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Amount of remuneration The amount of the remuneration may be fixed by agreement, expressly or impliedly, either on a time basis, or in a definite sum of money, or as a percentage of the value of the subject matter of the transaction, in which case the remuneration is known as “commission.” In the absence of an agreement, the amount of remuneration is regulated, in the case of regular agents, such as auctioneers, estate agents, brokers and factors, by the custom or trade usage of the particular business or kind of agency, and the amount is almost invariably calculated on a percentage basis.
Casual agents, to whose services a tariff is not applicable, are entitled to an amount reasonable in the circumstances, sometimes referred to as a quantum meruit. The agent, in return, may claim from the principal an account supported by vouchers if that is necessary to enable the agent to formulate the claim for remuneration. Agent’s expenses The principal must refund to the agent all expenses reasonably and properly incurred by the agent in carrying out the mandate, including interest on outlays and advances necessarily made by the agent in its execution. Indemnity The principal must indemnify the agent for all loss or liability duly incurred by the agent in the execution of the mandate, or directly caused to the agent by the execution.
Relations between principal and third persons The relations between the principal and third persons vary according to whether the agent, in concluding a transaction, has acted within the scope of the authority granted and has disclosed the fact that he acted as an agent; or exceeded the authority; or concealed his capacity; or acted corruptly. Agent acts within authority Where an agent has disclosed that he acts for a principal, and has acted within the scope of the express or implied authority conferred, a transaction effected by the agent with a third party is binding as between the principal and the third person.
There is no necessity for the agent to cede any rights to the principal, because the principal, as party to the contract with the third party, may enforce his or her own rights under the contract. Equally, liability under the contract is imposed directly on the principal who may be sued by the third party. No benefit or liability under the transaction attaches to the agent. Even if the agent has not acted in the interests of the principal, or has actually defrauded the principal, the latter is bound by the transaction, if the third person was not a party to the irregularity, and if the agent acted in fact within the express or implied scope of his authority.
Agent exceeds authority Where the agent exceeds the express or implied authority in transacting, the principal is not bound by the transaction. If, however, the principal has been enriched by or has benefited from the transaction at the expense of the third party, the principal is bound to the third party to the extent that the principal has been enriched. The principal is not obliged to accept such benefit, and may make restitution. On the other hand, where the agent has acted within his ostensible authority, but has, unknown to the third party, exceeded the private instructions of the principal, the principal is bound by the transaction based on estoppel.
The principal has, however, a right of action against the agent for any loss sustained by the principal. Where an agent, in the course of his engagement, acquires knowledge of some fact that it is his or her duty to communicate to the principal, and fails to do so, the notice is imputed to the principal. Only actual, and not constructive, knowledge of the agent can be imputed to the principal. Agent conceals capacity (undisclosed principal) If an agent does not disclose to a third party that he is acting as agent, and concludes a contract with the third party as if he were the principal in the transaction, the third party may treat the contract as binding on the agent.
The third party may sue the agent, as principal, on the contract; equally the agent may, as principal, sue the third party on the contract. When, however, the undisclosed principal discovers that the contract that he in fact authorised has been concluded, he may adopt it, and may consequently sue the third party on it. Equally, the third party, on discovering the undisclosed principal, may sue the principal on the contract. it follows that the third party has a choice or an election to sue either the agent or the undisclosed principal, when discovered; but having elected to sue one of them the third party is debarred from suing the other, even if he or she sues the agent before being aware that there is a principal.
The third party may be sued on the contract by either the principal or agent, but not by both, the principal having the preferential right to do so. The position of the undisclosed principal is altogether different from that of the unnamed principal. Where an agent discloses that he or she is acting as agent but does not disclose the identity of that principal, the normal rules of representation apply: The contract creates rights and obligations for the unnamed principal and the third party, not for the agent. Agent acts corruptly Where the agent is given or promised a secret benefit by the third party to a contract that is intended to influence the agent in that party’s favour, the gift is a bribe, and the principal has the choice of repudiating the contract or affirming it, and obtaining such relief as the court may think adequate.
Relations between agent and third parties Agent acts within authority Where the agent has concluded a transaction with a third party within the scope of the agent’s authority, no rights or obligations ensue as between the agent and the third party. For example, if Arthur, in his capacity as the lawful agent of Boucher, borrows money from Kallis, Arthur is not liable to repay the money to Kallis, and cannot be sued by Kallis for it. In the following cases, however, an agent is liable personally on the contract: where the agent agreed to be personally liable; and where the agent did not disclose to the third party that he or she was acting as an agent.
Where an “agent” acts on behalf of a “principal” who does not exist, or lacks legal capacity, it is sometimes said that the “agent” is liable personally on the contract. This proposition holds good only when it can be shown, as a matter of construction, that the so-called agent in fact acted as a principal party to the contract. Of course, if the “agent” was aware of the true state of affairs, and acted fraudulently, the agent may be held liable in delict. “So too, perhaps, if the agent acted negligently.” If the agent warranted that he or she had authority to act for the principal, the agent may be held liable for breach of warranty of authority.
Agent exceeds authority Where the agent exceeds his authority in concluding a contract, the agent is liable to the third party, not on the contract, but for damages for breach of an implied warranty of authority. The measure of damages claimable by the third party is the amount of loss sustained by the third party because of the non-performance of the intended contract by the principal. Termination of agent’s authority Since the authorisation and the contract of mandate are distinct juristic acts, the rules that govern the termination of the agent’s authority to bind the principal are not necessarily the same as those governing the termination of the contractual relationship between the principal and agent.
The contract of mandate may be terminated by any of the methods applicable to contracts generally: for example, by performance or by the mutual consent of the parties. An executory contract of mandate may, however, generally be terminated by the unilateral act of either party—revocation by the mandatory (principal) or renunciation by the mandatary (agent)—unless the express or implied terms of the contract dictate otherwise. This rule, which runs contrary to accepted contractual principles, is derived from the common law, where mandate was essentially a gratuitous contract. In modern law, the mandatary is usually remunerated for services rendered; in such cases, at least, it is doubtful whether the contract is freely terminable at either party’s will.
An agent’s authority to conclude juristic acts on behalf of the principal may be terminated by any of the following occurrences: performance of the authorised transaction; effluxion of time, which may occur if a time limit has been fixed by the parties, or, in the absence of a stipulated time, when a reasonable time has elapsed; death of the principal, or the principal’s insanity, insolvency, or attainment of majority; death of the agent or the agent’s insanity; and revocation by the principal. Save for certain possible exceptions, discussed below, the principal may summarily revoke the agent’s authority to perform a juristic act on the principal’s behalf, if the act in question has not already been performed.
This is so even if the authority is expressed to be irrevocable. If Arthur, for example, engages Boucher to find a suitable person to buy Arthur’s house, and authorises Boucher to sell the house, Arthur may revoke the authority granted to Boucher. After such revocation, Boucher cannot bind Arthur to a sale of the house, though Boucher may claim damages from Arthur for breach of contract. In order to be effective as against interested third parties, however, the revocation of authority must be communicated to such third parties. Irrevocable authority The question of whether an authority conclude a juristic act on behalf of another can be granted irrevocably is a controversial one.
It has been held, in a number of cases, that an authority is irrevocable, in the strict sense, where the agent is appointed procurator in rem suam: that is, where the agent is authorised to do an act for the agent’s own benefit, and not for the principal’s; or, as it is generally styled, the authority is “coupled with an interest” or “forms part of a security,” for example, where an agent is authorised to pass a bond in his own favour over the principal’s property. This proposition reflects Anglo-American rather than Roman-Dutch law, which consistently refused to recognise the validity of a procurator in rem suam mentioned by Voet.
Such a procurator was, in Voet’s time, no more than a cessionary, and, of course, the cedent lacked the power to revoke the cession unilaterally. Whether the Supreme Court of Appeal will accept that an authority “coupled with an interest” is irrevocable remains to be seen. “The better view,” writes Graham Bradfield, “appears to be that an authority is always revocable, even if it is linked with a contract of mandate, which cannot be terminated unilaterally.” Of course, if the principal has contracted not to revoke the authority, but does so, the principal will be liable in damages for breach of contract.
See also Contract Law of South Africa Law of obligations References Books J.E. De Villiers, J.C. Macintosh & D.B. Knight. Law of Agency in South Africa, 2nd revised edn. Cape Town: Juta, 1956. James Thomas Riley Gibson. South African mercantile and company law, 8th edn. Revised by Coenraad Visser. Lansdowne: Juta, 2005. D.J. Joubert. Die Suid-Afrikaanse verteenwoordigingsreg. Cape Town: Juta, 1979. Ellison Kahn. Contract and Mercantile Law through the Cases: A Collection of Extracts from Decisions of the Courts, vol. 1. Cape Town: Juta, 1971. Alastair James Kerr. The Law of Agency. Durban: Butterworths, 1972 (4th edn. 2006). B.A. Schuijling.
“Representation, power of attorney and mandate”, chap. 7 of Introduction to Dutch law, 5th edn. Eds. Jeroen Chorus, Ewoud Hondius, & Wim Voermans. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International, 2016. Johan Scott & Steve Cornelius, eds. “The law of agency”, in The Law of Commerce in South Africa, 2nd edn. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, 2015. B.P. Wanda. “Agency and representation”, in The Law of South Africa, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Eds. W A Joubert & J A Faris. Durban: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2003. Reinhard Zimmermann. The Law of Obligations: Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Cases Chartaprops 16 (Pty) Ltd and Another v Silberman 2009 (1) SA 265 (SCA). Joel Melamed and Hurwitz v Cleveland Estates (Pty) Ltd; Joel Melamed and Hurwitz v Vorner Investments (Pty) Ltd 1984 (3) SA 155 (A). Langley Fox Building Partnership (Pty) Ltd v De Valence 1991 (1) SA 1 (A). Notes Category:South African law Category:Law of obligations
Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The quantification of the capacity of a pozzolan to react with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring its pozzolanic activity. Pozzolana are naturally occurring pozzolans of volcanic origin. History Mixtures of calcined lime and finely rounded, active aluminosilicate materials were pioneered and developed as inorganic binders in the Ancient world.
Architectural remains of the Minoan civilization on Crete have shown evidence of the combined use of slaked lime and additions of finely ground potsherds for waterproof renderings in baths, cisterns and aqueducts. Evidence of the deliberate use of volcanic materials such as volcanic ashes or tuffs by the ancient Greeks dates back to at least 500–400 BC, as uncovered at the ancient city of Kameiros, Rhodes. In subsequent centuries the practice spread to the mainland and was eventually adopted and further developed by the Romans. The Romans used volcanic pumices and tuffs found in neighbouring territories, the most famous ones found in Pozzuoli (Naples), hence the name pozzolan, and in Segni (Latium).
Preference was given to natural pozzolan sources such as German trass, but crushed ceramic waste was frequently used when natural deposits were not locally available. The exceptional lifetime and preservation conditions of some of the most famous Roman buildings such as the Pantheon or the Pont du Gard constructed using pozzolan-lime mortars and concrete testify both to the excellent workmanship achieved by Roman engineers and to the durable properties of the binders they used. Much of the practical skill and knowledge regarding the use of pozzolans was lost at the decline of the Roman empire. The rediscovery of Roman architectural practices, as described by Vitruvius in De architectura, also led to the reintroduction of lime-pozzolan binders.
Particularly the strength, durability and hydraulic capability of hardening underwater made them popular construction materials during the 16th–18th century. The invention of other hydraulic lime cements and eventually Portland cement in the 18th and 19th century resulted in a gradual decline of the use of pozzolan-lime binders, which develop strength less rapidly. Over the course of the 20th century the use of pozzolans as additions (the technical term is "supplementary cementitious material", usually abbreviated "SCM") to Portland cement concrete mixtures has become common practice. Combinations of economic and technical aspects and, increasingly, environmental concerns have made so-called blended cements, i.e.
cements that contain considerable amounts of supplementary cementitious materials (mostly around 20 wt.%, but over 80 wt.% in Portland blast-furnace slag cement), the most widely produced and used cement type by the beginning of the 21st century. Pozzolanic materials The general definition of a pozzolan embraces a large number of materials which vary widely in terms of origin, composition and properties. Both natural and artificial (man-made) materials show pozzolanic activity and are used as supplementary cementitious materials. Artificial pozzolans can be produced deliberately, for instance by thermal activation of kaolin-clays to obtain metakaolin, or can be obtained as waste or by-products from high-temperature process such as fly ashes from coal-fired electricity production.
The most commonly used pozzolans today are industrial by-products such as fly ash, silica fume from silicon smelting, highly reactive metakaolin, and burned organic matter residues rich in silica such as rice husk ash. Their use has been firmly established and regulated in many countries. However, the supply of high-quality pozzolanic by-products is limited and many local sources are already fully exploited. Alternatives to the established pozzolanic by-products are to be found on the one hand in an expansion of the range of industrial by-products or societal waste considered and on the other hand in an increased usage of naturally occurring pozzolans.
Natural pozzolanas are abundant in certain locations and are extensively used as an addition to Portland cement in countries such as Italy, Germany, Greece and China. Volcanic ashes and pumices largely composed of volcanic glass are commonly used, as are deposits in which the volcanic glass has been altered to zeolites by interaction with alkaline waters. Deposits of sedimentary origin are less common. Diatomaceous earths, formed by the accumulation of siliceous diatom microskeletons, are a prominent source material here. Use The benefits of pozzolan use in cement and concrete are threefold. First is the economic gain obtained by replacing a substantial part of the Portland cement by cheaper natural pozzolans or industrial by-products.
Second is the lowering of the blended cement environmental cost associated with the greenhouse gases emitted during Portland cement production. A third advantage is the increased durability of the end product. Blending of pozzolans with Portland cement is of limited interference in the conventional production process and offers the opportunity to convert waste (for example, fly ash) into durable construction materials. A reduction of 40 percent of Portland cement in the concrete mix is usually feasible when replaced with a combination of pozzolanic materials. Pozzolans can be used to control setting, increase durability, reduce cost and reduce pollution without significantly reducing the final compressive strength or other performance characteristics.
The properties of hardened blended cements are strongly related to the development of the binder microstructure, i.e., to the distribution, type, shape and dimensions of both reaction products and pores. The beneficial effects of pozzolan addition in terms of higher compressive strength, performance and greater durability are mostly attributed to the pozzolanic reaction in which calcium hydroxide is consumed to produce additional C-S-H and C-A-H reaction products. These pozzolanic reaction products fill in pores and result in a refining of the pore size distribution or pore structure. This results in a lowered permeability of the binder. The contribution of the pozzolanic reaction to cement strength is usually developed at later curing stages, depending on the pozzolanic activity.
In the large majority of blended cements initial lower strengths can be observed compared to the parent Portland cement. However, especially in the case of pozzolans finer than the Portland cement, the decrease in early strength is usually less than what can be expected based on the dilution factor. This can be explained by the filler effect, in which small SCM grains fill in the space between the cement particles, resulting in a much denser binder. The acceleration of the Portland cement hydration reactions can also partially accommodate the loss of early strength. The increased chemical resistance to the ingress and harmful action of aggressive solutions constitutes one of the main advantages of pozzolan blended cements.
The improved durability of the pozzolan-blended binders lengthen the service life of structures and reduces the costly and inconvenient need to replace damaged construction. One of the principal reasons for increased durability is the lowered calcium hydroxide content available to take part in deleterious expansive reactions induced by, for example, sulfate attack. Furthermore, the reduced binder permeability slows down the ingress of harmful ions such as chlorine or carbonate. The pozzolanic reaction can also reduce the risk of expansive alkali-silica reactions between the cement and aggregates by changing the binder pore solution. Lowering the solution alkalinity and increasing alumina concentrations strongly decreases or inhibits the dissolution of the aggregate aluminosilicates.
See also Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) Cement chemist notation (CCN) Energetically modified cement (EMC) Qadad References Cook D.J. (1986) Natural pozzolanas. In: Swamy R.N., Editor (1986) Cement Replacement Materials, Surrey University Press, p. 200. McCann A.M. (1994) "The Roman Port of Cosa" (273 BC), Scientific American, Ancient Cities, pp. 92–99, by Anna Marguerite McCann. Covers, hydraulic concrete, of "Pozzolana mortar" and the 5 piers, of the Cosa harbor, the Lighthouse on pier 5, diagrams, and photographs. Height of Port city: 100 BC. Category:Concrete Category:Cement
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the bacterium that causes the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea, has developed antibiotic resistance to many antibiotics. The bacteria was first identified in 1879. In the 1940s effective treatment with penicillin became available, but by the 1970s resistant strains predominated. Resistance to penicillin has developed through two mechanisms: chromasomally mediated resistance (CMRNG) and penicillinase-mediated resistance (PPNG). CMRNG involves step wise mutation of penA, which codes for the penicillin-binding protein (PBP-2); mtr, which encodes an efflux pump that removes penicillin from the cell; and penB, which encodes the bacterial cell wall porins. PPNG involves the acquisition of a plasmid-borne beta-lactamase.
N. gonorrheoea has a high affinity for horizontal gene transfer, and as a result, the existence of any strain resistant to a given drug could spread easily across strains. Fluoroquinolones were a useful next-line treatment until resistance was achieved through efflux pumps and mutations to the gyrA gene, which encodes DNA gyrase. Third-generation cephalosporins have been used to treat gonorrhoea since 2007, but resistant strains have emerged. As of 2010, the recommended treatment is a single 250 mg intramuscular injection of ceftriaxone, sometimes in combination with azithromycin or doxycycline. However, certain strains of N. gonorrhoeae can be resistant to antibiotics usually that are normally used to treat it.
These include: cefixime (an oral cephalosporin), ceftriaxone (an injectable cephalosporin), azithromycin, aminoglycosides, and tetracycline. Penicillins Beta-lactams like penicillin were widely used to treat gonorrhea in the 1940s. There are three general mechanisms that may allow bacteria to become resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics: inability to access/target penicillin-binding protein (PBP) enzyme inhibition of binding to PBP via modification of the enzyme hydrolysis/inactivation of the antibiotic by beta-lactamases. Overuse of penicillin contributed to Neisseria gonorrhoeae developing high resistance to penicillin through two main mechanisms: chromosomally mediated resistance (CMRNG) and penicillinase-mediated resistance (PPNG). Chromosomally mediated resistance occurred through step-wise changes over many years. Chromosomal mutations in the penA, mtr, and penB genes are the major mechanisms for CMRNG.
The penA gene encodes an alternative penicillin-binding protein, PBP-2. This mechanism falls under the second general mechanism for beta-lactam resistance. PBPs, also known as transpeptidases, are targets for beta-lactams. These enzymes (PBPs) are involved in peptidoglycan synthesis which is a major component of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs cross-link the amino acid strands of peptidoglycan during synthesis. Normally, beta-lactams bind the PBPs and thereby inhibit the cross-linking of peptidoglycan. When this occurs, the cell wall of the bacterium is compromised and often results in cell death. When N. gonorrhoeae encodes penA, the new PBP-2 that is synthesized is no longer recognized by the beta-lactams rendering the bacterium resistant.
The mtr (multiple transferable resistance) gene encodes for an efflux pump. Efflux pumps mediate resistance to a variety of compounds including antibiotics, detergents, and dyes. This mechanism falls under the first general resistance mechanism to beta-lactams. mtr encodes for the protein MtrD which is the efflux pump for N. gonorrhoeae. MtrD is among the Resistance Nodulation Division (RND) efflux pump superfamily. These pumps are proton antiporters where the antibiotic is pumped out of the cell while a proton is pumped into the cell. The cell wall of N. gonorrhoeae contains porins which are holes within the cell wall in which some molecules are able to diffuse into or out of the cell membrane.
This mechanism falls under the first general mechanism for beta-lactam resistance. The penB gene encodes the porins for N. gonorrhoeae and when this gene undergoes mutations, there is a decrease in permeability of the cell wall to hydrophilic antibiotics like penicillin. Penicillinase-mediated resistance in N. gonorrhoeae is mediated by the plasmid borne TEM-1 type beta-lactamase which falls under the third general mechanism for beta-lactam resistance. There have been over 200 beta-lactamases described and some of them are antibiotic specific. TEM-1 is a penicillinase specific for penicillins. This enzyme will bind to the beta-lactam ring which is a structural characteristic for beta-lactams and hydrolyze the ring.
This renders the antibiotic inactive. The spread of the penicillinase resistance was much faster compared to the chromosomal-mediated resistance mechanisms. The plasmids containing TEM-1 could be passed from bacterium to bacterium via conjugation Quinolones Quinolones are a class of synthetic antibiotics that inhibit DNA replication, recombination, and repair by interacting with the bacterial DNA gyrase and/or topoisomerase IV. Second generation quinolones like ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin have been widely used to treat N. gonorrhoeae infections. Resistance to these antibiotics has developed over the years with chromosomal resistance being the primary mechanism. Low-level quinolone resistance has been linked to changes in cell permeability and efflux pumps.
The NorM efflux pump is encoded by the norM gene and provides resistance to fluoroquinolones. The NorM efflux pump is a member of the MATE (multidrug and toxic compound extrusion) family and functions by a Na+ antiporter. It is also known that a point mutation upstream of the norM gene will causes overexpression of NorM, and mediate elevated resistance. High-level resistance to quinolones has been seen through target modification acting on the DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. Multiple amino acid substation mutations in the gyrA gene, which encodes for the DNA gyrase, have been seen extensively. DNA gyrase is an enzyme that binds to DNA and introduces negative supercoiling.
This helps unwind the DNA for replication. If there is a mutation in the DNA gyrase, then the quinolone will not be able to bind to it resulting in the activity of DNA gyrase not being inhibited. Multiple mutations have also been noted in the parC gene which encodes for the topoisomerase IV. Topoisomerase IV acts similarly to DNA gyrase and is involved in unwinding DNA for replication. Cephalosporins Ceftriaxone and cefixime are third generation cephalosporins and are often used as treatments for N. gonorrhoeae infections. The cephalosporins are part of a larger beta-lactam family of antibiotics. The newly discovered H041 strain of N. gonorrhoeae, originally isolated from a commercial sex worker in Japan, was shown to be resistant to this antibiotic.
The possible mechanisms of resistance to this antibiotic are as follows: an alteration of more than four amino acids in the C-terminal end of the PBP-2, which would result in the antibiotic being unable to bind to its target mutations in the promoter regions of mtr, resulting in the overexpression of genes that code for efflux pumps mutations in the penB gene that encodes for the bacterial porin. This form of resistance has only been observed with ceftriaxone which is administered through an intramuscular injection. Tetracyclines Tetracyclines are a class of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis by binding to the 30s ribosomal subunit of bacterial cells, keeping transcription of the bacterial genome from occurring.
Tetracyclines are bacteriostatic, which means that the growth of the bacterium will be slowed. Tetracyclines are not often recommended for the treatment of N. gonorrhoeae because the treatment regimen requires many doses, which may affect compliance and contribute to resistance. Tetracycline is still used as treatment for this infection in developing countries because the cost for the drug is low As with the penicillin resistance, the penB (porin formation) and mtr (efflux pump formation) mutations mediate chromosomal resistance. These adaptations will also affect the ability of the antibiotic to get into, or stay in the bacterial cell. High level resistance of N. gonorrhoeae to tetracyclines was first reported in 1986 with the discovering of the tetM determinant.
The mechanism of resistance is still unknown. Aminoglycosides N. gonorrhoeae has also shown resistance to the aminoglycoside class of antibiotics. These antibiotics bind to the 16s rRNA of the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby stopping transcription of the bacterial genome. Resistance appears to be acquired through porin-related mechanisms, much like the cephalosporin resistance mechanism. This mechanism would result in the access of the antibiotic to the bacterial cell being inhibited. There is a possibility of future enzymes (made by the bacterium) that will be able to denature and inactivate the aminoglycosides. See also Neisseria gonorrhoeae Antibiotic resistance References Category:Sexually transmitted diseases and infections Category:Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
The community forestry program in Nepal is a government effort to reduce forest degradation and to promote sustainable forestry practices as well as to improve the livelihood of the community. It incorporates distinct policies, institutions and practices. The two main goals of the community forestry program is to empower local communities whilst encouraging environmental conservation benefits on the Himalayan forests. Nepal has become one of the first developing nations to adopt a community forestry management program which gives authority to the community and groups to manage forest resources. As a result, Nepal now stands as one of the leaders in community based forest management as they have made direct progress in halting environmental degradation and by regenerating forests in barren areas.
Studies have proven the potential benefits that community forestry will have in combatting environmental degradation as well as utilizing resources in a sufficient manner. Governance Prior to the community forestry program, the government had control of local forests during the mid 1950s. The community forestry project came into fruition during the late 1970s, when there was a great concern for environmental sustainability and the degrading Himalayan slopes. The continuing growing population put a strain on the resources and the government was seeking methods in order to protect their forests whilst achieving better livelihoods of the Nepali people. The government of Nepal came to the conclusion that they needed active participation of local people in forest management in order to further reduce the environmental degradation in the Himalayan slopes.
The first institutional shift began in 1978 when the forest regulation of Panchayat Forest and Panchayat-protected Forest Rules allowed local governments the right to oversee and manage selected forest areas. An even greater shift began in the early 1990s under the Forest Act 1993. This act enacted even greater government decentralisation and allowed local communities to have direct access and management over the forests that they depend on for resources. However, that is not to say that the government has not forfeited their ownership of the forests. The state still maintains ownership while communities have the rights to utilize and manage the forests.
The Forest Act 1993 and Forest Regulation 1995 guaranteed two rights: 1) right to self-governance and 2) right to forest management and utilisation. Effects People One of the two main goals under the community forestry program in Nepal was to alleviate poverty as well as improve the general livelihoods of the Nepali people. Various forms of discrimination on the basis of caste, economic status, ethnicity, gender, age and vulnerability exist in Nepal. This program's key objective was to increase the participation and empower the socially-marginalized peoples, allowing decision-making abilities within the community. Due to the program's overall success, one fourth of national forests in Nepal are under the community management where 1.6 million households are included as community forest user groups.
There are over 19,000 community forest user groups. Within the community forestry user groups there are rich, medium and poor households that participate in the forest resource management. The contribution between the different socio-economic households and forest management is relatively equal. Resources within the forests such as fuelwood, timber, as well as fodder are used by the locals to generate income from sales. The program encouraged community development work that has had a direct effect on lower income households. Due to community development activities, they are able to generate daily incomes for the betterment of their livelihoods. However, there has been question regarding the incentives created to allow the involvement of socio-marginalized peoples within the community forestry program.
Wealthy households have greater decision-making power when it comes to forest management and governance. This puts those who are of lower caste, women, and so on in a position of lower decision-making authority as well as participation within the program. Wealthier households have greater access to state administrators allowing them to dominate decision-making positions. Because they are able to set forest resource prices, this can reduce incentives for poorer households who cannot afford the high prices to participate. For the community forestry program to reach and maintain its goal of the improvement of the livelihoods of the Nepali people, creating incentives of disadvantaged groups is crucial to development.
Environment One of the main drivers for the implementation of the community forestry program in Nepal was to reduce the effects of environmental degradation and to improve the conditions of the Himalayan forests. According to one study, biodiversity in community forestry program plots was significantly higher than non-community forestry plots in forests in Terai. The overall effects of the community forestry program include the increase of biodiversity from the result of rejuvenating and expanding the diversity species of trees and plants. It is evident that the community's active participation on forest management had a positive effect on increasing biodiversity and forest coverage on the once barren slopes.
Although there has not been comprehensive studies assessing the implementation of community forestry and improved forest conditions, it is evident through general observation and case studies that there has been indications of progress in overall forest conditions. References Category:Forestry in Nepal
Pecs may refer to: Pécs, a city in Hungary Pécsi MFC, a football club in the Hungarian city The pectoralis major, a major human muscle Picture Exchange Communication System, a means of communication for children on the autism spectrum See also Pec (disambiguation) PEX
Full-time equivalent (FTE), or whole time equivalent (WTE), is a unit that indicates the workload of an employed person (or student) in a way that makes workloads or class loads comparable across various contexts. FTE is often used to measure a worker's or student's involvement in a project, or to track cost reductions in an organization. An FTE of 1.0 is equivalent to a full-time worker or student, while an FTE of 0.5 signals half of a full work or school load. United States government In the Federal government of the United States, FTE is defined by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) as the number of total hours worked divided by the maximum number of compensable hours in a full-time schedule as defined by law.
For example, if the normal schedule for a quarter is defined as 411.25 hours ([35 hours per week * (52 weeks per year – 5 weeks' regulatory vacation)] / 4), then someone working 100 hours during that quarter represents 100/411.25 = 0.24 FTE. Two employees working in total 400 hours during that same quarterly period represent 0.97 FTE. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget, or OMB, the President's budget office, will often place upper limits on the total number of FTE that a given agency may utilize each year. In the past, if agencies were given a ceiling on the actual number of employed workers, which was reported on a given day of the year, the agency could employ more than this number for much of the year.
Then, as the reporting deadline approached, employees could be let go to reduce the total number to the authorized ceiling on the reporting date. Providing agencies with an FTE ceiling, which is calculated based on the total number of hours worked by all employees throughout the year, irrespective of the total numbers employed at any point in time, prevents agencies from using such a strategy. Although the generally accepted human-resources meaning for the "E" in FTE is "equivalent", the term is often overloaded in colloquial usage to indicate a "direct, as opposed to contract, full-time employee". The term WYE is often used instead of FTE when describing the contractor work.
WYE stands for work year equivalent. In education Full-time equivalent students is one of the key metrics for measuring enrollment in colleges and universities. The measure is often annualized to cover the average annual full-time equivalent students and is designated by the acronym AAFTE. Academics can increase contribution by adopting a number of strategies: (a) increase class size; (b) teach new classes; (c) supervise more projects; (d) supervise more researchers. The latter strategy has the advantage of contributing to another key metric in universities—creating new knowledge and in particular publishing papers in highly ranked academic journals. It's also linked to another key metric—research funding that is often required to attract researchers.
Example A professor teaches two undergraduate courses, supervises two undergraduate projects and supervises four researchers by thesis only (i.e. researchers do not take any courses). Each undergraduate course is worth one tenth of all credits for the undergraduate programme (i.e. 0.1 FTE). An undergraduate project is worth two tenths of all credits for the undergraduate programme (i.e. 0.2 FTE). A research thesis is worth all of the credits for the graduate programme (i.e. 1 FTE). The professor's contribution is 29.4 FTEs: To encourage more research some universities offer 2 FTEs or even 3 FTEs for each full-time researcher. In Australia, the equivalent to FTE for students is EFTSL (Equivalent Full-Time Student Load).
Notes References National Park Service Budget Glossary Category:Metrics Category:Workplace Category:Business terms Category:Equivalent units
The large-headed whiting, Sillago megacephalus, is a dubious species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family that has only been recorded from one specimen captured off the coast of China in 1933. Although very similar to Sillago sihama, the species is characterised by an unusually large head which accounts for 33% of the total body length. Taxonomy and naming The large-headed whiting is one of 29 species in the genus Sillago, which is one of three divisions of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae. The smelt-whitings are Perciformes in the suborder Percoidei. The only specimen of the species ever recorded was taken from Paoping Harbour in Hainan, China in 1933.
Lin recorded the new species, designating the only sample to be the holotype of the species. In preparation of a 1985 review of the sillaginids, Roland McKay was unable to locate the holotype and has presumed it to be lost. McKay noted that based on its description, all features except an unusually large head where characteristic of the common species Sillago sihama, suggesting the S. megacephalus is actually a junior synonym of S. sihama. The common name of 'large-headed whiting' is a straight translation from its binomial name, signifying the diagnostic head length. Description As already noted, the large-headed whiting is very similar to Sillago sihama, but has a head length which is 33% of the body length, compared to the 27-30% observed in S. sihama.
The first dorsal fin has 11 spines, while the second dorsal fin has a single spine and 22 soft rays. The anal fin is similar with two spines and 23 soft rays. There are about 70 lateral line scales. The colour is uniform all over the body, with only the tip of the spinous dorsal fins black. Little else is known, including swimbladder morphology and vertebrae numbers. The specimen described was 158 mm in length. Distribution and habitat The only known specimen of large-headed whiting was taken from Taiwanese waters, with no other records known of, and no information of the habitat or depth the species lives at available.
Aspects of the species biology and importance to fisheries are completely unknown at the present. References External links Large-headed whiting at Fishbase Category:Sillaginidae Category:Fish described in 1933
The timeline of the opioid epidemic includes selected events related to the origins of Stamford, Connecticut-based Purdue Pharma, the Sackler family, the development and marketing of oxycodone, selected FDA activities related to the abuse and misuse of opioids, the recognition of the opioid epidemic, the social impact of the crisis, lawsuits against Purdue and the Sackler family. 1911 - 1990s According to the FDA's Timeline of Selected FDA Activities and Significant Events Addressing Opioid Misuse and Abuse, before the 1990s, most opioid pain medications were used to manage pain that was either acute or related to cancer. The FDA said that there was an increase in the use of opioids because physicians were not treating "chronic non-cancer pain" adequately.
1952 Mortimer David Sackler (1916–2010) and Raymond became the co-chairmen of a small Greenwich Village-based pharmaceutical company financed by their brother Arthur. The Purdue Frederick Company, became the Stamford, Connecticut-based Purdue Pharma. With Raymond, he established pharmaceutical companies in Austria, Canada, Cyprus, Germany, Switzerland, and the UK. 1987 Arthur Sackler died. At that time Purdue Pharma was a small drug company. 1987 In May, the FDA approved the "first formulation of an opioid pain medicine that allowed dosing every 12 hours instead of every 4 to 6 hours"—MS Contin, morphine sulfate. In 1995, Purdue Pharma laboratory tests showed that "68% of the oxycodone could be extracted from an OxyContin tablet when crushed".
1995 In December the FDA approved OxyContin—controlled-release oxycodone which was the "first formulation of oxycodone that allowed dosing every 12 hours instead of every 4 to 6 hours." The FDA said that soon after its approval, OxyContin became a "focal point of opioid abuse issues". July 1996 A July 1996 study co-authored by Paul D. Goldenheim MD - who later became Purdue's chief medical officer - published in the Journal of Clinical Pharmacology reported that the controlled-release (CR) formulation - by mouth - had a variable duration of action ranging from 10–12 hours. The report by eight authors said that, "[t]reatment with CR oxycodone was safe and effective in this study, and its characteristics will be beneficial in the treatment of pain."
1996 Purdue Pharma "began a massive marketing campaign", based on a "unique claim" for OxyContin, with FDA permission, that, "as a long-acting opioid, it might be less likely to cause abuse and addiction than shorter-acting painkillers like Percocet." 1997-1999 According to a May 29, 2018 article in The New York Times, between 1997 and 1999, Purdue "sales representatives, used the words 'street value', 'crush', or 'snort' in 117 internal notes recording their visits to doctors or other medical professionals". 1997 In the Suffolk County v. Purdue lawsuit the County said that, "In 1997, Richard Sackler, Kathe Sackler, and other Purdue executives determined—and recorded in secret internal correspondence—that doctors had the crucial misconception that OxyContin was weaker than morphine, which led them to prescribe OxyContin much more often, even as a substitute for Tylenol."
According to CNN, Judge Sanders, who is presiding in a 2018 court case Suffolk County v. Purdue in the New York State Supreme Court, said that their discussions appeared to be tactical as they looked for ways "to promote the sales of OxyContin (particularly in higher doses), to encourage doctors to prescribe the drug over longer periods of time, and to circumvent safeguards put in place to stop illegal prescriptions." 1998 Purdue's audiotapes, brochures, videotapes, literature and its website "Partners Against Pain", "claimed that the risk of addiction from OxyContin was extremely small." 1998 In November the FDA approved Actiq (fentanyl).
2001 The New York Times journalist Barry Meier, who is the author of Pain Killer: A Wonder Drug's Trail of Addiction and Death, began investigating Purdue Pharma and OxyContin, then a relatively unknown drug made by a relatively unknown family the Sacklers, who were at that time "one of the wealthiest families in the United States". In an August 24, 2001 taped-interview with three top Purdue executives, CEO Michael Friedman, Howard Udell and Dr. Paul Goldenheim, the executives told Meier that "they had learned of OxyContin's growing abuse only in early 2000, a statement they also made before congressional committees".
2001 The number of prescriptions of OxyContin rose to more than 14 million in 2001 and 2002 up from 316, 000 prescriptions in 1996. This represented almost $3 billion in sales compared to $44 million in 1996. 2002 In 2002 during the United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Hearing on "OxyContin: balancing risks and benefits", Paul Goldenheim reported that in 2001 alone Purdue spent $200 million marketing OxyContin. Purdue directly sponsored and/or gave grants for over "20,000 pain-related educational programs" influencing doctors' prescribing in the United States from 1996 to July 2002. c. 2002 Federal prosecutors with the Justice Department began a 4-year-long investigation into Purdue Pharma.
2003 The New York Times journalist Barry Meier, published Pain Killer: A Wonder Drug's Trail of Addiction and Death, A 2004 New York Times review of Pain Killer, described how "For years, doctors who prescribed OxyContin were told that the risk of addiction to the painkiller was less than 1 percent. Only after the drug had devastated thousands of lives was it revealed that this figure, touted as scientific fact, was based on a small study that had no relevance for the general public." 2006 According to a September 1, 2006 article published in Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, Oxycodone, a controlled-release tablet was intended to be taken every 12 hours.
2006 In 2006, Rudolph W. Giuliani was lead counsel and lead spokesmen for Purdue Pharma during their negotiations with federal prosecutors over charges that the Purdue had misled the public about OxyContin's addictive properties. Purdue was a client of the firm Bracewell & Giuliani. The agreement reached resulted some of Purdue executives paying fines amounting to $634.5 million. October 4, 2007 Kentucky officials sued Purdue because of widespread Oxycontin abuse in Appalachia. A lawsuit filed by Kentucky then-Attorney General Greg Stumbo and Pike County officials demanded millions in compensation. Eight years later, on December 23, 2015, Kentucky settled with Purdue for $24 million.
From Wikipedia article Purdue Pharma. 2007 According to a May 25, 2018 CNBC article, Rudolph W. Giuliani, who was representing Purdue Pharma at the time, held meetings with Alice S. Fisher who was head of the United States Assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division from 2005 to 2008. Following these meetings, Fisher "chose not to pursue indictments against Purdue Pharma for their role in opioid abuse". May 10, 2007 Purdue Frederick Company Inc, an affiliate of Purdue Pharma, along with 3 company executives, pleaded guilty to criminal charges of misbranding OxyContin by claiming that it was less addictive and less subject to abuse and diversion than other opioids" after the U.S. Department of Justice investigated the allegations.
In May 2007, John Brownlee, the federal attorney in Roanoke in rural Virginia met privately with Meier to tell him that his August 2001 interview with Friedman, Udell and Goldenheim, had helped "inform" the DOJ's investigation. Meier and a New York Times photographer met the three executives on May 10, 2007, as they had left the federal courthouse in Roanoke, heading to their corporate jet to go back to Connecticut, just before Brownlee's public announcement of their guilty pleas of "misbranding" OxyContin. The holding company, Purdue Frederick, which was "affiliated with Purdue Pharma pleaded guilty to a felony charge that it had fraudulently claimed to doctors and patients that OxyContin would cause less abuse and addiction than competing short-acting narcotics like Percocet and Vicodin."
Purdue Pharma's three top executives president Michael Friedman, top lawyer, Howard R. Udell, and former chief medical officer Paul D. Goldenheim, pleaded guilty as individuals to misleading the public about Oxycontin's risk of addiction, a misbranding charge—a criminal violation. At their sentencing hearing in July 2007, Judge James P. Jones of the United States District Court sentenced Friedman, Udell and Goldenheim to three years' probation", and community service in drug treatment programs and , and in fines, respectively, representing $34.5 million in fines. The total fines of was one of the largest pharmaceutical settlements in U.S. history. 2015 An article in the Annual Review of Public Health, reported that, "Between 1996 and 2002, Purdue Pharma funded more than 20,000 pain-related educational programs through direct sponsorship or financial grants and launched a multifaceted campaign to encourage long-term use of [opioid painkillers] for chronic non-cancer pain.
As part of this campaign, Purdue provided financial support to the American Pain Society, the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the Federation of State Medical Boards, the Joint Commission, pain patient groups, and other organizations. In turn, these groups all advocated for more aggressive identification and treatment of pain, especially use of [opioid painkillers]." 2014 The Office of the Attorney General (OAG) of the State of New York began an investigation of Purdue's Abuse and Diversion Detection (ADD) Program and Purdue's unbranded website www.inthefaceofpain.com. In 2015, Purdue entered into an Assurance of Discontinuance with the New York Attorney General.
2016 Investigative journalists Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion, and Scott Glover of the Los Angeles Times published the results of their extensive investigation into OxyContin, reporting that Purdue had "marketed OxyContin for its supposed ability to provide 12 hours of pain relief", which put it at a competitive advantage over other pain killers. However,"[e]ven before OxyContin went on the market, clinical trials showed many patients weren't getting 12 hours of relief. Since the drug's debut in 1996, the company has been confronted with additional evidence, including complaints from doctors, reports from its own sales reps and independent research." In response to the series, Senator Edward J. Markey, (D-MASS) asked the DOJ, the FDA, and the Federal Trade Commission to launch an investigation into Purdue Pharma.
2016 According to an October 25, 2018 NPR report, Suffolk county, Long Island sued several family members. January 2017 The city of Everett, Washington sued Purdue asking for a yet to be determined reimbursement related to costs of policing, housing, health care, rehabilitation, criminal justice system, park and recreations department, as well as to the loss of life or compromised quality of life of the citizens of the city directly. Summer 2017 Craig Landau became CEO of Purdue Pharma L.P. and Purdue Pharma Inc. December 2017 Craig Landau placed advertisements in major newspapers, including USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and The New York Times that "emphasized the so-called abuse deterrent properties of Purdue's drugs, without disclosing that they provide no protection against the most common form of abuse—simply swallowing the pills."
May 2018 Six states—Florida, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, Tennessee and Texas—filed lawsuits charging deceptive marketing practices, adding to 16 previously filed lawsuits by other U.S. states and Puerto Rico. February 2018 Purdue Pharma said that it had "restructured and significantly reduced [their] commercial operation and will no longer be promoting opioids to prescribers." Purdue said it reduced its sales force by 50% and contacted doctors in February "telling them that salespeople will no longer go to clinics to talk about their opioid products."
June 1, 2018 Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey notified eight members of the Sackler family Richard Stephen Sackler (born March 1945), former Purdue CEO and current director, son of Purdue's co-founder Raymond Sackler (1920–2017), Beverly Sackler—Richard's wife and former Purdue director, David Sackler, Richard's son and current Purdue director, Ilene Sackler Lefcourt, Purdue Director and daughter of Purdue's co-founder, Mortimer David Sackler (1916–2010), Jonathan Sackler, Purdue director and Raymond's son, Kathe Sackler, Purdue director and Mortimer David Sackler's daughter, Mortimer David Alfons (Mortimer) Sackler, Purdue director and Mortimer Sackler's son, Theresa Sackler, third wife of Mortimer David Sackler and Purdue director, as well as Purdue's, Peter Boer, Judith Lewent, Cecil Pickett, Paulo Costa, Ralph Snyderman, John Stewart, Mark Timney, and Craig Landau of her intention to file a 300-page lawsuit accusing Purdue and eight members of the Sackler family and nine other people currently or formerly associated with the company "of misleading doctors and patients about the risks of OxyContin."
In December an amended complaint was filed, with 700 redacted sections. Documents filed as part of a lawsuit against the company that ... In an email, that was part of the lawsuit, Healey alleged that "Purdue deceived patients and doctors to get them to prescribe and take the addictive drug." Healey says the complaint saying the 189 paragraphs of the lawsuit should be made public. Healey said in the court complaint that, "Revealing the truth about Purdue's misconduct is important to achieve justice and make sure deception like Purdue's never happens again." June 2018 NBC described Healey lawsuit that named eight of the Sackler family members as an "unusual step".
August 14, 2018 New York State filed lawsuit Suffolk County v. Purdue New York v Purdue Pharma LP et al No. 400016/2018 the New York State Supreme Court against the Stamford, Connecticut-based company Purdue Pharma LP, which created and manufactures OxyContin, "one of the most widely used and prescribed opioid drugs on the market", and Purdue's owners, the Sacklers accusing them of "widespread fraud and deception in the marketing of opioids, and contributing to the opioid crisis, the nationwide epidemic that has killed thousands." December 20, 2018 George Jepsen, the Connecticut Attorney General, brought a lawsuit against Purdue Pharma et al.
Purdue denied the allegations. December 21, 2018 Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey filed an amended complaint to Suffolk County v. Purdue with 700 redacted sections. According to CNN, in a ruling by Suffolk County Superior Judge Janet Sanders, an "unredacted amended complaint must be publicly released by February 1". In response, Purdue Pharma filed a motion on January 30 to stay Judge Sanders' order that "could expose details about one of America's richest families and their connection to the nation's opioid crisis." In the lawsuit, Healey said that eight members of the Sackler family are "personally responsible" for the deception.
She alleges they "micromanaged" a "deceptive sales campaign." January 2019 By January 2019, 36 states were suing Purdue Pharma. January 31, 2019 A new lawsuit's disclosures says that an email from Sackler revealed a push for high-dose OxyContin. January 31 On January 31, a Massachusetts state judge agreed with The Times and other media organizations, that the entire complaint related to Sussex v. Purdue, should be made public in spite of Purdue's efforts to block the release. February 2, 2019 "The McKinsey disclosures are part of a lawsuit Massachusetts filed against Purdue Pharma, accusing the company of misleading doctors and patients about the safety of opioid use.
Even when the company knew patients were addicted and dying, it still tried to boost sales of opioids, the lawsuit alleges, adding, "All the while, Purdue peddled falsehoods to keep patients away from safer alternatives." May 2019 The Oklahoma case against Purdue Pharma will go to trial in May 2019; the first of more than forty states suing Purdue Pharma. Notes References Opioid epidemic Opioid epidemic Opioid epidemic Opioid epidemic +Timeline Opioid epidemic
In Hindu cosmology, the universe is cyclically created and destroyed. Its cosmology divides time into four epochs or Yuga, of which the current period is the Kali Yuga. Description According to Hindu vedic cosmology, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and universe has neither start nor end, rather it is cyclical. The current universe is just the start of a present cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes. The dominant theme in Puranic Hindu cosmology, state Chapman and Driver, is of cycles and repetition.
There are multiple universes, each takes birth from chaos, grows, decays and dies into chaos, to be reborn again. Further, there are different and parallel realities. Brahma's one day equals 4.32 billion years which is a Kalpa. Each Kalpa is subdivided into four yuga (chaturyuga, also called mahayuga). These are krita (or satya), treta, dvapara and kali yugas. The current time is stated to be one of kali yuga. The starting year, length of each, or the grand total, is not consistent in the Puranas.
According to Ludo Rocher, the total of four yugas is typically 4,320,000 years, of which 432,000 years is assigned to be the duration of the kali yuga.One complete cycle of the four (Kṛta or Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali) Yugas is one Mahā-Yuga (4.32 million solar years) and is confirmed by the Gītā Śloka 8.17 (statement) "sahasra-yuga-paryantam ahar yad brahmaṇo viduḥ rātriṁ yuga-sahasrāntāṁ te 'ho-rātra-vido janāḥ", meaning, a day of brahma is of 1000 Mahā-Yuga. Thus a day of Brahma, Kalpa, is of duration: 4.32 billion solar years. Two Kalpas constitute 24 hours (day and Night) of Brahma. A Manvantara, which consists of 71 Mahā-Yuga (306,720,000 solar years) is ruled by a Manu.
After each Manvantara follows one Sandhi Kāla, of the same duration as a Kṛta Yuga (1,728,000 Solar Years). It is said that during a Sandhi Kāla, the entire earth is submerged in water. According to Hindu scriptures, the world would be destroyed at the end of the Kali Yuga. Rigveda: speculation on universe's creation The Rigveda presents many theories of cosmology. For example: Hiranyagarbha sukta, its hymn 10.121, states a golden child was born in the universe and was the lord, established earth and heaven, then asks but who is the god to whom we shall offer the sacrificial prayers?
Devi sukta, its hymn 10.125, states a goddess is all, the creator, the created universe, the feeder and the lover of the universe; Nasadiya sukta, its hymn 10.129, asks who created the universe, does anyone really know, and whether it can ever be known. According to Henry White Wallis, the Rigveda and other Vedic texts are full of alternative cosmological theories and curiosity questions. For example, the hymn 1.24 of the Rigveda asks, "these stars, which are set on high, and appear at night, whither do they go in the daytime?" and hymn 10.88 wonders, "how many fires are there, how many suns, how many dawns, how many waters?
I am not posing an awkward question for you fathers; I ask you, poets, only to find out?" To its numerous open-ended questions, the Vedic texts present a diversity of thought, in verses imbued with symbols and allegory, where in some cases forces and agencies are clothed with a distinct personality, while in other cases as nature with or without anthropomorphic activity such as forms of mythical sacrifices. The Rigveda contains the Nasadiya sukta hymn which does not offer a cosmological theory, but asks cosmological questions about the nature of universe and how it began: Vedic: 3 lokas Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows: The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature.
Influenced by the special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own. Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is, coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist independent of a spatial notion, an 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe."
Puranas: 14 lokas The later Puranic view asserts that the Universe is created, destroyed, and re-created in an eternally repetitive series of cycles. A day of Brahma, the creator, endures for about 4,320,000,000 years. In the Brahmanda Purana, there are fourteen worlds. However, other Puranas give different version of this cosmology and associated myths. In the Brahmanda version, the loka consist of seven higher ones (Vyahrtis) and seven lower ones (Pātālas), as follows: Bhuloka, Bhuvar Loka, svarga, Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka, and Satyaloka above, and Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasaataala, Talatala, Mahaatala, Patala and naraka below. The same 14 lokas (worlds) are described in chapter 2.5 of the Bhagavata Purana.
The Puranas genre of Indian literature, found in Hinduism and Jainism, contain a section on cosmology and cosmogony as a requirement. There are dozens of different Mahapuranas and Upapuranas, each with its own theory integrated into a proposed human history consisting of solar and lunar dynasties. Some are similar to Indo-European creation myths, while others are novel. One cosmology, shared by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts involves Mount Meru, with stars and sun moving around it using Dhruva (North Star) as the focal reference. According to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, the diversity of cosmology theories in Hinduism may reflect its tendency to not reject new ideas and empirical observations as they became available, but to adapt and integrate them creatively.
Multiverse in Hinduism The concept of multiverses is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana: Every universe is covered by seven layers – earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego – each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called limitless (Bhagavata Purana 6.16.37) Analogies to describe multiple universes also exist in the Puranic literature: Because You are limitless, neither the lords of heaven nor even You(Vishnu ie dont speak for all of us) Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories.
The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled by the wheel of time to wander within You, like particles of dust blowing about in the sky. The śrutis, following their method of eliminating everything separate from the Supreme, become successful by revealing You as their final conclusion (Bhagavata Purana 10.87.41) The layers or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination (Bhagavata Purana 3.11.41) And who will search through the wide infinities of space to count the universes side by side, each containing its Brahma, its Vishnu, its Shiva?
Who can count the Indras in them all—those Indras side by side, who reign at once in all the innumerable worlds; those others who passed away before them; or even the Indras who succeed each other in any given line, ascending to godly kingship, one by one, and, one by one, passing away (Brahma Vaivarta Purana) Reception According to Carl Sagan: See also Brahmapura Hindu calendar Hindu creationism Hindu idealism Hindu units of time Hindu eschatology Indian astronomy Loka Patala Puranic chronology Urthva lokas Vaikuntha Notes References Bibliography Haug, Martin (1863). The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrificial Prayers.
. Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd edition. Penguin Books, London. . Kak, Subhash C. (2000). 'Birth and Early Development of Indian Astronomy'. In Selin, Helaine (2000). Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy (303–340). Boston: Kluwer. . Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science – from the Babylonians to the Maya. Simon & Schuster, New York. Further reading Date Panchang – an Indian calendar published from Solapur city in Marathi language. External links Ancient Hindu Astronomy The Àryabhatiya of Àryabhata: The oldest exact astronomical constant? Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 8 verse 17 Category:Mythological cosmologies Category:Religious cosmologies el:Κοσμολογία#Ινδουιστική Κοσμολογία th:พรหมภูมิ
The Arch of Constantine () is a triumphal arch in Rome dedicated to the emperor Constantine the Great. The arch was commissioned by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312. Situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill, the arch spans the Via triumphalis, the route taken by victorious military leaders when they entered the city in a triumphal procession. Dedicated in 315, it is the largest Roman triumphal arch, with overall dimensions of.21 m high, 25.9 m wide and 7.4 m deep. It has three bays, the central one being 11.5 m high and 6.5 m wide and the laterals 7.4 m by 3.4 m each.
The arch is constructed of brick-faced concrete reveted in marble. The three bay design with detached columns was first used for the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum (which stands at the end of the triumph route) and repeated in several other arches now lost. Though dedicated to Constantine, much of the sculptural decoration consists of reliefs and statues removed from earlier triumphal monuments dedicated to Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180). History The arch, which was constructed between 312 and 315 AD, was dedicated by the Senate to commemorate ten years (decennalia) of Constantine's reign (306–337) and his victory over the then reigning emperor Maxentius (306–312) at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312, as described on its attic inscription, and officially opened on 25 July 315.
Not only did the Roman senate give the arch for Constantine's victory, they also were celebrating decennia, a series of games that happens every decade for the Romans. On this occasion they also said many prayers. However, Constantine had actually entered Rome on 29 October 312, amidst great rejoicing, and the Senate then commissioned the monument. Constantine then left Rome within two months and did not return till 326. The location, between the Palatine Hill and the Caelian Hill, spanned the ancient route of Roman triumphs (Via triumphalis) at its origin, where it diverged from the Via sacra. This route was that taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph.