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2,380	# Accelerated Graphics Port ## Connector pinout {#connector_pinout} The AGP connector contains almost all PCI signals, plus several additions. The connector has 66 contacts on each side, although 4 are removed for each keying notch. Pin 1 is closest to the I/O bracket, and the B and A sides are as in the table, looking down at the motherboard connector. Contacts are spaced at 1 mm intervals, however they are arranged in two staggered vertical rows so that there is 2 mm space between pins in each row. Odd-numbered A-side contacts, and even-numbered B-side contacts are in the lower row (1.0 to 3.5 mm from the card edge). The others are in the upper row (3.7 to 6.0 mm from the card edge). Pin Side B Side A ----- ------------- -------------- -------- 1 OVERCNT# +12 V 2 +5 V TYPEDET# 3 +5 V GC_DET# 4 USB+ USB− 5 Ground Ground 6 INTB# INTA# 7 CLK RST# 8 REQ# GNT# 9 +3.3 V +3.3 V 10 ST\[0\] ST\[1\] 11 ST\[2\] MB_DET# 12 RBF# PIPE# DBI_HI 13 Ground Ground 14 DBI_LO WBF# 15 SBA\[0\] SBA\[1\] 16 +3.3 V +3.3 V 17 SBA\[2\] SBA\[3\] 18 SB_STB SB_STB# 19 Ground Ground 20 SBA\[4\] SBA\[5\] 21 SBA\[6\] SBA\[7\] 22 Reserved Reserved 23 Ground Ground 24 +3.3 V aux Reserved 25 +3.3 V +3.3 V 26 AD\[31\] AD\[30\] 27 AD\[29\] AD\[28\] 28 +3.3 V +3.3 V 29 AD\[27\] AD\[26\] 30 AD\[25\] AD\[24\] 31 Ground Ground 32 AD_STB\[1\] AD_STB\[1\]# 33 AD\[23\] C/BE\[3\]# 34 Vddq Vddq 35 AD\[21\] AD\[22\] 36 AD\[19\] AD\[20\] 37 Ground Ground 38 AD\[17\] AD\[18\] 39 C/BE\[2\]# AD\[16\] 40 Vddq Vddq 41 IRDY# FRAME# 42 +3.3 V aux Reserved 43 Ground Ground 44 Reserved Reserved 45 +3.3 V +3.3 V 46 DEVSEL# TRDY# 47 Vddq STOP# 48 PERR# PME# 49 Ground Ground 50 SERR# PAR 51 C/BE\[1\]# AD\[15\] 52 Vddq Vddq 53 AD\[14\] AD\[13\] 54 AD\[12\] AD\[11\] 55 Ground Ground 56 AD\[10\] AD\[9\] 57 AD\[8\] C/BE\[0\]# 58 Vddq Vddq 59 AD_STB\[0\] AD_STB\[0\]# 60 AD\[7\] AD\[6\] 61 Ground Ground 62 AD\[5\] AD\[4\] 63 AD\[3\] AD\[2\] 64 Vddq Vddq 65 AD\[1\] AD\[0\] 66 Vregcg Vrefgc : Accelerated Graphics Port connector pinout Ground pin Zero volt reference ------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------- Power pin Supplies power to the AGP card Output pin Driven by the AGP card, received by the motherboard Initiator output Driven by the master/initiator, received by the target I/O signal May be driven by initiator or target, depending on operation Target output Driven by the target, received by the initiator/master Input Driven by the motherboard, received by the AGP card Open drain May be pulled low and/or sensed by card or motherboard Reserved Not presently used, do not connect : Legend PCI signals omitted are: - The −12 V supply - The third and fourth interrupt requests (INTC#, INTD#) - The JTAG pins (TRST#, TCK, TMS, TDI, TDO) - The SMBus pins (SMBCLK, SMBDAT) - The IDSEL pin; an AGP card connects AD\[16\] to IDSEL internally - The 64-bit extension (REQ64#, ACK64#) and 66 MHz (M66EN) pins - The LOCK# pin for locked transaction support Signals added are: - Data strobes AD_STB\[1:0\] (and AD_STB\[1:0\]# in AGP 2.0) - The sideband address bus SBA\[7:0\] and SB_STB (and SB_STB# in AGP 2.0) - The ST\[2:0\] status signals - USB+ and USB− (and OVERCNT# in AGP 2.0) - The PIPE# signal (removed in AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling) - The RBF# signal - The TYPEDET#, Vregcg and Vreggc pins (AGP 2.0 for 1.5V signaling) - The DBI_HI and DBI_LO signals (AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling only) - The GC_DET# and MB_DET# pins (AGP 3.0 for 0.8V signaling) - The WBF# signal (AGP 3	604	Accelerated Graphics Port	7
2,381	# Andreas Aagesen Andreas Aagesen (5 August 1826 -- 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist. ## Biography Aagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall\'s successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making	150	Andreas Aagesen	0
2,383	# Alois Alzheimer Alois Alzheimer (`{{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɑː\|l\|t\|s\|h\|aɪ\|m\|ər}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|AHLTS\|hy\|mər}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˈ\|ɑː\|l\|t\|s\|-\|,_\|ˈ\|ɑː\|l\|t\|s\|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|AHLTS\|-\|,_\|AHLTS\|-}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA\|de\|ˈaːlɔɪs ˈʔaltshaɪmɐ\|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 14 June 1864 -- 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist, neuropathologist and colleague of Emil Kraepelin. He is credited with identifying the first published case of \"presenile dementia\", which Kraepelin later identified as Alzheimer\'s disease. ## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education} Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria, on 14 June 1864, the son of Anna Johanna Barbara Sabina and Eduard Román Alzheimer. His father served in the office of notary public in the family\'s hometown. The family was devoutly Catholic. The Alzheimers moved to Aschaffenburg when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium (high school). After graduating with Abitur in 1883, Alzheimer studied medicine at University of Berlin, University of Tübingen, and University of Würzburg. In his final year at university, he was a member of a fencing fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team. In 1887, Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg as Doctor of Medicine. ## Career In 1888, Alzheimer spent five months assisting mentally ill women before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt, the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for Lunatics and Epileptics). `{{Interlanguage link\|Emil Sioli\|lt=\|de\|\|WD=}}`{=mediawiki}, a noted psychiatrist, was the dean of the asylum. Another neurologist, Franz Nissl, began to work in the same asylum with Alzheimer. Together, they conducted research on the pathology of the nervous system, specifically the normal and pathological anatomy of the cerebral cortex. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, though he never wrote a book that he could call his own. While at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him. At the time, Kraepelin was doing clinical research on psychosis in senile patients; Alzheimer, on the other hand, was more interested in the lab work of senile illnesses. They faced many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, formal and informal arrangements were made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers. In 1904, Alzheimer completed his habilitation at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was appointed as a professor in 1908. Afterward, he left Munich for the Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau in 1912, where he accepted a post as professor of psychiatry and director of the Neurologic and Psychiatric Institute. His health deteriorated shortly after his arrival so that he was hospitalized. He died three years later. Alzheimer is known for having a variety of medical interests including vascular diseases of the brain, early dementia, brain tumors, forensic psychiatry and epilepsy.	491	Alois Alzheimer	0
2,383	# Alois Alzheimer ## Career ### Auguste Deter {#auguste_deter} In 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community; the Frankfurt asylum was too expensive for her husband. Herr Deter made several requests to have his wife moved to a less expensive facility, but Alzheimer intervened in these requests. Auguste D., as she was known, remained at the Frankfurt asylum, where Alzheimer had made a deal to receive her records and brain upon her death, paying for the remainder of her stay in return. On 8 April 1906, Auguste Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin\'s laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the newly developed Bielschowsky stain to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies became identifiers of what is now known as Alzheimer\'s disease. On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists. The attendees at this lecture seemed uninterested in what he had to say. The lecturer that followed Alzheimer was to speak on the topic of \"compulsive masturbation\", which the audience of 88 individuals was so eagerly awaiting that they sent Alzheimer away without any questions or comments on his discovery of the pathology of a peculiar case of early-onset dementia. Following his presentation, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his presentation; in 1907 he wrote a longer paper detailing the disease and his findings. It became known as Alzheimer\'s disease in 1910, when Kraepelin named it so in the chapter on \"Presenile and Senile Dementia\" in the 8th edition of his Handbook of Psychiatry. By 1911, his description of the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US. Additional case descriptions by Alzheimer and his colleagues continued in the following years, including older patients than the early-onset dementia of Auguste Deter. Alzheimer eventually conceived \"his\" disease as mainly characterized clinically by a severe dementia with instrumental symptoms, and pathologically by extended neurofibrillary tangles. He debated fiercely with Oskar Fischer, a German-speaking pathologist from Prague, who instead emphasized on the importance of neuritic plaques and of presbyophrenia as the phenotype. Finally, it must be highlighted that Fischer--Alzheimer\'s nosological considerations had less impact than Kraepelin\'s 1910 Textbook of Psychiatry, which distinguished between \"Alzheimer\'s disease\" and senile dementia, including presbyophrenia. This textbook had a strong influence on early 20th century research on senile dementia and played a significant role in the classification of dementia in the following decades. ## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death} In 1894, Alzheimer married Cecilie Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer, with whom he had three children. She died in 1901. In August 1912, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on his way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in July 1912. Most probably a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever led to valvular heart disease, heart failure and kidney failure. He died of heart failure on 19 December 1915 at age 51, in Breslau, Silesia (present-day Wrocław, Poland). His body was buried four days later, next to Cecilie\'s at the Frankfurt Main Cemetery.	570	Alois Alzheimer	1
2,383	# Alois Alzheimer ## Contemporaries American Solomon Carter Fuller gave a report similar to that of Alzheimer at a lecture five months before Alzheimer. Oskar Fischer was a fellow German psychiatrist, twelve years Alzheimer\'s junior, who reported twelve cases of senile dementia in 1907 around the time that Alzheimer published his short paper summarizing his presentation. Alzheimer and Fischer had different interpretations of the disease, but owing to Alzheimer\'s short life, they never had the opportunity to meet and discuss their ideas. ## Critics and rediscovery {#critics_and_rediscovery} In the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer\'s findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer\'s notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin. Claire O\'Brien, meanwhile, hypothesized that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease	145	Alois Alzheimer	2
2,389	# Auger effect The Auger effect (`{{IPAc-en\|oʊ\|ˈ\|ʒ\|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA\|fr\|ˈ/o.ʒe/}}`{=mediawiki}) or Meitner-Auger effect is a physical phenomenon in which atoms eject electrons. It occurs when an inner-shell vacancy in an atom is filled by an electron, releasing energy that causes the emission of another electron from a different shell of the same atom. When a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. For light atoms (Z\<12), this energy is most often transferred to a valence electron which is subsequently ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an Auger electron. For heavier atomic nuclei, the release of the energy in the form of an emitted photon becomes gradually more probable. ## Effect Upon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment. Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine, giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization. The Auger effect can impact biological molecules such as DNA. Following the K-shell ionization of the component atoms of DNA, Auger electrons are ejected, leading to damage to its sugar-phosphate backbone. ## Discovery The Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis. The French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused by an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect	458	Auger effect	0
2,392	# Anode An anode usually is an electrode of a polarized electrical device through which conventional current enters the device. This contrasts with a cathode, which is usually an electrode of the device through which conventional current leaves the device. A common mnemonic is ACID, for \"anode current into device\". The direction of conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit is opposite to the direction of electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow from the anode of a galvanic cell, into an outside or external circuit connected to the cell. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a \"+\" is the cathode (while discharging). In both a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, the anode is the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs. In a galvanic cell the anode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge as a result of the oxidation reaction. In an electrolytic cell, the anode is the wire or plate upon which excess positive charge is imposed. As a result of this, anions will tend to move towards the anode where they will undergo oxidation. Historically, the anode of a galvanic cell was also known as the zincode because it was usually composed of zinc. ## Charge flow {#charge_flow} The terms anode and cathode are not defined by the voltage polarity of electrodes, but are usually defined by the direction of current through the electrode. An anode usually is the electrode of a device through which conventional current (positive charge) flows into the device from an external circuit, while a cathode usually is the electrode through which conventional current flows out of the device. In general, if the current through the electrodes reverses direction, as occurs for example in a rechargeable battery when it is being charged, the roles of the electrodes as anode and cathode are reversed. However, the definition of anode and cathode is different for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction. Therefore, the electrodes are named based on the direction of this \"forward\" current. In a diode the anode is the terminal through which current enters and the cathode is the terminal through which current leaves, when the diode is forward biased. The names of the electrodes do not change in cases where reverse current flows through the device. Similarly, in a vacuum tube only one electrode can thermionically emit electrons into the evacuated tube, so electrons can only enter the device from the external circuit through the heated electrode. Therefore, this electrode is permanently named the cathode, and the electrode through which the electrons exit the tube is named the anode. Conventional current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, but also the carriers\' electric charge. The currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. Since electrons have a negative charge, the direction of electron flow is opposite to the direction of conventional current. Consequently, electrons leave the device through the anode and enter the device through the cathode.	539	Anode	0
2,392	# Anode ## Examples The polarity of voltage on an anode with respect to an associated cathode varies depending on the device type and on its operating mode. In the following examples, the anode is negative in a device that provides power, and positive in a device that consumes power: In a discharging battery or galvanic cell (diagram on left), the anode is the negative terminal: it is where conventional current flows into the cell. This inward current is carried externally by electrons moving outwards. In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal imposed by an external source of potential difference. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging. In battery engineering, it is common to designate one electrode of a rechargeable battery the anode and the other the cathode according to the roles the electrodes play when the battery is discharged. This is despite the fact that the roles are reversed when the battery is charged. When this is done, \"anode\" simply designates the negative terminal of the battery and \"cathode\" designates the positive terminal. In a diode, the anode is the terminal represented by the tail of the arrow symbol (flat side of the triangle), where conventional current flows into the device. Note the electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows \"most easily\"), even for types such as Zener diodes where the current of interest is the reverse current. In vacuum tubes or gas-filled tubes, the anode is the terminal where current enters the tube.	296	Anode	1
2,392	# Anode ## Etymology The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek ἄνοδος (anodos), \'ascent\', by William Whewell, who had been consulted by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the \"decomposing body\" (electrolyte) in a direction \"from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move\", the anode is where the current enters the electrolyte, on the East side: \"ano upwards, odos a way; the way which the sun rises\". The use of \'East\' to mean the \'in\' direction (actually \'in\' → \'East\' → \'sunrise\' → \'up\') may appear contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term \"eisode\" (the doorway where the current enters). His motivation for changing it to something meaning \'the East electrode\' (other candidates had been \"eastode\", \"oriode\" and \"anatolode\") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth\'s magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth\'s. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the East electrode would not have been the \'way in\' any more. Therefore, \"eisode\" would have become inappropriate, whereas \"anode\" meaning \'East electrode\' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the anode\'s function any more, but more importantly because as we now know, the Earth\'s magnetic field direction on which the \"anode\" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the \"eisode\" term was based has no reason to change in the future. Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember and more durably correct technically although historically false, etymology has been suggested: anode, from the Greek anodos, \'way up\', \'the way (up) out of the cell (or other device) for electrons\'. ## Electrolytic anode {#electrolytic_anode} In electrochemistry, the anode is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell. At the anode, anions (negative ions) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit. Mnemonics: LEO Red Cat (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Reduction occurs at the Cathode), or AnOx Red Cat (Anode Oxidation, Reduction Cathode), or OIL RIG (Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain of electrons), or Roman Catholic and Orthodox (Reduction -- Cathode, anode -- Oxidation), or LEO the lion says GER (Losing electrons is Oxidation, Gaining electrons is Reduction). This process is widely used in metals refining. For example, in copper refining, copper anodes, an intermediate product from the furnaces, are electrolysed in an appropriate solution (such as sulfuric acid) to yield high purity (99.99%) cathodes. Copper cathodes produced using this method are also described as electrolytic copper. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday\'s time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction. ## Battery or galvanic cell anode {#battery_or_galvanic_cell_anode} In a battery or galvanic cell, the anode is the negative electrode from which electrons flow out towards the external part of the circuit. Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode (even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected. Battery manufacturers may regard the negative electrode as the anode, particularly in their technical literature. Though from an electrochemical viewpoint incorrect, it does resolve the problem of which electrode is the anode in a secondary (or rechargeable) cell. Using the traditional definition, the anode switches ends between charge and discharge cycles.	829	Anode	2
2,392	# Anode ## Vacuum tube anode {#vacuum_tube_anode} In electronic vacuum devices such as a cathode-ray tube, the anode is the positively charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons. ## Diode anode {#diode_anode} In a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies holes to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer (\'P\' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more holes are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage). ## Sacrificial anode {#sacrificial_anode} In cathodic protection, a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment than the metal system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system. As a result, the metal anode partially corrodes or dissolves instead of the metal system. As an example, an iron or steel ship\'s hull may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a static charge is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft. Sacrificial anodes are also generally used in tank-type water heaters. In 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist-engineer Humphry Davy developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit. A less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal. As long as the zinc remains intact, the iron is protected from the effects of corrosion. Inevitably, the zinc coating becomes breached, either by cracking or physical damage. Once this occurs, corrosive elements act as an electrolyte and the zinc/iron combination as electrodes. The resultant current ensures that the zinc coating is sacrificed but that the base iron does not corrode. Such a coating can protect an iron structure for a few decades, but once the protecting coating is consumed, the iron rapidly corrodes. If, conversely, tin is used to coat steel, when a breach of the coating occurs it actually accelerates oxidation of the iron. ## Impressed current anode {#impressed_current_anode} Another cathodic protection is used on the impressed current anode. It is made from titanium and covered with mixed metal oxide. Unlike the sacrificial anode rod, the impressed current anode does not sacrifice its structure. This technology uses an external current provided by a DC source to create the cathodic protection. Impressed current anodes are used in larger structures like pipelines, boats, city water tower, water heaters and more. ## Related antonym {#related_antonym} The opposite of an anode is a cathode. When the current through the device is reversed, the electrodes switch functions, so the anode becomes the cathode and the cathode becomes anode, as long as the reversed current is applied. The exception is diodes where electrode naming is always based on the forward current direction	640	Anode	3
2,395	# April 11	3	April 11	0
2,414	# Arrangement In music, an arrangement is a musical adaptation of an existing composition. Differences from the original composition may include reharmonization, melodic paraphrasing, orchestration, or formal development. Arranging differs from orchestration in that the latter process is limited to the assignment of notes to instruments for performance by an orchestra, concert band, or other musical ensemble. Arranging \"involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings. Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety\". In jazz, a memorized (unwritten) arrangement of a new or pre-existing composition is known as a head arrangement. ## Classical music {#classical_music} Arrangement and transcriptions of classical and serious music go back to the early history of classical music. ### Eighteenth century {#eighteenth_century} J. S. Bach frequently made arrangements of his own and other composers\' pieces. One example is the arrangement that he made of the Prelude from his Partita No.3 for solo violin, BWV1006. Bach transformed this solo piece into an orchestral Sinfonia that introduces his Cantata BWV29. \"The initial violin composition was in Emajor but both arranged versions are transposed down to D, the better to accommodate the wind instruments\". \"The transformation of material conceived for a single string instrument into a fully orchestrated concerto-type movement is so successful that it is unlikely that anyone hearing the latter for the first time would suspect the existence of the former\". ### Nineteenth and twentieth centuries {#nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries} #### Piano music {#piano_music} In particular, music written for the piano has frequently undergone this treatment, as it has been arranged for orchestra, chamber ensemble, or concert band. Beethoven made an arrangement of his Piano Sonata No.9 for string quartet. Conversely, he also arranged his Grosse Fuge (one of his late string quartets) for piano duet. The American composer George Gershwin, due to his own lack of expertise in orchestration, had his Rhapsody in Blue arranged and orchestrated by Ferde Grofé. Erik Satie wrote his three Gymnopédies for solo piano in 1888. Eight years later, Debussy arranged two of them, exploiting the range of instrumental timbres available in a late 19th-century orchestra. \"It was Debussy whose 1896 orchestrations of the Gymnopédies put their composer on the map.\" Pictures at an Exhibition, a suite of ten piano pieces by Modest Mussorgsky, has been arranged over twenty times, notably by Maurice Ravel. Ravel\'s arrangement demonstrates an \"ability to create unexpected, memorable orchestral sonorities\". In the second movement, \"Gnomus\", Mussorgsky\'s original piano piece simply repeats the following passage: Ravel initially orchestrates it as follows: Repeating the passage, Ravel provides a fresh orchestration \"this time with the celesta (replacing the woodwinds) accompanied by string glissandos on the fingerboard\". #### Songs A number of Franz Schubert\'s songs, originally for voice with piano accompaniment, were arranged by other composers. For example, his \"highly charged\" and \"graphic\" song \"Erlkönig\" (\"The Erl King\") has a piano introduction that conveys \"unflagging energy\" from the start. The arrangement of this song by Hector Berlioz uses strings to convey faithfully the driving urgency and threatening atmosphere of the original. Berlioz adds colour in bars6--8 through the addition of woodwind, horns, and a timpani. With typical flamboyance, Berlioz adds spice to the harmony in bar6 with an Eflat in the horn part, creating a half-diminished seventh chord which is not in Schubert\'s original piano part. There are subtle differences between this and the arrangement of the song by Franz Liszt. The upper string sound is thicker, with violins and violas playing the fierce repeated octaves in unison and bassoons compensating for this by doubling the cellos and basses. There are no timpani, but trumpets and horns add a small jolt to the rhythm of the opening bar, reinforcing the bare octaves of the strings by playing on the second main beat. Unlike Berlioz, Liszt does not alter the harmony, but changes the emphasis somewhat in bar6, with the note A in the oboes and clarinets grating against rather than blending with the G in the strings. \"Schubert has come in for his fair share of transcriptions and arrangements. Most, like Liszt\'s transcriptions of the Lieder or Berlioz\'s orchestration for Erlkönig, tell us more about the arranger that about the original composer, but they can be diverting so long as they are in no way a replacement for the original\". Gustav Mahler\'s Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (\"Songs of a Wayfarer\") were originally written for voice with piano accompaniment. The composer\'s later arrangement of the piano part shows a typical ear for clarity and transparency in rewriting for an ensemble. Below is the original piano version of the closing bars of the second song, \"Gieng heit\' Morgen über\'s Feld\". The orchestration shows Mahler\'s attention to detail in bringing out differentiated orchestral colours supplied by woodwind, strings and horn. He uses a harp to convey the original arpeggios supplied by the left hand of the piano part. He also extracts a descending chromatic melodic line, implied by the left hand in bars2--4 (above), and gives it to the horn. ## Popular music {#popular_music} Popular music recordings often include parts for brass horn sections, bowed strings, and other instruments that were added by arrangers and not composed by the original songwriters. Some pop arrangers even add sections using full orchestra, though this is less common due to the expense involved. Popular music arrangements may also be considered to include new releases of existing songs with a new musical treatment. These changes can include alterations to tempo, meter, key, instrumentation, and other musical elements. Well known examples include Joe Cocker\'s version of the Beatles\' \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", Cream\'s \"Crossroads\", and Ike and Tina Turner\'s version of Creedence Clearwater Revival\'s \"Proud Mary\". The American group Vanilla Fudge and the British group Yes based their early careers on radical rearrangements of contemporary hits. Bonnie Pointer performed disco and Motown-styled versions of \"Heaven Must Have Sent You\". Remixes, such as in dance music, can also be considered arrangements.	994	Arrangement	0
2,414	# Arrangement ## Jazz Arrangements for small jazz combos are usually informal, minimal, and uncredited. Larger ensembles have generally had greater requirements for notated arrangements, though the early Count Basie big band is known for its many head arrangements, so called because they were worked out by the players themselves, memorized (\"in the player\'s head\"), and never written down. Most arrangements for big bands, however, were written down and credited to a specific arranger, as with arrangements by Sammy Nestico and Neal Hefti for Count Basie\'s later big bands. Don Redman made innovations in jazz arranging as a part of Fletcher Henderson\'s orchestra in the 1920s. Redman\'s arrangements introduced a more intricate melodic presentation and soli performances for various sections of the big band. Benny Carter became Henderson\'s primary arranger in the early 1930s, becoming known for his arranging abilities in addition to his previous recognition as a performer. Beginning in 1938, Billy Strayhorn became an arranger of great renown for the Duke Ellington orchestra. Jelly Roll Morton is sometimes considered the earliest jazz arranger. While he toured around the years 1912 to 1915, he wrote down parts to enable \"pickup bands\" to perform his compositions. Big-band arrangements are informally called charts. In the swing era they were usually either arrangements of popular songs or they were entirely new compositions. Duke Ellington\'s and Billy Strayhorn\'s arrangements for the Duke Ellington big band were usually new compositions, and some of Eddie Sauter\'s arrangements for the Benny Goodman band and Artie Shaw\'s arrangements for his own band were new compositions as well. It became more common to arrange sketchy jazz combo compositions for big band after the bop era. After 1950, the big bands declined in number. However, several bands continued and arrangers provided renowned arrangements. Gil Evans wrote a number of large-ensemble arrangements in the late 1950s and early 1960s intended for recording sessions only. Other arrangers of note include Vic Schoen, Pete Rugolo, Oliver Nelson, Johnny Richards, Billy May, Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Brookmeyer, Lou Marini, Nelson Riddle, Ralph Burns, Billy Byers, Gordon Jenkins, Ray Conniff, Henry Mancini, Ray Reach, Vince Mendoza, and Claus Ogerman. In the 21st century, the big-band arrangement has made a modest comeback. Gordon Goodwin, Roy Hargrove, and Christian McBride have all rolled out new big bands with both original compositions and new arrangements of standard tunes.	392	Arrangement	1
2,414	# Arrangement ## For instrumental groups {#for_instrumental_groups} ### Strings The string section is a body of instruments composed of various bowed stringed instruments. By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins (the same instrument as the first violins, but typically playing an accompaniment or harmony part to the first violins, and often at a lower pitch range), violas, cellos, and double basses. The string section in a multi-sectioned orchestra is sometimes referred to as the \"string choir\". The harp is also a stringed instrument, but is not a member of nor homogeneous with the violin family, and is not considered part of the string choir. Samuel Adler classifies the harp as a plucked string instrument in the same category as the guitar (acoustic or electric), mandolin, banjo, or zither. Like the harp, these instruments do not belong to the violin family and are not homogeneous with the string choir. In modern arranging these instruments are considered part of the rhythm section. The electric bass and upright string bass---depending on the circumstance---can be treated by the arranger as either string section or rhythm section instruments. A group of instruments in which each member plays a unique part---rather than playing in unison with other like instruments---is referred to as a chamber ensemble. A chamber ensemble made up entirely of strings of the violin family is referred to by its size. A string trio consists of three players, a string quartet four, a string quintet five, and so on. In most circumstances the string section is treated by the arranger as one homogeneous unit and its members are required to play preconceived material rather than improvise. A string section can be utilized on its own (this is referred to as a string orchestra) or in conjunction with any of the other instrumental sections. More than one string orchestra can be utilized. A standard string section (vln., vln 2., vla., vcl, cb.) with each section playing unison allows the arranger to create a five-part texture. Often an arranger will divide each violin section in half or thirds to achieve a denser texture. It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part. #### Size of the string section {#size_of_the_string_section} Artistic, budgetary and logistical concerns, including the size of the orchestra pit or hall will determine the size and instrumentation of a string section. The Broadway musical West Side Story, in 1957, was booked into the Winter Garden theater; composer Leonard Bernstein disliked the playing of \"house\" viola players he would have to use there, and so he chose to leave them out of the show\'s instrumentation; a benefit was the creation of more space in the pit for an expanded percussion section. George Martin, producer and arranger for the Beatles, warns arrangers about the intonation problems when only two like instruments play in unison: \"After a string quartet, I do not think there is a satisfactory sound for strings until one has at least three players on each line . . . as a rule two stringed instruments together create a slight \'beat\' which does not give a smooth sound.\" Different music directors may use different numbers of string players and different balances between the sections to create different musical effects. While any combination and number of string instruments is possible in a section, a traditional string section sound is achieved with a violin-heavy balance of instruments	594	Arrangement	2
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe Ann Noreen Widdecombe `{{Post-nominals\|country=GBR\|DSG}}`{=mediawiki} (born 4 October 1947) is a British politician and television personality who has been Reform UK\'s Immigration and Justice spokesperson since 2023. Originally a member of the Conservative Party, she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Maidstone and The Weald, and the former Maidstone constituency, from 1987 to 2010. She was a member of the Brexit Party from 2019 until it was renamed Reform UK in 2021, and served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South West England from 2019 to 2020; she rejoined Reform UK in 2023. Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later studied philosophy, politics and economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She is a religious convert from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, and was a member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship. She served as Minister of State for Employment from 1994 to 1995 and Minister of State for Prisons from 1995 to 1997. She later served in the Shadow Cabinet of William Hague as Shadow Secretary of State for Health from 1998 to 1999 and Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001. She was appointed to the Privy Council in 1997. Widdecombe stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election. Since 2002, she has made numerous television and radio appearances, including as a television presenter. A prominent Eurosceptic, in 2016 she supported the Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU). Widdecombe returned to politics as the lead candidate for the Brexit Party in South West England at the 2019 European Parliament election, winning the seat in line with results nationally, serving until the country left the EU on 31 January 2020. In the general election of December 2019 -- as with all other candidates for the Commons fielded by the Brexit Party -- she did not win the seat she contested (Plymouth Sutton and Devonport), but retained her deposit and came third. Ideologically, Widdecombe identifies herself as a social conservative and stresses the importance of traditional values and conservatism. As a member of the House of Commons, she opposed the legality of abortion, opposed granting LGBT people legal rights such as the same age of consent as heterosexuals, and opposed the repeal of Section 28. She supported reintroduction of the death penalty for murder, though more narrowly applied than previously. She is opposed to all forms of assisted dying. She has a history of supporting rigorous laws on animal protection and opposition to fox hunting. ## Early life {#early_life} Ann Noreen Widdecombe was born in Bath, Somerset, the daughter of Rita Noreen (née Plummer; 1911--2007) and Ministry of Defence civil servant James Murray Widdecombe. Widdecombe\'s maternal grandfather, James Henry Plummer, was born to a Catholic family of English descent in Crosshaven, County Cork, Ireland in 1874. She attended the Royal Naval School in Singapore, and La Sainte Union Convent School in Bath. She then read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, to read philosophy, politics and economics. In 1971, she was the secretary of the Oxford Union for one term, and became its treasurer for one term in 1972. While studying at Oxford, she lived next door to Mary Archer, Edwina Currie, and Gyles Brandreth\'s wife Michèle Brown. She worked for Unilever (1973--75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975--87) before entering Parliament.	573	Ann Widdecombe	0
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Political career {#political_career} In 1974, Widdecombe was personal assistant to Michael Ancram in the February and October general elections of that year. From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a councillor on Runnymede District Council in Surrey. She contested the seat of Burnley in Lancashire in the 1979 general election and then, against David Owen, the Plymouth Devonport seat in the 1983 general election. In 1983 she, with Lady Olga Maitland and Virginia Bottomley, co-founded Women and Families for Defence, a group founded in opposition to the anti-nuclear Greenham Common Women\'s Peace Camp. Widdecombe was first elected to the House of Commons, for the Conservatives, in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997). ### In government {#in_government} Widdecombe joined Prime Minister John Major\'s government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993, she was moved to the Department of Employment, and she was promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995, she joined the Home Office as Minister of State for Prisons and visited every prison in the UK. In 1996, Widdecombe, as prisons minister, defended the Government\'s policy to shackle pregnant prisoners with handcuffs and chains when in hospital receiving prenatal care. Widdecombe told the Commons that the restrictions were needed to prevent prisoners from escaping the hospital. \"Some MPs may like to think that a pregnant woman would not or could not escape. Unfortunately this is not true. The fact is that hospitals are not secure places in which to keep prisoners, and since 1990, 20 women have escaped from hospitals\". Jack Straw, Labour\'s Home Affairs spokesman at the time, said it was \"degrading and unnecessary\" for a woman to be shackled at any stage. ### Shadow Cabinet {#shadow_cabinet} In May 1997, in the context of an inquiry into a series of prison escapes, Widdecombe remarked of former Home Secretary Michael Howard, under whom she had served, that there was \"something of the night about him\". This much-quoted comment is thought to have contributed to the failure of Howard\'s 1997 campaign for the Conservative Party leadership, a sentiment shared by both Howard himself and Widdecombe. It led to him being caricatured as a vampire, in part due to his Romanian ancestry. Howard became the official party leader in 2003, and Widdecombe then stated, \"I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But \... we have to look to the future and not the past.\" After the Conservative landslide defeat at the 1997 general election, she served as Shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later as Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001 under the leadership of William Hague.	463	Ann Widdecombe	1
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Political career {#political_career} ### Leadership contest and backbenches {#leadership_contest_and_backbenches} During the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient support amongst Conservative MPs for her leadership candidacy. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in Iain Duncan Smith\'s Shadow Cabinet (although she indicated on the television programme When Louis Met\..., prior to the leadership contest, that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway). In 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as \"backbiters\" due to his alleged destabilising influence under Hague. She went on to say that, should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance. This was amidst a homophobic campaign led by socially conservative critics of Portillo. In the 2005 leadership election, she initially supported Kenneth Clarke again. Once he was eliminated, she turned support towards Liam Fox. Following Fox\'s subsequent elimination, she took time to reflect before finally declaring for David Davis. She expressed reservations over the eventual winner David Cameron, feeling that he did not, like the other candidates, have a proven track record, and she was later a leading figure in parliamentary opposition to his A-List policy. At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of the television programme Dragons\' Den, in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal, which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown. In an interview with Metro in September 2006 she stated that if Parliament were of a normal length, it was likely she would retire at the next general election. She confirmed her intention to stand down to The Observer\'s Pendennis diary in September 2007, and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an autumn 2007 general election. In November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being \"Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten.\" In 2007 Widdecombe was one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret. When the expenses claims were leaked, however, Widdecombe was described by The Daily Telegraph as one of the \"saints\" amongst all MPs. In May 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons, it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support for election as interim Speaker until the next general election. On 11 June 2009, she confirmed her bid to be the Speaker, but came last in the second ballot and was eliminated. Widdecombe retired from politics at the 2010 general election. It was rumoured that she would be a Conservative candidate for Police and Crime Commissioner in 2012, but she refused. She since spoke about her opposition to the Coalition Government and her surprise at not being given a peerage by David Cameron. In 2016, she supported Brexit during the 2016 EU referendum and, following the resignation of David Cameron, endorsed Andrea Leadsom in her candidacy for election for the leadership of the governing Conservative Party. ### Return to politics -- Brexit Party {#return_to_politics_brexit_party} In 2019 she returned to politics as a candidate for the Brexit Party in the European parliament elections in South West England, which were held on 23 May, though she maintained that she would still vote for the Conservatives in the local elections that took place three weeks before. She was expelled by the Conservative Party immediately after her announcement. Widdecombe had considered joining the Brexit Party in March 2019, but joined later, in May. Widdecombe said that her decision to stand resulted from the Government\'s failure to deliver Britain\'s departure from the EU on schedule. \"Both major parties need a seismic shock,\" she said, \"to see the extent of public disgust.\" She subsequently won her seat. Widdecombe became a member of the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE). Widdecombe stood as a candidate for Plymouth Sutton and Devonport in the 2019 UK general election, coming a distant third but just retaining her deposit with 5.5% of the vote. Nigel Farage said that she was told by the Conservative Party that she would be part of their Brexit negotiations if she stood down as a candidate.	771	Ann Widdecombe	2
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Political views {#political_views} ### Social issues {#social_issues} As an MP, Widdecombe expressed socially conservative views, including opposition to abortion; it was understood during her time in frontline politics that she would not become Health Secretary as long as this involved responsibility for abortions. Although a committed Christian, she characterised the issue as one of life and death on which her view had been the same when she was agnostic and was a member of the Society for the Protection of Unborn Children while studying at Oxford. During Parliament, Widdecombe was a member of the Pro-Life All Party Parliamentary Group, which met with SPUC over concerns the organisation\'s more strident approach to abortion policy could alienate Protestant and atheist supporters. She converted from the Church of England (CoE) to the Roman Catholic Church following the CoE decision to ordain women as priests. She is an opponent of assisted dying in any form, saying that any such legislation would fail to \"protect the mentally ill, disabled and the frail elderly\". She further commented: \"You cannot get to my age without having seen loved ones suffer \[\...\] or having seen dear friends die in pain. And, yes, I too have thought \'We wouldn\'t do this to an animal\'. But that emotional indignation has also to be extended to those whom any euthanasia law would threaten.\" #### LGBT rights {#lgbt_rights} Although not an MP at the time, Widdecombe did voice support for the partial decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1967 in England and Wales. After that, Widdecombe consistently opposed further reforms while in Parliament. Out of the 17 parliamentary votes between 1998 and 2008 considered by the Public Whip website to concern equal rights for homosexuals, Widdecombe took the opposing position in 15 cases, not being present at the other two votes. In 1999, Widdecombe stated that \"I do not think that \[homosexuality\] can be promoted as an equally valid lifestyle to \[heterosexual\] marriage, but I would say the same about irregular heterosexual arrangements.\" She has consistently argued against an equal age of consent for same-sex relationships, voting against a 1994 act (which would have reduced the age of consent for some male-male sexual activity from 21 to 18), and in 1998 (arguing against a further reduction from 18 to 16, which later occurred in 2000). On the latter act, she wrote in The Mail on Sunday that \"one of the sundry horrors for which this Government is likely to be remembered will be that it gave its imprimatur to sodomy at 16\", She later said in 2000: \"I do not believe that issues of equality should override the imperatives of protecting the young.\" In 2003, Widdecombe opposed the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988. In 2012, Widdecombe voiced support in the Daily Express for the practise of conversion therapy, which claims to change the orientation of homosexuals. Widdecombe has also expressed her opposition to same-sex marriage, introduced by David Cameron\'s government in 2014, arguing that \"the state must have a preferred model\" which is \"a union that is generally open to procreation\". She also opposes gender self-identification for transgender people. In 2020, she expressed her opposition to same-sex dancing on Strictly Come Dancing, saying: \"I don\'t think it is what viewers of Strictly, especially families, are looking for. But that\'s up to the audience and the programme.\" ### Criminal justice {#criminal_justice} In her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, she called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, with the punishment of £100 fines for users of cannabis. This was well received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates. Over the years, Widdecombe has expressed her support for a reintroduction of the death penalty, which was abolished in the UK in 1965. She notably spoke of her support for its reintroduction for the worst cases of murder in the aftermath of the murder of two 10-year-old girls from Soham, Cambridgeshire, in August 2002, arguing that in the five years up to 1970 when the death penalty was suspended, the national murder rate had more than doubled. ### Environmental and science issues {#environmental_and_science_issues} She is a committed animal lover and one of the several Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on the hunting of foxes. Widdecombe was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose David Cameron\'s plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004. In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue of climate change, but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe. In 2008, she wrote that her doubts had been \"crystalised\" by Nigel Lawson\'s book An Appeal to Reason; in 2014, she likened Lawson\'s difficulty in getting the book published to the book-burnings in Nazi Germany. Later in 2008, Widdecombe claimed that the \"science of climate change is robustly disputed\", then, in 2009, that \"There is no climate change, hasn\'t anybody looked out of their window recently?\" She was one of the five MPs who voted against the Climate Change Act 2008. The previous year, she voted to support a parliamentary motion in favour of homeopathy, disagreeing with the Science and Technology Committee\'s Report on the subject.	871	Ann Widdecombe	3
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Controversies In 2009, she partially defended Carol Thatcher\'s use of the racial slur \'golliwog\' on Any Questions?, saying: \"There is a generation to whom a golliwog is merely a toy, a generation which was much endeared by its golliwogs which grew up with them on jam jars \... and there is a generation, a new generation for whom that word is deeply offensive and one does have to make I think some allowance for the fact.\" In December 2019, WhatsApp conversations between her and Brexit Party activists were leaked to the Plymouth Herald which showed Widdecombe using the term amid rumours party campaign funding was being diverted away from Plymouth ahead of the general election of that year. Widdecombe said: \"Yes, I threw all my toys of the pram. Bears and gollywogs flying everywhere!!\" In 2019 Widdecombe defended the comments she made in a 2012 article that supported \"gay conversion\" therapy. She told Sky News that science may yet \"provide an answer\" to the question of whether people can \"switch sexuality\". Following Widdecombe\'s apparent endorsement of conversion therapy, at least one venue, the Landmark theatre in Ilfracombe, Devon, cancelled a performance of her one-woman show. Widdecombe and two other Brexit Party figures were criticised for previous appearances on the David Icke-affiliated Richie Allen Show, which has been accused of promoting Holocaust denial and antisemitic conspiracy theories about the Rothschild family and Zionism. Widdecombe appeared three times between August 2017 and April 2019 and was described as an \"old friend of the show\" by the host during one appearance. Widdecombe told Jewish Chronicle that she agreed to appear to discuss Brexit, and that she \"had never heard of the Richie Allen Show until I agreed to go on\" and distanced herself from its antisemitic content by, among other things, pointing to her membership of the Conservative Friends of Israel, B\'nai B\'rith event speeches, and her novel An Act of Treachery, which she said is set during the Holocaust. Widdecombe was elected as a Member of the European Parliament for the Brexit Party on 23 May 2019 in the European elections. On 3 July 2019 she used her maiden speech in Strasbourg to compare Brexit to slaves revolting against their owners and to a colonised country rising up against occupying forces, a stance which was criticised by members of both the European Parliament and the British House of Commons.	401	Ann Widdecombe	4
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Media work and appearances {#media_work_and_appearances} In 2002 she took part in the ITV programme Celebrity Fit Club. Also in 2002 she took part in a Louis Theroux television documentary, depicting her life, both in and out of politics. In March 2004 she briefly became The Guardian newspaper\'s agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview. In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of The Widdecombe Project, an agony aunt television programme. In 2005, she appeared in a new series of Celebrity Fit Club, this time as an agony aunt. Also in 2005, she presented the show Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK. In 2005, she appeared in a discussion programme on Five to discuss who had been England\'s greatest monarch since the Norman Conquest; her choice of monarch was Charles II. She was the guest host of news quiz Have I Got News for You twice, in 2006 and 2007. Her first appearance as guest host, in 2006, was widely regarded as a success. Following her second appearance, Widdecombe said she would never appear on the show again because of comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr which she considered filth, though she called regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton \"the fastest wits in showbusiness\". Merton later revealed that he thought Widdecombe had been \"the worst ever presenter\" of the show, particularly on her second appearance where Merton claimed she \"thought she was Victoria Wood\". In 2007 she awarded the University Challenge trophy to the winners. In the same year, she appeared in \"The Sound of Drums\", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama Doctor Who, endorsing the Master\'s Prime Minister campaign. In 2007 and 2008 Widdecombe fronted a television series called Ann Widdecombe Versus, on ITV1, in which she spoke to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. In 2007 she talked about prostitution, social benefits, and truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which she travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs. In 2009, Widdecombe appeared with Archbishop John Onaiyekan in an \"Intelligence Squared\" debate in which they defended the motion that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Arguing against the motion were Stephen Fry and Christopher Hitchens, who won the debate overall. In October 2010, she appeared on BBC One\'s Strictly Come Dancing, partnered by Anton du Beke, winning the support of some viewers despite low marks from the judges. After nine weeks of routines strongly flavoured by comedy, the couple was eliminated, in the bottom two. In 2011 Widdecombe played the Lord Mayoress in an episode of Sooty. In 2012, Widdecombe hosted the 30 one-hour episodes of Cleverdicks, a quiz show for the Sky Atlantic channel. In April 2012 Widdecombe presented an hour-long documentary for BBC Radio 5 Live, Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates, looking at how the British attitude to alcohol consumption had changed over the previous few years. Widdecombe was in a Strictly Come Dancing special in Children in Need\'s 2012 appeal night. On 4 November 2012, Widdecombe guest-hosted one episode of BBC\'s Songs of Praise programme about singleness. In October 2014, she appeared in the BBC series Celebrity Antiques Road Trip with expert Mark Stacey. Widdecombe took part in a four-part BBC One television series 24 Hours in the Past, along with Colin Jackson, Alistair McGowan, Miquita Oliver, Tyger Drew-Honey and Zoe Lucker in April and May 2015, involving experiencing life as workers in a dustyard, coachhouse, pottery, and as workhouse inmates in 1840s Britain. She took part in an episode of Tipping Point: Lucky Stars in 2016. In 2017, Widdecombe took part in ITV\'s Sugar Free Farm. In January 2018, Widdecombe participated in the Celebrity Big Brother twenty-first series; she was criticised over her comments regarding the Harvey Weinstein controversy and comments perceived to be anti-LGBT to her fellow housemates, most notably to drag queen Courtney Act (Shane Jenek). She finished the competition in second place, behind Jenek. In 2019 Widdecombe appeared on the new celebrity version of The Crystal Maze, where alongside Sunetra Sarker, Wes Nelson, Matthew Wright and Nikki Sanderson, she won money for Stand Up to Cancer. In 2020 Widdecombe travelled to Norway for three days to visit Halden Prison, for the documentary The World\'s Most Luxurious Prison. ## Stage acting career {#stage_acting_career} Following her retirement, Widdecombe made her stage debut, on 9 December 2011, at the Orchard Theatre, Dartford in the Christmas pantomime Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, alongside Strictly Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood. In April 2012, she had a ten-minute non-singing cameo part in Gaetano Donizetti\'s comic opera La Fille du Regiment, playing the Duchesse de Crackentorp. Widdecombe reprised her pantomime performance, again with Horwood, at the Swan Theatre, High Wycombe in December 2012. Widdecombe stepped in at short notice to play the Evil Queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which was published by the Brothers Grimm in 1812, at Bridlington Spa in December 2016. She replaced injured Lorraine Chase. This was Widdecombe\'s first appearance as a pantomime \'baddie\'; a role she told the press she had always hoped for. In December 2017 Widdecombe played the Empress of China in the pantomime Aladdin at the Marina Theatre in Lowestoft.	907	Ann Widdecombe	5
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Personal life and family {#personal_life_and_family} Until her retirement following the 2010 general election, Widdecombe divided her time between her two homes -- one in London and one in the countryside village of Sutton Valence, Kent, in her constituency. She sold both upon retiring at the next general election. She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita\'s death, on 25 April 2007, aged 95. In March 2008, she bought a house in Haytor Vale, on Dartmoor in Devon, where she retired. Her brother, Malcolm (1937--2010), who was an Anglican canon in Bristol, retired in May 2009 and died in October 2010. Her nephew, Roger Widdecombe, is an Anglican priest. She has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least \"one sexual relationship\", to which Widdecombe replied: \"Be careful, that\'s the way you get sued\". When interviewer Jenni Murray asked if she had ever had a sexual relationship, Widdecombe laughed \"it\'s nobody else\'s business\". A 2001 report in The Guardian said that she had had a three-year romance while studying at the University of Oxford; Widdecombe confirmed this in January 2018 on the UK reality TV show Big Brother, explaining that she had ended the romance in order to prioritise her career. Widdecombe has a fondness for cats and many other animals such as foxes; a section of her website, the Widdyweb, is about the pet cats she has lived with. Widdecombe adopted two goats at the Buttercups Goat Sanctuary in Boughton Monchelsea near Maidstone. In an interview, Widdecombe talked about her appreciation of music, despite describing herself as \"pretty well tone-deaf\". Outside politics she writes novels, and a weekly column for the Daily Express. In January 2011 Widdecombe was President of the North of England Education Conference in Blackpool, and gave a speech there supporting selective education and opposing the ban on new grammar schools being built. She also became a patron of The Grace Charity for M.E. In April 2012 Widdecombe said that she was writing her autobiography, which she described as \"rude about all and sundry, but an amount of truth is always necessary\". Her autobiography Strictly Ann: The Autobiography, was published in 2013, and was variously described as \"forthright\", \"candid\", even \"rude\". Widdecombe is a patron of the charity Safe Haven for Donkeys in the Holy Land (SHADH) and in 2014 visited the SHADH Donkey Sanctuary in the West Bank. ### Religious views {#religious_views} Widdecombe became an Anglican in her 30s, after a period of being an agnostic following her departure from religious schooling. She converted to Catholicism in 1993 after leaving the Church of England, explaining to reporters from the New Statesman: : I left the Church of England because there was a huge bundle of straw. The ordination of women was the last straw, but it was only one of many. For years I had been disillusioned by the Church of England\'s compromising on everything. The Catholic Church doesn\'t care if something is unpopular. In October 2006, she pledged to boycott British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her Christian cross, until the company reversed the suspension. In 2010, Widdecombe turned down the offer to be Britain\'s next ambassador to the Holy See, being prevented from accepting by suffering a detached retina. She was made a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI for services to politics and public life on 31 January 2013. ## Honours - Widdecombe was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony held at Canterbury Cathedral on 30 January 2009. - She was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ) by the University of Birmingham on 5 July 2012. - : Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (DSG) (2013)	662	Ann Widdecombe	6
2,422	# Ann Widdecombe ## Selected publications {#selected_publications} ### Fiction - 2000: The Clematis Tree. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN\|0-297-64572-2}}`{=mediawiki} - 2002: An Act of Treachery. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN\|0-297-64573-0}}`{=mediawiki} - 2005: Father Figure. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN\|0-297-82962-9}}`{=mediawiki} - 2005: An Act of Peace. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN\|0-297-82958-0}}`{=mediawiki} ### Non-fiction {#non_fiction} - 1999: Inspired and Outspoken: the collected speeches of Ann Widdecombe; edited by John Simmons, with a biographical preface by Nick Kochan. London: Politico\'s Publishing `{{ISBN\|1-902301-22-6}}`{=mediawiki} - 2004: The Mass is a Mess, with Martin Kochanski	89	Ann Widdecombe	7
2,427	# Alexandrine Alexandrine is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line\'s name derives from its use in the Medieval French Roman d\'Alexandre of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a metrical pause or word break, which may or may not be realized as a stronger syntactic break): `o o o o o o \| o o o o o o`\ \ `o=any syllable; \|=caesura` However, no tradition remains this simple. Each applies additional constraints (such as obligatory stress or nonstress on certain syllables) and options (such as a permitted or required additional syllable at the end of one or both hemistichs). Thus a line that is metrical in one tradition may be unmetrical in another. Where the alexandrine has been adopted, it has frequently served as the heroic verse form of that language or culture, English being a notable exception. ## Scope of the term {#scope_of_the_term} The term \"alexandrine\" may be used with greater or lesser rigour. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine. Preminger et al. allow a broader scope: \"Strictly speaking, the term \'alexandrine\' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French.\" Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae. ## French Although alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century, they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the décasyllabe and octosyllabe for cultural prominence and use in various genres. \"The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century.\" It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy. The structure of the classical French alexandrine is `o o o o o S \| o o o o o S (e)`\ \ `S=stressed syllable; (e)=optional ``mute e` Classical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes, though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common. Victor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure. While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (alexandrin ternaire) with this structure: `o o o S \| o o ¦ o S \| o o o S (e)`\ \ `\|=strong caesura; ¦=word break` The Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae. However, at no point did the newer line replace the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem. This loosening process eventually led to vers libéré and finally to vers libre.	535	Alexandrine	0
2,427	# Alexandrine ## English In English verse, \"alexandrine\" is typically used to mean \"iambic hexameter\": `× / × / × / ¦ × / × / × / (×)`\ \ `/=``ictus``, a strong syllabic position; ×=``nonictus`\ `¦=often a mandatory or predominant caesura, but depends upon the author` Whereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English. Though English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Philip Sidney, and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton\'s Poly-Olbion and Robert Browning\'s Fifine at the Fair, they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness. Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter\'s measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line. The strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from Poly-Olbion, which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized `¦`) in the first line: Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps\' melodious strings Sung `{{not a typo\|th'ancient}}`{=mediawiki} Heroes\' deeds (the monuments of Kings) And in your dreadful verse `{{not a typo\|ingrav'd}}`{=mediawiki} the prophecies, The agèd world\'s descents, and genealogies; (lines 31-34) The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare\'s blank verse). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet. In his Essay on Criticism, Alexander Pope denounced (and parodied) the excessive and unskillful use of this practice: Then at the last and only couplet fraught With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. (lines 354-357)	374	Alexandrine	1
2,427	# Alexandrine ## Other languages {#other_languages} ### Spanish The Spanish verso alejandrino is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine. Its structure is: `o o o o o S o \| o o o o o S o` It was used beginning about 1200 for mester de clerecía (clerical verse), typically occurring in the cuaderna vía, a stanza of four alejandrinos all with a single end-rhyme. The alejandrino was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible arte mayor. Juan Ruiz\'s Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of cuaderna vía, though other verse forms also appear in the work. ### Dutch The mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot. From the Low Countries the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures. ### German Similarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice --- and German poets followed Opitz. The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque. ### Polish Unlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line: `Latin goliardic: o o o s S s s \| o o o s S s`\ `Polish alexandrine: o o o o o S s \| o o o s S s`\ \ `s=unstressed syllable` Though looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works. ### Czech The Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactylic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures: `iambic hexameter: s S ``s S s`` S \| s S ``s S s`` S ``(s)`\ `dactylic tetrameter: S s ``s S s`` s \| S s ``s S s`` s ``(s)`\ `Czech alexandrine: o o ``s S s`` o \| o o ``s S s`` o ``(s)` ### Hungarian Hungarian metrical verse may be written either syllabically (the older and more traditional style, known as \"national\") or quantitatively. One of the national lines has a 6+6 structure: `o o o o o o \| o o o o o o` Although deriving from native folk versification, it is possible that this line, and the related 6-syllable line, were influenced by Latin or Romance examples. When employed in 4-line or 8-line stanzas and rhyming in couplets, this is called the Hungarian alexandrine; it is the Hungarian heroic verse form. Beginning with the 16th-century verse of Bálint Balassi, this became the dominant Hungarian verse form	556	Alexandrine	2
2,433	# Alberto Giacometti Alberto Giacometti (`{{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|dʒ\|æ\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|m\|ɛ\|t\|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˌ\|dʒ\|ɑː\|k\|-}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA\|it\|alˈbɛrto dʒakoˈmetti\|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 10 October 1901 -- 11 January 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman and printmaker, who was one of the most important sculptors of the 20th century. His work was particularly influenced by artistic styles such as Cubism and Surrealism. Philosophical questions about the human condition, as well as existential and phenomenological debates played a significant role in his work. Beginning in 1922, he lived and worked mainly in Paris but regularly visited his hometown Borgonovo to see his family and work on his art. Around 1935, he gave up on his Surrealist influences to pursue a more deepened analysis of figurative compositions. Giacometti wrote texts for periodicals and exhibition catalogues and recorded his thoughts and memories in notebooks and diaries. His critical nature led to self-doubt about his own work and his self-perceived inability to do justice to his own artistic vision. His insecurities nevertheless remained a powerful motivating artistic force throughout his entire life. Between 1938 and 1944 Giacometti\'s sculptures had a maximum height of seven centimeters (2.75 inches). Their small size reflected the actual distance between the artist\'s position and his model. In this context he self-critically stated: \"But wanting to create from memory what I had seen, to my terror the sculptures became smaller and smaller\". After World War II, Giacometti created his most famous sculptures: his extremely tall and slender figurines. These sculptures were subject to his individual viewing experience---between an imaginary yet real, a tangible yet inaccessible space. In Giacometti\'s whole body of work, his painting constitutes only a small part. After 1957, however, his figurative paintings were equally as present as his sculptures. The almost monochrome paintings of his late work do not refer to any other artistic styles of modernity. ## Early life {#early_life} thumb\\|left\\|upright 1.3\\|\"Sick boy in bed\" (Alberto), by Giovanni Giacometti Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, Switzerland, the eldest of four children of Giovanni Giacometti, a well-known post-Impressionist painter, and Annetta Giacometti-Stampa. He was a descendant of Protestant refugees escaping the inquisition. Coming from an artistic background, he was interested in art from an early age and was encouraged by his father and godfather. Alberto attended the Geneva School of Fine Arts. His brothers Diego (1902--1985) and Bruno (1907--2012) would go on to become artists and architects as well. Additionally, his cousin Zaccaria Giacometti, later professor of constitutional law and chancellor of the University of Zurich, grew up together with them, having been orphaned at the age of 12 in 1905.	420	Alberto Giacometti	0
2,433	# Alberto Giacometti ## Career thumb\\|upright 1.5\\|Giacometti at work. In 1922, he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with Cubism and Surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading Surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Miró, Max Ernst, Picasso, Bror Hjorth, and Balthus. Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the sitter\'s gaze. He preferred models he was close to---his sister and the artist Isabel Rawsthorne (then known as Isabel Delmer). This was followed by a phase in which his statues of Isabel became stretched out; her limbs elongated. Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, \"he would make your head look like the blade of a knife\". thumb\\|upright 1.4\\|Giacometti sculpting his wife Annette During World War II, Giacometti took refuge in Switzerland. There, in 1946, he met Annette Arm, a secretary for the Red Cross. They married in 1949. After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. For the remainder of Giacometti\'s life, Annette was his main female model. His paintings underwent a parallel procedure. The figures appear isolated and severely attenuated, as the result of continuous reworking. He frequently revisited his subjects: one of his favourite models was his younger brother Diego, with whom he shared his studio in Paris.	280	Alberto Giacometti	1
2,433	# Alberto Giacometti ## Later years {#later_years} In 1958 Giacometti was asked to create a monumental sculpture for the Chase Manhattan Bank building in New York, which was beginning construction. Although he had for many years \"harbored an ambition to create work for a public square\", he \"had never set foot in New York, and knew nothing about life in a rapidly evolving metropolis. Nor had he ever laid eyes on an actual skyscraper\", according to his biographer James Lord. Giacometti\'s work on the project resulted in the four figures of standing women---his largest sculptures---entitled Grande femme debout I through IV (1960). The commission was never completed, however, because Giacometti was unsatisfied by the relationship between the sculpture and the site, and abandoned the project. In 1962, Giacometti was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame. Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328561.jpg Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328562.jpg Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, Giacometti -- The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970. In his later years Giacometti\'s works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. As his last work he prepared the text for the book Paris sans fin, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived.	335	Alberto Giacometti	2
2,433	# Alberto Giacometti ## Artistic analysis {#artistic_analysis} thumb\\|upright 1.5\\|Alberto Giacometti\ Photo by Henri Cartier-Bresson Regarding Giacometti\'s sculptural technique and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: \"The rough, eroded, heavily worked surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique. Reduced, as they are, to their very core, these figures evoke lone trees in winter that have lost their foliage. Within this style, Giacometti would rarely deviate from the three themes that preoccupied him---the walking man; the standing, nude woman; and the bust---or all three, combined in various groupings.\" In a letter to Pierre Matisse, Giacometti wrote: \"Figures were never a compact mass but like a transparent construction\". In the letter, Giacometti writes about how he looked back at the realist, classical busts of his youth with nostalgia, and tells the story of the existential crisis which precipitated the style he became known for. \"\[I rediscovered\] the wish to make compositions with figures. For this I had to make (quickly I thought; in passing), one or two studies from nature, just enough to understand the construction of a head, of a whole figure, and in 1935 I took a model. This study should take, I thought, two weeks and then I could realize my compositions\...I worked with the model all day from 1935 to 1940\...Nothing was as I imagined. A head, became for me an object completely unknown and without dimensions.\" Since Giacometti achieved exquisite realism with facility when he was executing busts in his early adolescence, Giacometti\'s difficulty in re-approaching the figure as an adult is generally understood as a sign of existential struggle for meaning, rather than as a technical deficit. Giacometti was a key player in the Surrealist art movement, but his work resists easy categorization. Some describe it as formalist, others argue it is expressionist or otherwise having to do with what Deleuze calls \"blocs of sensation\" (as in Deleuze\'s analysis of Francis Bacon). Even after his excommunication from the Surrealist group,`{{Explain\|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were an expression of his emotional response to the subject. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen. He once said that he was sculpting not the human figure but \"the shadow that is cast\". Philosopher William Barrett in Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy (1962), argues that the attenuated forms of Giacometti\'s figures reflect the view of 20th century modernism and existentialism that modern life is increasingly empty and devoid of meaning.`{{failed verification\|reason=Barrett does indeed mention Giacometti, but it is not at all clear how this paraphrase is related to what Barrett actually says. Either replace this paraphrase with one from a reliable source or explicitly quote Barrett where he mentions Giacometti.\|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} A 2011--2012 exhibition at the Pinacothèque de Paris focused on showing how Giacometti was inspired by Etruscan art. ### Walking Man and other human figures {#walking_man_and_other_human_figures} Giacometti is best known for the bronze sculptures of tall, thin human figures, made in the years 1945 to 1960. Giacometti was influenced by the impressions he took from the people hurrying in the big city. People in motion he saw as \"a succession of moments of stillness\". The emaciated figures are often interpreted as an expression of the existential fear, insignificance and loneliness of mankind. The mood of fear in the period of the 1940s and the Cold War is reflected in this figure. It feels sad, lonely and difficult to relate to. ## Death thumb\\|upright 1.6 Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents. With no children, Annette Giacometti became the sole holder of his property rights. She worked to collect a full listing of authenticated works by her late husband, gathering documentation on the location and manufacture of his works and working to fight the rising number of counterfeited works. When she died in 1993, the Fondation Giacometti was set up by the French state. In May 2007 the executor of his widow\'s estate, former French foreign minister Roland Dumas, was convicted of illegally selling Giacometti\'s works to a top auctioneer, Jacques Tajan, who was also convicted. Both were ordered to pay €850,000 to the [Alberto and Annette Giacometti Foundation](https://www.fondation-giacometti.fr/en).	737	Alberto Giacometti	3
2,433	# Alberto Giacometti ## Legacy ### Exhibitions Giacometti\'s work has been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta (1970); Centre Pompidou, Paris (2007--2008); Pushkin Museum, Moscow \"The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti\" (2008); Kunsthal Rotterdam (2008); Fondation Beyeler, Basel (2009); Buenos Aires (2012); Kunsthalle Hamburg (2013); Pera Museum, Istanbul (2015); Tate Modern, London (2017); Vancouver Art Gallery, \"Alberto Giacometti: A Line Through Time\" (2019); National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin (2022). The National Portrait Gallery, London\'s first solo exhibition of Giacometti\'s work, Pure Presence opened to five star reviews on 13 October 2015 (to 10 January 2016, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of the artist\'s death). From April 2019, the Prado Museum in Madrid, has been highlighting Giacometti in an exhibition. ### Public collections {#public_collections} Giacometti\'s work is displayed in numerous public collections, including: `{{div col}}`{=mediawiki} - Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo - Art Institute of Chicago - Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland - Bechtler Museum of Modern Art, Charlotte, North Carolina - Berggruen Museum, Berlin - Botero Museum, Bogotá, Colombia - Bündner Kunstmuseum Chur, Switzerland - Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh - Detroit Institute of Arts - Fondation Beyeler, Basel - Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C. - Holstebro, Denmark - J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California - Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University - Kunsthaus Zürich - Kunstmuseum Basel - Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, South Korea - Los Angeles County Museum of Art - Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark - Minneapolis Institute of Art - Museum of Modern Art, New York - Museum of Fine Arts, Boston - National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. - National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa - North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina - Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia - Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona - Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York - Tate, London - Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Iran - University of Michigan Museum of Art - Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford - Walker Art Center, Minneapolis - Vancouver Art Gallery - Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven ### Art foundations {#art_foundations} The Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, having received a bequest from Alberto Giacometti\'s widow Annette, holds a collection of circa 5,000 works, frequently displayed around the world through exhibitions and long-term loans. A public interest institution, the Foundation was created in 2003 and aims at promoting, disseminating, preserving and protecting Alberto Giacometti\'s work. The Alberto-Giacometti-Stiftung established in Zürich in 1965, holds a smaller collection of works acquired from the collection of the Pittsburgh industrialist G. David Thompson. ### Notable sales {#notable_sales} According to record Giacometti has sold the two most expensive sculptures in history. In November 2000 a Giacometti bronze, Grande Femme Debout I, sold for \$14.3 million. Grande Femme Debout II was bought by the Gagosian Gallery for \$27.4 million at Christie\'s auction in New York City on 6 May 2008. L\'Homme qui marche I, a life-sized bronze sculpture of a man, became one of the most expensive works of art, and at the time was the most expensive sculpture ever sold at auction. It was in February 2010, when it sold for £65 million (US\$104.3 million) at Sotheby\'s, London. Grande tête mince, a large bronze bust, sold for \$53.3 million just three months later. `{{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| header = \| header_align = left/right/center \| header_background = \| footer = \| footer_align = left/right/center \| footer_background = \| width = \| image1 = CHF100 8 front.jpg \| width1 = 100 \| caption1 = 100 [[Swiss franc]] banknote 1998–2019, front \| alt1 = A banknote with portrait of Giacometti \| image2 = CHF100 8 back.jpg \| width2 = 100 \| caption2 = 100 Swiss franc banknote, back \| alt2 = A banknote with image of sculpture of Giacometti }}`{=mediawiki} L\'Homme au doigt (Pointing Man) sold for \$126 million (£81,314,455.32), or \$141.3 million with fees, in Christie\'s May 2015, \"Looking Forward to the Past\" sale in New York City. The work had been in the same private collection for 45 years. As of now it is the most expensive sculpture sold at auction. After being showcased on the BBC programme Fake or Fortune, a plaster sculpture, titled Gazing Head, sold in 2019 for half a million pounds. In April 2021, Giacometti\'s small-scale bronze sculpture, Nu debout II (1953), was sold from a Japanese private collection and went for £1.5 million (\$2 million), against an estimate of £800,000 (\$1.1 million). ### Other legacy {#other_legacy} Giacometti created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery. According to a lecture by Michael Peppiatt at Cambridge University on 8 July 2010, Giacometti, who had a friendship with author/playwright Samuel Beckett, created a tree for the set of a 1961 Paris production of Waiting for Godot. Giacometti and his sculpture L\'Homme qui marche I appear on the former 100 Swiss franc banknote. In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900--2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London. Giacometti\'s sculptural style has featured in advertisements for various financial institutions, starting in 1987 with the Shoes ad for Royal Bank of Scotland directed by Gerry Anderson. The 2017 movie Final Portrait retells the story of his friendship with the biographer James Lord. Giacometti is played by Geoffrey Rush	903	Alberto Giacometti	4
2,439	# Anthem An anthem is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work (still frequently seen in Sacred Harp and other types of shape note singing) and still more particularly to a specific form of liturgical music. In this sense, its use began c. 1550 in English-speaking churches; it uses English language words, in contrast to the originally Roman Catholic \'motet\' which sets a Latin text. ## Etymology Anthem is derived from the Greek ἀντίφωνα (antíphōna) via Old English antefn. Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of the singing. The adjectival form is \"anthemic\". ## History Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form. Anthems may be described as \"verse\", \"full\", or \"full with verse\", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both. Another way of describing an anthem is that it is a piece of music written specifically to fit a certain accompanying text, and it is often difficult to make any other text fit that same melodic arrangement. It also often changes melody and/or meter, frequently multiple times within a single song, and is sung straight through from start to finish, without repeating the melody for following verses like a normal song (although certain sections may be repeated when marked). An example of an anthem with multiple meter shifts, fuguing, and repeated sections is \"Claremont\", or \"Vital Spark of Heav\'nly Flame\". Another well known example is William Billing\'s \"Easter Anthem\", also known as \"The Lord Is Risen Indeed!\" after the opening lines. This anthem is still one of the more popular songs in the Sacred Harp tune book. The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic \"votive antiphon\" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints. ### Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context {#notable_composers_of_liturgical_anthems_historic_context} During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric \"In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem\" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow, with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration. In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold. In the 19th century, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been written since then, generally by specialists in organ music rather than composers, and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually written anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions: for instance Edward Elgar\'s 1912 \"Great is the Lord\" and 1914 \"Give unto the Lord\" (both with orchestral accompaniment); Benjamin Britten\'s 1943 \"Rejoice in the Lamb\" (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece); and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams\'s 1952 \"O Taste and See\" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should only be in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.	709	Anthem	0
2,439	# Anthem ## Types The word \"anthem\" is commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson\'s \"Irresponsible Hate Anthem\", Silverchair\'s \"Anthem for the Year 2000\", and Toto\'s \"Child\'s Anthem\". ### National anthem {#national_anthem} A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of a country\'s people, recognized either by that state\'s government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America, Central Asia, and Europe tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a simpler fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies\' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states. ### Flag anthem {#flag_anthem} A flag anthem is generally a patriotic musical composition that extols and praises a flag, typically one of a country, in which case it is sometimes called a national flag anthem. It is often either sung or performed during or immediately before the raising or lowering of a flag during a ceremony. Most countries use their respective national anthems or some other patriotic song for this purpose. However, some countries, particularly in South America, use a separate flag anthem for such purposes. Not all countries have flag anthems. Some used them in the past but no longer do so, such as Iran, China, and South Africa. Flag anthems can be officially codified in law, or unofficially recognized by custom and convention. In some countries, the flag anthem may be just another song, and in others, it may be an official symbol of the state akin to a second national anthem, such as in Taiwan. ### Sports anthem {#sports_anthem} Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen\'s \"We Are the Champions\" and \"We Will Rock You\", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League.	395	Anthem	1
2,439	# Anthem ## Types ### Shared anthems {#shared_anthems} Although anthems are used to distinguish states and territories, there are instances of shared anthems. \"Nkosi Sikelel\' iAfrika\" became a pan-African liberation anthem and was later adopted as the national anthem of five countries in Africa including Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe after independence. Zimbabwe and Namibia have since adopted new national anthems. Since 1997, the South African national anthem has been a hybrid song combining new English lyrics with extracts of \"Nkosi Sikelel\' iAfrika\" and the former state anthem \"Die Stem van Suid-Afrika\". For North and South Korea, the folk song Arirang is considered a shared anthem for both countries. For example, it was played when the two Koreas marched together during the 2018 Winter Olympics. \"Hymn to Liberty\" is the longest national anthem in the world by length of text. In 1865, the first three stanzas and later the first two officially became the national anthem of Greece and later also that of the Republic of Cyprus. \"Forged from the Love of Liberty\" was composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958--1962) and was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962. \"Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada\" is the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau and was also the national anthem of Cape Verde until 1996. \"Oben am jungen Rhein\", the national anthem of Liechtenstein, is set to the tune of \"God Save the King/Queen\". Other anthems that have used the same melody include \"Heil dir im Siegerkranz\" (Germany), \"Kongesangen\" (Norway), \"My Country, \'Tis of Thee\" (United States), \"Rufst du, mein Vaterland\" (Switzerland), \"E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua\" (Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i), and \"The Prayer of Russians\". The Estonian anthem \"Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm\" is set to a melody composed in 1848 by Fredrik (Friedrich) Pacius which is also that of the national anthem of Finland: \"italic=no\" (\"italic=no\" in Swedish). It is also considered to be the ethnic anthem for the Livonian people with lyrics \"Min izāmō, min sindimō\" (\"My Fatherland, my native land\"). \"Hey, Slavs\" is dedicated to Slavic peoples. Its first lyrics were written in 1834 under the title \"Hey, Slovaks\" (\"Hej, Slováci\") by Samuel Tomášik and it has since served as the ethnic anthem of the Pan-Slavic movement, the organizational anthem of the Sokol physical education and political movement, the national anthem of Yugoslavia and the transitional anthem of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The song is also considered to be the second, unofficial anthem of the Slovaks. Its melody is based on Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which has also been the anthem of Poland since 1926, but the Yugoslav variation is much slower and more accentuated. Between 1991 and 1994 \"Deșteaptă-te, române!\" was the national anthem of both Romania (which adopted it in 1990) and Moldova, but in the case of the latter it was replaced by the current Moldovan national anthem, \"Limba noastră\". Between 1975 and 1977, the national anthem of Romania \"E scris pe tricolor Unire\" shared the same melody as the national anthem of Albania \"Himni i Flamurit\", which is the melody of a Romanian patriotic song \"Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire\". The modern national anthem of Germany, \"Das Lied der Deutschen\", uses the same tune as the 19th- and early 20th-century Austro-Hungarian imperial anthem \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\". The \"Hymn of the Soviet Union\", was used until its dissolution in 1991, and was given new words and adopted by the Russian Federation in 2000 to replace an instrumental national anthem that had been introduced in 1990. \"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù\", the regional anthem of Brittany and, \"Bro Goth Agan Tasow\", the Cornish regional anthem, are sung to the same tune as that of the Welsh de-facto national anthem \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\", with similar words.	632	Anthem	2
2,439	# Anthem ## Types ### For parts of states {#for_parts_of_states} Some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among others, are held to be unions of several \"nations\" by various definitions. Each of the different \"nations\" may have their own anthem and these songs may or may not be officially recognized; these compositions are typically referred to as regional anthems though may be known by other names as well (e.g. \"state songs\" in the United States). #### Austria In Austria, the situation is similar to that in Germany. The regional anthem of Upper Austria, the \"Hoamatgsang\" (\"Chant of the Homeland\"), is notable as the only (official) German-language anthem written -- and sung -- entirely in dialect. #### Belgium In Belgium, Wallonia uses \"Le Chant des Wallons\" and Flanders uses \"De Vlaamse Leeuw\". #### Brazil Most of the Brazilian states have official anthems. Minas Gerais uses an adapted version of the traditional Italian song \"Vieni sul mar\" as its unofficial anthem. During the Vargas Era (1937--1945) all regional symbols including anthems were banned, but they were legalized again by the Eurico Gaspar Dutra government. #### Canada The Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, having been the independent Dominion of Newfoundland before 1949, also has its own regional anthem from its days as a dominion and colony of the UK, the \"Ode to Newfoundland\". It was the only Canadian province with its own anthem until 2010, when Prince Edward Island adopted the 1908 song \"The Island Hymn\" as its provincial anthem. #### Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia had a national anthem composed of two parts, the Czech anthem followed by one verse of the Slovak one. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic adopted its own regional anthem as its national one, whereas Slovakia did so with slightly changed lyrics and an additional stanza. #### Germany In Germany, many of the Länder (states) have their own anthems, some of which predate the unification of Germany in 1871. A prominent example is the Hymn of Bavaria, which also has the status of an official anthem (and thus enjoys legal protection). There are also several unofficial regional anthems, like the \"Badnerlied\" and the \"Niedersachsenlied\". #### India Some of the states and union territories of India have officially adopted their own state anthem for use during state government functions. #### Malaysia All the individual states of Malaysia have their own anthems. #### Mexico In Mexico, after the national anthem was established in 1854, most of the states of the federation adopted their own regional anthems, which often emphasize heroes, virtues or particular landscapes. In particular, the regional anthem of Zacatecas, the \"Marcha de Zacatecas\", is one of the more well-known of Mexico\'s various regional anthems. #### Serbia and Montenegro {#serbia_and_montenegro} In 2004 and 2005 respectively, the Montenegrin and Serbian regions of Serbia and Montenegro adopted their own regional anthems. When the two regions both became independent sovereign states in mid-2006, their regional anthems became their national anthems.	495	Anthem	3
2,439	# Anthem ## Types ### For parts of states {#for_parts_of_states} #### Soviet Union {#soviet_union} Fourteen of the fifteen constituent states of the Soviet Union had their own official song which was used at events connected to that region, and also written and sung in that region\'s own language. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic used the Soviet Union\'s national anthem as its regional anthem (\"The Internationale\" from 1917 to 1944 and the \"National Anthem of the Soviet Union\" from 1944 to 1990) until 1990, the last of the Soviet constituent states to do so. After the Soviet Union disbanded in the early 1990s, some of its former constituent states, now sovereign nations in their own right, retained the melodies of their old Soviet-era regional anthems until replacing them or, in some cases, still use them today. Unlike most national anthems, few of which were composed by renowned composers, the Soviet Union\'s various regional anthems were composed by some of the best Soviet composers, including world-renowned Gustav Ernesaks (Estonia), Aram Khachaturian (Armenia), Otar Taktakishvili (Georgia), and Uzeyir Hajibeyov (Azerbaijan). The lyrics present great similarities, all having mentions to Vladimir Lenin (and most, in their initial versions, to Joseph Stalin, the Armenian and Uzbek anthems being exceptions), to the guiding role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and to the brotherhood of the Soviet peoples, including a specific reference to the friendship of the Russian people (the Estonian, Georgian and Karelo-Finnish anthems were apparently an exception to this last rule). Some of the Soviet regional anthems\' melodies can be sung in the Soviet Union anthem lyrics (Ukrainian and Belarus are the most fitted in this case). Most of these regional anthems were replaced with new national ones during or after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; Belarus, Kazakhstan (until 2006), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (until 1997), and Uzbekistan kept the melodies, but with different lyrics. Russia itself had abandoned the Soviet hymn, replacing it with a tune by Glinka. However, with Vladimir Putin coming to power, the old Soviet tune was restored, with new lyrics written to it. Like the hammer and sickle and red star, the public performance of the anthems of the Soviet Union\'s various regional anthems the national anthem of the Soviet Union itself are considered as occupation symbols as well as symbols of totalitarianism and state terror by several countries formerly either members of or occupied by the Soviet Union. Accordingly, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, and Ukraine have banned those anthems amongst other things deemed to be symbols of fascism, socialism, communism, and the Soviet Union and its republics. In Poland, dissemination of items which are "media of fascist, communist, or other totalitarian symbolism" was criminalized in 1997. However, in 2011 the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional. In contrast to this treatment of the symbolism, promotion of fascist, communist and other totalitarian ideology remains illegal. Those laws do not apply to the anthems of Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan which used the melody with different lyrics. #### Spain In Spain, the situation is similar to that in Austria and Germany. Unlike the national anthem, most of the anthems of the autonomous communities have words. All are official. Three prominent examples are \"Els Segadors\" of Catalonia, \"Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia\" of the Basque Country, and \"Os Pinos\" of Galicia, all written and sung in the local languages. #### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom} The United Kingdom\'s national anthem is \"God Save the King\" but its constituent countries and Crown Dependencies also have their own equivalent songs which have varying degrees of official recognition. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have anthems which are played at occasions such as sports matches and official events. - England - \"God Save the King\" is usually presumed to be, and often played as, the English regional anthem; but \"Jerusalem\", \"I Vow To Thee, My Country\" and \"Land of Hope and Glory\" are also sung. \"Jerusalem\" is used as England\'s anthem at the Commonwealth Games. - Scotland variously uses \"Flower of Scotland\", \"Auld Lang Syne\", and \"Scotland the Brave\" as its unofficial national anthems. \"Flower of Scotland\" is used as Scotland\'s anthem at the Commonwealth Games and international football and rugby matches. - Wales has sung \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" since 1856 when it was written by father and son Evan and James James. The music and a Breton translation, \"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù\", were adopted by Brittany as its anthem; and there is also a Cornish version, \"Bro Goth agan Tasow\", sung alongside \"Trelawney\" as an unofficial Cornish anthem. In Wales, \"Hen Wlad fy Nhadau\" is sometimes accompanied by the hymn, \"Guide Me, O thou Great Redeemer\" (also referred to as \"Bread of Heaven\" from repeated words in its first verse), especially at rugby matches. - Northern Ireland currently uses \"God Save the King\" as its anthem at international football matches and uses \"Danny Boy/Londonderry Air\" at the Commonwealth Games. The Isle of Man, a Crown dependency, uses \"God Save the King\" as a Royal anthem, but also has its own local anthem, \"O Land of Our Birth\" (Manx: \"O Halloo Nyn Ghooie\").	851	Anthem	4
2,439	# Anthem ## Types ### For parts of states {#for_parts_of_states} #### United States {#united_states} Although the United States has \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" as its official national anthem, all except two of its constituent states and territories also have their own regional anthem (referred to by most US states as a \"state song\"), along with Washington, DC. The two exceptions are New Jersey, which has never had an official state song, and Maryland, which rescinded \"Maryland, My Maryland\" in 2021 due to its racist language and has yet to adopt a replacement. The state songs are selected by each state legislature, and/or state governor, as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular US state. Some US states have more than one official state song, and may refer to some of their official songs by other names; for example, Arkansas officially has two state songs, plus a state anthem, and a state historical song. Tennessee has the most state songs, with 12 official state songs and an official bicentennial rap. Arizona has a song that was written specifically as a state anthem in 1915, as well as the 1981 country hit \"Arizona\", which it adopted as the alternate state anthem in 1982. Two individuals, Stephen Foster, and John Denver, have written or co-written two state songs. Foster\'s two state songs, \"Old Folks at Home\" (better known as \"Swanee Ribber\" or \"Suwannee River\"), adopted by Florida, and \"My Old Kentucky Home\" are among the best-known songs in the US On March 12, 2007, the Colorado Senate passed a resolution to make Denver\'s trademark 1972 hit \"Rocky Mountain High\" one of the state\'s two official state songs, sharing duties with its predecessor, \"Where the Columbines Grow\". On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make Denver\'s \"Take Me Home, Country Roads\" one of four official state songs of West Virginia. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014. Additionally, Woody Guthrie wrote or co-wrote two state folk songs -- Roll On, Columbia, Roll On and Oklahoma Hills -- but they have separate status from the official state songs of Washington and Oklahoma, respectively. Other well-known state songs include \"Yankee Doodle\", \"You Are My Sunshine\", \"Rocky Top\", and \"Home on the Range\"; a number of others are popular standards, including \"Oklahoma\" (from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical), Hoagy Carmichael\'s \"Georgia on My Mind\", \"Tennessee Waltz\", \"Missouri Waltz\", and \"On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away\". Many of the others are much less well-known, especially outside the state. New Jersey has no official state song, while Virginia\'s previous state song, \"Carry Me Back to Old Virginny\", adopted in 1940, was later rescinded in 1997 due to its racist language by the Virginia General Assembly. In 2015, \"Our Great Virginia\" was made the new state song of Virginia. Iowa (\"The Song of Iowa\") uses the tune from the song \"O Tannenbaum\" as the melody to its official state song. #### Yugoslavia In Yugoslavia, each of the country\'s constituent states (except for Bosnia and Herzegovina) had the right to have its own anthem, but only the Croatian one actually did so initially, later joined by the Slovene one on the brink of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Before 1989, Macedonia did not officially use a regional anthem, even though one was proclaimed during the World War II by the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM). ### International organizations {#international_organizations} Larger entities also sometimes have anthems, in some cases known as \'international anthems\'. Lullaby is the official anthem of UNICEF composed by Steve Barakatt. \"The Internationale\" is the organizational anthem of various socialist movements. Before March 1944, it was also the anthem of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. ASEAN Way is the official anthem of ASEAN. The tune of the \"Ode to Joy\" from Beethoven\'s Symphony No. 9 is the official anthem of the European Union and of the Council of Europe. Let\'s All Unite and Celebrate is the official anthem of the African Union (\"Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together\"). The Olympic Movement also has its own organizational anthem. Esperanto speakers at meetings often use the song \"La Espero\" as their linguistic anthem. The first South Asian Anthem by poet-diplomat Abhay K may inspire SAARC to come up with an official SAARC Anthem. \"Ireland\'s Call\" was commissioned as the sporting anthem of both the Ireland national rugby union team and the Ireland national rugby league team, which are composed of players from both jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, in response to dissatisfaction among Northern Ireland unionists with the use of the Irish national anthem. \"Ireland\'s Call\" has since been used by some other all-island bodies. An international anthem also unifies a group of organizations sharing the same appellation such as the International Anthem of the Royal Golf Clubs composed by Steve Barakatt. Same applies to the European Broadcasting Union: the prelude of Te Deum in D Major by Marc-Antoine Charpentier is played before each official Eurovision and Euroradio broadcast. The prelude\'s first bars are heavily associated with the Eurovision Song Contest.	848	Anthem	5
2,439	# Anthem ## Types ### Global anthem {#global_anthem} Various artists have created \"Earth anthems\" for the entire planet, typically extolling the ideas of planetary consciousness. Though UNESCO have praised the idea of a global anthem, the United Nations has never adopted an official song	44	Anthem	6
2,443	# Acceleration {dt} = \\frac{d\^2\\mathbf{x}}{dt\^2} \\| dimension = wikidata }} `{{Classical mechanics \|Fundamentals \|width=20.5em}}`{=mediawiki} thumb\\|upright=1.4\\|Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start. In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object\'s acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object\'s acceleration, as described by Newton\'s second law, is the combined effect of two causes: - the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object --- magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force; - that object\'s mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made --- magnitude is inversely proportional to the object\'s mass. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (`{{nowrap\|m⋅s<sup>−2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, $\mathrm{\tfrac{m}{s^2}}$). For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralised in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed.	390	Acceleration	0
2,443	# Acceleration ## Definition and properties {#definition_and_properties} ### Average acceleration {#average_acceleration} An object\'s average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, $\Delta \mathbf{v}$, divided by the duration of the period, $\Delta t$. Mathematically, $\bar{\mathbf{a}} = \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t}.$ ### Instantaneous acceleration {#instantaneous_acceleration} Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time: $\mathbf{a} = \lim_{{\Delta t} \to 0} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}.$ As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, `{{math\|'''v'''}}`{=mediawiki}, with respect to time `{{mvar\|t}}`{=mediawiki} and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, `{{math\|'''x'''}}`{=mediawiki}, with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of `{{math\|'''x'''}}`{=mediawiki} with respect to `{{mvar\|t}}`{=mediawiki}: $\mathbf{a} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}.$ (Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.) By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function `{{math\|''a''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} is the velocity function `{{math\|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time (`{{mvar\|a}}`{=mediawiki} vs. `{{mvar\|t}}`{=mediawiki}) graph corresponds to the change of velocity. $\mathbf{\Delta v} = \int \mathbf{a} \, dt.$ Likewise, the integral of the jerk function `{{math\|''j''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki}, the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time: $\mathbf{\Delta a} = \int \mathbf{j} \, dt.$ ### Units Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T^−2^. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s^−2^); or \"metre per second per second\", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second. ### Other forms {#other_forms} An object moving in a circular motion---such as a satellite orbiting the Earth---is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration. Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer. In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body\'s center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton\'s second law): $\mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} \quad \implies \quad \mathbf{a} = \frac{\mathbf{F}}{m},$ where `{{math\|'''F'''}}`{=mediawiki} is the net force acting on the body, `{{mvar\|m}}`{=mediawiki} is the mass of the body, and `{{math\|'''a'''}}`{=mediawiki} is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large. ## Tangential and centripetal acceleration {#tangential_and_centripetal_acceleration} The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as: $\mathbf{v}(t) = v(t) \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} = v(t) \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(t) ,$ with `{{math\|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} equal to the speed of travel along the path, and $\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} = \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} \, ,$ a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed `{{math\|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} and the changing direction of `{{math\|'''u'''<sub>''t''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as: $\begin{alignat}{3} \mathbf{a} & = \frac{d \mathbf{v}}{dt} \\ & = \frac{dv}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} +v(t)\frac{d \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}}{dt} \\ & = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} + \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}\ , \end{alignat}$ where `{{math\|'''u'''<sub>n</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle\'s trajectory (also called the principal normal), and `{{math\|'''r'''}}`{=mediawiki} is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time `{{mvar\|t}}`{=mediawiki}. The components $$\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{t} = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \quad\text{and}\quad \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{c} = \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}$$ are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively. Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet--Serret formulas.	663	Acceleration	1
2,443	# Acceleration ## Special cases {#special_cases} ### Uniform acceleration {#uniform_acceleration} Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period. A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength `{{math\|g}}`{=mediawiki} (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton\'s second law the force $\mathbf{F_g}$ acting on a body is given by: $\mathbf{F_g} = m \mathbf{g}.$ Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed: $\begin{align} \mathbf{s}(t) &= \mathbf{s}_0 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{a}t^2 = \mathbf{s}_0 + \tfrac{1}{2} \left(\mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{v}(t)\right) t \\ \mathbf{v}(t) &= \mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{a} t \\ {v^2}(t) &= {v_0}^2 + 2\mathbf{a \cdot}[\mathbf{s}(t)-\mathbf{s}_0], \end{align}$ where - $t$ is the elapsed time, - $\mathbf{s}_0$ is the initial displacement from the origin, - $\mathbf{s}(t)$ is the displacement from the origin at time $t$, - $\mathbf{v}_0$ is the initial velocity, - $\mathbf{v}(t)$ is the velocity at time $t$, and - $\mathbf{a}$ is the uniform rate of acceleration. In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth. ### Circular motion {#circular_motion} In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighbouring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle. - For a given speed $v$, the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius $r$ of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: $a_c = \frac {v^2} {r}\,.$ - For a given angular velocity $\omega$, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius $r$. This is due to the dependence of velocity $v$ on the radius $r$. $v = \omega r.$ Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where $\mathbf{r}$ is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields $\mathbf {a_c}= -\frac{v^2}{\|\mathbf {r}\|}\cdot \frac{\mathbf {r}}{\|\mathbf {r}\|}\,.$ As usual in rotations, the speed $v$ of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance $r$ as $\omega = \frac {v}{r}.$ Thus $\mathbf {a_c}= -\omega^2 \mathbf {r}\,.$ This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called \'centrifugal force\', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body\'s linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion. In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius $r$ for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration $\alpha$, i.e., the rate of change $\alpha = \dot\omega$ of the angular speed $\omega$ times the radius $r$. That is, $a_t = r \alpha.$ The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration ($\alpha$), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector.	733	Acceleration	2
2,443	# Acceleration ## Coordinate systems {#coordinate_systems} In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as$a_x=dv_x/dt=d^2x/dt^2,$ $a_y=dv_y/dt=d^2y/dt^2.$The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as $\textbf{a}=<a_x, a_y>$. The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula as$\|a\|=\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2}.$In three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined as$a_z=dv_z/dt=d^2z/dt^2.$The three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as $\textbf{a}=<a_x, a_y, a_z>$ with its magnitude being determined by$\|a\|=\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2+a_z^2}.$ ## Relation to relativity {#relation_to_relativity} ### Special relativity {#special_relativity} The special theory of relativity describes the behaviour of objects travelling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations. As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it. ### General relativity {#general_relativity} Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration---gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all---including the force of gravity---are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating	264	Acceleration	3
2,447	# Anton Chekhov thumb\\|upright=.8\\|Portrait of Anton Chekhov by Isaac Levitan (1886) Anton Pavlovich Chekhov`{{Family name footnote\|Pavlovich\|Chekhov\|lang=Eastern Slavic}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|tʃ\|ɛ\|k\|ɒ\|f}}`{=mediawiki}; ; 29 January 1860 -- 15 July 1904) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer, widely considered to be one of the greatest writers of all time. His career as a playwright produced four classics, and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov was a physician by profession. \"Medicine is my lawful wife,\" he once said, \"and literature is my mistress.\" Chekhov renounced the theatre after the reception of The Seagull in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavski\'s Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov\'s Uncle Vanya and premiered his last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a \"theatre of mood\" and a \"submerged life in the text.\" The plays that Chekhov wrote were not complex, and created a somewhat haunting atmosphere for the audience. Chekhov began writing stories to earn money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations that influenced the evolution of the modern short story. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.	263	Anton Chekhov	0
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Biography ### Childhood Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great (17 January Old Style) 29 January 1860 in Taganrog, a commercial port city on the Sea of Azov -- on Politseyskaya (Police) street, later renamed Chekhova street -- in southern Russia. He was the third of six surviving children; he had two older brothers, Alexander and Nikolai, and three younger siblings, Ivan, Maria, and Mikhail. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf and his wife, was from the village Olkhovatka (Voronezh Governorate) and ran a grocery store. He was a director of the parish choir, a devout Orthodox Christian, and a physically abusive father. Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son\'s many portraits of hypocrisy. Chekhov\'s mother, Yevgeniya (Morozova), was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels all over Russia with her cloth-merchant father. \"Our talents we got from our father,\" Chekhov recalled, \"but our soul from our mother.\" Young Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and The Taganrog Boys Gymnasium (since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium). There he was held back for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father\'s choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word \"suffering\" to describe his childhood and recalled: Later, in his adulthood, Chekhov criticized his brother Alexander\'s treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of their father Pavel\'s tyranny: \"Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother\'s youth. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it\'s sickening and frightening to think about it. Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool.\" In 1876, Chekhov\'s father Pavel was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, having been cheated by a contractor named Mironov. To avoid debtor\'s prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow. Chekhov\'s mother was physically and emotionally broken by the experience. Chekhov was left behind to sell the family\'s possessions and finish his education. He remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man by the name of Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers, among other jobs. He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up. As a teenager Chekhov fell in love with the Taganrog Theatre. He attended the theatre on a regular basis and became enchanted and inspired by productions of vaudevilles, Italian operas and popular comedies. During that time, Chekhov read widely and analytically, including the works of Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer, and wrote a full-length comic drama, Fatherless, which his brother Alexander dismissed as \"an inexcusable though innocent fabrication.\" Chekhov also experienced a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling in Taganrog and moved in with his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University.	596	Anton Chekhov	1
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Biography ### Early writings {#early_writings} Chekhov then assumed responsibility for the whole family. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as \"Antosha Chekhonte\" (Антоша Чехонте) and \"Man Without Spleen\" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki (Fragments), owned by Nikolai Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Chekhov\'s tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction. thumb\\|upright=.7\\|left\\|Anton Chekhov in 1880s In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge. In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened, but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends. He confessed to Leykin, \"I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues.\" He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations. Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, Novoye Vremya (New Times), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid a rate per line double Leykin\'s and allowed Chekhov three times the space. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov\'s closest. Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story \"The Huntsman\" that \"You have real talent, a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation.\" He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality. Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him \"like a thunderbolt\" and confessed, \"I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires---mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself.\" The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Grigorovich\'s advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1888, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection At Dusk (V Sumerkakh) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize \"for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth.\"	422	Anton Chekhov	2
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Biography ### Turning points {#turning_points} In 1887, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine, which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. On his return, he began the novella-length short story \"The Steppe\", which he called \"something rather odd and much too original\", and which was eventually published in Severny Vestnik (The Northern Herald). In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, and his companions, a priest and a merchant. \"The Steppe\" has been called a \"dictionary of Chekhov\'s poetics\", and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper. In autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being Ivanov, written in a fortnight and produced that November. Though Chekhov found the experience \"sickening\" and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov\'s bemusement, as a work of originality. Although Chekhov did not fully realise it at the time, Chekhov\'s plays, such as The Seagull (written in 1895), Uncle Vanya (written in 1897), The Three Sisters (written in 1900), and The Cherry Orchard (written in 1903) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day: an effort to recreate and express the realism of how people truly act and speak with each other. This realistic manifestation of the human condition may engender in audiences reflection upon what it means to be human. This philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast, but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day. Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother\'s intellectual development and literary career. From this period comes an observation of Chekhov\'s that has become known as Chekhov\'s gun, a dramatic principle that requires that every element in a narrative be necessary and irreplaceable, and that everything else be removed. The death of Chekhov\'s brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose. Mikhail Chekhov recorded his brother\'s depression and restlessness after Nikolai\'s death. Mikhail was researching prisons at that time as part of his law studies. Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform. ### Sakhalin In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer across Siberia to the Russian Far East and the katorga, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan. He spent three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half-month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best. His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious. Chekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. He wrote, \"There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man\'s degradation.\" He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example: Chekhov later concluded that charity was not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin (The Island of Sakhalin), a work of social science, not literature. Chekhov found literary expression for the \"Hell of Sakhalin\" in his long short story \"The Murder\", the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home. Chekhov\'s writing on Sakhalin, especially the traditions and habits of the Gilyak people, is the subject of a sustained meditation and analysis in Haruki Murakami\'s novel 1Q84. It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney, \"Chekhov on Sakhalin\" (collected in the volume Station Island). Rebecca Gould has compared Chekhov\'s book on Sakhalin to Katherine Mansfield\'s Urewera Notebook (1907). In 2013, the Wellcome Trust-funded play \'A Russian Doctor\', performed by Andrew Dawson and researched by Professor Jonathan Cole, explored Chekhov\'s experiences on Sakhalin Island. ### Melikhovo Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother\'s medical commitments: Chekhov\'s expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. However, Chekhov\'s work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants\' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story \"Peasants\". Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: \"Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women.\" In 1893/1894 he worked as a Zemstvo doctor in Zvenigorod, which has numerous sanatoriums and rest homes. A local hospital is named after him. In 1894, Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since he had moved to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended the orchard and the pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he \"looked after \... as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years.\" The first night of The Seagull, at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on 17 October 1896, was a fiasco, as the play was booed by the audience, stinging Chekhov into renouncing the theatre. But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Konstantin Stanislavski to direct a new production for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898. Stanislavski\'s attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text, and restored Chekhov\'s interest in playwriting. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya, which Chekhov had completed in 1896. In the last decades of his life he became an atheist.	1,116	Anton Chekhov	3
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Biography ### Yalta In March 1897, Chekhov suffered a major haemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow. With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic, where doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life. After his father\'s death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa (The White Dacha), into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his \"hot Siberia\" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he \"wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now\". He took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. On 25 May 1901, Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly, owing to his horror of weddings. She was a former protégée and sometime lover of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull. Up to that point, Chekhov, known as \"Russia\'s most elusive literary bachelor\", had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment. He had once written to Suvorin: thumb\\|upright=.7\\|Chekhov and Olga, 1901, on their honeymoon The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov\'s marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple\'s letters, that conception occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although other Russian scholars have rejected that claim. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski\'s directing methods and Chekhov\'s advice to Olga about performing in his plays.`{{page needed \|date=October 2023}}`{=mediawiki} In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, \"The Lady with the Dog\" (also translated from the Russian as \"Lady with Lapdog\"), which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a cynical married man and an unhappy married woman who meet while holidaying in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter. Unexpectedly though, they gradually fall deeply in love and end up risking scandal and the security of their family lives. The story masterfully captures their feelings for each other, the inner transformation undergone by the disillusioned male protagonist as a result of falling deeply in love, and their inability to resolve the matter by either letting go of their families or of each other. ### Death In May 1903, Chekhov visited Moscow; the prominent lawyer Vasily Maklakov visited him almost every day. Maklakov signed Chekhov\'s will. By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that \"everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer \[he\] was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it\". On 3 June, he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest in Germany, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha, describing the food and surroundings, and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way German women dressed. Chekhov died on 15 July 1904 at the age of 44 after a long fight with tuberculosis, the same disease that killed his brother. Chekhov\'s death has become one of \"the great set pieces of literary history\"`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}retold, embroidered, and fictionalized many times since, notably in the 1987 short story \"Errand\" by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband\'s last moments: Chekhov\'s body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway-car meant for oysters, a detail that offended Gorky. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.	702	Anton Chekhov	4
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Legacy A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin that he thought people might go on reading his writings for seven years. \"Why seven?\", asked Bunin. \"Well, seven and a half\", Chekhov replied. \"That\'s not bad. I\'ve got six years to live.\" Chekhov\'s posthumous reputation greatly exceeded his expectations. The ovations for the play The Cherry Orchard in the year of his death served to demonstrate the Russian public\'s acclaim for the writer, which placed him second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years. Tolstoy was an early admirer of Chekhov\'s short stories and had a series that he deemed \"first quality\" and \"second quality\" bound into a book. In the first category were: Children, The Chorus Girl, A Play, Home, Misery, The Runaway, In Court, Vanka, Ladies, A Malefactor, The Boys, Darkness, Sleepy, The Helpmate, and The Darling; in the second: A Transgression, Sorrow, The Witch, Verochka, In a Strange Land, The Cook\'s Wedding, A Tedious Business, An Upheaval, Oh! The Public!, The Mask, A Woman\'s Luck, Nerves, The Wedding, A Defenceless Creature, and Peasant Wives. Chekhov\'s work also found praise from several of Russia\'s most influential radical political thinkers. If anyone doubted the gloom and miserable poverty of Russia in the 1880s, the anarchist theorist Peter Kropotkin responded, \"read only Chekhov\'s novels!\" Raymond Tallis further recounts that Vladimir Lenin believed his reading of the short story Ward No. 6 \"made him a revolutionary\". Upon finishing the story, Lenin is said to have remarked: \"I absolutely had the feeling that I was shut up in Ward 6 myself!\" In Chekhov\'s lifetime, British and Irish critics generally did not find his work pleasing; E. J. Dillon thought \"the effect on the reader of Chekhov\'s tales was repulsion at the gallery of human waste represented by his fickle, spineless, drifting people\" and R. E. C. Long said \"Chekhov\'s characters were repugnant, and that Chekhov revelled in stripping the last rags of dignity from the human soul\". After his death, Chekhov was reappraised. Constance Garnett\'s translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, whose story \"The Child Who Was Tired\" is similar to Chekhov\'s \"Sleepy\". The Russian critic D. S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov\'s popularity in that country by his \"unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values\". In Russia itself, Chekhov\'s drama fell out of fashion after the revolution, but it was later incorporated into the Soviet canon. The character of Lopakhin, for example, was reinvented as a hero of the new order, rising from a modest background so as eventually to possess the gentry\'s estates. thumb\\|upright=.7\\|Osip Braz, Anton Chekhov, 1898, oil on canvas; Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Despite Chekhov\'s reputation as a playwright, William Boyd asserts that his short stories represent the greater achievement. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story \"Errand\" about Chekhov\'s death, believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers: According to literary critic Daniel S. Burt, Chekhov was one of the greatest and most influential writers of all time. ### Style One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov\'s plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his Heartbreak House \"A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes\", and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: \"the same nice people, the same utter futility\". Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: \"Chekhov wrote about six good stories. But he was an amateur writer.\" Comparing Chekhov to Tolstoy, Vladimir Nabokov wrote, \"I do love Chekhov dearly. I fail, however, to rationalize my feeling for him: I can easily do so in regard to the greater artist, Tolstoy, with the flash of this or that unforgettable passage \[...\], but when I imagine Chekhov with the same detachment all I can make out is a medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions, doctors, unconvincing vamps, and so forth; yet it is his works which I would take on a trip to another planet.\" Nabokov called \"The Lady with the Dog\" \"one of the greatest stories ever written\" in its depiction of a problematic relationship, and described Chekhov as writing \"the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice\". For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov\'s historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the \"event plot\" for something more \"blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life\". Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader (1925): Michael Goldman has said of the elusive quality of Chekhov\'s comedies: \"Having learned that Chekhov is comic \... Chekhov is comic in a very special, paradoxical way. His plays depend, as comedy does, on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward---inappropriate speeches, missed connections, faux pas, stumbles, childishness---but as part of a deeper pathos; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized, graceful dissolution of purpose.\"	864	Anton Chekhov	5
2,447	# Anton Chekhov ## Legacy ### Influence on dramatic arts {#influence_on_dramatic_arts} In the United States, Chekhov\'s reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski\'s system of acting, with its notion of subtext: \"Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches\", wrote Stanislavski, \"but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word \... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak.\" The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg\'s Actors Studio and the \"Method\" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin. One of Anton\'s nephews, Michael Chekhov, would also contribute heavily to modern theatre, particularly through his unique acting methods which developed Stanislavski\'s ideas further. Alan Twigg, the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine B.C. BookWorld wrote: Chekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio, Yōji Sakate, and Ai Nagai. Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humour as well as an intense depictions of longing. Sakate adapted several of Chekhov\'s plays and transformed them in the general style of nō. Nagai also adapted Chekhov\'s plays, including Three Sisters, and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai\'s style of satirical realism while emphasising the social issues depicted in the play. Chekhov\'s works have been adapted for the screen, including Sidney Lumet\'s Sea Gull and Louis Malle\'s Vanya on 42nd Street. Laurence Olivier\'s final effort as a film director was a 1970 adaptation of Three Sisters in which he also played a supporting role. His work has also served as inspiration or been referenced in numerous films. In Andrei Tarkovsky\'s 1975 film The Mirror, characters discuss his short story \"Ward No. 6\". Woody Allen has been influenced by Chekhov and references to his works are present in many of his films including Love and Death (1975), Interiors (1978) and Hannah and Her Sisters (1986). Plays by Chekhov are also referenced in François Truffaut\'s 1980 drama film The Last Metro, which is set in a theatre. The Cherry Orchard has a role in the comedy film Henry\'s Crime (2011). A portion of a stage production of Three Sisters appears in the 2014 drama film Still Alice. The 2022 Foreign Language Oscar winner, Drive My Car, is centered on a production of Uncle Vanya. Several of Chekhov\'s short stories were adapted as episodes of the 1986 Indian anthology television series Katha Sagar. Another Indian television series titled Chekhov Ki Duniya aired on DD National in the 1990s, adapting different works of Chekhov. Nuri Bilge Ceylan\'s Palme d\'Or winner Winter Sleep was adapted from the short story \"The Wife\" by Anton Chekhov	505	Anton Chekhov	6
2,448	# Action Against Hunger Action Against Hunger (Action Contre La Faim - ACF) is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children and provides communities with access to safe water and sustainable solutions to hunger. Action Against Hunger worked in 56 countries around the world with more than 8,990 employees helping 28 million people in need. Action Against Hunger was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Alfred Kastler served as the organization\'s first chairman. Currently, Mumbai-based businessman and philanthropist Ashwini Kakkar serves as International President of Action Against Hunger network. The group initially provided assistance to Afghan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. It expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans, and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. Action Against Hunger\'s Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. Early results showed that treatment with F100 has the capacity to reduce the mortality rate of severely malnourished children to below 5%, with a median hospital fatality rate quoted of 23.5%. A few years later, the therapeutic milk was repackaged as ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs), a peanut-based paste packaged like a power bar. These bars allow for the treatment of malnutrition at home and do not require any preparation or refrigeration. The international network currently has headquarters in eight countries -- France, Germany, Spain, the United States, Canada, Italy, India, and the UK. Its four main areas of work include nutrition, food security, water and sanitation, and advocacy. The integrated approaches with various sectors of intervention are: - Nutrition and Health - Water, Sanitation and Hygiene - Food Security & Livelihoods - Emergency Response In 2022, Action Against Hunger USA is leading a USAID-funded project to address health and nutrition challenges associated with policy, advocacy, financing, and governance in communities around the world, and will work in partnership with leading organizations such as Pathfinder International, Amref Health Africa, Global Communities, Humanity & Inclusion, Kupenda for the Children, and Results for Development. ## Restaurants against hunger {#restaurants_against_hunger} Action Against Hunger partners with leaders from the food and beverage industry to bring attention to global hunger. Each year, several campaigns are run by the network to raise funds and support the organisation\'s programs : Restaurants Against Hunger and Love Food Give Food. ## Countries of intervention {#countries_of_intervention} In 2022, Action Against Hunger International Network is present in 56 countries: ### Africa Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Chad, Zimbabwe, Zambia ### Asia Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, South Caucasus ### Caribbean Haïti ### Europe Turkey, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Poland ### Middle East {#middle_east} Afghanistan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestinian Occupied Territories, Yemen, Jordan, Iraq ### Latin America {#latin_america} Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Honduras, Venezuela ## Action Against Hunger international network {#action_against_hunger_international_network} Since 1995 Action Against Hunger developed an international network to have a bigger global impact. The Network has headquarters around the world: France, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, and Italy. Action Against Hunger has also a West Africa Regional Office (WARO) located in Dakar, a Horn and Eastern Africa Regional Office in Nairobi, and five logistic platforms (Lyon, Paris, Barcelona, Dubai, Panama). This network increases the human and financial capacities and enables specialisation per headquarter. - Action Against Hunger in France, Spain and the USA are the operational headquarters. They manage the interventions directly on the field. In order to maximize efficiency and coherence, these three operational headquarters work under the principle of one headquarter per country of intervention. - Action Against Hunger UK focuses on research, monitoring and evaluation, notably with Hunger Watch. The UK headquarters also plays an intermediary role with DFID. - Action Against Hunger Canada raises public and private funds in North America and plays an increasing role on the national level. - Action Against Hunger / Azione contro la Fame Italia raises private funds and promotes important campaigns in order to sensitize the Italian public opinion on hunger and malnutrition	722	Action Against Hunger	0
2,460	# Anal sex Anal sex or anal intercourse principally means the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person\'s anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include anal fingering, the use of sex toys, anilingus, and pegging. Although anal sex most commonly means penile`{{endash}}`{=mediawiki}anal penetration, sources sometimes use anal intercourse to exclusively denote penile`{{endash}}`{=mediawiki}anal penetration, and anal sex to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation. While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all homosexual men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration -- by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area in the vagina (sometimes called the G-spot) in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be due to psychological factors in some cases. As with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex can facilitate the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissue are delicate and do not, unlike the vagina, provide lubrication. They can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex. Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, often because of religious prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. It may be considered taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment. By contrast, anal sex may also be considered a natural and valid form of sexual activity as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions, and can be an enhancing or primary element of a person\'s sex life.	389	Anal sex	0
2,460	# Anal sex ## Anatomy and stimulation {#anatomy_and_stimulation} The abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men and women. The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex. Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia states that \"the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure\" and that \"the rectum is a curved tube about 8 or long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand\". Research indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors, but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in anal fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation, figging or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is one of the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus. In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the object of insertion rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene\'s glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex. General statistics indicate that 70--80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris (which has many nerve endings specifically intended for orgasm), and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women. The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head). The vagina, for example, is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal legs of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused. - Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare. Stimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity. By contrast, each person\'s sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum, unlike the vagina, do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum. Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.	671	Anal sex	1
2,460	# Anal sex ## Male to female {#male_to_female} ### Behaviors and views {#behaviors_and_views} The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis. Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration. While some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse. In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, anal intercourse is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and anal sex is used to denote any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that \"for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex\". Anal intercourse is sometimes used as a substitute for vaginal intercourse during menstruation. The likelihood of pregnancy occurring during anal sex is greatly reduced, as anal sex alone cannot lead to pregnancy unless sperm is somehow transported to the vaginal opening. Because of this, some couples practice anal intercourse as a form of contraception, often in the absence of a condom. Some couples may practice anal sex as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; this has been reported in Christian communities in the United States. A person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse may be regarded as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes called as technical virginity. Heterosexuals may view anal sex as \"fooling around\" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view \"dates to the late 1600s, with explicit \'rules\' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as \'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse.\" One study found US teens who pledged to not have sex until marriage were more likely to engage in anal sex without vaginal sex than teens who had not made a sexual abstinence pledge, and found pledge-takers were just as likely to test positive for an STI five years after taking the pledge as those who had not pledged to abstinence.	453	Anal sex	2
2,460	# Anal sex ## Male to female {#male_to_female} ### Prevalence Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride\'s 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n=1,299) and women (n=1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral--anal sex, manual--anal sex, or anal sex toy use. The report states the majority of men (n=631) and women (n=856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively. The review added that because \"relatively little attention \[is\] given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners\", this means that it is \"quite rare\" to have research \"that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics. As a result, we do not know the extent to which anal intercourse differs qualitatively from coitus.\" According to a 2010 study from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) that was authored by Debby Herbenick et al., although anal intercourse is reported by fewer women than other partnered sex behaviors, partnered women in the age groups between 18 and 49 are significantly more likely to report having anal sex in the past 90 days. Women engaged in anal intercourse less commonly than men. Vaginal intercourse was practiced more than insertive anal intercourse among men, but 13% to 15% of men aged 25 to 49 practiced insertive anal intercourse. With regard to adolescents, limited data also exists. This may be because of the taboo nature of anal sex and that teenagers and caregivers subsequently avoid talking to one another about the topic. It is also common for subject review panels and schools to avoid the subject. A 2000 study found that 22.9% of college students who self-identified as non-virgins had anal sex. They used condoms during anal sex 20.9% of the time as compared with 42.9% of the time with vaginal intercourse. Anal sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis. Seidman et al. argued that \"cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography,\" and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men.	485	Anal sex	3
2,460	# Anal sex ## Male to male {#male_to_male} ### Behaviors and views {#behaviors_and_views_1} Anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, not all homosexual men engage in anal sex. Oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the top and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the bottom. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as versatile. Men who don't partake in anal sex at all can be called sides. Though some men who have sex with men may find that being a receptive partner during anal sex makes them question their masculinity, playing bottom in sexual intercourse is at least as common as playing top among western gay and bisexual men and, among committed male couples, anal intercourse is rated as providing the most satisfying orgasms. ### Prevalence {#prevalence_1} Reports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among men who have sex with men vary. According to 2011 research from the Journal of Sexual Medicine, in the most recent sexual intercourse between homosexual men, the most common behavior was kissing the partner on the mouth, followed by oral sex, and mutual masturbation. Anal sex occurred in less than half of the sexual relationships between homosexual men. A survey publish by The Advocate in 1994 indicated that 46% of homosexual men who have anal sex, preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner. Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of homosexual men have had anal sex at least one time, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms. In a 2012 sex survey conducted by the NSSHB in the U.S., among homosexual men who have anal sex, 83.3% report ever having anal sex in the insertive position, and 90% in the receptive position. According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is more popular among homosexual male couples than among heterosexual couples, but \"it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation\" among both sexual orientations in prevalence. Wellings et al. reported that \"the equation of \'homosexual\' with \'anal\' sex among men is common among lay and health professionals alike\" and that \"yet an Internet survey of 180,000 MSM across Europe (EMIS, 2011) showed that oral sex was most commonly practised, followed by mutual masturbation, with anal intercourse in third place\". Though anal sex is less common than oral sex and handjobs among committed male couples, they rate orgasms derived from anal intercourse as more satisfying than that of any other sexual practice. ## Female to male {#female_to_male} Women may sexually stimulate a man\'s anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used. The practice of a woman penetrating a man\'s anus with a strap-on dildo for sexual activity is called pegging. Reece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that \"an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse\". The BMJ stated in 1999:`{{Blockquote\|There are little published data on how many heterosexual men would like their anus to be sexually stimulated in a heterosexual relationship. Anecdotally, it is a substantial number. What data we do have almost all relate to penetrative sexual acts, and the superficial contact of the anal ring with fingers or the tongue is even less well documented but may be assumed to be a common sexual activity for men of all sexual orientations.<ref name="Robin Bell">{{cite journal\|first=Robin\|last=Bell\|title=ABC of sexual health: Homosexual men and women\|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]/[[BMJ]]\|pmc=1114912\|pmid=9974466\|volume=318\|issue=7181\|date=February 1999\|journal=BMJ\|pages=452–5\|doi=10.1136/bmj.318.7181.452}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} ## Female to female {#female_to_female} With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes anal fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus. There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo). A 2014 study of partnered lesbian women in Canada and the U.S. found that 7% engaged in anal stimulation or penetration at least once a week; about 10% did so monthly and 70% did not at all.`{{Primary source inline\|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Anilingus is also less often practiced among female same-sex couples.	797	Anal sex	4
2,460	# Anal sex ## Health risks {#health_risks} ### General risks {#general_risks} Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers which are infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as barebacking, carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing, and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STIs. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction. Unprotected receptive anal sex (with an HIV positive partner) is the sex act most likely to result in HIV transmission. As with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not \"real sex\" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people who are unaware of the risks of the anal sex may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse, and they also may believe that an STI can only result from vaginal intercourse. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries. Although anal sex alone does not lead to pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with anal sex or other forms of sexual activity if the penis is near the vagina (such as during intercrural sex or other genital-genital rubbing) and its sperm is deposited near the vagina\'s entrance and travels along the vagina\'s lubricating fluids; the risk of pregnancy can also occur without the penis being near the vagina because sperm may be transported to the vaginal opening by the vagina coming in contact with fingers or other non-genital body parts that have come in contact with semen. There are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier than vaginal intercourse for women, including the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse. The risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is also significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues. Additionally, if a man abruptly changes from anal intercourse to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina or urinary tract due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys. Pain during receptive anal sex is formally known as anodyspareunia. Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex. The prevalence of anodyspareunia is difficult to measure; in two population studies of men receiving anal sex, 18% and 14% reported experiencing anodyspareunia. In a study of 2002 women, 8.7% of those who had engaged in anal sex reported experiencing severe pain. ### Damage Anal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum\'s lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible. By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death. Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence). Rectal prolapse is very uncommon, and its causes are not well understood. Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence. ### Cancer Most cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). The risk of anal cancer through anal sex is attributed to HPV infection, which is often contracted through unprotected anal sex.\* - Anal cancer is significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society estimates that in 2023 there were approximately 9,760 new cases (6,580 in women and 3,180 in men) and approximately 1,870 deaths (860 women and 1,010 men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, \"with an average age being in the early 60s\" and it \"affects women somewhat more often than men.\"	972	Anal sex	5
2,460	# Anal sex ## Cultural views {#cultural_views} ### General Different cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others. Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished. In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation. Anal sex has been more accepted in modern times; it is often considered a natural, pleasurable form of sexual expression. The buttocks and anus have become more eroticized in modern culture, including via pornography. Engaging in anal sex is still, however, punished in some societies. For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran\'s Penal Code states in Article 109 that \"both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished\" and \"Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge\". ### Ancient and non-Western cultures {#ancient_and_non_western_cultures} From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and did not regard anal sex as taboo. Entu priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man \"keeps saying to his wife: \'Bring your backside.{{\' \"}} Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse. The gala\]\], a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities. The Sumerian sign for gala was a ligature of the signs for \'penis\' and \'anus\'. One Sumerian proverb reads: \"When the gala wiped off his ass \[he said\], \'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress \[i.e., Inanna\].\'\" The term Greek love has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, \"doing it the Greek way\" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, \"Most citizens are europroktoi (\'wide-arsed\') now.\" The terms kinaidos, europroktoi, and katapygon were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a \"clean\" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris. Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the eromenos) did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being \'feminine\'. In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with \"eligible\" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy. A male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse (paedicatio in Latin) was condemned in Rome as an act of impudicitia (\'immodesty\' or \'unchastity\'); free men, however, could take the active role with a young male slave, known as a \[\[catamite\]\] or puer delicatus. The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to \"take it like a woman\" (muliebria pati \'to undergo womanly things\') when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy\'s role. Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo. The passive partner in any of these cases was always considered a woman or a boy because being the one who penetrates was characterized as the only appropriate way for an adult male citizen to engage in sexual activity, and he was therefore considered unmanly if he was the one who was penetrated; slaves could be considered \"non-citizen\". Although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others for anal intercourse, Roman comedies and plays presented Greek settings and characters for explicit acts of anal intercourse, and this may be indicative that the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically \"Greek\". In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males. Evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased. ### Religion Further information: Sodomy `{{See also\|Buddhism and sexual orientation\|LGBT topics and Hinduism}}`{=mediawiki} #### Judaism The Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects, states \"since a man\'s wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally \[traditionally, unnaturally refers to anal and oral sex\], provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse.\" #### Christianity Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the peccatum contra naturam (\'the sin against nature\', after Thomas Aquinas) or Sodomitica luxuria (\'sodomitical lusts\', in one of Charlemagne\'s ordinances), or peccatum illud horribile, inter christianos non nominandum (\'that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named\'). #### Islam , or the sin of Lot\'s people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to \"unnatural\" sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. Same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called luti or lutiyin in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.	1,310	Anal sex	6
2,460	# Anal sex ## Other animals {#other_animals} As a form of non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals, anal sex has been observed in a few other primates, both in captivity and in the wild	33	Anal sex	7
2,466	# Aarau Aarau (`{{IPA\|de-CH\|ˈaːraʊ\|lang}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA\|gsw\|ˈɑːræu̯\|gsw}}`{=mediawiki}) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The town is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aare, on the river\'s right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains, and is west of Zurich, 58 km south of Basel and 65 km northeast of Bern. The municipality borders directly on the canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the largest town in Aargau. At the beginning of 2010 Rohr became a district of Aarau. The official language of Aarau is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. ## Geography and geology {#geography_and_geology} The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcrop at a narrowing of the Aare river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains. Newer districts of the city lie to the south and east of the outcrop, as well as higher up the mountain, and in the valley on both sides of the Aare. The neighboring municipalities are Küttigen to the north and Buchs to the east, Suhr to the south-east, Unterentfelden to the south, and Eppenberg-Wöschnau and Erlinsbach to the west. Aarau and the nearby neighboring municipalities have grown together and now form an interconnected agglomeration. The only exception is Unterentfelden whose settlements are divided from Aarau by the extensive forests of Gönhard and Zelgli. Approximately nine-tenths of the city is south of the Aare, and one tenth is to the north. It has an area, `{{as of\|2006\|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}, of 8.9 km2. Of this area, 6.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 34% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 55.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (4.5%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes). The lowest elevation, 365 m, is found at the banks of the Aar, and the highest elevation, at 471 m, is the Hungerberg on the border with Küttigen. ### Climate	352	Aarau	0
2,466	# Aarau ## History ### Prehistory A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aare found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times. ### Middle Ages {#middle_ages} Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg. Aarau is first mentioned in 1248 as Arowe. Around 1250 it was mentioned as Arowa. However the first mention of a city sized settlement was in 1256. The town was ruled from the \"Rore\" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall. In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family\'s lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283. In the 14th century the city was expanded in two stages, and a second defensive wall was constructed. A deep ditch separated the city from its \"suburb;\" its location is today marked by a wide street named \"Graben\" (meaning Ditch). In 1415 Bern invaded lower Aargau with the help of Solothurn. Aarau capitulated after a short resistance, and was forced to swear allegiance to the new rulers. In the 16th century, the rights of the lower classes were abolished. In March 1528 the citizens of Aarau allowed the introduction of Protestantism at the urging of the Bernese. A growth in population during the 16th Century led to taller buildings and denser construction methods. Early forms of industry developed at this time; however, unlike in other cities, no guilds were formed in Aarau. On 11 August 1712, the Peace of Aarau was signed into effect. This granted each canton the right to choose their own religion thereby ending Catholicism\'s control. Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city\'s favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for educational reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau. ### 1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic {#capital_of_the_helvetic_republic} On 27 December 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops. On 22 March 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic. It is therefore the first capital of a unified Switzerland. Parliament met in the city hall. On 20 September, the capital was moved to Lucerne. ### Aarau as canton capital {#aarau_as_canton_capital} In 1803, Napoleon ordered the fusion of the cantons of Aargau, Baden and Fricktal. Aarau was declared the capital of the new, enlarged canton of Aargau. In 1820 the city wall was torn down, with the exception of the individual towers and gates, and the defensive ditches were filled in. The wooden bridge, dating from the Middle Ages, across the Aare was destroyed by floods three times in thirty years, and was replaced with a steel suspension bridge in 1851. This was replaced by a concrete bridge in 1952. The city was linked up to the Swiss Central Railway in 1856. The textile industry in Aarau broke down in about 1850 because of the protectionist tariff policies of neighboring states. Other industries had developed by that time to replace it, including the production of mathematical instruments, shoes and cement. Beginning in 1900, numerous electrical enterprises developed. By the 1960s, more citizens worked in service industries or for the canton-level government than in manufacturing. During the 1980s many of the industries left Aarau completely. In 1802 the Canton School was established; it was the first non-parochial high school in Switzerland. It developed a good reputation, and was home to Nobel Prize winners Albert Einstein, Paul Karrer, and Werner Arber, as well as several Swiss politicians and authors. The purchase of a manuscript collection in 1803 laid the foundation for what would become the Cantonal Library, which contains a Bible annotated by Huldrych Zwingli, along with the manuscripts and incunabula. More newspapers developed in the city, maintaining the revolutionary atmosphere of Aarau. Beginning in 1820, Aarau has been a refuge for political refugees. The urban educational and cultural opportunities of Aarau were extended through numerous new institutions. A Theatre and Concert Hall was constructed in 1883, which was renovated and expanded in 1995--96. The Aargau Nature Museum opened in 1922. A former cloth warehouse was converted into a small theatre in 1974, and the alternative culture center KIFF (Culture in the fodder factory) was established in a former animal fodder factory.	843	Aarau	1
2,466	# Aarau ## Origin of the name {#origin_of_the_name} The earliest use of the place name was in 1248 (in the form Arowe), and probably referred to the settlement in the area before the founding of the city. It comes, along with the name of the River Aare (which was called Arula, Arola, and Araris in early times), from the German word Au, meaning floodplain. ### Old town {#old_town} The historic old town forms an irregular square, consisting of four parts (called Stöcke). To the south lies the Laurenzenvorstadt, that is, the part of the town formerly outside the city wall. One characteristic of the city is its painted gables, for which Aarau is sometimes called the \"City of beautiful Gables\". The old town, Laurenzenvorstadt, government building, cantonal library, state archive and art museum are all listed as heritage sites of national significance. The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the \"suburb\" date from this time. The \"Schlössli\" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The \"Schlössli\" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515. The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was installed in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau. The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The \"Justice fountain\" (Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of French limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic.	400	Aarau	2
2,466	# Aarau ## Economy `{{as of\|2007\|In 2007}}`{=mediawiki}, Aarau had an unemployment rate of 2.35%. `{{as of\|2005}}`{=mediawiki}, there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 4,181 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 164 businesses in this sector. 20,186 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,461 businesses in this sector. This is a total of over 24,000 jobs, since Aarau\'s population is about 16,000 it draws workers from many surrounding communities. `{{as of\|2000}}`{=mediawiki} there were 8,050 total workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 4,308 or about 53.5% of the residents worked outside Aarau while 17,419 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 21,161 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.`{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki} The largest employer in Aarau is the cantonal government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. One of the two head offices of the Aargauer Zeitung, Switzerland\'s fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations. Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991. The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the \"Golden Triangle\" between Zurich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in the hope of arresting the slowly progressing losses. Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, cutlery, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Aarau is famous for the quality of their instruments, cutlery and their bells. ### Markets and fairs {#markets_and_fairs} Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the Graben at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, with regional companies selling their products. The \"Rüeblimärt\" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring. ## Transport Aarau railway station is a terminus of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11. The town is also served with public transport provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG. ### Routes Number Start point End point -------- ------------- ----------- 1 Küttigen Buchs 2 Barmelweid Rohr 3 Gretzenbach Aarau 4 Biberstein Suhr 5 Goldern Aarau 6 Damm Suhr 7 Zelgli Aarau	463	Aarau	3
2,466	# Aarau ## Population The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Thirdly, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the 21st century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty. Aarau has a population (as of `{{Swiss populations date\|CH-AG}}`{=mediawiki}) of `{{Swiss populations\|CH-AG\|4001}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{Swiss populations ref\|CH-AG}}`{=mediawiki} `{{as of\|2008}}`{=mediawiki}, 19.8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1%. Most of the population (`{{as of\|2000\|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}) speaks German (84.5%), with Italian being second most common ( 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 2.9%). The age distribution, `{{as of\|2008\|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}, in Aarau is; 1,296 children or 8.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,334 teenagers or 8.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,520 people or 15.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,518 people or 15.8% are between 30 and 39, 2,320 people or 14.6% are between 40 and 49, and 1,987 people or 12.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,588 people or 10.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,219 people or 7.7% are between 70 and 79, there are 942 people or 5.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 180 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older. , there were 1,365 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 3,845 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 2,119 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 1.99 individuals. `{{as of\|2008\|alt=In 2008}}`{=mediawiki} there were 1,594 single family homes (or 18.4% of the total) out of a total of 8,661 homes and apartments.`{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki} In Aarau about 74.2% of the population (between age 25--64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a \[\[Fachhochschule\]\]). Of the school age population (`{{as of\|2009\|alt=in the 2008/2009 school year}}`{=mediawiki}), there are 861 students attending primary school, there are 280 students attending secondary school, there are 455 students attending tertiary or university level schooling, there are 35 students who are seeking a job after school in the municipality. Population Growth ------------------- year 1558 1764 1798 1850 1880a 1910 1930 1950 1970 1987 1990 1993 2010 2016 ## Sport The football club FC Aarau play in the Stadion Brügglifeld. From 1981 until 2010 they played in the top tier of the Swiss football league system when they were relegated to the Swiss Challenge League. In the 2013/2014 they climbed back to the highest tier only to be relegated again. In the 2016/17 season they will play in the Swiss Challenge League. They won the Swiss Cup in 1985 and were three times Swiss football champions, in 1912, in 1914 and in 1993. The Argovia Stars play in the MySports League, the third highest league of Swiss ice hockey. They play their home games in the 3,000-seat KeBa Aarau Arena. BC Alte Kanti Aarau plays in the Swiss Women\'s Basketball Championship, the country\'s top division. ## Sites ### Heritage sites of national significance {#heritage_sites_of_national_significance} Aarau is home to a number of sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. The list includes three churches; the Christian Catholic parish house, the Roman Catholic parish house, and the Reformed City Church. There are five government buildings on the list; the Cantonal Library, which contains many pieces important to the nation\'s history, and Art Gallery, the old Cantonal School, the Legislature, the Cantonal Administration building, and the archives. Three gardens or parks are on the list; Garten Schmidlin, Naturama Aargau and the Schlossgarten. The remaining four buildings on the list are; the former Rickenbach Factory, the Crematorium, the Haus zum Erker at Rathausgasse 10 and the Restaurant Zunftstube at Pelzgasse. ### Tourist sites {#tourist_sites} The Bally Shoe company has a unique shoe museum in the city. There is also the Trade Museum which contain stained glass windows from Muri Convent and paintings.	775	Aarau	4
2,466	# Aarau ## Sites ### Annual events {#annual_events} Each May, Aarau plays host to the annual [Jazzaar Festival](https://www.jazzaar.com/) attracting the world\'s top jazz musicians.	24	Aarau	5
2,466	# Aarau ## Religion From the `{{as of\|2000\|alt=2000 census}}`{=mediawiki}, 4,473 or 28.9% are Roman Catholic, while 6,738 or 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 51 individuals (or about 0.33% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic i.e. Old Catholic faith.`{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki} ## Government ### Legislative In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (Einwohnerrat) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation: Party 2001 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------ ------ FDP 13 11 SP 12 14 SVP 11 10 Die Mitte (Formerly Christian Democratic People\'s Party of Switzerland, CVP) 4 3 Pro Aarau 4 3 Green 2 5 EVP 3 2 GLP 0 2 At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative. ### Executive The executive authority is the town council (Stadtrat). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments. The seven members (and their party) are: - Hanspeter Hilfiker (FDP) (City President) - Werner Schib (Die Mitte) (City Vice President) - Angelica Cavegn Leitner (Pro Aarau) - Franziska Graf (SP) - Daniel Siegenthaler (SP) - Hanspeter Thür (Grüne) - Suzanne Marclay-Merz (FDP) ### National elections {#national_elections} In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (22.1%), the FDP (17.5%) and the Green Party (11.8%). ## Coat of arms {#coat_of_arms} The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent an Eagle displayed Sable beaked langued and membered Gules and a Chief of the last. ## Notable people {#notable_people} ### Born in Aarau {#born_in_aarau} - Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770--1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey - Hans Herzog (1819--1894), Swiss army General	384	Aarau	6
2,472	# American Quarter Horse The American Quarter Horse, or Quarter Horse, is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name is derived from its ability to outrun other horse breeds in races of 1/4 mi or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to 44 mph. The development of the Quarter Horse traces to the 1600s. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost three million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014. The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows, and as a working ranch horse. The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well suited for the intricate and quick maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also used in English disciplines, driving, show jumping, dressage, hunting, and many other equestrian activities. The Texas Legislature designated the American Quarter Horse as the official \"State Horse of Texas\" in 2009, and Oklahoma also designated the Quarter Horse as its official state horse in 2022. ## Breed history {#breed_history} ### Colonial era {#colonial_era} In the 1600s, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted local horses on the Eastern seaboard of colonial America. One of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756. The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial \"Quarter Horse\". The resulting horse was small, hardy, quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends. As flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England. These courses were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When competing against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won. As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books. This began a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the \"Quarter Horse\", named after the 1/4 mile race distance at which it excelled. Some Quarter Horses have been clocked at up to 44 mph. ### Westward expansion {#westward_expansion} In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which became the Southwestern United States and Mexico. The horses of the West included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate \"cow sense\", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.	553	American Quarter Horse	0
2,472	# American Quarter Horse ## Breed history {#breed_history} ### Development as a distinct breed {#development_as_a_distinct_breed} Early foundation sires of Quarter Horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock\'s Rondo, one of many \"Rondo\" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy---again, one of many \"Billy\" horses---foaled c. 1880; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889; and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree. Another early foundation sire for the breed was Copperbottom, foaled in 1828, who tracks his lineage through the Byerley Turk, a foundation sire of the Thoroughbred horse breed. The main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills required by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. The Quarter Horse dominates in events that require speed as well as the ability to handle cattle. Sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan, and even Standardbred bloodlines. In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the Southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses. After winning the 1941 Fort Worth Exposition and Fat Stock Show grand champion stallion, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner\'s Rainy Day P-13. The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed. Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge. ## \"Appendix\" and \"Foundation\" horses {#appendix_and_foundation_horses} Since the American Quarter Horse was formally established as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An \"Appendix\" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a \"numbered\" American Quarter Horse and an \"appendix\" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the \"appendix\" of the American Quarter Horse Association\'s studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration. Since Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders argue that the continued addition of Thoroughbred bloodlines are beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard. Some favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register \"Foundation\" Quarter Horses.	653	American Quarter Horse	1
2,472	# American Quarter Horse ## Modern American Quarter Horse {#modern_american_quarter_horse} The American Quarter Horse is a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses are commonly used in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping; and gymkhana or O-Mok-See. Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but are dominated by American Quarter Horse. The breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with earnings in the millions. Quarter Horses have also been trained to compete in dressage and show jumping. They are also used for recreational trail riding and in mounted police units. The American Quarter Horse has also been exported worldwide. European nations such as Germany and Italy have imported large numbers of Quarter Horses. Next to the American Quarter Horse Association (which also encompasses Quarter Horses from Canada), the second largest registry of Quarter Horses is in Brazil, followed by Australia. In the UK the breed is also becoming very popular, especially with the two Western riding Associations, the Western Horse Association and The Western Equestrian Society. The British American Quarter Horse breed society is the AQHA-UK. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with nearly 3 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide in 2014.	286	American Quarter Horse	2
2,472	# American Quarter Horse ## Breed characteristics {#breed_characteristics} The Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between `{{hands\|14\|and\|16}}`{=mediawiki} high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as `{{hands\|17}}`{=mediawiki}. There are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well-muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred. Quarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white. In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered. ### Stock type {#stock_type} A stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline -- though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse. ### Halter type {#halter_type} Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is `{{hands\|15.2\|to\|16}}`{=mediawiki} and weighs in at over 1200 lb when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse\'s skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in descendants of the stallion Impressive (see Genetic diseases below). ### Racing and hunter type {#racing_and_hunter_type} Quarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter Horses race primarily against other Quarter Horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, \"the world\'s fastest athlete.\" The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.	475	American Quarter Horse	3
2,472	# American Quarter Horse ## Genetic diseases {#genetic_diseases} Several genetic diseases are of concern to Quarter Horse breeders. Most can now be identified by DNA testing so that breeders do not inadvertently produce foals with these conditions: - Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene originally linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis. Because it is a dominant gene, only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring. There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA has barred registration of horses that possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is periodically discussed. Additionally, all Quarter Horses born in 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, there have been some rule changes for show competition, including the creation of a \"Performance Halter class\" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit in performance or racing before it can compete. - Myosin-heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) is a genetic muscle disease added to the AQHA genetic testing panel in 2022. It is a genetic dominant condition, though not all horses that inherit the gene will show clinical signs of being affected and the environmental triggers are not well understood at present. An estimated 7% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. There are two forms, each linked to the same genetic variant. Affected horses may exhibit one or both forms of the condition. The first is Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM). It may occur in response to a vaccination or infection, following which the immune system misinterprets the muscle cells as foreign and rapidly attacks them. Horses initially experience stiffness, weakness, and a decreased appetite followed by the rapid loss of 40% of muscle mass within 72 hours. The second form of MYHM is Nonexertional Rhabdomyolysis (compare to PSSM, below), which often presents as stiffness and possible swelling of muscles along the back and haunches without exercise. Clinical signs include pain, muscle cramping, and muscle damage, which may or may not result in muscle loss. When the condition is triggered, horses can recover but may have more frequent episodes. Horses that are homozygous (My/My) may have more severe symptoms. - Malignant hyperthermia (MH) causes a horse\'s body to release uncontrolled amounts of calcium into the bloodstream when subjected to certain stressors, resulting in painful muscle cramps, extremely high temperature up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit, irregular heart rhythm, excessive sweating, and shallow breathing. It manifests when horses receive certain anesthesia drugs or in response to stressors such as overwork or excitement. Caused by a mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution, it is inherited as an autosomal dominant. Horses that carry PSSM or MYHM along with MH have more severe episodes. - Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), also known as hyperelastosis cutis (HC). This is caused by an autosomal recessive gene, and thus produces affected offspring only when both parents transmit the gene, but may produce unaffected carriers if only one copy is transmitted. Horses affected by this disease have a collagen defect that results in the layers of skin not being held firmly together. Thus, when the horse is ridden under saddle or suffers trauma to the skin, the outer layer of the skin often splits or separates from the deeper layer, or can tear off completely. It rarely heals without disfiguring scars. Sunburn can also be a concern. In dramatic cases, the skin can split along the back and even roll down the sides, with the horse literally being skinned alive. Most horses with HERDA are euthanized for humane reasons between the age of two and four years. Researchers at Cornell University and Mississippi State University have theorized that the sire line of the foundation stallion Poco Bueno is linked to the disease. In 2007, researchers working independently at Cornell University and at the University of California, Davis announced that a DNA test for HERDA has been developed. Over 1,500 horses were tested during the development phase of the test, which is now available to the general public through both institutions. Approximately 3.5% of all Quarter Horses are carriers, as are as many as 28% of horses in cutting and related working cow horse disciplines. - Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a recessive genetic disease in which the horse lacks an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen. In affected horses the heart and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease manifests in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease. A DNA blood test is available. Roughly 10% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. - Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder. There are two forms, PSSM-1 and PSSM-2. PSSM-1 is found in Quarter Horses and has a genetic test available. PSSM-2, which is primarily found in other breeds, has no genetic test available but can be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy. PSSM-1 has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. 11% of the Quarter Horse population carries PSSM, and 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM. To some extent the disease can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population. - Lethal White Syndrome (LWS) is fatal when homozygous. Affected foals are born pure white in color with an underdeveloped intestinal tract that prevents them from defecating, thus dying within days if not euthanized first. Although \"cropout\" Quarter Horses with pinto markings were not allowed to be registered for many years because white markings were thought to be a result of undesirable crossbreeding, the gene that causes the condition also creates the frame overo color pattern when heterozygous, and the color pattern was not always visibly expressed. Thus, the condition has continued to appear periodically in Quarter Horse foals. There is a DNA test for this condition, and in part because DNA testing can verify parentage and because the genetic mechanism of LWS is now understood, AQHA has repealed its cropout rules, allowing horses with white patterns to be registered. - Cleft Palate: a birth defect linked to multiple causative factors including genetics, hormones, mineral deficiency, tranquilizers, and steroids. Cleft palates are extremely uncommon, but as most of the research done on the condition has utilized Quarter Horses, the defect is linked to the breed. The surgery to repair a cleft palate has about a 20% success rate. Clinical signs include: lifting head high when eating, dropping head low to drink, coughing when beginning of exercise, and taking an extremely long time to fully administer oral medications placed in the side of the jaw	1,221	American Quarter Horse	4
2,476	# Abae Abae (Ἄβαι, Abai) was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age, and sites protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Mardonius, among others. The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times`{{r\|pierattini2022\|p=31}}`{=mediawiki}. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore, and continuous occupation from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period`{{r\|pierattini2022\|p=31}}`{=mediawiki}. ## History Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480 BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346 BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes.	288	Abae	0
2,476	# Abae ## Oracle Despite destruction of the town, the oracle was still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355--346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians. Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos. The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis: \"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. \[150 m\] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found.\" The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex	364	Abae	1
2,477	# Abakan \\| representative_body = Council of Deputies \\| representative_body_ref = \\| elevation_m = \\| area_km2 = \\| area_km2_ref = \\| pop_2010census = 165214 \\| pop_2010census_rank = 109th \\| pop_2010census_ref = \\| pop_density = \\| pop_latest = 173200 \\| pop_latest_date = January 2014 \\| pop_latest_ref = \\| population_demonym = \\| established_date = 1675 \\| established_title = \\| established_date_ref = \\| current_cat_date = 30 April 1931 \\| current_cat_date_ref = \\| abolished_date = \\| abolished_date_ref = \\| postal_codes = 655000--655012, 655014--655019, 655022, 655400, 655899, 655961, 655965, 655966 \\| postal_codes_ref = \\| dialing_codes = 3902 \\| dialing_codes_ref = \\| website = <http://абакан.рф> }} Abakan (Абака́н `{{IPA\|ru\|ɐbɐˈkan\|}}`{=mediawiki}; Ағбан `{{Transliteration\|kjh\|Ağban}}`{=mediawiki}, Абахан `{{Transliteration\|kjh\|Abaxan}}`{=mediawiki}) is the capital city of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of the Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165,214---a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.`{{Historical populations\|3=1926\|4=3000\|5=1939\|6=36652\|7=1959\|8=56416\|9=1970\|10=90136\|11=1979\|12=128311\|13=1989\|14=154092\|15=2002\|16=165197\|17=2010\|18=165214\|19=2021\|20=184769\|type=\|footnote=Source: Census data}}`{=mediawiki} ## History Abakansky ostrog (Абаканский острог), also known as Abakansk (Абаканск), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye (Усть-Абаканское) was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931. In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941--1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC--220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire\'s borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist Lidiya Yevtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by Aleksey Kovalyov (archaeologist) as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era. ### Lithuanian and Polish exiles {#lithuanian_and_polish_exiles} In the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830--1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin\'s death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in. Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University. ## Administrative and municipal status {#administrative_and_municipal_status} Abakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan---an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as Abakan Urban Okrug. ## Economy The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products. ### Transportation Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction. The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.	591	Abakan	0
2,477	# Abakan ## Military The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996. ## Sites Abakan\'s sites of interest include: - Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral'nyy sobor)) - \"Good Angel of Peace\" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul'ptura «Dobryy angel mira»)) - Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva)) - Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional\'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova)) ## Sports Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012--13 season but was relegated for the 2013--14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. The Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012. ## Geography ### Climate Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification Dwb)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains. `{{Weather box \|width = auto \|location=Abakan \|single line=yes \|metric first=yes \|Jan record high C=7.2 \|Feb record high C=9.1 \|Mar record high C=20.2 \|Apr record high C=33.5 \|May record high C=37.6 \|Jun record high C=37.1 \|Jul record high C=38.5 \|Aug record high C=36.3 \|Sep record high C=34.3 \|Oct record high C=24.5 \|Nov record high C=15.6 \|Dec record high C=7.5 \|year record high C= \|Jan avg record high C = 0.1 \|Feb avg record high C = 1.8 \|Mar avg record high C = 11.6 \|Apr avg record high C = 22.5 \|May avg record high C = 30.1 \|Jun avg record high C = 32.3 \|Jul avg record high C = 33.7 \|Aug avg record high C = 31.5 \|Sep avg record high C = 25.9 \|Oct avg record high C = 18.3 \|Nov avg record high C = 8.3 \|Dec avg record high C = 1.8 \|year avg record high C = 34.5 \|Jan high C=−12.3 \|Feb high C=−8.6 \|Mar high C=1.0 \|Apr high C=11.5 \|May high C=19.9 \|Jun high C=24.7 \|Jul high C=26.8 \|Aug high C=24.1 \|Sep high C=17.0 \|Oct high C=8.5 \|Nov high C=-2.4 \|Dec high C = −9.7 \|year high C = \|Jan mean C = -17.8 \|Feb mean C = -15.2 \|Mar mean C = -5.4 \|Apr mean C = 4.4 \|May mean C = 12.3 \|Jun mean C = 17.8 \|Jul mean C = 20.4 \|Aug mean C = 17.6 \|Sep mean C = 10.7 \|Oct mean C = 2.9 \|Nov mean C = -7.2 \|Dec mean C = -14.8 \|year mean C = \|Jan low C = −23.3 \|Feb low C = −21.8 \|Mar low C = −11.8 \|Apr low C = -2.7 \|May low C = 4.6 \|Jun low C = 10.9 \|Jul low C = 13.9 \|Aug low C = 11.0 \|Sep low C = 4.3 \|Oct low C = -2.7 \|Nov low C = −11.9 \|Dec low C = −19.9 \|year low C = \|Jan avg record low C = -34.9 \|Feb avg record low C = -33.5 \|Mar avg record low C = -25.7 \|Apr avg record low C = -11.6 \|May avg record low C = -5.0 \|Jun avg record low C = 3.3 \|Jul avg record low C = 8.4 \|Aug avg record low C = 4.3 \|Sep avg record low C = -3.3 \|Oct avg record low C = -12.1 \|Nov avg record low C = -24.5 \|Dec avg record low C = -32.7 \|year avg record low C = -37.4 \|Jan record low C = −47.6 \|Feb record low C = −45.1 \|Mar record low C = −38.7 \|Apr record low C = −23.2 \|May record low C = −11.1 \|Jun record low C = -3.6 \|Jul record low C = 1.2 \|Aug record low C = 0.2 \|Sep record low C = −9.5 \|Oct record low C = −22.9 \|Nov record low C = −37.6 \|Dec record low C = −43.8 \|year record low C = \|Jan precipitation mm = 7.3 \|Feb precipitation mm = 5.6 \|Mar precipitation mm = 4.6 \|Apr precipitation mm = 12.3 \|May precipitation mm = 27.9 \|Jun precipitation mm = 55.8 \|Jul precipitation mm = 66.0 \|Aug precipitation mm = 61.5 \|Sep precipitation mm = 35.5 \|Oct precipitation mm = 16.1 \|Nov precipitation mm = 10.1 \|Dec precipitation mm = 8.0 \|year precipitation mm = \|Jan precipitation days = 2.6 \|Feb precipitation days = 2.0 \|Mar precipitation days = 1.4 \|Apr precipitation days = 3.4 \|May precipitation days = 5.9 \|Jun precipitation days = 9.3 \|Jul precipitation days = 8.8 \|Aug precipitation days = 9.4 \|Sep precipitation days = 7.2 \|Oct precipitation days = 3.8 \|Nov precipitation days = 3.1 \|Dec precipitation days = 2.4 \|year precipitation days = \|source 1= Météo climat stats<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/listenormale-1981-2010-2-p239.php\|title=Moyennes 1981-2010 Russie (Asie)\|language=fr\|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref> \|source 2= Météo Climat<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=2393\|title=Météo Climat stats for Abakan \|publisher=Météo Climat\|access-date=8 November 2019}}</ref> \|date=November 2019 }}`{=mediawiki} ## Local government {#local_government} The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows: - council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality; - the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality; - the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality; - auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality. Council of Deputies The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018. Party Number of deputies ---------------------------- -------------------- ------------ By okrug By lists United Russia 11 5 (28.83%) CPRF 2 3 (23.97%) LDPR 0 3 (22.19%) Party of Pensioners 0 1 (7.11%) A Just Russia -- For Truth 0 1 (6.93%) Communists of Russia 0 1 (6.83%) Self-nominated 1 \-\-- 14 14 : Composition of the City Council Head of the city (head of the municipality) - Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin Chairman of the Council of Deputies - Albert Yuryevich Tupikin Nikolai Bulakin Prize In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city\'s development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma	1,076	Abakan	1
2,483	# April 21	3	April 21	0
2,487	# Amazonite Amazonite, also known as amazonstone, is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline. Its chemical formula is KAlSi~3~O~8~, which is polymorphic to orthoclase. Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite. Although it has been used for jewellery for well over three thousand years, as attested by archaeological finds in Middle and New Kingdom Egypt and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century. Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite. It has been described as a \"beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green\" and as possessing a \"lively green colour\". It is occasionally cut and used as a gemstone. ## Occurrence Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, 50 mi southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. Amazonite is now known to occur in various places around the world. Those places are, among others, as follows: Australia: - Eyre Peninsula, Koppio, Baila Hill Mine (Koppio Amazonite Mine) China: - Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite Libya: - Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks Mongolia: - Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite Ethiopia: - Konso Zone South Africa: - Mogalakwena, Limpopo Province - Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape - Kakamas, Northern Cape - Ceres Valley, Western Cape Sweden: - Skuleboda mine, Västra Götaland County: found in pegmatite United States: - Colorado: - Deer Trail, Arapahoe County^:233^ - Custer County^:234^ - Devils Head, Douglas County^:234^ - Pine Creek, Douglas County^:234^ - Crystal Park, El Paso County^:234^ - Pikes Peak, El Paso County: found in coarse granites or pegmatite - St. Peter\'s Dome, El Paso County^:234^ - Tarryall Mountains, Park County^:235^ - Crystal Peak, Teller County^:235^ - Wyoming - Virginia: - Morefield Mine, Amelia County: found in pegmatite - Rutherford Mine, Amelia County - Pennsylvania: - Media, Delaware County^:244^ - Middletown, Delaware County^:244^ ## Color For many years, the source of amazonite\'s color was a mystery. Some people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors. A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar. Subsequent 1998 theoretical studies by A. Julg expand on the potential role of aliovalent lead in the color of microcline. Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature. A 2010 study also implicated the role of divalent iron in the green coloration. These studies and associated hypotheses indicate the complex nature of the color in amazonite; in other words, the color may be the aggregate effect of several mutually inclusive and necessary factors. ## Health A 2021 study by the German Institut für Edelsteinprüfung (EPI) found that the amount of lead that leaked from an 11 g sample of amazonite into an acidic solution simulating saliva exceeded European Union standard DIN EN 71-3:2013\'s recommended amount by five times. This experiment was to simulate a child swallowing amazonite, and could also apply to new alternative medicine practices such as inserting the mineral into oils or drinking water for days.	609	Amazonite	0
2,487	# Amazonite ## Gallery <File:Microcline-Quartz-Albite-48224.jpg%7CDeep> robins-egg blue color amazonite crystal on smoky quartz and albite, from Teller County, Colorado. Size: 3.4 x. <File:Amazonite>, quartz 300-3-7927.JPG\\|Amazonite crystal on smoky quartz, from Pikes Peak, El Paso County, Colorado <File:Microcline-179612.jpg%7CLarge> deep-turquoise amazonite crystal with attached stark-white microcline, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Size: 16.4 x. <File:Microcline-Quartz-206935.jpg%7CTwo> smoky quartz crystals surrounded by amazonite crystals, from Smoky Hawk Mine, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: 11.0 x. <File:Amazonite> 1.jpg\\|Amazonite crystals on orthoclase, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. <File:Microcline-20436.jpg%7CDeep> lustrous crystal of amazonite, from Take 5 Claim, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: 4.4 x. <File:Landsverk-1> amazonite+ordførerkjede.jpg\\|Amazonite from the Landsverk 1 mine with the livery collar of the mayor of Evje, Norway. Size: 21 x. <File:LANDSVERK-1> mikroklien-verdringt-amazoniet.jpg\\|Amazonite partly altered to brown microcline from the Landsverk 1 mine in Evje, Norway. <File:Amazonite> specimen (polished) arp.jpg\\|Polished Amazonite specimen. Height 13 cm	141	Amazonite	1
2,490	# Ambrosius Bosschaert Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (18 January 1573 -- 1621) was a Flemish-born Dutch still life painter and art dealer. He is recognised as one of the earliest painters who created floral still lifes as an independent genre. He founded a dynasty of painters who continued his style of floral and fruit painting and turned Middelburg into the leading centre for flower painting in the Dutch Republic. ## Biography He was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587--1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A). At the age of twenty-one, he joined the city\'s Guild of Saint Luke and later became dean. Not long after, Bosschaert married and established himself as a leading figure in the fashionable floral painting genre. He had three sons who all became flower painters: Ambrosius II, Johannes and Abraham. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast also lived and worked in his workshop and accompanied him on his travels. Bosschaert later worked in Amsterdam (1614), Bergen op Zoom (1615--1616), Utrecht (1616--1619), and Breda (1619). In 1619 when he moved to Utrecht, his brother-in-law van der Ast entered the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke, where the renowned painter Abraham Bloemaert had just become dean. The painter Roelandt Savery (1576--1639) entered the St. Luke\'s guild in Utrecht at about the same time. Savery had considerable influence on the Bosschaert dynasty. After Bosschaert died in The Hague while on commission there for a flower piece, Balthasar van der Ast took over his workshop and pupils in Middelburg. ## Style His bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper. They sometimes included symbolic and religious meanings. At the time of his death, Bosschaert was working on an important commission in the Hague. That piece is now in the collection in Stockholm. Bosschaert was one of the first artists to specialize in flower still life painting as a stand-alone subject. He started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses, and inspired the genre of Dutch flower painting. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests. His works commanded high prices although he never achieved the level of prestige of Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Antwerp master who contributed to the floral genre. ### Legacy His sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century. It may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after. Although he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer	497	Ambrosius Bosschaert	0
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a telecommunications standard defined by the American National Standards Institute and International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly CCITT) for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s, and designed to integrate telecommunication networks. It can handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic and real-time, low-latency content such as telephony (voice) and video. ATM is a cell switching technology, providing functionality that combines features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using asynchronous time-division multiplexing. ATM was seen in the 1990s as a competitor to Ethernet and networks carrying IP traffic as, unlike Ethernet, it was faster and designed with quality-of-service in mind, but it fell out of favor once Ethernet reached speeds of 1 gigabits per second. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets) called cells. This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) (OSI layer 3) or Ethernet (also layer 2) that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the data exchange begins. These virtual circuits may be either permanent (dedicated connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider), or switched (set up on a per-call basis using signaling and disconnected when the call is terminated). The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI model: physical layer, data link layer, and network layer. ATM is a core protocol used in the synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH) backbone of the public switched telephone network and in the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.	336	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	0
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode ## Protocol architecture {#protocol_architecture} To minimize queuing delay and packet delay variation (PDV), all ATM cells are the same small size. Reduction of PDV is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analog audio signal is an inherently real-time process. The decoder needs an evenly spaced stream of data items. At the time of the design of ATM, `{{nowrap\|155 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} synchronous digital hierarchy with `{{nowrap\|135 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to `{{nowrap\|45 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} in the US, and 2 to `{{nowrap\|34 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} in Europe. At `{{nowrap\|155 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki}, a typical full-length 1,500 byte Ethernet frame would take 77.42 μs to transmit. On a lower-speed `{{nowrap\|1.544 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} T1 line, the same packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over. This was considered unacceptable for speech traffic. The design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. Cells were introduced to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all data packets and voice streams into 48-byte pieces, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. Being 1/30th the size reduced cell contention jitter by the same factor of 30. The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice. Parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (4 ms of voice data) would avoid the need for echo cancellation on domestic voice calls. The United States, due to its larger size, already had echo cancellers widely deployed. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length. 48 bytes was chosen as a compromise, despite having all the disadvantages of both proposals and the additional inconvenience of not being a power of two in size. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information.	407	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	1
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode ## Protocol architecture {#protocol_architecture} ### Cell structure {#cell_structure} An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. ATM defines two different cell formats: user--network interface (UNI) and network--network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ \| Diagram of a UNI ATM cell \| Diagram of an NNI ATM cell \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| 7 \| \| \| 4 \| 3 \| \| \| 0 \| \| \| 7 \| \| \| 4 \| 3 \| \| \| 0 \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| GFC \| \| \| \| VPI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| VPI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| VPI\ \| \| \| \| VCI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| VPI\ \| \| \| \| VCI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| VCI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| VCI\ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| VCI \| \| \| \| PT \| \| \| CLP \| \| \| VCI \| \| \| \| PT \| \| \| CLP \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| HEC \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| HEC \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ \| +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ GFC : The generic flow control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized, and the field is always set to 0000. VPI : Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI) VCI : Virtual channel identifier (16 bits) PT : Payload type (3 bits) : Bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply: : Bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced : Bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries. CLP : Cell loss priority (1-bit) HEC : Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X^8^ + X^2^ + X + 1) ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit (MSB) of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general-purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the MSB is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type: network management segment, network management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use. Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found. A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control and sub-multiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default. The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 2^12^ VPs of up to almost 2^16^ VCs each. ### Service types {#service_types} ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis. Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a `{{nowrap\|10 Gbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} network, reducing the motivation for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. The increased link speeds by themselves do not eliminate jitter due to queuing. ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP, Ethernet VLANs, VxLAN, MPLS, and multi-protocol support over SONET.	983	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	2
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode ## Virtual circuits {#virtual_circuits} An ATM network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. This is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. Call admission is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection. ### Motivation ATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using VCs. This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16-bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on a user-network interface (at the edge of the network), or if it is sent on a network-network interface (inside the network). As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI/VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in Frame Relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X.25. Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths. ### Types ATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes. PVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service contract) and the two endpoints. ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end station. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are interconnected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM. ### Routing Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI is a link-state routing protocol like OSPF and IS-IS. PNNI also includes a very powerful route summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.	647	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	3
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode ## Traffic engineering {#traffic_engineering} Another key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which quality of service (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection. 1. CBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Constant bit rate: a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is specified, which is constant. 2. VBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Variable bit rate: an average or Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is specified, which can peak at a certain level, a PCR, for a maximum interval before being problematic. 3. ABR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Available bit rate: a minimum guaranteed rate is specified. 4. UBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Unspecified bit rate: traffic is allocated to all remaining transmission capacity. VBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and serves for bursty traffic. Non-real-time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr-nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of cell-delay variation tolerance (CDVT), which defines the clumping of cells in time. ### Traffic policing {#traffic_policing} To maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user--network interfaces (UNIs) and network-to-network interfaces (NNIs) using usage/network parameter control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU-T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVT alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVT and an SCR and maximum burst size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR-SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells. If the traffic on a virtual circuit exceeds its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or set the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit, allowing the cells to be dropped at a congestion point. Basic policing works on a cell-by-cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic as discarding a single cell will invalidate a packet\'s worth of cells. As a result, schemes such as partial packet discard (PPD) and early packet discard (EPD) have been developed to discard a whole packet\'s cells. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM user-to-ATM user (AUU) indication bit in the payload-type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR-SDU. ### Traffic shaping {#traffic_shaping} Traffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface controller (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate. ## Reference model {#reference_model} The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI reference model. It specifies the following layers: - At the physical network level, ATM specifies a layer that is equivalent to the OSI physical layer. - The ATM layer 2 roughly corresponds to the OSI data link layer. - The OSI network layer is implemented as the ATM adaptation layer (AAL).	612	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	4
2,499	# Asynchronous Transfer Mode ## Deployment ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price--performance ratio of Internet Protocol-based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real-time and bursty network traffic. Additionally, among cable companies using ATM there often would be discrete and competing management teams for telephony, video on demand, and broadcast and digital video reception, which adversely impacted efficiency. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot-com bubble, some still predicted that \"ATM is going to dominate\". However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum. ## Wireless or mobile ATM {#wireless_or_mobile_atm} Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM, consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as a crossover switch, which is similar to the mobile switching center of GSM networks. The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and high-speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high-speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs	296	Asynchronous Transfer Mode	5
2,500	# Anus In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the anus (`{{plural form}}`{=mediawiki}: anuses or ani; from Latin, \'ring\' or \'circle\') is the external body orifice at the exit end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e. the opposite end from the mouth. Its function is to facilitate the expulsion of wastes that remain after digestion. Bowel contents that pass through the anus include the gaseous flatus and the semi-solid feces, which (depending on the type of animal) include: indigestible matter such as bones, hair pellets, endozoochorous seeds and digestive rocks; residual food material after the digestible nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; excreted metabolites like bilirubin-containing bile; and dead mucosal epithelia or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Passage of feces through the anus is typically controlled by muscular sphincters, and failure to stop unwanted passages results in fecal incontinence. Amphibians, reptiles and birds use a similar orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate. The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated \"modules\" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments. In comb jellies, there are species with one and sometimes two permanent anuses, species like the warty comb jelly grows an anus, which then disappear when it is no longer needed. ## Development In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (proto-- meaning \"first\") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. Research from 2001 shows the edges of the dent close up in the middles of protosomes, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouths and anuses	478	Anus	0
2,502	# Acantharia The Acantharia are a group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their strontium sulfate skeletons. Acantharians are heterotrophic marine microplankton that range in size from about 200 microns in diameter up to several millimeters. Some acantharians have photosynthetic endosymbionts and hence are considered mixotrophs. ## Morphology thumb\\|upright=1.1\\| Celestine crystal Acantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate, SrSO~4~, in the form of mineral celestine crystal. Celestine is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals, and is the heaviest mineral in the ocean. The denseness of their celestite ensures acantharian shells function as mineral ballast, resulting in fast sedimentation to bathypelagic depths. High settling fluxes of acantharian cysts have been observed at times in the Iceland Basin and the Southern Ocean, as much as half of the total gravitational organic carbon flux. The strontium sulfate crystals are secreted by vacuoles surrounding each spicule or spine. Acantharians are unique among marine organisms for their ability to biomineralize strontium sulfate as the main component of their skeletons. However, unlike other radiolarians whose skeletons are made of silica, acantharian skeletons do not fossilize, primarily because strontium sulfate is very scarce in seawater and the crystals dissolve after the acantharians die. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law in terms of lines of latitude and longitude -- the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two tropical spines or one equatorial and two polar spines, in alternation. The cell cytoplasm is divided into two regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm. The endoplasm, at the core of the cell, contains the main organelles, including many nuclei, and is delineated from the ectoplasm by a capsular wall made of a microfibril mesh. In symbiotic species, the algal symbionts are maintained in the endoplasm. The ectoplasm consists of cytoplasmic extensions used for prey capture and also contains food vacuoles for prey digestion. The ectoplasm is surrounded by a periplasmic cortex, also made up of microfibrils, but arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spicule projects. The cortex is linked to the spines by contractile myonemes, which assist in buoyancy control by allowing the ectoplasm to expand and contract, increasing and decreasing the total volume of the cell. ## Taxonomy The way that the spines are joined at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acantharians are classified. The skeletons are made up of either ten diametric or twenty radial spicules. Diametric spicules cross the center of the cell, whereas radial spicules terminate at the center of the cell where they either form a tight or flexible junction depending on species. Acantharians with diametric spicules or loosely attached radial spicules are able to rearrange or shed spicules and form cysts. - Holacanthida -- 10 diametric spicules, simply crossed, no central junction, capable of encystment - Chaunacanthida -- 20 radial spicules, loosely attached, capable of encystment - Symphiacanthida -- 20 radial spicules, tight central junction - Arthracanthida -- 20 radial spines, tight central junction The morphological classification system roughly agrees with phylogenetic trees based on the alignment of ribosomal RNA genes, although the groups are mostly polyphyletic. Holacanthida seems to have evolved first and includes molecular clades A, B, and D. Chaunacanthida evolved second and includes only one molecular clade, clade C. Arthracanthida and Symphacanthida, which have the most complex skeletons, evolved most recently and constitute molecular clades E and F. ## Symbiosis Many acantharians, including some in clade B (Holacanthida) and all in clades E & F (Symphiacanthida and Arthracanthida), host single-celled algae within their inner cytoplasm (endoplasm). By participating in this photosymbiosis, acantharians are essentially mixotrophs: they acquire energy through both heterotrophy and autotrophy. The relationship may make it possible for acantharians to be abundant in low-nutrient regions of the oceans and may also provide extra energy necessary to maintain their elaborate strontium sulfate skeletons. It is hypothesized that the acantharians provide the algae with nutrients (N & P) that they acquire by capturing and digesting prey in return for sugar that the algae produces during photosynthesis. It is not known, however, whether the algal symbionts benefit from the relationship or if they are simply being exploited and then digested by the acantharians. Symbiotic Holacanthida acantharians host diverse symbiont assemblages, including several genera of dinoflagellates (Pelagodinium, Heterocapsa, Scrippsiella, Azadinium) and a haptophyte (Chrysochromulina). Clade E & F acantharians have a more specific symbiosis and primarily host symbionts from the haptophyte genus Phaeocystis, although they sometimes also host Chrysochromulina symbionts. Clade F acantharians simultaneously host multiple species and strains of Phaeocystis and their internal symbiont community does not necessarily match the relative availability of potential symbionts in the surrounding environment. The mismatch between internal and external symbiont communities suggests that acantharians can be selective in choosing symbionts and probably do not continuously digest and recruit new symbionts, and maintain symbionts for extended periods of time instead.	843	Acantharia	0
2,502	# Acantharia ## Life cycle {#life_cycle} Adults are usually multinucleated. Earlier diverging clades are able to shed their spines and form cysts, which are often referred to as reproductive cysts. Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as \"spores\"), which may be flagellate, and cysts have been observed to release these swarmers. Non-encysted cells have also been seen releasing swarmers in laboratory conditions. Not all life cycle stages have been observed, however, and no one has witnessed the fusion of swarmers to produce a new acantharian. Cysts are often found in sediment traps and it is therefore believed that the cysts help acantharians sink into deep water. Genetic data and some imaging suggests that non-cyst-forming acantharians may also sink to deep water to release swarmers. Releasing swarmer cells in deeper water may improve the survival chances of juveniles. Study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to \"close the lifecycle\" and maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations	169	Acantharia	1
2,506	# Asynchronous communication In telecommunications, asynchronous communication is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols. The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits. ## Physical layer {#physical_layer} In asynchronous serial communication in the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits. A variable length space can be inserted between the code words. No bit synchronization signal is required. This is sometimes called character oriented communication. Examples include MNP2 and modems older than V.2. ## Data link layer and higher {#data_link_layer_and_higher} Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). In this case, the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells. The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH. The packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times. Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication. Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols. ## Application layer {#application_layer} An asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate. Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web. An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IPTV and video conferencing. ## Electronically mediated communication {#electronically_mediated_communication} Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently. Examples include email and bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times than they read them. The term \"asynchronous communication\" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations	433	Asynchronous communication	0
2,519	# Adelaide of Italy Adelaide of Italy (Adelheid; 931 -- 16 December 999 AD), also called Adelaide of Burgundy, was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great. She was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962. She was the first empress designated consors regni, denoting a \"co-bearer of royalty\" who shared power with her husband. She was essential as a model for future consorts regarding both status and political influence. She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991--995. ## Life ### Early life {#early_life} Adelaide was born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), to Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia. Adelaide was involved from the outset in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy. The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar\'s death, enabling Rudolf to claim the throne. Not happy with this, the inhabitants of Lombardy appealed to another ally, Hugh of Provence, who had long considered Rudolf an enemy. Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide\'s father died in 937. So as to control Upper Burgundy, Hugh decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy, to the 15-year-old Adelaide (in 947, before 27 June). The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948. Emma became Queen of West Francia by marrying King Lothair of France. ### Marriage and alliance with Otto I {#marriage_and_alliance_with_otto_i} The calendar of saints states that Lothair was poisoned on 22 November 950 in Turin by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy. There were some suspicions amongst the people of Lombardy that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself. Berengar attempted to thwart this and cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como. However, she was quickly tracked down and was imprisoned for four months at Garda. According to Adelaide\'s contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a \"certain impregnable fortress,\" likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio. She was able to send an emissary to the East Frankish king Otto I asking for his protection. Adelaide met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951. Early in their marriage, Adelaide and Otto had two children, Henry and Bruno, both of whom died before reaching adulthood. A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto\'s son by his first marriage, instigated a big revolt that was quelled by his father. As a consequence, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title. This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court. Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry. After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. He then extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obotrites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz on 16 October 955. That same year, Adelaide gave birth to Otto II. In 955 or 956, she gave birth to a daughter who would become Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg.	603	Adelaide of Italy	0
2,519	# Adelaide of Italy ## Life ### Holy Roman Empress {#holy_roman_empress} Adelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII. In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII. Breaking new ground, Pope John XII also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress. In 960, a new ordo was created for her coronation and anointing, including prayers to biblical female figures, especially Esther. The ordo presents a theological and political concept that legitimizes the empress\'s status as a divinely ordained component of the earthly rule. In 966, Adelaide and the eleven-year-old Otto II, travelled again with Otto on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him). Crucial to Otto\'s establishing legitimacy in his conquest of Italy and in bringing the imperial crown to the couple, was the support of Adelaide and her extensive network of relations. As heir to the Italian throne, Adelaide established for late Carolingian traditions the legitimate claim over Italy by the imperial throne. Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy and ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband returned to Germany, where Otto I died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier. After her coronation, which increased her power as she was now consors regni and able to receive people from the entire Empire, Adelaide\'s interventions in political decisions increased. According to Buchinger, \"Between 962 and 972 Adelheid appears as intervenient in seventy-five charters. Additionally Adelheid and Otto I are named together in Papal bulls\". She often protected the ecclesiastic institutions, seemingly to gain a sphere of influence separate from that of her husband. Between 991 and 993, the brothers of Feuchtwang wrote to her and requested to be \"protected by the shadow of your rule from now on, we may be safe from the tumults of secular attacks\". They promised they would pray for her so that her reign would be long and stable. Adelaide wielded a great amount of power during her husband\'s reign, as evidenced by several requests made to her. A letter, written in the 980s by her daughter Emma demanded that Adelaide intervene against Emma\'s enemies and mobilize forces in the Ottonian Empire. She also asked that Adelaide capture Hugh Capet, who was already elected king of West Frankia in 987. Another enemy of Emma\'s was Charles, the brother of Emma\'s deceased consort Lothar, who had accused his sister-in-law of adultery. Another pleader was Gerbert of Aurillac, at that time archbishop of Reims (the later Pope Sylvester II), who wrote to Adelaide to ask for protection against his enemies. Buchinger remarks that, \"These examples are remarkable, because they imply that Adelheid had the possibilities to help in both cases or at least Emma and Gerbert do believe that she could have intervened and succeeded. Both are themselves important political figures in their realm and still they rely on Adelheid. Adelheid's power and importance must have been extremely stable and reliable to do as wished by the pleaders.\" ### Otto II\'s era {#otto_iis_era} In the years following Otto I\'s death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court. However, Adelaide was in conflict with her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, as only one woman could be queen and hold the associated functions and powers at court. Adelaide was able to maintain the title imperatrix augusta even though Theophanu now also used it. Moreover, Theophanu opposed Adelaide in the use of her dowry lands, which Adelaide wanted to continue to use and donate to ecclesiastical institutions, ensuring her power base. Adelaide had the right to make transactions of her Italian lands as she pleased, but she needed the permission of the emperor to use her Ottonian lands. Adelaide also sided with her extended kin against Otto II. Wilson compares this action with those of other royal women: \"Royal women possessed agency and did not always do the bidding of male relatives. Engelberge greatly influenced her husband, Emperor Louis II, in his attempts to extend imperial control to southern Italy in the 870s. Matilda's favouritism for her younger son Heinrich caused Otto I considerable trouble, while Adelaide sided with her extended kin against her own son, Otto II, until he temporarily exiled her to Burgundy in 978. Agency was clearest during regencies, because these lacked formal rules, offering scope for forceful personalities to assert themselves.\" After being expelled from court by Otto II in 978, she divided her time between living in Italy in the royal palace of Pavia and Arles with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son. In 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy. ### Regency In 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by Adelaide\'s grandson Otto III under the regency of Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy. For some time, Adelaide and Theophanu were able to put aside their separate interests and work together to ensure Otto III\'s succession. This is seen through their joint appearance in the charters. According to the Annales Quedlinburgenses, after Otto II\'s death, Henry, duke of Bavaria kidnapped Otto III. The narrative claims that Adelaide returned from Lombardy to join with Theophanu, Matilda, and other leaders of Europe and reclaim the child. When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of Otto III until he reached legal majority four years later. Adelaide\'s role in establishing Otto\'s position can be seen in a letter Otto III wrote to his grandmother in 996: \"According to your \[Adelheid's\] wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us \[Otto III\] with a happy outcome\". Troubles in the East continued under Adelaide, as Boleslaus of Bohemia wavered in his loyalty. In 992, there was war between Bohemia and Poland, and again like in Theophanu\'s time, the Ottonian regime sided with Poland. Jestice comments that, \"Christianity was not re-established in the land of the Liutizi during their lifetimes. But there were territorial gains, and by 987 it was possible to begin rebuilding destroyed fortresses along the Elbe\". A Saxon army, with Otto III\'s presence, took Brandenburg in 991. The Hildesheim annal reports that there was another expedition in 992. Thietmar of Merseburg reports that Otto III dismissed his grandmother after his mother\'s death, but Althoff doubts this story. Even after Otto attained majority, Adelaide often accompanied him in his travels and influenced him, along with other women. In Burgundy, Adelaide\'s homeland, the counts and castellans behaved increasingly independently from their king Rudolph III. Just before her death in 999, she had to intervene in Burgundy to restore peace.	1,177	Adelaide of Italy	1
2,519	# Adelaide of Italy ## Life ### Later years {#later_years} Adelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared to be of the legal majority in 995. From then on, she devoted herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses, i.e. monasteries, churches and abbeys. Adelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace. On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097. After serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, Adelaide\'s relics were moved elsewhere. A goblet reputed to have belonged to Saint Adelaide has long been preserved in Seltz.; it was used to give potions to people with fever and the healings were said to have been numerous. Adelaide constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent --- almost an embodiment --- of the work of the pre-schism Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe. Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses. ## Issue In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy. The union produced one child: - Emma of Italy (948 -- after 987), queen of France and wife of Lothair of France In 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor. The union produced four children: - Henry (952 -- 7 April 954) - Bruno (953 -- 8 September 957) - Matilda (early 955 -- † 6 February 999), the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg - Otto II (end 955 -- 7 December 983), later Holy Roman Emperor.	379	Adelaide of Italy	2
2,519	# Adelaide of Italy ## Historiography and cultural depictions {#historiography_and_cultural_depictions} ### Historiography Adelaide was one of the most important and powerful medieval female rulers. Historically, as empress and saint, she has been described as powerful, with both male attributes (like strength, justness and prudence) and female attributes (piety, self denying). Modern German historiography tends to focus on her contributions to the Ottonian dynasty and the development of the Holy Roman Empire. ### Depictions in art {#depictions_in_art} Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown. Since the 14th century, she is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (by which she is said to have escaped from captivity). The most famous representation of Adelaide in German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260. She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her. #### Operas - Adelaide of Burgundy is the main character of the opera l\'Adelaide (1672) by Antonio Sartorio. - Adelaide is the subject of a 1723 opera by Nicola Porpora, where she was played by the great castrato Farinelli en travesti. - Lotario is a 1729 opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adelaide. - Adelaide is the heroine of Adelaide di Borgogna, an opera with two acts (1817) by Gioachino Rossini (music) and Giovanni Schmidt (libretto). - Adelaide is the heroine of William Bernard McCabe\'s 1856 novel Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown. #### Books and novels {#books_and_novels} - Adelheid, Mutter der Königreiche (Adelaide, Mother of Kingdoms) published in 1936 by Gertrud Bäumer. - Die fremde Königin (The Foreign Queen), published in 2017, Adelaide is one of the central characters in Rebecca Gablé\'s novel. - Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda: medieval female rulership and the foundations of European society by Penelope Nash (2017). - Imperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany by Phyllis G. Jestice (2018) - God\'s Maidservant: The story of Adelaide of Italy (Women of the Dark Ages) by Anna Chant (2017) #### Artwork - San Giuseppe con Gesù Bambino tra Sant\'Adelaide, Sant\'Antonio da Padova, San Lupo e San Michele arcangelo by Francesco Coghetti, 1828 - Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago\'s installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor, with the related place setting of Theodora (wife of Justinian I)	429	Adelaide of Italy	3
2,526	# Agostino Carracci Agostino Carracci (`{{IPAc-en\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|r\|ɑː\|tʃ\|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|kə\|RAH\|chee}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en\|UKalso\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|r\|æ\|t\|ʃ\|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|kə\|RATCH\|ee}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA\|it\|aɡoˈstiːno karˈrattʃi\|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; also Caracci; 16 August 1557 -- 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter, printmaker, tapestry designer, and art teacher. He was, together with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the Progressives) in Bologna. Intended to devise alternatives to the Mannerist style favored in the preceding decades, this teaching academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence. ## Life Agostino Carracci was born in Bologna as the son of a tailor. He was the elder brother of Annibale Carracci and the cousin of Ludovico Carracci. He initially trained as a goldsmith. He later studied painting, first with Prospero Fontana, who had been Lodovico\'s master, and later with Bartolomeo Passarotti. He traveled to Parma to study the works of Correggio. Accompanied by his brother Annibale, he spent a long time in Venice, where he trained as an engraver under the renowned Cornelis Cort. Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings. He traveled to Venice (1582, 1587--1589) and Parma (1586--1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (Histories of Jason and Medea, 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (Histories of Romulus, 1590--1592). In 1592 he also painted the Communion of St. Jerome, now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. In 1620, Giovanni Lanfranco, a pupil of the Carracci, famously accused another Carracci student, Domenichino, of plagiarizing this painting. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the Madonna with Child and Saints, in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598 to 1600 is a triple Portrait, now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished. His friend the poet Claudio Achillini composed an epitaph, which was later published by Carlo Cesare Malvasia in the life of the Carracci. Agostino\'s son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father\'s Academy. An engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting Love in the Golden Age by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse\'s Le bonheur de vivre (Joy of Life). ## Critical evaluation {#critical_evaluation} While his undoubted value in the graphic field is widely recognised, Agostino, as a painter, although admired by his contemporaries, ended up being overshadowed by the fame of his brother Annibale. Perhaps even his long practice of engraving ended up putting him at disadvantage, since he might have been perceived as more inclined to copy than to create. Even Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who included Agostino Carracci in his selective collection of biographies of artists (Vite de\' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni, 1672), described his activity as a painter, with the sole exception of the Communion of Saint Jerome, a work that he praises, almost entirely limited to the role of supporting his younger brother Annibale, and reproaches him for having dedicated too much of his work to graphic production. The modern critical evaluation of the painter Agostino Carracci probably still suffers from the negative legacies of the past. The fact that there is still only one important monograph dedicated to him published (Stephen E. Ostrow, from the United States, 1966, never translated into Italian), and that an individual exhibition on this artist has yet to be held, are probably significant factors that show that he remains an underrated artist. However, there have been a positive critical reevaluation of the painter, since there is now a better awareness of his artistic role, alongside his more famous relatives, and the knowledge of his personal work is now greater. ## Works Oil on canvas unless otherwise noted - 1573 -- Pietà (Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia) - 1586 -- Madonna and Child with Saints (Galleria nazionale di Parma) - -- Lamentation or Pietà (Hermitage, St. Petersburg) - -- Reciprico Amore (engraving, Baltimore Museum of Art) - -- Annunciation (Musée du Louvre, Paris) - 1590--1595 -- Portrait of a Woman as Judith (private collection) - -- Assumption (Ss	741	Agostino Carracci	0
2,529	# Alexandra Alexandra (Ἀλεξάνδρα) is a female given name of Greek origin. It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander (Ἀλέξανδρος, Aléxandros). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb ἀλέξειν (alexein; meaning \'to defend\') and ἀνήρ (anēr; GEN ἀνδρός, andros; meaning \'man\'). Thus it may be roughly translated as \"defender of man\" or \"protector of man\". The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek 𐀀𐀩𐀏𐀭𐀅𐀨 (a-re-ka-sa-da-ra or /aleksandra/), written in the Linear B syllabic script. Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken. ## Variants - Alejandra, Alejandrina (diminutive) (Spanish) - Aleksandra (Александра) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian) - Alessandra (Italian) - Alessia (Italian) - Alex (various languages) - Alexa (English, Romanian, Spanish) - Alexandra (English, German, Dutch, French, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Greek, Portuguese, Romanian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Ukrainian, Ancient Greek) - Alexis (English) - Alexandra, Alexa, Alexis, Sandra, Sandy, Sasha (Indonesian) - Aliaksandra (Belarusian) - Alikhandra /اليخاندرا (Egyptian Arabic) - Alissandra/Alyssandra (Sicilian, Greek) - Allie (English) - Ally (English) - Alya (Russian) - Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali) - Αλεξάνδρα (Greek) - Leska (Czech) - Lesya (Ukrainian) - Lexa (English) - Lexie (English) - Lexine (English) - Lexi (English) - Lexy (English) - Ola (Polish) - Oleksandra (Ukrainian) - Sacha (French) - Sanda (Romanian) - Sandie (English) - Sandra (Danish, Dutch, English, Polish, Estonian, Italian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Swedish) - Sandy (English) - Sascha (German) - Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Spanish) - Saskia (Slavic) - Saundra (English, Lowland Scottish) - Saša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene) - Saška (Serbian) - Shura (Russian) - Sondra (English) - Szandra (Hungarian)	329	Alexandra	0
2,529	# Alexandra ## People with the name {#people_with_the_name} ### Royalty - Alexandra of Russia (disambiguation), various grand duchesses and royal consorts - Empress Alexandra (disambiguation), various empresses - Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872--1918), last empress consort of Russia by marriage to Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia. - Princess Alexandra (disambiguation), various princesses - Queen Alexandra (disambiguation), various queens - Alexandra of Denmark (1844--1925), queen consort of the United Kingdom by marriage to Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom - Alexandra the Maccabee (63 BCE -- 28 BCE), only child of Hyrcanus II, King of Judaea - Duchess Alexandra of Oldenburg (1838--1900), eldest child of Duke Constantine Frederick Peter of Oldenburg ### Alexandra - Alexandra of Antioch (`{{fl.\|4th century}}`{=mediawiki}), Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch - Alexandra of Lithuania (`{{died-in\|1434}}`{=mediawiki}), duchess consort of Masovia - Alexandra of Rome (`{{died-in\|314}}`{=mediawiki}), Christian saint and martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions - Alexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian--Australian linguist - Alexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer - Alexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor - Alexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler - Alexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer - Alexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician - Alexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian--born Italian water polo player - Alexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician - Alexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player - Alexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek--Swiss choreographer and visual artist - Alexandra Backford (1942--2010), Aleut--American painter - Alexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer - Alexandra Balashova (1942--1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer - Alexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian--born Canadian sprint kayaker - Alexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress - Alexandra Bastedo (1946--2014), English actress - Alexandra Beaton (born `{{c.\|1994}}`{=mediawiki}), Canadian actress - Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian--American mathematician - Alexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player - Alexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler - Alexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist - Alexandra Beukes, South African politician - Alexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer, and newspaper editor - Alexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovakian sprinter - Alexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist - Alexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovakian--Hungarian actress - Alexandra Botez (born 1995), American--Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer - Alexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian--Bulgarian actress, model, and singer - Alexandra Boyko (1916--1996), Russian tank commander - Alexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author - Alexandra Bradshaw (1888--1981), Canadian--American art professor and watercolor artist - Alexandra Branitskaya (1754--1838), Russian courtier - Alexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen - Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer - Alexandra Brewis Slade (born 1965), New Zealand-American anthropologist - Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer - Alexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player - Alexandra Brushtein (1884--1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist - Alexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist - Alexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat - Alexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian--German sabre fencer - Alexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player - Alexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter - Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer - Alexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist - Alexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer - Alexandra Cardenas (born 1976), Colombian composer - Alexandra Carlisle (1886--1936), English actress and suffragist - Alexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player - Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player - Alexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker - Alexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean--Canadian actress and dancer - Alexandra Chalupa (born 1976 or 1977), American lawyer and pro--Ukrainian activist - Alexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player - Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress - Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner - Alexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer - Alexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer - Alexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist - Alexandra Cheron (1983--2011), Dominican--American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite - Alexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer - Alexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur - Alexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author - Alexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier - Alexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker - Alexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican--born Portuguese marine biologist - Alexandra Cunningham (born 1972 or 1973), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer - Alexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen - Alexandra Čvanová (1897--1939), Ukrainian--born Czech operatic soprano - Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress - Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress - Alexandra Dane (born 1940), South African--born English actress - Alexandra Danilova (1903--1997), Russian ballet dancer - Alexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist - Alexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player - Alexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier - Alexandra David-Néel (1868--1969), French explorer and spiritualist - Alexandra Davies (born 1977), English--born Australian actress - Alexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress - Alexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist - Alexandra Denisova (1922--2018), Canadian ballet dancer - Alexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French--Canadian operatic soprano - Alexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete - Alexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer - Alexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress - Alexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter - Alexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player - Alexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician - Alexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress - Alexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder - Alexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer - Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player - Alexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer - Alexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast - Alexandra Eala (born 2005), Filipino tennis player - Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer - Alexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter - Alexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist - Alexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter - Alexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater - Alexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka - Alexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress - Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete - Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano - Alexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player - Alexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer - Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower - Alexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer - Alexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host - Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player - Alexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer - Alexandra Gajda (born 1979), English historian - Alexandra Pavlovna Galitzine (1905--2006), Russian noblewoman - Alexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist - Alexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer - Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English--South African artist - Alexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist - Alexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African--born Hungarian--Canadian ice hockey player - Alexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka - Alexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist - Alexandra Gripenberg (1857--1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher - Alexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player - Alexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower - Alexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player - Alexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player - Alexandra Hasluck (1908--1993), Australian author and historian - Alexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer - Alexandra Heidrich, German canoeist - Alexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan--born Swiss Paralympic athlete - Alexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer - Alexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director - Alexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovakian--Czech ice dancer - Alexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter - Alexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan--American documentarian - Alexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist - Alexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger - Alexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen - Alexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player - Alexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player - Alexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress - Alexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovakian football player - Alexandra van Huffelen (born 1968), Dutch politician - Alexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter - Alexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete - Alexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player - Alexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player - Alexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian--Canadian speed skater - Alexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player - Alexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model - Alexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish--English swimmer - Alexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress - Alexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player - Alexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer - Alexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer - Alexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player - Alexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete - Alexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater - Alexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model - Alexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player - Alexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician - Alexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player - Alexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist - Alexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress - Alexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian--born Argentine sprint canoer - Alexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker - Alexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor - Alexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva (born 2002), Australian Olympic rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Kim (1885--1918), Russian--Korean revolutionary political activist - Alexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer - Alexandra Kluge (1937--2017), German actress - Alexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor - Alexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player - Alexandra Kollontai (1872--1952), Russian politician - Alexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist - Alexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian - Alexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer - Alexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner - Alexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster - Alexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist - Alexandra Kropotkin (1887--1966), Russian--American writer - Alexandra Krosney, American actress - Alexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovakian figure skater - Alexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model - Alexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer - Alexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress - Alexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player - Alexandra Lapierre, French author - Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian--German actress - Alexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer - Alexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish--Argentine model - Alexandra Lazarowich, Cree--Canadian director and producer - Alexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman - Alexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter - Alexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra - Alexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician - Alexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast - Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress - Alexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong--born English photographer - Alexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer - Alexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower - Alexandra London (born 1973), French actress - Alexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovakian archer - Alexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player - Alexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician - Alexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician - Alexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player - Alexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player - Alexandra Lydon, American actress - Alexandra Măceșanu (2003--2019), Romanian murder victim - Alexandra Makovskaya (1837--1915), Russian landscape painter - Alexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist - Alexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier - Alexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress - Alexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast - Alexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer - Alexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician - Alexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter - Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605--1684), Greek intellectual - Alexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen - Alexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer - Alexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician - Alexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model - Alexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician - Alexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator - Alexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer - Alexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist - Alexandra Mitsotaki (born 1956), Greek activist and entrepreneur - Alexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist - Alexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver - Alexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer - Alexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist - Alexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist - Alexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player - Alexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player - Alexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier - Alexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater - Alexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player - Alexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German--born Kenyan épée fencer - Alexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian--American cubist painter and philanthropist - Alexandra Nekvapilová (1919--2014), Czech alpine skier - Alexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress - Alexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer - Alexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor - Alexandra Nessmar (born 1994), Swedish racing cyclist - Alexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor - Alexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player - Alexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress	2,159	Alexandra	1
2,529	# Alexandra ## People with the name {#people_with_the_name} ### Alexandra ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Alexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player - Alexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician - Alexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet - Alexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer - Alexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower - Alexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player - Alexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek--Canadian actress - Alexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player - Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player - Alexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower - Alexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress - Alexandra Parks (born 1984), English singer-songwriter - Alexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek--Swedish author and columnist - Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912--2010), Greek architect - Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek--American music supervisor - Alexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist - Alexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist - Alexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player - Alexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer - Alexandra Petrova (1980--2000), Russian beauty queen and model - Alexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress - Alexandra Pierce (1934--2021), American composer and pianist - Alexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian--American tennis player - Alexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka - Alexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer - Alexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress - Alexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player - Alexandra Potter (born 1970), English author - Alexandra Poulovassilis, Greek--English computer scientist - Alexandra Powers, American actress - Alexandra Pringle (born 1953), British publisher - Alexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress - Alexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer - Alexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler - Alexandra Raffé (born 1955), Canadian film and television producer - Alexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter - Alexandra Rapaport (born 1971), Swedish actress - Alexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete - Alexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka - Alexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer - Alexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovakian blind alpine skier - Alexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model - Alexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress - Alexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican--born English Paralympic sailor - Alexandra Ridout (born 1998), English jazz trumpeter - Alexandra Ripley (1934--2004), American writer - Alexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress - Alexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer - Alexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist - Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player - Alexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder - Alexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator - Alexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model - Alexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter - Alexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater - Alexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian--born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter - Alexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor - Alexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player - Alexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter - Alexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player - Alexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovakian author - Alexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian--born Ecuadorian soccer player - Alexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter - Alexandra Schepisi, Australian actress - Alexandra Schörghuber (born 1958), German entrepreneur - Alexandra Seceleanu, Romanian mathematician - Alexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player - Alexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist - Alexandra Shimo, Canadian writer - Alexandra Shipp, American actress and singer - Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player - Alexandra Shiva, American documentarian - Alexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist - Alexandra Sicoe (1932--2019), Romanian sprinter - Alexandra Sidorovici (1906--2000), Romanian politician - Alexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer - Alexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress - Alexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian--born French pianist - Alexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist - Alexandra Slade, American actress - Alexandra Smirnoff (1838--1913) Finnish pomologist - Alexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player - Alexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress - Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter - Alexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast - Alexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer - Alexandra Sorina (1899--1973), Belarusian actress - Alexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian--born French violinist - Alexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian - Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer - Alexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer - Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player - Alexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress - Alexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist - Alexandra Styron, American author and professor - Alexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer - Alexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian - Alexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player - Alexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter - Alexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower	786	Alexandra	2
2,529	# Alexandra ## People with the name {#people_with_the_name} ### Alexandra ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Alexandra Techet, American marine engineer - Alexandra Tegleva (1894--1955), Russian nursemaid - Alexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player - Alexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician - Alexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer - Alexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast - Alexandra Tolstaya (1884--1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy - Alexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer - Alexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player - Alexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player - Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater - Alexandra Truwit (born 2000), American Paralympic swimmer - Alexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower - Alexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder - Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress - Alexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian--Czech politician - Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player - Alexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician - Alexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress - Alexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater - Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician - Alexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor - Alexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower - Alexandra Vinogradova (born 1988), Russian volleyball player - Alexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician - Alexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano - Alexandra von Dyhrn (1873--1945), German author and genealogist - Alexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong--born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite - Alexandra Voronin (1905--1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling - Alexandra Vydrina (1988--2021), Russian linguist - Alexandra Wager (born `{{c.\|1950}}`{=mediawiki}), American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager - Alexandra Wallace (born 1975 or 1976), American news media executive - Alexandra Walsham (born 1966), English--Australian historian - Alexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist - Alexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model - Alexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian - Alexandra Wejchert (1921--1995), Polish--Irish sculptor - Alexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer - Alexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress - Alexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian--born German long jumper - Alexandra Williams, American rugby player - Alexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist - Alexandra Worden (born 1970), American genome scientist and microbial ecologist - Alexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer - Alexandra Zabelina (1937--2022), Soviet fencer - Alexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher - Alexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor - Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer - Alexandra Zarini (born 1985), Italian--American daughter of Patricia Gucci - Alexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian--born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter - Alexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer - Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1842--1899), Russian--German lady-in-waiting - Alexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist - Alexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer ### Aleksandra - Aleksandra Antonova, various people - Aleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player - Aleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player - Aleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player - Aleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player - Aleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master - Aleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer - Aleksandra Fedoriva (born 1988), Russian athlete - Aleksandra Izmailovich (1878--1941), Belarusian revolutionary - Aleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder - Aleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854--1941), Polish novelist - Aleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player - Aleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master - Aleksandra Melnichenko (born 1977), Serbian billionaire, former singer, and model who is the wife of the Russian billionaire Andrey Melnichenko - Aleksandra Perišić (born 2002), Serbian taekwondo practitioner - Aleksandra Prijović (born 1995), Serbian pop-folk singer - Aleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist - Aleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player - Aleksandra Shchekoldina (born 2002), retired Russian gymnast - Aleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player - Aleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player - Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player - Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer	644	Alexandra	3
2,529	# Alexandra ## Fictional characters {#fictional_characters} - Princess Alexandra, a character in The Swan, played by Grace Kelly - Alexandra, a character from the game Mystic Defender - Alexandra, Nikita character - Alexandra, the main antagonist in The Wildwood Chronicles - Alexandra the Royal Baby Fairy, character in the British book series Rainbow Magic - Alexandra \"Alex\" Bailey, a main character in Chris Colfer\'s The Land of Stories - Alexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse - Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a. Lexie Carver, character in the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives - Alexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March - Alexandra \"Alex\" Cahill, character in the 1990s television series Walker, Texas Ranger - Alexandra Cross, a.k.a. Lexy Cross, a character in the USA/Syfy TV series, Chucky, based on the Child\'s Play media franchise - Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a. Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers\' sister in Supergirl - Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a. Alex Dunphy, character in the popular television series Modern Family - Alexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe - Alexandra Finch, sister of Atticus Finch in the 1960 novel To Kill A Mockingbird - Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series Kuroko\'s Basketball - Alexandra Grey, a.k.a. Lexie Grey, character in the ABC medical drama Grey\'s Anatomy - Alexandra Vladimirovna Litvyak, a.k.a. Sanya V. Litvyak, a character from the anime/manga franchise Strike Witches - Alexandra Mack, a.k.a. Alex Mack, titular lead character in the popular television series The Secret World of Alex Mack - Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a. Alex Nuñez, character in the Canadian television drama Degrassi: The Next Generation - Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a. Alex Russo, character in the Disney Channel television series Wizards of Waverly Place, played by Selena Gomez - Alexandra Vause, a.k.a	312	Alexandra	4
2,536	# Articolo 31 Articolo 31 is a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups. ## Band history {#band_history} Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini). In the spoken intro of the album Strade di Città (\"City Streets\"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press. They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act. Articolo 31 released one of the first Italian hip hop records, Strade di città, in 1993. Soon, they signed with BMG Ricordi and started to mix rap with pop music -- a move that earned them great commercial success but that alienated the underground hip hop scene, who perceived them as traitors. In 1997, DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in a track titled 1 vs 2 on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, starting a feud that would go on for years. In 2001, Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album XChé SI!. In the same year, they made the film Senza filtro (in English, \"Without filter\"). Their producer was Franco Godi, who also produced the music for the Signor Rossi animated series. Their 2002 album Domani smetto represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples. Several of their songs rotate around the theme of soft drugs legalization in Italy (pointing strongly in favour). Following their 2003 album \"Italiano medio\", the band took a break. Both J-Ax and DJ Jad have been involved with solo projects. In 2006, the group declared an indefinite hiatus. Their posse, Spaghetti Funk, includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi. On 4 December 2022, it was officially announced Articolo 31 participation in the Sanremo Music Festival 2023. \"Un bel viaggio\" was later announced as their entry for the Sanremo Music Festival 2023	371	Articolo 31	0
2,546	# Automated theorem proving Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major motivating factor for the development of computer science. ## Logical foundations {#logical_foundations} While the roots of formalized logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalized mathematics. Frege\'s Begriffsschrift (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic. His Foundations of Arithmetic, published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910--1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim--Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems. In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false. However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system, there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions. ## First implementations {#first_implementations} In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger\'s algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, \"Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even\". More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the Principia Mathematica, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the Principia. The \"heuristic\" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle. In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore\'s program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious. ## Decidability of the problem {#decidability_of_the_problem} Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel\'s completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, invalid formulas (those that are not entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized. The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel\'s incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).	818	Automated theorem proving	0
2,546	# Automated theorem proving ## Related problems {#related_problems} A simpler, but related, problem is proof verification, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable. Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover\'s output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed. Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user. Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force). There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program\'s calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player. ## Applications Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors. Other uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification. Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL. Applications of theorem provers are also found in natural language processing and formal semantics, where they are used to analyze discourse representations.	491	Automated theorem proving	1

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