more administrative functions being given to the sheriffs. The older territory called Angus was therefore gradually eclipsed in legal importance by the shire of Forfar (or Forfarshire) which covered the same area. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were established for each shire, which would serve as the main administrative body for the area until the creation of county councils in 1890. Following the Acts of Union in 1707, the English term \'county\' came to be used interchangeably with the older term \'shire\'.
Elected county councils were established in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, taking most of the functions of the commissioners (which were eventually abolished in 1930). The county\'s five largest burghs, being Arbroath, Brechin, Dundee, Forfar, and Montrose, were deemed capable of managing their own affairs and so were excluded from the administrative area of the county council. The county council held its first official meeting on 22 May 1890 at the County Buildings (now known as Forfar Sheriff Court), the county\'s main courthouse, which also served as the meeting place for the commissioners of supply. Robert Haldane-Duncan, 3rd Earl of Camperdown, a Liberal peer, was appointed the first chairman of the county council.
The 1889 Act also led to a review of boundaries, with exclaves being transferred to a county they actually bordered, and parishes which straddled more than one county being adjusted such that each parish was entirely in a single county. There were several such changes affecting the boundaries of Forfarshire.
Dundee was subsequently made a county of itself in 1894, also removing the city from Forfarshire for judicial and lieutenancy purposes. Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose were brought within the administrative area of the county council in 1930, although Arbroath was classed as a large burgh, allowing its council to continue to deliver most local government functions itself.
In May 1928 the county council resolved to use the name \'Angus\' for the area rather than the \'County of Forfar\'. The council petitioned the government to officially change the name too. The government responded by directing all departments to use Angus, but noted that the legal name would remain Forfar until such time as it could be changed by statute. The statutory change of name from Forfar to Angus eventually took place in 1947 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1947.
Angus County Council was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland\'s counties, burghs and landward districts with a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. A new Angus district was created covering most of the pre-1975 county, with the exceptions being that Monifieth and a number of villages immediately north of Dundee were transferred to an enlarged City of Dundee district, and Kettins was transferred to Perth and Kinross. Angus District Council was a lower-tier district level authority subordinate to the Tayside Regional Council. A lieutenancy area covering the same area as the new district was created at the same time.
Further local government reforms in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 saw the regions and districts created in 1975 abolished and replaced with council areas providing all local government services. Angus district became one of the new council areas, taking on the functions of the abolished Tayside Regional Council. The council area regained Monifieth and the villages north of Dundee as part of the same reforms. The Angus lieutenancy area was adjusted to match the new council area in 1996. The Lord Lieutenant of Angus is appointed by the monarch. The boundaries of the historic county of Angus (as it was prior to the removal of Dundee in 1894) are still used for some limited official purposes connected with land registration, being a registration county.
## Geography
Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the Grampian Mountains, Mounth hills and Five Glens of Angus, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill farming. Glas Maol -- the highest point in Angus at 1,068 m -- can be found here, on the tripoint boundary with Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills (such as the Sidlaws) bordering the sea; this area is well populated, with the larger towns. In between lies Strathmore (*the Great Valley*), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Aberdeen Angus cattle.
Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin and wildlife. Angus\'s coast is fairly regular, the most prominent features being the headlands of Scurdie Ness and Buddon Ness. The main bodies of water in the county are Loch Lee, Loch Brandy, Carlochy, Loch Wharral, Den of Ogil Reservoir, Loch of Forfar, Loch Fithie, Rescobie Loch, Balgavies Loch, Crombie Reservoir, Monikie Reservoirs, Long Loch, Lundie Loch, Loch of Kinnordy, Loch of Lintrathen, Backwater Reservoir, Auchintaple Loch, Loch Shandra.
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# Angus, Scotland
## Demography
### Population structure {#population_structure}
In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.
Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to \'O\' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.
### Language in Angus {#language_in_angus}
The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%. These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.
Category Number Percentage
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------- ------------
All people 108,400 100
Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it 351 0.32
Speaks reads and writes Gaelic 238 0.22
Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic 188 0.17
Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic 59 0.05
Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic 61 0.06
Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic 13 0.01
Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic 22 0.02
Other combination of skills in Gaelic 7 0.01
No knowledge of Gaelic 107,461 99.13
Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%. This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.
Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century. Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.
Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.
## Government
## Community council areas {#community_council_areas}
Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council. The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing.
## Parliamentary representation {#parliamentary_representation}
### UK Parliament {#uk_parliament}
Angus is represented by two MPs for the UK Parliament.
- Angus and Perthshire Glens -- covers the following wards: Kirriemuir and Dean, Brechin and Edzell, Forfar and District, and Montrose and District, and parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw; currently represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party, who was also the MP for the old Angus constituency.
- Arbroath and Broughty Ferry -- cover parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw and Carnoustie and District from the old Dundee East constituency, and Arbroath East and Lunan, Arbroath West, Letham and Friockheim, and Monifieth and Sidlaw, and a part of Carnoustie and District from the now-abolished Angus constituency; currently represented by Stephen Gethins of the Scottish National Party.
### Scottish Parliament {#scottish_parliament}
Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.
- Angus North and Mearns -- covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.
- Angus South -- covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.
In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region.
## Transport
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.
There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast.
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# Angus, Scotland
## Settlements
Arbroath is the largest town in the modern county, followed by Forfar, the county town and administrative centre, and Montrose.
Largest settlements by population:
Settlement Population (`{{Scottish settlement population citation|year}}`{=mediawiki})
------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arbroath
Forfar
Montrose
Carnoustie
Monifieth
Brechin
Kirriemuir
Birkhill
Letham
Ferryden
## Historic parishes {#historic_parishes}
Forfarshire was divided into parishes, some of which share the name with current settlements:
## Education
Secondary schools in Angus:
- Arbroath Academy
- Arbroath High School
- Brechin High School
- Carnoustie High School
- Forfar Academy
- Monifieth High School
- Montrose Academy
- Webster\'s High School
## Places of interest {#places_of_interest}
- Aberlemno Sculptured Stones
- Arbroath Abbey
- Barry Mill
- Brechin Cathedral
- Brechin Castle
- Brechin Round Tower
- Caledonian Railway (Brechin)
- Cairngorms National Park
- Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve
- Eassie Stone
- Edzell Castle
- Glamis Castle
- Glenesk Folk Museum
- House of Dun
- Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve
- Meffan Institute
- Monboddo House
- Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
- Montrose Basin Nature Reserve
- Montrose Museum
## Sister areas {#sister_areas}
- -- Yantai, Shandong, China.
## Surnames
Most common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the 1881 United Kingdom census:
1. Smith
2. Robertson
3. Anderson
4. Stewart
5. Scott
6. Mitchell
7. Brown
8. Duncan
9. Milne
10
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# Adrastea (moon)
**Adrastea** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə}}`{=mediawiki}), also known as **`{{nowrap|Jupiter XV}}`{=mediawiki}**, is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by *Voyager 2* in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus---the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.
Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet\'s day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter\'s main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the *Galileo* spacecraft, very little is known about the moon\'s physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.
## Discovery and observations {#discovery_and_observations}
Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in *Voyager 2* probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation **`{{nowrap|S/1979 J 1}}`{=mediawiki}**. Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by *Voyager 1*. The *Galileo* spacecraft was able to determine the moon\'s shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.
Although the *Juno* orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea.
## Physical characteristics {#physical_characteristics}
Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (\~1,200) km^2^. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm^3^, its mass can be estimated at 2`{{E-sp|15}}`{=mediawiki} kg. Amalthea\'s density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10--15%, and Adrastea may be similar.
No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.
## Orbit
Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at 70,200 mph at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet\'s main ring. Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter\'s equator of 0.03°, respectively.
Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.
The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter\'s synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis\'s), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea\'s then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.
## Relationship with Jupiter\'s rings {#relationship_with_jupiters_rings}
Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter\'s rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter\'s four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites\' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.
It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea\'s orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter\'s main ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea\'s orbit
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# Arbroath Abbey
**Arbroath Abbey**, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. It was William\'s only personal foundation --- he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.
The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
## History
King William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey\'s monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.
The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Scottish Independence believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.
The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.
On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny went missing from Westminster Abbey. On 11 April 1951 the stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey\'s altar.
Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration\'s signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.
In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched. The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland\'s most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath. Campaigners believe that the Abbey\'s historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote \"Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination\" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining \"We\'re simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it.\"
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# Arbroath Abbey
## Architectural description {#architectural_description}
The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly \'Early English\' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured 276 ft long by 160 ft wide. What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland\'s largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway. The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the \'Round O\', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as \'Reid Lichties\' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot\'s House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland. In the summer of 2001, a new visitors\' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey\'s west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive \'wave-shaped\' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated \'fly-through\' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors\' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons\' yard while the Abbey was being built
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# Adversarial system
The **adversarial system** (also **adversary system**, **accusatorial system**, or **accusatory system**) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties\' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense.
## Basic features {#basic_features}
Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features. The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury. The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party\'s case, usually by lawyers. The third is a highly structured procedure.
The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his *Practical Guide to Evidence* recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, \"Am I never to hear the truth?\" \"No, my lord, merely the evidence\", replied counsel.
### Parties
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question---rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. Lord Devlin in *The Judge* said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners\' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See *Gideon v. Wainwright*, `{{ussc|372|335|1963}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Adversarial system
## Criminal proceedings {#criminal_proceedings}
In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence. Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person\'s right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person\'s position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer\'s manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused\'s failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant\'s invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant. The concept of \"cross\"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
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# Adversarial system
## Comparison with inquisitorial systems {#comparison_with_inquisitorial_systems}
The name \"adversarial system\" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries
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# Abated
: *See also, Abatement.*
**Abated**, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief
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# Abati
**Abati** is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.
Notable people with the surname include:
- Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet
- Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist
- Joaquín Abati (1865--1936), Spanish writer
- Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player
- Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet
- Niccolò dell\'Abbate (1509 or 1512 -- 1571), Italian painter
- Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist
## Other uses {#other_uses}
- The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H
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# Abatis
An **abatis**, **abattis**, or **abbattis** is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.
## History
Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks. He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis. He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.
A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years\' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
## Construction
An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.
An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.
## Modern use {#modern_use}
Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle
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# Abba Mari
**Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph**, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as **Yarhi** from his birthplace (Hebrew *Yerah*, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name **Astruc**, **Don Astruc** or **En Astruc of Lunel** from the word \"astruc\" meaning lucky.
The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the *Talmud*.
In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title *Minhat Kenaot*, i.e., \"Offering of Zealotry\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.
Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.
## Defender of Law and Tradition {#defender_of_law_and_tradition}
Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303--1306; born at Lunel---hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses.
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# Abba Mari
## Opponent of Rationalism {#opponent_of_rationalism}
Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of *Minḥat Ḳenaot* (*Jealousy Offering*), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret\'s aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari\'s letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon\'s leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.
Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the *nasi* of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, *Guide for the Perplexed* part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Mallorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.
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# Abba Mari
## *Minchat Kenaot* {#minchat_kenaot}
Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called *Minchat Kenaot*, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called *Sefer ha-Yarḥi,* included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of *The Guide* and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.
As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God\'s existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the *Ten Commandments*; (2) the world\'s creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of *creatio ex nihilo* and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of *Minḥat Ḳenaot.*
The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In *Sefer haYarchi*, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz mentions a *ḳinah* composed by Abba Mari.
*Minchat Kenaot* is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.
At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel
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# Abbas II of Egypt
**Abbas Helmy II** (also known as *ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā*, *عباس حلمي باشا*; 14 July 1874 -- 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8`{{Spaces}}`{=mediawiki}January 1892 to 19 December 1914.`{{refn|group=nb|name=death|Sources give different dates for the deposition of Abbas. Some state that date as 20 or 21 December 1914.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=8–9}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the *de jure* end of Egypt\'s four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874. In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English. In a profile of Abbas II, the boys\' annual, *Chums*, gave a lengthy account of his education. His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva, in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.
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# Abbas II of Egypt
## Reign
Abbas II succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892. He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father. He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not willingly cooperate with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882. As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later created the Earl of Cromer. Lord Cromer initially supported Abbas but the new Khedive\'s nationalist agenda and association with the anti-colonial nationalist movements in Egypt put him in direct conflict with British colonial officers, and Cromer later interceded on behalf of Lord Kitchener (British commander in the Sudan) in an ongoing dispute with Abbas about Egyptian sovereignty and influence in that territory.
At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist. At Cromer\'s behest, Lord Rosebery, the British Foreign Secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Abbas II made an inspection tour of Sudanese and Egyptian frontier troops stationed near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of the Sudan. At Wadi Halfa the Khedive made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers. The British *Sirdar* of the Egyptian Army, the then Sir Herbert H. Kitchener, immediately threatened to resign. Kitchener further insisted on the dismissal of a nationalist under-secretary of war appointed by Abbas II and that an apology be made for the Khedive\'s criticism of the army and its officers.
By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels. Also in 1899, British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a significant reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Moneim, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899.
Although Abbas II no longer *publicly* opposed the British, he secretly created, supported and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha. He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu\'ayyad. As Kamil\'s thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a nationalist political party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists and was labeled as being against Islam by said nationalists. The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates. However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.
His relations with Cromer\'s successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa\'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party, often complained about \"that wicked little Khedive\" and wanted to depose him.
On 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not promptly returning home. The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule, as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British. So when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II. During the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt. Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights. Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated. He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote *The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement* (1930). He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70, 30 years to the day after the end of his reign as Khedive.`{{refn|group = nb|name=death}}`{=mediawiki}
## Marriages and issue {#marriages_and_issue}
His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanim (Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, 22 October 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Istanbul, 10 February 1941). They divorced in 1910 and had six children, two sons and four daughters:
- Princess Emina (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 -- 1954), unmarried and without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *31 May 1895*;
- Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 -- 1971), married twice and had issue, three sons, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Princess Fathiya (27 November 1897 -- 30 November 1923), married without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan, (20 February 1899 -- 1 December 1979), married and had issue, a son and a daughter;
- Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Cairo, 29 September 1900 -- 1975), married and had issue, two daughters, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *20 July 1907*;
- Prince Muhammad Abdul Kadir (4 February 1902 -- Montreux, 21 April 1919);
His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 28 February 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Javidan Hanim (born May Torok de Szendro, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 August 1968). They divorced in 1913 without issue
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# George Abbot (bishop)
**George Abbot** (29 October 1562`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 August 1633) was an English bishop who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633. He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.
*Chambers Biographical Dictionary* describes him as \"\[a\] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist\". Among his five brothers, Robert became Bishop of Salisbury and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London. He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
### Early years {#early_years}
Born at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford. According to an eighteenth-century biographical dictionary, when Abbot\'s mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence. Some time afterwards, she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey, and it \"being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour\". He later studied and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.
### Archbishop of Canterbury {#archbishop_of_canterbury}
On 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury by King James I. As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of Anglican bishops and the validity of the church\'s priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag\'s Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that:
Despite his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king\'s daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king\'s court, although the king himself never forsook Abbot.
In July 1621, while hunting in Lord Zouch\'s park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting that had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that \"an angel might have miscarried after this sort\". The commission was equally divided, and the king voted in Abbot\'s favour, though also signing a formal pardon or dispensation. Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the \"only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being\".
After this, Abbot seldom appeared at the council, chiefly because of his infirmities. In 1625, he attended the king constantly; however, in his last illness, he performed the coronation ceremony of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king\'s demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. However, the need to summon parliament soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop\'s powers. His presence was unwelcome at court, and he lived from that time on retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633 and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot\'s Hospital with lands valued at £300 a year.
## Legacy
Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote many works, the most interesting being his discursive *Exposition on the Prophet Jonah* (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His *Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World* (1599) passed through numerous editions. The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot\'s Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Abbot had an extensive private library of over 8000 volumes, most of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library. Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.
Guildford remembers Abbot with his hospital and a statue in the High Street. A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him. His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church
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# Aeacus
**Aeacus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|ə|k|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; also spelled **Eacus**; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a king of the island of Aegina in Greek mythology. He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon. According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in the underworld alongside Minos and Rhadamanthus. In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.
He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour.
## Mythology
### Birth and early days {#birth_and_early_days}
Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax (aka Ajax the Greater). In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.
These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to *Zeus Panhellenius* on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.
### Later adventures {#later_adventures}
A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus\'s descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon\'s rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).
Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.
### In the afterlife {#in_the_afterlife}
After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.
In *The Frogs* (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.
## Family
Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia. In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Aeacus\' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae (*Αἰακίδαι*). Several times in the *Iliad*, Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.). The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage
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# Aedesius
**Aedesius** (*Αἰδέσιος*, died shortly before 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic. He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled *Lives of the Sophists*. Aedesius\'s philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.
The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus\' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in a dream represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples compelled him to resume his instructions. Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple, he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra
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# Aedui
The **Aedui** or **Haedui** (Gaulish: \**Aiduoi*, \'the Ardent\'; *Aἴδουοι*) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges. During the Gallic Wars (58--50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52. Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire.
## Name
They are mentioned as *Ardues* (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), *Haedui* by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), *Haeduos* by Livy (late 1st c. BC), *Aedui* by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), *Aidúōn* (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as *Aídouoi* (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).
The ethnonym *Aedui* is a Latinized form of Gaulish \**Aiduoi* (sing. \**Aiduos*), which means \'the Ardent ones\'. It derives from the Celtic stem *\*aidu-* (\'fire, ardour\'; cf. Old Irish *áed* \'fire\', Welsh *aidd* \'ardour\'; also the Irish deity *Aéd* or *Aodh*), itself from *\*h₂eydʰos* (\'firewood\'; cf. Sanskrit *édhas* \'bonfire\', Latin *aedes* \'building, temple\'; cf. also Ancient Greek *Aether* \'god of the upper sky\' and *Aethra* \'bright sky\', from *aíthō* \'to ignite, to kindle\').
## Geography
### Territory
The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes. It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d\'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.
### Settlements
Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.
During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum (\'fortress of Augustus\'; modern-day Autun).
### Ancient sources {#ancient_sources}
The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward).
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# Aedui
## History
### Pre-Roman period {#pre_roman_period}
Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave). By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.
### Roman period {#roman_period}
Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.
According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar\'s time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Aedui|volume=1|pages=244–245}}`{=mediawiki} This cites:
- A. E. Desjardins, *Géographie de la Gaule*, ii. (1876--1893)
- T. R. Holmes, *Caesar\'s Conquest of Gaul* (1899).
After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (*B. G.* vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).
In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus *Ann.* iii. 43--46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of *jus honorum*, thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.
Until Claudius (41--54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.
The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar\'s time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
## Religion
The Temple of Janus was located just outside the Aedian town of Augustodunum. It probably dates back to the second half of the 1st century AD.
At the end of the La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani).
## Political organization {#political_organization}
According to Julius Caesar, the Aedui were one of the strongest Gallic tribes, in rivalry with the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni. Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome
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# Aegadian Islands
thumb\|upright=1.2\|A map showing the Aegadian Islands The **Aegadian Islands** (*Isole Egadi*; *Ìsuli Ègadi*; *Aegates Insulae*; *Αιγάδες Νήσοι*; `{{literally|the islands of goats}}`{=mediawiki}) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of 37.45 km2.
The island of Favignana (*Aegusa*), the largest, lies 16 km southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (*Phorbantia*) lies 13 km west; and Marettimo, the ancient *Hiera Nesos*, 24 km west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica (which hosts the Isolotto Formica Lighthouse) and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the *comune* of Favignana in the province of Trapani.
The overall population in 2017 was 4,292. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there.
## History
There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.
The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.
The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.
## Island views {#island_views}
<File:Mare> Favignana.JPG\|Cala Rossa, Favignana <File:Favignana> cala azzurra.jpg\|Cala azzurra, Favignana <File:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg%7CA> view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible
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# Aegean civilization
**Aegean civilization** is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The Cycladic civilization converges with the mainland during the Early Helladic (\"Minyan\") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period. From c. 1450 BC (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete, probably by military conquest. The earlier Aegean farming populations of Neolithic Greece brought agriculture westward into Europe before 5000 BC.
## Early European Farmers (\"EEFs\") {#early_european_farmers_eefs}
Around 5,000 BC, peoples descending from migrant Greek Neolithic populations reached the northern European plain in modern-day France and Germany; they reached Britain some 1000 years later.
Once in the Balkans, the Aegean EEFs appear to have divided into two wings: one which expanded further north into Europe along the Danube (Linear Pottery culture), and another which headed west along the Mediterranean (Cardial Ware) into the Iberian Peninsula. Descendants of this latter group eventually migrated into Britain. Previously, these areas were populated by Western Hunter-Gatherer represented by the Cheddar Man.
The Chalcolithic (Copper Age) began in Europe around 5500 BC. Chalcolithic Europeans began to erect megaliths in this period.
## Periodization
### Mainland
- Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100--2050/2001 BC
- Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900--1550 BC
- Late Helladic (LH): 1550--1050 BC
### Crete
- Early Minoan (EM): 3200--2160 BC
- Middle Minoan (MM): 2160--1600 BC
- Late Minoan (LM): 1600--1100 BC
### Cyclades
- Early Cycladic (EC): 3300--2000 BC
- Kastri (EH II--EH III): c. 2500--2100 BC
- Convergence with MM from ca. 2000 BC
## Commerce
Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is shown by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area. Cretan vessels appeared to be exported to Melos, Egypt, and the Greek mainland. In particular, Melian vases, eventually, found their way to Crete. After 1600 BC, there was commerce with Egypt, and Aegean goods found their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have come to light, excluding certain axeheads. These axeheads were too small for practical use. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet been proven (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans, and vases. These vases feature ships of low free-board, with masts and oars. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration. The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the \'ship fresco\' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.
Discoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture.
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# Aegean civilization
## Evidence
For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.
### Internal evidence {#internal_evidence}
- **Structures**: Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.
- **Structural decoration**: Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.
- **Furniture**: (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.
- **Art products**: for example, plastic objects, carved in stone, or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors\' smaller work. Vases of many kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
- **Weapons, tools and implements**: In stone, clay, and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.
- **Articles of personal use**: for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.
- **Written documents**: for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).
- **Excavated tombs**: Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.
- **Public works**: Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.
### External evidence {#external_evidence}
- **Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations**: for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.
- **Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations**: Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.
- **Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.**: In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.
Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks.
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# Aegean civilization
## Discovery
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great \"Treasury of Atreus\" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann\'s time. However, they were regarded as a crude precursor of later Greek culture. It was not until Schliemann\'s excavations that Mycenaean culture attracted serious scholarly attention.`{{Better source needed|reason=Source is from 1911, when barely anything was known about prehistoric Greece!|date=March 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. For instance, scholars had noted that tributaries appearing in Egyptian art resembled modern Greeks, but were unable to definitely recognize them as such. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.
Ludwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works. When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.
Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth \"Mycenaean\"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut \"bee-hive\" grave near the Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann\'s initial excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise. However, the \"Burnt City\" now known as Troy II, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse curiosity both among scholars and the general public. With Schliemann\'s excavations at Mycenae, interest in prehistoric Greece exploded. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any previously known style. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. Many scholars were struck by potential resemblances between objects described by Homer and Mycenaean artifacts.
Schliemann resumed excavations at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his \"Lydian\" city now known as Late Bronze Age Troy. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann\'s assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after Schliemann\'s death. But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas\'s discovery of the palace at Mycenae. Schliemann\'s work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.
From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas\'s exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann\'s princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths\' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.
In 1890 and 1893, Staes `{{who|date=April 2024}}`{=mediawiki} cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut \"bee-hives\" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating). The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.
Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.
A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.
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# Aegean civilization
## Discovery
In Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.
Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cádiz and from Saragossa.
One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages--- Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn). But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897--1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.
Thus the \"Aegean Area\" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt. Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed.
## End
The final collapse of the Mycenaean civilisation appears to have occurred about 1200 BC. Iron took the place of bronze, cremation took the place of burial of the dead, and writing was lost
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# Aegeus
thumb\|upright=1.3\|*Theseus Recognized by his Father* by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832) **Aegeus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|i|.|ə|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Aegeus.wav}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|uː|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Aigeús*) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.
## Family
Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.`{{AI-generated source|date=November 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
Aegeus\' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.
Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.
## Mythology
### Reign
Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.
The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:
> \... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea\'s garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron\'s shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.
Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus\' son Theseus.
### Heirless King {#heirless_king}
Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.
The cryptic words of the oracle were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.
When Theseus grew up, he found his father\'s belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus\' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children\'s inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.
### Conflict with Crete {#conflict_with_crete}
While visiting in Athens, King Minos\' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos\' daughter.
After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus\' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.
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# Aegeus
## Mythology
### Theseus and the Minotaur {#theseus_and_the_minotaur}
In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father\'s weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.
When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus\' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.
Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.
Sophocles\' tragedy *Aegeus* has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides\' *Medea*.
## Legacy
At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.
There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον)
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# Aegina
**Aegina** (`{{IPAc-en||ɪ|'|dʒ|aɪ|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αίγινα* `{{IPA|el|ˈeɣina|pron}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγῑνα*) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, 27 km from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king.
## Administration
### Municipality
The municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets. It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region. The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2021 in parentheses):
- Aegina (6,976)
- Kypseli (2,166)
- Mesagros (1,473)
- Perdika (847)
- Vathy (1,449)
The regional capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island. The buildings of the island are examples of Neoclassical architecture with a strong folk element, built in the 19th century.
### Province
The province of Aegina (*Επαρχία Αίγινας*) was one of the provinces of the Attica Prefecture and was created in 1833 as part of Attica and Boeotia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri until its abolishment in 2006.
## Geography
Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately 15 km from east to west and 10 km from north to south, with an area of 87.41 km2.
An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.
The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. Portes is a fishing village on the east coast. `{{Wide image|Aegina_island_panorama.jpg|1000px|A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea.
|alt=A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Climate
Aegina island has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: *BSh*) with an average annual temperature of around 20.0 °C and an average annual precipitation of less than 340 mm.
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# Aegina
## History
Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.
### Early Bronze {#early_bronze}
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site. The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.
Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists.
### Middle Bronze {#middle_bronze}
Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of c. 2000 BC. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.
Archaeological excavations at Cape Kolonna revealed a purple dye workshop dating back to the 16th century BC.
### Late Bronze {#late_bronze}
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.
At Mount Ellanio, a Mycenaean refuge has been found dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age.
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.
One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.
Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian League during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.
#### Coinage and sea power (7th--5th centuries BC) {#coinage_and_sea_power_7th5th_centuries_bc}
Its early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater. One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700 BC. Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (c. 630 BC), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.2 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC. The Aeginetic stater was divided into two drachmae of 6.1 grams of silver. Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.
During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina\'s fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory. At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.
Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.
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# Aegina
## History
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
#### Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC) {#rivalry_with_athens_5th_century_bc}
The known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the 6th century BC. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79--89; vi. 49--51, 73, 85--94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.
The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was frustrated miraculously (according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees) and only a single survivor returned to Athens. There he became victim to the fury of his comrades\' widows who pierced him with their peplos brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this \"old feud\"; writers such as J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, c. 570 BC. It is possible that the whole episode is mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), such as of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women\'s dress at Athens from the Dorian peplos to the Ionian style chiton.
In the early years of the 5th century BC the Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.
In 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (\"earth and water\") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.
All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).
There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:
- Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC
- It is only for two years (491 and 490 BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,
- It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.
- There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens. As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes \"for the war against Aegina\" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the *Constitution of Athens* as 483--482 BC.
It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.
Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 BC, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of \"sending the Aeacidae.\" The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.
It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490--480 BC.
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# Aegina
## History
### Decline
In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 BC). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.
By the terms of the Thirty Years\' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.
It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina\'s greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina\'s medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The loss of the state\'s power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle\'s estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.
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# Aegina
## History
### Hellenistic period and Roman rule {#hellenistic_period_and_roman_rule}
Aegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322--229 BC), the Achaeans (229--211 BC), Aetolians (211--210 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210--133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC). A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community was established in Aegina \"at the end of the second and during the 3rd century AD\" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece. However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD. Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century. There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879. The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
### Byzantine period {#byzantine_period}
Aegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th--8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the *Chronicle of Monemvasia*, the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions. The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies, such as those of Athanasia of Aegina or Theodora of Thessalonica, record a large-scale raid c. 830, that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island\'s hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.
According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates. This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough\'s graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.
### Frankish rule after 1204 {#frankish_rule_after_1204}
After the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice. In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens. The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians, when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic\'s protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.
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# Aegina
## History
### Venetians in Aegina (1451--1537) {#venetians_in_aegina_14511537}
In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello\'s uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (*rettore*) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà\'s death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.
In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.
#### Administration {#administration_1}
Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.
In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie\'s authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.
Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.
Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor\'s decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.
#### 16th century {#th_century}
After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.
In 1502--03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.
In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.
With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.
### First Ottoman period (1540--1687) {#first_ottoman_period_15401687}
Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537. In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians. The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.
The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).
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# Aegina
## History
### Second Venetian period (1687--1715) {#second_venetian_period_16871715}
In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.
In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.
### Second Ottoman period (1715--1821) {#second_ottoman_period_17151821}
During the early part of the Ottoman--Venetian War of 1714--1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century. The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as *Old Athenian*, which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.
### Greek Revolution {#greek_revolution}
During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.
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# Aegina
## Landmarks
*Main article: Temple of Aphaea*
- **Temple of Aphaea**, dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece. It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.
- **Monastery of Agios Nectarios**, dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.
- A statue in the principal square commemorates **Ioannis Kapodistrias** (1776--1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.
- **The Orphanage of Kapodistrias** is a large building, known locally as *The Prison* (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828--29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence. The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra. From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967--1974) - hence its local name. There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.
- **The Tower of Markellos** was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687--1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege. A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time. The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802. In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state. It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century. It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.
- **Temple of Zeus Hellanios**, near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.
- **Colona**, Located to the north of the town of Aegina. Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement. The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation. The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved. The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill. It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens. Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases.
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# Aegina
## Economy
In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island. By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time. As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris. The quality of \"*Fistiki Aeginis*\" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil\'s volcanic characteristics. Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world. Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina\'s Pistachio Producers. It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year. In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name \"*Fistiki Fest*\".
## Culture
### Mythology
In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island\'s name was Aegina.
Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place. So he changed some ants (*Μυρμύγια*, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.
### Famous Aeginetans {#famous_aeginetans}
- Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated
- Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor
- Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant
- Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor
- Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor
- Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher
- Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician
- Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint
- Theodora of Thessaloniki (9th century), nun and saint
- Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople
- Nectarios of Aegina (1846--1920), bishop and saint
- Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918
- Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45Lewis, Grover (June 4--10, 1993). \"The Killing of Gus Hasford\". *LA Weekly*. BronxBanter blog
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# Aegis
The **aegis** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|i:|dʒ|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|EE|jis}}`{=mediawiki}; *αἰγίς* *aigís*), as stated in the *Iliad*, is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, *Astronomica* 2. 13).
The modern concept of doing something \"under someone\'s *aegis*{{-\"}} means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word *aegis* is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word *aegis* is applied by extension.
## Etymology
The Greek *αἰγίς* *aigis* has many meanings, including:
1. \"violent windstorm\", from the verb *ἀίσσω* *aïssō* (word stem *ἀιγ-* *aïg-*) = \"I rush or move violently\". Akin to *καταιγίς* *kataigis*, \"thunderstorm\".
2. The shield of a deity as described above.
3. \"goatskin coat\", from treating the word as meaning \"something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat\": Greek *αἴξ* *aix* (stem *αἰγ-* *aig-*) = \"goat\" + suffix *-ίς* *-is* (stem *-ίδ-* *-id-*).
The original meaning may have been the first, and *Ζεὺς Αἰγίοχος* *Zeus Aigiokhos* = \"Zeus who holds the aegis\" may have originally meant \"Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm\". The transition to the meaning \"shield\" or \"goatskin\" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.
## In Greek mythology {#in_greek_mythology}
The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the *Iliad*. \"It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (*Iliad*, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle \... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen.\"
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus\'s forge, who \"busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods---a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess\'s breast---a severed head rolling its eyes\", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the *Gorgoneion* (Medusa\'s head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and \"re-born\" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear.`{{tone inline|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki} \"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the *Iliad*, sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the *Iliad* when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton\'s *Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes*, the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton\'s daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled. Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend.
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# Aegis
## In classical poetry and art {#in_classical_poetry_and_art}
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (*Ion*, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the *Gorgoneion* was *added* to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.
John Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (*Poetical Astronomy* ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (*aigis* \"goat-skin\") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.
The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal\'s skin thrown over Athena\'s shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the *gorgoneion*. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena\'s dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on coins, cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.
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# Aegis
## Interpretations
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. \"Athene\'s garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.\"
Robert Graves in *The Greek Myths* (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (*kursas*), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis
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# Aegisthus
**Aegisthus** (`{{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|s|θ|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγισθος* ; also transliterated as **Aigisthos**, `{{IPA|el|ǎi̯ɡistʰos|}}`{=mediawiki}) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer\'s *Odyssey*, believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, written in the 5th century BC. Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides\'s **Electra** (c. 420 BC), although his character remains offstage.
## Family
Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes\'s own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father\'s rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus\'s son Agamemnon. In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother\'s children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.
While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king\'s return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon\'s son Orestes.
## Mythology
### Early life {#early_life}
Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus\'s wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes\'s sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons\' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.
Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from *αἴξ*, male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby\'s origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.
### Death of Atreus {#death_of_atreus}
In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.
### Power struggle over Mycenae {#power_struggle_over_mycenae}
Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus\'s sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.
After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen\'s abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon\'s return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.
Following Agamemnon\'s death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen). In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus\'s daughter Erigone.
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# Aegisthus
## In culture {#in_culture}
Homer gives no information about Aegisthus\'s antecedents. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.
In Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, *Agamemnon*, he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In *The Libation Bearers* he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\" Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in *Agamemnon* revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical \'tyrant figure\' in embryo.\"
Aeschylus\'s portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca\'s *Agamemnon*, enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss\'s and Hugo von Hofmannsthal\'s opera, *Elektra* his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\" In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene\...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.\"
An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the \"Tomb of Aegisthus\". It dates from around 1510 BC
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# Aegospotami
**Aegospotami** (*Αἰγὸς Ποταμοί*, *Aigos Potamoi*) or **Aegospotamos** (i.e. *Goat Streams*) is the ancient Greek name for a small river or rivers issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish *Çanakkale Boğazı*), northeast of Sestos.
Aegospotami is plural, which suggests that the name may have referred to multiple rivers. As is often the case, interpretation of geography described by ancient sources has difficulties, not the least of which is evolution of the terrain, and the river or rivers have been identified with both the modern Karakova Dere and Büyük Dere (\"Big Creek\", now called Münipbey Deresi). Körpe and Yavuz concurred with both Bommelaer and Strauss that the latter stream is the more likely candidate and additionally identified the probable site of the associated settlement as a rise on the left bank of the Münipbey Deresi known as Kalanuro Tepesi, based on geographical features and archaeological remnants.
Aegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, near the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.
At its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War. The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.
According to ancient sources including Pliny the Elder and Aristotle, in 467 BC a large meteorite landed near Aegospotami. It was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load. A comet, tentatively identified as Halley\'s Comet, was reported at the time the meteorite landed. This is possibly the first European record of Halley\'s comet
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# Aelianus Tacticus
**Aelianus Tacticus** (*Αἰλιανὸς ὀ Τακτικός*; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as **Aelian** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ən}}`{=mediawiki}), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.
## Work
Aelian\'s military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled *On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks* (*Περὶ Στρατηγικῶν Τάξεων Ἑλληνικῶν*), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian\'s work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.
Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus\'s house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.
Critics of the 18th century --- Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne --- were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). The author of the *Strategikon* ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian\'s work as a conceptional model, especially its preface. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian\'s text in his own *Taktika*. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. It was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza, published at Rome in 1487. The Greek editio princeps was edited by Francesco Robortello and published at Venice in 1552.
In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organisers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.
The first significant reference to the influence of Aelian in the 16th century is a letter to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange from his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg on December 8, 1594. The letter is influential in supporting the thesis of the early-modern Military Revolution. In the letter, William Louis discusses the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian\'s Tactica. Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilum. William Louis in a \'crucial leap\' realised that the same technique could work for men with firearms
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# Agarose
**Agarose** is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red algae. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar\'s other component, agaropectin.
Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.
## Structure
Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.
Each agarose chain contains \~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm). The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to \>200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.
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# Agarose
## Properties
Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from *Gelidium* has a gelling temperature of 34 - and a melting temperature of 90 -, while those derived from *Gracilaria*, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40 - and melting temperature of 85 -. The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.
Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.
The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added. On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.
Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate. These negatively charged groups can slow down the movement of DNA molecules in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO).
**Low EEO (LE) agarose** is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Zero EEO agaroses are also available but these may be undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups that can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
**LE agarose** is said to be better for preparative electrophoresis, i.e. when DNA needs to be extracted from an agarose gel.
### Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses {#low_melting_and_gelling_temperature_agaroses}
The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30 - range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.
Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (\~90 nm) than standard agaroses. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at 8 -.
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# Agarose
## Applications
Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes \>200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments \>100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.
### Agarose gel electrophoresis {#agarose_gel_electrophoresis}
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50--20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.
The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel. The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size.
Agarose gels are cast in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution. Tris-acetate-EDTA and Tris-Borate-EDTA buffers are commonly used, but other buffers such as Tris-phosphate, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or Tris-barbiturate buffers may be used in other applications. The DNA is normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide and then viewed under a UV light, but other methods of staining are available, such as SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, and crystal violet. If the separated DNA fragments are needed for further downstream experiment, they can be cut out from the gel in slices for further manipulation.
### Protein purification {#protein_purification}
Agarose gel matrix is often used for protein purification, for example, in column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. It is however not used as a continuous gel, rather it is formed into porous beads or resins of varying fineness. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.
Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), *Praesto* and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).
For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.
### Solid culture media {#solid_culture_media}
Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, *Caenorhabditis elegans*, other organisms and various cell lines.
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# Agarose
## Applications
### Motility assays {#motility_assays}
Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel\'s porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell\'s swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient
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# Arthur St. Clair
Major-General **Arthur St. Clair** (`{{OldStyleDateDY|March 23,|1737<ref name="ANB" />|1736<!--OS New Year began March 25-->}}`{=mediawiki} -- August 31, 1818) was a Scottish-born American military officer and politician. Born in Thurso, Caithness, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in the Province of Pennsylvania. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.
After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance. He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, which was further enlarged by the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, he commanded an American army in St. Clair\'s Defeat, which became the greatest victory achieved by Native Americans against the United States. Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802 and died in obscurity.
## Early life and career {#early_life_and_career}
St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness. Little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737. His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour. He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.
In 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army\'s Royal American Regiment and came to North America with Admiral Edward Boscawen\'s fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffery Amherst during the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia, on July 26, 1758. On April 17, 1759, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City.
## Settler in America {#settler_in_america}
On April 16, 1762, St. Clair resigned his commission, and by 1764 had settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and went into business as an operator of flour and grist mills. The fortune he amassed soon made him the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.
In 1770, St. Clair entered politics when he was elected as a justice of both the Court of Quarter Sessions and of Common Pleas. He subsequently served as a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans\' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.
In 1774, during Lord Dunmore\'s War, the colony of Virginia illegally took claim of the area around present-day Pittsburgh. A militia was quickly raised to drive off the Virginians and St. Clair, in his capacity as a magistrate, issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. The boundary dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania wasn\'t settled until 1780, when both sides agreed to extend the Mason--Dixon line westward from Maryland to 80° 31′ west, the current western border of Pennsylvania. (see: District of West Augusta)
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Revolutionary War {#revolutionary_war}
By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. He first saw service in the final days of the failed Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776 and was tasked by George Washington to help train and equip newly arrived recruits from New Jersey. He took part in George Washington\'s crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25--26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington\'s capture of Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777. St. Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.
In April 1777, St. Clair was given command of Fort Ticonderoga. His outnumbered garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne\'s larger force in the Saratoga campaign; thus, St. Clair was forced to retreat at the resulting siege on July 5, 1777. He successfully evacuated his men, but choosing not to stand and fight permanently damaged his sterling reputation. In 1778, he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him and approved his return to duty, but he would never hold a command again during the Revolution. He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to Washington, who retained a high opinion of him. St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army. During his military service, St. Clair was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1780.
## President of the United States in Congress Assembled {#president_of_the_united_states_in_congress_assembled}
Following his discharge from the Army, St. Clair was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783 and served as a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787. Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays\'s Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle their disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government. On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress. Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during his tenure. Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however; during St. Clair\'s presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress. St. Clair is the only foreign-born \"president\" of the United States.
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Northwest Territory {#northwest_territory}
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, to honor his membership in the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he decided to relocate his home.
As governor, he formulated \"Maxwell\'s Code\" (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also worked with Josiah Harmar, Senior Officer of the United States, to resolve the issue of Native American tribes refusing to leave their lands, which the federal government had seized as punishment for their support of the British during the Revolution. In 1789, the two men succeeded in getting several Native American tribal leaders to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but the treaty was never fully implemented and the tribes rejected it outright as illegitimate.
Supported with intelligence, supplies, and weapons funneled to them by British agents, the tribes decided to wage full-scale war against the Americans in what came to be called the \"Northwest Indian War\" (or \"Little Turtle\'s War\"). Harmar was ordered by President Washington\'s administration to crush the Indians with a force mainly composed of ill-disciplined and inexperienced state militiamen; he suffered a humiliating defeat in October 1790.
### Army commander {#army_commander}
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded the disgraced Harmar as Senior Officer of the new United States Army and was restored to his previous rank of major general. He personally led a punitive expedition, this time with two full Army regiments and a large contingent of militia. St. Clair had far more experience commanding troops than Harmar and his force was properly supplied and organized; unfortunately, like Harmar, St. Clair was also devoid of any practical experience in frontier warfare and generally dismissive of the Indians as fighters. In October 1791, he ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson to serve as the advance post for his campaign. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named \"Fort Deposit\".
### St. Clair\'s defeat {#st._clairs_defeat}
In November 1791, near modern-day Fort Recovery, St. Clair advanced on the main Indian settlements at the head of the Wabash River. On November 4, they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket with the support of British agents Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. More than 600 American soldiers and scores of camp followers were killed in the battle, which came to be known as \"St. Clair\'s Defeat\"; other names include the \"Battle of the Wabash\", the \"Columbia Massacre,\" or the \"Battle of a Thousand Slain\". It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. army by Native Americans in history, with a total of 623 fallen Americans compared to just 50 fallen Native Americans. The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt. Robert Benham.
### Continued as Governor 1788-1802 {#continued_as_governor_1788_1802}
Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair surrendered his commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington before resuming his previous office as territorial governor.
A Federalist, St. Clair refocused his energies on carving up the Northwest Territory into two states that would strength Federalist control of Congress. However, he was opposed by Ohio Democrat-Republicans for what they perceived as his shameless partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, he declared that his constituents \"are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France.\" This, coupled with the gradual collapse of Federalist influence in Washington D.C., led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him as governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.
The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, largely as a reaction to St. Clair\'s method of governance.
## Family life {#family_life}
St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard\'s mother\'s maiden name was Bowdoin, and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, a colonial governor of Massachusetts. His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.
Like many of his Revolutionary-era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout due to poor diet, as noted in his correspondence with John Adams.
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# Arthur St. Clair
## Death
In retirement, St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.
Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg. St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova Caesarea Lodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791. This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2. His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.
## Legacy
A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair\'s home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.
An American Civil War steamer was named USS *St. Clair*.
Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, `{{ws|[[s:Moral Pieces, in Prose and Verse/General St. Clair|General St. Clair]]}}`{=mediawiki} in her first poetry collection of 1815.
The site of Clair\'s inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the *National Start Westward Memorial of The United States*, commemorating the settlement of the territory.
Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:
In Pennsylvania:
- Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania
- St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
- East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Hospital, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
In Ohio:
- St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio
- St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,
- St. Clairsville, Ohio
- St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio
- Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio
Other States:
- St. Clair County, Illinois
- St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana
- St. Clair County, Missouri
- St. Clair County, Alabama
- St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street\'s north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.
In Scotland:
- The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him
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# Ajaigarh
**Ajaigarh** or **Ajaygarh** is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India. Ajaygarh is the administrative headquarters of tehsil in Panna district,
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh.
## History
Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of 771 sqmi, and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of *sawai maharaja*. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868--69 and 1896--97.
The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
## Geography
Ajaygarh is located on 24.54 N 80.16 E. It has an average elevation of 344 metres (1128 feet).
## Demographics
As of the 2011 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 16,656. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
## Ajaigarh Fort {#ajaigarh_fort}
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region. It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River. This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.
The fort is visited by both history and art lovers. This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.
Ajaygarh Fort, also known as [Ajaypal](https://www.bundelkhand24x7.com/2025/04/ajaygarh-fort.html) Fort, is an ancient and mysterious fort located in the Panna district of Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Chandela kings and stands atop a high hill. At the main entrance of the fort, there is an old inscription that no one has been able to decipher till today. It is believed that this inscription holds the secret path to a hidden treasure.
## Gallery
{{ wide image\|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace
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# Ajmer-Merwara
**Ajmer-Merwara** (also known as **Ajmir Province**, and **Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri**) was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818. It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1861 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces. Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri. It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.
The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwara, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.
In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India\'s agent for the Rajputana Agency.
## Extent and geography {#extent_and_geography}
The area of the province was 2710 sqmi. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.
The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.
The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Kutch are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries (now the majority of this region is in Gujarat state within independent India), and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. The rainfall of the district depends on the varying strength of these two monsoons. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.
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# Ajmer-Merwara
## Extent and geography {#extent_and_geography}
### British rule {#british_rule}
Part of the Ajmer region, the territory of the future province was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior State as part of a treaty dated 25 June 1818. Then in May 1823 the Merwara (Mewar) part was ceded to Britain by Udaipur State. Thereafter Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British East India Company. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in 1858 the powers of the company were transferred to the British Crown and the Governor-General of India. His administration of Ajmer-Merwara was controlled by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the British agent for the Rajputana Agency.
#### Superintendents for Ajmer {#superintendents_for_ajmer}
- 9 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}17 Jul 1818 Nixon
- 18 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785--1849)
- 16 Dec 1824`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)
- 22 Apr 1825`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}23 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton
- 24 Oct 1827`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish
- 29 Nov 1831`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)
- 2 Jul 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}16 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs
- 17 Apr 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}30 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813--1864)
- 1 Jul 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}25 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807--1886)
- 26 Jul 1837`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten
#### Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara) {#superintendents_for_merwara_from_feb_1842_ajmer_merwara}
- 1823`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1836 Henry Hall (1789--1875)
- 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)
#### Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency {#agents_of_the_governors_general_for_the_rajputana_agency}
- 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}29 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781--1834)
- 29 Nov 1833`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs
- Jun 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves
- 1 Feb 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788--1880)
- Apr 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848)
- Jan 1844`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)
- Dec 1847`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jan 1853 John Low (1788--1880)
- 25 Jun 1848`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}19 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)
- 8 Sep 1851`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)
- 1852`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804--1884) (1st time)
- 5 Mar 1853`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806--1857)
- 15 Mar 1857`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 10 Apr 1859`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}24 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814--1867) (acting for Lawrence)
- Apr 1864`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.)
- 1867`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825--1904)
- 15 Jun 1870`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818--1899) (acting for Keatinge)
#### Chief Commissioners {#chief_commissioners}
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.)
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)
- 21 Jun 1873`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825--1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)
- 6 Apr 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (c. lk=no`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1903)
- 6 Jul 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Nov 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835--1911)
- 18 Aug 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (1st time)(acting)
- 5 Mar 1877`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Dec 1878`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836--1911) (1st time)
- 17 Mar 1881`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)
- 28 Nov 1882`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 27 Mar 1887`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)
- 20 Mar 1890`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840--1927)
- 27 Aug 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}2 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)
- 2 Dec 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 22 Nov 1893`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}11 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840--1914)
- 11 Jan 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 20 Mar 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}10 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841--1917)
- 10 Mar 1898`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854--1942) (1st time)
- 1 May 1900`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848--1909)
- 1 Apr 1901`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}3 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)
- 3 Feb 1902`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 1 Apr 1905`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861--1940)
- 4 Jan 1918`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864--1920)
- 22 Dec 1919`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}7 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873--1965)
- 7 Aug 1925`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872--1942)
- 18 Mar 1927`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}14 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874--1946)
- 14 Oct 1932`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882--1966)
- 28 Oct 1937`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887--1962)
- May 1939`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893--1980) (acting for Lothian)
- 1 Dec 1944`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904--1949)
### Post-independence {#post_independence}
From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.
The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region
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# Abatement of debts and legacies
**Abatement of debts and legacies** is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.
Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.
The order of abatement is usually:
1. Intestate property
2. The residuary of the estate
3. General Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts
4. Demonstrative Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.
5. Specific Devises---*i.e.*, specified items of personal property, real property, etc.
Non-probate property---*i.e.*, life insurance policies---do not abate.
## Definitions
A **specific devise**, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving his \$500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.
A **general devise**, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving \$500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.
A **demonstrative devise**, is money given from a particular account. For example, \"\$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock.\"
A **residual devise** is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James\'s will might say: \"I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly.\" Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James\'s residuary estate
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# Affiliation (family law)
In law, **affiliation**(from Latin **affiliare**, \"to adopt as a son\") was previously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity. The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document.
## Affiliation procedures in England {#affiliation_procedures_in_england}
In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 10), and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts 1872 and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child\'s support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother\'s evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances) may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age.
An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King\'s Bench by rule *nisi* or *certiorari*. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.
Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case, the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over 14 years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in a discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins, it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 (42 & 43 Vict. c. 49) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 58), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier\'s pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the Royal Navy.
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# Affiliation (family law)
## Affiliation procedures in other countries {#affiliation_procedures_in_other_countries}
In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (except for California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).
On the continent of Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Serbia and the Canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.
Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.
In India, affiliation cases are decided by section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code. According to this section - among other things - if a person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his illegitimate child, a magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of such child
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# Affray
`{{Wiktionary}}`{=mediawiki}
In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, **affray** is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in *à l\'effroi*) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.
## Australia
In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.
In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says \"Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty---1 year's imprisonment.\"
In Victoria, Affray was a common law offence until 2017, when it was abolished and was replaced with the statutory offence that can be found under section 195H of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). The section defines Affray as the use or threat of unlawful violence by a person in a manner that would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to be terrified. However, a person who commits this conduct may only be found guilty of Affray if the use or threat of violence was intended, or if the person was reckless as to whether the conduct involves the use or threat of violence. If found guilty, the maximum penalty that may be imposed for Affray is imprisonment for 5 years or, if at the time of committing the offence the person was wearing a face covering used primarily to conceal their identity or to protect them from the effects of crowd-controlling substances, imprisonment for 7 years.
## India
The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of \"actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the *lieges*\".
## New Zealand {#new_zealand}
In New Zealand affray has been codified as \"fighting in a public place\" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981.
## South Africa {#south_africa}
Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of *vis publica*.
## United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
The common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:
The term \"violence\" is defined by section 8.`{{clarify|date=February 2015}}`{=mediawiki}
Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.
The *mens rea* of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.
The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.
In *R v Childs & Price* (2015), the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.
### Northern Ireland {#northern_ireland}
Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.
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# Affray
## United States {#united_states}
In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states
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# Afghan Turkestan
**Afghan Turkestan** is a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In the 19th century, there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan with Mazar-e Sharif as provincial capital. The province incorporated the territories of the present-day provinces of Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-e Pol, and Faryab. In 1890, Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was separated from Turkestan Province. It was later abolished by Abdur Rahman.
The whole territory of Afghan Turkestan, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some 500 mi in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 183 km. It thus comprised about 147,000 km^2^ (57,000 sq mi) or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan.
## Geography
The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.
The province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or *Chahar Wilayat* (\"four domains\") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhoy (city), and Maymana in the west.
## Demographics
The bulk of the people are Uzbeks and Turkmens with large concentrations of Hazaras, Qizilbashs, Tatars, Tajiks, and Pashtuns.
## History
Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria--Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur Shah. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur\'s sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mohammad, the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. Dost Mohammad\'s earliest campaigns begin in the 1830s in the Afghan Turkestan Campaign of 1838-39. The sovereignty over Andkhoy, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maymana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.In 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul
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# Abba Arikha
**Rav Abba bar Aybo** (*Aramaic\]\]*; 175--247 CE), commonly known as **Abba Arikha** (*label=none*) or simply as **Rav** (*label=none*), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues.
## Biography
His surname, **Arikha** (English: ***the Tall***), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading **Arekha**, consider it an honorary title, like \"Lecturer\". In the traditional literature, he is referred to almost exclusively as **Rav**, \"the Master\" (both by contemporaries and latter generations), just as his teacher, Judah ha-Nasi, was known simply as *Rabbi*. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the *tannaitic* literature, wherein a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the *Tannaim* and the *Amoraim* and is accorded the right---rarely conceded to one who is only an *amora*---of disputing the opinion of a *tanna*.
Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family that claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David. His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi. From his associations in his uncle\'s house and later as his uncle\'s disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia. While Judah ha-Nasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as a teacher with certain restrictions, returned to Asoristan, referred to as \"Babylonia\" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.
In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era. For the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him *agoranomos* (market-master), and Rav Shela made him lecturer (*amora*) of his college. Then he moved to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel of Nehardea, another disciple of Judah ha-Nasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav\'s activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine and gave it that predominant position it was destined to occupy for several centuries.
Little is known of Rav\'s personal life. That he was rich seems probable, for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture. He is referred to as the son of noblemen, but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi tells us that he is described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship that existed between him and the last Parthian, Artabanus IV. He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so.
Rav became closely related to the exilarch\'s family through the marriage of one of his daughters. Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav\'s disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied the office of exilarch in succession.
Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism.
According to some opinions, Rav lived for 300 years. *Pesach Einayim* comments that Rav\'s prayer, as told in the Talmud, merited him long life.
## Legacy
The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other *tannaitic* traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav\'s name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples---some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel---amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as \"our great master.\" Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.
Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in.
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# Abba Arikha
## Teachings
He gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue. The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav. He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner. He also composed the prayer recited on Shabbat before the start of a new month, Birkat ha-Hodesh.
The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability. The greatest aggadist among Babylonian *Amoraim*, he is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian *Midrashim* also contain many of his *aggadot*. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues. He especially loved to discuss in his homilies the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His *aggadah* is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these teachings may be quoted here:
- \"The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men\'s morals\"
- \"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber\"
- \"In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat.\"
- \"Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham\"
- \"Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one\'s fellow man.\"
- \"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: \'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\'\"
- \"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result.\"
- \"While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!\" \[Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive\]
- \"Receive the payment. Deliver the goods!\" \[i.e. do not sell on credit\]
- \"\[Better to come\] under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e. the Arabs) than \[the displeasure of\] Rome; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of Rome than \[the displeasure of\] a Persian; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a Persian than \[the displeasure of\] a disciple of the Sages; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than \[the displeasure of\] an orphan and widow.\"
- \"A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake. For eventually he will do it for their own sake\"
- \"A man ought always to look about in search of a \[good\] city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is \[relatively\] new, its iniquities are also few.\"
- \"A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, \[and no more\].\"
Rav loved the *Book of Ecclesiasticus* (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.
To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: `{{Blockquote|Nothing on earth compares with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence.<ref>Berakhot 17a</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction
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# Abbreviator
An **abbreviator** (plural \"abbreviators\" in English, *abbreviatores* in Latin) or **breviator** was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out *in extenso* by the *scriptores*.
They are first mentioned in the Papal bull *Extravagantes* of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.
After the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those *de Parco majori* of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery. By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery. Over time they obtained many important privileges.
## Roman lay origin {#roman_lay_origin}
Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase. The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the *Digest* and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.
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# Abbreviator
## Ecclesiastical *abbreviatores* {#ecclesiastical_abbreviatores}
In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The *Abbreviatores* were officials of the Roman Curia.
The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic---or Roman---Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, *Praelectiones Jur. Can.*, 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of *Abbreviatores* necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the *Dataria Apostolica* and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of *Abbreviatores*.
According to Ciampini (*Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc.*, Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name \"*abbreviatores*\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (*Extravag. Joan.*, Tit. 13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.
Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.
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# Abbreviator
## Institution of the College of Abbreviators {#institution_of_the_college_of_abbreviators}
In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"**College of Abbreviators**\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (*Abbreviatores de Parco Majori*; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (*Abbreviatores de Parco Minori*); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.
Pope Paul II suppressed the college, but Pope Sixtus IV (*Constitutio* 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.
Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (*Curia Romana*, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the college consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his *Constitutio Universae Eccles.* of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.
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# Abbreviator
## Titles and privileges {#titles_and_privileges}
Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as *Comes palatinus* (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (*Militiae Aureae*), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (*Acta Pont. Greg. XVI*, Vol. 3, 178--179--180).
Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.
They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature *in capella*. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and *cappa*, as also rochet *in capella*. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.
These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.
As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.
## Suppression
Pope Pius X abrogated the college in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the *protonotarii apostolici participantes*
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
**ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī** (*عبداللطيف البغدادي*; 1162, Baghdad -- 1231, Baghdad), short for **Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī** (*موفق الدين محمد عبد اللطيف بن يوسف البغدادي*), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.
## Biography
Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah\'s literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil\'s patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu\'l-Qasim al-Shari\'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.
In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207--1208, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala'-al-Din Da'ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). 'Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## *Account of Egypt* {#account_of_egypt}
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed *Account of Egypt* (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.
In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.
### Archeology
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:
- \"monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies\";
- \"they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur\'an mentions them and their people\";
- \"they are reminders of human endurance and fate\";
- \"they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought\".
While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.
### Egyptology
His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author\'s residence in Egypt. The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to 'Abd al-Latif\'s detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism. He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.
### Autopsy
Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw \[mandible\], coccyx and sacrum.
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## *Account of Egypt* {#account_of_egypt}
### Translation
Al-Baghdādī\'s Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke\'s complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful. Pococke\'s complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.
## Philosophy
As far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers' ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle\'s Metaphysics (*Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa*). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author\'s acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (*Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn*) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the "golden age of Arabic philosophy" (Gutas, 20).
## Alchemy
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf\'s view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29--62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301--17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203--5; Stern, 66--7; Allemann).
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# Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
## Spiritualism
During the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid-1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221--9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8--9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story 'Ghost Writer', as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person
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# Abd ar-Rahman II
**Abd ar-Rahman II** (*عبد الرحمن الأوسط*; 792--852) was the fourth *Umayyad* Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids. Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
He responded to William of Septimania\'s requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.
Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque--Cathedral of Córdoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba
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# Abd al-Rahman IV
**Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik** (*translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik*), commonly known as **Abd al-Rahman IV**, was the Caliph of the Umayyad state of Córdoba in Al-Andalus, succeeding Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power
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# Abd al-Rahman V
**Abd ar-Rahman V** (*ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Hishām al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh*) was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.
During the decline of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, Abd-ar-Rahman IV Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-Rahman V Mostadir (1023--1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins
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# Abdera, Spain
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ `{{Infobox ancient site
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|type =
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}}`{=mediawiki} **Abdera** was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.
## Name
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription `{{sc|ʾbdrt}}`{=mediawiki} (*𐤏𐤁𐤃𐤓𐤕*). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for \"servant\" or \"slave\"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.
It appears in Greek sources as *tà Ábdēra* (*τὰ Ἄβδηρα*) and *Aúdēra* (*Αὔδηρα*), *Ábdara* (*Ἄβδαρα*), and *tò Ábdēron* (*τὸ Ἄβδηρον*).
## History
Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony. It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.
## Coins
The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town\'s main temple with two erect tunas as its columns. Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town
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# Abdera, Thrace
**Abdera** (*Άβδηρα*) is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek *polis* on the Thracian coast.
The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor. The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization. The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece. After the 4th century AD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.
During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city. It was called Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*), and later considered as the New Abdera (*Νέα Άβδηρα*). In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements. The ancient site remains in it as a ruin. The municipality of Abdera has 17,610 inhabitants (2021). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.
## Name
The name *Abdera* is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. It was variously Hellenized as *Ἄβδηρα* (*Ábdēra*), *Αὔδηρα* (*Aúdēra*), *Ἄβδαρα* (*Ábdara*), *Ἄβδηρον* (*Ábdēron*), and *Ἄβδηρος* (*Ábdēros*), before being Latinized as *Abdera*. Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules\'s founding of a city at the location.
The present-day town is written **Avdira** (*Άβδηρα*) and pronounced `{{IPA|el|ˈavðira|}}`{=mediawiki} in modern Greek.
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# Abdera, Thrace
## History
### Antiquity
The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.
The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654 BC. (Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera\'s failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios\'s having left Klazomenai.
Strabo describes Abdera as \"a Thracian city\" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area. The successful colonisation occurred in 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian invasion of their homeland. The chief coin type, a *griffon*, is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abdera (Thrace)|display=Abdera|volume=1|page=33}}`{=mediawiki} Endnotes:
- *Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens*, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel);
- *Mém. de l\'Acad. des Inscriptions*, xxxix. 211;
- K. F. Hermann, *Ges. Abh.* 90-111, 370 ff.
In 513 and 512 BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.
Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom. In 408 BC, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.
A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.
The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn\'t silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). The *Philogelos*, a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about Abderans, who are stereotyped as stupid, superstitious, and literal-minded. Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon. Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.
Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.
The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56\'1.02\"N 24°58\'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*). Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi. By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.
### Modern
Avdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928. The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. At the 2011 local government reform it merged with the former municipalities Selero and Vistonida, and the town Genisea became its seat.
The municipality has an area of 352.047 km^2^, the municipal unit 161.958 km^2^. The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.
## Landmarks
Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, the Kütüklü Baba Tekke, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also *Paralia Avdiron*) near the village Lefkippos
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# Apollos
**Apollos** (*Ἀπολλώς*) was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.
## Biblical account {#biblical_account}
### Acts of the Apostles {#acts_of_the_apostles}
Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\". Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:
: \"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately.\"
The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\". Later, during Apollos\' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus: `{{blockquote|And he said to them, "Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?" And they said, "No, we have not even heard that there is a Holy Spirit." And he said, "Into what then were you baptized?" They said, "Into John's baptism." And Paul said, "John baptized with the baptism of repentance, telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus." On hearing this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had laid his hands on them, the Holy Spirit came on them, and they began speaking in tongues and prophesying.<ref>{{Bibleref|Acts|19:2-6}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Before Paul\'s arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.
### 1 Corinthians
Paul\'s First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos\' role at Corinth:
: *I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.*
Paul\'s Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. \"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul \[\...\] alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence \'I am for Cephas\'. \[\...\] What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; \'I am for Christ\'.\" Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians\' immaturity in faith.
Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Apollos\' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O\'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew \... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader \... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.\"
There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.
### Epistle to Titus {#epistle_to_titus}
Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\".
## Extrabiblical information {#extrabiblical_information}
Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul\'s letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
Pope Benedict XVI suggested that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus. He also suggested there were those in Corinth \"\...fascinated by \[Apollos'\] way of speaking\....\"
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# Apollos
## Significance
Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas. Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority. The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos\' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.
Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.
Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25. Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great)
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# Antidiarrheal
Antidiarrheals are a class of medication used primarily to manage and reduce the frequency of diarrhea. This class of medication predominantly works by slowing digestion, reducing fluid loss, or improving absorption. There are four main classes: opiates, 5-HT~3~ receptor antagonists, adsorbents, and bulk-forming agents. Commonly used medications include loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate, bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), Cholestyramine, and Octreotide. Although not considered an antidiarrheal, oral rehydration solutions are also an important aspect of managing diarrhea.
## Medical use {#medical_use}
### Acute diarrhea {#acute_diarrhea}
Acute diarrhea is a common condition that typically resolves on its own with oral rehydration therapy. Most cases of acute diarrhea are caused by infections from contaminated food or water and usually go away on their own within a week. The most common causes of acute diarrhea in children are the viral agents norovirus and rotavirus, accounting for about 70% of cases. Travelers' diarrhea (TD) is one of the most common illnesses affecting people of all ages abroad, with up to 70% of travelers developing symptoms within two weeks. While traditional advice like avoiding uncooked or unpeeled foods was once thought to be effective, poor sanitation and food handling practices---especially in local eateries---remain major risk factors.
Anti-motility medications like loperamide and diphenoxylate can help manage the symptoms of travelers' diarrhea by reducing the frequency of bowel movements, which can be helpful when needing to travel, but are not curative. Loperamide and diphenoxylate should be avoided in people with bloody diarrhea or a fever, and loperamide is typically not recommended for children under six. Additionally, zinc supplements, particularly in children, can reduce diarrheal duration by up to 25% and reduce stool volume by up to 30%.
### Dehydration and oral replacement therapy {#dehydration_and_oral_replacement_therapy}
The primary risk from diarrhea is dehydration and electrolyte loss, making fluid and electrolyte replacement the top treatment priority. Drinking fluids orally is typically as effective as IV fluids and more cost-efficient for most patients. Thus, rehydration is essential when managing acute diarrhea, especially in vulnerable groups like young children, older adults, and those with chronic conditions. Oral rehydration solutions are made with clean water, salt, and sugar. These solutions are ideal for severe cases, while milder dehydration can be managed with safe, preferred fluids---though overly sugary drinks should be avoided.
Dehydration is categorized into three levels: **severe, some, or none**. **Severe dehydration** includes signs like lethargy, sunken eyes, little to no urine output, and confusion. **Some dehydration** may present with dry mouth, restlessness, thirst, and slightly sunken eyes. If these signs are absent or insufficient, the person is not considered dehydrated.
### Chronic diarrhea {#chronic_diarrhea}
Chronic diarrhea often persists for greater than a week and may require further work-up from a medical professional. When the underlying cause cannot be directly addressed, long-term symptom management using antidiarrheals is often necessary.
## Adverse effects {#adverse_effects}
### Opiates
Loperamide is effective and safe for treating chronic diarrhea. Diphenoxylate and difenoxin work similarly but can affect the brain at high doses, so they\'re combined with atropine to reduce misuse risks. Stronger opiates like morphine or codeine can treat severe diarrhea, but they\'re rarely prescribed due to the risk of misuse, and careful monitoring is needed. While generally safe, even when combined with antibiotics, the use of opiates may slightly increase the risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
### Bismuth subsalicylate {#bismuth_subsalicylate}
Bismuth subsalicylate is commonly used for diarrhea, but long-term use raises safety concerns and should be monitored. Bismuth can cause common side effects such as nausea, a bitter taste, diarrhea, and darkened stools. Since it is a heavy metal, in may cause encephalopathy in rare cases.
### Bile acid resins {#bile_acid_resins}
Bile acid binding resins like cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevelam are effective but can cause constipation and may interfere with the absorption of other medications, so they should be taken at least two hours apart from other drugs.
### Alpha-2 (α~2~) adrenergic agonists {#alpha_2_α2_adrenergic_agonists}
Clonidine, used for diabetic diarrhea, is often limited by its ability to lower blood pressure.
### 5-HT~3~ antagonists {#ht3_antagonists}
Alosetron, often used for IBS-related diarrhea, poses a risk of colonic ischemia and severe constipation, which makes it infrequently used
| 685 |
Antidiarrheal
| 0 |
2,691 |
# Áed mac Cináeda
**Áed mac Cináeda** (Modern Scottish Gaelic: *Aodh mac Choinnich*; *Ethus*; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin). He became king of the Picts in 877 when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed **Áed of the White Flowers**, **the wing-footed** (*alipes*) or **the white-foot** (*albipes*)
| 58 |
Áed mac Cináeda
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# Abdul Hamid I
**Abdulhamid I** or **Abdul Hamid I** (*عبد الحميد اول*, *\`Abdü'l-Ḥamīd-i evvel*; *I. Abdülhamid*; 20 March 1725 -- 7 April 1789) was the 27th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789. A devout and pacifist sultan, he inherited a bankrupt empire and sought military reforms, including overhauling the Janissaries and navy. Despite internal efforts and quelling revolts in Syria, Egypt, and Greece, his reign saw the critical loss of Crimea and defeat by Russia and Austria. The 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca granted Russia territorial and religious influence. He died soon after the fall of Ochakov in 1788.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abdul Hamid was born on 20 March 1725, in Constantinople. He was a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703--1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın. Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed\'s elder son Mustafa III. As a potential heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, which was customary. His imprisonment lasted until 1767. During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy.
## Reign
### Accession
On the day of Mustafa\'s death on 21 January 1774, Abdul Hamid ascended to the throne with a ceremony held in the palace. The next day Mustafa III\'s funeral procession was held. The new sultan sent a letter to the Grand Vizier Serdar-ı Ekrem Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha on the front and informed him to continue with the war against Russia. On 27 January 1774, he went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was given the Sword of Osman.
### Rule
Abdul Hamid\'s long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.\"
Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire\'s armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy. He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.
Abdul Hamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt and Iraq. However, small successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774 but was in practice actually controlled by Russia.
Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire. Ultimately, the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787. Austria soon joined Russia. Turkey initially held its own in the conflict, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred). Upon hearing this, Abdul Hamid I had a stroke, which resulted in his death.
In spite of his failures, Abdul Hamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a *Veli* (\"saint\"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.
Abdul Hamid I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended. He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.
In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road. On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved. Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.
### Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca {#treaty_of_küçük_kaynarca}
Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Ottoman defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.
With the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the territory left, as well as Russia\'s ambassador at the Istanbul level and an authorised representative, this ambassador\'s participation in other ceremonies at the state ceremonies, the right to pass through the Straits to Russia, as the envoys of the Russian envoy were given immunity. Marketing opportunities for all kinds of commodities in Istanbul and other ports, as well as the full commercial rights of England and France, were given. It was also in the treaty that the Russian state had a church built in Galata. Under the circumstances, this church would be open to the public, referred to as the Russo-Greek Church, and forever under the protection of Russian ambassadors in Istanbul.
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# Abdul Hamid I
## Reign
### Relations with Tipu Sultan {#relations_with_tipu_sultan}
In 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdul Hamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysore ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria.
## Architecture
Abdul Hamid I, left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul. The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77. He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building. The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building. During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret, the fountain, removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.
In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square. He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one`{{clarify|date=July 2022}}`{=mediawiki} for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed. In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş.
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Abdul Hamid I
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