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An unusual form of four-stroke model engine that uses what is essentially a sleeve-valve format, is the British RCV series of "SP" model engines, which use a rotating cylinder liner driven through a bevel gear at the cylinder liner's "bottom", which is actually at the aft end of the cylinder; and, even more unusually, have the propeller shaft — as an integrally machined part of the rotating cylinder liner — emerging from what would normally be the cylinder head, which in this design is placed at the extreme front of the engine, achieving a 2:1 gear reduction ratio compared to the vertically oriented crankshaft's rotational speed.
The same firm's "CD" series of model engines use a conventional upright single cylinder with the crankshaft used to spin the propeller directly and also use the rotating cylinder valve. As a parallel with the earlier Charles Knight-designed sleeve-valved automotive powerplants, any RCV sleeve-valved model engine that is run on model glow engine fuel using castor oil (about 2% to 4% content) of the maximum 15%-content lubricant in the fuel allows the "varnish" created through engine operation to provide a better pneumatic seal between the rotating cylinder valve and the unitized engine cylinder/head castings, initially formed while the engine is being broken in.
The same company can also supply somewhat larger engines for use in military drones, portable generators and equipment such as lawn mowers. These are "multi fuel" insofar as they can be configured to run on gasoline, kerosene, including aircraft fuels, and diesel oil. Owing to the impossibility to use conventional poppet valves in opposed-piston engines, American company Pinnacle Engines also promotes a sleeve-valve layout in its 4-stroke opposed-piston engine developments. Variable valve timing was also proposed in a 3-cylinder 1.5L development from Pinnacle Engines, but as of December 2016 there are not so many details available for the general public.
Steam engine Sleeve valves have occasionally, but unsuccessfully, been used on steam engines, for example the SR Leader class. See also :Category:Sleeve valve engines Slide valve Piston valve Corliss valve References Aircraft Engine Historical Society -AEHS- publication: "Torque Meter", Vol 7, issues 2,3,4. Robert J. Raymond: "Comparison of Sleeve and Poppet-Valve Aircraft Piston Engines", AEHS 2005 Car & Driver, July 1974, pp, 26-29, 112-114 (cover shows a Bricklin car): 'A trick up his sleeve', Charles Fox interviews Mike Hewland. H E Carroll: GB Patent 24.232; 1908 J B Hull: "Non-Poppet Valve Motors at the 1911 Olympia Show", SAE paper 120011.
Ateliers Piccard, Pictet & Cie: GB Patent 118.407; 1917 Harry Ricardo: "Recent Research Work on the Internal Combustion Engine", SAE Journal, May 1922, pp 305–336 (ends in p. 347) R Abell: "Single Valve Internal Combustion Engine Design and Operation", SAE Journal, Oct 1923, pp 301–309 (Another type of non-poppet valve, used also by Lotus in a 2-stroke engine -SAE paper 920779) P M Heldt: "Sleeve-Valve Engines", SAE Journal, March 1926, pp 303–314 W.A. Frederick: "The Single-Sleeve-Valve Engine", SAE Journal, May 1927, pp 661–678 (Calculations). G L Ensor: "Some Notes on the Single-Sleeve Valve", The Institution of Automobile Engineers (London) Proceedings, Vol XXII, Session 1927-28, pp 651–719.
A M Niven: "Internal combustion engine", Patent US 1739255, 1929. Frank Jardine: "Thermal Expansion in Automotive Engine Design", SAE Journal, Sept 1930, pp 311–318, and SAE paper 300010. A M Niven: "Sleeve valve actuating mechanism", Patent US 1764972, 1930. A M NIven: "Internal combustion engine", Patent US 1778911, 1930. A M Niven: "Sleeve valve cylinder head", Patent US 1780763, 1930. A M Niven: "Sleeve valve driving mechanism", Patent US 1789341, 1931. R Fedden: Patents GB425060, GB584525, and CA353554 on Sleeve materials, production and hardening. A M Niven: "Sleeve valve and method of making same", Patent Nº US1814764A; 1931 A M Niven: "Sleeve valve and method of making same", U.S. Patent N º 1,820,629; 1931 A. H. R. Fedden: "The Single Sleeve as a Valve Mechanism for the Aircraft Engine", SAE paper 380161.
Ashley C Hewitt: "Small High-Speed Single Sleeve Valve Engine", SAE paper 390049 (Single cylinder, air cooled 4.21 ci., 70 cc. engine). W P Ricart: "Some European Comments on High-Output Automobile and Aero-Engines", SAE paper 390099. P V Lamarque, "The design of Cooling Fins for Motor-Cycle Engines", Report of the Automobile Research Committee, Institution of Automobile Engineers Magazine, March 1943 issue, and also in "The Institution of Automobile Engineers Proceedings-London-", Vol. XXXVII, Session 1942-43, pp 99–134 and 309-312. Robert Insley & Arthur W. Green: "Method for making valve sleeves", U.S. Patent Nº 2,319,546; 1943 Marcus C Inman Hunter: "Rotary Valve Engines', Hutchinson, 1946 (In Scribd) G F Hiett and J VB Robson: "A High-Power Two-Cycle Sleeve-Valve Engine for Aircraft", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology (1950), Vol 22, Iss 1, pp.
21–23, same authors, magazine and title, 2nd part, in Vol 22, Iss 2, pp. 32–45 Harry Ricardo: "The Sleeve-Valve Diesel Engine", '19 Andrew Laing Lecture', North East Coast Instit. of Engineers and Shipbuilders, transact 67 Session, 1950–51, p. 69-88. Harry Ricardo: The High-Speed Internal Combustion Engine, London, 1953 ed. (Materials, see also in talk) 'Unorthodox I.C. Engines -Rotary and Sleeve-Valve Types', Model Engineer, Vol 122, nº 3056, 4 February 1960, pags 136-138 Peter R. March: 'The Sleeve-Valve Engine', airextra, nº 27, 1977, pags 11-19 William Wagner: Continental! Its Motors and Its People, Aero Publishers, CA, 1983. Strictly I.C. Magazine, Vol 14, Numbers 83 & 84 (Construction of a 1/3 scale model of a Barr & Stroud SSV Motorcycle Engine).
Michael Worthington-Williams: 'Something Up their Sleeve', The Automobile (UK), Vol 21 Nº 3, May 2003, pags 48-51 Robert J. Raymond: "Comparison of Sleeve and Poppet-Valve Aircraft Piston Engines", AEHS, April 2005. Kimble D. McCutcheon: "The Liquid-Cooled Engines of Pratt & Whitney", AEHS, 2006. Muhammad Hafdiz Rahmat et al. (PETRONAS): "Side Opening Intake Strategy Simulation and Validation of a Sleeve-Valve Port Application", SAE paper 2009-32-0130/20097130 Anish Gokhale et al. : "Optimization of Engine Cooling through Conjugate Heat Transfer Simulation and Analysis of Fins", SAE Paper 2012-32-0054 YouTube: Videos by ChargerMiles007, Anson Engine Museum and others, search keyword: Sleeve Valve. Anson Engine Museum: YouTube video on the Petter Brotherhood engine, a railroad single-sleeve-valve engine designed around 1930 in the company participated by J.
B. Mirrlees. Bristol Engines' Manuals Nahum, Foster-Pegg, and Birch: 'The Rolls-Royce Crecy'', The Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, 2013. External links Video showing a cutaway Knight Sleeve-Valve Engine A Briggs & Stratton lawnmower engine modified to Single-Sleeve-Valve Distribution type 1931 Edition of Harry Ricardo: 'The High-Speed Internal Combustion Engine' Douglas Self site: 'Rotary Valves in Internal Combustion Engines' Category:Engine valves Category:Engine valvetrain configurations Category:Sleeve valve engines
The Committee on Accounting Procedure (CAP) was the first private sector organization that had the task of setting accounting standards in the United States. It was a committee run by the American Institute of Accountants (now known as the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants). CAP is the predecessor of the Accounting Principles Board, itself a predecessor to the Financial Accounting Standards Board. Its formation and activities were early efforts to rationalize and legitimize the reporting of business performance. However, it is widely regarded as having failed. George O. May was vice chairman of the committee from 1937 to 1945.
The committee published Accounting Research Bulletins. References Category:Business organizations based in the United States
A bottle is a narrow-necked container made of an impermeable material (clay, glass, plastic, aluminium etc.) in various shapes and sizes to store and transport liquids (water, milk, beer, wine, ink, cooking oil, medicine, soft drinks, shampoo, and chemicals, etc.) and whose mouth at the bottling line can be sealed with an internal stopper, an external bottle cap, a closure, or a conductive "inner seal" using induction sealing. Some of the earliest bottles appeared in China, Phoenicia, Crete, and Rome. Etymology First attested in 14th century. From the English word bottle derives from an Old French word boteille, from vulgar Latin butticula, from late Latin buttis ("cask"), a latinisation of the Greek βοῦττις (bouttis) ("vessel").
Types of bottle Glass bottles Wine bottles The glass bottle represented an important development in the history of wine, because, when combined with a high-quality stopper such as a cork, it allowed long-term aging of wine. Glass has all the qualities required for long-term storage. It eventually gave rise to "château bottling", the practice where an estate's wine is put in a bottle at the source, rather than by a merchant. Prior to this, wine used to be sold by the barrel (and before that, the amphora) and put into bottles only at the merchant's shop, if at all. This left large and often abused opportunities for fraud and adulteration, as consumers had to trust the merchant as to the contents.
It is thought that most wine consumed outside of wine-producing regions had been tampered with in some way. Also, not all merchants were careful to avoid oxidation or contamination while bottling, leading to large bottle variation. Particularly in the case of port, certain conscientious merchants' bottling of old ports fetch higher prices even today. To avoid these problems, most fine wine is bottled at the place of production (including all port, since 1974). There are many sizes and shapes of bottles used for wine. Some of the known shapes: "Bordeaux": This bottle is roughly straight sided with a curved "shoulder" that is useful for catching sediment and is also the easiest to stack.
Traditionally used in Bordeaux but now worldwide, this is probably the most common type. "Burgundy": Traditionally used in Burgundy, this has sides that taper down about 2/3 of the height to a short cylindrical section, and does not have a shoulder. "Champagne": Traditionally used for Champagne, it is similar to a Burgundy bottle, but with a wider base. Also, it is heavier due to the pressurization. Codd-neck bottles In 1872, British soft drink makers Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented a bottle designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle was designed and manufactured to enclose a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck.
The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape, as can be seen in the photo to the left, to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured. Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries, mainly in Europe, Asia and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle.
One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology. The bottles were regularly produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, they are relatively scarce and have become collector items; particularly in the UK. A cobalt-coloured Codd bottle today fetches hundreds of British pounds at auction. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune and in the Indian drink called Banta. Plastic bottles The plastic is strain oriented in the stretch blow molding manufacturing process.
Plastic bottles are typically used to store liquids such as water, soft drinks, motor oil, cooking oil, medicine, shampoo, milk, and ink. The size ranges from very small sample bottles to very large carboys. The main advantage that plastic bottles have over glass is their superior resistance to breakage, in both production and transportation, as well as their low cost of production; however, their contribution towards plastic pollution is considerable. Aluminium bottles An aluminium bottle is a bottle made of aluminium (or aluminum, in American English). In some countries, it is also referred to as a "bottlecan". It is a bottle made entirely of aluminium that holds beer, soft drinks, wine, and other liquids.
Hot water bottles A hot water bottle is a bottle filled with hot water used to provide warmth. It can be made from various materials, most commonly rubber, but has historically been made from harder materials such as metal, glass, earthenware, or wood. Gallery Miscellany Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material. See also Beer bottle Bottle sling Bottle wall Bottling company Bottling (concert abuse) Butylka - The largest building in the world in the shape of a bottle Carinate Glass production Helmholtz resonance Klein bottle List of bottle types, brands and companies List of bottling companies Reuse of bottles Speyer wine bottle Notes References Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, Category:Food storage containers Category:Liquid containers Category:Packaging Category:Food packaging
In human anatomy, the eponychium, or cuticle, is the thickened layer of skin surrounding fingernails and toenails. It can also be called the medial or proximal nail fold. Its function is to protect the area between the nail and epidermis from exposure to bacteria. The vascularization pattern is similar to that of perionychium. In hoofed animals, the eponychium is the deciduous hoof capsule in fetuses and newborn foals, and is a part of the permanent hoof in older animals. The word eponychium comes . See also Hyponychium Lunula Nail Paronychium References Category:Nail anatomy
Six Feet Under is an American drama television series created and produced by Alan Ball. It premiered on the premium network HBO in the United States on June 3, 2001, and ended on August 21, 2005, spanning five seasons and 63 episodes. It depicts the lives of the Fisher family, who run a funeral home in Los Angeles, along with their friends and lovers. The ensemble drama stars Peter Krause, Michael C. Hall, Frances Conroy, Lauren Ambrose, Freddy Rodriguez, Mathew St. Patrick, and Rachel Griffiths as the central characters. It was produced by Actual Size Films and The Greenblatt/Janollari Studio, and was shot on location in Los Angeles and in Hollywood studios.
Six Feet Under received widespread critical acclaim, particularly for its writing and acting, and consistently drew high ratings for the HBO network. It is regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time, included on TIME magazine's "All-TIME 100 TV Shows", The Guardians "100 Best TV Shows of the 21st Century" list, and Empire magazine's "50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time" list. The show's finale has also been described as one of the greatest television series finales. The series won numerous awards, including nine Emmy Awards, three Screen Actors Guild Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Peabody Award.
Show synopsis The show stars Peter Krause as Nate Fisher, whose funeral director father (Richard Jenkins) dies and bequeaths ownership of Fisher & Sons Funeral Home to him and his brother David (Michael C. Hall). The Fisher clan also includes widow Ruth Fisher (Frances Conroy) and daughter Claire Fisher (Lauren Ambrose). Other regulars include mortician and family friend Federico Diaz (Freddy Rodriguez), Nate's on-again/off-again girlfriend Brenda Chenowith (Rachel Griffiths), and David's long-term boyfriend Keith Charles (Mathew St. Patrick). On one level, the show is a conventional family drama, dealing with such issues as interpersonal relationships, infidelity, and religion. At the same time, it is distinguished by its focus on the topic of death, which it explores on personal, religious, and philosophical levels.
Each episode begins with a death, the cause of which ranges from heart attack to murder to sudden infant death syndrome. That death usually sets the thematic tone for each episode, allowing the characters to reflect on their current fortunes and misfortunes in a way that is illuminated by the death and its aftermath. The show also uses dark humor and surrealism throughout its seasons. A recurring plot device consists of a character having an imaginary conversation with the deceased; for example, Nate, David, and Federico sometimes "converse" with the deceased at the beginning of the episode, while the corpse is being embalmed, or during funeral planning or the funeral itself.
Sometimes, the characters converse with other deceased characters, most notably Nathaniel Fisher, Sr. The show's creator Alan Ball avers that this represents the living characters' internal dialogues expressed in the form of external conversations. Production Concept Although overall plots and characters were created by Alan Ball, reports conflict on how the series was conceived. In one instance, Ball stated that he came up with the premise of the show after the deaths of his sister and father. However, in an interview, he intimates that HBO entertainment president Carolyn Strauss proposed the idea to him. In a copyright-infringement lawsuit, screenwriter Gwen O'Donnell asserted that she was the original source of the idea that later passed through Strauss to Ball; the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, proceeding on the assumption that this assertion was true, rejected her claim.
Ball stated in an interview: Major themes The show focuses on human mortality, the symbiotic nature of life and death feeding off of each other, and the lives of those who deal with it on a daily basis. When discussing the concept of the show, creator Ball elaborates on the foremost questions the show's pilot targeted: Six Feet Under introduces the Fisher family as the basis on which to explore these questions. Throughout its five-season, 63-episode run, major characters experience crises which are in direct relation to their environment and the grief they have experienced. Alan Ball again relates these experiences, as well as the choice of the series' title, to the persistent subtext of the program: Setting Exteriors for the Fisher home were shot at 2302 West 25th Street and the intersection of Arlington Avenue, in the West Adams neighborhood of Los Angeles.
In Season 5, episode 1, Rico mentions that he grew up "in West Adams, near where I work." Crew Creator Alan Ball also served as executive producer and showrunner for the entire series run. Robert Greenblatt and David Janollari executive produced the series, as the Greenblatt Janollari Studio was one of the production companies. The other producers were Lori Jo Nemhauser and Robert Del Valle. The writing staff included Ball, who wrote nine episodes over the series run, including the pilot episode and the series finale. Writers who were on staff for the entire series run included Rick Cleveland, who wrote eight episodes and became an executive producer in the fifth season; Kate Robin, who wrote eight episodes and became a supervising producer in the fifth season; and Bruce Eric Kaplan, who wrote seven episodes and became an executive producer in the fourth season.
Christian Williams was just on staff for the first season, writing two episodes. Both Laurence Andries and Christian Taylor wrote three episodes each during their run on the series for the first two seasons, and they also served as producers. Scott Buck and Jill Soloway joined in the second season, staying on staff for the rest of the series, and each wrote seven episodes. Buck became a co-executive producer in the fourth season, and Soloway became a co-executive producer in the fifth season. The last set of writers to join the staff were Craig Wright and Nancy Oliver in the third season.
Wright wrote six episodes and became a producer in the fifth season and Oliver wrote five episodes and became a co-producer in the fifth season. Ball also directed the most episodes, directing the pilot and each of the season finales. Dan Attias also directed six episodes, from seasons two to five. Kathy Bates (who also played Bettina on the series), Michael Cuesta, Rodrigo García, and Jeremy Podeswa each directed five episodes. Michael Engler, Daniel Minahan, and Alan Poul (who also served as an executive producer for the series) each directed four episodes. Miguel Arteta directed three episodes and Nicole Holofcener directed two episodes.
Single-episode directors included Peter Care, Alan Caso, Lisa Cholodenko, Allen Coulter, Adam Davidson, Mary Harron, Joshua Marston, Jim McBride, Karen Moncrieff, John Patterson, Matt Shakman, Alan Taylor, Rose Troche, and Peter Webber. Music The series' main theme, written by composer Thomas Newman, won a 2002 Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music and two Grammy Awards in 2003 for Best Instrumental Composition and Best Instrumental Arrangement. The production sound from seasons three through five was mixed by Bo Harwood, and was nominated in 2004 for a Cinema Audio Society Award. Seasons two through five featured a promotional teaser trailer prior to the premiere of that season.
The songs featured in each season's trailer were "Heaven" by Lamb for season two; "A Rush of Blood to the Head" by Coldplay for season three; "Feeling Good" by Nina Simone for season four; and "Breathe Me" by Sia Furler for season five, which is also used for montage in the series finale. All these songs are included in either of two soundtracks for the show. The episode recaps for the first two seasons feature the song "Nothing Lies Still Long" by Pell Mell. The episode previews for the first and fifth seasons feature the Six Feet Under title theme, while the other seasons feature the Rae & Christian remix version of the title theme.
Music supervision for the entire run of the series was provided by Gary Calamar and Thomas Golubic, who were also credited as producers for the two soundtrack albums. Cast and characters Main Peter Krause as Nate Fisher – the eldest child, in search of meaning, while facing the prospect of his own death. Michael C. Hall as David Fisher – the middle child, coming to terms with being gay. Frances Conroy as Ruth Fisher – the matriarch, emotionally repressed and trying to form a new, independent life. Lauren Ambrose as Claire Fisher – the youngest child, rebellious and creative. Freddy Rodriguez as Federico Diaz – the business partner of the Fishers, a family man.
Mathew St. Patrick as Keith Charles – David's on-off significant other, a member of the LAPD. Rachel Griffiths as Brenda Chenowith – Nate's on-off significant other, who struggles with depression. Jeremy Sisto as Billy Chenowith – Brenda's younger brother, who has bipolar disorder (starring season 1, recurring seasons 2–5). Justina Machado as Vanessa Diaz – Federico's wife, a licensed vocational nurse (recurring seasons 1–4, starring season 5) James Cromwell as George Sibley – a geology professor and Ruth's second husband (recurring season 3, starring seasons 4–5). Recurring Richard Jenkins as Nathaniel Fisher, Sr. – the patriarch of the Fisher family, who dies at the start, but appears in dream sequences and flashbacks (seasons 1–5).
Joanna Cassidy as Margaret Chenowith – Brenda and Billy's psychologist mother (seasons 1–5). Giancarlo Rodriguez as Julio Diaz – Federico and Vanessa's son (seasons 1–5). Tim Maculan as Father Jack – the priest at the Fisher's family church (seasons 1–5). Eric Balfour as Gabriel Dimas – Claire's high-school boyfriend, and a chronic drug user (seasons 1–5). Robert Foxworth as Dr. Bernard Chenowith – Brenda and Billy's psychiatrist father (seasons 1–5). Ed O'Ross as Nikolai – a boyfriend of Ruth's when she worked as a florist (seasons 1, 2, and 5). Marina Black as Parker McKenna – a friend of Claire's during high school (seasons 1–2).
David Norona as Gary Deitman – Claire's counselor (seasons 1–2). Gary Hershberger as Matthew Gilardi – an employee of a major funeral home organization, who attempts to buy out Fisher & Sons (seasons 1–2). Ed Begley, Jr., as Hiram Gunderson – Hiram, a hair stylist, had an affair with Ruth while she was married to Nathaniel (seasons 1 and 5) Illeana Douglas as Angela – Angela temporarily replaced Federico in Fisher & Sons (seasons 1 and 5). Patricia Clarkson as Sarah O'Connor – Ruth's younger sister, an artist who lives in Topanga Canyon (seasons 2–5). Lili Taylor as Lisa Kimmel Fisher – Nate's former roommate, his first wife, and mother of his daughter Maya (seasons 2–5).
Melissa Marsala as Angelica – Vanessa's sister, who has a contentious relationship with her brother-in-law Federico (seasons 2–5). Aysia Polk as Taylor Charles – Keith's niece, who is under his care (seasons 2–3). John Paul Pitoc as Phil – Claire's boyfriend briefly and works at the crematorium (seasons 2–3). Kellie Waymire as Melissa – a high-class prostitute whom Brenda befriends (season 2). Nicki Micheaux as Karla Charles – Keith's sister and Taylor's mother, and a drug addict (season 2). Julie White as Mitzi Dalton-Huntley – an employee of a major funeral home organization, who attempts to buy out Fisher & Sons (seasons 1–2).
Kathy Bates as Bettina – Sarah's friend and caretaker, who becomes a good friend of Ruth's (seasons 3–5). Peter Macdissi as Olivier Castro-Staal – Claire's professor at art school and Margaret Chenowith's lover (seasons 3–5). Ben Foster as Russell Corwin – Claire's boyfriend during art school (seasons 3–5). Brenna Tosh and Bronwyn Tosh as Maya Fisher – Nate and Lisa's young daughter (seasons 3–5). Rainn Wilson as Arthur Martin – a young intern from mortuary school, who works for the funeral home (seasons 3–5). Justin Theroux as Joe – Brenda's neighbor and boyfriend during season 4 (seasons 3–4). Idalis DeLeón as Sophia – an exotic dancer with whom Federico has an affair (seasons 3–4).
Catherine O'Hara as Carol Ward – Lisa's boss, a neurotic motion-picture producer (seasons 3, 5). Sprague Grayden as Anita Miller – Claire's friend from art school (seasons 4–5). Peter Facinelli as Jimmy – Claire's friend from art school and one-time lover (seasons 4–5). Mena Suvari as Edie – a free-spirited lesbian artist and friend of Claire's from art school (season 4). Michael Weston as Jake – a mentally unstable crack addict who kidnaps and assaults David (seasons 4–5). Tina Holmes as Maggie Sibley – George's daughter, who has an affair with Nate (seasons 4–5). Matt Malloy as Roger Pasquese – Keith's employer, a movie producer (seasons 4–5).
Julie Dretzin as Barb – Lisa's sister (season 4). Jeff Yagher as Hoyt – Lisa's brother-in-law (season 4). Michelle Trachtenberg as Celeste – a pop star under Keith's security (season 4). Bobby Cannavale as Javier – Keith's colleague (season 4). Chris Messina as Ted Fairwell – a lawyer at Claire's temporary office job and her boyfriend during season 5. Kendré Berry as Durrell Charles-Fisher – an adopted son of David and Keith's (season 5). C. J. Sanders as Anthony Charles-Fisher – an adopted son of David and Keith's (season 5). Anne Ramsay as Jackie Feldman – Brenda's colleague and friend (season 5).
Family tree Episodes Reception Critical reception Six Feet Under was met with critical acclaim. The first season holds a rating of 74 out of 100 at Metacritic based on 23 reviews. Early reviews of the series were positive, prior to the screening of the pilot episode; Steve Oxman of Variety stated, "Six Feet Under is a smart, brooding, fanciful character-driven ensemble piece about a family in the funeral biz." Following the series premiere, Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter commented that the series' "examination of family life through the prism of a mortuary business, combines sardonic humor with poignant drama and comes up with a unique tone and style, in itself quite an accomplishment for any TV series.
It is fearless in its approach to storytelling and, far more often than not, succeeds in the risks it takes" and "there is much to admire about this series, including top-notch performances, artful direction and creative storytelling that employs various techniques, including dream sequences and parody commercials. Best of all, though, is Ball’s introspection and the insight he provides about society, the funeral industry, and family relationships." Bill Carter of The New York Times wrote, "Six Feet Under certainly got enthusiastic reviews, almost universally glowing notices about the rich characterizations and quirky humor shaped by the show's celebrated creator, Alan Ball, the Academy Award-winning writer of the film American Beauty."
In an early response from HBO executive Chris Albrecht, he announced in regards to the viewers, that they are "totally thrilled with the series." The series finale is considered one of the greatest endings in television history. In a 2015 interview with Alan Ball, Peter Krause, Michael C. Hall, and Lauren Ambrose for The Hollywood Reporter, to mark 10 years since the show's ending, they described it as the "finale that would not die". Megan Vick of The Hollywood Reporter said, "The idea of flashing forward to depict how each member of the Fishers and their loved ones would pass on seemed revolutionary in 2005, but Ball – who created the series and would write and direct its final episode – uses another word for it – inevitable."
Ratings Awards and nominations At the 2002 Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 23 nominations for its first two seasons, including a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series. Series creator Alan Ball won for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode and Patricia Clarkson won for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. The rest of the ensemble cast, including Michael C. Hall, Peter Krause, Frances Conroy, Rachel Griffiths, Freddy Rodriguez, and Lauren Ambrose all received acting nominations. Guest actors Lili Taylor and Illeana Douglas received nominations in the guest-acting category. The series received 16 nominations at the 2003 Primetime Emmy Awards for its third season, including a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series.
Krause, Conroy, Ambrose, Griffiths, James Cromwell, and Kathy Bates all received acting nominations. Alan Poul was nominated for directing for the episode "Nobody Sleeps", and Craig Wright was nominated for writing for the episode "Twilight". The series received five nominations at the 2005 Primetime Emmy Awards for its fourth season, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Frances Conroy. The series received nine nominations at the 2006 Primetime Emmy Awards for its fifth and final season. Patricia Clarkson won for the second time for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, and Krause, Conroy, and Joanna Cassidy received acting nominations.
Ball was nominated for writing and directing for the series finale episode "Everyone's Waiting". For the Golden Globe Awards, the series won for Best Drama Series in 2001, and received nominations in 2002 and 2003. Peter Krause was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series in 2001 and 2002. Rachel Griffiths won for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or TV Film in 2001, and received a nomination in 2002 in the Lead Actress category. Frances Conroy won for Best Actress in a Drama Series in 2003. For the Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast won for Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2002 and 2003, and received nominations in 2001, 2004, and 2005.
Peter Krause was nominated for Outstanding Male Actor in a Drama Series in 2001 and 2003. Frances Conroy won for Outstanding Female Actor in a Drama Series in 2003. The series won a Peabody Award for general excellence in 2002 "for its unsettling yet powerfully humane explorations of life and death". Home media DVDs The first season was released in a VHS box set. All five seasons are available on DVD in individual box sets and in a collected volume. Soundtracks Two soundtrack albums, featuring music that had appeared in the series, were released: Six Feet Under (March 5, 2002) Six Feet Under, Vol.
2: Everything Ends (June 21, 2005) Books Streaming The complete series is available from various streaming sites including HBO Now, Amazon Video and Hotstar. See also Family Plots – a reality TV series about a Poway, California-based funeral home References External links Category:2001 American television series debuts Category:2005 American television series endings Category:2000s American drama television series Category:2000s American LGBT-related drama television series Category:Adultery in television Category:Best Drama Series Golden Globe winners Category:Bipolar disorder in fiction Category:Emmy Award-winning programs Category:English-language television programs Category:Funeral homes in fiction Category:HBO original programming Category:Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:Peabody Award-winning television programs Category:Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Category:Serial drama television series Category:Television series about dysfunctional families Category:Television series by Warner Bros. Television Category:Television shows about death Category:Television shows set in Los Angeles
Conradi is a surname. It comes from the Germanic Konrad: kuoni and rad meaning happy or laughing or rat meaning daring/experienced counsel. August Conradi (1821–1873), German composer Edward Conradi (1869–1944), American educator and administrator Erwin Conradi (born 1935), German manager Demoiselle Conradi (died 1720), German opera singer Johann Georg Conradi (1645–1699), German composer Ludwig R. Conradi (1856–1939), Seventh-day Adventist missionary Maurice Conradi (1896–1947), a White Russian officer Peter Conradi, British author and journalist Peter J. Conradi (born 1945), British author and academic See also Conradi–Hünermann syndrome Conrad (disambiguation) References
A model is a person with a role either to promote, display or advertise commercial products (notably fashion clothing in fashion shows), or to serve as a visual aid for people who are creating works of art or to pose for photography. Modelling ("modeling" in American English) is considered to be different from other types of public performance, such as acting or dancing. Although the difference between modelling and performing is not always clear, appearing in a film or a play is not generally considered to be "modelling". Types of modelling include: fashion, glamour, fitness, bikini, fine art, body-part, promotional, and commercial print models.
Models are featured in a variety of media formats including: books, magazines, films, newspapers, internet and television. Fashion models are sometimes featured in films (Prêt-à-Porter and Looker); reality TV shows (America's Next Top Model and The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency); and music videos ("Freedom! '90", "Wicked Game", "Daughters" and "Blurred Lines"). Celebrities, including actors, singers, sports personalities and reality TV stars, frequently participate in modelling contests, assignments as well as contracts in addition to their regular work. History Early years Modelling as a profession was first established in 1853 by Charles Frederick Worth, the "father of haute couture", when he asked his wife, Marie Vernet Worth, to model the clothes he designed.
The term "house model" was coined to describe this type of work. Eventually, this became common practice for Parisian fashion houses. There were no standard physical measurement requirements for a model, and most designers would use women of varying sizes to demonstrate variety in their designs. With the development of fashion photography, the modelling profession expanded to photo modelling. Models remained fairly anonymous, and relatively poorly paid, until the late 1940s, when the world's first three supermodels, Barbara Goalen, Bettina Graziani and Lisa Fonssagrives began commanding very large sums. During the 1940s and 1950s, Graziani was the most photographed woman in France and the undisputed queen of couture, while Fonssagrives appeared on over 200 Vogue covers; her name recognition led to the importance of Vogue in shaping the careers of fashion models.
One of the most popular models during the 1940s was Jinx Falkenburg who was paid $25 per hour, a large sum at the time; through the 1950s, Wilhelmina Cooper, Jean Patchett, Dovima, Dorian Leigh, Suzy Parker, Evelyn Tripp, and Carmen Dell'Orefice also dominated fashion. Dorothea Church was among the first black models in the industry to gain recognition in Paris. However, these models were unknown outside the fashion community. Wilhelmina Cooper's measurements were 38"-24"-36" whereas Chanel Iman's measurements are 32"-23"-33". In 1946, Ford Models was established by Eileen and Gerard Ford in New York; it is one of the oldest model agencies in the world.
The 1960s and the beginning of the industry In the 1960s, the modelling world began to establish modelling agencies. Throughout Europe, secretarial services acted as models' agents charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings. For the most part, models were responsible for their own billing. In Germany, agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person's earnings, so referred to themselves as secretaries. With the exception of a few models travelling to Paris or New York, travelling was relatively unheard of for a model. Most models only worked in one market due to different labor laws governing modelling in various countries.
In the 1960s, Italy had many fashion houses and fashion magazines but was in dire need of models. Italian agencies would often coerce models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay. They would also pay their models in cash, which models would have to hide from customs agents. It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in Paris or the Arena in Milan to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas. It was rumoured that competing agencies were behind the raids. This led many agencies to form worldwide chains; for example, the Marilyn Agency has branches in Paris and New York.
By the late 1960s, London was considered the best market in Europe due to its more organised and innovative approach to modelling. It was during this period that models began to become household names. Models such as Jean Shrimpton, Tania Mallet, Celia Hammond, Twiggy, Penelope Tree, and dominated the London fashion scene and were well paid, unlike their predecessors. Twiggy became The Face of '66 at the age of 16. At this time, model agencies were not as restrictive about the models they represented, although it was uncommon for them to sign shorter models. Twiggy, who stood at with a 32" bust and had a boy's haircut, is credited with changing model ideals.
At that time, she earned £80 an hour, while the average wage was £15 a week.In 1967, seven of the top model agents in London formed the Association of London Model Agents. The formation of this association helped legitimize modelling and changed the fashion industry. Even with a more professional attitude towards modelling, models were still expected to have their hair and makeup done before they arrived at a shoot. Meanwhile, agencies took responsibility for a model's promotional materials and branding. That same year, former top fashion model Wilhelmina Cooper opened up her own fashion agency with her husband called Wilhelmina Models.
By 1968, FM Agency and Models 1 were established and represented models in a similar way that agencies do today. By the late 1960s, models were treated better and were making better wages. One of the innovators, Ford Models, was the first agency to advance models money they were owed and would often allow teen models, who did not live locally, to reside in their house, a precursor to model housing. The 1970s and 1980s The innovations of the 1960s flowed into the 1970s fashion scene. As a result of model industry associations and standards, model agencies became more business minded, and more thought went into a model's promotional materials.
By this time, agencies were starting to pay for a model's publicity. In the early 1970s, Scandinavia had many tall, leggy, blonde-haired, blue-eyed models and not enough clients. It was during this time that Ford Models pioneered scouting. They would spend time working with agencies holding modelling contests. This was the precursor to the Ford Models Supermodel of the World competition which was established in 1980. Ford also focused their attentions on Brazil which had a wide array of seemingly "exotic" models, which eventually led to establishment of Ford Models Brazil. It was also during this time that the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debuted.
The magazine set a trend by photographing "bigger and healthier" California models, and printing their names by their photos, thus turning many of them into household names and establishing the issue as a hallmark of supermodel status. The 1970s marked numerous milestones in fashion. Beverly Johnson was the first African American to appear on the cover of U.S. Vogue in 1974. Models, including Iman, Grace Jones, Pat Cleveland, Alva Chinn, Donyale Luna, Minah Bird, Naomi Sims, and Toukie Smith were some of the top black fashion models who paved the way for black women in fashion. In 1975, Margaux Hemingway landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of Fabergé's Babe perfume and the same year appeared on the cover of Time magazine, labelled one of the "New Beauties", giving further name recognition to fashion models.
Many of the world's most prominent modelling agencies were established in the 1970s and early 1980s. These agencies created the standard by which agencies now run. In 1974, Nevs Models was established in London with only a men's board, the first of its kind. Elite Models was founded in Paris in 1975 as well as Friday's Models in Japan. The next year Cal-Carries was established in Singapore, the first of a chain of agencies in Asia. In 1977, Select Model Management opened its doors as well as Why Not Models in Milan. By the 1980s, agencies such as Premier Model Management, Storm Models, Mikas, Marilyn, and Metropolitan Models had been established.
In October 1981, Life cited Shelley Hack, Lauren Hutton and Iman for Revlon, Margaux Hemingway for Fabergé, Karen Graham for Estée Lauder, Christina Ferrare for Max Factor, and Cheryl Tiegs for CoverGirl by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These models negotiated previously unheard of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and their names became well known to the public. By the 1980s, most models were able to make modelling a full-time career. It was common for models to travel abroad and work throughout Europe. As modelling became global, numerous agencies began to think globally.
In 1980, Ford Models, the innovator of scouting, introduced the Ford Models Supermodel of the World contest. That same year, John Casablancas opened Elite Models in New York. In 1981, cosmetics companies began contracting top models to lucrative endorsement deals. By 1983, Elite developed its own contest titled the Elite Model Look competition. In New York during the 1980s there were so-called "model wars" in which the Ford and Elite agencies fought over models and campaigns. Models were jumping back and forth between agencies such Elite, Wilhelmina, and Ford. In New York, the late 1980s trend was the boyish look in which models had short cropped hair and looked androgynous.
In Europe, the trend was the exact opposite. During this time, a lot of American models who were considered more feminine looking moved abroad. By the mid-1980s, big hair was made popular by some musical groups, and the boyish look was out. The curvaceous models who had been popular in the 1950s and early 1970s were in style again. Models like Patti Hansen earned $200 an hour for print and $2,000 for television plus residuals. It was estimated that Hansen earned about $300,000 a year during the 1980s. 1990s The early 1990s were dominated by the high fashion models of the late 1980s.
In 1990, Linda Evangelista famously said to Vogue, "we don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day". Evangelista and her contemporaries, Naomi Campbell, Cindy Crawford, Christy Turlington, Tatjana Patitz and Stephanie Seymour, became arguably the most recognizable models in the world, earning the moniker of "supermodel", and were boosted to global recognition and new heights of wealth for the industry. In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year. By the mid‑1990s, the new "heroin chic" movement became popular amongst New York and London editorial clients. Kate Moss became its poster child through her ads for Calvin Klein.
In spite of the heroin chic movement, model Claudia Schiffer earned $12 million. With the popularity of lingerie retailer Victoria's Secret, and the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, there was a need for healthier-looking supermodels such as Tyra Banks and Heidi Klum to meet commercial modelling demand. The mid‑1990s also saw many Asian countries establishing modelling agencies. By the late 1990s, the heroin chic era had run its course. Teen-inspired clothing infiltrated mainstream fashion, teen pop music was on the rise, and artists such as Britney Spears, Aaliyah and Christina Aguilera popularized pleather and bare midriffs. As fashion changed to a more youthful demographic, the models who rose to fame had to be sexier for the digital age.
Following Gisele Bundchen's breakthrough, a wave of Brazilian models including Adriana Lima and Alessandra Ambrosio rose to fame on runways and became popular in commercial modelling throughout the 2000s. Some have tied this increase in Brazilian models to the trend of magazines featuring celebrities instead of models on their covers. 2000s and after In the late 2000s, the Brazilians fell out of favour on the runways. Editorial clients were favouring models with a china-doll or alien look to them, such as Gemma Ward and Lily Cole. During the 2000s, Ford Models and NEXT Model Management were engaged in a legal battle, with each agency alleging that the other was stealing its models.However, the biggest controversy of the 2000s was the health of high-fashion models participating in fashion week.
While the health of models had been a concern since the 1970s, there were several high-profile news stories surrounding the deaths of young fashion models due to eating disorders and drug abuse. The British Fashion Council subsequently asked designers to sign a contract stating they would not use models under the age of sixteen. On March 3, 2012, Vogue banned models under the age of sixteen as well as models who appeared to have an eating disorder. Similarly, other countries placed bans on unhealthy, and underage models, including Spain, Italy, and Israel, which all enacted a minimum body mass index (BMI) requirement.
In 2013, New York toughened its child labor law protections for models under the age of eighteen by passing New York Senate Bill No. 5486, which gives underage models the same labor protections afforded to child actors. Key new protections included the following: underage models are not to work before 5:00 pm or after 10:00 pm on school nights, nor were they to work later than 12:30 am on non-school nights; the models may not return to work less than twelve hours after they leave; a pediatric nurse must be on site; models under sixteen must be accompanied by an adult chaperone; parents or guardians of underage models must create a trust fund account into which employers will transfer a minimum of 15% of the child model's gross earnings; and employers must set aside time and a dedicated space for educational instruction.
Types Fashion modelling Runway modelling Runway models showcase clothes from fashion designers, fashion media, and consumers. They are also called "live models" and are self-employed. They are wanted to be over the height of 5'8" for men and 5'6" for women. Runway models work in different locations, constantly travelling between those cities where fashion is well known—New York City, London, Paris, and Milan. Second-tier international fashion center cities include Rome, Florence, Venice, Brescia, Barcelona, Los Angeles, Tokyo, and Moscow. The criteria for runway models include certain height and weight requirements. During runway shows, models have to constantly change clothes and makeup.
Models walk, turn, and stand in order to demonstrate a garment's key features. Models also go to interviews (called "go and sees") to present their portfolios. The more experience a model has, the more likely she/he is to be hired for a fashion show. A runway model can also work in other areas, such as department store fashion shows, and the most successful models sometimes create their own product lines or go into acting. The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34"-24"-34" and between and tall. The average model is very slender. Those who do not meet the size requirement may try to become a plus-size model.
According to the New York Better Business Career Services website, the preferred dimensions for a male model are a height of 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) to 6 ft 2 in (188 cm), a waist of and a chest measurement of . Male runway models are notably skinny and well toned. Male and female models must also possess clear skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form the selection criteria by which established, and would‑be, models are judged for their placement suitability, on an ongoing basis. There can be some variation regionally, and by market tier, subject to current prevailing trends at any point, in any era, by agents, agencies and end-clients.
Formerly, the required measurements for models were 35"-23.5"-35" in (90-60-90 cm), the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe. Today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA-recommended shape, but some – such as Afghan model Zohre Esmaeli – still have 35"-23.5"-35" measurements. Although in some fashion centres, a size 00 is more desirable than a size 0. The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for warping girls' body image and encouraging eating disorders. Organisers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand.
In February 2007, following the death of her sister, Luisel Ramos, also a model, Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third fashion model to die of malnutrition in six months. The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston. Luisel Ramos died of heart failure caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk. In 2015, France passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor in order to participate in fashion shows. The law also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines. Plus-size Plus-size models are models who generally have larger measurements than editorial fashion models.
The primary use of plus-size models is to appear in advertising and runway shows for plus-size labels. Plus-size models are also engaged in work that is not strictly related to selling large-sized clothing, e.g., stock photography and advertising photography for cosmetics, household and pharmaceutical products and sunglasses, footwear and watches. Therefore, plus-size models do not exclusively wear garments marketed as plus-size clothing. This is especially true when participating in fashion editorials for mainstream fashion magazines. Some plus-size models have appeared in runway shows and campaigns for mainstream retailers and designers such as Gucci, Guess, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Levi's and Versace Jeans.
Normal-size Also known as the "in-between" and "middle models", they are neither considered catalogue size (0–2) nor plus-size (10 up). Actress Mindy Kaling has described this body type in her 2011 book Is Everybody Hanging out With Me writing, "Since I am not model-skinny, but also not super-fat... I fall into that nebulous, 'Normal American Woman Size' that legions of fashion stylists detest... Many stylists hate that size because, I think, to them, I lack the self-discipline to be an aesthetic, or the sassy confidence to be a total fatty hedonist. They're like, 'Pick a lane.'" There is criticism that these models have been left out of the conversation because fashion companies and brands opt to employ the extremes of the spectrum.
Model Camille Kostek who was on a solo cover of Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue in 2019 has stated that she was told by a well-known international modeling agency "...that it was too bad that I wasn’t a size 10. That plus size is a big market right now and it’s too bad I wasn’t measuring bigger. My size (4/6) is considered an "in-between size," meaning I'm not a straight model nor plus model, I'm right in the middle. Magazine modeling Fashion modeling also includes modeling clothing in fashion magazines. In Japan, there are different types of fashion magazine models. are models who regularly appear in a fashion magazine and model exclusively for it.
On the other hand, street models, or , are amateur models who model part-time for fashion magazines in conjunction to school work and their main jobs. Unlike professional models, street models are meant to represent the average person in appearance and do not appear on runways. Street models are also not exclusively contracted to fashion magazines. If a street model is popular enough, some of them become exclusive models. Many fashion icons and musicians in Japan began their career as street models, including Kaela Kimura and Kyary Pamyu Pamyu. Black models The arrival of African American women modeling as a profession began in early postwar America.
It began most notably from the need of advertisers and a rise of African American photography magazines. The women who advanced in such careers were those in a middle-class system that emphasized the conservative value of marriage, motherhood, and domesticity. Originally titled the “Brownskin” model, African American women refined the social, sexual, and racial realities confined in the gender expectations of the modeling world. There was a profound need for black women to partake in the advertising process for the new “Negro Market”. With the help of Branford Models, the first African American agency, 1946 was the beginning of the black modeling era.
Branford Models’ was able to “overturn the barriers facing African American in the early postwar period” especially by lifting at least one economic freedom. In this postwar America, the demand for such presence in magazines advanced “as a stage for models to display consumer goods” while assisting “in constructing a new visual discourse of urban middle-class African America”. While they represented diversity, a major gap in the fashion industry, it was only until the 1970s that black models had a substantial presence in the modeling world. Known as the “Black is Beautiful” movement, the 1970s became the era of the black model.
With growing disenfranchisement and racial in-equality, the United States recognized the urgency of opening the “doors of social access and visibility to black Americans”. The world of fashion was the gateway for social change. “The world of fashion was similarly looked to as a place where the culture could find signs of racial progress. Expressions of beauty and glamour mattered. Good race relations required taking note of who was selling women lipsticks and mini skirts, which meant that advertisers began looking for black models” Black models were looked to as the vehicle of social change. They were given the opportunity to balance out the lack of presence of black individuals in the mainstream culture.
Agencies were beginning to scout black models and focus on the social change they were contributing too. Life Magazine in October 1969, covered their issue with Noami Sims, one of the most influential black models in the industry. Her rise to fame lead her to international magazine jobs and individual projects with designers across the globe. In the Life Magazine issue, Black Beauty, a new agency that represented black models, had a spread in the magazine that showcased 39 black models. Each one of the models had their own unique features, allowing black expression to progress through this historic magazine spread.
With the movement's presence both in magazines and the runway, designers began to realize the need to include black models on their runways and advertisements. The battle of Versallies was one of the most notable moments in fashion history that put black models on the map. Eleanor Lambert, creator of Fashion Week and a major “[controller] of the narrative of American fashion”, set up a dinner and a fundraiser to both increase American fashion visibility and restore the palace of Versailles. Five French designers and five American designers battled it out on the runway, showing off the fashion, and for the Americans, black models as well.
Oscar de la Renta stated “it was the black models that had made the difference.” Pat Cleveland, Bethann Hardiason, Billie Blair, Jennifer Brice, Alva Chinn, and Ramona Saunders, were among the many black models that helped Team America win and stun the French competition. This competition made the black model a worldwide phenomenon. The French were beginning to welcome diversity on the runway and in their advertising. With the recognition Versaillies had given, black presence in the modeling world carried out into the 1980s and the 1990s. The models were now known by name and the publicity that came with the designers they were modeling for.
With the rise of the “supermodel”, models like Noami Campbell and Tyra Banks paved the way for black success. Noami Campbell, born in London, was the first black model to cover American Vogue, TIME magazine, Russian Vogue, and the first British black model to cover British vogue. She, till this day, is one of the most iconic and distinguished models to work in the industry. Brands like Chanel, Louis Vitton, Balmain, Prada, and more have all featured Campbell in their campaigns. She used her remarkable success to achieve more than fashion excelience. By the mid-1990s, black presence in the modeling world had dramatically decreased.
Designers began to favor a consistent aesthetic and elected for skinner white models. This reality was paved by models like Kate Moss and Stella Tennant who provided a more consistent look for the runway. At this time, “the number of working black models in high-profile runway presentation...became so dire that stories began appearing in the mainstream media about the whitewashing of the runway”. In response, models like Campbell, Iman, and Bethann Hardison, joined forces throughout the “Diversity Coalition” in an attempt to “call out and accuse prominent fashion houses for snubbing Black and Asian models on the catwalk, editorial spreads, and campaigns”.
The lack of representation was, in part, due to the belief that “black girls don’t push products,” which “encouraged people who work directly and indirectly in the industry to speak out on the injustices that go on within it”. In the 1990s, it was quite clear that the top designers simply preferred a new aesthetic that excluded models of color, which resulted in only 6% of runway models to be women of color. Campbell's Diversity Coalition's main mission was to “expedite inclusion on the runway by deliberately calling out designers who have executed acts of racism on the runway”. According to Campbell, it was their choice to not include black models on the runway and desire a uniformed runway that resulted in a racist act.
Although such a dramatic effort to exclude black presence from the fashion world, models like Tyra Banks and Veronica Webb persisted. Banks not only dominated the runway as a teen, she took over countless pop culture platforms. Being the first black model to cover Sports Illustrated, Banks was one of the most prominent models in the early 2000s. Covering Sports Illustrated, Elle, Essence, Vogue, and walking for Chanel, Chrisitan Dior, and Claude Motnanta, Banks was truly dominating the fashion world. In addition, she acted in French Prince of Bel Air and created her own reality competition show called America's Next Top Model.
In conversation with Trebay of Los the New York Times, Banks stated that her first cover on Sport Illustrated “changed [her] life overnight.. You have to think back to remember what that did for an appreciation of black beauty to have a black girl, a girl next door type, on the cover of one of the most mass mainstream magazines of our lives. It was a societal statement, a political statement, and an economic one”. Now, models like Joan Smalls, Winne Harlow, Slick Woods, Jasmine Sanders and more are continuing the fight for black presence in the modeling world and using their successors as inspiration.
Fit models A fit model works as a sort of live mannequin to give designers and pattern makers feedback on the fit, feel, movement, and drape of a garment to be produced in a given size. Glamour models Glamour modelling focuses on sexuality and thus general requirements are often unclear, being dependent more on each individual case. Glamour models can be any size or shape. There is no industry standard for glamour modelling and it varies greatly by country. For the most part, glamour models are limited to modelling in calendars, men's magazines, such as Playboy, bikini modelling, lingerie modelling, fetish modelling, music videos, and extra work in films.
However, some extremely popular glamour models transition into commercial print modelling, appearing in swimwear, bikini and lingerie campaigns. It is widely considered that England created the market for glamour modelling when The Sun established Page 3 in 1969, a section in their newspaper which featured sexually suggestive images of Penthouse and Playboy models. From 1970 models appeared topless. In the 1980s, The Sun competitors followed suit and produced their own Page 3 sections. It was during this time that glamour models first came to prominence with the likes of Samantha Fox. As a result, the United Kingdom has a very large glamour market and has numerous glamour modelling agencies to this day.
It was not until the 1990s that modern glamour modelling was established. During this time, the fashion industry was promoting models with waif bodies and androgynous looking women, which left a void. Several fashion models, who were deemed too commercial, and too curvaceous, were frustrated with industry standards, and took a different approach. Models such as Victoria Silvstedt left the fashion world and began modelling for men's magazines. In the previous decades, posing nude for Playboy resulted in models losing their agencies and endorsements. Playboy was a stepping stone which catapulted the careers of Victoria Silvstedt, Pamela Anderson, and Anna Nicole Smith.
Pamela Anderson became so popular from her Playboy spreads that she was able to land roles on Home Improvement and Baywatch. In the mid-1990s, a series of men's magazines were established such as Maxim, FHM, and Stuff. At the same time, magazines including Sweden's Slitz re-branded themselves as men's magazines. Pre-internet, these magazines were popular among men in their late teens and early twenties because they were considered to be more tasteful than their predecessors. With the glamour market growing, fashion moved away from the waifs and onto Brazilian bombshells. The glamour market, which consisted mostly of commercial fashion models and commercial print models, became its own genre due to its popularity.
Even in a large market like the United Kingdom, however, glamour models are not usually signed exclusively to one agency as they can not rely financially on one agency to provide them with enough work. It was, and still is, a common practice for glamour models to partake in kiss-and-tell interviews about their dalliances with famous men. The notoriety of their alleged bed-hopping often propels their popularity and they are often promoted by their current or former fling. With Page 3 models becoming fixtures in the British tabloids, glamour models such as Jordan, now known as Katie Price, became household names.
By 2004, Page 3 regulars earned anywhere from £30,000 to 40,000, where the average salary of a non-Page 3 model, as of 2011, was between £10,000 and 20,000. In the early 2000s, glamour models, and aspiring glamour models, appeared on reality television shows such as Big Brother to gain fame. Several Big Brother alumni parlayed their fifteen minutes of fame into successful glamour modelling careers. However, the glamour market became saturated by the mid-2000s, and numerous men's magazines including Arena, Stuff and FHM in the United States went under. During this time, there was a growing trend of glamour models, including Kellie Acreman and Lauren Pope, becoming DJs to supplement their income.
In a 2012 interview, Keeley Hazell said that going topless is not the best way to achieve success and that "[she] was lucky to be in that 1% of people that get that, and become really successful." Alternative models An alternative model is any model who does not fit into the conventional model types and may include punk, goth, fetish, and tattooed models or models with distinctive attributes. This type of modeling is usually a cross between glamour modeling and art modeling. Publishers such as Goliath Books in Germany introduced alternative models and punk photography to larger audiences. Billi Gordon, then known as Wilbert Anthony Gordon, was the top greeting card model in the world and inspired a cottage industry, including greeting cards, T-shirts, fans, stationery, gift bags, etc.
Parts models Some models are employed for their body parts. For example, hand models may be used to promote products held in the hand and nail-related products. (e.g. rings, other jewelry or nail polish). They are frequently part of television commercials. Many parts models have exceptionally attractive body parts, but there is also demand for unattractive or unusual looking body parts for particular campaigns. Hands are the most in-demand body parts. Feet models are also in high demand, particularly those who fit sample size shoes. Models are also successful modelling other specific parts including abs, arms, back, bust or chest, legs, and lips.
Some petite models (females who are under and do not qualify as fashion models) have found success in women's body part modelling. Parts model divisions can be found at agencies worldwide. Several agencies solely represent parts models, including Hired Hands in London, Body Parts Models in Los Angeles, Carmen Hand Model Management in New York and Parts Models in New York. Parts Models is the largest parts agency, representing over 300 parts models. Petite Models Petite models are models that are under the typical height requirements that are expected of fashion models. Petite models typically work more often in commercial, and print modeling (rather than runway modeling) The height of models is typically above for women, and above for men.
Models who are of heights such as fall under the category of petite models. Petite models typically model shoes because their feet are of more common sizes compared to the average fashion model. Fitness models Fitness modelling focuses on displaying a healthy, toned physique. Fitness models usually have defined muscle groups. The model's body weight is greater due to muscle weighing more than fat; however, they have a lower body fat percentage because the muscles are toned and sculpted. Fitness models are often used in magazine advertising; they can also in some cases be certified personal fitness trainers. However, other fitness models are also athletes and compete as professionals in fitness and figure competitions.
There are several agencies in large markets such as New York, London, and Germany that have fitness modelling agencies. While there is a large market for these models, most of these agencies are a secondary agency promoting models who typically earn their primary income as commercial models. There are also magazines that gear towards specifically fitness modelling or getting fit and in shape. Gravure idols In Japan, a , often abbreviated to , is a female model who primarily models for magazines, especially men's magazines, photobooks or DVDs. is a Wasei-eigo term derived from "rotogravure", which is a type of intaglio printing process that was once a staple of newspaper photo features.