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Offering counselling sessions over the telephone helps people increase their fruit and vegetable intake, new research has suggested.
The study by scientists at the University of Michigan in the US found that people were more likely to eat healthier food when given phone advice sessions alongside educational materials and food plans.
Lead researcher Dr Zora Djuric said that individuals do not focus on healthy food as much as they should due to time pressures and lack of understanding.
"Everyone knows what healthy foods are, but it's hard to make the changes needed to break old habits, such as the familiar grocery shopping routine and the usual chips and soda for a snack," she added.
"Sometimes it's difficult to find accountability within yourself to make changes, but if someone is checking up on you, you're more motivated to do the right thing."
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April 2013 Site of the Month
April 2013 Site of the Month
Science Information Life Cycle
Authors: Jeffra Bussmann, Caitlin Plovnick, and Cathy Palmer
Institution: California State University, East Bay / University of California, Irvine
Interviewer: Alec Sonsteby
Tutorial Description (provided by the author): This tutorial is designed to help students understand unique characteristics of information production and dissemination in science so that they can use library resources effectively and efficiently.
Q: What was the impetus for the Science Information Life Cycle tutorial, and who is the intended audience?
A: The Science Information Life Cycle tutorial was first published online in 2008 with the intended audience of science undergraduate students. Website technology and design have changed a great deal in the last 5 years, and some of the content was also due for updating and revision. This second generation Science Information Life Cycle tutorial is intended to help undergraduate students who are taking science courses (they may or may not be science majors) to understand information literacy as it relates to the sciences.
Q: How is the tutorial primarily being used at UC Irvine?
A: The tutorial is used primarily as a self-teaching option for students who are looking for science information. It is linked from the Libraries’ “How Do I…?” page so students can find it by selecting that page or by searching “How do I find science information?” on our site. The research librarians responsible for liaison to departments in the life, physical, and applied sciences link to the tutorial from their library guides.
Q: Tell us about the process you used to establish learning objectives for this tutorial.
A: We were fortunate in that the original tutorial already included clearly stated learning outcomes. Our learning objectives for the new tutorial remained in line with these; however, with the introduction of the science information life cycle, we gained a new framework for conceptualizing the holistic process of science information. One very important objective for us was helping students to understand that how science information is produced, shared, and organized influences how it is found and used by them.
Q: Who was involved in the production of the Science Information Life Cycle project and what skills and talents did they contribute? Did you need to seek any “outside” expertise?
A: The UC Irvine Libraries’ Education and Outreach Department, primarily Jeffra Bussmann and Caitlin Plovnick, took the lead on revising the tutorial. Jeffra was a science librarian and brought in the science disciplinary perspective. Caitlin was a temporary librarian whose work focused on various IL projects. We consulted with science and psychology librarians for suggestions and feedback. Furthermore, we solicited feedback from six undergraduate students through a usability study. As head of the department, Cathy Palmer made sure overall scope of the tutorial remained in line with UCI Libraries’ mission. The UC Irvine Distance Learning Center provided the technical skills to implement the revisions.
Q: Accessibility and usability are important considerations for any online tutorial or learning object. How did you take these into account?
A: We conducted simple usability tests with students to reveal areas where the tutorial was problematic or difficult to use. In particular, we were able to improve navigation and layout based on our observations. Several issues with accessibility also came up in regards to the technology being used. The original tutorial was presented in Flash, which is problematic for mobile devices. The new version does not use Flash and is also easier to navigate.
Q: Have you done any assessment of the effectiveness of the tutorial in meeting your established objectives?
A: Right now, we are only keeping use statistics on the tutorial. We can track how many students complete each module and how much time it takes them. We would love to hear from other librarians who adapt the tutorial for use at their institution to see if they have done any assessment of its effectiveness!
Q: I noticed that the tutorial is licensed under a Creative Commons license. Have you considered “packaging” the tutorial for download and adaptation by other libraries?
A: The source files for the tutorial are available for download here: http:www.lib.uci.edu/licenses/license-ucilibs-find-science-info-tutorial.html
We would love to hear from anyone who downloads this package and adapts the Science Information Life Cycle tutorial for their own institution.
Q: From planning to launch, how long did it take to complete this project? Was it more or less time than you originally had planned?
A: We began the project in late summer 2011, and the tutorial was completed and posted to the UCI Libraries’ website in fall 2012. It did take more time than we expected, but this project had to fit in with other time-demanding projects and we had high standards for completing it. Anyone working on a similar project should be aware that it will probably take more time than you anticipated!
Q: What best practices guided the building of this tutorial?
A: Our guiding best practices were to keep it as simple as possible and continually keep the content focused on user needs. In addition, since this is an online resource, we also considered website design best practices.
Finally, we also consulted the literature for best practices in the areas of usability testing, design, navigation, content, and technology.
Q: Are there existing tutorials on the Web that inspired you? If so, which ones?
A: Since we were revising an already existing tutorial, we would have to say that the original Science Information Life Cycle tutorial was most inspirational to us. It was an excellent tutorial that accomplished many of the goals it set out to do and was quite unique. UCI Libraries’ Begin Research tutorial http://www.lib.uci.edu/how/tutorials/BeginResearch/public/begin.html was also a major influence, especially in terms of design.
Q: From your experience, what tips would you give to others contemplating producing their own online tutorial or learning object?
A: We have three tips that we would pass on:
- Always consider the question: why is this going to be important and useful to users? Let this question drive what is revised, incorporated and/or removed.
- Keep it simple and focused on your project objectives – beware of scope creep!
- Usability testing is an excellent way to uncover real user needs.
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Where does Valentine's Day come from? Let us introduce you to the festival of Lupercalia, a festival when naked young men and women ran around whipping one another with animal hides.
Valentine’s Day is a weird holiday when you think about it. On a usually cold day—February 14—we eat chocolate, give greeting cards, celebrate romance, and find the need to make a big deal out of it in schools. While the modern holiday is, often correctly, viewed as a “Hallmark Holiday” the origins of the festival go back more than two thousand years to a Pagan ritual with strange customs and festivities that would make a modern romantic blush. | <urn:uuid:30fb3908-6f88-4b6e-a8ac-8f1fb262eb74> | {
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Why human have higher cognition than other mammalsSeptember 3rd, 2008 - 5:59 pm ICT by ANI
Washington, September 3 (ANI): A new study suggests that humans have a higher cognition than other mammals because they possess different types of cells, and not due to having larger cells.
Published in the journal PloS Biology, the study focused on chandelier cells, so-named for their structural resemblance to an old-fashioned candlestick.
Tamas, the lead author of the study, says that the study provides new insights into the organization and function of neocortex, a brain region involved in sensory perceptions, conscious thoughts, and language.
During the study, the researchers studied the microcircuitry of neocortical cells by recording from pairs of connected neurons in human brain tissue.
The challenging method allowed them to measure the dynamic communication lines between neurons, illustrating how neurons interact and affect one another, say the authors.
Contrary to the suggestion that neurons worked in groups to affect the brain, the study showed that a single chandelier cell could trigger multiple excitatory pyramidal cells that make up the bulk of the cortex, and cause a chain reaction throughout the brain.
The authors said that triggering specific chandelier cells enabled the researchers to elicit a precisely timed chain of electrical events in the neocortex.
The study also revealed that the synaptic pathways between chandeliers and pyramid cells are much stronger than has been recorded previously in other mammals.
Based on their observations, the researchers have come to the conclusion that humans do possess different types of cells, and that our higher cognition is not due to having larger cells.
Though chandelier cells have been found in other species, they are more complex in humans.
The authors of the study say that this fact raises the possibility that there are many things that attribute to higher cognition different types of cells, and a complex circuitry, perhaps.
This study furthers the search for the answers to higher cognition, and more fully opens the door to questions of how our brains compare to those of other species. (ANI) | <urn:uuid:418c3359-a93a-497e-aa00-d9470a6106d9> | {
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- Axon – The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles or glands
- Behavior – Observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
- Behavioral Neuroscience – An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
- Behaviorism – An approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
- Case Method – A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual
- Cell Body – The part of neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
- Cognitive Neuroscience – A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
- Cognitive Psychology – A field of psychology that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity; Remembering, attending, thinking, believing, evaluating, feeling and assessing; Perception, thought, memory and reasoning
- Consciousness – A person’s subjective experiences of the world and the mind
- Control Group – One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment that is not exposed to the stimulus being studied
- Correlation – The “co-relationship” or pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times
- Debriefing – A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in a study
- Demand Characteristics – Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave
- Dendrites – The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body
- Dependent Variable – The variable that is measured in a study
- Double Blind Observation – An observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant
- Evolutionary Psychology – A psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
- Cultural Psychology – The study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
- Electromyograph (EMG) – A device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person’s skin
- Empiricism – Originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and is now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events
- Experiment – A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
- Experiment Group – One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment; the experimental group is exposed to the stimulus and the control group is not
- External Validity – A characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical or realistic way
- Functionalism – The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
- Gestalt Psychology – A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
- Glial Cells – Support cells found in the nervous system
- Humanistic Psychology – An approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings
- Hypothesis – A specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory
- Hysteria – A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
- Independent Variable – The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
- Informed Consent – A written agreement to participate in a study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.
- Internal Validity – The characteristic of an experiment that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the causal relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
- Interneurons – Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons and other interneurons.
- Introspection – The subjective observation of one’s own experiences.
- Measure – A device that can detect the measurable events to which an operational definition refers.
- Method – A set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce.
- Mind – Our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings.
- Motor Neurons – Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement.
- Myelin Sheath – An insulating layer of fatty material in the brain that surrounds the axons of neurons.
- Nativism – The philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn (nature); stemmed from Plato.
- Natural Selection – Charles Darwin’s theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed to subsequent generations.
- Naturalistic Observation – A method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environment.
- Neurons – Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks.
- Operational Definition – A description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.
- Philosophical Empiricism – The philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired (nurture); stemmed from Aristotle
- Physiology – The study of biological processes, especially in the human body.
- Phrenology – A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness are localized in specific regions of the brain.
- Population – The complete collection of participants who might possibly be studied.
- Power – The tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things.
- Psychoanalysis – A therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders.
- Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud’s approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts and behaviors.
- Psychology – The scientific study of the mind and behavior; from Greek psyche (mind) and logos (behavior).
- Random Sampling – A technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in a sample.
- Reaction Time – The amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus.
- Reliability – The tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to to measure the same thing.
- Resting Potential – The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane.
- Sample – The partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study.
- Sensory Neurons – Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord.
- Social Psychology – A subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior.
- Stimulus – Sensory input from the environment.
- Structuralism – The analysis of basic elements that constitute the mind; involves breaking down consciousness into elemental sensations and feelings.
- Synapse – The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another.
- Theory – A hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between two or more properties; lead to hypotheses.
- Validity – The characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it.
- Variable – A property whose value can vary of change.
- Unconscious – The part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings and actions.
What is resilience?
Psychological resilience is characterized by your ability to bounce back from negative emotional experiences, as well as your ability to adapt to stressful situations.
Coping is defined as the thoughts and behaviors that we use to manage the internal and external demands of stressful situations. Coping styles develop from a mix of our biological makeup (genetics) and personal experience.
- Coping is a dynamic process – not a one time event – comprised of a series of responses over time, and which is influenced by our environment.
- Coping encompasses a wide variety of actions and reactions, like anger and depression.
Things that promote effective coping include:
- Sense of coherence about your life
- Sense of purpose or meaning
- Sense of humor
- Trust in others
- Sense that life is worth living
- Religious beliefs
Most people use a combination of coping styles, but it depends on the person… and the problem. Coping is process, not a one-time event. The vast majority of things that stress us out are chronic.
- Problem Focused Coping – Doing something constructive about the situation; usually developed in childhood. We often see this style of coping in work environments. When there is a solution, problem focused coping is the best option.
- Emotional Focused Coping– Regulating the emotional experiences associated with a stressful situation; tend to develop in early adolescence. We typically see this style of coping when someone is not yet ready to solve the problem, and needs to deal with their emotions first. Or, when there is no solution to the problem. For example, people with a chronic or terminal illness often use an emotional focused copying style. There are 2 styles of emotional focused coping:
- Rumination – Negative recurrent thoughts which can be detrimental to your health
- Emotional approach coping – Clarifying, focusing on and working through emotional experiences; this has beneficial health affects for people experience chronic pain, or medical conditions like pregnancy and breast cancer.
Other coping styles:
- Approach – Uses problem-focused strategies to confront the issues.
- Avoidance – Ignoring or burying stress; There is a difference between avoidance and minimizing.
Whether you use avoidance or approach focuse mode makes a difference to your long-term health.
Things to consider when it comes to coping with stress
- Are there coping styles or personality traits that make you better at coping with stress than someone else?
- Are there strategies that are useful in different situations?
Immune system activation affects our brain, and alters our behavior. It can cause:
- Loss of appetite
- Anhedonia (reduced interest in things we found pleasurable)
- Reduced social behavior
- Hyperalgesia (sensitivity to pain)
- Poor memory/concentration
These non-specific symptoms that accompany immune response are called “sickness behavior.” It occurs because the cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) produced by macrophages when our non-specific immune system is activated communicate the brain, “I am sick.”
According to Hart (1988), these behavior changes are adaptive, and designed to help promote recovery. They are not a sign of weakness. Rather they are just the body doing what it is supposed to do in order to fight off disease. For example:
- The cortisol and catekolines produce energy (needed to produce fever), which slows down bacteria replication.
- Reduced activity conserves energy, which is needed to fight disease.
People who are depressed look like they are stressed. In fact, depression is very similar to sickness behavior according to Maes’ macrophage theory of depression (1993/1995) . Major depression activates immune system cells and cytokines in the blood. Cases of depression that are resistant to treatment have been shown to have higher cytokines. When people are administered cytokines to boost their immune system, they get depressed.
Fight or Flight (Walter Cannon 1932)
When a threat is perceived, the body is rapidly aroused and motivated via the sympathetic nervous and endocrine systems. Fight (attack) is an aggressive response to stress; Flight (flee) is withdrawal. Fight or flight is adaptive and allows you to quickly respond to threats. However, disruption lays groundwork for health problems.
Stress as an Absence (Levine & Ursin)
This theory of stress is based on a lack of control or information. When clear, salient safety clues are provided, stress is reduced. When clues are absent, stress increases. For an example of this, you can look to Martin Seligman’s research on learned helplessness. Seligman’s theory suggests that when placed in an inescapable situation, people will eventually stop trying to escape. And that even when an escape route is provided, they will not attempt to escape. Once you introduce them to the escape, however, they will learn from the experience and respond appropriately. This model assumes stress is more reflexive in nature.
Selye’s General Adaption Syndrome (Hans Selye 1956, 1976)
Selye exposed rats to stressors (extreme cold and fatigue) and observed physiological responses. All of them responded in the same, predictable pattern. Based on this research, Selye theorized that regardless of the stress, people respond with the same physiological patterns and reactions. Overtime, this creates wear and tear on their bodies. Selye’s belief was that this repeated or prolonged exhaustion is what lays the groundwork for disease. Some of the physiological changes Selye noted in chronically stressed individuals include:
- Enlarged adrenal cortex
- Shrinking of thymus and lymph glands
- Ulceration of stomach and duodenum
3 Phases of the General Adaption Syndrome
- Alarm – You become mobilized, and ready to meet the threat.
- Resistance – You make an effort to cope with threat.
- Exhaustion – You may fails to overcome, depleting your physiological resources in the process.
Criticisms of Seyle’s General Adaption Syndrome
- Assigns limited role to psychological fators (appraisial of events is important to experiencing stress)
- Assumes all responses to stress are the same; not all stressors produced the same endocrine responses. How people respond to stress is dependent upon their personalities, emotions and biological construction.
- Researchers bow believe that it’s the chronic activation, not the exhaustion, that leads to damage
- Stress is considered an outcome; sometimes people experience effects of stress while or before a stressor
Tend & Befriend (S. E. Taylor, Klein, et al.)
In addition to fight or flight, humans respond to stress with social affiliation and nurtuting behavior toward off-srping. Mor true of women, but also can be observed in men. Oxytocin is released during stressful events, and increases affiliative behavior. Itneracts with estrogen. People with high levels are calmer, and more relaxed.
Appraisal Process ( Lazarus & Folkman 1984)
This psychological view of stress theorizes that people confronted with a new environment engage in a process of primary appraisal to determine the meaning of the event (positive negative or neutral),and their ability to cope with it. In other words, something is only stressful if you think it is! In this model, there is more room for personal empowerment and individual differences. A person’s ability to cope with stress depends on their cognitive ability in both situations.
Lazarus and Folkman developed a “Daily Hassles” self-reporting scale that measured the number of hassles and uplifts in a month. Although it is more accommodating to the daily stress that people undergo – helps us to explain why we feel the way we do RIGHT NOW – it is not as flexible as Cohen’s survey. It does, however, allow for individual perceptions by assigning points to events.
3 Stage Appraisal Process
- Primary appraisal – Events are assessed as irrelevant (no impact on well-being), benign positive (positive, pleasurable emotions) or negative/stressful. Negative events are further appraised for harm (already done), threat (assessment of possible future damage) challenge (potential to overcome or profit; typical when an individual has more confident expectations of ability to cope, but may still lead them to experience negative stress).
- Secondary appraisal – The stage is an assessment of your coping abilities and resources. Are they sufficient to meet the demand? Responses may be both voluntary and involuntary, but include outcome expectancy (Will my behavior lead to successful coping?), and efficacy expectancy (Can I seriously successfully execute the behavior that will lead to successful coping?).
- Reappraisal – Individuals may revise their previous appraisals based on new information. This does not always happen, it is an optimal step in the process. Defensive reappraisals may include an effort to reinterpret past events as more positive… People have a tendency to look back and believe things were better than they did at the actual time, which can be a good self-protective strategy.
Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen)
Cohen’s theory of stress is one based on perceptions, rather than events. Rather than focusing on life events, or the number of events, this theory accounts for individual differences by allowing us to rate our feelings.
This is the most commonly used survey in health psychology today. However, most researchers will combine surveys and/or include a physio-measure in order to get a well-rounded, accurate evaluation.
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SSRS) (Holmes & Rahe)
These psychologists suggested that illness occurs around major life events, and looked at stress as something that requires you to adapt. They created a survey which weighted a list of both positive and negative life events based on severity (last 6 months). There are many criticisms of the SSRS, including:
- They only sampled white males
- Did not allow for individual differences in perceptions and coping ability. The event that you view as negative or stressful, someone else may view as a positive.
- At this point, the study is outdated, and not relevant to today’s lifestyles.
Would you pay someone $1500 to publish your words?
These days, it seems anyone can be a writer, or an author. Getting published is as easy as setting up a blog, slapping together an ebook, or paying someone to publish your work.
In fact, for a mere $1500 you can bang out a 1200-word article and have it appear in hardcover alongside “best-selling authors” who have spent decades earning their stripes. After all, why waste time earning credibility as an author when you can simply buy it?
Call me old school, but I actually respect my craft. I’ve invested the time and money to professionally study both classic and modern authors, and my bookshelves are brimming with my favorites: Fitzgerald, Shakespeare, Tolkien, Garcia Marquez, Rice and a collection of children’s literature, among others. I’ve been known to read cereal boxes and milk cartons, and occasionally and oh-so carefully, correct a professor.
To me, writing isn’t just a profession. It is one of my loves. And paying someone to publish my words just to see my name in print would equate to something much worse than being a snakeoil salesman. It’s something no self-respecting writer would do.
At least that none I know.
Thankfully, I’m not the only one that feels this way… There’s a special notation in the American Heritage Dictionary to address the frauds that try to pass themselves off as more than they are:
Usage Note: … The verb author, which had been out of use for a long period, has been rejuvenated in recent years with the sense “to assume responsibility for the content of a published text.”…. The sentence He has authored a dozen books on the subject was unacceptable to 74 percent of the Usage Panel, probably because it implies that having a book published is worthy of special lexical distinction, a notion that sits poorly with conventional literary sensibilities and seems to smack of press agentry.
Note the part about assuming responsibility for the content of a published text… There’s also clarification that states an author is someone who practices writing as a profession – meaning, of course, that they get paid to create, and not vice versa.
I feel sorry for these snakeoil authors. They don’t see the forest through the trees…
- The benefits of earning your stripes far outweigh the ego boost of instant credibility – You don’t have to be a starving artist, but making a real effort to learn and polish your skills will not only make you a better writer, it will earn you the respect of other writers. And of your fans. On the flip side, when people discover (and they always will) that the ONLY reason your name is in print is because you bribed a publisher with green just so you could boast that you’re a “best-selling author” – you’ll INSTANTLY lose the credibility you paid so dearly for. With no REAL credits to your name, you’ll become a laughingstock. You might even be called a fraud. On the flip side, getting a paid gig that you’ve earned by gaining recognition for your talent over time, and from your peers, will make it that much sweeter (and true) when you say you’re a writer and author.
- You’re a victim, allowing yourself to get preyed upon – Yes, there is a money-making scam behind this system – and YOU are the sucker. The publishers take your money, and then rely upon you to buy and sell their books. If you the words you write suck and they don’t resonate with your audience, they don’t care… Because they already made their money. After all, you already paid cash for the 500 copies in your garage… (No wonder it can be called a best-seller!) But hey, at least you can say you published a book, right?
Thankfully, these shams and quasi-authors are easy to spot. Google them. Google their publisher. Ask what they do FOR A LIVING. In fact, ask a lot of questions. How did they get gig? Who is their agent? Did they have a draw, and what were the royalties? Do they have any more books published? What was the editorial process like?
Then use the brain God gave you. If they’re a snakeoil author, they won’t be able to answer your specific questions without squirming. And if they claim to have written a recent best-seller and clearly aren’t working in the industry, and in fact have ZERO prospects, run. Fast. Trust me, you don’t want any of what they are selling.
Their willingness to trade integrity and respect for the craft for personal gratification is shameful. And presenting their pseudo-work as more than it really is seems like an indicator of a much bigger personality flaw. Perhaps poor self-esteem is driving an overwhelming need to feel important. Maybe taking the easy way out and cutting corners is their norm, rather than the exception to the rule. Or maybe, the postage-paid status symbol is compensating for a lack of real talent, a desperate attempt necessary to manipulate the unsuspecting and oh-so-willing sheep into buying their sub-par wares.
Just like the snakeoil salesman, I can’t take these wanna-be-writers seriously. They’re the type of people who spend a day visiting campus, and then say “they went to Harvard Law School.” Or they spend a week earning a certificate in a psuedo-science like NLP, and then spout expertise in neuroscience. Full of half-truths and exaggerations, these fluff-over-substance types will happily mislead you in any area, comfortable that they can always say they never “lied” if called on the carpet. But if you dig, you’ll find the facts don’t usually support their brash claims.
My advice? Steer clear, because their approach to life seems to ensure nothing but trouble if it becomes entangled with yours. | <urn:uuid:6f68742b-3e84-4e00-b61d-e25f29c8f3f7> | {
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Let A=(0,0), B=(2,4), C=(17,4) and D=(15,0). Then ABCD is a parallelogram. A line through the point (0,−1) divides the parallelogram into two regions of equal area. The slope of this line can be written as a/b where a and b are positive coprime integers. Find a+b. | <urn:uuid:b008dc18-ab03-45ad-b80f-7bcdbf067b1d> | {
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The Overture in E major, Op. 21, was written by Mendelssohn at 17 years and 6 months old (it was finished on 6 August 1826), and George Grove called it "the greatest marvel of early maturity that the world has ever seen in music". It was written as a concert overture, not associated with any performance of the play. The Overture was written after Mendelssohn had read a German translation of the play in 1826. The translation was by August Wilhelm Schlegel, with help from Ludwig Tieck. There was a family connection as well: Schlegel's brother Friedrich married Felix Mendelssohn's aunt Dorothea.
While a romantic piece in atmosphere, the Overture incorporates many classical elements, being cast in sonata form and shaped by regular phrasings and harmonic transitions. The piece is also noted for its striking instrumental effects, such as the emulation of scampering 'fairy feet' at the beginning and the braying of Bottom as an ass (effects which were influenced by the aesthetic ideas and suggestions of Mendelssohn's friend at the time, Adolf Bernhard Marx). Heinrich Eduard Jacob, in his biography of the composer, said that Mendelssohn had scribbled the chords after hearing an evening breeze rustle the leaves in the garden of the family's home.
The Overture is cast in E major, a key especially genial for the stringed instruments of the orchestra. Following the first theme in the parallel relative minor (E minor) representing the dancing fairies, a transition (the royal music of the court of Athens) leads to a second theme, that of the lovers. A final group of themes, suggesting the craftsmen and hunting calls, closes the exposition. The fairies dominate most of thedevelopment section and ultimately have the final word in the coda, just as in Shakespeare's play.
The Overture was premiered in Stettin (then in Prussia; now Szczecin, Poland) on 20 February 1827, at a concert conducted by Carl Loewe. Mendelssohn had turned 18 just over two weeks earlier. He had to travel 80 miles through a raging snowstorm to get to the concert, which was his first public appearance. Loewe and Mendelssohn also appeared as soloists in Mendelssohn's Concerto in A-flat major for 2 pianos and orchestra, and Mendelssohn alone was the soloist for Carl Maria von Weber's Konzertstück in F minor. After the intermission, he joined the first violins for a performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
The first British performance of the Overture was conducted by Mendelssohn himself, on 24 June 1829, at the Argyll Rooms in London, at a concert in benefit of the victims of the floods in Silesia, and played by an orchestra that had been assembled by Mendelssohn's friend Sir George Smart. | <urn:uuid:0f6ea5fb-d087-43b0-ade2-f970b82d1eaf> | {
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Are you looking for general information on family planning?
This section describes websites that provide overview material on the topic and substantial information about contraceptive methods. The information is useful for both health care providers and the public.
The Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI)
www.guttmacher.org/ Click on Contraception under Resources by Subject
AGI provides information on sexual and reproductive health research, policy analysis, and public education. The site offers a broad array of topics (e.g., benefits of contraception, funding sources for family planning, current controversies and issues about contraception, etc.) that would be of interest to an extensive audience, including the media, policymakers, and researchers.
Association of Reproductive Health Professionals (ARHP)
www.arhp.org Click on Healthcare Providers, Patient Education, or Contraception Resource Center
The ARHP provides information and education on reproductive health topics for health care providers and the public, including online brochures and guides, slide sets, and topical fact sheets. Some of the materials for the public are in Spanish and French. In addition, there are interactive tools for families (e.g., one to assist with choosing contraceptives).
The Emergency Contraception Website
Princeton University ’s Office of Population Research and the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals operate this website that maintains a directory of emergency contraceptive pills available in the U.S. and other countries around the world.
Jacobs Institute of Women’s Health (JIWH)
This website, created by JIWH, offers evidence-based information on coverage of contraceptives in benefit plans. While directed to employers, it offers information of benefit to consumers, healthcare providers, and policy-makers. “Contraception Basics” and “Glossary” offer definitions and descriptions of methods.
Kaiser Family Foundation (KFF)
www.kff.org Click on Women’s Health Policy
The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation focuses on providing reliable information on major health care issues, including women’s health policy and Medicaid. Examples of information found on this site include: state Medicaid policies, a national profile of women and healthcare, state mandated contraceptive benefits, and analyses of policies on access to care. Topics vary depending on studies carried out by KFF.
National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association (NFPRHA)
www.nfprha.org Click on Sexual Health Information
This organization is dedicated to assuring access to voluntary, comprehensive family planning and reproductive health care services worldwide. The site provides information on contraception methods for the public.
National Women’s Health Information Center
This website is sponsored by the DHHS Office on Women’s Health. Users search the website by topic.
Planned Parenthood Federation of America
www.plannedparenthood.org Click on Health Info
The site offers extensive information on birth control methods and emergency contraception; some information is in Spanish.
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Discuss April Main article: Moral status of animals in the ancient world Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason logosand placed humans at the top of the natural world.
Background[ edit ] Although related to the more general problem of the origin of languagethe evolution of distinctively human speech capacities has become a distinct and in many ways separate area of scientific research. Speech is in this sense optional, although it is the default modality for language.
Places of articulation passive and active: Sub-apical Uncontroversially, monkeys, apes and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing sound for purposes of social communication.
The angular gyrus is represented in orange, supramarginal gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is represented in blue, Wernicke's area is represented in green and the primary auditory cortex is represented in pink.
The term modality means the chosen representational format for encoding and transmitting information.
A striking feature of language is that it is modality-independent. Should an impaired child be prevented from hearing or producing sound, its innate capacity to master a language may equally find expression in signing.
Sign languages of the deaf are independently invented and have all the major properties of spoken language except for the modality of transmission. The Faculty of Language: Caption reads "Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky.
Drawn from life by Mr. Animal communication systems routinely combine visible with audible properties and effects, but not one is modality-independent. No vocally impaired whale, dolphin or songbird, for example, could express its song repertoire equally in visual display.
Indeed, in the case of animal communication, message and modality are not capable of being disentangled. Whatever message is being conveyed stems from intrinsic properties of the signal.
Modality independence should not be confused with the ordinary phenomenon of multimodality. The human linguistic property of "modality independence" is conceptually distinct from this. It allows the speaker to encode the informational content of a message in a single channel, while switching between channels as necessary.
Whichever modality is chosen, it can reliably transmit the full message content without external assistance of any kind. When talking on the telephone, for example, any accompanying facial or manual gestures, however natural to the speaker, are not strictly necessary.
When typing or manually signing, conversely, there's no need to add sounds. Evolution of the speech organs[ edit ] Human vocal tract Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures.
The speech organs, everyone agrees, evolved in the first instance not for speech but for more basic bodily functions such as feeding and breathing.
Nonhuman primates have broadly similar organs, but with different neural controls. When an ape is not eating, fine motor control over its tongue is deactivated. Since this applies to mammals in general, Homo sapiens is exceptional in harnessing mechanisms designed for respiration and ingestion to the radically different requirements of articulate speech.
Phoneticians agree that the tongue is the most important speech articulator, followed by the lips. A natural language can be viewed as a particular way of using the tongue to express thought. The human tongue has an unusual shape. In most mammals, it's a long, flat structure contained largely within the mouth.
It is attached at the rear to the hyoid bonesituated below oral level in the pharynx. In humans, the tongue has an almost circular sagittal midline contour, much of it lying vertically down an extended pharynxwhere it is attached to a hyoid bone in a lowered position.
Partly as a result of this, the horizontal inside-the-mouth and vertical down-the-throat tubes forming the supralaryngeal vocal tract SVT are almost equal in length whereas in other species, the vertical section is shorter. As we move our jaws up and down, the tongue can vary the cross-sectional area of each tube independently by about That the tubes are joined at a right angle permits pronunciation of the vowels [i], [u] and [a], which nonhuman primates cannot do.
Nothing, however, suggests that the lips evolved for those reasons. During primate evolution, a shift from nocturnal to diurnal activity in tarsiersmonkeys and apes the haplorhines brought with it an increased reliance on vision at the expense of olfaction.
As a result, the snout became reduced and the rhinarium or "wet nose" was lost. The muscles of the face and lips consequently became less constrained, enabling their co-option to serve purposes of facial expression.Discusses the ethical issue of whether chimpanzees should be used in medical research.
Behavioral, psychological and emotional similarities between chimpanzees and humans; Cognitive abilities of chimpanzees; Quality life in the laboratory; Role of the chimpanzees in the development of vaccines against hepatitis B and AIDS. Scientific Discoveries of Jane Goodall Essay - Jane Goodall was born on April 3, , in London, England.
Goodall, a British primatologist and anthropologist, is considered to be one of the world’s expert on chimpanzees. Goodall helped expand our knowledge on chimpanzees and a .
The origin of speech refers to the more general problem of the origin of language in the context of the physiological development of the human speech organs such as the tongue, lips and vocal organs used to produce phonological units in all human languages.
Need Facebook Who Wants To Be A Millionaire answers, solutions and cheats? Consult our quick reference chart.
Then help us grow more Millionaire cheats! The Plea for the Chimpanzees In the story “The Plea for the Chimpanzees” by Jane Goodall, Jane writes of a personal experience on her visit to a testing center where they use various primates to test products, one being chimpanzees.
is and in to a was not you i of it the be he his but for are this that by on at they with which she or from had we will have an what been one if would who has her. | <urn:uuid:061145df-86fb-4254-8f21-b26ea7d01646> | {
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The Children’s Trust Fund’s “Not Even For A Minute” Campaign encourages parents and caregivers to NEVER leave children unattended in or around automobiles. Left alone in a vehicle for a short time, a child is in danger of heat stroke, dehydration, overheating, hypothermia, injury, abduction and even death.
Temperatures in cars soar quickly. Even with a window cracked, the temperature inside a car can reach very high and dangerous temperatures within minutes. In these extreme conditions, children can die or suffer a permanent disability in a matter of minutes.
Where’s Baby? Look Before You Lock.
- NEVER leave children alone in or around vehicles, not even with the windows down. This applies to pets as well.
- Always keep car keys & remote openers out of reach of children.
- Keep vehicles locked at all times, even at home, & remind your friends & neighbors to do the same. Unlocked cars pose a risk to children who are naturally curious & often fearless.
- Teach your children the dangers of a car & let them know it is not a toy or playground.
- Make your child as visible as possible. Place rear-facing car seats in the middle of the back seat.
- Establish a routine of checking the back seat every time you exit the car to ensure no one is left behind. Don’t overlook sleeping infants.
- Place your child’s diaper bag or a small toy in the front seat to serve as a constant, visible reminder of you child’s presence in the car.
- Place your purse, briefcase or other personal item in the back with the child to serve as an additional reason to check the back seat.
- Ask your babysitter or childcare provider to call you if your child hasn’t arrived as scheduled.
- Try to plan ahead when you have errands. Run errands when your spouse, trusted neighbor or friend can watch your child.
- Remember to use the drive-through convenience provided by banks, dry cleaners, pharmacies, restaurants & other businesses.
- Pay at the pump at gas stations.
- When a child is missing, check vehicles & trunks immediately.
- If you see an unattended child in a car, call 911 immediately.
For additional information, visit:
KIDS & CARS
Safe Kids USA
Preventing Child Deaths in Missouri-The Missouri Child Fatality Review Program Annual Report – State Technical Assistance Team (STAT) | <urn:uuid:249db820-b4e9-4b9b-b653-e1bbbe22f616> | {
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Distance education or distance learning is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy/andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that is effectively incorporated in delivering education to students who are not physically "on site" to receive their education. Instead, teachers and students may communicate asynchronously (at times of their own choosing) by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time (synchronously). Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program.
Types of distance education courses:Edit
- Correspondence conducted through regular mail
- Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously
- Telecourse/Broadcast where content is delivered via radio or television
- CD-ROM where the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM
- PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server
One of the oldest distance education universities is the University of South Africa, which has been offering DE courses since 1946. The largest distance education university in the United Kingdom is the Open University founded 1969. In Germany the FernUniversität in Hagen was founded 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world and these are listed below.
There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education. Levels of accreditation vary; some institutions offering distance education in the United States have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent diploma mills. In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term "University" without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government.
Major institutions offering distance learning programsEdit
Caution Some organisations describing themselves as Distance Education institutions are nothing of the sort and their actions may bring the sector into disrepute. Refer to Diploma mills and List of unaccredited institutions of higher learning.
Go to www.azrena.org
- Correspondence schools are run by state education departments for students in remote areas, where they are too far away to attend any school. Students and teachers use the postal system to communicate.
- School of the Air is a system similar to Correspondence schools but use radios developed in the 1920s for the RFDS to link students and teachers.
Universities which have comprehensive distance education programs:
- Athabasca University
- Royal Roads University
- Simon Fraser University
- Télé-université (part of UQAM)
- Thompson Rivers University
- University of Waterloo
- Ryerson University
- Alberta Distance Learning Centre
- Canadian Virtual University
- The Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK)
- School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong (HKU SPACE)
- FernUniversität in Hagen
- AKAD Privathochschulen
- Diploma Europäische Hochschulen
- Europäische Fernhochschule Hamburg
- Fernfachhochschule Riedlingen
- Hamburger Fernhochschule
- Private Fernfachhochschule Darmstadt
- Indira Gandhi National Open University
- School of Distance Education, Andhra University
- Sikkim Manipal University
- Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
- Singapore Institute of Management-Open University Centre (to be accorded university status as SIM University in 2006)
- Heriot-Watt University
- Open College of the Arts
- The Open University (also provides the OUVS verification services for degrees awarded by other institutions such as the Maryvale Institute)
- University of London
- University of Wales, Lampeter (including certain courses offered by Midlands Bible College)
- International Correspondence Schools
- The International Extension College
- The National Extension College
- Napier University
- The University of Glamorgan
- Baker College
- Breyer State University
- California State University, Dominguez Hills
- Capella University
- Cleveland State University
- Charter Oak State College
- City College of San Francisco
- Coastline Community College
- Colorado Technical University
- Empire State College
- Excelsior College
- Goddard College
- Harvard Extension School
- Heritage College & Heritage Institute
- Imperial Valley College
- Kennedy-Western University
- Northern Arizona University
- Pacific Oaks College
- Saint Joseph's College of Maine
- Saint Leo University
- Strayer University
- Thomas Edison State College
- Union Institute & University
- University of Alaska Fairbanks
- University of Phoenix
- University of Maryland University College
- University of North Dakota
- Utah State University
- Norwich University
- European Graduate School in Switzerland and the United States.
- Euclid University in Belgium, Central Africa, Pakistan and the United States.
- Universitas 21 Global, an online university affiliated to the Universitas 21 alliance
In Distance Education, students may not be required to be present in a classroom, but that also maybe a question of option. For example in the Open Universities in India, especially in the Indira Gandhi National Open University, week end contact sessions are held. These are optional, but for certain courses which have practical components such as those for computers, attendance to the tune of about 90% is compulsory. The National Open University in India is based on the United Kingdom Open University model (though it is many years since the latter has done so). As for an electronic classroom or Virtual Learning Environment, it may or not be a part of a distance education set up. Electronic classrooms can be both on campus, and off campus. We would call such institutions as using a 'flexible' delivery mode.
Distance Education may also use all forms of technology, from print to the computer. This range will include radio, television, audio video conferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/on-line learning et al. (E-learning/online-learning are largely synonymous). A distinction is also made between open learning and distance learning. To clarify our thinking we can say that while 'open' education is the system in which the student is free to choose the time and place, but distance education is a teaching methodology used when the student and teacher are separated by time and place. Thus it follows that not all open-learning institutions use distance education and not all organisations that use distance education are open learning institutions. Indeed there are many cases in which students are in traditional classrooms, connected via a video-conferencing link to a teacher in a distant classroom. This method is typical in geographically dispersed institutions.
Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/podcasting etc. Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by the national open university (the Indira Gandhi National Open University) and its consortia plus the state open universities, to broadcast educational programmes of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programmes in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration.
In short then, though a range of technology presupposes a distance education 'inventory' it is technological appropriateness and connectivity, such as computer, or for that matter electrical connectivity that should be considered, when we think of the world as a whole, while fitting in technological applications to distance education.
Older models of distance education utilized regular mail to send written material, videos, audiotapes, and CD-ROMs or other media storage format (e.g. SDRAM or CompactFlash cards) to the student and to turn in the exercises. Today's distance education course makes use of E-mail, the Web, and video conferencing over broadband network connections for both wired physical locations and wireless mobile learning. In some countries, the material is supplemented by television and radio programming. To compete with the conventional sector, course material must be of very high quality and completeness, and will use modern technologies such as educational animation.
Full time or part-time study is possible, but most students choose part-time study. Research study is possible as well. Distance education is offered at all levels, but is most frequently an option for university-level studies. A form of educational program which is similar to this but which requires some amount of presence during the year is a low-residency program.
Distance education programs are sometimes called correspondence courses, an older term that originated in nineteenth-century vocational education programs that were conducted through postal mail. This term has been largely replaced by distance education, and expanded to encompass more sophisticated technologies and delivery methods. The first subject taught by correspondence was the Pitman Shorthand, a tool of stenography. Primary and secondary education programs were also widely available by correspondence, usually for children living in remote areas.
- CALL A historical perspective: Computer-assisted language learning
- Diploma mill While many distance education programs provide valuable instruction, others offer degrees with little requirements.
- Distance learning courses for psychologists
- Educational technology
- Efficient learning method
- European Association of Distance Teaching Universities
- Learning management system
- online learning
- E-learning glossary
- AACIS: American Association for Collegiate Independent Study
- The Distance Education and Training Council
- European Association of Distance Teaching Universities
- ICDL International Centre for Distance Learning from the Institute of Educational Technology and Library of the Open University
- Distance Education Australia: Online higher education portal Australia (AU)
- PosgradosMexico.com: A portal for Online and Offline higher-education (Mexico)
- USDLA: United States Distance Learning Associationde:Fernunterricht
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Luis De Garrido Cognitive Neuroscience
Luis De Garrido has an extensive research in Cognitive Neuroscience, a discipline that focuses on the scientific study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition, analyzing neuronal activity of mental processes and their behavioral manifestations.
Cognitive neuroscience groups neuroscience and psychology with other disciplines such as cognitive psychology, psychobiology and neurobiology. This new comprehensive science allows us to understand and reflect on the different mechanisms and systems functioning of the human nervous system, knowing the different methods and strategies used for the study of these functions, as well as relate and integrate all this information with their physiological functional bases, cell, biochemical and anatomical regarding the production and regulation of human behavior and cognition.
Luis De Garrido uses cognitive neuroscience to understand the behavior and activities of human beings, for various purposes.
On the one hand, this information allows you to better know people, and therefore enables you to carry out advanced architecture, an architecture that meets their basic psychological needs. Needs that they themselves are able to identify.
Secondly, Cognitive Neuroscience brings you closer to the essence of human behavior, and therefore allows for new social rules, to establish a new social paradigm and a new paradigm of territorial and urban planning, which allows us to live better and grow together as humans.
Third, this discipline helps Luis De Garrido understand the underlying creative activity cognitive and neural mechanisms, and thus allows you encourage them, and thereby amplify his own creativity and anticipate socially defining new social paradigms and art, especially in urban planning and architecture.
Finally, cognitive neuroscience allows Luis De Garrido understand the neurobiological mechanisms of pain, emotions and consciousness, which help to understand the basic mechanisms of recognition of beauty and happiness. This ensures the success of his architectural designs. | <urn:uuid:66709c6a-a0f0-4af5-9a49-dc4e0b60f500> | {
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Plate taken from the 'Illustrated London News'. The bell, at 17,001kg, still the largest in the country, was known as Great Paul. It was cast by John Taylor & Co. in 1881. Because of its size it was imposible to tune, as it would not fit any tuning machine of the time. It was hung with a wooden headstock and four ropes, two each side. On 18 March 1882, Great Paul was rung for the first time (in Loughborough), before being installed in the south-west tower of St Paul's, where it was dedicated on 3 June. In November of the same year, a wooden wheel replaced the levers in use previously, and the bell and frame were moved higher in the tower to make room for the new clock.
© Science Museum / Science & Society Picture Library | <urn:uuid:aa914130-999a-4ee8-b710-4ab522d0b0e7> | {
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Lenin, The Creator Of The Red Army.. (1965)
Availability of videosources
Needs clarification of possibility of digitizing in HD.
AnnotationAbout the Civil War of 1918-1922, the history of creation of the Red Army.
Revolutionary troops formation through the streets of Petrograd - LS., MS.
The soldiers on the stairs Smolny in October 1917.
Militias systems run along a city street.
On the Red Square in Moscow to build are Red - new soldiers of the regular army, created by Lenin.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was among the soldiers in Red Square (behind the scenes is the voice of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, speaking with reference to the Red Army).
In different cities are armed detachments of the Red Army, going to the defense of the young Soviet Republic from the occupation.
Amtrak train runs with the Red Army.
Episode fighting the Red Army on the fronts: the offensive cavalry, artillery action.
The Red Army on the Volga in the second half of 1918.
Liberation of Kazan.
Working telegraph - CU.
Multkarta: offensive interventionist Soviet Republic - MS.
March of the Red Army on the streets of liberated Kiev - LS.
The Red Army liberated the streets of Odessa.
Red cavalry in the streets free of Baku.
The Red Army liberated in Bukhara.
Sturm Perekop - LS., MS.
Red Army soldiers give oath (synchronously).
Said Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (synchronous): "Comrades, Red Army, stand firm, stand together ...".
Listen Red - MS.
Flying banner with a portrait of Vladimir Lenin - CU. | <urn:uuid:ff49559a-e60a-45fa-b0f8-d66c96cbb6df> | {
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Arctic Ice Expands 1 Million Square Miles In 1 Year
Nearly one-million square miles of more ice has frozen at the North Pole this year compared with the same time last year.
The question is… Is an increase of 60% more ice in 1 year a sign of things to come?
2013 Artic sea ice is up 60% from last year, while 2012 Arctic ice was at record lows.
An ice sheet more than half the size of Europe already stretches from the Canadian islands to Russia’s northern shores.
“The Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific has remained blocked by pack-ice all year…more than 20 yachts that had planned to sail it have been left ice-bound and a cruise ship attempting the route was forced to turn back,” according to a September report from dailymail.co.uk
Arctic sea ice averaged 2.35 million square miles in August 2013, as compared to the low point of 1.32 million square miles recorded on Sept. 16, 2012, according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center. A chart published Sept. 8 by NSIDC shows the dramatic rise this year, while they did note that the growth in ice was still below the 30-year average.
The following NASA images show the Arctic ice sheet in August 2012 and again in 2013.
Are we now in a cooling trend? And if so, why? Or is this simply an anomaly?
How about this for an idea…
…the shockingly dismal solar sunspot cycle which has been so low/inactive during the present peak period, that some say it is similar to what has preceded previous cool-down periods and even ice ages. Or is this too an anomaly?
A solar pole reversal is underway, signifying an apparent peak in the solar cycle…
For the current solar cycle 24, the reversal on the Sun’s north pole has been going on now…with positive and negative polarities alternating each other. It seems that only right now, the reversal on the north pole has become permanent…The reversal at the south pole seems to have only just begun. Therefore, a complete reversal still seems quite a few months away.
-Royal Observatory of Belgium (mid-2013)
And there’s this…
The Maunder Minimum (also known as the prolonged sunspot minimum) is the name used for the period starting in about 1645 and continuing to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare, as noted by solar observers of the time.
The Maunder Minimum coincided with the “the Little Ice Age”, during which Europe and North America were subjected to bitterly cold winters.
Are we heading into a cold period? A cooling trend? Or worse?
Only time will tell… | <urn:uuid:6096d4ce-8aab-4980-b15f-31e325f0f684> | {
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State surveyors waded into the icy Sierra Nevada on Thursday to take stock of the snow before it begins its crucial melt into rivers and reservoirs and found just what they expected: one of the biggest bounties in California history.
At Phillips Station south of Lake Tahoe in El Dorado County, where officials have taken measurements to forecast water supplies since 1941, snowpack was a whopping 183 percent of average for the date.
More importantly, snowpack across the entire Sierra range at this crucial point in the season — when snow levels are typically at their peak — measured 164 percent of average, according to state’s system of automated sensors. The tally has been higher just three times since 1970.
“It’s been very good from a snow accumulation standpoint,” said Frank Gehrke, chief of the snow survey program for the state Department of Water Resources, as he stood amid flurries at the measurement site.
Just two years ago, when surveyors trekked to 6,873-foot-elevation Phillips Station with their long, cylindrical gauges, there was no snow to put them in at all. Statewide snowpack came in at a dismal 5 percent of the norm.
This year’s frothy cache means a welcome boost for state and local water systems that have begun their recovery after five dry years, securing a virtual end to California’s historic drought.
While Gov. Jerry Brown has not rescinded a statewide emergency drought declaration, which ushered in a period of unprecedented water rationing, his office has said it would likely drop the order if the spring snow measurements ran high.
The snowpack, which state officials gauge not by height but water content, provides about a third of California’s water.
The state has received a near-constant barrage of storms this winter. Many areas have seen not only snow, which is piled up 50 feet at some spots in the southern Sierra, but heavy rains and wind that have brought flooding, mudslides and damage to roads and bridges.
Kurtis Alexander is a San Francisco Chronicle staff writer. Email: [email protected] Twitter: @kurtisalexander | <urn:uuid:0f4001b9-0da7-4db8-8426-84b034ba4802> | {
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Pôrto Alegre (pōrˈtŏ əlĕˈgrə) [key], city (1991 pop. 1,263,403), capital of Rio Grande do Sul state, SE Brazil, on the Guaíba River. One of the chief industrial and commercial centers of Brazil, it is also a major river port, exporting the products of the rich agricultural and pastoral hinterland. It has a modern shipyard, meatpacking plants, foundries, and varied processing industries and assembly plants. Pôrto Alegre's power comes from both coal and hydroelectric facilities. The city was founded (c.1742) by immigrants from the Azores. Since the 19th cent. its development has been aided by numerous German and Italian settlers. A modern city with handsome business and government buildings, Pôrto Alegre has also preserved many old, narrow streets and colonial buildings. It is the seat of two large universities and is an important cultural and literary center.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: South American Political Geography | <urn:uuid:f275538c-4d3c-4fd5-8320-6669c4f31243> | {
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Omphisa fuscidentalis, the bamboo worm or bamboo caterpillar, is a bamboo borer. It is not the only insect considered as a bamboo borer, as there are beetles too. Omphisa fuscidentalis is the larvae state of the moth and the more delicate of the borers. For this reason it is used in entomophagy, which is the human use of insects as food. Although not as popular yet in the western diets like the United States, eating pupae, larvae and eggs of insects has been prevalent since prehistoric times.
Where to Find
The bamboo borer gets its name from the bamboo groves it makes as its home in Asia. In Northern Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and in the Yunnan Province, the bamboo borer is at home in the lush forests of bamboo trees. The only thing interrupting its peaceful abode is the human desire for the worm as a delicacy by the locals.
Bamboo borer harvesters typically cut the shoot of the bamboo to find the caterpillars. They eat and live on the inside of the tree and can be found in large numbers inside the hollow plant. The moths lay their eggs in the bottom of the bamboo plant and the larvae eat their way up the shoot. When they are ready to exit the tree, they crawl back to the bottom where they started and bore through the bamboo to get out.
One of the most effective methods to harvest is to hack into the side of the bamboo shoot with a machete just at the internode, exposing just enough of the inside of the tree to see if it is inhabited by the worm.
Insect farming for bamboo borers takes place on bamboo plantations. In as little as 45 days, the worms can be found inside the shoots and will remain for as long as eight months eating the bamboo.
How to Eat
Mostly having a nutty flavor, the bamboo borer is usually deep fried and sold for human consumption. You will find them typically in the Asian open air markets, sold by street vendors or at temple fairs sold in bulk. Some people say that the bamboo caterpillar tastes like a Cheeto or a chip. Some cook it in a wok and enjoy it as a snack with a beer.
Deep fried caterpillars are also sold through other markets like online and in the groceries. They are sold in vacuum packed cans and labeled according to the distributor and processing company, similar to a can of peanuts or fried onions.
It is certainly no secret that bugs are high in protein. This has been the argument from the entomophagers for why we should encourage eating insects and introduce them into our diets as a great protein substitute. They are fabulous for a boost of energy as well as high in iron. Believe it or not, it would only take ten of these grubs to sustain a person daily.
At a whopping 25-53 grams of protein and 20 grams of fat, is it any wonder why these are a delicacy? For the individual on a no carb diet, the Omphisa fuscidentalis will fit the bill because they have none. They are a great tasting snack and an interesting way to spice up your plate. | <urn:uuid:49cf2e11-2e31-4782-a3fd-622863d01b46> | {
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Spit (card game)
|Players||2 - 6|
|Skills required||Speed, Memorization, Counting|
|Playing time||5-15 min.|
Spit, also referred to as Slam or Speed, is a game of the shedding family of card games for two players. The game is played until all of someone's cards are gone; at which time, the game has finished.
The goal of the game is to get rid of all your cards as quickly as possible. The players do not take turns - physical speed and alertness are required to play faster than your opponent. On each deal, by being first to play all your stock pile cards you can reduce the number of cards you have in the next deal. By being successful for several deals you can eventually get rid of all your cards, thereby winning the game.
- Stack 1: (0 cards face down), 1 card face up
- Stack 2: 1 card face down, 1 card face up
- Stack 3: 2 cards face down, 1 card face up
- Stack 4: 3 cards face down, 1 card face up
- Stack 5: 4 cards face down, 1 card face up
The eleven remaining cards are placed face down in a pile next to the player's tableau, forming the stock. Room must be left next to the stock for a waste pile, and between the players to lay foundations.
There is an alternative setup where each person lays down four cards face up separately, and a stack of ten face-down cards with one face-up card on top, similar to the setup for Canfield. Players must leave their stacks on the table, only a card being played may be handled.
The player can only use the cards that are face up. Once such a card is used, the next card under the stack can be turned over and then played. If a spot of the stack is empty, a player can transfer any face-up card into that slot and turn over the following card. Cards of the same face value can be placed in the same pile to allow for another pile to be freed up.
Once the cards are set up accordingly, the players can begin. There are no turns; each player plays their cards at the same time as fast as they can. Players may use either both or just one hand while playing Spit; however, both players need to agree on either one or both. The object is to lose all of one's cards.
To begin, each player flips over the top card from their remaining pile in the center to start the two active piles. Each player plays their face-up cards in front of them placing them on either center pile in ascending or descending order. Once either player has played all cards in front of them, each center pile is open to 'slap' for the player who has finished their cards. When one player has extra cards, other than the one he is playing with, the opponent takes the bottom card and puts in in place of where the players pile would be. This card is called the mystery card. If one by the player with no more cards, the opponent is not eligible to see the mystery card. The player then plays like he would normally until he or the opponent has no cards remaining. The mystery card must be played at least once a game.
These cards are added to the remainder of the player's cards, shuffled and then dealt into the columns as they did in the beginning. There is no set number of rounds and the first to lose all of their cards is the winner.
If the game reaches a point where both players are stuck or choose not to play a card or cards, both players once again say "spit" simultaneously and each player turns his top spit card face up, placing it on one of the spit piles. Play then resumes as described above.
End of Play
When only one spit pile is being used, the first player to get rid of his stock cards doesn't take anything from the center. His opponent takes the spit pile and his unplayed stock pile cards.
If the player with no spit cards in his hand also is the one who gets rid of his stock piles first, he wins the game. If his opponent gets rid of his stock piles first, the game continues.
Spit is a game similar to Speed in the sense that players attempt to get rid of all their cards first. Speed requires 4 stacks two having five or ten. Each player is dealt twenty cards if there are five cards in the outer stacks in the middle, or fifteen cards if there are ten cards. Speed permits you to use Jokers as wild cards, where in Spit, the Jokers are removed from the deck. For this reason, it is possible to purchase a deck of cards specific to Spit, as it removes the Jokers.
While playing Speed, when it comes to slapping your final pile, players have the option of shouting the word “Speed” as they slap the deck. This rule can be carried over to Spit, however it is not mandatory. The difference between Spit and Speed is in the arrangement of the stock piles. In Spit, each player has a row of stock piles, usually five, each with the top card face up. In Speed, each player has a single face down stock pile and a hand of five cards.
Spit game rules. | <urn:uuid:5fb732dd-252f-4255-9347-197f090b8e13> | {
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Turfgrass is at the center of the modern landscape industry. Its breeding, production, establishment and ongoing care have grown into a multi-billion-dollar industry this past half-century. No other landscape plant even remotely approaches its utility and its economic impact on the green industry services industry.
Turf’s popularity and ubiquity rest on its environmental, economic and aesthetic properties. Let’s also include a practical reason: Is there a better place for kids to play than a home lawn or a grassy park?
PHOTO BY JOE BOGGS.
A Killer in Black and White
With a proven ability to hitchhike across the globe, the Asian longhorned beetle has been found in five U.S. states. Unlike its fellow pest, emerald ash borer, ALB is known to kill a wide range of trees. So how do we rid our trees of this menace? Please visit http://bit.ly/XZr959.
While there’s little disagreement about turf’s many benefits, the same can’t be said for how we care for it. This criticism, at least until about a decade ago, had been aimed almost solely at the pesticides (mostly herbicides) that most of us use to keep lawns healthy and attractive. Critics claim – reliable evidence to the contrary – that these pesticides pose an unacceptable risk to human and pet health.
Increasingly, our use of turf fertilizers is now also being scrutinized and spawning use restrictions, but for a different reason than pesticides. The nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizers, mostly as the result of runoff, are being blamed for polluting streams, rivers, lakes and bays. Consequently, dozens of U.S. cities and counties have enacted, or are considering, regulations to spell out the types of fertilizers that we will be allowed to use (no phosphorus and usually percentage of slow-release), the amounts of nitrogen per year per 1,000 square feet, and times of year when applications will be allowed.
For example, professional applicators in New Jersey can no longer apply fertilizers with nitrogen or phosphorus before March 1 or after Dec. 1. Furthermore, they can apply no more than 0.7 pound of water-soluble nitrogen per 1,000 square feet per application and no more than 4.25 pounds per 1,000 square feet annually. By contrast, Sarasota County in Florida, and unlike New Jersey as it’s a warm-season turf market, prohibits the application of turf fertilizers containing phosphorus unless soil tests indicate the element is required, and prohibits all fertilizer applications between June 1 and Sept. 30.
Who Pays for Employees’ PPE?
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that all employers provide the necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) to all workers whose jobs require it. This is a broad statement that leaves a lot of room for clarification. In the landscape/lawn service industry as well as the other sectors of the green industry, laborers must be provided with PPE in order to properly perform their jobs. So, who must pay for it? Please visit http://bit.ly/TmIcI8.
While nutrient overload in our waters is a genuine problem and action to prevent it is necessary, some of the new laws aimed at lessening the impact of turf fertilizers in waterways seem to be poorly thought out. For example, several cities and counties in coastal Florida, even though they may be adjacent to each other, now have different regulations regarding how fertilizers can be used. Also, several of the laws forbid the application of fertilizers within 10 feet of a waterway. But, what actually constitutes a waterway? In some cases this isn’t clear from the language of the law.
How much did science enter into the rationale behind these decisions? That’s arguable. What can’t be debated, however, is the unnecessary inconvenience and extra expense it often represents to lawn care service providers in those particular markets.
But there’s a positive side to the new laws, too.
While few of us enthusiastically seek additional regulation and we might grumble that some of the restrictions placed on our services are unnecessary (nonsensical?), who can argue that requiring applicators to be properly trained is a bad idea? Almost all of these fertilizer laws require that contractors receive training in best management practices (BMPs). But, what about homeowners?
My guess is that we’ve all seen applications made on frozen ground and other misapplications, including leaving fertilizers on sidewalks, driveways or streets to be flushed into storm sewers at the first rain. The fact is that until recently just about anyone, including contractors, could apply lawn fertilizers without any real training at all.
As bothersome as some of these regulations may seem, they have their good points, too. If they help us preserve turfgrass and its many benefits that is the cornerstone of many of our businesses, we can live with them. | <urn:uuid:3f444ed1-30f5-4e90-b4fe-d5eea04e246e> | {
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Working to ensure fair use of outer space
The Secure World Foundation, a nonprofit based near Boulder, Colo., is advising the United Nations and other organizations on the fair use of outer space.
SUPERIOR, Colo.--If you remember the scene from Pixar's "Wall-E," in which a rocket ship on its way to humankind's space station blasts through a debris field of abandoned satellites, you may have wondered if anyone on Earth is working to prevent that from becoming reality.
The answer is yes.
Here in this small town not far from Boulder, Colo., the Secure World Foundation (SWF), a nonprofit unassociated with any government, is thinking about that kind of issue, as well as several others related to the fair use of space, and succeeding at getting its analysis and recommendations heard by decision makers around the world.
"We promote the need for space governance," said Phil Smith, the Secure World Foundation's communications director, and help "establish effective systems of governance in outer space."
I visited the organization's headquarters--discreetly tucked away in a small house in a residential neighborhood here--as part of Road Trip 2009. I wanted to see what, if anything, people are doing to ensure that space isn't fully dominated--and contaminated--by any one or two countries.
Smith explained that the SWF breaks its definition of space governance into several different categories: international civil space situational awareness; mitigation of orbital debris; establishing systems for the efficient sharing of data from space-based remote sensing platforms; and working to prevent a space arms race.
While it may be easy to discount the efforts of a small organization based far from Washington, Brussels, Moscow, or Beijing, Smith said that the SWF's $1.5 million annual budget comes entirely from the philanthropy of a very-well connected family interested in promoting such issues.
Further he said, while its headquarters is in Superior, the SWF does maintain an office in Washington, as well as in Vienna, Austria, and makes its research and analysis known by working directly, with permanent observer status, with the United Nation's 69-member Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.
The SWF doesn't have voting rights on the committee, Smith clarified, but does sit in on its meetings and provide advice when needed.
That means, Smith continued, the SWF has three main goals: facilitating meetings between various interested groups to hash out issues; advocating for space governance; and spreading the word of its analysis by, among other things, giving briefings on Capitol Hill, and to local and state governments because the issues it works on do impact the space industry, and officials may not always be aware of the various things going on at the international and domestic level.
But ultimately, while the SWF does share its opinions with Congress, its primary constituency is not the U.S. government, but rather the international community, Smith said.
Space traffic management
To the SWF, space situational awareness (SSA) is a significant component of space traffic management. Essentially, Smith said, it's a bit like air traffic control.
The U.S. Air Force, he said, does most of the tracking and watches about 19,000 objects four inches or larger orbiting Earth, most of which are satellites that are either still functional or dead. But the SWF considers tracking space weather an equally important part of the equation, Smith said.
For example, those with assets in space have a constant need to be aware of things such as whether the sun is sending off rare coronal mass ejections, a major event of solar flare activity, which can cause considerable amounts of damage to satellites.
Further, detecting such events would be crucial if there were astronauts in space, as they could be killed if they weren't quickly returned from orbit.
And to that end, the SWF is able to access and monitor data that comes from a satellite called Soho, which monitors the sun 24 hours a day, looking for just this kind of solar activity.
Ultimately, Smith said, space traffic management is kind of an umbrella discipline that comprises things like SSA and monitoring space weather and orbital debris. And because there is general agreement that space traffic management is broadly necessary, Smith added, it's not as controversial as, say, discussing management of space weapons.
The management of space weapons, however, is "typically a starting point for controversy," Smith said. This, mainly, is about the development of anti-satellite weapons.
There is some concern about whether a country's satellite launch vehicle might instead be geared to launching a missile, which is where Iran and North Korea are causing controversy, Smith argued. But the SWF's main focus is on anti-satellite weapons, which are typically space- or ground-based systems designed for the disabling of satellites.
And, Smith said, there are just three countries thought to already be capable of such weapons: the United States, China, and Russia. However, he added, anyone with a launch vehicle technically has the ability to target satellites, meaning that countries like Japan, Israel, India, and now Iran could be added to that list.
The idea is to stave off the development of space weapons. The United Nations' Conference on Disarmament is the main international organization looking at this, though Smith pointed out that there are today no known space weapons in orbit. But it's a definitional problem, he explained. At one time, the Soviet Union thought that the Space Shuttle was meant to be a space weapon that could, for example, orbit and grab satellites.
But today, the goal is to prevent the development of such weapons, and that is handled mainly by the Conference on Disarmament, Smith said. While the SWF is an observer at the U.N., it doesn't have such status with the Conference on Disarmament. Instead, the organization relies on its extensive roster of contacts and relationships to influence the space weapons discussion, Smith explained.
Beyond the political problems anti-satellite weapons can create, the SWF is concerned about them because of their potential to create space debris. That's because a destroyed or dead satellite can wreak havoc on functional satellites.
"A small piece (of debris) can create an enormous amount of damage due to kinetic energy," he said.
Today, Smith said, there are voluntary guidelines that member nations adhere to when it comes to creating space debris. But the SWF is hoping to make those guidelines "more robust," he said. Of course, while it's impossible to do away entirely with space debris, everyone involved is hoping to stop it as much as possible.
The question is, how do you prevent the creation of debris? Do you forge a treaty, Smith said, or a strong, fundamental set of rules everyone agrees to abide by. But enforcement is a big problem, he added. It may, in the end, be about peer pressure. For example, he said that in 2007, China launched an anti-satellite weapon at one of its defunct satellites, destroying it and creating a great deal of debris in the process.
From China's perspective, the test proved that it had the technology--and once proved, it's not necessary to have to do it again--but the country also took a lot of flak from the international community for creating the massive amount of debris.
The big idea is to figure out how to best track space debris to provide data to satellite owners so that they can maneuver their assets around junk that might cause significant damage, and therefore additional debris. Still, with the amount of space activity growing, it is expected that space debris will increase over time, as well.
Another main area of SWF's focus is on planetary defense, or the protection of Earth against asteroids, or comets, or other space junk that could appear out of nowhere, impact the planet and cause serious problems, up to and including massive species extinction.
The Association of Space Explorers, a group of former astronauts, is one group that is focusing on this issue, and has produced a report on how to deal with this issue at a policy level.
But again, the SWF gets involved at the international policy level, weighing in when asked by the U.N. about what to do with the astronauts' report. The idea is to prepare a plan so that if a hazardous space object is detected, we know what to do about it, rather than having to create a plan on the fly.
And that leads to a final area of the SWF's main focus: data sharing.
The SWF wants to ensure, Smith said, that everyone has access to data that can be collected by satellites about global vegetation growth, about the effects of global warming, as well as many of the issues discussed above.
While a small organization without major funding or direct involvement in any of the issues it studies, the SWF would seem to have limited power. But because it is consulted regularly by the United Nations and has contacts throughout the world, we can all hope that having a non-governmental nonprofit looking out for the fair use of space will help further that goal. After all, who else is going to argue for space? | <urn:uuid:5eef9c4a-d8f1-434c-93e3-053da4e63e0d> | {
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Radishes: They’re not just for salad anymore. In fact, they may be useful for controlling runoff into the Chesapeake.
Stuart Schwartz, senior scientist with UMBC’s Center for Urban Environmental Research and Education, spoke with Tim Wheeler, an environmental reporter for The Baltimore Sun, for Wheeler’s article, “Radishes get tryout as runoff fighters.”
Wheeler writes: “City and most suburban soil is badly in need of aeration, Schwartz said. He and other researchers have found that even grass-covered ground, just below the surface, is often as dense and impermeable as concrete. Anything heavier than a light rain runs off, washing fertilizer, organic matter and other pollutants into storm drains and nearby streams.”
As it turns out, planting radishes might just help control runoff in urban areas.
“Daikon radishes, a long, white variety of the red ones that often grace salads, can grow taproots as big as a person’s arm. When farmers plant them after a late-summer harvest, their roots bore down through the soil, loosening it. Then, after winter frosts kill the plants, the roots decay, leaving behind deep openings that allow rain to soak in,” writes Wheeler. He continues, further down in the piece, “The deep-rooted radish offers a relatively low-cost, low-tech way to break up urban soil, according to Schwartz, who spent only about $50 for the seed mix. The vacant lot on Perlman Place was provided through a partnership with the city and with Civic Works, a nonprofit that runs Real Food Farm nearby in Clifton Park. The lot is one the city is leasing to Civic Works for expanding its urban agriculture initiative.”
To learn more about radishes, agriculture, runoff and the environment you can also read, Clare Leschin-Hoar’s piece, in TakePart, “Can Radishes Be The Secret Weapon In Protecting Our Water from Big Farming’s Runoff?” | <urn:uuid:a6a22314-f87c-4f0b-a0aa-4a8b1fb5b671> | {
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Callisthenes of Olynthus, (born c. 360 bc—died c. 327), ancient Greek historian best known for his influential history of Greece. Callisthenes was appointed to attend Alexander the Great as historian of his Asiatic expedition on the recommendation of his uncle Aristotle, who was Alexander’s former tutor. In 327 bc Callisthenes offended Alexander, who had proclaimed himself divine and demanded that Greeks prostrate themselves before him in adoration (the custom of proskynesis). Callisthenes led the opposition to this practice, was falsely accused of conspiracy, and was summarily executed. His death was commemorated by his friend Theophrastus in Callisthenes; or, a Treatise on Grief.
Callisthenes wrote a 10-volume history of Greece from the peace of Antalcidas (386) to the Phocian War (355); a history of the Phocian War (or Third Sacred War); and a eulogistic account of Alexander’s conquests, The Deeds of Alexander. With Aristotle he drew up a complete list of victors in the Pythian Games, which was important for ancient chronology. His works survive only in fragments. It is known that he alluded to the story of Alexander’s divine birth and may have been the first to do so. | <urn:uuid:f41ca68a-d18b-4c72-90ed-af03e8d320a2> | {
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Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fish Stock Rebuilding Plans
33 fish stocks have been rebuilt since 2000, including the coho salmon stock pictured above.
In 2011, NOAA commissioned the National Academy of Science’s National Research Council to analyze the effects of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) mandate to rebuild overfished stocks. This included an evaluation of success in stock rebuilding, an investigation of the effects of uncertainty, and identification of means to better account for social, economic and ecosystem factors in the rebuilding plans. The purpose was to help NOAA and the regional fishery management councils better construct efficient and effective rebuilding plans. NOAA will carefully review and analyze the report’s details and will explore ways to use these findings.
National Research Council Report: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fish Stock Rebuilding Plans in the United States | <urn:uuid:f65bd8c4-26b6-4e54-bafe-374c9e707266> | {
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Antibiotics Being Prescribed Less for Respiratory Infections
TUESDAY Aug. 18, 2009 -- Prescribing antibiotics to treat respiratory tract infections has dropped significantly in recent years, a new study has found.
That's mainly the result of fewer young children being seen for ear infections, according to the researchers. But despite a decline overall, prescriptions for broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as azithromycin (Zithromax), and anti-microbial agents known as quinolones have increased, they reported. Such drugs are used to fight more serious infections, such as MRSA and other resistant bacteria.
"There is good news about declining antibiotic use, since inappropriate use of antibiotics can result in bacteria that are resistant to these antibiotics," said Dr. Marie R. Griffin, a professor of preventive medicine at Vanderbilt University Medical Center and a co-author of the study. "However, overuse of powerful antibiotics remains a problem."
"Antibiotics should only be used for bacterial infections, and heavy-duty antibiotics should be saved for serious infections," Griffin said.
Over the last 12 years, she said, use of antibiotics in children has declined 36 percent. "This is mainly due to educational efforts to reduce inappropriate use of antibiotics for viral infections and to a new vaccine -- pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for infants, which has reduced ear infections in children," she said.
For the study, which is published in the Aug. 19 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, the researchers looked at the trends in prescriptions for antibiotics from 1995 to 2006, using data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey and the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey.
They found that medical visits for ear infections among children younger than 5 declined 17 percent in that time, and antibiotic prescription rates dropped 27 percent.
The study attributed the decrease to a 36 percent reduction in antibiotic prescriptions for respiratory tract infections. Rate of doctor visits for ear infections fell 33 percent over the study period, and rates of antibiotic prescriptions specifically for ear infections fell 36 percent, the researchers found.
Among those 5 and older, doctor visits for respiratory tract infections remained about the same, but antibiotic prescription rates for those infections dropped18 percent. Prescription rates for antibiotics for other conditions for which antibiotics are rarely indicated dropped 24 percent in this age group, the study found.
In the past decade, initiatives in the United States have urged the judicious use of antibiotics, particularly for acute respiratory tract infection, which is a common reason for people to see a doctor and a frequent reason for antibiotic prescriptions, especially for young children, the researchers noted.
The use and misuse of antibiotics can increase the likelihood that bacteria will become resistant to antibiotics. Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant microorganisms have been associated with increased illness, death and substantial costs, the researchers said.
Dr. Stuart B. Levy, president of the Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics and a professor of medicine, molecular biology and microbiology at Tufts University School of Medicine, said he thinks the trend toward less antibiotic use is encouraging.
"It's a wonderful finding," Levy said. "The message is getting out there. There is a major thrust in the appropriate use of antibiotics -- the realization that if we reduce the use of antibiotics, we will reduce the levels of resistance."
Levy added that it also has become easier for doctors to tell patients they don't need antibiotics.
"Now patients are saying: 'If I don't need the antibiotic, why should I take it?' That is a good sign," he said.
People are getting the message that "antibiotics are not cure-alls, and a consequence of antibiotic usage and misuse is the resistance that emerges," Levy said.
The Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics has more on antibiotic resistance.
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Four Great Tragedies: Julius Caesar; Hamlet; Macbeth; Romeo and Juliet
This edition of four of Shakespeare's great tragedies is designed for the enjoyment of the modern reader. This complete "Cambridge Text" of each play is clear and understandable. The story of each play is summed up briefly by J. Walker McSpadden.
A glossary at the end of the book explains all unusual words and terms. The casts of characters are illustrated by Louis Glanzman. | <urn:uuid:8a400702-5250-4084-99a1-bdd2cc43b6a6> | {
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Hummingbirds are quite common in Kansas and have become a popular attraction in the state, as we all know bird-watching is one of the amazing delights of nature which can be enjoyed for free. Kansas hummingbirds are very exciting, active and portray a variety of social interactions, which various groups of people including bird-watchers and naturalists find quite interesting. These colorful birds enthrall many people by their beauty and their remarkable ability to hover in one place simply by flapping their wings.
The most common species of hummingbirds found in the state of Kansas is the ruby-throated hummingbird, native to Acapulco. It nests in the woodland parks as well as along streams and is mostly found in the eastern half of the state, although the migration path leads all the way to Acapulco. There are many other species of hummingbirds found in the sunflower state as you will see later on. However, they are usually quite rare and can only be seen during the migration season which begins in mid April and ends in late October.
Other Varieties Of Kansas Hummingbirds
1) Rufous Hummingbird
Popularly known as “feisty,” the Rufous posses the ideal size-to-weight ratio among Kansas hummingbirds. Weighing less than 3.5 g, it is about 8 cm long with a long, straight and slender beak. This magnificent bird is certainly more fascinating than all other species. It is known for its remarkable flight skills, with an incredible capability to cover beyond 2,000 miles during migration. You can easily attract it to your garden by planting a feeder that is filled with a blend of mostly grains.
2) Black-Chinned Hummingbird
The black-chinned hummingbird is another rare species of hummingbirds that can be spotted in many parts of Kansas. It is very adaptable, occupying an extensive range of habitats from pristine natural areas to urban areas to recently disturbed habitats. However, you will only have the bird as your guest for a short period as it rarely remains longer than a day at a feeder even when food is scarce. Just like its cousins, it weighs less than 3.5 g; it is migratory and tends to spend most of its winter in Mexico.
3) Allen’s Hummingbird
Allen’s hummingbird is a rare species of hummingbird that you can encounter in the state of Kansas by chance during the birds’ migration season. The bird is very tiny and one of the most difficult-to-see Kansas hummingbirds. In fact a mature adult reaches not more than 3.5 inches long. The male has a green forehead and back, with reddish-brown sides, rear, and tail. His throat is also an iridescent orange-red. The female and young Allen’s hummingbirds are similarly colored, only that they have a series of speckles on their throats instead of the iridescent throat patch. Breeding male and female Allen’s Hummingbirds have different habitat preferences. The former sets up a territory overlooking open areas of coastal scrub vegetation, where he tends to perch on exposed leafless branches in a way that attracts attention of females. The former builds its nest in sites within more densely vegetated areas as well as forests.
4) Calliope Hummingbird
Weighing not more than 2.83 g, the calliope hummingbird is one of the smallest hummingbirds native to Kansas and some bordering states. This colorful and fascinating hummingbird species normally sets up a habitat in hilly or mountains areas, and although it often forages within 5 feet off the ground, it has been seen as high as 11,000 feet. The Calliope hummingbird establishes its home over creeks, often repairing the previous year’s nest or constructing a new one on top of the old one. Unlike other humming bird species, it might not be easy to attract the bird to your garden so you can get a closer look at it.
Kansas hummingbirds offer one of the greatest bird watching experiences. They come in a wide range of magnificent colors. Interestingly, these birds posses an extraordinary ability to hover in mid-air as they feed from the hummingbird feeders placed in your backyard or nectar of flowers. Even if you do not have a yard, you can be feeding them using window hummingbird feeders which have been specifically designed for that purpose.
Do not use pesticides around hummingbird plants; otherwise the chemicals may contaminate the garden and thereby killing the birds. Also, do not kill garden pests as this will get rid of the small insects hummingbirds depend on for nourishment.
The guitar is an amazing instrument that you can learn at any age. All it takes is focus, commitment, and the right training to get you playing. Here are some beginner guitar training tips to help you master this instrument.
Learn Music Theory
Get some music theory lessons to enhance your creativity. Guitar playing is much more fun when you know what you are doing. Spend some time on theory before you start playing to help you master the guitar within a shorter period. Learn music notation and chord charts. The theory can also make it easy for you to write songs and play them.
Featured: Jamplay Review 2016 – learn how to improve your guitar skills via Jamply online guitar lessons.
Guitar playing requires finger-brain coordination and this takes a lot of practice. Set aside at least half an hour or an hour to practice each day. You need to be persistent. Playing the guitar is like forming a habit, which takes time. Spend as much time as possible practicing different chords and scales until you get things right.
Find a Suitable Guitar
You need the right instrument to learn how to play. Find an acoustic or electric guitar depending on your music preferences. Carry out research to determine the best guitar for you. Consult people who play the instrument or a professional sales person to help you out.
Featured: Online Guitar Lessons Reviews – reviews of popular online guitar lesson providers.
Listening is one of the most essential skills for a beginner. Listen keenly to other guitarists on albums or live shows to become an amazing player. Take note of the kind of guitar they are playing and the notes it produces. Pay attention to their tones.
Listen to your instrument as you practice. You should be able to pick up mistakes or an out of tune guitar. Your strings should be clear and chords and notes even. Listening will help you identify errors and make it easy to work on your tone.
Learn how to identify intervals and the way diverse chords sound. You can imitate popular recording to enhance your listening skills. It is also important to learn different songs using your ears. Deconstruct the sound you hear to make it easy to play them.
Master Basic Skills Accurately
Guitar playing involves a variety of skills. Take some time to master the basics. Find an online course, book or instructor to help you out. Learn about chords, notes, leads, picking, and strumming. It may time some time to master them but it will be worth it when you can play an entire song on your instrument.
Learn how to use the right fingers when playing scales and chords. Take note of the right way to hold your instrument. Your guitar should always be at the right angle.
Playing the guitar can be challenging, making it necessary to identify ways to remain motivated. You may sound terrible to begin with but things will improve with time if you remain committed. Set some short term goals to motivate yourself. Identify ways to reward yourself after attaining each goal.
Learning the guitar does not have to be a frustrating experience. Take advantage of these beginner guitar training tips to enhance your skills. Join a program such as Guitar Tricks to enhance your guitar playing skills.
You would obviously want to lay your hands on the best dab pipe money can buy, that is if you are into dabbing. The cannabis and tobacco industry is teeming with great pipes. But not all of these pipes are ideal for you. The right one for you is determined by your personal preferences. For example, people who dab on the go will prefer compact-sized and concealable dab pipes. However, there are general desirable qualities you should be looking for in a dab pipe. The qualities are enumerated below:
The ideal dab pipe is one that will permit you to enjoy your herbs for a good time before it breaks. Dab pipes that will break after a week are usually a rip off- and they are not a good investment. It is, therefore, prudent to spend a few more cents if that is the only way you can get a high quality and durable dab pipe. Experience has shown that dab pipes constructed of thick borosilicate glass are great as their material is strong and they can’t break easily.
Compactness and Concealability
Many dabbers choose to dab on the go. If you are one of the dabbers who prefer to dab on the go, then you’d want a dab pipe that is compact in size and that is concealable. You don’t want a big dab pipe that will jut out of your pockets or traveling bags or carry-ons. Look for one that you can easily stash or conceal in a carry-on or traveling bag. Such compact and concealable pipes ease the process of dabbing- this means it will be convenient to dab at any opportunity you get. Elaborate dab pipes usually don’t afford users the privilege.
The dab pipe needs to be presentable and functional
To most people, dabbing is a social activity. As such, the dab pipe you choose shouldn’t draw negative attention. It is very crucial to get a beautiful dab pipe that will get you approval from your social circles and that will turn heads in every social event you go to. The experience of dabbing, which should be pleasant on, can be sullied or ruined if the dabbing pipe you are using looks grotesque and dated.
Generally, dab pipes aren’t expensive. You can and will get a top of the range dab pipe at a reasonable price. Therefore, you don’t need to shell out lots of money to have a high-quality and presentable dab pipe. All you need to do is to shop widely, compare prices, and pick the best price for value.
Also, avoid very cheap dab pipes. As the adage goes, ‘when the deal is too good, then think twice.’ Most high-quality dab pipes are not offered at super low prices.
Buy from trusted brands
In the commercial world, anyone can claim to be an expert in something even when their know-how in that particular thing is really wanting. Some unscrupulous companies may create counterfeit knockoff dab pipe name brands to hoodwink customers. Therefore, be sure that the dab pipe is authentic and is not a counterfeit of an original. If you want to buy a new brand, look it up online to see customer reviews of the new brand.
Buying your first dab rig can either be an exhilarating experience or a loathsome one depending on if you know how to select the right dab rig for yourself. Below are handy tips that can help you to select the best dab rig for you:
The best things often come in small packages
If you want a better overall flavor, then you should get a smaller mouthpiece, according to dab pundits. Studies show that the smaller the mouthpiece, the more potent the hit. Unlike smoke which is produced when weed is smoked in a bong, the cannabis oil vapor released in a dab usually begins to dissipate immediately after release; therefore, if you want a potent vapor by the time you inhale it, opt for a large dab rig.
A wet rig
Some manufacturers design their dab rigs to be used dry. However, seasoned users of dab rigs usually prefer wet rigs. A wet rig, like a bong, holds water in the bottom of it. The water is very crucial as it pulls the heated vapors through before they reach your mouth. Note that you need to heat the cannabis oil to very high and steady heat; therefore, it is wise to let the vapor cool off a bit before ingesting the concentrate.
While you look for a dab that uses water to cool off vapors before you ingest them, try to select a pipe that doesn’t feature too much filtration or percolation. A pipe with 2 to 4 holes in the percolator is ideal. Less percolation means there won’t be too much disturbance in the water which may cause the dab vapors to dissipate faster.
Glass Dab Rig
To ensure long life, try to buy the highest quality glass dab rig within your budget range. It is noteworthy that dab rigs are usually in two categories: those that are aesthetically designed and those that are constructed for maximum quality. The irony is that most people end up spending lots of money on the aesthetically designed dab rigs more than the dab rigs constructed for maximum quality. The reason for this is that the glass blower takes precious time and rare skill to design a dab rig featuring beautiful and colorful patterns. While most folks are usually carried away with dab rigs that emphasize form over function, truth is that the no-frills options are the ones that give maximum flavor and potency.
Thankfully, you can have a bit of both worlds. Nowadays there are dabs that are of high quality which still feature some artistry on them. And they are usually made of glass. Look for a glass dab rig, but, inspect it first to ascertain it doesn’t have any nicks and cracks.
Domed Dab Rigs
When shopping for a dab, you’ll learn that some have nails with domes while some don’t. Domed nails are a lot safer. Also, they help to retain vapor so a person can inhale a lot of it as is practically possible. Besides, the glass dome appears pretty and covers the nail well. Therefore, it is wise to opt for a dab featuring a domed nail.
To say that Topeka, Kansas is centrally located in the US would be somewhat of an understatement. Located right, smack in the center of the US and laying alongside the Kansas River, Topeka is somewhat of an undiscovered gem. Founded in 1854, this city in Western Kansas is a historian’s dream. With a beautiful environment consisting of stunning historical architecture alongside parks, museums and nature trails, it’s impossible not to feel at home in Topeka.
Topeka has a rich history having being integral in the Civil Rights Movement and was actually founded by a group of anti-slavery activists. There is a site commemorating the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education victory that deemed that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Visit the Ward Meade Park which features a botanical garden, fountains and an old fashioned drug store, complete with soda fountain, alongside Old Prairie Town, a street of 19th century buildings to complete your journey back in time.
Topeka also has a thriving arts community with a multitude of Art Galleries, Theatres and Musical attractions in the form of both Opera and Symphony companies. In addition, the new North Topeka Arts District on the edge of the Kansas River, has brought a new lease of life to some of Topeka’s most historic buildings, as they’re reinvented in the form of Art Galleries and Antique shops.
Home of the first million dollar high school in 1931, with a population of only 128,000 as of 2013 and an average age of 39 years old, there is no better place to bring up a family than in Topeka. With Kansas’ Washburn University located just south of the College Hill neighborhood, costing only an average of $7,000 a year for local students, it’s an affordable college option for parents and with the University ranking at number 30 in US News Top 40 Public Universities it’s not a bad option at that. The University also came in the Top Ten of Central Midwest Universities
Did you also know that in 2010, Topeka was named one of the Top Ten places for this decade based on economic growth and prosperity by Kiplinger’s Personal Finance Magazine? A place for the future, indeed.
House prices average a very reasonable $95,000, and the typical commute being less than 15 minutes; that’s hard to beat. Professional Topeka Real Estate Agents with extensive knowledge of the area will be able to aid you in your search to find the home of your dreams. From the historic neighborhood of Potwin Place, known for its festive decorations during the holidays, to Collins Park neighborhood where every year people come from all over Topeka to celebrate in a giant Independence Day Party, there is a neighborhood in Topeka that’s just waiting to become your home. Get together with a Topeka Real Estate Agent who can help you find the perfect home for you.
Prices for detached properties in Topeka average around $115,000 whereas an apartment could cost only $50,000. Properties in Topeka range from Colonial Revival to Craftsman, from Prairie to Tudor, from Queen Anne to Italianate, to name but a few. No matter your budget or the style of home you are looking for, the right real estate agent will be able to help you find it in Topeka, Kansas.
When it comes to looking for a new home, the saying is true – “Location, location, location”. In Kansas, there are few better locations right now than Topeka. Not only do you have the benefit of lower home prices for fantastic houses, but the city offers a community you can be proud to be part of.
A Connected Community
Topeka offers a great deal to its community and takes pride in its arts and culture. A recent Artwalk and Art Crawl brought in $20m with $830,000 of that going to city revenue. Almost 650,000 people attended and this all lead to 480 sustained jobs. It is rare to find this information so readily available these days, but as you can see, the community is not just living in their homes in Topeka, but they are taking in the culture and community of Topeka.
A number of museums are also in Topeka such as the Kansas Children’s Discovery Center, State Historical Society, Mulvane Art Museum at Washburn and a wide array of other attractions. Libraries give families, students, and individuals plenty to explore from traditional libraries to more specialized libraries such as the Washburn Law Library.
The city also makes sure to offer plenty of events for the community through the Shawnee County Parks and Recreation department. With 8k runs, Movie Under the Stars events and Smoke on the Water BBQ Competitions, you will have plenty of opportunities to get out and meet your neighbors and other community members.
A City on the Rise
Topeka is also working hard to ensure that the city does not let you down from aesthetics to services. With their 50/50 Sidewalk Repair initiative, Topeka is helping update and replace concrete and brick sidewalks by splitting the cost of repairs with property owners.
A Franchise Fee Credit Program also gives credit to homeowners for electric, gas, and water/waste. The earnings can be up to $175 per year per household to help reduce the cost of your annual bills.
Real Estate in Topeka
Topeka is also a safe city to live. With most types of crimes near the city including nothing more than theft, forgery or burglary, and on rare occasions at that, you can feel safe while you are exploring your new community.
Looking at reviews from parents about the schools in the area, both public and private, send a very positive not about the education system in the city. While many will look up school rankings, experienced parents tend to go by word of mouth or reviews from other parents. After all, looking at numbers and deciding if the school is right for your child is not as informative as getting word of mouth reviews from parents of students currently attending the school.
With average listing prices of $173,311 to $204,759 as of the time of this writing for the popular neighborhoods in Topeka, you aren’t just getting a great community with plenty of benefits, you are getting a great home at affordable prices. Topeka shines as a community focused city that hasn’t forgotten its roots but also has its eyes on the future. | <urn:uuid:f1b0867c-30a2-45de-a994-c8677a645075> | {
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3 November 2013
The Ways Media Portrays Women
Throughout today’s society, media contributes to almost everyone’s daily life. From informative news channels to comical television shows, media proves to be effective in advertisement, releasing messages and informing the audience. Although media proves to be wildly effective in advertising, releasing messages and informing the audience, periodically destructive and misleading messages are provided to the audience and directly influencing women. Cultural critics widely agree that media tends to negatively influence women and all the critics point to research which supports the belief that women are portrayed as subordinate to men, having no self control and having little self confidence in themselves. In addition, the media often identifies women as an object.
Throughout media, women are hardly ever portrayed as the main focus or character in a television show, advertisement, cartoon or novel. Although media producers would avoid admitting to portraying women in such a way, Katha Pollitt in the “Smurfette Principle” clearly agrees and states; “I came across not a single network cartoon or puppet show starring a female” (545). Through the examples of various children’s television shows, Pollitt argues that women are minor to men and that even children are catching onto the media’s feminist ways. Pollitt then discusses what she calls the “smurfette principle” which is when a certain male character or group of men will be accented by a single woman character. Not only is Pollitt the only critic that agrees that women are hardly ever portrayed as the main focus or character, but scholar Carmen D. Siering takes a position on this topic as well. In Carmen D. Siering’s “Taking a Bite out of Twilight,” Siering uses an informative tone to discuss the feminist issue that evolves in the popular young adult novel Twilight. As Siering introduces the characters in her article she states: “...Bella Swan- by all accounts a very average human girl- has two suitors. . . one is the unimaginable beautiful vampire Edward, the other a loyal and devoted werewolf, Jacob” (438). Although Siering lists Bella as a character, the simple degrading fact that Bella has two suitors that are both male provides that Bella is a part of the “smurfette principle;” part of the unfolding story, but only accenting the two men. Despite the fact that Siering and Pollitt use different examples of media both critics take a stance in agreeing that women are in fact portrayed as the main focus in media.
Despite the fact that women are very rarely portrayed as the main character or main focus in media, another problem women face is that media generates the idea that women have no self control and cannot make decisions on their own. In “Two Ways a Woman Can Get Hurt,” Jean Kilbourne uses various amounts and examples of advertisements that degrade and put shame upon women. Through the use of advertisements, Kilbourne agrees that advertisements provide the idea that women cannot make decisions on their own by issuing, “Ad after ad implies that girls and women don’t really mean “no” when they say it, that women are only teasing when they resist men’s advances” (462). Even though Kilbourne does not explicitly state that women cannot make their own decisions, the simple shameful advertisement that depicts a women who doesn’t mean no when she is trying to resist a man that is pressuring her into having sexual affairs, provides the message that women cannot make their own decisions because the man pressuring her believes that a woman won’t make the decision. Aside from the fact that the advertisements Kilbourne provides prove that the media sends a message that women cannot make their own decisions, but Carmen D. Siering also proves that in addition to a woman not capable of making her own decisions, a woman also has no self control. In Siering’s article “Taking a Bite out...
Cited: Blum, Virginia. “Love My Neighbors, Hate Myself: The Vicissitudes of Affect in Cosmetic Surgery.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing. Ed Stuart Greene and April Lidinsky. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012. 545-47. Print.
Kilbourne, Jean. “Two Ways a Woman Can Get Hurt”: Advertising and Violence.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing. Ed Stuart Greene and April Lidinsky. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012. 545-47. Print.
O’Reilly, Julie. “The Wonder Woman Precedent: Female (Super) Heroism on Trial.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing. Ed Stuart Greene and April Lidinsky. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012. 545-47. Print.
Pollitt, Katha. “The Smurfette Principle.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing. Ed Stuart Greene and April Lidinsky. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012. 545-47. Print.
Siering, Carmen. “Taking a Bite out of Twilight.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing. Ed Stuart Greene and April Lidinsky. 2nd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012. 545-47. Print.
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From The Alpha and the Omega - Chapter Six
by Jim A. Cornwell, Copyright © 1995, all rights reserved
"Fishers of Men; Parable of fishes; Apostles"
Fishers of Men
The Age of Pisces began around 210 B.C. , so Christ took the sign of the Fish as his main symbol, and the Virgin (Virgo) as the opposite symbol. Jesus was born from a virgin of the Royal blood of God.
The Pharisees rejected the "New Covenant" and refused to let Jesus, "take man's burden upon himself." They rejected Mary also and believed the Virgin to be Eve and her function during the day of Pisces would be to give birth to the Messiah of Aquarius. They symbolized the Fish as an obligation of the entire Chosen People to spread throughout the earth like the fish in the sea.
As you can see sometimes people can get a simple message all screwed up!!!
"Jesus was also symbolized as a lamb, because although the Age of Aries (Ram) had ended before his birth, the effects of the age were still continuing, and mingling with the incoming characteristics of the New Age, whose symbol was a fish and is very much associated with the Nazarenes. He was thought of as a lamb who was slain, but in his resurrection was symbolized as the fish, and he promised his disciples that they should be fishers of men!"
From "Temple of the Stars" by Brinsley le Poer Trench, page 184.
Multiplication of the loaves and fishes
Five or Seven Loaves, two or a few fishes
And seven or twelve Baskets
And the miracle that fed 4000 or 5000 men, and other women and children
- John 6:11 And Jesus took the loaves; and when he had given thanks, he distributed to the disciples, and the disciples to them that were set down; and likewise of the fishes as much as they would.
6:12 When they were filled, he said unto his disciples, Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost.
6:13 Therefore they gathered them together, and filled twelve baskets with the fragments of the five barley loaves, which remained over and above unto them that had eaten.
6:14 Then those men, when they had seen the miracle that Jesus did, said, This is of a truth that prophet that should come into the world.
- Luke 9:13 But he said unto them, Give ye them to eat. And they said, We have no more but five loaves and two fishes; except we should go and buy meat for all this people.
9:14 For they were about five thousand men. And he said to his disciples, Make them sit down by fifties in a company.
9:15 And they did so, and made them all sit down.
9:16 Then he took the five loaves and the two fishes, and looking up to heaven, he blessed them, and brake, and gave to the disciples to set before the multitude.
9:17 And they did eat, and were all filled: and there was taken up of fragments that remained to them twelve baskets.
9:18 And it came to pass, as he was alone praying, his disciples were with him: and he asked them, saying, Whom say the people that I am?
9:19 They answering said, John the Baptist; but some say, Elias; and others say, that one of the old prophets is risen again.
9:20 He said unto them, But whom say ye that I am? Peter answering said, The Christ of God.
9:21 And he straitly charged them, and commanded them to tell no man that thing;
9:22 Saying, The Son of man must suffer many things, and be rejected of the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be slain, and be raised the third day.
- Matthew 14:16 But Jesus said unto them, They need not depart; give ye them to eat.
14:17 And they say unto him, We have here but five loaves, and two fishes.
14:18 He said, Bring them hither to me.
14:19 And he commanded the multitude to sit down on the grass, and took the five loaves, and the two fishes, and looking up to heaven, he blessed, and brake, and gave the loaves to his disciples, and the disciples to the multitude.
14:20 And they did all eat, and were filled: and they took up of the fragments that remained twelve baskets full.
14:21 And they that had eaten were about five thousand men, beside women and children.
- Matthew 15:34 And Jesus saith unto them, How many loaves have ye? And they said, Seven, and a few little fishes.
15:35 And he commanded the multitude to sit down on the ground.
15:36 And he took the seven loaves and the fishes, and gave thanks, and brake them, and gave to his disciples, and the disciples to the multitude.
15:37 And they did all eat, and were filled: and they took up of the broken meat that was left seven baskets full.
15:38 And they that did eat were four thousand men, beside women and children.
- Mark 6:37 He answered and said unto them, Give ye them to eat. And they say unto him, Shall we go and buy two hundred pennyworth of bread, and give them to eat?
6:38 He saith unto them, How many loaves have ye? go and see. And when they knew, they say, Five, and two fishes.
6:39 And he commanded them to make all sit down by companies upon the green grass.
6:40 And they sat down in ranks, by hundreds, and by fifties.
6:41 And when he had taken the five loaves and the two fishes, he looked up to heaven, and blessed, and brake the loaves, and gave them to his disciples to set before them; and the two fishes divided he among them all.
6:42 And they did all eat, and were filled.
6:43 And they took up twelve baskets full of the fragments, and of the fishes.
6:44 And they that did eat of the loaves were about five thousand men.
- Mark 8:5 And he asked them, How many loaves have ye? And they said, Seven.
8:6 And he commanded the people to sit down on the ground: and he took the seven loaves, and gave thanks, and brake, and gave to his disciples to set before them; and they did set them before the people.
8:7 And they had a few small fishes: and he blessed, and commanded to set them also before them.
8:8 So they did eat, and were filled: and they took up of the broken meat that was left seven baskets.
8:9 And they that had eaten were about four thousand: and he sent them away.
It is noteworthy that the cross was not adopted as a symbol of Christianity until long after the death of Jesus. The symbol previously most used was the fish. Christians used the sign of the fish as a secret sign for a long time before the cross came into general usage. When two travelers would meet on a path, one would take his staff and draw an arc in the dirt, if the other responded with an opposite arc drawn through the previous one, then they both knew where each other's faith was. This symbol described is the sign of a fish or the Sign of Pisces .
Fishers of Men
The definition of a Cross or Crucifix is the upright post with a transverse piece upon which Jesus was crucified. A symbolic representation of the structure on which Jesus was crucified.
Piece of money in a fish
- Mark 1:14 Now after that John was put in prison, Jesus came into Galilee, preaching the gospel of the kingdom of God,
1:15 And saying, The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand: repent ye, and believe the gospel.
1:16 Now as he walked by the sea of Galilee, he saw Simon and Andrew his brother casting a net into the sea: for they were fishers.
1:17 And Jesus said unto them, Come ye after me, and I will make you to become fishers of men.
1:18 And straightway they forsook their nets, and followed him.
- Matthew 4:17 From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.
4:18 And Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon called Peter, and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the sea: for they were fishers.
4:19 And he saith unto them, Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.
4:20 And they straightway left their nets, and followed him.
The Nets of the fishes
- Matthew 17:24 And when they were come to Capernaum, they that received tribute money came to Peter, and said, Doth not your master pay tribute?
17:25 He saith, Yes. And when he was come into the house, Jesus prevented him, saying, What thinkest thou, Simon? of whom do the kings of the earth take custom or tribute? of their own children, or of strangers?
17:26 Peter saith unto him, Of strangers. Jesus saith unto him, Then are the children free.
17:27 Notwithstanding, lest we should offend them, go thou to the sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up; and when thou hast opened his mouth, thou shalt find a piece of money: that take, and give unto them for me and thee.
For a translation of the following verses see the first section of Chapter Six called:
The Signs of the Age, the results of the Twelve Minor Prophets.
- John 21:5 Then Jesus saith unto them, Children, have ye any meat? They answered him, No.
21:6 And he said unto them, Cast the net on the right side of the ship, and ye shall find. They cast therefore, and now they were not able to draw it for the multitude of fishes.
21:7 Therefore that disciple whom Jesus loved saith unto Peter, It is the Lord. Now when Simon Peter heard that it was the Lord, he girt his fisher's coat unto him, (for he was naked,) and did cast himself into the sea.
21:8 And the other disciples came in a little ship; (for they were not far from land, but as it were two hundred cubits,) dragging the net with fishes.
21:9 As soon then as they were come to land, they saw a fire of coals there, and fish laid thereon, and bread.
21:10 Jesus saith unto them, Bring of the fish which ye have now caught.
21:11 Simon Peter went up, and drew the net to land full of great fishes, an hundred and fifty and three: and for all there were so many, yet was not the net broken.
21:12 Jesus saith unto them, Come and dine. And none of the disciples durst ask him, Who art thou? knowing that it was the Lord.
21:13 Jesus then cometh, and taketh bread, and giveth them, and fish likewise.
21:14 This is now the third time that Jesus shewed himself to his disciples, after that he was risen from the dead.
21:15 So when they had dined, Jesus saith to Simon Peter, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these? He saith unto him, Yea, Lord; thou knowest that I love thee. He saith unto him, Feed my lambs.
- Luke 5:5 And Simon answering said unto him, Master, we have toiled all the night, and have taken nothing: nevertheless at thy word I will let down the net.
5:6 And when they had this done, they inclosed a great multitude of fishes: and their net brake.
5:7 And they beckoned unto their partners, which were in the other ship, that they should come and help them. And they came, and filled both the ships, so that they began to sink.
5:8 When Simon Peter saw it, he fell down at Jesus' knees, saying, Depart from me; for I am a sinful man, O Lord.
5:9 For he was astonished, and all that were with him, at the draught of the fishes which they had taken:
5:10 And so was also James, and John, the sons of Zebedee, which were partners with Simon. And Jesus said unto Simon, Fear not; from henceforth thou shalt catch men.
Seek and ye shall find
- Luke 11:9 And I say unto you, Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you.
11:10 For every one that asketh receiveth; and he that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened.
11:11 If a son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father, will he give him a stone? or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?
11:12 Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?
11:13 If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children: how much more shall your heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him?
- Matthew 7:7 Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you:
7:8 For every one that asketh receiveth; and he that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened.
7:9 Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone?
7:10 Or if he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent?
7:11 If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your Father which is in heaven give good things to them that ask him?
7:12 Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets.
7:13 Enter ye in at the strait gate: for wide is the gate, and broad is the way, that leadeth to destruction, and many there be which go in thereat:
7:14 Because strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it.
7:15 Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves.
7:16 Ye shall know them by their fruits. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles?
7:17 Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit.
King Herod was warned by his astrologers of the birth of a long prophesied ruler, and he hoped to save the throne by the massacre of all young babies around Bethlehem. Just as Noah of Gemini was told to 'hide himself' by Enoch, and Abram of Taurus was switched with another child and saved from Nimrod, and Moses of Aries was hidden from the Pharaoh, so was Jesus of Pisces as a baby, hidden from King Herod who did not want any changes to come about in his empire. Taken off to Egypt, the repetition continues as he survived and was said to be thirty years old when he reached spiritual maturity and began his ministry on earth.
The Fish, a water sign, jumps from the exoteric to esoteric meaning of water, the transition from the Ages of Fishes to the Age of the Water Bearer, gives us a reason to suspect his Second Coming in the Age of Aquarius.
In Jesus' ministry he caused many miracles such as:
- medical cures for blindness, incurable diseases, etc.;
- defying gravity by walking on water, and ascending from baptism;
- prevented starvation by feeding thousands of people with only five loaves of bread and two fishes and also starving himself in the wilderness for forty days;
- and living after his death in a miraculous resurrection.
Jesus told us that our world really belonged to the devil, and he defeated the world of the devil, by refusing temptations and gathering a strong following of persons committed to his world. He brought a revived law to the people which did not add onto Moses' Laws.
In Colossians 2:14, "Blotting out the handwriting of ordinances that was against us, which was contrary to us, and took it out of the way, nailing it to his cross;"
In Galatians 3:13, "Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us: for it is written, Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree:"
In Galatians 6:2, "Bear ye one another's burdens, and so fulfil the law of Christ."
Matthew 5:17 "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil." The New Testament (Covenant) was to teach not only in the salvation of a man's soul, but the resurrection of the body. It maintains that there is an angel world where there are servants of God, these angels have planted the Hebrew-Christian religion in the minds of men.
As in John 8:56-58, Jesus responded, "Your father Abraham rejoiced to see my day, and he saw it and was glad." "Truly, truly, I say to you, Before Abraham was, I am."
Also in John 8:23, Jesus said, "You are from below, I am not of this world." Regarding this verse also refer to Chapter Four section entitled Another view of the Heavens - Zodiac and the Ten Sefiroth.
Jesus administered the same prophecy as all the prophets before him about the Revelation and his Second Coming, except he clarified it with a more accurate chronological order of its events. This is seen in Matthew 24:3-40, Mark 13:3-37, and Luke 21:7-36 in which he answers their questions about what events will signal his return and the end of the age, comments on the days of horror and the anti-Christ, and when the Temple and Jerusalem would be destroyed.
Jesus Christ was the primo example of a major revolutionary. He single-handedly upended the entire religious authority of his time without using violence or breaking their legalitys. Finally he was crucified, and an eclipse of the sun threw the land into darkness as Christ hung suspended from the cross or tree. A violent earthquake that claimed many lives followed. At this point the Almighty God tore the veil of the Temple in half so that no one would ever have to use a priest, bishop, or head of state for a soul to go before God and to know Him. It was at this point that the Levi priest and tribe were not required for there services any more.
- Matthew 27:50 Jesus, when he had cried again with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost.
27:51 And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent;
27:52 And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose,
27:53 And came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many.
- Mark 15:37 And Jesus cried with a loud voice, and gave up the ghost.
15:38 And the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom.
- Luke 23:43 And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, To day shalt thou be with me in paradise.
23:44 And it was about the sixth hour, and there was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour.
23:45 And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst.
Jesus had his miraculous Resurrection, which sent his twelve disciples on their way as the fishers of men.
The Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, the Letters and the Revelation followed.
The term "Apostles" comes from a Greek verb meaning "to send out" and suggests an emissary. The term refers primarily to the twelve closest disciples whom Jesus chose to send out to preach as his representatives. The twelve were constant companions of Jesus and received his teachings. The task of spreading the good news of the kingdom of God and of healing the sick would rest with them after his death. They were important to him not only because they would carry on his work after him, but because they formed a traveling community that practiced the values he proclaimed. Before his death, Jesus warns them of the kind of reception they are likely to receive, both in the present and in the future. They are to expect hardships; trust in God; and fear no one. They lived, worked, and ate among the outcasts, the sick, and the poor. Lists of who the twelve disciples were are given in four different books of the New Testament. There are small differences in the lists, but the number is always twelve. The number twelve is important in Jewish history because of the twelve tribes of Israel. The fathers of the twelve tribes had founded Israel, and in Jesus' time, the twelve disciples were seen as founders of the new kingdom he had come to establish.
Of the twelve disciples who formed the inner circle with Jesus, three were considered favorites: Peter, James, and John. They were always closest to him and witnessed certain events, including the raising of Jairus' daughter, the transfiguration; and the agony in the garden of Gestheme. Peter was the recognized leader. He had received the promise of the keys to the kingdom of heaven.
This file updated on July 30, 2006.
Return to the Table of Contents - Chapter Six or
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Explores the many ways in which race and the law have interacted historically and continue to interact. Students read and discuss a wide variety of materials, presenting a variety of viewpoints. Materials include historical, social-scientific, critical race theory, and feminist writers, as well as current legal materials. The goal in the seminar is to assist each participant to develop his or her own thinking on this important current issue.
Grading: Grade is based on paper and class participation, and either short "reflection" essays or a class presentation, depending on instructor. (With the instructor's prior permission, the paper option may fulfill the Advanced Research and Writing Requirement.)
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On the day you deliver your baby, you'll probably be overcome with visions of your future with your child — first smiles and steps, birthday parties and sports events, and holidays and life milestones. Your little one ever becoming seriously ill will probably be the last thing on your mind.
But some parents do consider the possibility that a serious illness might someday affect their child — and they make a choice on the day their baby is born that might affect the future health of that child or even their other children. They're deciding to bank their newborn's cord blood.
So, what is cord-blood banking, and is it right for you?
After a baby is delivered, the mother's body releases the placenta, the temporary organ that transferred oxygen and nutrients to the baby while in the mother's uterus. Until recently, in most cases the umbilical cord and placenta were discarded after birth without a second thought. But during the 1970s, researchers discovered that umbilical cord blood could supply the same kinds of blood-forming (hematopoietic) stem cells as a bone marrow donor. And so, umbilical cord blood began to be collected and stored.
What are blood-forming stem cells? These are primitive (early) cells found primarily in the bone marrow that are capable of developing into the three types of mature blood cells present in our blood — red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Cord-blood stem cells may also have the potential to give rise to other cell types in the body.
Some serious illnesses (such as certain childhood cancers, blood diseases, and immune system disorders) require radiation and chemotherapy treatments to kill diseased cells in the body. Unfortunately, these treatments also kill many "good" cells along with the bad, including healthy stem cells that live in the bone marrow.
Depending on the type of disease and treatment needed, some kids need a bone marrow transplant (from a donor whose marrow cells closely match their own). Blood-forming stem cells from the donor are transplanted into the child who is ill, and those cells go on to manufacture new, healthy blood cells and enhance the child's blood-producing and immune system capability.
How It Works
Collection of the cord blood takes place shortly after birth in both vaginal and cesarean (C-section) deliveries. It's done using a specific kit that parents must order ahead of time from their chosen cord-blood bank.
After a vaginal delivery, the umbilical cord is clamped on both sides and cut. In most cases, an experienced obstetrician or nurse collects the cord blood before the placenta is delivered. One side of the umbilical cord is unclamped, and a small tube is passed into the umbilical vein to collect the blood. After blood has been collected from the cord, needles are placed on the side of the surface of the placenta that was connected to the fetus to collect more blood and cells from the large blood vessels that fed the fetus.
During cesarean births, cord-blood collection is more complicated because the obstetrician's primary focus in the operating room is tending to the surgical concerns of the mother. After the baby has been safely delivered and the mother's uterus has been sutured, the cord blood can be collected. However, less cord blood is usually collected when delivery is by C-section. The amount collected is critical because the more blood collected, the more stem cells collected. If using the stem cells ever becomes necessary, having more to implant increases the chances of engraftment (successful transplantation).
After cord-blood collection has taken place, the blood is placed into bags or syringes and is usually taken by courier to the cord-blood bank. Once there, the sample is given an identifying number. Then the stem cells are separated from the rest of the blood and are stored cryogenically (frozen in liquid nitrogen) in a collection facility, also known as a cord-blood bank. Then, if needed, blood-forming stem cells can be thawed and used in either autologous procedures (when someone receives his or her own umbilical cord blood in a transplant) or allogeneic procedures (when a person receives umbilical cord blood donated from someone else — a sibling, close relative, or anonymous donor).
How long can blood-forming stem cells last when properly stored? Theoretically, stem cells should last forever, but cord-blood research only began in the 1970s, so the maximum time for storage and potential usage are still being determined. Blood-forming stem cells that have been stored for more than a decade have been used successfully in transplants.
Pros and Cons
Cord-blood banking isn't routine in hospital or home deliveries — it's a procedure you have to choose and plan for beforehand, so be sure to consider your decision carefully before delivery day.
The primary reason that parents consider banking their newborn's cord blood is because they have a child or close relative with or a family medical history of diseases that can be treated with bone marrow transplants. Some diseases that more commonly involve bone marrow transplants include certain kinds of leukemia or lymphoma, aplastic anemia, severe sickle cell anemia, and severe combined immunodeficiency.
The odds that the average baby without risk factors will ever use his or her own banked cord blood is considered low; however, no accurate estimates exist at this time.
The expense of collecting and storing the cord blood can be a deciding factor for many families. At a commercial cord-blood bank, you'll pay approximately $1,000-$2,000 to store a sample of cord blood, in addition to an approximately $100 yearly maintenance fee. You might also pay an additional fee of several hundred dollars for the cord-blood collection kit, courier service to the cord-blood bank, and initial processing.
In most cases, stem cell transplants are performed only on children or young adults. The larger the size of the person, the more blood-forming stem cells are needed for a successful transplant. Umbilical cord blood stem cells aren't adequate in quantity to complete an adult's transplant.
In addition, it's not known whether stem cells taken from a relative offer more success than those taken from an unrelated donor. Stem cells from cord blood from both related and unrelated donors have been successful in many transplants. That's because blood-forming stem cells taken from cord blood are naive (a medical term for early cells that are still highly adaptable and are less likely to be rejected by the recipient's immune system). Therefore, donor cord-blood stem cells do not need to be a perfect match to create a successful bone marrow transplant.
There has been little experience with transplanting self-donated cells. Some experts are concerned that an ill baby who receives his or her own stem cells during a transplant would be prone to a repeat of the same disease. Most of the bone marrow transplants that use blood-forming stem cells have been performed on relatives of the donating child, not on the donating child.
The risks to the health of the mother and baby at the time of collection are low, but they do exist. Clamping the umbilical cord too soon after birth may increase the amount of collected blood, but it could cause the baby to have a lower blood volume and possible anemia soon after birth.
Is It Right for You?
As parents evaluate their reasons for banking their newborn's cord blood and begin to research cord-blood bank facilities, there are many considerations and cautions to keep in mind.
Some doctors and organizations, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), have expressed concern that cord-blood banks may capitalize on the fears of vulnerable new parents by providing misleading information about the statistics of bone marrow transplants. Parents of children of ethnic or racial minorities, adopted children, or children conceived through in vitro fertilization may be especially encouraged to bank cord blood because it's statistically harder to find a match in these cases.
The AAP doesn't recommend cord-blood banking for families who don't have a history of disease. That's because research has not yet determined the likelihood that a child would ever need his or her own stem cells, nor has it confirmed that transplantation using self-donated cells rather than cells from a relative or stranger is safer or more effective. According to the AAP, "private storage of cord blood as 'biological insurance' is unwise. However, banking should be considered if there is a family member with a current or potential need to undergo a stem cell transplantation."
Other doctors and researchers support saving umbilical cord blood as a source of blood-forming stem cells in every delivery — mainly because of the promise that stem-cell research holds for the future. Most people would have little use for stem cells now, but research into the use of stem cells for treatment of disease is ongoing — and the future looks promising.
If you do decide to bank your newborn's cord blood, be sure to discuss your options with your obstetrician. Here are a few questions to consider before choosing a cord-blood bank:
- How financially stable is the cord-blood bank? (Financial stability means a reduced chance that you will have to transfer your sample if the facility closes.)
- How many samples are processed in the facility? (A larger number of samples usually means that there are more collection and handling procedures in place.)
- Do I have the option of switching to another facility if I choose?
- What happens to my sample if the facility goes out of business?
- What are the yearly fees and maintenance costs involved? Will these fees increase, or are they fixed?
Like community or hospital blood banks, cord-blood banks are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which has developed standards regulating future cord-blood collection and storage.
Donating Your Baby's Cord Blood
You may decide that instead of banking your newborn's cord blood, you'd like to donate it to a nonprofit cord-blood bank for research or to save the life of another child. By choosing this option, the cord blood will still be collected after your child's birth, but it will be anonymously marked and sent to a public bank. However, if your child or a family member later develops a disease that requires a bone marrow transplant for treatment, you won't be able to obtain the donation you made to the bank.
If you'd like to donate your child's umbilical cord blood, contact your local chapter of the American Red Cross or a local university hospital, or check the National Marrow Donor Program's list of registered cord-blood facilities that accept donations. You'll need to give proper written consent before you donate your child's umbilical cord blood, but there's no cost and the process is confidential.
Reviewed by: Steven Dowshen, MD
Date reviewed: November 2010
© 1995-2012 The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth. All rights reserved.
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The University of Virginia Health System is home to a program that may be essential to solving the health-care-access problem in the U.S. The program is centered around telemedicine, or the use of electronic communication to exchange medical information either from patient to physician or between doctors.
Through the UVA system’s Center for Telehealth, physicians from 40 specialties partner with 108 community hospitals, free clinics, schools and more to provide nearly 33,000 people with care they otherwise wouldn’t be able to acquire.
“It saves lives, it saves functions, and it reduces cost,” David C. Gordon, the director of the office of telemedicine and rural network development at UVA Center for Telehealth, says about the program.
According to Gordon, the University of Virginia Health System has reduced preterm deliveries during high-risk pregnancies by 25% via telemedical services that maintain communication between patients and physicians through technology as simple as Skype and as complicated as robotics, even when those in need are hundreds of miles away from care.
Since its inception, Gordon says, they have saved Virginians over 7.9 million miles in travel for health care.
The UVA system, however, is not alone in providing a once unavailable service to patients; every state has a telemedicine program, ranging from stroke diagnosis to psychiatric evaluations to prenatal care. And now, with the expanding insurance coverage provided by the Affordable Care Act — and the doctor shortage predicted to come with it — proponents of telehealth believe its widespread implementation can have a positive impact on the future of the health care system.
“There is this perfect storm of increased demand with the newly insured, a shortage of primary-care physicians and specialists, and a need to keep costs in control,” Mario Gutierrez, the executive director of the Center for Connected Health Policy, a leading telehealth policy center, tells TIME. “I think telehealth provides a real vehicle for doing that.”
If members of health care communities with and without specialists and highly skilled practitioners are able to work together using technology, Gutierrez says, the issue of access to care can be met head-on. “What the system will encourage is for the greatest efficiency and improvements in quality that are going to be measured by the outcomes of the patient population,” he says.
Some outcomes have already begun to prove there is some benefit in adopting telemedicine: the Partners HealthCare system in Boston was able to reduce readmission of 1,200 heart-failure patients by 50% through a home telemonitoring program. Under the Affordable Care Act, Medicare is required to reduce payments to hospitals that have excessive readmissions rates by as much as 2% in 2014. New advancements in telemedicine such as in-home care products, proponents say, allow doctors to follow up with patients from outside the hospital via a computer or mobile device, which can help hospitals reduce readmission rates and avoid penalties.
Other technologies, like WellPoint’s LiveHealth Online, cut out the initial visit altogether, letting patients visit the doctor from home or work via live video and instant-messaging services with doctors. That is something that could be of great use in the coming years, with the Association of American Medical Colleges estimating that the U.S. will be doctor-deficient by as many as 91,500 by 2020.
The benefits of telemedicine were also the topic of discussion at a briefing on Capitol Hill on Friday, where panelists from both the private and public sectors declared everyone is a winner when telemedicine is implemented. “It’s a win-win,” said Neal Neuberger, the executive director of the Institute for e-Health Policy, on Friday. “I’ve never met a member of Congress on either side of the aisle, in either house, that didn’t think this was a good idea.”
Though Congressman Gregg Harper, a Republican from Mississippi, is presenting a bipartisan bill to Congress this week that tackles the cost of telemedicine and expands the role of Medicare and Medicaid, telehealth still faces huge barriers to widespread implementation, largely because of the fact that there is no comprehensive standard policy surrounding it. “The march of technology for health care far exceeds our ability to adopt, diffuse, incorporate and govern … in a public- and private-sector setting, any of these technologies,” says Neuberger.
Because of licensing rules, physicians are generally unable to practice outside their states. If a patient they’re seeking to provide virtual care for is out of state, they will need a license in both places, restricting access for those in need. Medical boards have also placed higher regulatory standards on telehealth practices, like a requirement that a patient mush have an in-person, established relationship with the provider before receiving care.
Doctors are also limited in the services they are reimbursed for under Medicare, which only encompasses telehealth services that are provided in narrow scope of rural areas, by physicians and nurse practitioners in specific offices. According to the American Telemedicine Association, 80% of Medicare beneficiaries are not covered because they live in counties federally designated as metropolitan areas. Despite that, 42 states cover telehealth through the Medicaid program, and 15 states have laws that mandate coverage for telehealth services. | <urn:uuid:33b506b6-f2a8-44c6-8b3a-da5b329c2746> | {
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`Human activities increasing risk of calamities in Kedarnath`
Increasing human activities are augmenting the risk of natural disasters in the ecologically sensitive region of Kedarnath, a latest study claims.
New Delhi: Increasing human activities are augmenting the risk of natural disasters in the ecologically sensitive region of Kedarnath which was washed away by floods triggered by cloudburst in June, a latest study claims.
A team of scientists from the prestigious Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology has warned that rise in human activities around the area like pilgrimage and tourism would increase the risk of such disasters occurring in future.
Kedarnath is encircled by channels of Mandakini and Saraswati rivers which meet near the town.
The study led by scientist DP Dobhal, well-known for his work on Himalayan glaciers, says overcrowding of people and constructions have obstructed the natural flow of Saraswati river which now flows just behind Kedarnath town.
Similarly on down-stream near Rambara and Gaurikund, houses were constructed on loose soil making them prone to natural disasters and landslides, it said.
Dobhal, who has been named in the Time magazine list of `Heroes of Himalayas` in 2007, said heavy rains on June 16 evening flooded the catchment area of Saraswati and Dudh Ganga resulting in overflowing of channels which triggered erosion and subsequent silting up in the rivers.
This resulted in huge volumes of water along with loose soil and debris from glacial moraines forming a slush which moved with unprecedented energy towards Kedarnath town and washed off its upper parts where Sankaracharya samadhi, Jal Nigam guest house and Bharat Seva Sangh Ashram are located.
"While reconstruction efforts are going on in the region, government must ensure that construction should take place away from the temple at a safe location. Strict environment guidelines should be followed and a database of pilgrims climbing towards temple should be maintained to avoid such mis-happenings," Dobhal said.
The study, co-authored by Anil Gupta, Manish Mehta and D D Khandelwal, says another factor was the collapse of Chorabari Lake because of the torrential rains on June 17 which contributed to the floods and washed away regions like Gaurikund, Sonprayag and Phata.
The findings, published in the latest edition of `Current Science`, say that the collapse of the lake resulted from heavy downpour between June 15 and 17.
Heavy rains caused the snow-covered right basin of the Chorabari glacier to melt rapidly which resulted in the accumulation of water in Gandhi Sarovar, it said.
The increase in the water levels and with no outlet, the lake was breached causing floods in the lower regions of Kedarnath.
The area faced maximum brunt of the floods and landslides but the eighth century temple and the sanctum sanctorum, however, are safe.
Prayers at the shrine had come to a halt after the floods which caused massive damage to life and property especially in Rudraprayag, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Pithoragarh districts.
Though prayers will start at the shrine from September 11, the Char dham yatra will not be resumed before September 30, which is the deadline set by the state government for road restoration work in Kedar ghati, an onerous task considering vagaries of the weather.
The torrential rains and subsequent floods in Garhwal region on June 16 had claimed 560 lives and left thousands missing. | <urn:uuid:9618d3eb-2776-4457-b31f-ccff6b1d76a5> | {
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Talk:Creation Science Movement
Looking for arguments about an issue I discovered with mitochondrial-eve/y-chromosomal-adam. It could be argued that M-Eve and Y-Adam are consistent with biblical accounts. If I understand the concept correctly, Mitochondrial DNA can only be passed down from mother to child. M-Eve is, effectively, the originator of modern human mitochondrial DNA. M-Eve was believed to have lived approximately 140,000 years ago. The Y-chromosome is passed only from father to son. Y-Adam is, effectively, the originator of the modern human Y-Chromosome. Y-Adam is thought to have lived approximately 60,000 years ago.
Given the difference in their life times, M-Eve and Y-Adam could not be the biblical Adam and Eve. However, Genesis also suggests that Noah and his family were the only human survivors on the planet. Thus, all humans should be able to trace their origins to this group of people.
Noah and his sons would all share the same Y-chromosome, suggesting that Noah is Y-Adam. But, Noah's wife wouldn't necessarily be M-Eve - the common matrilineal ancestor of Noah's wife and the wives of his sons would be Y-Eve. The biblical accounts suggest that Y-Eve could be Eve.Rival 12:18, 29 November 2008 (CST)
- This is a stretch, even for Biblical rationlization standards. M-Eve is just matrilineal -- there were plenty of female humans at the same time. Aside from that, the fundamental point of Adam and Eve (in Christianity, at least) is original sin. Regardless of cramming M-Eve into a Biblical explanation, it says nothing of the garden of eden, which is more important than the characters themselves. I'm also pretty sure an actual common ancestor instead of a matriliniage wouldn't be very creationist-friendly. But I don't fully understand the concept of M-Eve or Y-Adam, so I may just be very confused. --Zurahn 23:18, 28 November 2008 (CST)
I agree completely - it's a stretch, but if some are willing to consider bananas, jesus riding raptors, and that the US is a Christian Nation, it's not a stretch to see this argument coming down the pike at some point in the future. Yes, evolutionary theories would suggest that M-Eve was just one member of a community of unknown size, and the descendents of her female contemporaries must have all had all-male generations between then and now. However, while the theory allows for the possiblity of other females in M-Eve's community, it does not seem to demand these other women. The evolutionary alternative to Common Ancestor theories (like M-Eve, Y-Adam) is multiple, independent instances of identical mutations in unrelated people/animals, and, while possible, does not seem likely, even in evolutionary terms. Rival 12:18, 29 November 2008 (CST) | <urn:uuid:20512ea1-fb8a-4128-b912-a13964146e2a> | {
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For the target language, you could choose a point that is repeated in the text.
In your example of a train driver getting lost, there might be various examples of the simple past or a variety of past tenses. You might be able to work on the use of the infinitive. For example: he decided to go back, it was impossible to see where he was going. Any of these would provide you with a grammar point to work on.
There could also be a common theme in the text that would allow you to work on vocabulary. For example words related to driving: change gear, go faster, slow down. Words related to directions could be another option. For example, he turned left, he went straight ahead.
You could also choose to work on structures such as "If he hadn't lost the map, he wouldn't have got lost" or "he should have turned right at the signals". This might involve working on language that doesn't appear in the text. In this case, you would need to build up the situation and try to elicit the structure from your students. For example, the questions "why did he get lost?", "Because he took the wrong turning at the signals" could lead you into the structures suggested above.
Once you have decided what your target language will be, you need to decide how to focus students' attention on the language. You will also need activities that will allow students to practise using the language. When you planning the lesson, you also need to consider your students' level and the work they have done previously.
The above are some general ideas for dealing with the text and ideas for areas to consider. I am unable to give you more specific comments without seeing the text and without knowing the students' level.
I wish you good luck on your course. If you have any more questions, please write in again. Please remember to include details about your students such as level or age. | <urn:uuid:92e9bb5b-7480-43fd-98be-8b7fb2458a1b> | {
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Lava Flow, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii, USA
Few places on Earth demonstrate the dynamics of land formation as clearly and dramatically as the Big Island of Hawaii. Here the continual island-building process through time has created Mauna Loa, from base to summit the largest volcano on Earth, and Kilauea, the worlds most active volcano. At sea level, the building process is an amazing sight to witness as 1,250°Celsius (2,200°Fahrenheit) magma escapes from the Earths interior, flows to the oceans edge, and quickly solidifies upon falling into the tumultuous waters of the seas. The superheated lava often explodes on entering the cool ocean waters. | <urn:uuid:68068bac-c126-468c-9a3d-942aa647abec> | {
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It's very unlikely that you would get genital herpes from a toilet seat. Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) spread by skin–to–skin contact.
In most cases, the virus enters your body through mucous membranes — the type of skin found in your mouth, genitals or anus. The virus can also enter your body through skin that has tiny scrapes or tears.
People can have genital herpes for years without knowing it. The virus can be spread even if an infected person has no genital sores.
Because the virus dies quickly outside of the body, it's nearly impossible to get the infection through contact with toilets, towels or other objects used by an infected person.
July 30, 2014
- Goldman L, et al. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2012. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed April 27, 2014.
- Genital herpes. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/genitalHerpes/understanding/Pages/transmission.aspx. Accessed April 27, 2014.
- Albrecht MA. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of genital herpes simplex virus infection. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed April 27, 2014.
- Genital herpes - CDC fact sheet. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/stdfact-herpes-detailed.htm. Accessed April 27, 2014. | <urn:uuid:0fc519f3-ad44-4a5d-8925-a2bf25887043> | {
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- Education and Science»
Calculation and Miscalculation
Understanding and Misunderstanding
I am not talking here mathematical calculation, but similar calculation in day to day life. When we meet some one for the first time we look at the person and began to think about the person. The person would be educated, wealthy, gentle, but dishonest, and many more. Or we just ignore about the person. The person may turn out very helpful and kind. The person may be lean and thin but may be very strong with a lot of resistance ability. The person may looks like villager, but could be very learned one. Some person looks not wealthy but could be billionaire.
There was an incident, my school teacher told me, long time back, a real story. A person with a very simple dress went to a market. He parked his Mercedes Benz car in a parking place. He along with his driver, who is also in a simple dress, went to buy clothes. He does not look wealthy. Because he looks so simple that the shop keeper did not gave any attention to him. That person chooses a costly clothes and asked price of clothes. The shop keeper told him 'you can not buy this clothes, it is very costly'. The man, buyer, told him "what do you think about me, I can buy your whole clothes. I can buy your shop itself, what is the cost of your shop?" The shop keeper thought he is making a joke and said a million dollar (something - high figure) thinking that he is still making a joke. The buyer said to him "serious?" The shop keeper challenged him. He still thought he is making a joke and said "yes". The person wrote a cheque, gave him and said “OK you go out; this is my shop now, I bought your shop”. The shop keeper still does not believe that the man has so much of money. He called the bank if the person has that much money in the bank. The bank answered back that there is much more balance in the bank account than the cheque amount. So he has to walk out of the shop.
With this background information I am trying to write that no one should underestimate anyone. And of course also should not over estimate anyone. If one makes wrong calculation and wrong understanding about a person, any action turn out wrong reaction. If the calculation turns out to the near to the truth one will get good result, benefit, for a good action. If taken a wrong move and the calculation turns out wrong, one will have to suffer, like LTTE of Sri Lanka. Especially if some one is taking negative action, the result would be disaster to the person who takes negative action on the basis of miscalculation of the other person. | <urn:uuid:d8ffaf36-193c-406a-99d0-29e378fb067f> | {
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By finding the niche, you outline the scope of your research problem and enter the scientific dialogue. Who were the subjects of your study? In this paper we provide an argument that stem cells repopulate injured organs.
Find a niche a. Present the principles, relationships, and generalizations in a concise and convincing tone. What constitutes new knowledge in this journal at this time? Occupy the niche a. Highlight all the topic sentences — the first sentences of every paragraph — to show the stages in the argument.
Another useful strategy is to be proactive in the first move by predicting and commenting on the alternative explanations of the results.
Stylus Publishing LLC; It can be extremely stressful. In contrast to the macrostructure revision, which is a linear process and is done usually through a detailed outline and by sections, microstructure revision is a non-linear process.
Oxford University Press; What procedure did you follow? Writing in the sciences: Even if the importance is clear to you, it may not be obvious to your reader. Show that the general research area is important, central, interesting, and problematic in some way; Move 2.
Most feedback will help you improve your paper and, perhaps, your journal article writing, but sometimes it may seem overheated, personalised or even vindictive. Your most important goal in this section is to be as explicit as possible by providing enough detail and references.
Try reading your paper line by line with the rest of the text covered with a piece of paper. How to Write a Lot. Many new researchers mistakenly think that all their readers understand the importance of the research question and omit this part.
The last time you updated your outline was before writing the Introduction and the Discussion. We tested the hypothesis that there is a disruption of membrane asymmetry.
Choosing the best working revision strategies Now that you have created the first draft, your attitude toward your writing should have improved.
Writing Your Journal Article in 12 Weeks: Or to make a difference? Create a detailed outline and discuss it with your mentor and peers. Explain the meaning and importance of your finding. This is also the place to discuss any discrepancies and unexpected findings that may otherwise distort the general picture of your paper.
Be meticulous and accurate in describing the Materials and Methods. Or do you do a bit of both? Establish a research territory a.Despite such idiosyncrasies, knowing a few things about the purposes and format of a journal article will help you get published.
You should understand the function of each section and write accordingly. 1 How to Write a Good Paper for a Top International Journal Elsevier Author Workshop Hohai University, October 22, Professor Joseph Hun-wei Lee.
Jun 25, · Edit Article How to Write a Journal Entry. Three Methods: Sample Entries Journaling for Yourself Journalism for School Community Q&A A journal can be a chronicle of your daily activities, a summary of your most intimate thoughts, or simply a way to keep yourself on track while you complete an assignment%(81).
Your colleagues think you are ready to write a paper, and your lab mates tease you about your “slow” writing progress.
In the “standard” research paper approach, your Results section should exclude data interpretation, leaving it for the Discussion section. Writing Your Journal Article in 12 Weeks: a guide to academic publishing. Writing for an academic journal: 10 tips Some people write the paper first and then look for a 'home' for it, but since everything in your article –.
Dec 08, · How to Write an Article Review Three Parts: Preparing to Write Your Review Writing the Article Review Sample Article Reviews Community Q&A An article review is both a summary and an evaluation of another writer's article%().Download | <urn:uuid:e344eec8-093e-44e0-87b8-ff02607599a3> | {
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Debates over the Bill of Rights in the First Congress
May 27, 1789
Mr. STEELE‘s motion on the subject of amendments was taken up.
The motion was divided; and the first part, respecting the appointment of a committee to examine and report the decisions of the several States on the amendments proposed by Congress to the Constitution of the United States, was agreed to; and Messrs. Steele, Moore, and Contee were appointed. The other part respecting additional amendments was negative. | <urn:uuid:3d726810-d5bf-4595-9706-ed7f85ccee91> | {
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Part the First: Brief Background on Emissions Factors
Electricity generation accounts for almost one-third of US territorial greenhouse gas emissions, and the average US residence consumes just under 11,000 kilowatt-hours (kWh) electricity per year (in addition to other fuels, such as natural gas). Thus, it is essential to understand the impact of electricity use, and especially how changes in use at the household level will affect emissions.
Everything that needs to be said has already been said. But since no one was listening, everything must be said again.
I too am reduced to repeating what must be said, and given this nascent blog’s readership, it seems rather likely that it will need saying again. To wit, George Monbiot recently discussed, in a melancholy but extremely important article (see also the version in The Guardian), the vanishing of so much nature and wild life before his own eyes, in his own lifetime. It is not mere false nostalgia, and he cites much published work that documents the astonishingly rapid and ongoing global loss of animal life, a process that has been variously (and by respectable scientists, no less!) termed “defaunation” in the “Anthropocene” and, more recently, a “biological annihilation.”
I wrote several hundred pages of a book that amounted to exhorting people to alter their own habits of residential energy consumption (turn down the heat, you rogues!), as well as upgrade their built environment (e.g. insulate the attic) and appliances, or even, *gasp*, add solar to their roofs. All this because the numbers, at least in the abstract, showed that such banal acts of conservation (not counting solar) can reduce the carbon footprint of residential energy use by at least 30-50%, from a baseline average of about 12 metric tonnes (1 tonne = 1 metric ton) of CO$_2$-equivalent (CO$_2$e). But a demonstration of how, over the course of roughly 5 years, the net energy use in my house actually fell progressively from around 17,000 kWh of electricity per year down to less than zero (net) seems in order.
I should like to highlight here (see also TomDispath.com version) a remarkable essay by Greg Grandin, one that contrasts two of Melville’s characters as faces of Empire: Captain Ahab and the historical sealing captain Amasa Delano, who partook in the massive late eighteenth century extirpation of seal populations in the South Pacific for fur, which was used a luxury item for the wealthy, and who put down a slave rebellion aboard a Spanish slave ship. Delano viewed himself as a moral man, one “who has a knowledge of his duty, and is disposed faithfully to obey its dictates.”
Unfortunately, as reported by the EIA, electrified drivetrains—hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs)—still make up only about 3% of new vehicle market share, a share that has been stable for the last five years, with HEVs continuing to account for most electrified drivetrain sales:
Although fuel economy has increased somewhat for conventional vehicles in the last few years, compared to typical gasoline vehicles, lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions are generally 30-60% lower for most alternative drivetrain vehicles (with some larger luxury vehicles exceptions to this rule).
Stay tuned for a more in-depth comparison of the top-selling HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs…
A new analysis drawing on 570 studies with data covering 38,700 commercial farms shows dramatic variation both worldwide and within-region in the environmental impact across all major foods, but confirms that beef in particular and animal products in general are responsible for the greater part of food’s impact on earth, which adds up to 31% of global warming emissions (including non-food agriculture), and 43% of ice- and desert-free land. Supplementary material available for free (and is very comprehensive), while the main article is for subscribers only (here).
Poore, J., & Nemecek, T. (2018). Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science, 360(6392), 987-992.
Welcome to EnvironMath! Hopefully this will become a useful record of (sometimes) mathematically oriented reviews of topics in the environment (and perhaps other areas). To get started (and to shamelessly self-promote), I’m adding multiple (free) excerpts from my new book, A Fair Share: Doing the Math on Individual Consumption and Global Warming. | <urn:uuid:bd614846-7f72-4b71-ad43-3f443ca9bf6f> | {
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Eric Lomax, as a young Royal Signals officer, had the misfortune to get caught up, with a third of a million others, in what has been called a 'logistic imperative', an enterprise more vulgarly known as the Death Railway, planned and carried through by the Japanese Imperial Army. At any point in history a logistic imperative is something to be avoided at all costs, whether it involves cutting the Americas in two or building St Petersburg in a freezing swamp. It is familiar lore that on the labour-expendable rail route from Siam to Burma each sleeper represented a human life. More than twelve thousand of Lomax's fellow prisoners of war died of disease and vile treatment, as did an estimated one hundred thousand 'coolies' from neighbouring lands. Lomax, for breaking his captors' rules, had both his arms broken in a flogging to which was added water torture; his punishment was roughly equivalent to the old-time treatment for an obstinate sailor - the cat-o'-nine-tails and a keel-hauling. Mercifully, if surprisingly, no flashbacks portraying these events were shown in the lightly fictionalised television film Prisoners in Time, which was based on The Railway Man. Given what was done in the film The Bridge over the River Kwai, that stirring symphony of false notes, it can hardly have been an easy decision for Lomax to allow his life to be re-scripted and interpreted by others. Millions will have seen Prisoners in Time, but this well-written and well-judged book is the superior article.
LRB 5 October 1995 | PDF Download | <urn:uuid:d7f133f5-79df-4057-9a2f-86ccdcf85543> | {
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London: India recorded 200 million people with high blood pressure — a key risk factor for heart attack — in 2015 while China reported 226 million, says a study.
Globally, the number of people with high blood pressure has almost doubled in 40 years to 1.13 billion in 2015, with the majority of them in low and middle-income countries.
The study, published in the journal The Lancet, analysed changes in blood pressure from nearly 20 million persons in every country in the world between 1975 and 2015.
“High blood pressure is the leading risk factor for stroke and heart disease, and kills around 7.5 million people worldwide every year. Most of these deaths are experienced in the developing world,” said lead author Majid Ezzati, Professor at the Imperial College London.
The findings showed that in 2015, 258 million (23 per cent) of the 1.13 billion adults with high blood pressure lived in South Asia (200 million in India) and another 235 million (21 per cent) lived in East Asia (226 million in China).
Britain was found to be the European country with the lowest proportion of people with high blood pressure in 2015, while South Korea, the US and Canada were lowest in the world.
While blood pressure has dropped sharply in high-income countries, it has risen in many low and middle-income countries, especially those in Africa and South Asia, the study observed.
“High blood pressure is no longer related to affluence — as it was in 1975 — but is now a major health issue linked with poverty,” said Ezzati.
Poor nutrition in early life years which raises the risk of the high blood pressure in later life, may explain the growing problem in poor countries, Ezzati added.
Further, men (597 million) had higher blood pressure than women (529 million) in most countries in the world in 2015.
Tackling the epidemic of high blood pressure in low and middle-income countries is one of the most pressing global health challenges, the researchers noted.
Effective policies that allow the poorest countries and people to have healthier diets — particularly reducing salt intake and making fruit and vegetables affordable — as well as improving detection and treatment with blood pressure lowering drugs may help in substantially reducing blood pressure. | <urn:uuid:43e300f1-13c5-45a0-9a6f-b070441e1107> | {
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Breakout Session: Scaling Models of How to Infuse Quantitative Skills
Scaling Models of How to Infuse the Quantitative Skills in Geoscience Education
The group came up with two "end-member" models, challenges and how to overcome these challenges.
- Model 1—The institution has a General Education course requirement classified as Quantitative Natural Science.
For example at the University of Missouri it is called the "Math Reasoning Proficiency course". In this case the Geology Departments should develop large courses that teach introductory geosciences infused with math and quantitative reasoning.
As a result a larger population will be exposed to quantitative skills and the geosciences will establish themselves among the other sciences as quantitative. The challenge is that not all faculty within the department agree to put the effort into designing quantitative courses.
- Model 2 The institution does not have a General Education course requirement classified as Quantitative Natural Science.
- Convince other colleagues of the importance of quant skills infusion
- Convince the institution of the importance of having the quantitative requirement
If geology is the only science some students take, how can we do to stop the "leaky pipe"?
Change the way you teach by being explicit about the math that is behind the concepts, usually taught in a qualitative way. The students actually need to be taken out of their comfort zone in order to learn, but not too far. This can be defined as a subtle infusion of quantitative skills, without major changes to a course, as opposed to radical infusion.
Many institutions belong to the first group (Model 1) but we do not know what is the percentage and current trend. Jen Wenner and Mona Sirbescu will try to work together and talk to Len and contact the NNN to see if it is possible to have a survey to answer this question. | <urn:uuid:be4a13e2-743e-4234-9b03-51d829a37b8a> | {
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1) If , then __16__
Use this to find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point . The equation of this tangent line can be written in the form where __16__
and where _____
but i think b = 27 but apparently its not.
2)For what values of x does the graph of have a horizontal tangent? Enter the x values in order, smallest first, to 4 places of accuracy: ___ ____
I don't really know how to solve this one.
4)A particle moves along a straight line and its position at time is given by where s is measured in feet and t in seconds.
Find the velocity (in ft/sec) of the particle at time : __90__
The particle stops moving (i.e. is in a rest) twice, once when and again when where . is ___
and is ____
What is the position of the particle at time ? __3488___
Finally, what is the TOTAL distance the particle travels between time and time ? _____
5 )If a ball is thrown vertically upward from the roof of foot building with a velocity of ft/sec, then what is the maximum height the ball reaches? ________
What is the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground? ______
Any help is greatly appreciated. | <urn:uuid:0e46229a-3100-40dc-bc55-9de8fc580e86> | {
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It’s almost commonplace these days to see pictures of the Earth from space, but this video of the Earth from orbit is something really special. Shot from aboard the International Space Station, this time-lapse short film is just over a minute long but takes you over all of North and South America. Watching our little blue planet from that distance is humbling and beautiful – and it is completely mind-blowing to watch it and wonder what you might have been doing at the moment the ISS flew above your own location.
Watch the video in full-screen for the full mesmerizing effect. The city lights illuminating a dark Earth are gorgeous, but the lightning storms (the flashes of light in the clouds) are maybe the best part of the whole flyover. This tremendously entertaining video was stitched together by science educator James Drake from 600 images snapped by the ISS. | <urn:uuid:4e9479a3-bcf5-48a6-85ad-32792aad7f6b> | {
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Posted on 23 October 2011 by brian
It’s one thing to prepare for disaster by storing food. It may also be valuable to know how to hunt, fish and gather wild foods. But how will you cook that food? What if the only heat source is a campfire, you only have minimal utensils, foraged and storage food, and hungry people to feed?
by Leon Pantenburg
We’ll start from that SHTF (Sewage Hit The Fan) scenario. Off Grid Cooking is specifically for people who want to learn campfire and “primitive” cooking methods, with the idea those skills can be used or applied in a survival or emergency situation.
This is also a site for folks who want to learn to use their storage food on a regular basis, and to help integrate those foods into their normal diets.
Finally, the site is for whoever enjoys good cooking. Preparedness shouldn’t be all doom-and-gloom, nor should it be a chore to practice some of your skills.
I believe tasty, simple “survival” recipes are an important part of your preparedness gear, and here’s why. A survival situation can happen anywhere and any place. Virtually no area is without the risk of some natural disaster such as tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis etc.
Would you survive?
I hope so – and I hope you read the main SurvivalCommonSense.com website for more info on surviving under a variety of circumstances.
Food can be a critical part of survival.
You can live for days without sustenance, but that doesn’t mean you’ll live well. Without proper nourishment, you’ll soon grow weak, and your body won’t be able to keep itself warm. A lack of energy, caused by inadequate food, will impact your decisions and ability to take care of yourself or others.
But suppose you do have some stockpiled food supplies – do you know how to cook them? Will you be able to feed your family?
Eating the same things day after day can lead to “diet monotony.” At some point, after multiple days eating the same things, cooked the same ways, a hungry person may have be forced to eat. Youngsters, or seniors might just quit eating altogether. This could cause them to become a burden or a problem for the rest of a group.
So, Off Grid Cooking is here to help you deal with these potential food issues before they become problems. We’ll teach you how to make a cooking fire, cook over it with minimal tools, and most importantly, enjoy the experience!
And you’re gonna love the food!
Contact Leon at: [email protected] | <urn:uuid:b2beaa17-c40f-4311-a584-f16eff89a5be> | {
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“In 1900, a workweek at Cadbury’s factory was forty-eight hours long, and the company required promptness and efficiency from its employees. File cards recorded the work history of each employee, and rule violations could lead to dismissal”. (Chocolate on Trial, 11, Cadbury and the World of Slave Labor, on working conditions in the Birmingham factory)
“The servicais were paid once a month. The pay was considerably less than the minimum required by the decree of 1903, and the owners did not even deduct a portion for the required reparation fund, as they knew none of the laborers would ever be returned to their homeland”. (Chocolate on Trial, 19, Cadbury and the World of Slave Labor, on slave labor working conditions in São Tomé)
Birmingham, England, the most populated city in England, outside of London, was home to the start of the Cadbury company. Cadbury was originated by John Cadbury (below front row center) in 1824; his sons were the successors (below back row right) in 1919 when Cadbury went through a decline due to a loss of employees and sales. Business rose in 1924 and increased from then on (cadbury.com.au). São Tomé, in the Gulf of Guinea, was barely visited until the Portuguese nestled there hoping to grow and maintain sugar (worldatlas). Birmingham housed Cadbury’s first factory and village called Bournville; São Tomé was the island inhabiting slaves starting in the early nineteenth century lingering well into the twentieth century. The Cadbury company story is one of eager development, a family owned organization wanting to achieve greatness but may have naively not known how to maintain it. In this post, I will briefly examine the ethical reasons behind Cadbury doing business in Britain vs. São Tomé, whether or not they had a choice to resort to slave labor and operate a successful business, and conclude by professing the ugly truth that child slavery is still happening today.
Conditions at Bournville were not ideal, but the factory and village employed employees and sustained growth. In 1901, William Cadbury (successor, above middle back row) visited Trinidad after being told that slave labor was taking place in São Tomé; William went to investigate, as no Cadbury executive wanted to be associated with slave labor (Chocolate on Trial, 18). “William Cadbury demonstrated that while he was against the use of slave labor, he did not equate the labor of São Tomé to that of other forms of slavery reported in Africa”. (Chocolate on Trial, 19). How do the ethics of the Cadburys come into play; are they compromised? The business ethics in Bournville seemed somehow more realistic, sought out, and convenient for the start of the company; São Tomé conditions were poor and it has been said that “Given extreme evidence, it is surprising that the Cadbury’s had not recognized this slavery early on”. (Chocolate on Trial, 21)
A controversial topic, it is undoubtedly possible for a successful family owned company advertising their products as “no chemicals used”, “pure”, and “natural”, to condone slave labor in São Tomé in order to increase profits and stay competitive. Did the Cadbury’s adhere to slavery to enhance their business, and if so, can we blame them? Careful not to judge immediately. Any form of slaved labor can be construed as wrong and vial, however, what should the Cadbury’s have done instead that would still equal significant growth at little to no cost to them? Businesses such as Cadbury often do whatever it takes to become successful, even if that means the use of child labor and enforced slavery. In the early 1900’s (and still do this day!), when resources were scarce and reliable workers were few and far, slaves worked for little to no money. I do not support slavery of any kind or condone the behavior of the Cadbury family, especially if they knew slaved labor was occurring, however, I wonder what alternatives they would have had and if their business would have thrived as much as it did in England, if they were not utilizing slaves in São Tomé. I am not insinuating that the use of slaves was right on Cadbury’s part; I am just unsure how they would have grown as as they did had they gone a different route. We are all aware that many forms of slavery still exist today, so what has changed since the nineteenth century? Cadbury is a giant success and forced labor is still widely prevalent.
Chocolate Child Slaves, CNN, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHDxy04QPqM
The above video conducted by CNN shows how child slavery still occurs today in places like the Ivory Coast.
Western African countries, mostly Ghana and the Ivory Coast, supply more than 70% of the world’s cocoa (Child Labor and Slavery, etc.). Some may wonder what prompts children and other laborers to sacrifice their lives and work on cocoa farms. Mostly it is because they have to support themselves and their families and have no choice but to live in poor conditions and make less than poverty level rates. Others are trafficked and falsely informed that they will earn decent money while on the cocoa farms, when instead they earn than $2 per day (Child Labor and Slavery, etc.) or nothing at all. To this day, child labor is still existent in Western Africa and children face issues such as chemical intoxication from weapons and work devises, and are deprived from a meaningful education which is both detrimental to their futures and illegal. Organizations such as the International Labor Organization are making efforts to put a stop to child slave labor and other forms of labor, but are not getting far enough. Unfortunately little has been done to put a stop to this form of labor and I fear that as long as companies are able to hire children or adults at little to not cost and keep their products competitive, as Cadbury did, it likely never will.
Picture & Video Sources:
Web. 8 Mar. 2015. <http://wholesale-prints.net/MBB1891/MBB1891121.jpg>.
Web. 9 Mar. 2015. <http://www.mediavoicesforchildren.org/wp-content/uploads//0609ROR6FN4AADJ.jpg>.
“Chocolate Child Slaves- CNN.” YouTube. YouTube. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHDxy04QPqM>.
“Cadbury Australia.” Cadbury Australia. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. <https://www.cadbury.com.au>.
Satre, Lowell J. “Henry W. Nevinson and Modern Slavery.” Chocolate on Trial: Slavery, Politics, and the Ethics of Business. Athens, Ohio: Ohio UP, 2005. 11, 12, 15, 19, 21. Print.
“SAO TOME.” Sao Tome Map / Geography of Sao Tome / Map of Sao Tome. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/st.htm>.
“Child Labor and Slavery in the Chocolate Industry.” Child Labor and Slavery in the Chocolate Industry. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.foodispower.org/slavery-chocolate/>. | <urn:uuid:88fc7e4b-d487-4c86-9306-93cd44c69aba> | {
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|Part of a series on|
|Part of a series on|
National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism (/
Nazism is a form of fascism and showed that ideology's disdain for liberal democracy and the parliamentary system, but also incorporated fervent antisemitism, scientific racism, and eugenics into its creed. Its extreme nationalism came from Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement prominent in the German nationalism of the time, and it was strongly influenced by the anti-Communist Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's "cult of violence" which was "at the heart of the movement."
Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a German homogeneous society based on racial purity which represented a people's community (Volksgemeinschaft). The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum and exclude those who they deemed either community aliens or "inferior" races.
The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of "socialism", as an alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class conflict, opposed cosmopolitan internationalism and sought to convince all parts of the new German society to subordinate their personal interests to the "common good", accepting political interests as the main priority of economic organization.
The Nazi Party's precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party – to attract workers away from left-wing parties such as the Social Democrats (SPD) and the Communists (KPD) – and Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization. The National Socialist Program or "25 Points" was adopted in 1920 and called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"; 1924–1925), Hitler outlined the anti-Semitism and anti-Communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for representative democracy and his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion.
The Nazi Party won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, making them the largest party in the legislature by far, but still short of an outright majority. Because none of the parties were willing or able to put together a coalition government, in 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul Von Hindenburg, through the support and connivance of traditional conservative nationalists who believed that they could control him and his party. Through the use of emergency presidential decrees by Hindenburg, and a change in the Weimar Constitution which allowed the Cabinet to rule by direct decree, bypassing both Hindenburg and the Reichstag, the Nazis had soon established a one-party state.
The Sturmabteilung (SA) and the Schutzstaffel (SS) functioned as the paramilitary organizations of the Nazi Party. Using the SS for the task, Hitler purged the party's more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives, including the leadership of the SA. After the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in Hitler's hands and he became Germany's head of state as well as the head of the government, with the title of Führer, meaning "leader". From that point, Hitler was effectively the dictator of Nazi Germany, which was also known as the "Third Reich", under which Jews, political opponents and other "undesirable" elements were marginalized, imprisoned or murdered. Many millions of people were eventually exterminated in a genocide which became known as the Holocaust during World War II, including around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe.
Following Germany's defeat in World War II and the discovery of the full extent of the Holocaust, Nazi ideology became universally disgraced. It is widely regarded as immoral and evil, with only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, describing themselves as followers of National Socialism.
The full name of the party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (English: National-Socialist German Workers' Party) for which they officially used the acronym NSDAP.
The term "Nazi" was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backwards farmer or peasant, characterizing an awkward and clumsy person. In this sense, the word Nazi was a hypocorism of the German male name Ignatz (itself a variation of the name Ignatius) – Ignatz being a common name at the time in Bavaria, the area from which the NSDAP emerged.
In the 1920s, political opponents of the NSDAP in the German labour movement seized on this and – using the earlier abbreviated term "Sozi" for Sozialist (English: Socialist) as an example – shortened the first part of the NSDAP's name, [Na]tionalso[zi]alistische, to the dismissive "Nazi", in order to associate them with the derogatory use of the term mentioned above.
After the NSDAP's rise to power in the 1930s, the use of the term "Nazi" by itself or in terms such as "Nazi Germany", "Nazi regime" and so on was popularised by German exiles. From them, the term spread into other languages and it was eventually brought back into Germany after World War II.
The majority of scholars identify Nazism in both theory and practice as a form of far-right politics. Far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents denied that Nazism was either left-wing or right-wing, instead they officially portrayed Nazism as a syncretic movement. In Mein Kampf, Hitler directly attacked both left-wing and right-wing politics in Germany, saying:
Today our left-wing politicians in particular are constantly insisting that their craven-hearted and obsequious foreign policy necessarily results from the disarmament of Germany, whereas the truth is that this is the policy of traitors ... But the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms.
In a speech given in Munich on 12 April 1922, Hitler stated that:
There are only two possibilities in Germany; do not imagine that the people will forever go with the middle party, the party of compromises; one day it will turn to those who have most consistently foretold the coming ruin and have sought to dissociate themselves from it. And that party is either the Left: and then God help us! for it will lead us to complete destruction - to Bolshevism, or else it is a party of the Right which at the last, when the people is in utter despair, when it has lost all its spirit and has no longer any faith in anything, is determined for its part ruthlessly to seize the reins of power - that is the beginning of resistance of which I spoke a few minutes ago.
When asked[when?] whether he supported the "bourgeois right-wing", Hitler claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class and he indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved "pure" elements from both "camps" by stating: "From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism".
Historians regard the equation of National Socialism as 'Hitlerism' as too simplistic since the term was used prior to the rise of Hitler and the Nazis and the different ideologies incorporated into Nazism were already well established in certain parts of German society before World War I. The Nazis were strongly influenced by the post–World War I far-right in Germany, which held common beliefs such as anti-Marxism, anti-liberalism and antisemitism, along with nationalism, contempt for the Treaty of Versailles and condemnation of the Weimar Republic for signing the armistice in November 1918 which later led it to sign the Treaty of Versailles. A major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organizations that engaged in political violence after World War I. Initially, the post–World War I German far-right was dominated by monarchists, but the younger generation, which was associated with Völkisch nationalism, was more radical and it did not express any emphasis on the restoration of the German monarchy. This younger generation desired to dismantle the Weimar Republic and create a new radical and strong state based upon a martial ruling ethic that could revive the "Spirit of 1914" which was associated with German national unity (Volksgemeinschaft).
The Nazis, the far-right monarchists, the reactionary German National People's Party (DNVP) and others, such as monarchist officers in the German Army and several prominent industrialists, formed an alliance in opposition to the Weimar Republic on 11 October 1931 in Bad Harzburg, officially known as the "National Front", but commonly referred to as the Harzburg Front. The Nazis stated that the alliance was purely tactical and they continued to have differences with the DNVP. The Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and they called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections of July 1932, the alliance broke down when the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag. The Nazis denounced them as "an insignificant heap of reactionaries". The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their street violence and the "economic experiments" that would take place if the Nazis ever rose to power. But amidst an inconclusive political situation in which conservative politicians Franz von Papen and Kurt von Schleicher were unable to form stable governments without the Nazis, Papen proposed to President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor at the head of a government formed primarily of conservatives, with only three Nazi ministers. Hindenburg did so, and contrary to the expectations of Papen and the DNVP, Hitler was soon able to establish a Nazi one-party dictatorship.
Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, initially supported the Nazi Party. His four sons, including Prince Eitel Friedrich and Prince Oskar, became members of the Nazi Party in hopes that in exchange for their support, the Nazis would permit the restoration of the monarchy.
There were factions within the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical. The conservative Nazi Hermann Göring urged Hitler to conciliate with capitalists and reactionaries. Other prominent conservative Nazis included Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. Meanwhile, the radical Nazi Joseph Goebbels opposed capitalism, viewing it as having Jews at its core and he stressed the need for the party to emphasize both a proletarian and a national character. Those views were shared by Otto Strasser, who later left the Nazi Party in the belief that Hitler had allegedly betrayed the party's socialist goals by endorsing capitalism.
When the Nazi Party emerged from obscurity to become a major political force after 1929, the conservative faction rapidly gained more influence, as wealthy donors took an interest in the Nazis as a potential bulwark against communism. The Nazi Party had previously been financed almost entirely from membership dues, but after 1929 its leadership began actively seeking donations from German industrialists, and Hitler began holding dozens of fundraising meetings with business leaders. In the midst of the Great Depression, facing the possibility of economic ruin on the one hand and a Communist or Social Democratic government on the other hand, German business increasingly turned to Nazism as offering a way out of the situation, by promising a state-driven economy that would support, rather than attack, existing business interests. By January 1933, the Nazi Party had secured the support of important sectors of German industry, mainly among the steel and coal producers, the insurance business and the chemical industry.
Large segments of the Nazi Party, particularly among the members of the Sturmabteilung (SA), were committed to the party's official socialist, revolutionary and anti-capitalist positions and expected both a social and an economic revolution when the party gained power in 1933. In the period immediately before the Nazi seizure of power, there were even Social Democrats and Communists who switched sides and became known as "Beefsteak Nazis": brown on the outside and red inside. The leader of the SA, Ernst Röhm, pushed for a "second revolution" (the "first revolution" being the Nazis' seizure of power) that would enact socialist policies. Furthermore, Röhm desired that the SA absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership. Once the Nazis achieved power, Röhm's SA was directed by Hitler to violently suppress the parties of the left, but they also began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction. Hitler saw Röhm's independent actions as violating and possibly threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army. This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA in 1934, in what came to be known as the Night of the Long Knives.
Before he joined the Bavarian Army to fight in World War I, Hitler had lived a bohemian lifestyle as a petty street watercolour artist in Vienna and Munich and he maintained elements of this lifestyle later on, going to bed very late and rising in the afternoon, even after he became Chancellor and then Führer. After the war, his battalion was absorbed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic from 1918 to 1919, where he was elected Deputy Battalion Representative. According to historian Thomas Weber, Hitler attended the funeral of communist Kurt Eisner (a German Jew), wearing a black mourning armband on one arm and a red communist armband on the other, which he took as evidence that Hitler's political beliefs had not yet solidified. In Mein Kampf, Hitler never mentioned any service with the Bavarian Soviet Republic and he stated that he became an antisemite in 1913 during his years in Vienna. This statement has been disputed by the contention that he was not an antisemite at that time, even though it is well established that he read many antisemitic tracts and journals during time and admired Karl Lueger, the antisemitic mayor of Vienna. Hitler altered his political views in response to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 and it was then that he became an antisemitic, German nationalist.
Hitler expressed opposition to capitalism, regarding it as having Jewish origins and accusing capitalism of holding nations ransom to the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class. He also expressed opposition to communism and egalitarian forms of socialism, arguing that inequality and hierarchy are beneficial to the nation. He believed that communism was invented by the Jews to weaken nations by promoting class struggle. After his rise to power, Hitler took a pragmatic position on economics, accepting private property and allowing capitalist private enterprises to exist so long as they adhered to the goals of the Nazi state, but not tolerating enterprises that he saw as being opposed to the national interest.
German business leaders disliked Nazi ideology but came to support Hitler, because they saw the Nazis as a useful ally to promote their interests. Business groups made significant financial contributions to the Nazi Party both before and after the Nazi seizure of power, in the hope that a Nazi dictatorship would eliminate the organized labour movement and the left-wing parties. Hitler actively sought to gain the support of business leaders by arguing that private enterprise is incompatible with democracy.
Although he opposed communist ideology, Hitler publicly praised the Soviet Union's leader Joseph Stalin and Stalinism on numerous occasions. Hitler commended Stalin for seeking to purify the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of Jewish influences, noting Stalin's purging of Jewish communists such as Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Karl Radek. While Hitler had always intended to bring Germany into conflict with the Soviet Union so he could gain Lebensraum ("living space"), he supported a temporary strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to form a common anti-liberal front so they could defeat liberal democracies, particularly France.
One of the most significant ideological influences on the Nazis was the German nationalist Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose works had served as an inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi Party members, including Dietrich Eckart and Arnold Fanck. In Speeches to the German Nation (1808), written amid Napoleonic France's occupation of Berlin, Fichte called for a German national revolution against the French occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French and stressing the need for action by the German nation so it could free itself. Fichte's nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need for a "People's War" (Volkskrieg) and put forth concepts similar to those which the Nazis adopted. Fichte promoted German exceptionalism and stressed the need for the German nation to purify itself (including purging the German language of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon their rise to power).
Another important figure in pre-Nazi völkisch thinking was Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, whose work—Land und Leute (Land and People, written between 1857 and 1863)—collectively tied the organic German Volk to its native landscape and nature, a pairing which stood in stark opposition to the mechanical and materialistic civilization which was then developing as a result of industrialization. Geographers Friedrich Ratzel and Karl Haushofer borrowed from Riehl's work as did Nazi ideologues Alfred Rosenberg and Paul Schultze-Naumburg, both of whom employed some of Riehl's philosophy in arguing that "each nation-state was an organism that required a particular living space in order to survive". Riehl's influence is overtly discernible in the Blut und Boden (Blood and Soil) philosophy introduced by Oswald Spengler, which the Nazi agriculturalist Walther Darré and other prominent Nazis adopted.
Völkisch nationalism denounced soulless materialism, individualism and secularised urban industrial society, while advocating a "superior" society based on ethnic German "folk" culture and German "blood". It denounced foreigners and foreign ideas and declared that Jews, Freemasons and others were "traitors to the nation" and unworthy of inclusion. Völkisch nationalism saw the world in terms of natural law and romanticism and it viewed societies as organic, extolling the virtues of rural life, condemning the neglect of tradition and the decay of morals, denounced the destruction of the natural environment and condemned "cosmopolitan" cultures such as Jews and Romani.
The first party that attempted to combine nationalism and socialism was the (Austria-Hungary) German Workers' Party, which predominantly aimed to solve the conflict between the Austrian Germans and the Czechs in the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire, then part of Austria-Hungary. In 1896 the German politician Friedrich Naumann formed the National-Social Association which aimed to combine German nationalism and a non-Marxist form of socialism together; the attempt turned out to be futile and the idea of linking nationalism with socialism quickly became equated with antisemites, extreme German nationalists and the Völkisch movement in general.
During the era of Imperial Germany, Völkisch nationalism was overshadowed by both Prussian patriotism and the federalist tradition of its various component states. The events of World War I, including the end of the Prussian monarchy in Germany, resulted in a surge of revolutionary Völkisch nationalism. The Nazis supported such revolutionary Völkisch nationalist policies and they claimed that their ideology was influenced by the leadership and policies of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the founder of the German Empire. The Nazis declared that they were dedicated to continuing the process of creating a unified German nation state that Bismarck had begun and desired to achieve. While Hitler was supportive of Bismarck's creation of the German Empire, he was critical of Bismarck's moderate domestic policies. On the issue of Bismarck's support of a Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany", excluding Austria) versus the Pan-German Großdeutschland ("Greater Germany") which the Nazis advocated, Hitler stated that Bismarck's attainment of Kleindeutschland was the "highest achievement" Bismarck could have achieved "within the limits possible at that time". In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a "second Bismarck".
During his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavic sentiment and anti-Habsburg views. From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title and the model of absolute party leadership. Hitler was also impressed by the populist antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler's time in the city used a rabble-rousing style of oratory that appealed to the wider masses. Unlike von Schönerer, Lueger was not a German nationalist and instead was a pro-Catholic Habsburg supporter and only used German nationalist notions occasionally for his own agenda. Although Hitler praised both Lueger and Schönerer, he criticized the former for not applying a racial doctrine against the Jews and Slavs.
The concept of the Aryan race, which the Nazis promoted, stems from racial theories asserting that Europeans are the descendants of Indo-Iranian settlers, people of ancient India and ancient Persia. Proponents of this theory based their assertion on the fact that words in European languages and words in Indo-Iranian languages have similar pronunciations and meanings. Johann Gottfried Herder argued that the Germanic peoples held close racial connections to the ancient Indians and the ancient Persians, who he claimed were advanced peoples that possessed a great capacity for wisdom, nobility, restraint and science. Contemporaries of Herder used the concept of the Aryan race to draw a distinction between what they deemed to be "high and noble" Aryan culture versus that of "parasitic" Semitic culture.
Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority were combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining the belief that certain groups of white people were members of an Aryan "master race" that is superior to other races and particularly superior to the Semitic race, which they associated with "cultural sterility". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued had destroyed the purity of the Aryan race, a term which he only reserved for Germanic people. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan (Germanic) and Jewish cultures.
Aryan mysticism claimed that Christianity originated in Aryan religious traditions, and that Jews had usurped the legend from Aryans. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an English proponent of racial theory, supported notions of Germanic supremacy and antisemitism in Germany. Chamberlain's work, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), praised Germanic peoples for their creativity and idealism while asserting that the Germanic spirit was threatened by a "Jewish" spirit of selfishness and materialism. Chamberlain used his thesis to promote monarchical conservatism while denouncing democracy, liberalism and socialism. The book became popular, especially in Germany. Chamberlain stressed a nation's need to maintain its racial purity in order to prevent its degeneration and argued that racial intermingling with Jews should never be permitted. In 1923, Chamberlain met Hitler, whom he admired as a leader of the rebirth of the free spirit. Madison Grant's work The Passing of the Great Race (1916) advocated Nordicism and proposed that a eugenics program should be implemented in order to preserve the purity of the Nordic race. After reading the book, Hitler called it "my Bible".
In Germany, the belief that Jews were economically exploiting Germans became prominent due to the ascendancy of many wealthy Jews into prominent positions upon the unification of Germany in 1871. From 1871 to the early 20th century, German Jews were overrepresented in Germany's upper and middle classes while they were underrepresented in Germany's lower classes, particularly in the fields of agricultural and industrial labour. German Jewish financiers and bankers played a key role in fostering Germany's economic growth from 1871 to 1913 and they benefited enormously from this boom. In 1908, amongst the twenty-nine wealthiest German families with aggregate fortunes of up to 55 million marks at the time, five were Jewish and the Rothschilds were the second wealthiest German family. The predominance of Jews in Germany's banking, commerce and industry sectors during this time period was very high, even though Jews were estimated to account for only 1% of the population of Germany. The overrepresentation of Jews in these areas fueled resentment among non-Jewish Germans during periods of economic crisis. The 1873 stock market crash and the ensuing depression resulted in a spate of attacks on alleged Jewish economic dominance in Germany and antisemitism increased. During this time period, in the 1870s, German Völkisch nationalism began to adopt antisemitic and racist themes and it was also adopted by a number of radical right political movements.
Radical Antisemitism was promoted by prominent advocates of Völkisch nationalism, including Eugen Diederichs, Paul de Lagarde and Julius Langbehn. De Lagarde called the Jews a "bacillus, the carriers of decay ... who pollute every national culture ... and destroy all faiths with their materialistic liberalism" and he called for the extermination of the Jews. Langbehn called for a war of annihilation against the Jews, and his genocidal policies were later published by the Nazis and given to soldiers on the front during World War II. One antisemitic ideologue of the period, Friedrich Lange, even used the term "National Socialism" to describe his own anti-capitalist take on the Völkisch nationalist template.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte accused Jews in Germany of having been and inevitably of continuing to be a "state within a state" that threatened German national unity. Fichte promoted two options in order to address this, his first one being the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine so the Jews could be impelled to leave Europe. His second option was violence against Jews and he said that the goal of the violence would be "to cut off all their heads in one night, and set new ones on their shoulders, which should not contain a single Jewish idea".
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1912) is an antisemitic forgery created by the secret service of the Russian Empire, the Okhrana. Many antisemites believed it was real and thus it became widely popular after World War I. The Protocols claimed that there was a secret international Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. Hitler had been introduced to The Protocols by Alfred Rosenberg and from 1920 onwards he focused his attacks by claiming that Judaism and Marxism were directly connected, that Jews and Bolsheviks were one and the same and that Marxism was a Jewish ideology-this became known as "Jewish Bolshevism". Hitler believed that The Protocols were authentic.
Prior to the Nazi ascension to power, Hitler often blamed moral degradation on Rassenschande ("racial defilement"), a way to assure his followers of his continuing antisemitism, which had been toned down for popular consumption. Prior to the induction of the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935 by the Nazis, many German nationalists such as Roland Freisler strongly supported laws to ban Rassenschande between Aryans and Jews as racial treason. Even before the laws were officially passed, the Nazis banned sexual relations and marriages between party members and Jews. Party members found guilty of Rassenschande were severely punished; some party members were even sentenced to death.
The Nazis claimed that Bismarck was unable to complete German national unification because Jews had infiltrated the German parliament and they claimed that their abolition of parliament had ended this obstacle to unification. Using the stab-in-the-back myth, the Nazis accused Jews—and other populations who it considered non-German—of possessing extra-national loyalties, thereby exacerbating German antisemitism about the Judenfrage (the Jewish Question), the far-right political canard which was popular when the ethnic Völkisch movement and its politics of Romantic nationalism for establishing a Großdeutschland was strong.
Nazism's racial policy positions may have developed from the views of important biologists of the 19th century, including French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, through Ernst Haeckel's idealist version of Lamarckism and the father of genetics, German botanist Gregor Mendel. However, Haeckel's works were later condemned and banned from bookshops and libraries by the Nazis as inappropriate for "National-Socialist formation and education in the Third Reich". This may have been because of his "monist" atheistic, materialist philosophy, which the Nazis disliked. Unlike Darwinian theory, Lamarckian theory officially ranked races in a hierarchy of evolution from apes while Darwinian theory did not grade races in a hierarchy of higher or lower evolution from apes, but simply stated that all humans as a whole had progressed in their evolution from apes. Many Lamarckians viewed "lower" races as having been exposed to debilitating conditions for too long for any significant "improvement" of their condition to take place in the near future. Haeckel utilised Lamarckian theory to describe the existence of interracial struggle and put races on a hierarchy of evolution, ranging from wholly human to subhuman.
Mendelian inheritance, or Mendelism, was supported by the Nazis, as well as by mainstream eugenicists of the time. The Mendelian theory of inheritance declared that genetic traits and attributes were passed from one generation to another. Eugenicists used Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the transfer of biological illness and impairments from parents to children, including mental disability, whereas others also utilised Mendelian theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, with racialists claiming a racial nature behind certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.
During World War I, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914" that were a declaration of war against the "ideas of 1789" (the French Revolution). According to Plenge, the "ideas of 1789" which included the rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism were being rejected in favour of "the ideas of 1914" which included the "German values" of duty, discipline, law and order. Plenge believed that ethnic solidarity (Volksgemeinschaft) would replace class division and that "racial comrades" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of "proletarian" Germany against "capitalist" Britain. He believed that the "Spirit of 1914" manifested itself in the concept of the "People's League of National Socialism". This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the "idea of boundless freedom" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state. This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism due to the components that were against "the national interest" of Germany, but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy. Plenge advocated an authoritarian, rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical technocratic state, and his ideas were part of the basis of Nazism.
Oswald Spengler, a German cultural philosopher, was a major influence on Nazism, although after 1933 he became alienated from Nazism and was later condemned by the Nazis for criticising Adolf Hitler. Spengler's conception of national socialism and a number of his political views were shared by the Nazis and the Conservative Revolutionary movement. Spengler's views were also popular amongst Italian Fascists, including Benito Mussolini.
Spengler's book The Decline of the West (1918), written during the final months of World War I, addressed the supposed decadence of modern European civilization, which he claimed was caused by atomising and irreligious individualisation and cosmopolitanism. Spengler's major thesis was that a law of historical development of cultures existed involving a cycle of birth, maturity, ageing and death when it reaches its final form of civilisation. Upon reaching the point of civilisation, a culture will lose its creative capacity and succumb to decadence until the emergence of "barbarians" creates a new epoch. Spengler considered the Western world as having succumbed to decadence of intellect, money, cosmopolitan urban life, irreligious life, atomised individualisation and believed that it was at the end of its biological and "spiritual" fertility. He believed that the "young" German nation as an imperial power would inherit the legacy of Ancient Rome, lead a restoration of value in "blood" and instinct, while the ideals of rationalism would be revealed as absurd.
Spengler's notions of "Prussian socialism" as described in his book Preussentum und Sozialismus ("Prussiandom and Socialism", 1919), influenced Nazism and the Conservative Revolutionary movement. Spengler wrote: "The meaning of socialism is that life is controlled not by the opposition between rich and poor, but by the rank that achievement and talent bestow. That is our freedom, freedom from the economic despotism of the individual". Spengler adopted the anti-English ideas addressed by Plenge and Sombart during World War I that condemned English liberalism and English parliamentarianism while advocating a national socialism that was free from Marxism and that would connect the individual to the state through corporatist organisation. Spengler claimed that socialistic Prussian characteristics existed across Germany, including creativity, discipline, concern for the greater good, productivity and self-sacrifice. He prescribed war as a necessity by saying: "War is the eternal form of higher human existence and states exist for war: they are the expression of the will to war".
Spengler's definition of socialism did not advocate a change to property relations. He denounced Marxism for seeking to train the proletariat to "expropriate the expropriator", the capitalist and then to let them live a life of leisure on this expropriation. He claimed that "Marxism is the capitalism of the working class" and not true socialism. According to Spengler, true socialism would be in the form of corporatism, stating that "local corporate bodies organised according to the importance of each occupation to the people as a whole; higher representation in stages up to a supreme council of the state; mandates revocable at any time; no organised parties, no professional politicians, no periodic elections".
Wilhelm Stapel, an antisemitic German intellectual, utilised Spengler's thesis on the cultural confrontation between Jews as whom Spengler described as a Magian people versus Europeans as a Faustian people. Stapel described Jews as a landless nomadic people in pursuit of an international culture whereby they can integrate into Western civilisation. As such, Stapel claims that Jews have been attracted to "international" versions of socialism, pacifism or capitalism because as a landless people the Jews have transgressed various national cultural boundaries.
Arthur Moeller van den Bruck was initially the dominant figure of the Conservative Revolutionaries influenced Nazism. He rejected reactionary conservatism while proposing a new state that he coined the "Third Reich", which would unite all classes under authoritarian rule. Van den Bruck advocated a combination of the nationalism of the right and the socialism of the left.
Fascism was a major influence on Nazism. The seizure of power by Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in the March on Rome in 1922 drew admiration by Hitler, who less than a month later had begun to model himself and the Nazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists. Hitler presented the Nazis as a form of German fascism. In November 1923, the Nazis attempted a "March on Berlin" modelled after the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.
Hitler spoke of Nazism being indebted to the success of Fascism's rise to power in Italy. In a private conversation in 1941, Hitler said that "the brown shirt would probably not have existed without the black shirt", the "brown shirt" referring to the Nazi militia and the "black shirt" referring to the Fascist militia. He also said in regards to the 1920s: "If Mussolini had been outdistanced by Marxism, I don't know whether we could have succeeded in holding out. At that period National Socialism was a very fragile growth".
Other Nazis—especially those at the time associated with the party's more radical wing such as Gregor Strasser, Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler—rejected Italian Fascism, accusing it of being too conservative or capitalist. Alfred Rosenberg condemned Italian Fascism for being racially confused and having influences from philosemitism. Strasser criticised the policy of Führerprinzip as being created by Mussolini and considered its presence in Nazism as a foreign imported idea. Throughout the relationship between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, a number of lower-ranking Nazis scornfully viewed fascism as a conservative movement that lacked a full revolutionary potential.
Nazism emphasized German nationalism, including both irredentism and expansionism. Nazism held racial theories based upon a belief in the existence of an Aryan master race that was superior to all other races. The Nazis emphasised the existence of racial conflict between the Aryan race and others—particularly Jews, whom the Nazis viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated multiple societies and was responsible for exploitation and repression of the Aryan race. The Nazis also categorised Slavs as Untermensch (sub-human).
The German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, the region now known as the Czech Republic and the territory known since 1919 as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum ("living space") for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being. Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union.
In Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that Lebensraum would be acquired in Eastern Europe, especially Russia. In his early years as the Nazi leader, Hitler had claimed that he would be willing to accept friendly relations with Russia on the tactical condition that Russia agree to return to the borders established by the German–Russian peace agreement of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by Vladimir Lenin of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1918 which gave large territories held by Russia to German control in exchange for peace. In 1921, Hitler had commended the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as opening the possibility for restoration of relations between Germany and Russia by saying:
Through the peace with Russia the sustenance of Germany as well as the provision of work were to have been secured by the acquisition of land and soil, by access to raw materials, and by friendly relations between the two lands.— Adolf Hitler
From 1921 to 1922, Hitler evoked rhetoric of both the achievement of Lebensraum involving the acceptance of a territorially reduced Russia as well as supporting Russian nationals in overthrowing the Bolshevik government and establishing a new Russian government. Hitler's attitudes changed by the end of 1922, in which he then supported an alliance of Germany with Britain to destroy Russia. Hitler later declared how far he intended to expand Germany into Russia:
Asia, what a disquieting reservoir of men! The safety of Europe will not be assured until we have driven Asia back behind the Urals. No organized Russian state must be allowed to exist west of that line.— Adolf Hitler
Policy for Lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany's borders to eastwards of the Ural Mountains. Hitler planned for the "surplus" Russian population living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals.
In its racial categorization, Nazism viewed what it called the Aryan race as the master race of the world—a race that was superior to all other races. It viewed Aryans as being in racial conflict with a mixed race people, the Jews, whom the Nazis identified as a dangerous enemy of the Aryans. It also viewed a number of other peoples as dangerous to the well-being of the Aryan race. In order to preserve the perceived racial purity of the Aryan race, a set of race laws was introduced in 1935 which came to be known as the Nuremberg Laws. At first these laws only prevented sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, but they were later extended to the "Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastard offspring", who were described by the Nazis as people of "alien blood". Such relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans were now punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or "race defilement". After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners (non-Germans). At the bottom of the racial scale of non-Aryans were Jews, Romanis, Slavs and blacks. To maintain the "purity and strength" of the Aryan race, the Nazis eventually sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, Slavs and the physically and mentally disabled. Other groups deemed "degenerate" and "asocial" who were not targeted for extermination, but were subjected to exclusionary treatment by the Nazi state, included homosexuals, blacks, Jehovah's Witnesses and political opponents. One of Hitler's ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel or enslave most or all Slavs from Central and Eastern Europe in order to acquire living space for German settlers.
A Nazi era school textbook for German students entitled Hery and Racial Biology for Students written by Jakob Graf described to students the Nazi conception of the Aryan race in a section titled "The Aryan: The Creative Force in Human History". Graf claimed that the original Aryans developed from Nordic peoples who invaded ancient India and launched the initial development of Aryan culture there that later spread to ancient Persia and he claimed that the Aryan presence in Persia was what was responsible for its development into an empire. He claimed that ancient Greek culture was developed by Nordic peoples due to paintings of the time which showed Greeks who were tall, light-skinned, light-eyed, blond-haired people. He said that the Roman Empire was developed by the Italics who were related to the Celts who were also a Nordic people. He believed that the vanishing of the Nordic component of the populations in Greece and Rome led to their downfall. The Renaissance was claimed to have developed in the Western Roman Empire because of the Germanic invasions that brought new Nordic blood to the Empire's lands, such as the presence of Nordic blood in the Lombards (referred to as Longobards in the book); that remnants of the western Goths were responsible for the creation of the Spanish Empire; and that the heritage of the Franks, Goths and Germanic peoples in France was what was responsible for its rise as a major power. He claimed that the rise of the Russian Empire was due to its leadership by people of Norman descent. He described the rise of Anglo-Saxon societies in North America, South Africa and Australia as being the result of the Nordic heritage of Anglo-Saxons. He concluded these points by saying: "Everywhere Nordic creative power has built mighty empires with high-minded ideas, and to this very day Aryan languages and cultural values are spread over a large part of the world, though the creative Nordic blood has long since vanished in many places".
In Nazi Germany, the idea of creating a master race resulted in efforts to "purify" the Deutsche Volk through eugenics and its culmination was the compulsory sterilization or the involuntary euthanasia of physically or mentally disabled people. After World War II, the euthanasia programme was named Action T4. The ideological justification for euthanasia was Hitler's view of Sparta (11th century – 195 BC) as the original Völkisch state and he praised Sparta's dispassionate destruction of congenitally deformed infants in order to maintain racial purity. Some non-Aryans enlisted in Nazi organisations like the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht, including Germans of African descent and Jewish descent. The Nazis began to implement "racial hygiene" policies as soon as they came to power. The July 1933 "Law for the Prevention of Herarily Diseased Offspring" prescribed compulsory sterilization for people with a range of conditions which were thought to be herary, such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, Huntington's chorea and "imbecility". Sterilization was also mandated for chronic alcoholism and other forms of social deviance. An estimated 360,000 people were sterilised under this law between 1933 and 1939. Although some Nazis suggested that the programme should be extended to people with physical disabilities, such ideas had to be expressed carefully, given the fact that some Nazis had physical disabilities, one example being one of the most powerful figures of the regime, Joseph Goebbels, who had a deformed right leg.
Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther argued that European peoples were divided into five races: Nordic, Merranean, Dinaric, Alpine and East Baltic. Günther applied a Nordicist conception in order to justify his belief that Nordics were the highest in the racial hierarchy. In his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) ("Racial Science of the German People"), Günther recognised Germans as being composed of all five races, but emphasized the strong Nordic heritage among them. Hitler read Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, which influenced his racial policy. Gunther believed that Slavs belonged to an "Eastern race" and he warned against Germans mixing with them. The Nazis described Jews as being a racially mixed group of primarily Near Eastern and Oriental racial types. Because such racial groups were concentrated outside Europe, the Nazis claimed that Jews were "racially alien" to all European peoples and that they did not have deep racial roots in Europe.
Günther emphasized Jews' Near Eastern racial heritage. Günther identified the mass conversion of the Khazars to Judaism in the 8th century as creating the two major branches of the Jewish people, those of primarily Near Eastern racial heritage became the Ashkenazi Jews (that he called Eastern Jews) while those of primarily Oriental racial heritage became the Sephardi Jews (that he called Southern Jews). Günther claimed that the Near Eastern type was composed of commercially spirited and artful traders, that the type held strong psychological manipulation skills which aided them in trade. He claimed that the Near Eastern race had been "bred not so much for the conquest and exploitation of nature as it had been for the conquest and exploitation of people". Günther believed that European peoples had a racially motivated aversion to peoples of Near Eastern racial origin and their traits, and as evidence of this he showed multiple examples of depictions of satanic figures with Near Eastern physiognomies in European art.
Hitler's conception of the Aryan Herrenvolk ("Aryan master race") excluded the vast majority of Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e. Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, etc.). They were regarded as a race of men not inclined to a higher form of civilization, which was under an instinctive force that reverted them back to nature. The Nazis also regarded the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic, meaning Mongol, influences. Because of this, the Nazis declared Slavs to be Untermenschen ("subhumans"). Nazi anthropologists attempted to scientifically prove the historical admixture of the Slavs who lived further East and leading Nazi racial theorist Hans Günther regarded the Slavs as being primarily Nordic centuries ago but he believed that they had mixed with non-Nordic types over time. Exceptions were made for a small percentage of Slavs who the Nazis saw as descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised and considered part of the Aryan master race. Hitler described Slavs as "a mass of born slaves who feel the need for a master". The Nazi notion of Slavs as inferior served as a legitimization of their desire to create Lebensraum for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe, where millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into once those territories were conquered, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed or enslaved. Nazi Germany's policy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, forced it to allow Slavs to serve in its armed forces within the occupied territories in spite of the fact that they were considered "subhuman".
Hitler declared that racial conflict against Jews was necessary in order to save Germany from suffering under them and he dismissed concerns that the conflict with them was inhumane and unjust:
We may be inhumane, but if we rescue Germany we have achieved the greatest deed in the world. We may work injustice, but if we rescue Germany then we have removed the greatest injustice in the world. We may be immoral, but if our people is rescued we have opened the way for morality.
Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels frequently employed antisemitic rhetoric to underline this view: "The Jew is the enemy and the destroyer of the purity of blood, the conscious destroyer of our race."
National Socialist politics was based on competition and struggle as its organizing principle, and the Nazis believed that "human life consisted of eternal struggle and competition and derived its meaning from struggle and competition." The Nazis saw this eternal struggle in military terms, and advocated a society organized like an army in order to achieve success. They promoted the idea of a national-racial "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft) in order to accomplish "the efficient prosecution of the struggle against other peoples and states." Like an army, the Volksgemeinschaft was meant to consist of a hierarchy of ranks or classes of people, some commanding and others obeying, all working together for a common goal. This concept was rooted in the writings of 19th century völkisch authors who glorified medieval German society, viewing it as a "community rooted in the land and bound together by custom and tradition," in which there was neither class conflict nor selfish individualism.
Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class conflict, and it praised both German capitalists and German workers as essential to the Volksgemeinschaft. In the Volksgemeinschaft, social classes would continue to exist, but there would be no class conflict between them. Hitler said that “the capitalists have worked their way to the top through their capacity, and as the basis of this selection, which again only proves their higher race, they have a right to lead.” German business leaders co-operated with the Nazis during their rise to power and received substantial benefits from the Nazi state after it was established, including high profits and state-sanctioned monopolies and cartels. Large celebrations and symbolism were used extensively to encourage those engaged in physical labour on behalf of Germany, with leading National Socialists often praising the "honour of labour", which fostered a sense of community (Gemeinschaft) for the German people and promoted solidarity towards the Nazi cause. To win workers away from Marxism, Nazi propaganda sometimes presented its expansionist foreign policy goals as a "class struggle between nations." Bonfires were made of school children's differently coloured caps as symbolic of the unity of different social classes.
In 1922, Hitler discred other nationalist and racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass populace, especially lower and working-class young people:
The racialists were not capable of drawing the practical conclusions from correct theoretical judgements, especially in the Jewish Question. In this way, the German racialist movement developed a similar pattern to that of the 1880s and 1890s. As in those days, its leadership gradually fell into the hands of highly honourable, but fantastically naïve men of learning, professors, district counsellors, schoolmasters, and lawyers—in short a bourgeois, idealistic, and refined class. It lacked the warm breath of the nation's youthful vigour.
Nevertheless, the Nazi Party's voter base consisted mainly of farmers and the middle class, including groups such as Weimar government officials, school teachers, doctors, clerks, self-employed businessmen, salesmen, retired officers, engineers, and students. Their demands included lower taxes, higher prices for food, restrictions on department stores and consumer co-operatives, and reductions in social services and wages. The need to maintain the support of these groups made it difficult for the Nazis to appeal to the working class, since the working class often had opposite demands.
From 1928 onward, the Nazi Party's growth into a large national political movement was dependent on middle class support, and on the public perception that it "promised to side with the middle classes and to confront the economic and political power of the working class." The financial collapse of the white collar middle-class of the 1920s figures much in their strong support of Nazism. Although the Nazis continued to make appeals to "the German worker," historian Timothy Mason concludes that "Hitler had nothing but slogans to offer the working class."
Nazi ideology advocated excluding women from political involvement and confining them to the spheres of "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Children, Kitchen, Church). Many women enthusiastically supported the regime, but formed their own internal hierarchies. Hitler's own opinion on the matter of women in Nazi Germany was that while other eras of German history had experienced the development and liberation of the female mind, the National Socialist goal was essentially singular in that it wished for them to produce a child. Based on this theme, Hitler once remarked about women that "with every child that she brings into the world, she fights her battle for the nation. The man stands up for the Volk, exactly as the woman stands up for the family". Proto-natalist programs in Nazi Germany offered favourable loans and grants to newlyweds and encouraged them to give birth to offspring by providing them with additional incentives. Contraception was discouraged for racially valuable women in Nazi Germany and abortion was forbidden by strict legal mandates, including prison sentences for women who sought them as well as prison sentences for doctors who performed them, whereas abortion for racially "undesirable" persons was encouraged.
While unmarried until the very end of the regime, Hitler often made excuses about his busy life hindering any chance for marriage. Among National Socialist ideologues, marriage was valued not for moral considerations but because it provided an optimal breeding environment. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler reportedly told a confidant that when he established the Lebensborn program, an organisation that would dramatically increase the birth rate of "Aryan" children through extramarital relations between women classified as racially pure and their male equals, he had only the purest male "conception assistants" in mind.
Since the Nazis extended the Rassenschande ("race defilement") law to all foreigners at the beginning of the war, pamphlets were issued to German women which ordered them to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers who were brought to Germany and the pamphlets also ordered German women to view these same foreign workers as a danger to their blood. Although the law was applicable to both genders, German women were punished more severely for having sexual relations with foreign forced labourers in Germany. The Nazis issued the Polish decrees on 8 March 1940 which contained regulations concerning the Polish forced labourers (Zivilarbeiter) who were brought to Germany during World War II. One of the regulations stated that any Pole "who has sexual relations with a German man or woman, or approaches them in any other improper manner, will be punished by death".
After the decrees were enacted, Himmler stated:
The Nazis later issued similar regulations against the Eastern Workers (Ost-Arbeiters), including the imposition of the death penalty if they engaged in sexual relations with German persons. Heydrich issued a decree on 20 February 1942 which declared that sexual intercourse between a German woman and a Russian worker or prisoner of war would result in the Russian man being punished with the death penalty. Another decree issued by Himmler on 7 December 1942 stated that any "unauthorised sexual intercourse" would result in the death penalty. Because the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour did not permit capital punishment for race defilement, special courts were convened in order to allow the death penalty to be imposed in some cases. German women accused of race defilement were marched through the streets with their head shaven and placards detailing their crimes were placed around their necks and those convicted of race defilement were sent to concentration camps. When Himmler reportedly asked Hitler what the punishment should be for German girls and German women who were found guilty of race defilement with prisoners of war (POWs), he ordered that "every POW who has relations with a German girl or a German would be shot" and the German woman should be publicly humiliated by "having her hair shorn and being sent to a concentration camp".
After the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler promoted Himmler and the SS, who then zealously suppressed homosexuality by saying: "We must exterminate these people root and branch ... the homosexual must be eliminated". In 1936, Himmler established the "Reichszentrale zur Bekämpfung der Homosexualität und Abtreibung" ("Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion"). The Nazi regime incarcerated some 100,000 homosexuals during the 1930s. As concentration camp prisoners, homosexual men were forced to wear pink triangle badges. Nazi ideology still viewed German men who were gay as a part of the Aryan master race, but the Nazi regime attempted to force them into sexual and social conformity. Homosexuals were viewed as failing in their duty to procreate and reproduce for the Aryan nation. Gay men who would not change or feign a change in their sexual orientation were sent to concentration camps under the "Extermination Through Work" campaign.
The Nazi Party Programme of 1920 guaranteed freedom for all religious denominations which were not hostile to the State and it also endorsed Positive Christianity in order to combat "the Jewish-materialist spirit". Positive Christianity was a modified version of Christianity which emphasized racial purity and nationalism. The Nazis were aided by theologians such as Ernst Bergmann. In his work Die 25 Thesen der Deutschreligion (Twenty-five Points of the German Religion), Bergmann held the view that the Old Testament of the Bible was inaccurate along with portions of the New Testament, claimed that Jesus was not a Jew but was instead of Aryan origin and he also claimed that Adolf Hitler was the new messiah.
Hitler denounced the Old Testament as "Satan's Bible" and utilising components of the New Testament he attempted to prove that Jesus was both an Aryan and an antisemite by citing passages such as John 8:44 where he noted that Jesus is yelling at "the Jews", as well as saying to them "your father is the devil" and the Cleansing of the Temple, which describes Jesus' whipping of the "Children of the Devil". Hitler claimed that the New Testament included distortions by Paul the Apostle, who Hitler described as a "mass-murderer turned saint". In their propaganda, the Nazis utilised the writings of Martin Luther, the founder of Protestantism. They publicly displayed an original ion of Luther's On the Jews and their Lies during the annual Nuremberg rallies. The Nazis endorsed the pro-Nazi Protestant German Christians organization.
The Nazis were initially very hostile to Catholics because most Catholics supported the German Centre Party. Catholics opposed the Nazis' promotion of compulsory sterilization of those whom they deemed inferior and the Catholic Church forbade its members to vote for the Nazis. In 1933, extensive Nazi violence occurred against Catholics due to their association with the Centre Party and their opposition to the Nazi regime's sterilization laws. The Nazis demanded that Catholics declare their loyalty to the German state. In their propaganda, the Nazis used elements of Germany's Catholic history, in particular the German Catholic Teutonic Knights and their campaigns in Eastern Europe. The Nazis identified them as "sentinels" in the East against "Slavic chaos", though beyond that symbolism, the influence of the Teutonic Knights on Nazism was limited. Hitler also admitted that the Nazis' night rallies were inspired by the Catholic rituals which he had witnessed during his Catholic upbringing. The Nazis did seek official reconciliation with the Catholic Church and they endorsed the creation of the pro-Nazi Catholic Kreuz und Adler, an organization which advocated a form of national Catholicism that would reconcile the Catholic Church's beliefs with Nazism. On 20 July 1933, a concordat (Reichskonkordat) was signed between Nazi Germany and the Catholic Church, which in exchange for acceptance of the Catholic Church in Germany required German Catholics to be loyal to the German state. The Catholic Church then ended its ban on members supporting the Nazi Party.
Historian Michael Burleigh claims that Nazism used Christianity for political purposes, but such use required that "fundamental tenets were stripped out, but the remaining diffuse religious emotionality had its uses". Burleigh claims that Nazism's conception of spirituality was "self-consciously pagan and primitive". However, historian Roger Griffin rejects the claim that Nazism was primarily pagan, noting that although there were some influential neo-paganists in the Nazi Party, such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg, they represented a minority and their views did not influence Nazi ideology beyond its use for symbolism. It is noted that Hitler denounced Germanic paganism in Mein Kampf and condemned Rosenberg's and Himmler's paganism as "nonsense".
Generally speaking, Nazi theorists and politicians blamed Germany's previous economic failures on political causes like the influence of Marxism on the workforce, the sinister and exploitative machinations of what they called international Jewry and the vindictiveness of the western political leaders' war reparation demands. Instead of traditional economic incentives, the Nazis offered solutions of a political nature, such as the elimination of organised trade unions, rearmament (in contravention of the Versailles Treaty) and biological politics. Various work programs designed to establish full-employment for the German population were instituted once the Nazis seized full national power. Hitler encouraged nationally supported projects like the construction of the Autobahn highway system, the introduction of an affordable people's car (Volkswagen) and later the Nazis bolstered the economy through the business and employment generated by military rearmament. The Nazis benefited early in the regime's existence from the first post–Depression economic upswing, and this combined with their public works projects, job-procurement program and subsidised home repair program reduced unemployment by as much as 40 percent in one year. This development tempered the unfavourable psychological climate caused by the earlier economic crisis and encouraged Germans to march in step with the regime.
Upon being appointed Chancellor in 1933, Hitler promised measures to increase employment, protect the German currency, and promote recovery from the Great Depression. These included an agrarian settlement program, labor service, and a guarantee to maintain health care and pensions. But above all, his priority was rearmament, and the buildup of the German military in preparation for an eventual war to conquer Lebensraum in the East. Thus, at the beginning of his rule, Hitler said that “the future of Germany depends exclusively and only on the reconstruction of the Wehrmacht. All other tasks must cede precedence to the task of rearmament.” This policy was implemented immediately, with military expenditures quickly growing far larger than the civilian work-creation programs. As early as June 1933, military spending for the year was budgeted to be three times larger than the spending on all civilian work-creation measures in 1932 and 1933 combined. Nazi Germany increased its military spending faster than any other state in peacetime, with the share of military spending rising from 1 percent to 10 percent of national income in the first two years of the regime alone. Eventually, by 1944, it reached as high as 75 percent.
In spite of their rhetoric condemning big business prior to their rise to power, the Nazis quickly entered into a partnership with German business from as early as February 1933. That month, after being appointed Chancellor but before gaining dictatorial powers, Hitler made a personal appeal to German business leaders to help fund the Nazi Party for the crucial months that were to follow. He argued that they should support him in establishing a dictatorship because "private enterprise cannot be maintained in the age of democracy" and because democracy would allegedly lead to communism. He promised to destroy the German left and the trade unions, without any mention of anti-Jewish policies or foreign conquests. In the following weeks, the Nazi Party received contributions from seventeen different business groups, with the largest coming from IG Farben and Deutsche Bank. Historian Adam Tooze writes that the leaders of German business were therefore "willing partners in the destruction of political pluralism in Germany." In exchange, owners and managers of German businesses were granted unprecedented powers to control their workforce, collective bargaining was abolished and wages were frozen at a relatively low level. Business profits also rose very rapidly, as did corporate investment. In addition, the Nazis privatised public properties and public services, but at the same time they increased economic state control through regulations. Hitler believed that private ownership was useful in that it encouraged creative competition and technical innovation, but insisted that it had to conform to national interests and be "productive" rather than "parasitical". Private property rights were conditional upon following the economic priorities set by the Nazi leadership, with high profits as a reward for firms who followed them and the threat of nationalization being used against those who did not. Under Nazi economics, free competition and self-regulating markets diminished, but Hitler's social Darwinist beliefs made him retain business competition and private property as economic engines.
Agrarian policies were also important to the Nazis since they corresponded not just to the economy but to their geopolitical conception of Lebensraum as well. For Hitler, the acquisition of land and soil was requisite in moulding the German economy. To tie farmers to their land, selling agricultural land was prohibited. Farm ownership remained private, but business monopoly rights were granted to marketing boards to control production and prices with a quota system. The "Herary Farm Law of 1933" established a cartel structure under a government body known as the Reichsnährstand (RNST) which determined "everything from what seeds and fertilizers were used to how land was inherited".
The Nazis were hostile to the idea of social welfare in principle, upholding instead the social Darwinist concept that the weak and feeble should perish. They condemned the welfare system of the Weimar Republic as well as private charity, accusing them of supporting people regarded as racially inferior and weak, who should have been weeded out in the process of natural selection. Nevertheless, faced with the mass unemployment and poverty of the Great Depression, the Nazis found it necessary to set up charitable institutions to help racially-pure Germans in order to maintain popular support, while arguing that this represented "racial self-help" and not indiscriminate charity or universal social welfare. Thus, Nazi programs such as the Winter Relief of the German People and the broader National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV) were organized as quasi-private institutions, officially relying on private donations from Germans to help others of their race - although in practice those who refused to donate could face severe consequences. Unlike the social welfare institutions of the Weimar Republic and the Christian charities, the NSV distributed assistance on explicitly racial grounds. It provided support only to those who were "racially sound, capable of and willing to work, politically reliable, and willing and able to reproduce." Non-Aryans were excluded, as well as the "work-shy", "asocials" and the "herarily ill." Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families, and the Winter Relief campaigns acted as a ritual to generate public sympathy.
Hitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power and believed the economy was not about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation's citizenry, but rather that economic success was paramount for providing the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest. While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. The Nazis thus sought to secure a general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government. Between 1933 and 1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany's gross national product as the Nazis mobilised their people and economy for war.
The Nazis claimed that communism was dangerous to the well-being of nations because of its intention to dissolve private property, its support of class conflict, its aggression against the middle class, its hostility towards small business and its atheism. Nazism rejected class conflict-based socialism and economic egalitarianism, favouring instead a stratified economy with social classes based on merit and talent, retaining private property and the creation of national solidarity that transcends class distinction. Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in post–World War I Germany, the Nazis were one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement.
In Mein Kampf, Hitler stated his desire to "make war upon the Marxist principle that all men are equal." He believed that "the notion of equality was a sin against nature." Nazism upheld the "natural inequality of men," including inequality between races and also within each race. The National Socialist state aimed to advance those individuals with special talents or intelligence, so they could rule over the masses. Nazi ideology relied on elitism and the Führerprinzip (leadership principle), arguing that elite minorities should assume leadership roles over the majority, and that the elite minority should itself be organized according to a "hierarchy of talent," with a single leader - the Führer - at the top. The Führerprinzip held that each member of the hierarchy owed absolute obedience to those above him and should hold absolute power over those below him.
During the 1920s, Hitler urged disparate Nazi factions to unite in opposition to Jewish Bolshevism. Hitler asserted that the "three vices" of "Jewish Marxism" were democracy, pacifism and internationalism. The Communist movement, the trade unions, the Social Democratic Party and the left-wing press were all considered to be Jewish-controlled and part of the "international Jewish conspiracy" to weaken the German nation by promoting internal disunity through class struggle. The Nazis also believed that the Jews had instigated the Bolshevik revolution in Russia and that Communists had stabbed Germany in the back and caused it to lose the First World War. They further argued that modern cultural trends of the 1920s (such as jazz music and cubist art) represented "cultural Bolshevism" and were part of a political assault aimed at the spiritual degeneration of the German Volk. Joseph Goebbels published a pamphlet titled The Nazi-Sozi which gave brief points of how National Socialism differed from Marxism. In 1930, Hitler said: "Our adopted term 'Socialist' has nothing to do with Marxist Socialism. Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not".
The Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was the largest Communist Party in the world outside of the Soviet Union, until it was destroyed by the Nazis in 1933. In the 1920s and early 30s, Communists and Nazis often fought each other directly in street violence, with the Nazi paramilitary organizations being opposed by the Communist Red Front and Anti-Fascist Action. After the beginning of the Great Depression, both Communists and Nazis saw their share of the vote increase. However, while the Nazis were willing to form alliances with other parties of the right, the Communists refused to form an alliance with the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the largest party of the left. After the Nazis came to power, they quickly banned the Communist Party under the allegation that it was preparing for revolution and that it had caused the Reichstag fire. Four thousand KPD officials were arrested in February 1933, and by the end of the year 130,000 communists had been sent to concentration camps.
During the late 1930s and the 1940s, anti-communist regimes and groups that supported Nazism included the Falange in Spain, the Vichy regime and the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) in France and the British Union of Fascists under Sir Oswald Mosley.
The Nazis argued that free market capitalism damages nations due to international finance and the worldwide economic dominance of disloyal big business, which they considered to be the product of Jewish influences. Nazi propaganda posters in working class districts emphasised anti-capitalism, such as one that said: "The maintenance of a rotten industrial system has nothing to do with nationalism. I can love Germany and hate capitalism".
Both in public and in private, Hitler expressed disdain for capitalism, arguing that it holds nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class. He opposed free market capitalism because it "could not be trusted to put national interests first," and he desired an economy that would direct resources "in ways that matched the many national goals of the regime," such as the buildup of the military, building programs for cities and roads, and economic self-sufficiency. Hitler also distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism and he preferred a state-directed economy that maintains private property and competition but subordinates them to the interests of the Volk.
Hitler told a party leader in 1934: "The economic system of our day is the creation of the Jews". Hitler said to Benito Mussolini that capitalism had "run its course". Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie "know nothing except their profit. 'Fatherland' is only a word for them." Hitler was personally disgusted with the ruling bourgeois elites of Germany during the period of the Weimar Republic, who he referred to as "cowardly shits".
In Mein Kampf, Hitler effectively supported mercantilism in the belief that economic resources from their respective territories should be seized by force, as he believed that the policy of Lebensraum would provide Germany with such economically valuable territories. Hitler argued that the only means to maintain economic security was to have direct control over resources rather than being forced to rely on world trade. He claimed that war to gain such resources was the only means to surpass the failing capitalist economic system.
Joseph Goebbels, who would later go on to become the Nazi Propaganda Minister, was strongly opposed to both capitalism and communism, viewing them as the "two great pillars of materialism" that were "part of the international Jewish conspiracy for world domination." Nevertheless, he wrote in his diary in 1925 that if he were forced to choose between them, "in the final analysis", "it would be better for us to go down with Bolshevism than live in eternal slavery under capitalism". He also linked his anti-Semitism to his anti-capitalism, stating in a 1929 pamphlet that "we see, in the Hebrews, the incarnation of capitalism, the misuse of the nation's goods."
Within the Nazi Party, the faction associated with anti-capitalist beliefs was the Sturmabteilung (SA), a paramilitary wing led by Ernst Röhm. The SA had a complicated relationship with the rest of the party, giving both Röhm himself and local SA leaders significant autonomy. Different local leaders would even promote different political ideas in their units, including "nationalistic, socialistic, anti-Semitic, racist, völkisch, or conservative ideas." There was tension between the SA and Hitler, especially from 1930 onward, as Hitler's "increasingly close association with big industrial interests and traditional rightist forces" caused many in the SA to distrust him. The SA regarded Hitler's seizure of power in 1933 as a "first revolution" against the left, and some voices within the ranks began arguing for a "second revolution" against the right. After engaging in violence against the left in 1933, Röhm's SA also began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction. Hitler saw Röhm's independent actions as violating and possibly threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army. This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA in 1934, during the Night of the Long Knives.
Under Nazism, with its emphasis on the nation, individualism was denounced and instead importance was placed upon Germans belonging to the German Volk and "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft). Hitler declared that "every activity and every need of every individual will be regulated by the collectivity represented by the party" and that "there are no longer any free realms in which the individual belongs to himself". Himmler justified the establishment of a repressive police state, in which the security forces could exercise power arbitrarily, by claiming that national security and order should take precedence over the needs of the individual.
According to the famous philosopher and political theorist, Hannah Arendt, the allure of Nazism as a totalitarian ideology (with its attendant mobilisation of the German population) resided within the construct of helping that society deal with the cognitive dissonance resultant from the tragic interruption of the First World War and the economic and material suffering consequent to the Depression and brought to order the revolutionary unrest occurring all around them. Instead of the plurality that existed in democratic or parliamentary states, Nazism as a totalitarian system promulgated "clear" solutions to the historical problems faced by Germany, levied support by de-legitimizing the former government of Weimar and provided a politico-biological pathway to a better future, one free from the uncertainty of the past. It was the atomised and disaffected masses that Hitler and the party elite pointed in a particular direction and using clever propaganda to make them into ideological adherents, exploited in bringing Nazism to life.
While the ideologues of Nazism, much like those of Stalinism, abhorred democratic or parliamentary governance as practiced in the United States or Britain, their differences are substantial. An epistemic crisis occurs when one tries to synthesize and contrast Nazism and Stalinism as two-sides of the same coin with their similarly tyrannical leaders, state-controlled economies and repressive police structures. Namely, while they share a common thematic political construction, they are entirely inimical to one another in their worldviews and when more carefully analysed against one another on a one-to-one level, an "irreconcilable asymmetry" results.
Although Nazism is often seen as a reactionary movement, it did not seek a return of Germany to the pre-Weimar monarchy, but instead looked much further back to a mythic halcyon Germany which never existed. It has also been seen – as it was by the German-American scholar Franz Leopold Neumann – as the result of a crisis of capitalism which manifested as a "totalitarian monopoly capitalism". In this view Nazism is a mass movement of the middle class which was in opposition to a mass movement of workers in socialism and its extreme form, Communism. Historian Karl Dietrich Bracher, however, argues that,
Such an interpretation runs the risk of misjudging the revolutionary component of National Socialism, which cannot be dismissed as being simply reactionary. Rather, from the very outset, and particularly as it developed into the SS state, National Socialism aimed at a transformation of state and society.
and that, Hitler's and the Nazi Party's political positions
were of a revolutionary nature: destruction of existing political and social structures and their supporting elites; profound dispain for civic order, for human and moral values, for Habsburg and Hohenzollern, for liberal and Marxist ideas. The middle class and middle-class values, bourgeois nationalism and capitalism, the professionals, the intelligentsia and the upper class were dealt the sharpest rebuff. These were the groups which had to be uprooted...
After the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, and his subsequent trial and imprisonment, Hitler decided that the way for the Nazi Party to achieve power was not through insurrection, but through legal and quasi-legal means. This did not sit well with the brown-shirted stormtroopers of the SA, especially those in Berlin, who chafed under the restrictions that Hitler placed on them, and their subordination to the party. This resulted in the Stennes Revolt of 1930-31, after which Hitler made himself the Supreme Commander of the SA, and brought Ernst Röhm back to be their Chief of Staff and keep them in line. The quashing of the SA's revolutionary fervor convinced many businessmen and military leaders that the Nazis had put aside their insurrectionist past, and that Hitler could be a reliable partner
However, after the Nazi's "Seizure of Power" in 1933, Röhm and the Brown Shirts were not content for the party to simply carry the reigns of power. Instead, they pressed for a continuation of the "National Socialist revolution" to bring about sweeping social changes, which Hitler, primarily for tactical reasons, was not willing to do at that time. He was instead focused on rebuilding the military and reorienting the economy to provide the rearmament necessary for invasion of the countries to the east of Germany, especially Poland and Russia, to get the Lebensraum ("living space") he believed was necessary to the survival of the Aryan race. For this, he needed the co-operation of not only the military, but also the vital organs of capitalism, the banks and big businesses, which he would be unlikely to get if Germany's social and economic structure was being radically overhauled. Röhm's public proclamation that the SA would not allow the "German Revolution" to be halted or undermined caused Hitler to announce that "The revolution is not a permanent condition." The unwillingness of Röhm and the SA to cease their agitation for a "Second Revolution", and the unwarranted fear of a "Röhm putsch" to accomplish it, were factors behind Hitler's purging of the SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives in July 1934.
Despite such tactical breaks necessitated by pragmatic concerns, which were typical for Hitler during his rise to power and in the early years of his regime, Hitler never ceased being a revolutionary dedicated to the radical transformation of Germany, especially when it concerned racial matters. In his monograph, Hitler: Study of a Revolutionary?, Martyn Housden concludes:
[Hitler] compiled a most extensive set of revolutionary goals (calling for radical social and political change); he mobilized a revolutionary following so extensive and powerful that many of his aims were achieved; he established and ran a dictatorial revolutionary state; and he disseminated his ideas abroad through a revolutionary foreign policy and war. In short, he defined and controlled the National Socialist revolution in all its phases.
Of course, there were aspects of Nazism which were reactionary, such as their attitude toward the role of women in society, which was completely traditionalist, calling for the return of women to the home as wives, mothers and homemakers, although ironically this ideological policy was undermined in reality by the growing labor shortages and need for more workers. The number of women in the workplace climbed throughout the period of Nazi control of Germany, from 4.24 million in 1933 to 4.52 million in 1936 and 5.2 million in 1938, numbers that far exceeded those of the Weimar Republic.
Another reactionary aspect of Nazism was in their arts policy, which stemmed from Hitler's rejection of all forms of "degenerate" modern art, music and architecture. Overall, however, Nazism – being the ideology and practices of the Nazi Party, and the Nazi Party being the manifestation of Hitler's will – is best seen as essentially revolutionary in nature.
Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II and the end of the Holocaust, overt expressions of support for Nazi ideas were prohibited in Germany and other European countries. Nonetheless, movements which self-identify as National Socialist or which are described as adhering to National Socialism continue to exist on the fringes of politics in many western societies. Usually espousing a white supremacist ideology, many deliberately adopt the symbols of Nazi Germany.
Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject.
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Talk:Localized Language Names
From CrossWire Bible Society
Some languages have multiple scripts. What is the proper way to show that? E.g. Traditional vs Simplified Chinese? And I think Azeri has multiple scripts.
For BibleDesktop, we have localized zh (traditional) and zh_CN (simplified). This is not quite right, but fits pragmatically based on Java's locale and resource bundle mechanism.
For Java a locale is lang, lang_country, lang_country_dialect, or lang__dialect (where country is unstated). There is no standard for dialect, so it could be used for script.
I think there is a standard for scripts and that CLDR and ICU are starting to do something with it. Any thoughts??? --Dmsmith 00:37, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
- Script codes come from ISO 15924, and according to BCP 47, the way to include them in a locale is between the language and region, so en-Latn-US would be English written in Latin script in/for the US. (This is a bad example because BCP 47 says not to overspecify by naming a script when it should be obvious.) BCP 47 does specify using hyphen to separate tags, but I would guess that Java would be happy with the same style of tags if you just map the hyphens to underscores.
- Traditional Chinese is zh-Hant, simplified is zh-Hans. Mongolian in Mongolian script, Cyrillic, and Latin would be mn-Mong, mn-Cyrl, and mn-Latn respectively.
- This is all incorporated into CLDR and ICU, but more importantly is officially recognized/maintained by ISO, Unicode, and IANA. --Osk 03:11, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
- Many thanks. For Chinese you gave the simplified form. When we add support to SWORD for these language codes, how do you see us supporting/specifying both Hans and Hant? --Dmsmith 10:32, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
Perhaps you may have gathered from my response on sword-devel. I'm not really keen on showing the native name. I think there are too many difficulties.
- Many of these show up as boxes when browsing the page. What font should be used? (In CSS, it is possible to suggest fonts. That way if the user had them installed, they could view the page.)
- Is grc really koine? I didn't think they spoke koine in 1400. And when koine was spoken, I think they used all caps and didn't use accents. And spaces between words did not exist.
- In Middle English or Old English, would they really have spelled Middle, Old and English that way? I think these are modern forms, not native forms. And would they have described their language as Old, or Middle? After all, it is really difficult to read middle let alone old English.
- In awc, Western Acipa, do they really say Western?
- In cak, Central Cakchiquel ,do they really say, Central?
- If a module is in the ug language, when there are several script choices, which is it Uyghurche or ئۇيغۇرچە? That is, does a person who speaks ug know both scripts? Or is one of them "squiggly worms?"
For this reason, I think it is a good idea to have native forms, but for it to be flexible for frontends to decide how to implement it.
JSword uses language names as nodes in a tree. If they are localized to the end user, then it is clear what they are getting. If they can't read it, perhaps because of the script or because of a wrong font, then all they know is that it doesn't make sense to them and to avoid it. (To me it makes sense in viewing a conf to show the native representation, because that gives it context.)
- May I recommend upgrading to Windows 7? :) Somehow it actually has font support for all of these scripts.
- There is some noise and there are some errors in the data from Xiphos. The contents of the page here simply consisted of Xiphos' data minus all entries that were exactly identical to the ISO 639-3 names. Almost all of the ancient language names are incorrect. I think labeling grc as koine was well-intentioned, but it is certainly incorrect. If we especially want to tag resources as koine, we could by adding our own subtag, e.g. grc-koine. But I think it serves no good purpose to differentiate koine resources like the GNT & LXX from non-koine resources like Liddel-Scott. I think both upper & lower case forms existed, though they weren't used as casing pairs. I'm not sure about the use of diacritics either. But I think these are tolerable anachronisms.
- The names of Old/Middle English and descriptions of various African and American languages need to be weeded out or corrected. I think these were just missed by the diff process because they're slightly modified. In some cases, there's definitely been an attempt to nativize the names, but I've found one so far that is actually slightly offensive in its language. In other words, I think I need to hand-check everything.
- Regarding the two (now three) forms of ug, this is a case where a language is commonly written in one of various scripts. Depending on the ethnic group or location of a speaker, one or another script might be dominant. Some speakers may know more than one orthography. We should probably re-tag these as ug-Latn, ug-Arab, and ug-Cyrl. --Osk 21:16, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
- Xiphos also uses language names as nodes in a tree in its module manager. David Haslam 17:35, 21 December 2009 (UTC)
Scots language is missing from the table
Although we don't yet have any SWORD module for the Scots language, this language is currently missing from the table.
NB. The existing ScotsGaelic module is not for this language! See issue MOD-121. David Haslam 17:40, 21 December 2009 (UTC)
- I think there are many other languages not in this table. I think that these are those for which we have modules in the CrossWire repositories. I don't know if we want much more than that. I can see having localizations for SWORD modules that are in other repositories, for GoBible modules and for interesting texts that we would like to have but for whatever reason don't currently have (e.g. requested modules). Perhaps Chris will elaborate by putting an introduction on the page? --Dmsmith 14:51, 22 December 2009 (UTC)
- I'd be happy to have any languages added to the table. The table is just meant to be a collaborative editing facility for anyone willing to dig through the various sites listed at the bottom of the page and extract their data. Later processes (the perl scripts at https://crosswire.org/svn/sword-tools/trunk/locales/) can handle paring the list down to those that area currently employed by Sword. However, Scots isn't a candidate for inclusion on this page since we only include those languages whose native names differ from the English ISO name. Scots is called Scots in Scots, so there's no need for an entry. --Osk 18:12, 22 December 2009 (UTC)
Explanation still needed
The top of the main page still has, "insert explanation here". Please would someone add a suitable Introduction section before the table. Best to separate the table into its own section for ease of future edits. David Haslam 14:24, 22 December 2009 (UTC)
- Gentle reminder! David Haslam 04:18, 28 July 2012 (MDT)
- I'll probably delete this page and move everything to SVN. A very large database of language codes & names is simply a bit impractical to store in a Wiki. Ultimately, I'd just like to move the table into the API so that we can request a language name based on a code and get the answer from the API. --Osk 22:26, 29 July 2012 (MDT)
Xiphos languages file
Xiphos has a very comprehensive languages file. For Win32 this is installed in "C:\Program Files (x86)\CrossWire\Xiphos\share\xiphos" David Haslam 04:11, 28 October 2012 (MDT)
Other Language Codes
If anyone wants to do the legwork. Here are the language codes on the CrossWire server (as of Feb 10, 2013) under ~ftp/pub that are not in the table yet:
af=Afrikaans agx=Aghul amu=Amuzgo, Guerrero av=Avaric ava=Avaric -- Not actually used in a module but is an alternate code for av cak=Kaqchikel cco=Chinantec, Comaltepec chd=Chontal, Highland Oaxaca chq=Chinantec, Quiotepec chz=Chinantec, Ozumacín ckb=Kurdish, Central ckw=Cakchiquel, Western cnl=Chinantec, Lalana cnt=Chinantec, Tepetotutla crh=Tatar, Crimean cso=Chinantec, Sochiapan cti=Chol, Tila ctp=Chatino, Western Highland dug=Duruma enm=English, Middle [1100-1500] eo=Esperanto huv=Huave, San Mateo Del Mar itz=Itzá ixl=Ixil, San Juan Cotzal jac=Jacalteco, Eastern jvn=Javanese, Caribbean kjh=Khakas kum=Kumyk lzh=Chinese, Literary mam=Mam mg=Malagasy mir=Mixe, Isthmus miz=Mixtec, Coatzospan mks=Mixtec, Silacayoapan mvc=Mam, Central mvj=Mam, Todos Santos Cuchumatán mxq=Mixe, Juquila mxt=Mixtec, Jamiltepec ncl=Nahuatl, Michoacán ngu=Nahuatl, Guerrero nhy=Nahuatl, Northern Oaxaca otq=Otomi, Querétaro pap=Papiamento pon=Pohnpeian ppk=Uma rmq=Caló sml=Sama, Central ttc=Tektiteko tzz=Tzotzil, Zinacantán ury=Orya usp=Uspanteco xtd=Mixtec, Diuxi-Tilantongo zab=Zapotec, San Juan Guelavía zaw=Zapotec, Mitla zpo=Zapotec, Amatlán zpq=Zapotec, Zoogocho zpu=Zapotec, Yalálag zpv=Zapotec, Chichicapan zsr=Zapotec, Southern Rincon ztq=Zapotec, Quioquitani-Quierí zty=Zapotec, Yatee
These are also present but I don't that these should be in the table.
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What will the well-equipped student be carrying this fall? It used to be enough to have books, paper and pencils in class. If you were a techie you might have a souped up calculator or (wow!) a small voice recorder. Now, college students are more likely to carry a tablet or smartphone instead of a shoulder bag stuffed with books. Many student resources are located online and student success depends even more on your ability to access the Internet at any moment. What are the gadgets and tech resources that you should have for the fall? Let’s take a look.
Smart student – smartphone
The smartphone is quickly taking on the role of communication, research, GPS, shopping and reading device. For this reason, the well-equipped student should consider having a smartphone with Internet access. You’ll be able to text fellow students and teachers, read your online textbook, and access student resources online.
Just don’t fall into the trap of overusing the phone in the classroom. You could lose out when it comes to classroom success. Could smartphones make you stupid? Brittany A. Harman and Toru Sato researched that question and reported their findings in a 2011article, “Cell Phone Use and Grade Point Average among Undergraduate University Students” for the College Student Journal.
In doing the background research for their article, Harman and Sato found that frequent cell phone use among high school students led to school failure while another study showed that texting in class resulted in lower grades.
“Finally, a study by End, Worthman, Mathews, & Wetterau (2010) found that students who experience a cell phone intrusion are often unable to identify the lecture material discussed during the disruption and suggested that these intrusions could potentially impair the learning process,” Harman and Sato said. Their own research confirmed previous studies that showed a relationship between texting in class and lower grade point averages.
They say that small is beautiful, but if you find your smartphone too small to do all that you would like, then the next gadget on your shopping list will be a lightweight laptop. Whether you decide on a Mac or PC device pretty much depends on what you want to do on the computer and what software you want to run. Or maybe you’re just a confirmed Mac user and that’s the end of it.
The great thing is that now, you can run both Mac and Windows programs on your Mac as explained in a May 22, 2012 article for HeraldStandard.com titled, “Five must-have tech gifts for the college bound.”
According to the article, “Parallels Desktop 7 for Mac allows users to run both Mac and Windows apps at the same time on their Mac, without the need to restart the computer. The software allows users to copy, cut and paste between Windows and Mac apps, and run other systems like Google Chrome or Windows 8 Consumer Preview. It also works with the Parallels Mobile app for iPad, iPhone and iPod touch so users can access and run everything on their Mac from anywhere.”
Take a tablet and call me in the morning
You’ve got a smartphone and laptop. Do you really need a tablet? According to an article posted by Jignesh on May 22, 2012 on Elta Learning.com, the answer is, “Yes.” In his article titled, “Top 10 Gadgets Students Need for Success in Higher Education,” Jignesh listed gadgets that students should consider using and explained why a tablet is on the list when he said, “With a laptop and a smartphone, isn’t a tablet a bit superfluous? This same sentiment was echoed when the tablet was first introduced, but its consistent popularity in the tech world has proven that tablets do possess unique value for its users. Students who want to maintain access to the Internet, apps and important files for school can do so without having to bring their heavy and expensive laptops to class each time.”
Other gadgets and resources
These apps and gadgets can help students be more productive and efficient. Yeah! More time for Angry Birds!
Evernote Peek for the iPad: create a digital flashcard system when combined with Apple’s Smart Cover. The app is free but Smart Cover could cost about $40.
Google Drive: Google’s new cloud computing site will give you 5 GB of data space that you can use to store your files and share with your Mac, PC, or Android device. You’ll also be able to link to your iPhone or iPad soon.
Smart pen: A smart pen such as the one from LiveScribe allows you to record notes as you write; it will also record audio that can be played back when you’re ready to study. | <urn:uuid:c0919ab0-576b-4d85-a1ec-d403e1b22d8a> | {
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A new study finds that one ot of five male black bass in American river basins have egg cells growing inside their sexual organs. The study by the U.S. Geological Survey shows that in parts of the Mississippi River in Minnesota 70 percent of the smallmouth bass had female characteristics. MPR's Cathy Wurzer spoke with Heiko Schoenfuss, the Director of the Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory at St. Cloud State University. He says the study confirms what he's been finding in his research. | <urn:uuid:dcfe5b79-0cc4-48e9-9427-e647e452344b> | {
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The term crested penguin is the common name given collectively to species of penguins of the genus Eudyptes. The exact number of species in the genus varies between four and seven depending on the authority, and a Chatham Islands species may have become extinct in the 19th century. All are black and white penguins with yellow crests, red bills and eyes, and are found on Subantarctic islands in the world's southern oceans. All lay two eggs, but raise only one young per breeding season; the first egg laid is substantially smaller than the second.
Six extant species have been classically recognised, with the recent splitting of the rockhopper penguin increasing it to seven. Conversely, the close relationship of the macaroni and royal penguins, and the erect-crested and Snares penguins have led some to propose that the two pairs should be regarded as species.
- Family Spheniscidae
- Fiordland penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus
- Snares penguin, Eudyptes robustus – has been considered a subspecies of the Fiordland penguin
- Erect-crested penguin, Eudyptes sclateri
- Southern rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes chrysocome
- Northern rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes moseleyi – traditionally considered a subspecies of Eudyptes chrysocome as the rockhopper penguin.
- Royal penguin, Eudyptes schlegeli – sometimes considered a morph of E. chrysolophus
- Macaroni penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus
- Chatham penguin, Eudyptes chathamensis (prehistoric?)
The Chatham Islands form is known only from subfossil bones, but may have become extinct as recently as the late 19th century as a bird kept captive at some time between 1867 and 1872 might refer to this taxon. It appears to have been a distinct species, with a thin, slim and low bill.
Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests that the crested penguins split from the ancestors of their closest living relative, the yellow-eyed penguin, in the mid-Miocene around 15 million years ago, before splitting into separate species around 8 million years ago in the late Miocene.
A fossil penguin genus, Madrynornis, has been identified as the closest known relative of the crested penguins. Found in late Miocene deposits dated to about 10 million years ago, it must have separated from the crested penguins around 12 million years ago. Given that the head ornamentation by yellow filoplumes seems plesiomorphic for the Eudyptes-Megadyptes lineage, Madrynornis probably had them too.
The crested penguins are all similar in appearance, having sharply delineated black and white plumage with red beaks and prominent yellow crests. Their calls are more complex than those of other species, with several phrases of differing lengths. The royal penguin (mostly) has a white face, while other species have black faces.
Crested penguins breed on Subantarctic islands in the southern reaches of the world's oceans; the greatest diversity occurring around New Zealand and surrounding islands. Their breeding displays and behaviours are generally more complex than other penguin species. Both male and female parents take shifts incubating eggs and young.
Crested penguins lay two eggs, but almost always raise only one young successfully. All species exhibit the odd phenomenon of egg-size dimorphism in breeding; the first egg (or A-egg) laid is substantially smaller than the second egg (B-egg). This is most extreme in the macaroni penguin, where the first egg averages only 60% the size of the second. The reason for this is a mystery remains unknown, although several theories have been proposed. British ornithologist David Lack theorized that the genus was evolving toward the laying of a one-egg clutch. Experiments with egg substitution have shown that A-eggs can produce viable chicks that were only 7% lighter at time of fledging.
Recently, brooding royal and erect-crested penguins have been reported[by whom?] to tip the smaller eggs out as the second is laid.
Photographs of adults of the extant (living) species are shown:
Southern rockhopper penguin
Northern rockhopper penguin
- "ITIS Standard Report Page: Eudyptes".
- Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
- Christidis L, Boles WE (2008). Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-0-643-06511-6.
- A.J.D. Tennyson and P.R. Millener (1994). Bird extinctions and fossil bones from Mangere Island, Chatham Islands, Notornis (Supplement) 41, 165–178.
- Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA (2006). "Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling". Proc Biol Sci. 273 (1582): 11–17. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3260. PMC 1560011. PMID 16519228. Retrieved 2008-03-21.
- Williams (The Penguins) p. 69
- Williams (The Penguins) p. 52
- Williams (The Penguins) p. 76
- Williams (The Penguins) p. 38
- Lack, David (1968). Ecological Adaptations for breeding in birds. London: Methuen.
- Williams, Tony D. (1990). "Growth and survival in the Macaroni Penguin Eudyptes chrysolophus, A- and B-chicks: do females maximise investment in the large B-egg". Oikos 59 (3): 349–54. doi:10.2307/3545145. JSTOR 3545145.
- Williams, Tony D. (1995). The Penguins. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X.
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State TWO dangers of cost reimbursable pricing.
Identify THREE safeguards which may help to protect the buyer against these dangers.
Give THREE implied conditions of the Sale of Goods Act (1979) relating to sale by sample.
Give TWO examples of contracts that would not be subject to the Sale of Goods Act (1979).
Identify FIVE guidelines, laid down by the Unfair Contract Terms Act (1977), that help determine whether a contract clause is 'reasonable'.
Define the term 'fixed pricing'.
State THREE advantages of fixed pricing for the purchaser.
Briefly describe FIVE benefits of effective contract management.
State FIVE purposes of a contract.
You are the supply chain manager for a large hospital. Because of the constant need to Reduce costs and maintain high standards, it has been examining the advantages and possible pitfalls of sourcing many of its supplies from some of the emerging economies of the world, particularly those in the Far East. After a time it becomes apparent that your staff are able to negotiate such issues as the price and delivery time of the supplies, but do not know how to go about agreeing contracts with international suppliers with regard to packaging and transport, as well as customs and other duties payable. You are aware of the nature and purposes of Incoterms and you need to make your staff aware of these. You also have in mind some specific Incoterms that you believe would be useful for your organisation.
Explain the purpose of Incoterms and the ways in which their use benefits both buyer and seller.
Outline the provisions of Ex-works (EXW).
Outline the provisions of Free on Board (FOB).
Suggest which Incoterm you would use for the hospital and provide reasons for your choice.
You are the purchasing manager of Merson and Oakes Ltd., a major firm of construction contractors. You realise that none of your staff understand the application of contract price adjustment formulae. You believe that it would be a good idea to use these in long-term contracts, due to increasing economic uncertainty in some parts of the world. Instead of using such formulae, members of staff are either forcing suppliers to accept fixedprice contracts or are accepting suppliers?? requests to enter into cost-plus type contracts. Also, given the long- term nature of many contracts, you are surprised that the staff in the department do not understand retention clauses. You are planning a training session for Merson and Oakes??s staff. As part of your preparation undertake the following:
Describe TWO disadvantages of fixed-price contracts from the buyer??s point of view, for the long-term contracts often entered into by the company.
Explain ONE benefit to Merson and Oakes of using contract price adjustment formulae.
Describe how contract price adjustment formulae can be applied in this case.
Explain how Merson and Oakes can make use of retention clauses.
Explain the role and importance of each of the following essential elements of a contract:
Intention to create legal relations
Explain the difference between a condition of a contract and a warranty.
A Ksh16.4bn contract has been awarded by the Kenyan government to build a six-lane highway to cut congestion in the capital Nairobi.
The upgrade to the 25km section of the ">A8 highway between James Gichuru Road and Rironi will involve widening it to 10.5m with “non motorised transport lanes” running on either side.
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">A8 1 hnrsday, November 30, 1895 Mid-Kttwts News?Biers Court upholds woman's sentence for role in Casey hog farm killings They 11 think vou J. By JANICE HUNT Staff Writer spent a fortune on this gijt jrom ConsoliJateJ Communication Center. (We won t tell if you wont.) especially brutal and heinous." The Phillippis and Sanders, driving Darling's pickup truck, were arrested a couple of days later in Oklahoma. All three pleaded guilty to charges of first-degree murder. Natasha Phillippi argued in appellate court that her 45-year sentence was too harsh because she did not actually commit the murder and she has the potential to be rehabilitated. It was her first criminal offense. Phillippi also claimed that she was under the influence of medication when the crimes were committed, and that she suffers from organic brain disease and Dysphaxia. The appellate court ruled that Clark County Circuit Judge Tracy Resch did not have to consider Phillippi's potential for rehabilitation over the seriousness of the crime. . Phillippi is serving her sentence at the Dwight Correctional Center. Victor Phillippi is at the Menard Correctional Center serving a life sentence with no chance of parole, and Sanders is serving a 100-year sentence at the Joliet Correctional i ; SPRINGFIELD A Casey woman's 45-year sentence for her part in two 1994 Casey murders has been upheld in appellate court. ! Natasha A. Phillippi, 20, was convicted of first-degree murder in the January 1994 deaths of Jerry Barling of Greenup and Wesley Allen Hall of Casey on a Casey hog farm. Phillippi's ex-husband, Victor D. Phillippi, now 23, and their friend Luther J. Sanders, now 24, were also convicted in the shootings. ; SandersworkedwithDarling,42,andHall,20,at the Moriah Pork Palace, where the murders were committed. ; Natasha Phillippi served as a lookout for the murders, and she also bought supplies needed to carry out the crimes. ; Victor Phillippi allegedly wielded the .22 caliber rifle that killed the two men. The bodies were hidden in a hog waste storage pit. ' "It was a clean, quick kill," Clark County State's Attorney David Lewis said previously. "The way they disposed of the bodies and planned it make it CIPS offers et Sextos! Qlj'zzk- ions for opti FREE AT CONSOLIDATED COMMUNICATION CENTER Get a free Ameriteck cellular portable ACP3oo phone when you sign up for Ameriteck cellular'servicc on an eligible two-year plan. You'll also get double Time Pak minutes for two months to help make your life more convenient, productive and secure. TT I I 1 Ml I I 1 I I -r -1 ' Xlo-ho-ho, they 11 never know how much iinvle vou saved. 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' Nationwide Call Delivery Service Exclusive Cellular towards Program Advertise It Pays! paying bills ' SPRINGFIELD Central Illinois Public Service Co. offers a number of payment assistance programs and services to help customers cope with higher energy bills during the heating season, according to Pete Pohlman, manager of customer services for CIPS. ; Pohlman said customers who may have difficulty with payment of their energy bill should consider taking advantage of the utility's level payment plan, known as the Equalizer. "The Equalizer spreads the cost of a customer's energy service throughout the year in 12 equal, monthly payments," he noted. In addition, Pohlman said CIPS has implemented a policy to assist low-income customers who are recipients of the federally-funded Low-ome Home Energy Assistance Program (LI-HEAP) with maintaining energy service during the winter. In response to declines in LIHEAP funding, CIPS will refrain from disconnecting any LIHEAP-eli-gible customer for non-payment during the period Nov. 1 of this year through March 3 1, 1996. Pohlman said other payment programs and services made available by CIPS include: ; Preferred Due Date Plan, an option which allows qualifying fixed-income customers up to an additional 10 days beyond the due date to pay their energy bill. Deferred Payment Agreement for those customers owing an usually large bill due to extremely cold weather. One option allows customers to make a down payment on a past-due amount, followed by monthly payments on the remaining balance. A second option allows customers with a large current bill to defer part of the pay-. ment over several months. Interested customers should inquire about their possible eligibility. Automatic Bill Payment Plan, which allows customers to authorize payment of their energy bill through a checking or savings account at any participating bank, savings and loan or credit union. The payment amount is then automatically deducted from their account on the bill's due date. Odd Fello ws and Rebekahs offer scholarship funds The Illinois Odd Fellows and Rebekahs have funds available for several scholarship awards during the 1996-97 school year for students who are residents of Illinois and.citizens of the United States. JSJbble Grands Don Strohl and Iva Reichart of Coles County 260 OddFellows Lodge and Geneva274 Rebekah Lodge in MattoonandNo-bleGrand Janet LangofChaiieston Rebekah Lodge 66 announced the scholarship availability. Scholarships will be awarded on the basis of financial need and scholarship ability (must be an average of "C" or above) for students who will be attending an accredited college or trade school. Students interested in more information or a scholarship application may send a postcard with their correct mailing address, to Robert A Wick, Grand Secretary, Grand Lodge of Illinois Independent Order of Odd Fellows, PO Box 248, Lincoln, 111. 62656-0248. Requests for applications must be received by the scholarship committee no later than Dec. 1. All applications will be mailed to students by Jan. 1. Applications must be fully completed and received in the Grand Lodge Office before March -1; 1996. - 0S&m Gift JO$, -K 1 ' 'J beautiful selection of X 1 Ytfsftnff ' i I" (gf ff entertainment centers, desks, -s?? K cf5 ' ' II chairs and lamps to accent every V 'i'V Computer 1 j p:pr room in your home. 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1 Inflation Report November 2006
2 Output and supply
3 Chart 3.1 Contributions to quarterly GDP growth (a) (a) GDP at basic prices. This chart uses information published in the preliminary GDP release. (b) ludes output of the energy-extraction sector and electricity, gas and water supply. ludes output of the agriculture and construction sectors as well as rounding differences.
4 Chart 3.2 Growth of manufacturing output and export intensity by sector (a) (a) Based on a division of manufacturing into fourteen sectors. (b) Indicates the difference between average quarterly growth in 2006 and average growth since The series have been normalised (divided by the standard deviation of their respective growth rates) so they are comparable across sectors. Derived from the UK Input-Output Analytical Tables, 1995.
5 Chart 3.3 Private sector output per worker (a) (a) ONS private sector output divided by private sector employment (calculated by subtracting ONS public sector employment from total LFS employment). The estimate for 2006 Q3 is constructed using information in the preliminary GDP release and the assumption that private sector employment in 2006 Q3 grew at the same rate as total employment in the three months to August. (b) Average annual growth since 1997.
6 Chart 3.4 Measures of unemployment and non-employment rates ONS and Bank of England calculations. (a) Percentage of the working-age population. This measure of non-employment weights together the different types of non-employed by a proxy of their likelihood of finding work based on transition rates into employment derived from the Labour Force Survey (LFS). Weights are backward-looking four-quarter moving averages of the quarterly transition rates of each group into employment. (b)Percentage of the economically-active population. Three-month moving average measure. ludes all those actively looking for work and available to start, and those due to start a new job in the next two weeks. Percentage of the sum of the claimant count and workforce jobs.
7 Chart 3.5 The workforce (a) ONS Labour Force Survey. (a) The economically active — the sum of those in work and those actively looking for work.
8 Chart 3.6 Change in the inactivity rate since mid-2004 ONS Labour Force Survey. (a) ludes the inactive population aged 5964+, and those in younger age groups who identify themselves as retired.
9 Chart 3.7 Annual growth in Workforce Jobs
11 Table 3.A Indicators of private service sector activity Correlations (a) Averages with output since 2006 data1997 Q1 Q2 Q3 Oct. ONS (b) n.a. CIPSRBS BCC (d) n.a. BCC, CIPSRBS and ONS. (a) Contemporaneous correlation between survey and output data over the period 1997 Q1–2004 Q4. (b) Defined as quarterly growth of service sector output excluding education, public administration and defence and health and social work. The Q3 estimate is derived using information in the preliminary GDP release. A reading above 50 indicates rising service sector activity compared with the previous period. Quarterly figures are averages of monthly observations. (d) Percentage balance of firms experiencing a rise in domestic sales.
12 Table 3.B Indicators of capacity utilisation within businesses (a) 2006 Averages (b) Q1 Q2 Q3Oct. Manufacturing CBI n.a. BCC (d) n.a. Agents (e) Services BCC (d) n.a. Agents( e) Bank of England, BCC and CBI. (a) All data are non seasonally adjusted. (b) Since 1997 (1998 for the Agents’ scores when the series began). Percentage of firms reporting that their level of output is not below capacity. (d) Net percentage balance of firms reporting they are working at full capacity. (e) Quarterly estimates are averages of monthly observations. The scores refer to likely capacity constraints faced by companies over the next six months. Before January 2005, these scores were based on companies’ current situation.
13 Table 3.C Estimates of migration flows Thousands H1 Net inward migration (a) n.a. of which, Accession Countries (b) n.a n.a. National Insurance numbers n.a. of which, Accession Countries (b) n.a. ">A8 Worker Registration Scheme (d) n.a Department for Work and Pensions, Home Office and ONS. (a) Official ONS estimates of net inward migration. (b) The Accession Countries include Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Number of overseas nationals who have registered for a National Insurance number. These data are constructed on a tax year basis. (d) Nationals from the ">A8 (the Accession Countries, excluding Malta and Cyprus) are required to register under the Worker Registration Scheme upon finding a job. The 2004 observation only considers those who registered after EU accession in May. The 2006 data are not annualised so they only include the raw data for the first two quarters of the year.
14 Table 3.D Employment and survey measures of labour demand Averages since 1997H2H1Q3Oct.averages Official labour market data (a) People employed (b) n.a. Employment rate (d) n.a. Surveys BCC employment intentions (e) n.a. CIPSNTC employment index (f) BCC, CIPSNTC and ONS. (a) Labour Force Survey. (b) Percentage change on a quarter earlier. 2006 Q3 observation based on the three months to August. (d) Total number of employed divided by adult population. (e) Net percentage balance of firms expecting their workforce to increase over the next three months. Manufacturing and service sector balances have been weighted by their respective share in employment. Non seasonally adjusted. (f) Average of the monthly observations. Balance above 50 indicates rising employment.
15 Table 3.E Survey evidence on recruitment difficulties and labour shortages Averages2006 since 1997 (a) Q1Q2Q3Oct. Availability of agency staff (b) KPMGREC: Permanent KPMGREC: Temporary Recruitment difficulties BCC: Manufacturing n.a. BCC: Services n.a. Factors likely to limit output (d) CBI: Skilled labour n.a. CBI: Other labour n.a. BCC, CBI and KPMGREC. (a) Since 1997 Q1 except for KPMGREC survey which is from October (b) Indices. A balance above 50 indicates rising labour market availability. Quarterly estimates are averages of the monthly observations. Percentage of firms reporting difficulties. Non seasonally adjusted. (d) Manufacturing sector. Weighted percentages of respondents. Non seasonally adjusted
On 19 October 2002 the Toronto Star began a series of articles "Race and Crime," (1) making claims that "justice is different for blacks and whites" ("Singled out" 2002), "Blacks arrested by Toronto police are treated more harshly than whites" ("Singled out" 2002), and that "Police target black drivers" ("Police target" 2002: A1). Subsequent stories suggested that Toronto police were engaging in racial profiling, defined by the Star as "the practice of stopping people for little reason other than their skin colour" ("Police target" 2002: ">A8). Published interviews with black community leaders and advocates added the weight of anecdote and presumption to charges of racial profiling, and University of Toronto criminologist Scott Wortley, whose research has focused on race issues in criminal justice, deemed the Star analysis "clear evidence of what, until now, has been based largely on assumption" ("Singled out" 2002: A13).
Representatives of the police responded angrily, denying accusations of singling out blacks. The Toronto Police Service commissioned an independent review of the Star's analysis by a prominent criminal lawyer (Alan Gold) and a University of Toronto sociology professor (Edward Harvey) (see Harvey and Liu 2003; Harvey 2003; Gold and Harvey 2003). Their review concluded that the Star analysis was "junk science" and the conclusions of the articles "completely unjustified, irresponsible and bogus slurs" to be "put down at once" (Gold and Harvey 2003). The police union went further and on 17 January 2003 launched a $2.7 billion class action libel suit on behalf of its 7,200 members ("Police union" 2003). The furor has since spread throughout the Ontario criminal justice system, with judges, attorneys, crown prosecutors, and police officials making additional controversial statements supporting or refuting the allegations of racial profiling in the criminal justice system. The media have given considerable attention to the issue, as befits its renewed prominence in public debate, but perhaps also in defence of one of their own. The debate is likely to be given further play in municipal, provincial, and federal election campaigns.
Whatever else may come out of these events, it is already clear that the Toronto Police Service has now joined the ranks of North American police organizations that must now devote considerable effort to addressing accusations that they engage in racial profiling. The development of data collection and analysis systems to respond to accusations of racial bias in policing has become something of a growth industry in the U.S. (e.g., Ramirez, McDevitt, and Farrell 2000; McMahon, Garner, Davis, and Kraus 2002; Fridell, Lunney, Diamond, and Kubu 2001: 118; Engel, Calnon, Bernard 2002: 250, 262-263). Widespread public belief that police engage in racial profiling undermines public confidence in the police, as well as the credibility of the testimony and evidence submitted by police officers in criminal proceedings. It may now have become difficult to prosecute criminal cases involving accused persons from groups claiming police bias, without extensive expert testimony on the issue of racial profiling. In Toronto (as elsewhere across North America), the issue of racial profiling has become a significant threat to the ability of police to maintain order, ensure public safety, and prosecute those accused of criminal offences. This issue also affects the ability of the courts to weigh evidence appropriately, assess criminal responsibility, and determine appropriate sanctions.
The evidence for claims of racial profiling
What evidence is there that Toronto Police engage in what is called racial profiling? The claims made by the Toronto Star were based on the newspaper's own analysis of arrest data from the Toronto police's Criminal Information Processing System (CIPS), obtained under a freedom of information request. The data were recorded between late 1996 (when CIPS was first implemented on a trial basis) and early 2002. …
Next Thing CHIP board and corresponding PocketCHIP portable Linux computer have been relatively popular due to their inexpensive price for the feature set, as for $9, you’d get an Allwinner R8 ARM Cortex ">A8 processor, 512MB flash, 4GB NAND flash, WiFi & Bluetooth connectivity, and plenty of IOs, which made it very attractive for IoT applications compared to other cheap boards such as Raspberry Pi Zero and Orange Pi One. The first board was mostly designed for hobbyists, but company has now designed a new lower profile system-on-module called CHIP Pro based on Next Thing GR8 SIP combining Allwinner R8 SoC with 256MB DDR3 RAM that can be used for easy integration into your own hardware project.
While the original CHIP board exposed full USB ports and interface for video signal, the new CHIP Pro is specifically designed for IoT with the following specs:
The module is pre-loaded with the company’s Linux based GadgetOS operating system, but custom firmware flashing is available for orders of 1,000 modules or more. Potential applications include physical computing, voice recognition, smart consumer devices, portable audio devices and so on. Software support should be identical to what you already get in CHIP board, and you can already find some hardware design files specific to CHIP Pro on Github including datasheets for the system-on-module and Allwinner GR8 SIP.
In order to help you getting started as fast as possible, a development kit is also available with a baseboard and two CHIP Pro modules. The baseboard include a 5V-23V power jack, a 3.5mm audio jack, a micro USB port, a USB host port, some LEDs, a power button, and female headers for easy access to all IOs.
CHIP Pro SoM will start selling for $16 in December of this year without minimum order quantity, and no volume discount, e.g. if you buy 1 million SoMs, you’d have to pay 16 million dollars. One issue with CHIP board is that if you asked Allwinner for a quote for module used in the board, it would cost more or about the same as the board itself. AllwinnerNext Thing GR8 is completely different, as you can actually buy it for $6 (including AXP-209 PMIC) to integrate into your own project. The development kit is available now for $49. More technical details and purchase links can be found on the product page.
Thanks to Nanik for the tip. | <urn:uuid:5b89b62c-b4ea-48ed-b7ed-c4662e67a3c3> | {
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Pick up tips to help you make informed political decisions in an election year and beyond.
Dissect an Ad
The 30-second TV spot now dominates American politics. How are candidates using political ads to present their messages? What emotional buttons are they trying to push to influence you?
Interpret a Debate
Debates are perhaps the most influential source of information for voters during a campaign. But how do you crack through the "he said, she said" format to get to the meat of the matter?
Analyze a Poll
They may be controversial, but there is no question that political polls are a central fact of American politics - ubiquitous and influential. What do polls really tell us? Can the results be trusted?
Evaluate a Platform
The platforms of political parties are often referred to in the abstract sense during debates and in the news. Few people, however, actually read or know what commitments and promises parties make in their platforms.
Assess a Web Site
Undecided? Uncommitted? The Internet provides you with a quick, convenient and sophisticated way to investigate candidates on their own terms.
View News Critically
Most Americans get their political information from television news.
From now through the election, Americans will be inundated with data from polls - during the race they will tell us who's ahead of whom, by how much and why and on election night, exit polls will explain how and why the winner triumphed. These polls, taken by candidates, political parties, interest groups or media organizations, can enlighten, but they can also distort or even mislead, sometimes intentionally. | <urn:uuid:ea362676-c3db-43a5-8674-73406e4ddf18> | {
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With all of the research, I have forgotten to talk about the Steps involved with Inferential Genealogy.
Dr. Jones puts step 3 this way.
Step 3: Understand the Records
If we don’t understand the records, we won’t get all the information from them that we need to answer our research goal.
• Know why a document was created.
• Follow document creation processes from beginning to end.
• Note differences in records. Is there something that appears in your ancestor’s record that is different than the records of others?
I really focused on this step early on, and will cycle back through this with other records.
The first example is the understanding Civil War records. This study took me to look at these records. I really hadn’t looked at them, as my earlier research just hadn’t taken me there.
The two lessons learned with looking at these records is: 1) Where to look, and 2) the details that you might find.
Fold3.com (formerly Footnote.com) has a great collection (for me) of Civil War records. What I didn’t know is that the Union Records are Federal Records, while a CSA veteran records are archived by state. This is interesting for me, in that Maryland was on which side. This would be an issue if you didn’t know which side your person fought for. Do you look at Union Records or Confederate Records. I didn’t have a problem locating the records in Fold3. This was one place where I found that David Ridgely Howard had brothers in the Civil War.
The information included in the records I looked at were incredible. In these records I found that he was wounded in Gettysburg and about a year later lost his leg in another battle. What hospital he went to, when he “didn’t show up” for a muster, due to he being in the hospital. 18 pages in information. One of his brothers had 30 pages. Some can be read, some couldn’t.
The second area was understanding the Census Records. What information is important, which pieces in a specific census year should be recorded in my genealogy software, and how to record what was found.
Understanding the Census Records prior to 1850 may not have a lot of detail, I took a blank census record year, on a blank form, and marked up which columns I was going to record for each person listed.
Back in an earlier step, we were asked to check to see what relationships were recorded. Looking at the Census Records, 1850 – 1930, this information improves.
What I decided to do is to record the Household, with the Age of each member of the household, the name of the Head of Household, and put that information in the Name Notes field in my program.
This gave me the make up of the household and the age of the members of the household over time. When the 1870 Census Records started to show relationships, I could look at the specific person to see if the other information was consistent, or not consistent. So, looking at the data within the records, in this case Census Records, helped put the families together, then establishing the relationships.
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Handgun safety rules and procedures
Four Basic Handgun Safety Rules:
1. Treat ALL firearms as if they were loaded.
2. DO NOT point at or cover anything with the muzzle until ready to shoot.
3. Keep trigger finger off the trigger and outside the trigger guard until ready to shoot.
4. Be certain of your target and your line of fire.
5. Safe and secure storage of your firearm is one of your most important responsibilities. It is a full-time responsibility. You must always secure your firearm and ammunition so that they are not accessible to children or other unauthorized persons.
There are a variety of locks and safe storage containers available in the marketplace which may be appropriate for your particular needs. By purchasing a firearm you have taken on the responsibility of safely securing the firearm at all times and preventing its unauthorized use. It is your personal responsibility to select and use whatever devices or practices that will enable you to safely secure your firearm AT ALL TIMES.
Please review the Safe Storage and Transportation section at the bottom of this page for more information about safe storage techniques.
Gun Safety, Operation & Storage
- Safe gun handling is YOUR personal responsibility at all times. Firearms are dangerous and can cause serious injury and death if they are misused or used inappropriately. Safety must be the prime consideration of anyone who owns or handles firearms.
- You are responsible for the firearm at all times. In owning a firearm, you must undertake full-time responsibility for your firearm''s safety and security. You must protect yourself and all others against injury or death from misuse of the firearm.
- Safe storage is your responsibility. In particular, you must secure firearms safely from children and unauthorized users. A lock has been provided for your use with this firearm. A lock is not a substitute for safe and secure storage as defined in the Safe Storage and Transportation section of this manual.
- Accidents are the result of violating the rules of safe gun handling and common sense.
- For your safety and the safety of others, never rely on mechanical features alone. Only your safe gun-handling habits will ensure the safe use of your firearm. This is your responsibility.
- Never keep ammunition in the same location as the handgun. Store in a separate and secure place.
- READ and UNDERSTAND these instructions before using your firearm.
At home, in the field, at the range, or anywhere, the first concern of every firearm owner should be safety. Apply the following safety rules in every situation, with any kind of firearm:
- BEFORE HANDLING ANY FIREARM, UNDERSTAND ITS OPERATION. Not all firearms are the same. Familiarize yourself with the mechanical features of any firearm you intend to use. If you feel uncertain about any operational aspects of your handgun, please contact Smith & Wesson at 1-800-331-0852 before proceeding with its operation.
- ALWAYS SAFELY STORE AND SECURE YOUR FIREARM. Safe and secure storage of your firearm is one of the most important responsibilities of firearms ownership. It is a full-time responsibility. You must always secure your firearm and ammunition separately so that they are not accessible to children or other unauthorized persons. (See Safe Storage Instructions below)
- ALWAYS TREAT EVERY FIREARM AS IF IT WERE LOADED AND WOULD FIRE IF THE TRIGGER IS PULLED. Do not take anyone''s word that the firearm is unloaded - always check for yourself. Never pass your firearm to another person until the
cylinder or action is open and you visually check that it is unloaded. Keep your firearm unloaded and safely stored when not in use.
- ALWAYS KEEP YOUR FIREARM POINTED IN A SAFE DIRECTION. Never point a firearm at anyone or anything you do not intend to shoot whether or not it is loaded. This is particularly important when loading, unloading, or field stripping the gun. ALWAYS control the direction of the firearm.
- NEVER PLACE YOUR FINGER INSIDE THE TRIGGER GUARD UNLESS YOU INTEND TO FIRE. Your firearm cannot fire unless the trigger is pulled. Ensure that other objects do not touch the trigger.
- ALWAYS BE SURE OF YOUR TARGET AND WHAT IS BEYOND IT. Always be sure of where the bullet will strike and shoot only where there is a safe backstop free of obstructions, water or other surfaces which can cause ricochets. Do not fire into the sky.
Additional Important Safety Rules
- Never carry or store a firearm with the hammer or striker in the cocked position.
- Do not allow a firearm to be used by individuals who have not read these basic firearms safety rules and do not under-stand its safe operation and the rules of safe gun-handling.
- Be sure all accessories, such as holsters and grips, are compatible with the firearm and that the accessories do not interfere with safe operation.
- Use the correct ammunition for your particular firearm as indicated by the marking on the barrel. Never use non-standard, reloaded, or "handloaded" ammunition which has not been subjected to internal ballistic pressure testing.
- Discharging firearms in poorly ventilated areas, cleaning firearms, or handling ammunition may result in exposure to lead and other substances known to cause birth defects, reproductive harm, and other serious physical injury. Review the warnings and labels for all ammunition and cleaning products carefully. Have adequate ventilation at all times. Wash hands thoroughly after exposure.
- Never use alcohol or drugs before or while shooting. Do not use your firearm if you are on any medication which impairs, even slightly, your mental or physical ability.
- Wear eye and hearing protection appropriate for firearm use every time you discharge your firearm. Make sure others in the vicinity of where you will be shooting do so as well.
- Do not allow any alteration or replacement of parts in your Smith & Wesson firearm unless performed by a qualified gunsmith using genuine Smith & Wesson parts. If you do otherwise, improper functioning of your firearm may occur and serious injury may result.
- Never cross obstacles such as fences or streams with a loaded firearm.
- Firearm safety training is available. Contact your dealer, Law Enforcement Agency, local sportsman''s club, etc. for availability.
- Appropriate use for your firearm means using your firearm for legal purposes. For example - target shooting and lawful resistance of deadly criminal force.
These are basic firearms safety rules. There are other common sense safety rules that should be followed at all times under the circumstances then presented. SAFE USE OF A FIREARM IS YOUR PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE FAILURE TO FOLLOW ALL OF THESE BASIC SAFETY RULES MAY RESULT IN SEVERE PERSONAL INJURY OR DEATH.
Safe Storage and Transportation
WARNING: SAFE AND SECURE STORAGE OF YOUR FIREARM IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT RULES OF FIREARM SAFETY. YOUR FAILURE TO FOLLOW THESE RULES MAY RESULT IN SERIOUS INJURY OR DEATH.
- You must always secure your firearm and ammunition separately so that they are not accessible to children or other unauthorized persons.
- Safe and secure storage and transportation of your firearm are your responsibility. It is a full-time responsibility.
- ALWAYS STORE YOUR FIREARM UNLOADED.
- Your firearm and ammunition should be stored separately in places and in a manner inaccessible to children and unauthorized persons.
- There are a variety of locks and safe storage containers available in the marketplace which may be appropriate for your particular needs. Consult your local gunshop, hardware store, or local police department for guidance on the variety of other safe storage devices or practices which may be appropriate for your particular needs. By purchasing this firearm you have taken on the responsibility of safely securing the firearm at all times and preventing its unauthorized use. It is your personal responsibility to select and use whatever devices or practices that will enable you to safely secure your firearm at all times.
- Do not use a lock on a loaded handgun AND NEVER LOAD A LOCKED HANDGUN!
- Only you can determine what devices or practices are appropriate for the safe storage of your firearm and your ammunition.
- NEVER ASSUME THAT A "HIDING" PLACE IS A SECURE STORAGE METHOD. Others may be aware of your storage location or come upon it by chance. It is your
personal responsibility to use common sense when storing and securing your firearm and ammunition and to always make sure that it is not accessible to children or other unauthorized persons.
- FOLLOW THE LAW!! You must be familiar with all local, state, and federal laws regarding the safe storage and transportation of your firearm. Failure to know and follow the law may result in unauthorized access or use of your firearm by another. Obey all laws relating to the storage and transportation of firearms.
- NEVER TRANSPORT A LOADED FIREARM.
- When transporting your firearm, be sure it is unloaded and that the cylinder or action is open.
- Your local police department or gunshop will furnish you with available information on storing and/or transporting a firearm legally.
- YOUR FIREARM IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY.
- Protect your firearm from theft or misuse by untrained or unqualified individuals.
MAINTENANCE BEFORE STORAGE
When storing, do not encase your firearm in anything that will attract or hold moisture, for example, leather or heavy cloth. Also, do not store guns with a plug inserted in the barrel for this can be a contributing factor to moisture accumulation. If your firearm is to be stored for an extended period, the bore, chambers and internal working mechanism should be oiled with acid-free lubricating oil or preservative, and the external working mechanisms, frame, cylinder and barrel should be coated with an anti-rust oil. Before using your firearm again, be sure to clean it. Every time you clean your firearm, check it for signs of wear. If wear is noted, do not use the firearm. Return it to Smith & Wesson for service or have it checked by a qualified gunsmith.
MAINTENANCE BEFORE USE
Before using your firearm, it should be cleaned. (See Cleaning Instructions) Your firearm has been treated with either a preservative or oil to protect it against corrosion. Before using it, all excess oil should be wiped from the bore, chambers (charge holes), and exposed areas using a clean swab or patch. A light coat of high quality gun oil should be applied to the outside surfaces and mechanism. Care should be taken not to oil the mechanism to the degree that dust and lint may be trapped by the oil. | <urn:uuid:7f025d38-e3c7-4dfd-97db-f9f13ba3a645> | {
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15 February 2013. Men with schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) show reductions in brain volume in several, disparate regions, reports a study published online February 6 in JAMA Psychiatry. Led by Robert McCarley of Harvard Medical School, the brain imaging study found widespread cortical reductions in men with SPD compared to healthy controls, and these correlated with negative symptom severity. The findings highlight brain regions that might be core areas of dysfunction in schizophrenia itself.
“With SPD you have a chance to look at what may be an attenuated form of schizophrenia in a brain that hasn't been contaminated with previous medication,” McCarley told SRF. None of the participants in the study had taken antipsychotic medication.
As defined by the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), SPD shares features of schizophrenia, like social awkwardness or perceptual abnormalities, but people with the disorder do not lose touch with reality. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) has a similar diagnostic category—schizotypal disorder—but rather than lumping it with personality disorders, explicitly considers it a form of schizophrenia.
People with SPD may hear in the wind something like a voice, but they do not hear voices; they may engage in magical thinking like a preoccupation with UFOs, but they don’t actually believe they’ve been visited or abducted by UFOs; they may have few or no friends, but they are comfortable with that. These peculiarities do not worsen into schizophrenia, but they can interfere with a person’s ability to work or live independently. In a recent study in Schizophrenia Research, Larry Siever and colleagues of Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City found that people with SPD scored worse on cognitive and skills tests, and were less likely to be employed or live independently than were healthy controls or people with avoidant personality disorder (McClure et al., 2013).
Some researchers have seized upon SPD as a valuable inroad into the fundamental mechanisms behind schizophrenia, without having to deal with confounds such as medication or untreated psychosis. For example, antipsychotic medications themselves may spur brain volume loss (Ho et al., 2011), and this and some lifestyle factors have complicated efforts to discern brain changes that drive symptoms of schizophrenia from those that are consequences of living with the disorder (see SRF related news story). Because people with SPD do not tip into psychotic illness, studies of SPD can skirt these issues and potentially pinpoint brain regions at the root of schizophrenia. Despite these advantages, the study of SPD has been somewhat eclipsed recently by prodrome research, which is geared toward deciphering the subtle signs of oncoming psychotic illness (see SRF related news story).
Abnormalities in selected brain regions have been found before in SPD (Fervaha et al., 2012), but the new study is the first comprehensive look at the entire cortex. Using voxel-based morphometry and a method to accurately align brain scans for comparisons across participants, the researchers detected differences between SPD and controls not seen before.
“The surprising part was how widespread the volume reductions were,” McCarley said, noting that they found evidence for both top-down deficits in executive function and bottom-up abnormalities in sensory processing. “Our interpretation is that people with SPD have deficits not only in conceptualizing and focusing, but also in sensory perception,” he said.
Sixth sense/very shy
The trick in studying SPD is to actually find people with it. The SPD category originally arose from early genetic studies of schizophrenia, in which family pedigrees not only contained people with schizophrenia, but also people who were odd enough to make researchers hesitate in marking them as “unaffected.” This led to development of the SPD category, which is listed in the DSM-IV, and slated for the DSM-5. Despite this recognition, and an estimated prevalence of 3.9 percent, people with SPD do not usually see a physician for their odd behaviors. This means that they need to be found out in the community.
First author Takeshi Asami and colleagues did this with an advertisement in the Boston, Massachusetts, area that began, “Sixth sense/very shy,” and went on to describe recruitment for a study of people who think they have special powers, like extrasensory perception, and who are socially isolated. This garnered replies from 3,001 people, and these were whittled down through telephone and in-person interviews to 118 males with SPD. Of these, 65 underwent brain scanning, and 54 were ultimately used in the study. These were compared to a group of 54 healthy controls who, as a group, matched the age, years of education, intelligence quotient, and socioeconomic factors found in the SPD group.
The brain scans revealed a widespread pattern of small but significant cortical reductions in SPD compared to the healthy control group. These were located in many frontal, temporal, and parietal-occipital regions, and implicated centers involved in the default-mode network (see SRF related news story), sensory processing, facial recognition, and higher cognitive function. Globally, the researchers also picked up a slight difference in total gray matter volume, which constituted 42 percent of total intracranial volume in SPD compared to 43.5 percent in controls.
Unlike the brain volume losses that seem to worsen over time in schizophrenia (van Haren et al., 2011; see SRF related news story), the researchers did not find evidence for such progressive reductions in SPD. Plotting the volume of different brain regions by age of their subjects (which spanned 18-55 years), the researchers found smaller volumes in older men, but this downward trend with age was not any steeper than that found in controls.
Accentuate the negative
The cortical reductions correlated with the negative symptoms of people with SPD, as quantified using the Structured Interview for Schizotypy (SIS): those with greater reductions had more severe negative symptoms, as quantified by combining scores from items measuring social isolation, introversion, and restricted emotion and sensitivity. These correlations arose for 22 out of 26 regions with reductions—more than expected by chance. Though considered an exploratory analysis, the consistent correlations suggest these reductions are specific to negative symptoms. In contrast, no significant correlations were found for positive symptom scores.
Though future studies will have to work out how the reductions arise in the first place, the authors speculate that problems with inhibitory interneurons allow excitatory signaling to get out of hand, which creates toxic conditions that chip away at gray matter. This would occur to a lesser extent in SPD compared to schizophrenia, they suggest. If true, the difference between SPD and schizophrenia may be a matter of degree rather than kind, and something that will require ever more sensitive techniques to discern.—Michele Solis.
Asami T, Whitford TJ, Bouix S, Dickey CC, Niznikiewicz M, Shenton ME, Voglmaier MM, McCarley RW. Globally and Locally Reduced MRI Gray Matter Volumes in Neuroleptic-Naive Men With Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Association with Negative Symptoms. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013 Feb 6. Abstract | <urn:uuid:c1d07b05-6119-4810-b863-f4ff2f06e1bc> | {
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Download the poster in different languages.
It is not unusual for teenagers and young people to get involved in cybercriminal activities at an early age. Some do it for fun without realising the consequences of their actions – but the penalties can be severe. Cybercrime isn’t a victimless crime and it is taken extremely seriously by law enforcement. The minors that become involved in cybercrime often have a skill set that could be put to a positive use. Skills in coding, gaming, computer programming, cyber security or anything IT-related are in high demand and there are many professional careers and opportunities available to anyone with IT talent and an interest in these areas.
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF CYBERCRIMES THAT INVOLVE PREDOMINANTLY YOUNG OFFENDERS?
- Hacking – involves gaining access to someone’s computer network without their permission and then taking control, and/or taking information from an organisation, agency or individual. Basic examples may include accessing a secure area on a school’s computer network to look for test paper answers or trying to change test scores.
- Malicious software - making, supplying, or obtaining malware, viruses, spyware, botnets, and Remote Access Trojans (RATs) is a criminal activity. These programmes allow cybercriminals to get into other people’s computers without their permission. “Pranking”, by remotely accessing a friend’s computer without their knowledge and messing around with it, is illegal.
- DDoS - a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack, or ‘booting’, consists of sending a large amount of internet traffic towards a website to stop somebody or anybody from accessing it. Booting someone offline whilst playing online games may seem like a harmless joke, it may be challenging and entertaining - but it is illegal.
- In most countries, if someone is caught doing something even as simple as using a stresser to boot another player out of an online game, he/she could get under the radar of the police and, if they keep doing it, even a prison sentence.
- Less tech-savvy youngsters, also known as ‘script kiddies’, could use stressers to attack a website they dislike, or even their school’s website. They are often unaware that this is illegal and see it as a simple prank. However, it is a criminal activity and the consequences can be serious!
- Becoming involved with DDoS attacks is considered a gateway crime, leading to more serious activities, including ransomware attacks. Even though the youngsters involved do not pursue this activity for the financial rewards, they could become entangled in various illegal activities and even organized crime groups.
WHAT CAN GO WRONG?
Consequences vary from country to country, but young people who get involved in cybercrime could face the following:
- A visit and a warning from the police, as well as a penalty fine
- Arrest and a prison sentence for serious offences
- Their computers being seized and/or being prevented from accessing the internet
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
- TALK - If you are worried about one of your students, speak to them about what they are doing, try and point out the difference between harmless exploration/curiosity online and illegal online activity. Tell them about the consequences of cybercrime for the offender and for the victim. Try mentoring them and showing them positive ways to use their skills. If you are very concerned, you should consider alerting the students’ parents.
- DETER- The best way to help to deter tech-savvy and talented students from getting involved in entry level cybercrimes is to offer them constructive and positive alternatives. Check out the resources below.
REPORT - If you believe that your school is the victim of a cybercrime attack or that a student is engaging in cybercriminal activities, you should report it to the school and to the local police: Report Cybercrime Online
ADVICE FOR PARENTS
Given the past years’ fast technological progress, is it quite common for children to easily become tech-savvy. However, they still need your help and guidance to make sure that they stay on the right path. Unfortunately, their talent could be exploited by cybercriminals rather than put to good use in the world of cybersecurity. Once they are on the radar of law enforcement, their professional and educational futures might be compromised. Cybersecurity companies tend to avoid hiring convicted hackers, regardless of how talented and tech-savvy they might be.
Some of the indicators that your child may be at risk of becoming involved in cybercrime include:
- They spend most of their time online and are often secretive about their activities;
- They are excessively interested in coding;
- They seem to gain an additional income from their online activities, but they do not talk about how they do it;
- Your home network’s monthly data allowance is often met;
- They socialize more in the online world than offline
Many children will have an active interest in coding and programming, spend a lot of time online and have independent learning materials. These are all signs of a healthy and positive interest in computing and the development of those extremely valuable skills should be encouraged – but in a lawful way.
The research paper “Youth Pathways into Cybercrime” attempts to explain the pathways that lead some young people into cybercrime. The report highlights the need to develop effective prevention and intervention strategies as well as the importance of promoting alternatives, positive (and legal) ways of channelling young talents toward careers in the tech and security sectors.
Youth Pathways into Cybercrime: case study
Teenage hacking of online forum
Luke, a teenage boy, is thrilled by the challenge of hacking into websites. He starts learning hacking skills by asking questions on forums and experimenting with freely available hacking tools. Luke learns about Hydra, a network logon cracker program that automatically tries username and password combinations from a large list of known usernames and passwords to “lockpick” access to the target website. Hydra frequently succeeds, because users tend to choose simple passwords and reuse them on different websites. Luke starts using Hydra to hack into web forums.
At first he uses a list of usernames and passwords publicly available on the Internet, but once he succeeds in getting administrator access to a forum, he expands his list with the contents of the compromised forum database, which makes Luke more effective at hacking other online forums.
Although Luke's technical skills are not very advanced, the combination of freely available hacking tools, tutorials and advice from other hackers allowed Luke to be an effective hacker for a time. His hacking is eventually discovered by the administrator of a popular online forum and Luke is apprehended by the police.
Download the research Youth Pathways into Cybercrime.
WHAT CAN YOU DO?
- TALK – chat with your child/teenager about acceptable online behaviour. Take an interest in what they do, help them understand the difference between right and wrong in the cyber world, just as you would do in any offline world situation
- BEHAVIOUR - talk to them about ethical behaviour online. Some real life rules apply in the online world too. The following types of behaviour are to be avoided:
Stealing or using anything online that is not free or doesn’t belong to them.
Harming anyone – while it might not be as obvious as in the real world, cybercrime is not victimless.
Bullying anyone, through chat, social media or any other online means.
Being disrespectful or impolite online – they should not use their digital knowledge to hurt others.
Hacking - using RATs, DDoS attacks, stressers/booters to attack others is not just unethical, but illegal.
Remember - your children might not be aware that their actions could lead to a criminal conviction. In spite of what their friends tell them, law enforcement is always going to catch up with illegal online activity and identify the perpetrators. Europol’s European Cybercrime Centre is often coordinating operations involving such targets. Operation TarPit and Operation Neuland are two examples of such operations.
- LISTEN - try to learn about and understand how they spend their time online. Try to assess their level of cyber knowledge and offer them alternatives. If your child is passionate about computing, make sure you look into opportunities to further their education. For more on this, see our list of resources below.
POSITIVE ALTERNATIVE RESOURCES AT EU LEVEL:
- The participating EU Member States organize annual national cyber security competitions open to young people between the ages of 14 and 25. The best players from each of these national competitions then go on to reach the EU-wide final European Cyber Security Challenge (ECSC). The ECSC is hosted by a different country each year and involves a set of challenges: capture the flag, jeopardy, attack-defence, etc. The event is accompanied by a cyber security conference and/or a job fair.
- EU’s annual advocacy campaign that takes place in October and aims to raise awareness of cybersecurity threats, promote cybersecurity among citizens, and provide up to date security information through education and the sharing of good practices. Hundreds of cyber-related activities are organised throughout Europe every year during this month
- A grass-roots movement that celebrates creating with code. The idea is to make programming more visible and show young people, adults, and the elderly how to bring ideas to life with code, to demystify these skills and bring motivated people together to learn. The initiative was launched in 2013 by the Young Advisors for the Digital Agenda Europe. The website also includes a comprehensive list of resources and guides related to coding, in various languages and targeted at both beginners and advanced learners.
- The Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition brings together Member States, companies, social partners, non-profit organisations, and education providers who take action to tackle the lack of digital skills in Europe. The Coalition addresses the need for digital skills at all levels, including ensuring better digital skills training for youngsters. Find out more about the Coalition here.
- The initiative encourages all organizations, businesses and government bodies to make a concrete commitment to carry out actions to reduce the digital skills gap in Europe. These commitments, or pledges, range from teacher training, reskilling jobseekers and actions targeting ICT professionals to resources for tech-savvy young people. You can find all the pledges in the pledge viewer.
- The International Cyber Security Summer School allows students and young professionals to gain deeper knowledge and understanding of cyber security concepts, as they learn about the latest cybercrime threats and trends as well as the cutting edge cyber security features that exist today.
Legal Disclaimer - Cyber Crime vs Cyber Security: What Will You Choose?
The information and advice published on this page is offered for general purposes only, free of charge, on an “as is” basis, without being tailored to individual situations and should not be considered as professional advice. The decision on whether to participate in a presented project or event is taken at your own risk. Europol bears no responsibility for those projects or events which are organised by third parties.
This page contains links to other websites developed, controlled and maintained by third parties. Europol is not responsible for their content and the applicable policies. By clicking on a link and navigating outside Europol’s own website, you may need to agree to third parties terms and conditions and may be subject to their policies.
The inclusion of external links on this page does not imply Europol’s endorsement of any participating entity. Europol provides links to non-commercial webpages and these are checked prior to their posting on this page, however please keep in mind that these checks are limited and that pages may be altered. It is also possible that with a few clicks you will navigate to pages offering commercial services. Europol is not linked and does not endorse such commercial activities and the entities providing them.
With the exception of Europol logo (for which specific authorisation is required), the information on this page may be reproduced without further Europol authorisation in any format or medium provided that the source is identified and the copyright status acknowledged. Information and/or material may not be used as to imply in any way that Europol endorses a product, service or action.
To our reasonable knowledge, the information and the materials published on this page are legal, decent and truthful, comply with laws and regulations and do not infringe the Intellectual property rights of any third party.
The main language of this page and of the material is English, which should be considered as original and should prevail over other versions. To our knowledge, translations are made faithfully and the original content is not modified in any way, with exception of minor language (dialect) issues. We decline any liability for any omissions and/or errors in the translated version of the material.
If you have any questions with respect to the project, please contact us. | <urn:uuid:f08cb15c-137c-44ee-9ea5-1f66fbb6dcda> | {
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A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918 : Empires, Nations and Modernisation.
This book is an authoritative inquiry into some of the most turbulent events in the history of Eastern Europe. By considering three key themes: modernism, nationalism and empire, Armour analyzes how the foundations of nationalism developed from within an environment of widespread social turmoil. Thi...
|Online Access:||Connect to eBook (Available to people from CARLI member institutions.)|
No Tags, Be the first to tag this record! | <urn:uuid:2530a47c-d6e7-4ac5-9884-95742eb497d0> | {
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Improved processing speed: online computer-based cognitive training in older adults
In an increasingly aging population, a number of adults are concerned about declines in their cognitive abilities. Online computer-based cognitive training programs have been proposed as an accessible means by which the elderly may improve their cognitive abilities; yet, more research is needed in order to assess the efficacy of these programs. In the current study, a commercially available 21-day online computer-based cognitive training intervention was administered to 34 individuals aged between 53 and 75 years. The intervention consisted of computerized training in reaction time, inspection time, short-term memory for words, executive function, visual spatial acuity, arithmetic, visual spatial memory, visual scanning/discrimination, and n-back working memory. An active solitaire control group was also included. Participants were tested at baseline, posttraining and at three-weeks follow-up using a battery of neuropsychological outcome measures. These consisted of simple reaction time, complex reaction time, digit forwards and backwards, spatial working memory, digit symbol substitution, RAVLT, and trail making. Significant improvement in simple reaction time and choice reaction time task was found in the cognitive training group both posttraining and at three-weeks follow-up. However, no significant improvements on the other cognitive tasks were found. The training program was found to be successful in achieving transfer of trained cognitive abilities in speed of processing to similar untrained tasks. | <urn:uuid:43beef6c-e4d1-4b39-bfef-beb3f3d5d489> | {
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Protection of the environment and public health depends on scientific information that is reliable and impartial. Citizens and policy makers rely on the most current scientific knowledge and technologies to make wise decisions.
According to the President's Cancer Panel, Americans are facing "grievous harm" from chemicals in the air, food and water that have largely gone unregulated and ignored. "With the growing body of evidence linking environmental exposures to cancer, the public is becoming increasingly aware of the unacceptable burden of cancer resulting from environmental and occupational exposures that could have been prevented through appropriate national action."
"Sustainable fisheries management in the 21st century requires timely, reliable fisheries data and effective monitoring of fisheries in order to make informed, responsible decisions," but according to this new report, more funding is needed to increase the number of observers monitoring fishing vessels.
"Environmental Protection Agency staffers have been forced to ignore relevant science, have lacked key monitoring data on human health and environmental impacts, and have worked without crucial information needed to protect the public, according to the preliminary findings of a scientific advisory board."
A new EPA report, "Climate Change Indicators in the United States," looks at 24 key indicators that show how climate change impacts the health and environment of the nation’s citizens. The information included in this report will help inform future policy decisions and will help evaluate the success of climate change efforts.
EPA is calling for abstracts for presentations at the National Training Conference on the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Environmental Conditions in Communities, November 1–4, 2010, in Washington, DC.
An independent panel found "no evidence of any deliberate scientific malpractice" by the University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit, which was accused of misrepresenting global warming data. The panel concluded the scientists instead were "slightly disorganised." The panel did criticize the UK government for charging for access to government data sets.
ProPublica chronicles Sen. David Vitter's (R-LA) moves to delay action on the carcinogen formaldehyde. "The EPA has been trying since 1998 to update the formaldehyde assessment, which was first written in 1989. But the agency’s efforts have repeatedly been stalled by the industry and Congress."
Sen. Frank R. Lautenberg (D-NJ) today announced legislation to overhaul the “Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976” (TSCA). The new legislation will give EPA more power to regulate the use of dangerous chemicals and require manufacturers to submit information proving the safety of every chemical. The bill creates open access to reliable chemical information and establishes a public database to catalog the information submitted.
According to the Washington Post, the EPA "informed BP officials...that the company has 24 hours to choose a less-toxic form of chemical dispersants to break up its oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico...and must apply the new form of dispersants within 72 hours of submitting the list of alternatives." Of course, there's still a lot of information we don't know about these chemicals...
The EPA launched a new "Rulemaking Gateway" to improve the public's ability to search, understand, and comment on the rules being considered by the agency. This new website complements the government-wide www.regulations.gov, which recently was redesigned.
A report released in November 2008 by the NRDC Health Program documents many examples of Bush Administration budget cuts to key data collection programs that monitor hazardous pollutants in our air, water, food, and even our bodies. | <urn:uuid:8ccaa01c-b86f-450e-9843-16675348803b> | {
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The Free Zone was established as a Polisario-held zone in a 1991 cease-fire between Polisario and Morocco, which had been agreed upon together as part of the Settlement Plan. Morocco controls the areas west of the Berm, including most of the territory's population. The cease-fire is overseen by the United Nation's MINURSO forces, charged with peacekeeping in the area and the organization of a referendum on independence..
The status of Western Sahara is hotly disputed between Polisario and Morocco, and this includes the titles used to refer to areas under the control of the different sides.
Morocco routinely refers to the Polisario-held region as a "buffer zone", or "buffer strip", claims that Polisario forces are not allowed entry, and that both military activities and civilian construction in this area constitute violations of their cease-fire agreement. This, however, does not correspond to the provisions of the agreement regulating the territory's status, which Morocco signed in 1991, since the "buffer strip" is only a slim portion of the entire territory. Areas outside of this zone, which serves as a division-of-forces nomansland, are open to activity by the side that controls them, provided they adhere to some restrictions on military movements. Similarly, Polisario term the areas a "liberated territory" or the "free zone", but this is not an official designation. The UN calls it simply "east of the Berm", and refers to territories under Moroccan control as "west of the Berm", thus giving sanction to the claims of neither party.
According to the Settlement Plan, the movement of Polisario fighters is restricted similarly to how Moroccan forces face restrictions on their side of the Berm. The MINURSO details details the following restrictions for the different zones:
Access is difficult even for Sahrawis due to the harsh climate of the Sahara, the military conflict and the abundance of land mines. Still, the area is traveled and inhabited by approximately 30,000 Sahrawi nomads.
Major Sahrawi political events, such as Polisario congresses and sessions of the Sahrawi National Council (the SADR parliament in exile) are held in the Free Zone (especially in Tifariti and Bir Lehlou), since it is considered politically and symbolically important to conduct political affairs on Sahrawi territory.
The Polisario troops (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, SPLA) in the area are divided into seven "military regions", each controlled by a top commander reporting to the President of the Polisario proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The total size of the Polisario's guerrilla army present in this area is approximately two thousand men, with additional combantants stationed in Algeria, Mauritania or having been demobilized due to the cease-fire. These forces are dug into permanent positions, such as gun emplacements, defensive trenches and underground military bases, as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory.
A concentration of forces for the commemoration of the Saharawi Republic’s 30th anniversary were however subject to reproach by the United Nations, as it was considered an example of a cease-fire violation to bring such a large force concentration into the area.
Minurso reports that there are on average 2-4 such violations in the whole Western Sahara territory each month, between the two sides. In addition to this, there are several more violations related to local commanders on both sides refusing the inspection of their forces by Minurso personnel. As an example, the mission homepage quotes the month of June 2006, when there were "189 such FMO [freedom of movement]-violations, all related to the denial of UNMO [UN military officers] entry into the parties’ strong-points and units." Despite these minor breaches, there has to date been no serious hostile action from either side since 1991, and both sides of the Berm are considered calm by peacekeeping standards.
Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activists from Spain, Italy and other mainly European countries. These actions are closely monitored by the UN. | <urn:uuid:60d055f1-f43a-441b-9216-2b2d53ccb761> | {
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Is there a link between changes of blood sugar and weight changes (either weight loss or gain)? Having normal blood sugar can be one of signals that your body has a normal mechanism of glucose metabolism. In people with diabetes, their blood glucose is relatively easier to extremely fluctuate either too high (hyperglycemia) or too low (hypoglycemia).
As well we know, the body gets energy from a substance called glucose (it is a simple form of sugar).
Your body also can get the energy supply from protein and fat, but in general glucose taken from food has much more contribution for energy supply of your body.
Furthermore, the body also can get glucose from glycogen stored in the liver when the blood glucose is low.
The use of glycogen stored in the liver for energy is typically for the reserve energy of your body. For instance, when you run to pursue a bus school in the morning but you haven’t eaten (skipping your breakfast), your body can use glycogen for energy.
Glucose taken from foods can be directly absorbed and then go into the bloodstream. In the bloodstream, glucose then will be distributed to many cells around the body. Cells of the body need energy to keep functioning and to support our activity throughout the day.
To make sure that glucose in the bloodstream can be optimally absorbed by cells and muscles, your body needs a kind hormone called ‘insulin’ that produced by pancreas.
Without this hormone, the mechanism of glucose metabolism can be affected. Therefore, people with insulin resistance (such as in diabetics) are relatively easier to have high blood sugar.
Once glucose was absorbed by cells and muscles, it then can be converted to become energy. And for the excess absorption can be stored as cells of fat or stored as glycogen in the liver as written before.
Both glycogen and fat can be converted into energy when your body needs. They can be used for energy when the brain sends signal that your body needs more energy, such as during exercise.
In general, the level of blood glucose is relatively lower during and after fasting. It usually increases during and after eating.
Low blood glucose is more often associated with weight loss instead of weight gain. However theoretically, it may also cause weight gain – but not directly!
When the amount of glucose in the bloodstream is too low, converting glycogen stored in the liver may be not enough to restore the balance of blood glucose. As a result, you may feel sweetening, weakness, and fatigue due to lack of energy.
You may think that being at low blood sugar will help burn the excessive pounds of your weight. There is nothing wrong with this opinion, but the truth is most of the initial weight loss comes from the decreased body’s water supply and muscles. Most people with hypoglycemia experience excessive sweating! See also some common symptoms of hypoglycemia!
At short time of being hypoglycemia, your weight loss doesn’t come from the fat metabolism. When you have too low blood sugar, your body will respond it by activating starvation and survival mode. But your body will not burn your fat cells at short time.
However, having frequent low blood glucose in long term may help restore your normal weight if you are overweight. But this option is not recommended, because it can be harmful for your health.
Furthermore, if you are non-diabetic, you need to take an extremely weight loss diet or do a strenuous exercise to decrease your blood glucose very low.
How about with the chance of getting weight gain from low blood sugar? | <urn:uuid:e14b24e0-a7a7-4fa7-8dde-76fb46274405> | {
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Modern Standard Arabic (MSA)
Also known as “al-fus’haa”, MSA is the language used throughout the Arab world for specialized functions, i.e. instruction, the electronic and printed media and formal situations. Although it is not used for interpersonal communication in any of the Arab-speaking countries, learning MSA before any of the several spoken regional and local dialects which vary considerably from area to area provides learners with two advantages. First, a good foundation in MSA facilitates the acquisition of any dialect a learner might wish to learn later. Second, unlike local dialects, MSA is readily understood anywhere in the Arab world. Our MSA program is tailored to meet the needs of all students interested in learning or improving Standard Arabic. It provides them with the necessary knowledge and training to acquire full and clear understanding of the Arabic language system. The MSA program consists of three levels of studies; each level is divided into three successive and progressive sublevels. The system of levels in this program is structured according to the U.S. university system and to the guidelines of our European and international partner institutions. In order to better meet the needs of all our students, our teachers were trained to teach with all the best MSA language textbooks available today, such as “Al-Kitaab fii Ta'allum al-'Arabiyya”, which is our main textbook, “Ahlan Wa Sahlan” and “Al-Arabiya al-Mu’asira”.
Colloquial Moroccan Arabic (CMA)
CMA or “darija” is the most widely spoken dialect in Morocco. While most CMA words find their root in MSA, a part of the lexical is borrowed from Spanish, French and Berber. Depending on students interest, CMA may be taught utilizing either Arabic or Latin script, though the former is highly recommended to make life easier with daily tasks such as reading signs and getting around. Like the MSA program, this program consists of three levels of studies.
***We have tailored our materials to serve the functional aspects of the dialect in day-to-day interactions with Moroccans rather than the structural aspects of it.
Students not particularly interested in learning Moroccan dialect, yet wishing, however, to learn a more “relaxed” and communicative standard Arabic, could take, in addition to MSA group classes, private lessons in Spoken Arabic. Unlike MSA, which is spoken exclusively in formal situations (by radio and TV broadcasters, academic lecturers, religious preachers, etc.), Spoken Arabic could be used by any literate Arabic native speaker who cares about using the right language structure but maintains her/his local dialect characteristics. In this program, the system of levels is structured according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.
***The textbook used for Spoken Arabic lessons, “An-nafura”, allows students to practice the standard language they learn in MSA classes, to use it for communication in daily life situations and to get used to listening and understanding the different Arab dialects and accents.
In addition to the three courses already mentioned, Dar Loughat offers a wide range of specialized courses with a focus on a variety of themes such as An Introduction to Islam, Moroccan History, Sufism in Morocco, Andalusian History, etc. These courses are offered on a one-on-one basis according to students interest and request. Students of this program may choose the language of instruction from Arabic, English, Spanish or French.
About This Supplier
Email it to a friend:
Click here to email this vacation to a friend | <urn:uuid:cbac9c96-4d6e-47d3-94a8-6b4b142a8039> | {
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Have you ever been eating then suddenly you have this feeling in your chest that someone just lit a fire in there followed by a bitter taste in your mouth, then you feel an irritation in your throat? That could be acid reflux.
What Is Acid Reflux?
Acid reflux is when acid backs up into your esophagus and throat causing the lining to be irritated by stomach acids that have escaped. That means the little doorway or sphincter isn’t closing properly to keep the acid in the stomach.
Sign and Symptoms
- Burning pain in the center of the chest, behind the breastbone. It often starts in the upper abdomen and spreads up into the neck or throat.
- Pain that can last up to 2 hours.
- Heartburn is usually worse after eating.
- Lying down or bending over can bring on heartburn or make it worse.
- The pain usually does not start or get worse with physical activity.
- Not everyone with GERD has heartburn.
- Regurgitation of bitter acid up into the throat while sleeping or bending over
- Bitter taste in the mouth
- Persistent dry cough
- Hoarseness (especially in the morning)
- Feeling of tightness in the throat, as if a piece of food is stuck there
- Trouble swallowing
- A sore Throat
- Post-meal pain in the abdomen
- Bad Breath
Causes of Acid Reflux
- A Hiatal Hernia
- Excessive Alcohol Consumption
- Eating too quickly or too much
- Some medications
- Spicy foods or fatty foods
- Weak stomach sphincter
- Not enough acid in the stomach
- H. Pylori
Complications of Acid Reflux
- Vomiting Blood
- Weight loss
- Lack of appetite
- Black Stools
- Gum bleeding and irritation
- Chronic throat irritation and/or dryness
- Barrett’s Esophagus
- Sleeping issues
Testing for Acid Reflux
- Endoscopy - a camera they put in your mouth to look at your stomach.
- Heidelberg test- this test lets you know if you have too much or too little acid in your stomach.
- Breath/blood test for H.pylori, cancer.
- Barium Swallow check for ulcers.
- Biopsy to check for any abnormalities in the esophagus
- Antacids whether over the counter or prescription
- DGL- herbs to help heal the stomach
- Digestive enzymes with HCL
- Diet low in acidic foods
- Don’t overeat
- Don’t eat 2 hours before going to bed
- Surgery if the stomach sphincter isn’t closing | <urn:uuid:cd1dbfcb-f976-44b9-8580-97fd36be6655> | {
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One possible thing that we could learn from other countries is to understand disability as a human right rather than a civil right. Initially, one would think that disability rights are human rights endowed to every person simply by his or her existence as a human being; however, the more that I think about it, the more that I think framing disability in terms of civil rights might be more helpful in our society than framing disability in terms of human rights. In coming to this conclusion, I understand that other countries do not have the history of fighting for civil rights that the United States has. After recognizing a fight for civil rights by other marginalized groups of people in the past, our country has moved in a positive direction to acknowledge those rights, enforce those rights, and change societal attitudes about those rights. We cannot say if those rights would have gained support had they been framed as human rights. Although fighting for civil rights in every sphere is a continuing job, the fight for civil rights for other groups has proven successful, and therefore, may be the best approach to disability rights. I recognize that in many ways, disability rights are different from other types of rights; however, I also acknowledge that the fight for disability rights is similar to the rights that many other minority groups have fought for throughout the history of the United States. The interaction between disability rights and other things that we consider civil rights is important. I believe it is vital to understand that the struggles many individuals with disabilities have gone through mimic the struggles of other minority groups throughout our history. In recognizing that other groups have been successful in taking a civil rights approach, I think that those fighting for disability rights might also be successful in taking a civil rights approach. Therefore, a human rights approach might not be the most appropriate approach to disability in the United States.
Another thing that we can arguably learn from other countries is to broaden the definition of disability and not speak in terms of a reasonable accommodation. It would be ideal to have the rights of any person who identifies as a person with a disability protected and to have any accommodations necessary to make access equal. However, the more I think about this in terms of the United States, the more I recognize that this might be too idealistic and not very realistic. While I do think that we should attempt to broaden the definition of disability and not speak in terms of a reasonable accommodation, I recognize that it is very unlikely that would be possible considering our current political system. In order to have a bill passed, a majority of the Senate and House of Representative must agree. To assuage concerns of representatives and their constituents, certain concessions needed to be made. These concessions included limiting the definition of disability and limiting the required actions to only those that would be “reasonable accommodations.” While it might be ideal to change our approach to disability in the law, I do not think it is possible at this point, considering our political system. Prior to changing the law, I believe we must change attitudes about disability.
I think we could learn from other countries in some ways and other countries can learn from us in some ways how to change attitudes around disability. In my opinion, education around disability is the most important part about recognizing disability in the law and in society generally. We should recognize that people with disabilities are people who deserve equal treatment. We should work towards inclusion in the same way that we would for people of different races, of different ethnicities, and with different socio-economic statuses. We should recognize that ideas around disability will forever be changing as our understanding of medicine and social dynamics change. We should ultimately work to enlighten ourselves. We can acknowledge where other countries have succeeded and where they have failed in their approach to disability. This is how we will change attitudes, and ultimately change the law to reflect an equal and inclusive society. | <urn:uuid:0807cdd3-adf5-4f52-80c0-b719334bc885> | {
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Beauty in past cultures
Greeks and Romans deal intensively with the question of what constitutes beauty.
Tinctures and Ointments, Dyes and alike
One would not believe it, but women in the Roman Empire spend as much time to produce make-up and face masks from a variety of ingredients as do women today. The range of cosmetics was extraordinary – and you will discover in our Roman Shop a whole range of bowls and dishes, various powders which give the skin the typical pale complexion. Unfortunately, the Romans did not know that white lead is highly toxic and in the long run leads to serious skin damage, we have removed such toxic substances and replaced it with ecological substitutes. The cosmetics were mixed with honey and various fatty substances.
To give the cream a reddish tone (for example for the colouring of the lips), the Romans added red ochre or saltpeter to the mixture. A precious dye was used for the colouring of the lips, which was extracted from the slime of a sea snail. To bring shine to the skin, they sprinkled crushed blue-grey hematite on it. With a mix of russ they colored eyelashes and eyebrows, or they applied various colours on eyelids, to make them shine green or blue. Roman women also knew rosy cheeks and nail varnish in red... The ideal beauty, hence, did not differ that much from our modern taste. | <urn:uuid:94125317-1fe6-4f67-898e-da46664066a6> | {
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The answer to the question which port is used by SQL Server? seems easy. By default it is 1433 but there are exceptions from this rule. If more than one SQL Server instance is needed on the same machine, the easiest option is to use named instances. Each of them work on a different port so only one can use 1433 or even neither of them! In this article, I will present a few methods of finding out which port is used by a particular SQL Server instance. They require different level of access and various tools so choose one that works for you.
Why would I need to know the port?
As mentioned in the preface, one SQL Server installation can have multiple instances configured and all of them are hosted on one operating system. SQL Server Management Studio can connect to them by using an address built like this: <host name>/<instance name> e.g. DBAPRESENTS\DEV01. This way does not require knowing the port number but it does not work in all cases. Some programs do not allow using this address format. Network and firewall rules may block it - the initial phase of the connection happens on port 1433 then it is switched to a proper port for the instance. If the firewall blocks port 1433, the switch will not happen either because the application will not know the instance port number. Connection will fail even if the instance is up and running.
As some reasons for knowing the port number are clarified, a few ways of finding it are described below.
If you have access to the operating system that hosts SQL Server, Configuration Manager can be the first place to go.
All Programs -> Microsoft SQL Server 20XY -> Configuration Tools -> SQL Server Configuration Manager.
If Configuration Manager does not exist on this path, look for SQLServerManager12.msc file (for SQL 2014), SQLServerManager11.msc (for SQL 2012) or other.
Expand SQL Server Network Configuration, choose Protocols for the instance and double click TCP/IP. A window with properties should pop up. Find a value in TCP Dynamic Ports or TCP Port. This should be the port on which the instance is listening.
SQL Server error log
Find SQL Server error log file e.g. ERRORLOG in <SQL Server main dir>/<instance name>/MSSQL/Log/. Open the file in a text editor and search for listening keyword.
SQL Server reports the port number to the error log when it starts. Of course, the same log can be opened from SQL Server Management Studio instead of a file editor.
If you do not have access to the operating system but you can connect to the database instance, you can try querying a dynamic view - dm_exec_connections.
WHERE local_net_address IS NOT NULL
Unfortunately, it does not always show the port but it is worth trying.
Those are only a few methods of finding the port used by a SQL Server instance. There are more but at least one of them should be helpful. | <urn:uuid:0a5603a3-5a81-4bc8-955b-834c7644b371> | {
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Few have made the kind of difference to the world as the scientific and humanitarian contributions of Norman Borlaug, who died on Sept. 13, at the age of 95.
As the father of the "Green Revolution," Borlaug dedicated his life to advancing science and bringing monumental change to agriculture. His contributions, and the Green Revolution, has increased agricultural production such that it is recognized as having saved hundreds of millions of lives worldwide by alleviating hunger. Among his accomplishments, Borlaug's innovative plant breeding techniques developed disease-resistant wheat.
For his humanitarian efforts, Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970, Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2006.
"The passing of Dr Borlaug is truly a loss for the plant breeding industry," said Andy LaVigne, president and chief executive officer of the American Seed Trade Association. "He was the giant that all of us looked up to," Agriculture has lost an amazing person, but his soul will continue to inspire us in the seed industry."
Borlaug's contributions went far beyond his scientific accomplishments. He leveraged his international recognition to advance investment in agricultural sciences and the people needed to find solutions for the agricultural challenges that plague the world. He supported many causes that helped build scientists in developing countries, and he gained support of governments and industry toward programs and policies to advance agriculture in order to continue an abundant supply of food, feed, fiber and fuel for a growing population with fewer resources.
"Dr. Borlaug not only drove the Green Revolution, he challenged today's crop of plant breeders to rise to a new level that would benefit growers globally," said Jerry Monk, of Warner Seeds and ASTA chairman. "While he will be sorely missed, he will not be forgotten."
Born Norman Ernest Borlaug on March 24, 1914, outside of Cresco, Iowa, to Henry and Clara Borlaug, he grew up on a farm and attended a one-room school house through the eighth grade. Borlaug remained close to his roots, and was always willing to talk to aspiring students, researchers and policy makers about the tremendous impact innovation can have on agricultural production.
He attended the University of Minnesota where he earned his bachelor's degree in 1937 in forestry, later returning for his master's degree in 1940 and a doctorate in 1942 in plant genetics. In October 1944, he began his formidable work on wheat in Mexico at the International Wheat and Maize Improvement Center. Borlaug crossed strains of wheat, coming up with a sturdy, short-stalked, high-yield grain. The yield gains were tremendous and improved not only the lives of Mexicans, but also had great success in Central Asia, namely India and Pakistan.
“In the death of Norman Borlaug, the world today has lost not only an eminent agriculture scientist but a man dedicated to the cause of humanity,” said Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar of India. "Father of the Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug is credited with what he himself described as a temporary success in man’s war against hunger and deprivation. As India moves towards the second Green Revolution, his enduring vision will be a source of inspiration and sustenance for all of us.” | <urn:uuid:b5766fd7-1afe-4048-971a-d3d69bf7da3d> | {
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- Research article
- Open Access
Chloroplast genomes as a tool to resolve red algal phylogenies: a case study in the Nemaliales
BMC Evolutionary Biology volume 16, Article number: 205 (2016)
Obtaining strongly supported phylogenies that permit confident taxonomic and evolutionary interpretations has been a challenge in algal biology. High-throughput sequencing has improved the capacity to generate data and yields more informative datasets. We sequenced and analysed the chloroplast genomes of 22 species of the order Nemaliales as a case study in the use of phylogenomics as an approach to achieve well-supported phylogenies of red algae.
Chloroplast genomes of the order Nemaliales are highly conserved, gene-dense and completely syntenic with very few cases of gene loss. Our ML estimation based on 195 genes recovered a completely supported phylogeny, permitting re-classification of the order at various taxonomic levels. Six families are recognised and the placement of several previously contradictory clades is resolved. Two new sub-orders are described, Galaxaurineae and Nemaliineae, based on the early-branching nature and monophyly of the groups, and presence or absence of a pericarp. Analyses of subsets of the data showed that >90 % bootstrap support can be achieved with datasets as small as 2500 nt and that fast and medium evolving genes perform much better when it comes to resolving phylogenetic relationships.
In this study we show that phylogenomics is an efficient and effective approach to investigate phylogenetic relationships. The six currently circumscribed Nemaliales families are clustered into two evolutionary lineages with strong statistical support based on chloroplast phylogenomic analyses. The conserved nature of red algal chloroplast genomes is a convenient and accessible source of data to resolve their ancient relationships.
Molecular phylogenies are the cornerstone of biodiversity and evolutionary research but many phylogenetic relationships are contradictory or not known with certainty, for example due to low statistical support. One of the major challenges in designing phylogenetic studies is to decide how much molecular data is needed to achieve a satisfactory result [1, 2].
High throughout sequencing (HTS) techniques have made the acquisition of multilocus datasets easy, even for non-model organisms. Their use has become common practice for comparative and phylogenetic analyses of entire genomes (phylogenomics). This provides us with insights not only into phylogenetic relationships but also how other features of the genome (e.g. genome synteny, gene loss, intergenic regions) evolve. While obtaining eukaryotic nuclear genomes still presents significant challenges in terms of sequencing coverage, assembly and annotation , for photosynthetic organisms there is a more accessible alternative - their plastid genomes.
Chloroplast genomes are an attractive option for phylogenomic studies for various reasons. First of all, they are present in multiple copies in each cell, therefore chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) data is easily obtained from bulk DNA extractions. Additionally, they are relatively small in size (~100-190 kb) and exhibit low variability in gene content and (in some groups) gene arrangement , meaning that assembly and annotation are straightforward. Furthermore, the non-recombinant nature of plastids makes them a good tool when inferring ancient phylogenetic relationships .
The oldest eukaryotic fossil is believed to be a red alga (Bangiomorpha pubescens) dated as being 1.2 billion years old . However resolving the red algal tree of life has been challenging with the relationships between Florideophyceae – the most diverse class of red algae – especially difficult to resolve. While the five florideophyte subclasses are well supported, within these lineages many early-branching nodes are yet to be resolved [1, 7, 8]. A study comparing ten red algae chloroplast genomes showed the potential of plastid phylogenomics to unravel relationships among red algal classes and their constituent lineages . Among the eukaryotes with primary plastids (Archaeplastida), red algal chloroplast genomes are the most conserved and have the highest gene content [9, 10]. This is a potential perfect combination of features to resolve the ancient relationships among red algal groups: a conserved architecture of the genome, which simplifies data processing, and a high number of genes that are likely to hold enough phylogenetic signal.
A persistent problem within the Florideophyceae is found in the order Nemaliales. The Nemaliales belong to the subclass Nemaliophycideae, one of the earliest branching clades within the florideophytes. Molecular clocks suggest that the Nemaliales diverged from other Nemaliophycideae lineages approximately 200 Ma ago . There are 276 species of Nemaliales currently described distributed across 34 genera and 6 families. The Liagoraceae is the most species-rich family, followed by the Scinaiaceae and Galaxauraceae. Three monogeneric families have been recently recognised: the re-instated Nemaliaceae and the new Yamadaellaceae and Liagoropsidaceae . However, the phylogenetic relationships among these six families have not been resolved with confidence and we lack a comprehensive reference phylogeny for the group. The placement of Scinaiaceae has been contradictory in previous studies [12–14] and the relationships between the remaining families have low support . The early branches within the Liagoraceae also have low support [12, 15].
Analyses of whole cpDNA genomes greatly improved phylogenetic resolution in the green plant lineage [16–20]. Despite its promising features, chloroplast phylogenomics has not been widely applied to resolve phylogenetic relationships among red algae. The Nemaliales are a good model to assess the utility of plastid phylogenomics in red algae - an old photosynthetic group with ambiguous phylogenetic relationships.
This study aims to (1) characterize chloroplast genomes of Nemaliales, (2) use the data to reconstruct a well-supported phylogenetic tree and, based on these results, (3) revise the classification of the order and (4) evaluate the utility of chloroplast phylogenomics in red algae. Our approach consists of high-throughput sequencing of a phylogenetically diverse set of Nemaliales species, comparison of genomes across the group, and phylogenetic analyses of the complete dataset and subsets thereof.
Taxon sampling and sequencing
We selected 19 taxa representing the six families of Nemaliales and 3 closely related outgroup species from the orders Palmariales and Acrochaetiales (Table 1).
Genomic DNA was isolated from silica gel dried tissue or herbarium vouchers using an adapted CTAB protocol . In brief, samples were incubated at 60 °C for an hour in CTAB buffer with proteinase K and DNA was extracted in two subsequent steps with 24:1 chloroform:isoamyl alcohol. DNA was precipitated in 80 % isopropanol at 4 °C for 2 h and eluted in 0.1× TE buffer.
Library preparation and sequencing was performed either at the Georgia Genome Facility (University of Georgia, GA, USA) or at the Genome Center of the Cold Spring Harbor Marine Laboratory (NY, USA) using different Illumina platforms (Additional file 1). For the first sequencing run, libraries of 350 nucleotide (nt) fragments were prepared from DNA extracts of each sample using a TruSeq Nano LT kit. Each library was given a unique barcode and sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform. Because the laboratory at the University of Melbourne is carrying out chloroplast genome projects of green and red algae, for subsequent runs we pooled DNA extracts of a red and a green alga, resulting in substantial savings for library preparation. For these, libraries of 500 nt fragments were prepared using a KAPABIOSYSTEMS DNA Library Preparation Kit (KK8232) and sequenced on either HiSeq 2500 or NextSeq 500.
Assembly, annotation and synteny
Assembly and annotation followed . In brief, original sequencing reads were trimmed with CLC Genomics Workbench 7.5.1 (CLC bio, Aaarhus, Denmark) with a quality threshold of 0.05 and de novo assembly was performed in both CLC Genomics Workbench 7.5.1 and MEGAHIT v0.1.2 . In CLC, assembly was performed with automatic k-mer size and default parameters. In MEGAHIT, we used 10 kmer sizes (21–91 in steps of 10 and 99).
Chloroplast contig sequences were identified with blastx searches against a custom-built database containing known plastid genes of Florideophyceae. Contigs identified as cpDNA from Nemaliales were imported to Geneious 6.1.7 where any ambiguities were resolved by mapping original reads (medium sensitivity, up to 5 iterations). Different assemblers gave similar results, with contigs often having a different starting position in the genome. The circular-mapping nature of the genomes was predicted by mapping the end and start (~1000 bp) of a given contig to the contig inferred by the other assembler.
Gene prediction was carried out in MFannot (http://megasun.bch.umontreal.ca/cgi-bin/mfannot/mfannotInterface.pl) and Glimmer 3 , and manually inspected and annotated in Geneious 6.1.7. Considering the collinearity of red algae chloroplast genomes, visual inspection of contigs was performed simultaneously across multiple species to help identify unrecognised or misidentified genes by the automated tools. Colinearity became particularly useful for undetected genes. If the automated tools did not identify a gene in a given species, we would align that gene from all other species with the genome region where we would expect to find it. Depending on levels of similarity, alignment quality and the presence of start and stop codons, the gene was either annotated or not. Once contigs were completely annotated, coding sequences were extracted and gene alignments across species were built. These alignments were manually verified and the procedure was repeated until all remaining annotation issues (e.g. positions of start codons) were resolved.
Synteny between genomes was compared using the progressive Mauve algorithm in Geneious 6.1.7 using the full alignment option, automatically calculated seed weights and automatically calculated minimum locally collinear blocks (LCB) score.
We filtered our final gene alignments to retain only CDSs (coding DNA sequences) present in more than 6 taxa. Alignments of individual genes were performed at the amino acid level using MAFFT v7.245 and nucleotide alignments recovered based on the matching amino-acid alignment using revTrans . Both amino-acid (aa) and nucleotide alignments (nt) were checked manually in Geneious and concatenated. For both the nt and aa alignments, phylogenetic trees were estimated using maximum likelihood (ML) with RAxML v8.0.26 . We analysed both datasets from 500 randomized maximum parsimony starting trees with (1) a model suggested by a model tester (see below), and (2) a much simpler model to test if model choice would affect topology and bootstrap support. For the aa data, the ML phylogeny was inferred using both a cpREV + Γ + F model as suggested by ProtTest 3.4.1 and a simple LG + CAT model. For the nt data, estimations were done using a simple GTR + Γ model and a partitioned GTR + Γ + I model as suggested by PartitionFinder .
Data requirement simulations
In order to evaluate how much chloroplast genome data are needed to resolve the phylogeny and whether genes with different rates of evolution performed better or worse at resolving the phylogeny, we analysed subsets of the data and evaluated how support changed as a function of the size of the subset.
First, we calculated the rates of individual genes. We optimized a GTR + Γ model using the ML tree obtained from the concatenated dataset and re-calculated the branch lengths from the gene alignments. The total tree length was than divided by the length of the tree obtained from the concatenated alignment. This value reflects the rate of the gene relative to the overall rate of the protein-coding parts of the chloroplast genome, with genes >1 being faster and genes <1 slower.
Second, we performed analyses on random subsets of the alignment. For this, non-parametric bootstrapping was used to create datasets of different sizes (1 k, 2.5 k, 5 k, 10 k, 25 k, 50 k, 100 k) and those datasets were analysed using RAxML with a GTR + Γ model. The bootstrap support was summarized and plotted as a function of alignment size. Five replicate analyses each consisting of 100 bootstrapped datasets were run for each alignment size. This procedure is similar to that used by Verbruggen et al. but without extrapolation beyond the original alignment size.
Third, we extended the non-parametric bootstrapping method to evaluate how well fast, medium rate and slow genes performed in terms of inferring the phylogeny. Genes less than 800 nt were excluded for these analyses. We subdivided the remaining genes into slow, medium rate, and fast categories (using relative rate thresholds of 0.75 and 1.5). Then, genes were concatenated within each category and the procedure from the paragraph above was repeated. Alignment lengths were kept shorter (1 k, 2.5 k, 5 k, 10 k) because fewer data are available per category and after exclusion of short genes.
To resolve the Nemaliales phylogeny we assembled and characterised 17 complete and 5 draft plastid genomes. The average coverage of the plastid contigs varied between 130× in one of the Tricleocarpa contigs and 4,140× in Izziella (see Additional file 1 for sample by sample coverage). Overall samples sequenced with the NextSeq500 presented better coverage (Additional file 1). We are uncertain about the reason behind this, it could be for a number of reasons, for example, because more data was generated or because assemblers perform better with longer reads.
Of the plastid genomes we consider complete, all but one assembled into a single contig using the automatic assemblers. The exception (Actinotrichia) assembled into three contigs that showed similarity to Nemaliales’ plastid DNA. The contigs overlapped in two different positions by 892 bp and 268 bp and could be manually joined into a supercontig, and read mapping showed good coverage across the joints. Circularity could be confirmed for the supercontig and it was collinear to complete genomes of the closely related Dichotomaria and Galaxaura.
For the ingroups Tricleocarpa and Titanophycus as well as the three outgroups, chloroplast genomes were assembled into multiple contigs. We were able to join the multiple contigs manually for the three outgroups and Titanophycus but were unable to confirm their circularity. Extending the original contigs through read mapping did not result in matching ends due to ambiguities in the assembly of the ribosomal RNA cistron (rns/rnl region). Nonetheless, all genes identified in the circular mapping genomes were also present in these four draft genomes. For Tricleocarpa, contigs were short (6628 bp – 79,809 bp) and they could not be joined with confidence.
Members of the Nemaliales, Palmariales and Acrochaetiales have large, gene-dense and highly conserved chloroplast genomes. The shortest plastid in the Nemaliales was found in Galaxaura and the longest in Liagoropsis (Table 1). This difference (8349 bp) is in part due to variation in the length of genes as well as intergenic spacers. In Liagoropsis, for instance, genes are 3.5 bp longer on average and spacers 15 bp longer than in the other Nemaliales.
Despite some minor differences in gene content (described below), the overall architecture of Nemaliales chloroplast genomes suggests that there have been no rearrangement or inversion events (Fig. 1). The Mauve alignment shows a single local collinear block (LCB), revealing that cp genomes are completely syntenic across the entire order. Plastid genes were found to be in exactly the same positions and directions, and nucleotide sequences presented high levels of similarity, varying between 45.8 and 91 %.
Gene content and introns
Most Nemaliales have 195 plastid protein-coding genes, 31 tRNAs, 1 tmRNA, 3 rRNAs and 2 introns. Protein coding genes varied between 193 in Nothogenia and 197 in Galaxauraceae and Scinaia. The difference is due to occasional gene losses.
The most widely lost gene is pbsA. It is absent in Nothogenia, Trichogloeopsis, Nemalion and Yamadaella. The hypothetical protein ycf41 is absent in Hommersandiophycus and petP (ycf86) was only found in the Galaxauraceae family and in Scinaia. The hypothetical proteins ycf35 and ycf46 in Nothogenia appear to be pseudogenes having similar aa sequences but premature stop codons. The same pseudogene pattern is found for ycf21 in Yamadaellaceae, Liagoropsidaceae and Liagoraceae. tRNA-Met is present in all taxa in 3 copies.
We found two group II introns in all taxa. The one in the chlB gene and contains an intronic ORF. The second group II intron was found in one of the tRNA-Met copies.
The alignment of concatenated amino acid sequences comprised 48,470 characters of which 23,152 were variable (47.7 %) and 18,454 (79.7 %) parsimony-informative. The concatenated nucleotide alignment is 145,410 bp long, with 86,313 variable sites (59.3 %) of which 76,031 (88 %) were informative.
The ML phylogenetic trees inferred from nucleotide and amino acid datasets are identical and both present perfect bootstrap support at all nodes (Fig. 2). Model choice also did not affect the topology or support. The earliest bifurcation in the ingroup separates Galaxauraceae and Scinaiaceae from the Nemaliaceae, Liagoropsidaceae, Yamadaellaceae and Liagoraceae. Within the Galaxauraceae, Dichotomaria is the earliest branching genus and Actinotrichia and Galaxaura are recovered as sister lineages. Nemaliaceae and Liagoropsidaceae are shown to be sister families, and the same is true of Yamadaellaceae and Liagoraceae. Within the Liagoraceae, Helminthocladia and Dermonema form an early-branching clade. Hommersandiophycus clusters with Trichogloeopsis. The sister genera Titanophycus and Neoizziella are the most closely related to the Liagora + Izziella clade.
Data requirement simulations
Figure 3a shows that the relative rates of chloroplast genes vary over an order of magnitude, with the slowest genes including those commonly used for molecular phylogenetics (rbcL, psaA, psbA, psbD, psbC, atpA, atpB, tufA). The great majority of genes, however, are substantially faster than these. We have subdivided the figure into three vertical partitions to define slow, medium and fast categories of genes using arbitrary thresholds of 0.75 and 1.5. The original data for this figure can be consulted as online supporting material (Additional file 2).
Random subsampling of our entire chloroplast alignment showed that analyses with 2500 nt already achieved a high proportion of branches exceeding 90 % bootstrap support (Fig. 3b). With alignments of 10,000 nt and up, the great majority of branches had reached 100 % bootstrap support (Fig. 3b).
A similar analysis carried out on fast, medium-rate and slow genes showed that while fast and medium-rate genes rapidly achieve high bootstrap support, slow genes ramp up much more slowly (Fig. 3c). It is striking that even for alignments with 10,000 nt from slow genes, bootstrap support is inferior to alignments of just 2500 nt from fast or medium-rate genes. Trees inferred from concatenated alignments of the three rate categories recovered the same topology.
Nemaliales plastid genomes
Chloroplast genomes in the order Nemaliales are consistent with those of other red algae: they are large, gene-dense and feature a highly conserved gene order. The longest known plastid genome in red algae are found in the Bangiophyceae with the longest being Porphyra pulchra with ~194 kb followed by the coralline Sporolithon durum with ~191 kb . Liagoropsis is the third longest plastid genome described so far with ~189 kb. The difference in plastid size within the order is only ~8000 bp, and even the smallest among them (Galaxaura) still rank among the largest plastid genomes of Archaeplastida .
Within Nemaliales families, the earliest divergent clades typically exhibit longer plastid genomes. However, this is not a result of differing gene content. Gene composition is highly conserved with only five genes absent in some of the taxa. The differences in genome sizes are caused mostly by changes in the length of non-coding regions. For example, within Liagoraceae, the Liagora lineage has reduced intergenic spacers when compared to Helminthocladia or Dermonema; the same is true within Galaxauraceae, where the lineage Actinotrichia + Galaxaura present shorter intergenic regions when compared to Dichotomaria (Additional file 1). This pattern could be of evolutionary interest in the light of the ‘lower-cost strategy’ and faster replication of plastids .
The only gene missing from several Nemaliales taxa is pbsA, an important gene involved in the production of phycobilins, the light-harvesting proteins characteristic of red algae . This gene has been lost in several taxa in the Rhodomelaceae as well (P. Diaz Tapia, personal communication) but other than that has never been reported missing from florideophyte plastids. In the unicelular Cyanidiophyceae, the earliest divergent class of red algae, it has been found in the nucleus instead [35, 36] but phylogenetic inferences showed that this nuclear pbsA gene is more closely related to nuclear pbsA from green plant lineage than to plastid pbsA of other red algae . This suggests that the Cyanidiophyceae nuclear pbsA gene was not transferred from the plastid. We cannot confirm whether pbsA has been transferred to the nucleus in Nemaliales.
petP is a subunit of the cytochrome b 6 f complex with no essential role in the overall function of the complex . It has been identified in cyanobacteria and in bangiophytes but it is apparently absent in green algae and land plants . It is found in Chondrus and Grateloupia [9, 39], and in this study in the Galaxauraceae and Scinaia. This suggests that it might have been lost twice within the Nemaliales: once in Nothogenia and once in the ancestor of the Nemaliaceae + Liagoropsidaceae + Yamadaellaceae + Liagoraceae clade.
The third missing gene, absent in Hommersandiophycus, is ycf41. Ycf41 is a hypothetical protein of unknown function that has been annotated in heterokonts and in all florideophytes’ plastid genomes with the exception of Laurencia in the Rhodomelaceae .
Three pseudogenes are found in the Nemaliales. The function of ycf21 is unknown and it was also found as a pseudogene in Sporolithon durum . The function of ycf35 and ycf46 genes is still uncertain but they are thought to be involved in CO2 uptake and utilization . These genes are present in cyanobacteria and other eukaryotic algae but have been lost in green plants [40–43]. Within the florideophytes they have only been reported absent in the coralline Calliarthron .
Gene loss in red algal plastids is rare and there is no apparent functional relationship between genes being lost, suggesting it is a stochastic process. Apart from pbsA, the genes not found in some Nemaliales taxa are either of unknown function or play no essential role.
Red algal plastids present an uncommonly low number of introns [9, 10] and only two group II introns were found in the Nemaliales. Group II introns are found in bacterial, chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes, are self-splicing and are believed to be the ancestor of spliceosomal introns [44, 45], which are considered to be crucial in the evolution of eukaryotes . One of these introns was found in the tRNA-Met gene in all taxa. This intron is present in all other florideophyte plastids described to date [9, 22] but not for the classes Cyanidiophyceae, Porphyridiophyceae and Bangiophyceae [47–49]. Despite being uncommon in plastid tRNAs, group II introns appear to be retained once they are acquired which suggests that this intron was gained by a Florideophyceae ancestor. A second group II intron was found in the chlB gene that together with chlN and chlL encodes for the LIPOR enzyme responsible for chlorophyll synthesis in the absence of light . This gene complex has been lost extensively across different photosynthetic eukaryotic lineages with no evidence of it being transferred to the nucleus . It was also widely lost in florideophytes. They were only reported in this study and in the Corallinales [9, 10]. Following the divergence of Hildenbrandiophyceae, the Coralinales and Nemaliales are the earliest divergent clades in the Florideophyceae suggesting that the loss of the LIPOR complex happened later in the evolution of the group. These three lineages also happen to be the only calcified florideophytes, which might explain the preservation of a complex for light-independent chlorophyll synthesis. However, if the LIPOR complex is present, always has this group II intron in chlB gene, that along with the tRNA-Met intron, could have been acquired when the florideophytes diverged from the other red algal lineages.
It is still not understood which phenomena are causing such high level of conservatism in red plastids. It seems likely that most of the genes found in the plastid across all red algae are essential for plastid function, but in other algal lineages part of these genes have been transferred to the nucleus.
Phylogeny of Nemaliales
Our phylogeny confirms that the Nemaliales is comprised of six families. Scinaiaceae, Galaxauraceae and Liagoraceae are long-recognised families and the early branching nature of the recently resurrected Nemaliaceae and the newly proposed Yamadaellaceae and Liagoropsidaceae supports their recognition at a high taxonomic level.
The three new families were proposed based on a concatenated dataset of psaA and rbcL . Our larger dataset improves the resolution at deep nodes thus we can confidently confirm their relationships. The Yamadaellaceae and Liagoropsidaceae develop multiple initial gonimoblasts per zygote, whereas in the Liagoraceae and Nemaliaceae a single one is produced . Considering that Galaxauraceae and Scinaiaceae [53, 55] zygotes produce a single initial gonimoblast it is likely that this was the ancestral state and that the production of multiple gonimoblasts was independently acquired by Yamadaellaceae and Liagoropsidaceae.
The placement of Scinaiaceae has been a controversial node in phylogenetic studies [12–14]. It is now clear that this exclusively non-calcified family is more closely related to the exclusively calcified Galaxauraceae than to any other family.
This phylogenomics approach also revealed to be useful at lower taxonomic levels. Within Galaxauraceae, Dichotomaria is the earliest diverging genus and Tricleocarpa position within the family is finally resolved showing that Actinotrichia and Galaxaura are sister lineages. These relationships were contradictory and had low support in recent multi-gene phylogenies [14, 56].
In Liagoraceae, the overall topology of our ML tree is mostly concordant to recent phylogenies of the family of both plastid and nuclear markers [12, 15] but where previously support was low to weak, our tree is resolved at all levels. The non-calcified Helminthocladia and Dermonema form the earliest divergent clade within the Liagoraceae. It is interesting to consider that these deeper branching genera were once accepted as the type genus’ of two distinct families: Helminthocladiaceae and Dermonemataceae , respectively. As previously shown, the newly described genus Hommersandiohycus clusters with Trichogloeopsis. Helminthora in our tree represents a lineage of its own but previous studies have shown that it clusters with high support with Cumagloia [12, 59, 60], a genus not included in our analysis. Curiously, Liagora, the generitype and the most diverse genus in the family diverged later within the clade.
Re-classification of Nemaliales
The fact that our ML inference is fully supported across all taxonomic levels allows us to propose a more refined classification with high confidence. Therefore we suggest taxonomic rearrangement of the Nemaliales order to be composed of two sub-orders: the Galaxaurineae for the Galaxauraceae and Scinaiaceae and the Nemaliineae for the remaining families.
Galaxaurineae J.F. Costa, S.M. Lin, E.C. Macaya, C. Fernández-García, H. Verbruggen subordo nov.
Diagnosis: Recognized primarily based on monophyly in phylogenetic trees derived from chloroplast genome data. Members form a single intial gonimoblast from the zygote, and carposporophytes are immersed in conceptacles covered with a consolidated pericarp. Two families, Galaxauraceae and Scinaiaceae, are included. The morphological features used for separating genera mainly including a combination of cortex morphology, the heteromorphic, dimorphic or isomorphic life history whether or not involucral/sterile filaments intermixing with gonimoblasts.
Genera included in suborder
Galaxaura Lamouroux (type genus)
Tricleocarpa Huisman & Borowitzka
Whidbeyella Setchell & N. L. Gardner
Nemaliineae J.F. Costa, S.M. Lin, E.C. Macaya, C. Fernández-García, H. Verbruggen subordo nov.
Diagnosis: Recognized primarily based on monophyly in phylogenetic trees derived from chloroplast genome data. Members form single or multiple primary gonimoblasts. Carposporophytes are naked or with an unconsolidated involucre of filaments. Four families, Nemaliaceae, Liagoraceae, Yamadaellaceae, and Liagoropsidaceae, are included. The number of gonimoblast initials and cell division orientation of zygotes are the most important morphological criteria for separating the families in the suborder. The morphological features used for separating genera mainly including a combination of thallus whether or not calcified, whether or not involucral/sterile filaments intermixing with gonimoblasts, involucral/sterile filaments morphologies and where they being produced, whether or not cells of carpogonial branch fused, morphologies of carposporophytes and carposporangia.
Genera included in suborder
Nemalion Duby (type genus)
Akalaphycus Huisman, I.A. Abbott & A. R. Sherwood
Cumagloia Setchell & N. L. Gardner
Dermonema Harvey ex Heydrich
Dotyophycus I. A. Abbott
Ganonema K. C. Fan & Yung-C. Wang
Gloiocalis S.-M. Lin, Huisman & D. L. Ballantine
Gloiotrichus Huisman & Kraft
Hommersandiophycus S.- M. Lin & Huisman
Macrocarpus S.-M. Lin, S. Y. Yang & Huisman
Neoizziella S.-M. Lin, S. Y. Yang & Huisman
Sinocladia C. K. Tseng & W. Li
Stenopeltis Itono & Yoshizaki
Titanophycus Huisman, G. W. Saunders & A. R. Sherwood
Trichogloeopsis I. A. Abbott & Doty
Yoshizakia S.-M. Lin, Huisman & C. Payri
Yamadaella I. A. Abbott
Plastid phylogenomics in red algae
This study shows that chloroplast genomes are a useful source of data to resolve phylogenetic relationships in red algae. The highly conserved nature of these genomes streamlines the assembly and annotation process. Our study, with denser sampling within a single order, along with other studies, with sparser but broader sampling, show that chloroplast genomes provide power to resolve phylogenetic relationships at all levels. We clearly demonstrated that the medium-rate and rapidly evolving plastid genes resolve phylogenetic relationships within the order for alignments as short as 2500 bp, while slow genes had much poorer performance. While the medium and fast evolving genes reached 100 bootstrap values for all but one node (Additional file 3), the slow genes only recovered 70 % of the nodes with full support. Two of these nodes had a bootstrap value lower than 60, which would be considered as inconclusive in molecular phylogenies. The choice of these slow evolving markers made sense in the early days of molecular phylogenetics when data generation was dependent on PCR amplification but in this HTS era we have easy access to more informative genes. Even for projects with limited budgets, employing HTS to obtain lower-coverage data from plastid genomes would seem like a reasonable strategy. While such data may not permit complete assembly of the genomes, the gene data derived from smaller contigs can be extracted and used in phylogenetic analysis. Considering that our analyses of subsamples of data yielded great support for alignments > 2500 nt, incompleteness of the datasets seems unlikely to result in major decreases in phylogenetic support.
We should highlight that 17 of our 22 taxa were pooled with a green algae species prior to library preparation and we were still able to confidently assembly entire plastids for most of them. This reflects an obvious lower cost per sample with similar outcomes. However, we did notice that high quality DNA is required when using HTS techniques (ratios of ~1.8 and ~2.0-2.2 for absorbance between 260 nm and 280 nm, and 260 nm and 230 nm, respectively). The major difficulty in isolating high quality DNA in algae is related to the level of polysaccharides and polyphenols present in the tissue . If not totally removed these compounds can interfere and inhibit downstream applications . We found that our adapted CTAB protocol resulted in good quality genomic DNA for HTS purposes in most of our target species but experiments with other red algae indicate that this cannot be generalized (unpublished results), and it is worthwhile to carry out trials prior to large-scale HTS projects .
It is also worth noting that while our study focused on chloroplast DNA, total genomic DNA was sequenced, yielding useful additional data from the mitochondrion and nucleus that can be used for phylogenetics. This means that from the same HTS data many other questions can be addressed with no extra cost and limited extra labour.
We showed that chloroplast phylogenomics is an attractive approach for phylogenetic studies in red algae: not only because they are highly conserved, and thus straightforward to work with, but also because their plastids contain enough signal to solve phylogenetic relationships across taxonomic levels. Moreover considering the key role of red plastids in the emergence of the eukaryotic cell, the generation of more HTS data for distinct red algal groups can shed light on eukaryote evolution.
Coding DNA sequence
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We would like to thank Robert Anderson, Barret L. Brooks, Olivier De Clerck, Eric Coppejans, Fabio Rindi and Tom Schils for kindly providing us with samples.
Funding was provided by the Australian Research Council (FT110100585 to HV), the Australian Biological Resources Study (RFL213-08 to HV) and the University of Melbourne (MIRS/MIFRS to JFC and FAPESP/UOM SPRINT grant to HV). EM was supported by Grant NC120030 from the Millennium Scientific Initiative.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated and analysed in this study are available at the European Nucleotide Archive repository (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena), study accession number: PRJEB14925; and TreeBase (https://treebase.org).
HV conceived the project. Fieldwork was carried out by HV, SML, EM, CF and acknowledged colleagues. Design, data generation and analysis were performed by JFC and HV. JFC drafted the manuscript and all authors contributed to the writing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Consent for publication
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Summary table of sequencing and assembly information per sample. Illumina platform used for each sample is discriminated with the correspondent length of individual reads in brackets. Number of paired-end reads (PE reads) generated for each sample in millions (M). Average, minimum and maximum coverage per contig is shown. (XLSX 44 kb)
Details of individual evolutionary relative rates per gene: slow category (<0.75), medium category (0.75-1.5) and fast category (>1.5). All genes are represented but for further analysis only alignments ≥ 800 bp were considered. (XLSX 41 kb)
Maximum likelihood aa trees estimated for the different gene rate categories showing full support for every node for fast category, a single node < 100 bootstrap for the medium and weak support for multiple nodes in the slow rate category. (PDF 841 kb) | <urn:uuid:44b7287b-a62b-40cd-97e8-fead901a5893> | {
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It will be months until scientists know if the few survivors of Bucks County’s largest bat population are still alive and reproducing.
When Pennsylvania Game Commission wildlife biologist Greg Turner last checked on Upper Bucks’ bats in the spring of 2011, he found near devastation.
The Durham bat mine was the second largest known bat habitat in Pennsylvania. Now, the ability of about 50 bats to resist the white nose syndrome, make it through the winter and reproduce this summer will determine the future of bats in Bucks County for generations.
If those juveniles are healthy, it could indicate that the surviving bats have a genetic trait or carry a bacteria on their skin that helps the bat to overcome or become immune to the disease, said Turner.
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If you think you can’t get breast cancer because it doesn’t run in your family, think again. Most women with breast cancer have no family history of it and are not considered high risk. But there are ways to protect yourself:
1. Stop smoking. People who smoke for 10 years or more are at least 16 percent more likely than nonsmokers to develop breast cancer, according to a recent study.
2. Maintain a healthy weight. Extra pounds increase the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer and recurrence of breast cancer, as demonstrated by numerous studies.
3. Limit alcohol to three or four drinks a week. Research suggests that even one drink per day can raise breast cancer risk.
4. Exercise regularly. Just two to three hours of exercise a week not only helps to maintain a healthy weight, but also can lower estrogen levels and boost immunity. And if you do get breast cancer, keep moving. One study shows that breast cancer survivors who exercise at least two hours a week have a 40 percent lower risk of dying from the disease.
5. Get a mammogram. Research shows that the risk from exposure to mammogram radiation is even lower than previously thought. Newer digital mammograms use about 22 percent less radiation than traditional imaging. Digital mammography’s sharper images reduce the need for repeat tests, too.
If discomfort keeps you from scheduling a mammogram, read next Friday’s blog post to learn how mammograms can prevent pain in the long run. In the meantime, do you ever struggle to follow stay-healthy advice? Share your tips for staying on track in the comments. | <urn:uuid:7226bbd4-61f1-47c3-ac9b-d289bebf9481> | {
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- ABOUT JIPO
- TRADE MARKS
- GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS
- TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
What is Intellectual Property?
Intellectual Property refers to original creations of the mind such as poetry, choreography, jewellery designs, business signs, and inventions.
These original expressions are recognised as items of value and worthy of protection through Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs’).
Similar to rights given to proprietors of traditional forms of tangible property (e.g. land, house), creators and innovators are owners of their creative works and have exclusive control over the exploitation of their works for the period of time prescribed by law.
There are different types of IP which apply based on the nature of the creative expression, however, it is possible for a single work to be protected concurrently by more than one type of IP.
Intellectual Property is divided into two main categories:
- Industrial Property covering industrial designs, trademarks, geographical indications, and patents.
- Copyright and Related Rights.
A third subject-area currently under discussion and development is the protection of Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Cultural Expressions and Genetic Resources.
The protection of Intellectual Property Rights is important to:
(i) acknowledge and appreciate the creative expression of the human imagination,
(ii) empower creative persons to earn an equitable remuneration from the use of their talents,
(iii) encourage investment in further innovation and new creations which in turn benefit the general society.
'An efficient and equitable intellectual property system can help all countries realise IP’s potential as a powerful tool for economic development and social and cultural well-being. The intellectual property system helps strike a balance between the interests of the innovator and the public interest, providing an environment in which creativity and invention can flourish, to the benefit of all.’ | <urn:uuid:fedac14d-a2c8-4b61-a3b9-89e59afcbe12> | {
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Photo: The Robert J Walker’s unique paddlewheel flanges helped to identify the wreck Photo: NOAA
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has identified the wreck of a steamer 153 years after it was lost in a violent collision at sea.
Robert J Walker was a steamer that served in the US Coast Survey, a predecessor agency of NOAA. It served a vital role in charting the Gulf Coast, including the Florida Keys, in the decade before the Civil War.
Observations by NOAA’s Maritime Heritage programme’s dive team confirmed the identity of the wreck, which lies 85 feet down off the coast of New Jersey, by various criteria, including the ship’s unique paddlewheel flanges.
Other key clues were the size and layout of the wreck, its unique engines, regular portholes and the location of the ship – which was found still pointing towards the Abescon lighthouse, which the crew were desperately trying to reach as the vessel was sinking,
The team, on board the NOAA vessel Thomas Jefferson identified the wreck after deploying its multibeam and sidescan sonar systems while in the area to conduct hydrographic surveys following Hurricane Sandy.
The project was part of a private-public collaborative that included research between between New Jersey divers, East Carolina University and NOAA.
The wreck was originally identified in the 1970s by commercial fishermen but has remained an anonymous symbol on navigational charts until now.
NOAA says that it doesn’t intend to limit diving off the wreck but to work with New Jersey divers to better understand the wreck. | <urn:uuid:149ac4c2-1af2-4124-b8e2-03898703db68> | {
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Glossary of Psych concepts Ch 8 - Cognition and Language
Other Decks By This User
- Susan and her friends are standing in her office looking for her keys. Suddenly, Dave calls out, HEY! and throws her the keys. The time it takes Susan to look up and get ready to catch the keys after hearing Dave call out is know as what?
- reaction time
- THe tennis player who knows that her opponent usually serves to a particular spot on the court will have a simple decision to make when the serve is completed and will react rapidly. But if she faces an opponent whose serve is less predictable her reacti
- A pot starts to boil over . The reaction time in turning down the heat will depend in part on the stove's design. If the knob is right next to the pot than your reaction time will be faster.
- stimulus-response compatibility
- Sprinters who try too hard to anticipate the starting gun may have especially quick starts but may also have especially frequent false starts that disqualify them.
- speed-accuracy tradeoff
- YOur reaction time will be shorter when braking for a traffic light that you knew might turn red than when dodging a ball thrown at you out of nowhere.
- Vicky asked Mary "how to do you get to the Union?" Mary pictured all the buildings next to the Union to help explain to Vicky how to get there.
- cognitive maps
- Terry pictured Jess in a clown suit and laughed, here thought was called an...
- mental image
- A ball is round. Therefore anything that is not round is not a ball.
- formal concepts
- the concept of a bird is "ability of fly" but an ostrich is a bird that cannot fly, although some birds have other features than other birds like feathers, wings, etc. there still a bird.
- natural concepts
- It takes less time to answer the question " Is the robin a bird?" than "Is a penguin a bird?" because a robin has more characterics or features of a bird than does a peguin who is also a bird but with less of those things.
- The moment Kala mentions a basketball game...I think of a ball and players
- WHen you go to a restaurant there's a sequence of events you can expect when you go out to eat. You'll know what to do, when to order, and when to pay.
- Carla likes to buy flowers. These are two concepts that have a relationship with eachother. (Carla and flowers)
- All cats are mammals, and all people are mammals. Therefore, all cats are people.
- Tim thought that the probablity of being mugged in Los Angeles is 90 percent and then heard evidence that the figure was closer to 1 percent , he might reduce his estimate, but only to 80 percent, so his judgement would still be way off.
- anchoring heuristics
- Fred encountered a man who is tidy,small in stature, wears glasssses, speaks quietly,and is somewhat shy. He was asked whether this person is more likely to be a librarian or a farmer? he choosed farmer but he is likely to be wrong because there might be
- representativeness heuristic
- a friend of yours has just moved to New York City. You cannot understand why he has moved there since the crime rate is so high. You hear from a mutual acquaintance that your friend is in the hospital. You assume that he was probably mugged because this
- availability heuristic
- Some students apply this approach to the problem of writing a major term paper. The task might seem overwhelming at first, but their first subgoal is simply to write an outline of what they think the paper should cover.
- means-end analysis also known as decomposition
- Lets say you have the solution to a problem. Go from there and plan out the strategies all the way to the beginning.
- working backwards
- Sarah had a problem and she didnt not know how to solve it right away so she sat the problem to the side for a while and worked on other things. As she begin to work on other things she came up with a solution to her problem after a while.
- A supervisor may find, that a seemingly hopeless problem between co-workers may be resolved by the same compromise that worked during a recent family squabble.
- The last time his CD player door wouldn't open Dave tapped the front of it and it popped open. This time when it wont open, Dave does does the same thing-not noticing that the power isn't even on!
- mental sets
- Nina fails to use use the things in her environment of her kitchen to use to get her moms ring out of the sink drain because she thinks the objects such as a knife are only used for cutting food.
- functional fixedness
- Doctors choose their first hypothesis on the basis of observed symptoms and then order tests or evaluate additonal symptoms to confirm or refute that hypothesis.
Involves anchoring to an initial hypothesis and being unwilling to abandon it.
- confirmation bias
- A hitman sends a threat letter to the famous singer. She sees it as a joke, and doesnt tell anybody. Few days letter the hitman as put her in hospital.
- ignoring negative evidence
- If, for instance finishing a degree quickly is most important to you, then you might choose courses based mainly on graduation requirements, without giving much consideration to professors' reputation
- THe ______ of an attribute is its subjective, personal value. Juan prefers large classes because he likes the stimulation of hearing many opposing viewspoints.....
- If you flip a coin and it comes up heads ten times in the row, the chance that it will come up heads on the eleventh try is still 50 percent.
- gambler's fallacy
- People usually feel worse about losing a certain amount than they feel good about gaining the same amount is called...
- loss aversion
- The tendency toward extreme desicions by groups.
- group polarization
- Compared with beginners ________ are better able to relate new information and new experiences and existing knowledge.
- Expert knowledge
- A field that seeks to develop computers that intimate the processes of human perception and thought.
- Arificial Intelligence
- the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech. ex: tea has a different meaning from sea.
- the smallest unit of language that has meaning. For example: dog, run, ed, and un....have meaning because they can represent the past or the opposite of a word.
- A subject and a ver must be combined in a sentence. For example, The cat jumped over the bush.
THese words are put together and form a sentence
- The order in which words are arranged. For example : The shooting of the psychologist was terrible.
- surface structure
- The relationship of the words in a sentence. For example : The shooting of the pyschologist was terrible. Theres two meaning to this sentence. shooting as in (gun shot) or shooting as in (playing basketball)
- deep structure
- the first sounds an infant make resembles speech. Ex. Ba-Ba
- Laura says "ba" to stand for bottle, ball, and anything else that starts with a B.
- one-word stage
- Brief sentences with words left out from a child. Ex: "Mommy give" or "Mommy Book"
- Telegraphic speech
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Web-Based GIS Helps "City of Trees" Recover
Buffalo, New York, Urban Tree Management Evolves from Surprise Storm
On October 13, 2006, a historic lake-effect snowstorm surprised the city of Buffalo, New York, dumping more than two feet of snow overnight. Two days later, president George W. Bush issued a major disaster declaration for the city and surrounding areas. Federal aid was made available to assist in recovery efforts.
Located on the northeast shore of Lake Erie, Buffalo sees an average of more than 93 inches of snow each year. This particular storm event was unique because it happened in early October; most major snowfall does not occur until late November or early December. As a result of this snowstorm, there was widespread damage to roughly 85 percent of the area's trees. This damage was a result of vertical snow loading on fully canopied trees, causing limbs to structurally fail. The falling branches caused excessive damage to cars, houses, and power lines, leaving nearly 400,000 residents in more than 100,000 homes without power for several days.
Known as the "City of Trees," the city of Buffalo has maintained a complete urban forest inventory since 2001. This inventory includes all city-owned trees that reside in the public rights-of-way between the curb and sidewalk and also all trees in the city parks. There are 68,000 trees and 108,000 locations included in the tree inventory.
After the October storm and the initial clearing of fallen trees and tree branches from the roadways, the city started assessing the condition of the urban forest. Within the first few days after the storm, the city realized that a new system would have to be implemented to assess and inventory all damaged trees throughout the city. The existing tree inventory management system in place at the time of the storm was not capable of supporting the effort needed to assess and update the inventory on such a large scale. Before the October storm, many of the tasks needed to manage the tree inventory were completed using a paper-based system involving the use of paper tickets. Hours of data entry into a central database was necessary after information was recorded on paper forms out in the field. Another consideration for the development of a new system was to improve the city's chances to qualify and receive maximum funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the several-month-long poststorm cleanup effort.
Urban Forest Specialists and GIS Professionals
Wendel Duchscherer Architects & Engineers, with headquarters in Amherst, New York, has been the city's urban forest manager since 2005, responsible for day-to-day maintenance and management of the tree inventory. This includes the issuance and management of annual trimming, planting, and removal contracts; handling citizen complaints regarding street trees; inspecting contractor work; and inspecting and updating information on each individual street tree in the inventory.
The firm's urban forest specialists and GIS professionals collaborated to develop a GIS-based tree management program to answer the urgent and comprehensive needs of the city resulting from the weather disaster. The program was called Urban ForesTREE Management and was developed utilizing a combination of ArcGIS Server and ArcIMS technologies. When the initial development started two weeks after the storm, four separate groups were identified as primary users of the program: contractors, inspectors, city officials, and the urban forest manager. Each group had a customized Web-based GIS site developed to fit the particular needs and requirements of the work that was completed. By having each site use the same central database, work that was completed on one group's site instantly updated the information on the other three sites. This prevented errors caused by lack of information or delaying communication to the decision makers.
The first task after the storm cleanup was to inventory all the damaged trees of the 68,000 existing trees owned by the city. An ArcIMS application was developed by Wendel Duchscherer to run on a Pocket PC that inspectors used in the field to enter data. One of the main considerations when development started was the elimination of paper forms. These forms were re-created as editable Active Server Page (ASP) forms and integrated into the ArcIMS site. This not only helped the field-workers with organization, it also eliminated the need for office personnel to enter the data into the central database. General reference layers (e.g., parcels, aerial photography, roads) were added to the application to help inspectors reference their location when in the field. Through this application, inspectors were able to select a tree on the map and enter updated information directly into the central database. There were up to 10 inspectors in the field at one time after the storm. Another benefit of this system was the real-time display of completed work. Project decision makers and city officials were able to view daily progress and all detailed field information.
Once the damaged trees were assessed, they were added to either trimming or removal contracts. The firm then developed another ArcIMS application to help contractors mobilize their crews and track and locate the trees on each particular contract. Organization of the individual contractor information was critical, as more than 100 field crews were working throughout the city at any one time. The ArcIMS site provided the contractors with a map and list of the trees for each of their individual contracts. When work on a tree was completed, the contractor was able to request inspection of the tree through the Web site; the inspection request would be instantly added to the Web application, allowing inspectors already mobilized in the field to visit and inspect completed work sites on a more timely basis. This not only automated the scheduling and work assignments for the inspectors but also expedited the verification and payment process for the contractors.
The most complex parts of managing the city of Buffalo's urban forest is editing tree locations and attributes, along with handling complaints submitted by the public. Wendel Duchscherer developed an ArcGIS Web Mapping Application (WMA) designed to efficiently meet these challenges. The urban forest manager needs the ability to edit the location and associated attributes of every tree in the inventory. A tree information tool allows viewing and editing of each tree simply by selecting the tree through the mapping interface. Individual trees can also be added to selected contracts while in the field, eliminating the need to create the contract information at a later time.
The city's Web site has a citizen Call and Resolution Center where residents can submit complaints related to city services. Any complaints about city trees are entered into the system by geocoding the address entered on the Web complaint form. These geocoded locations are populated on the WMA site through a nightly automation process. A custom tool was developed that allows the urban forest manager to select an individual complaint and enter the various attributes recorded for response to the complaint.
The October storm caused unprecedented damage to the city of Buffalo's tree population and, at the same time, changed the management of its urban forest. The GIS-based Urban ForesTREE Management program now provides the city with an innovative system to manage and maintain its urban forest more effectively and efficiently than everand saves the city money, which is being reallocated to repopulate the trees that were lost as a result of the storm.
For more information, contact Art Traver, urban forest manager for the City of Buffalo (e-mail: [email protected]), or Jake Needle, GIS manager, Wendel Duchscherer (e-mail: [email protected], tel.: 716-688-0766). | <urn:uuid:94333960-560d-4464-b352-ea1c1944eaae> | {
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Thrace (Gr. Thracia, Per. Skudra): A non-Greek (`barbarian') country or region north of the Aegean, called Thrace by the Greeks and Skudra by the Persians. Thrace was overrun by Darius I and Xerxes I and added to the Persian empire. Under the Roman Empire Thrace was independent but finally became a province during the reign of Vespasian (69-79 A.D.).
Thrace (Bulgarian: Тракия, Trakiya, Greek: Θράκη, Thráki, Turkish:
Trakya) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a
geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains
on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the
Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east. The areas it comprises are
southeastern Bulgaria (Northern Thrace), northeastern Greece (Western Thrace),
and the European part of Turkey (Eastern Thrace). The biggest part of Thrace is
part of present-day Bulgaria. In Bulgaria and Turkey, it is also called Rumelia.
The name comes from the Thracians, an ancient Indo-European people inhabiting
Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe.
Ancient History of Thrace. The indigenous population of Thrace was a people called the Thracians, divided into numerous tribal groups. Thracian troops were known to accompany neighboring ruler Alexander the Great when he crossed the Hellespont which abuts Thrace, and took on the Persian Empire of the day.The Thracians did not describe themselves as such and Thrace and Thracians are simply the names given them by the Greeks. Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not manage to form a lasting political organization until the Odrysian state was founded in the 4th century BC. Like Illyrians, Thracian tribes of the mountainous regions fostered a locally ruled warrior tradition, while the tribes based in the plains were purportedly more peaceable. Recently discovered funeral mounds in Bulgaria suggest that Thracian kings did rule regions of Thrace with distinct Thracian national identity. During this period, a subculture of celibate ascetics called the Ctistae lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests and prophets. - Wikipedia
Thracia, a country of Europe, extending generally between Strymon fl. and Danubius fl. from w. to E. and bet. Hsemus m. and the jEgean, the Euxine and the Propontis from N. to S. Specially, bounded N. by Moesia, S. by the AEgean and the Propontis, W. by Macedonia, E. by the Euxine. Annexed to Macedonia 336 B.C., to Rome 168 B.C. Roumelia. Thracium mare, the portion of the Aegean washing the coast of Thrace. - Classical Gazetteer
Maps are essential for any serious study, they help students of Roman history understand the geographical locations and historical backgrounds of the places mentioned in historical sources.
Thracia (Θρᾴκη, Ion. Θρῄκη). In earlier times the name of the vast space of country bounded on the north by the Danube, on the south by the Propontis and the Aegaean, on the east by the Pontus Euxinus, and on the west by the river Strymon and the easternmost of the Illyrian tribes. It was divided into two parts by Mount Haemus (the Balkan), running from west to east, and separating the plain of the lower Danube from the rivers which fall into the Aegaean. Its plains are drained by the Hebrus, the largest river in Thrace. At a later time the name Thrace was applied to a more limited extent of country. The district between the Strymon and the Nestus was added to Macedonia by Philip, and was usually called Macedonia Adiecta. Under Augustus the part of the country north of the Haemus was made a separate Roman province under the name of Moesia (see Moesia); but the district between the Strymon and the Nestus had been previously restored to Thrace by the Romans. The Roman province of Thrace was accordingly bounded on the west by the river Nestus; on the north by Mount Haemus, which divided it from Moesia; on the east by the Euxine, and on the south by the Propontis and Aegean.
Thrace, in its widest extent, was peopled in the times of Herodotus and
Thucydides by a vast number of different tribes; but their customs and
characters were marked by great uniformity. Herodotus says that, next to the
Indians, the Thracians were the most numerous of all races, and if united under
one head would have been irresistible. He describes them as a savage, cruel, and
rapacious people, delighting in blood, but brave and warlike. According to his
account, which is confirmed by other writers, the Thracian chiefs sold their
children for exportation to the foreign merchant; they purchased their wives
from their parents; they punctured or tattooed their bodies and those of the
women belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth; they despised agriculture,
and considered it most honourable to live by war and robbery. Deep drinking
prevailed among them extensively (Hor. Carm. i. 27). They worshipped deities
whom the Greeks assimilated to Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis: the great sanctuary
and oracle of their god Dionysus was in one of the loftiest summits of Mount
Rhodopé. The tribes on the southern coast attained to some degree of
civilization, owing to the numerous Greek colonies which were founded in their
vicinity; but the tribes in the interior seem to have retained their savage
habits, with little mitigation, down to the time of the Roman Empire. In earlier
times, however, some of the Thracian tribes must have been distinguished by a
higher degree of civilization than prevailed among them at a later period. The
earliest Greek poets, Orpheus, Linus , Musaeus, and others, are all represented
as coming from Thrace. Eumolpus, likewise, who founded the Eleusinian Mysteries
at Attica, is said to have been a Thracian, and to have fought against Erectheus,
king of Athens. We also find mention of the Thracians in other parts of southern
Greece: thus they are said to have once dwelt both in Phocis and Boeotia. They
were also spread over a part of Asia: the Thynians and Bithynians, and perhaps
also the Mysians, were members of the great Thracian race. Even Xenophon speaks
of Thrace in Asia, which extended along the Asiatic side of the Bosporus, as far
The principal Greek colonies along the coast, beginning at the Strymon and going eastwards, were Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon; Abdera, a little to the west of the Nestus; Dicaea or Dicaepolis, a settlement of Maronea; Maronea itself, colonized by the Chians; Strymé, a colony of the Thasians; Mesembria, founded by the Samothracians; and Aenos, a Lesbian colony at the mouth of the Hebrus. The Thracian Chersonesus was probably colonized by the Greeks at an early period, but it did not contain any important Greek settlement till the migration of the first Miltiades to the country, during the reign of Pisistratus at Athens. On the Propontis the two chief Greek settlements were those of Perinthus and Selymbria; and on the Thracian Bosporus was the important town of Byzantium. There were only a few Greek settlements on the southwestern coast of the Euxine; the most important were those of Apollonia, Odessus, Callatis, Tomi, renowned as the place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, near the southern mouth of the Danube.
The Thracians are said to have been conquered by Sesostris, king of Egypt, and subsequently to have been subdued by the Teucrians and Mysians; but the first really historical fact respecting them is their subjugation by Megabazus, the general of Darius. After the Persians had been driven out of Europe by the Greeks, the Thracians recovered their independence; and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, almost all the Thracian tribes were united under the dominion of Sitalces, king of the Odrysae, whose kingdom extended from Abdera to the Euxine and the mouth of the Danube. In the third year of the Peloponnesian War (B.C. 429), Sitalces, who had entered into an alliance with the Athenians, invaded Macedonia with a vast army of 150,000 men, but was compelled by the failure of provisions to return home, after remaining in Macedonia thirty days. Sitalces fell in battle against the Triballi in 424, and was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes, who during a long reign raised his kingdom to a height of power and prosperity which it had never previously attained, so that his regular revenues amounted to the annual sum of 400 talents, in addition to contributions of gold and silver in the form of presents, to a nearly equal amount. After the death of Seuthes, which appears to have happened a little before the close of the Peloponnesian War, we find his powerful kingdom split up into different parts; and when Xenophon, with the remains of the 10,000 Greeks, arrived on the opposite coast of Asia, another Senthes applied to him for assistance to reinstate him in his dominions. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, reduced the greater part of Thrace; and after the death of Alexander the country fell to the share of Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a part of the Macedonian dominions, but it continued to be governed by its native princes, and was only nominally subject to the Macedonian monarchs. Even under the Romans Thrace was for a long time governed by its own chiefs; and we do not know at what period it was made into a Roman province. - Harry Thurston Peck. Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York. Harper and Brothers.
THRA´CIA Θρᾳκία (Θρῄκη, Hom.; Θρηϊκίη, Hdt. 1.168, or Θρηΐκη, 4.99; Attic, Θρᾴκη: Eth. Θρῆϊξ, Hom.; Eth. Θρήϊξ, Hdt. 8.116; Eth. Θράκιος, Eth. Θρᾴκιος, Θρᾶξ, Attic Eth. Θρᾷξ; Trag. Θρῇξ: Thrax, Threx, the latter form being chiefly, if not exclusively, employed of gladiators), a country at the south-eastern extremity of Europe, and separated from Asia only by the Propontis and its two narrow channels, the Bosporus and the Hellespont.
I. NAME.--Besides its ordinary name, the country had, according to Steph. B. sub voce (s. v.), two older appellations, Πέρκη and Ἀρία; and Gellius (14.6) mentions Sithon as another. Respecting the origin of these names, various conjectures have been made both in ancient and in modern times; but as none of them, with the exception to be presently mentioned, are of much value, it is not worth while to devote any space to their consideration.1 The exception alluded to is the etymology adopted by Col. Mure (Hist. of Lang. and Lit. of Anc. Greece, i. p. 153, note), which is far more probable and satisfactory than any other that the present writer has seen, and which derives the name Thrace from the adjective τραχεῖα, “rugged,” by the common transfer of the aspirate. Thus the name would indicate the geographical character of the various districts to which it is given; for, as we shall see, it was by no means confined to the country which is the special subject of the present notice.
II. EXTENT.--In the earliest times, the region called Thrace had no definite boundaries, but was often regarded as comprising all that part of Europe which lies to the north of Greece. Macedonia, in the south, is spoken of by Hecataeus as belonging to it (cf. Mel. 2.2, sub fin., where the Chalcidic peninsula is described under the title of Thrace); and Scythia, in the north, is included in it by Steph. B. sub voce (s. v. Σκύθαι: cf. Amm. 27.4.3). This explains the fable reported by Andron (Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 894), to the effect that Oceanus had four daughters, Asia, Libya, Europa, and Thracia; thus elevating the last-named country to the rank of one of the four quarters of the known--or rather unknown--world. But as the Greeks extended their geographical knowledge, the designation Thrace became more restricted in its application, and at length was generally given to that part of Europe which is included within the following boundaries: the Ister on the N. (Strab. ii. p.129; Plin. Nat. 4.18; Mel. 2.2); the Euxine and the Bosporus on the E.; the Propontis, the Hellespont, the Aegean, and the northern part of Macedonia, on the S.; the Strymon, or subsequently, i. e. in the time of Philip II. and his son Alexander the Great, the Nestus (Strab. vii. pp. 323, 330; Ptol. 3.11), and the countries occupied by the Illyrians, on the W., where, however, the boundary was never very settled or accurately known, (Plin. and Mel. ll. cc.) These were the limits of Thrace until the Romans subdued the country, when, in the reign of Augustus, it was divided into two parts, separated by the Haemus; the portion to the south of that mountain chain retaining the name of Thrace, while the part between the Ister and the Haemus received the appellation of Moesia, and was constituted a Roman province. [MOESIA Vol. II. p. 367.] But even after this period both countries were sometimes included under the old name, which the Latin poets frequently used in its earliest and widest extent of meaning. (Cf. Heyne, ad Virg. Aen. 11.659; Burman, ad Val. Flacc. 4.280; Muncker, ad Hygin. Fab. 138; Tzschucke, ad Mel. 2.2. p. 63.) As the little that is known about Moesia is stated in the article above referred to, the present will, as far as possible, be confined to Thrace proper, or south of the Haemus, corresponding pretty nearly to the modern Roumelia, which, however, extends somewhat more to the west than ancient Thrace.
III. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, PRODUCTIONS, &c.--Many circumstances might have led us to expect that the ancients would have transmitted to us full information respecting Thrace: its proximity to Greece; the numerous Greek colonies established in it; the fact that it was traversed by the highroad between Europe and Asia; and that the capital of the Eastern Empire was situated in it,--all these things seem calculated to attract attention to the country in an unusual degree, and to induce authors of various kinds to employ their pens in recording its natural and political history. Yet the latest and most profound historian of Greece is compelled to admit that, apart from two main roads, “scarcely anything whatever is known of [the interior of] the country.” (Grote, vol. xii. p. 34, note. For this various reasons may be assigned; but the principal one is the barbarous character, in all ages, of the occupants of the land, which has, at least until very recently, precluded the possibility of its exploration by peaceful travellers.2 Those who have [p. 2.1177]traversed it have been almost invariably engaged in military enterprises, and too much occupied with their immediate objects to have either opportunity or inclination, even had they possessed the necessary qualifications, to observe and describe the natural features of the country. What adds to the difficulty of the writer on the classical geography of Thrace is the unfortunate loss of the whole of that portion of the seventh book of Strabo which was devoted to the subject. Strabo, in several parts of his work, treats incidentally of Thrace: but this is a poor substitute for the more systematic account of it which has perished, and of which little more than a table of contents has been preserved in the meagre epitome which alone remains of it.
In modern times, several travellers have endeavoured, with various degrees of success, to explore the country; and some of them have published the results of their investigations; but it is evident from their very frequent disagreement as to the sites of the places which they attempt to identify with those mentioned in ancient writers, that as yet the necessary data have not been obtained; and the Itineraries, instead of assisting, not seldom add to the difficulty of the task, and render its accomplishment almost hopeless. Moreover, the extent of country examined by these travellers was very limited. The mountainous region of Rhodope, bounded on the west by the Strymon, on the north and east by the Hebrus, and on the south by the Aegean, is a terra incognita, except the few Grecian colonies on the coast. Very few travellers have passed along or described the southern or king's road; while the region in the interior, apart from the highroad, was absolutely unexplored until the visit of M. Viquesnel in 1847. (Grote, l.c.）
The results of this traveller's researches have not yet, we believe, appeared in a complete and connected form. His reports to the French minister by whom he was commissioned are published in the work already referred to; but most of them are mere outlines, written on the spot from brief notes. They contain much that is valuable and interesting; but no one except their author could make full use of them; and it is to be hoped that he may be able to employ the materials so ably collected in the composition of a work that would dispel much of the obscurity that at present rests upon the country. M. Viquesnel was engaged little more than a year in Thrace, a period evidently insufficient for its complete exploration; accordingly he seems to have devoted his principal attention to its geology, especially of the the mountain systems, above all in the district of Rhodope.
According to Ami Boué‘s chart of the geological structure of the globe, copied in Johnston's Physical Atlas, the three principal geological formations in Thrace are: (1) the crystalline schistous, comprehending all the granitoid rocks; this occupies the W. portion of the country, and a small district on the Euxine, immediately S. of the Haemus: (2) the tertiary, extending over the basin of the Hebrus: (3) the primary stratifications, or the transition series, including the carboniferous formations; this occupies the SE. part of the country, and a region S. of the Haemus, and W. of the tertiary formation above mentioned. Near the sources of the Bourghaz, Viquesnel found volcanic rocks (p. 213).
The surface of Thrace is, on the whole, decidedly mountainous, the vast plains spoken of by Virgil (Aen. 3.13) belonging to Moesia. From the great range of Haemus, three chains of mountains branch off towards the SE., and with their various ramifications occupy nearly the entire country. The most westerly of these begins at the NW. extremity of the boundary line, and soon separates into two almost parallel ranges, the Pangaeus and Rhodope, which are separated from each other by the river Nestus; the former filling up the whole space between that river and the Strymon, the latter the district E. of the Nestus and SW. of the Hebrus. Both Pangaeus and Rhodope extend down to the coast of the Aegean, and the latter is continued parallel to it as far E. as the Hebrus. The central offshoot of the Haemus branches off between the sources of the Hebrus and the Tonzus, and extends to their junction near Hadrianopolis. The most easterly chain diverges from the Haemus about 100 miles W. of the Euxine, to the W. shore of which it is nearly parallel, though it gradually approaches nearer to it from N. to S.: it extends as far as the Bosporus, and with its lateral offshoots occupies nearly the whole country between the E. tributaries of the Hebrus and the Euxine. The central and E. ranges appear to have had no general distinctive names; at least we are not aware that any occur in ancient writers: the modern name of the most easterly is the Strandja-Dagh. A continuation of this range extends along the shore of the Propontis, and is now called the Tekir-Dagh.
The loftiest peaks, among these mountains, belong to Rhodope, and attain an elevation of about 8500 feet (Viquesnel, p. 325); the summits of the Strandja-Dagh, are 2600 feet high (Id. p. 314); those of the Tekir-Dagh, 2300 (Id. p. 315); the other mountains are from 2000 to 600 feet in height (Id. pp. 314, 315). The Haemus is not more than 4000 feet high, in that portion of it which belongs to Thrace. It is obvious from these measurements that the statements of some of the ancients that the summits of the Thracian mountains were covered with eternal snow (Θρῃκῶν ὄρεα νιφόεντα, Hom. Il. 14.227), and that from the highest peak of the Haemus the Adriatic and the Euxine could be seen, are mere fancies. Strabo (vii. pp. 313, 317) points out the inaccuracy of this notion. An interesting account is given by Livy (40.21, 22) of the ascent of Haemus by Philip V., who shared in the popular belief in question. Livy states plainly enough his conviction that Philip's labour, which was far from slight, was thrown away; but he and his attendants were prudently silent upon the subject, not wishing, says Livy, to be laughed at for their pains. Yet Florus, who alludes to the same circumstance (2.12), but makes Perseus the mountainclimber, assumes that the king's object was accomplished, and that the bird's-eye view of his dominions, obtained from the mountain top, assisted him in forming a plan for the defence of his kingdom, with reference to his meditated war with Rome. Mela too repeats the erroneous statement (2.2).
The main direction of the rivers of Thrace is from N. to S., as might be inferred from the foregoing description of its mountain system. The Strymon forms its W. boundary. In the lower part of its course, it expands to a considerable width, and was called Lake Cercinitis, into which flowed a smaller river, the Angites (Hdt. 7.113); next, towards the E., comes the Nestus; then, in succession, the Travus, which falls into Lake Bistonis, the Schoenus, the Hebrus, the principal river of Thrace, and lastly the Melas. All these rivers fall into the Aegean. Several small streams flow into the Hellespont and [p. 2.1178]the Propoutis, of which we may mention Aegospotami, renowned, notwithstanding its insignificant size, the Arzus, and the Erginus. The rivers which fall into the Euxine are all small, and few of them are distinguished by name in the geographers, though doubtless not so unhonoured by the dwellers upon their banks: among them Pliny (4.18) mentions the Pira and the Orosines. The Hebrus drains at least one-half, probably nearer two-thirds, of the entire surface of Thrace; and on its banks, or on those of its tributaries, most of the level portions of the country are situated, as well as nearly all the inland towns. Its principal affluents are the Arda (in some maps called the Harpessus), and the Suemus on the W., the Tonzus, Artiscus, and Agrianes on the E.
The Thracian coast of the Aegean is extremely irregular in its outline, being broken up by bays which enter far into the land, yet appear to be of comparatively little depth. Most of them, indeed, are at the mouths of rivers, and have probably been filled up by alluvial deposits. It was perhaps for this reason that several of them were called lakes, as if they had been regarded as belonging to the land rather than to the sea; e. g. Lake Cercinitis, already mentioned, which seems, indeed, to have been little more than a marsh, and in Kiepert's map its site is so represented; Lake Bistonis, east of Abdera; and Stentoris Lacus, at the mouth of the Hebrus. The gulf of Melas, formed by the northern shore, of the Chersonesus and the opposite coast of what may he called the mainland, is an exception to this description of the Thracian bays. The coasts on the Propontis and the Euxine are comparatively unbroken, the only gulf of any extent being Portus Hellodos, near Anchialus, which is known in modern times, by the name of the bay of Bonrghaz, as one of the best harbours in the Euxine, the Thracian shore of which was regarded by the ancients as extremely dangerous. [SALMYDESSUS]
The principal promontories were, Ismarum, Serrheum, Sarpedonium, and Mastusium, on the southern coast; Thynias and Haemi Extrema, on the eastern.
For an account of one of the most remarkable parts of Thrace, see CHERSONESUS Vol. I. p. 608.
Off the southern coast are situated the islands of Thasos, Samothrace, and Imbros; the first is separated from the mainland by a channel about 5 miles wide; the other two are considerably more distant from the shore.
The climate of Thrace is always spoken of by the ancients as being extremely cold and rigorous: thus Athenaeus (viii. p. 351) describes the year at Aenus as consisting of eight months of cold and four months of winter; but such statements are not to be taken literally, since many of them are mere poetical exaggerations, and are applied to Thrace as the representative of the north in general. The Haemus was regarded as the abode of the north wind, and the countries beyond it were believed to enjoy a beautifully mild climate. (See Niebuhr, Ethnog. and Geog. i. p. 16, Eng. trans.; Soph. Antig. 985; Eur. Rh. 440; Theophr. de Cans. 5.17; Verg. G. 3.350 seq.; Ov. Pont. 4.10 41, ib. 7. 8; Trist. 3.10; &c.). Even after making full allowance for the undoubted effect of vast forests, undrained marshes, and very partial cultivation, in lowering the average temperature of a country, it is difficult to believe that a land, the northern boundary of which (i. e. of Thrace Proper) is in the same parallel of latitude as Tuscany and the Pyrenees, and the highest mountains of which are less than 9000 feet above the level of the sea, can have had a very severe climate. That the winter was often extremely cold, there can be no doubt. The Hebrus was sometimes frozen over: not to dwell upon the “Hebrus nivali compede vinctus” of Horace (Hor. Ep. 1.3. 3; cf. Verg. A. 12.331, and the epigram, attributed by some to Caesar, beginning, “Thrax puer adstricto glacie dum ludit in Hebro” ), Florus (3.4) relates that, in the campaign of Minucius in southern Thrace, a number of horsemen in his army were drowned while trying to cross that river on the ice. Xenophon states that the winter which he passed in Thrace, in the mountainous district of the Thyni, was so cold that even wine was frozen in the vessels, and that many Greek soldiers had their noses and ears frostbitten; the snow also lay deep upon the ground. And that this was not an exceptional season may be inferred from Xenophon's remarks on the dress of the Thracians, which seemed to him to have been devised with special reference to the climate, and to prevent such mishaps as those which befel the Greeks (Anab. 7.4. § § 3, 4). Tacitus (Tac. Ann. 4.51) assigns the early and severe winter of Mount Haemus among the causes which prevented Poppaeus Sabinus (A.D. 26) from following up his first success over the rebellious Thracians.3 Pliny (17.3) says that the vines about Aenus were often injured by frosts, after the Hebrus was brought nearer to that city; the allusion probably being to the formation of the western mouth of the river, nearly opposite to Aenus, the floating ice and the cold water brought down by which would have some effect in lowering the temperature of the neighbourhood. Mela (2.2, init.) describes Thrace generally as agreeable neither in climate nor in soil, being, except in the parts near the sea, barren, cold, and very ill adapted for agriculture and fruit-trees of all kinds, except the vine, while the fruit even of that required to be protected from the cold by a covering of the leaves, in order to ripen. This last remark throws some doubt upon the accuracy of the writer; for the shading of the grapes from the direct rays of the sun is obviously more likely to prevent than to promote their arrival at maturity; and hence, as is well known, it is the practice in many parts of Europe to remove the leaves with a view to this object.
However. this may be, it is certain that Thrace did produce wine, some kinds of which were famous from very early times. Homer, who bestows upon Thrace the epithet ἐριβῶλαξ (Il. 20.485), represents Nestor reminding Agamemnon that the Grecian ships bring to him cargoes of wine from that country every day (Ib. 9.76); and the poet celebrates the excellence of the produce of the Maroneian vineyards. (Od. 9.197, seq.) Pliny (14.6) states that this wine still maintained its reputation, and describes it as black, perfumed, and growing rich with age; a description which agrees with Homer's (l.c.). Paul Lucas says that he found the Thracian wine excellent. (Voy. dans la Turgqie, i. p. 25; see also, Athen. 1.31.) Thrace was fertile in corn (Plin. Nat. 17.3), and its wheat is placed by Pliny high in the scale of excellence as estimated by weight. It has, he says (18.12), a stalk consisting of several coats (tunticae), [p. 2.1179]to protect it, as he supposes, from the severity of the climate; by which also he accounts for the cultivation, in some parts of the country, of the triticum trimestre and bimestre, so called because those varieties were reaped in the third and second month respectively after they were sown. Corn was exported from Thrace, and especially from the Chersonesus to Athens (Theoph. de Plantis, 8.4; Lys. in Diogit. p. 902), and to Rome (Plin. l.c.). Millet was cultivated in some parts of Thrace; for Xenophon (Xen. Anab. 7.5.12) states that on the march to Salmydessus, Seuthes and his allies traversed the country of the “millet-eating Thracians” (cf. Strab. vii. p.315.) The less important vegetable productions of Thrace may be briefly mentioned: a species of water-chestnut (tribulus) grew in the Strymon, the leaves of which were used by the people who lived on its banks to fatten their horses, while of its nuts they made a very sweet kind of bread. (Plin. Nat. 21.58, 22.12.) Roses (Rosa centifolia) grew wild on the Pangaeus, and were successfully transplanted by the natives (Id. 21.10). The mountains, in general, abounded in wild-thyme and a species of mint (Id. 19.55). A sort of morel or truffle (iton) was found in Thrace (Id. 19.12; Athen. 2.62), and a styptic plant (ischaemon), which was said to stop bleeding from even divided blood-vessels. (Theoph. de Plant. 9.15; Plin. Nat. 25.45.) Several varieties of ivy grew in the country, and were sacred to Dionysus. (Theoph. de Pltat. 3.16; Plin. Nat. 16.62.) Herodotus (4.74) states that the Scythians had hemp both wild and cultivated; and as he proceeds to say that the Thracians made clothing of it, we may fairly infer that it grew in Thrace also. “The Athenians imported their timber chiefly from the country about the Strymon, for the Thracian hills abounded in oak and fir-trees.” (Niebuhr, Lect. Anc. Hist. i. p. 292, Eng. trans.). M. Viquesnel states that the Strandjadagh is covered with forests of oak (p. 314), and that in some parts of the district of Rhodope tobacco is now cultivated (p. 320).
Among the animals of Thrace, white horses are repeatedly mentioned. The famous steeds of Rhesus were “whiter than snow.” (Hem. Il. 10.437; Eur. Rh. 304.) When Xerxes reached the banks of the Strymon in his onward march, the magi sacrificed white horses (Hdt. 7.113), which were probably Thracian, for the same reason, whatever that was, that the human victims spoken of in the next chapter were the children of natives. Xenophon states that, during a banquet given by Seuthes, a Thracian entered, leading a white horse, which he presented to his prince, with an encomium on its fleetness (Anab. 7.3.26). Virgil speaks of Thracian horses with white spots (Aen 5.565, 9.49). Horses were no doubt plentiful in Thrace: Homer (Hom. Il. 14.227) calls the Thracians ἱπποπόλοι; and cavalry always formed a large part of their armies. Thus Thucydides (2.98) estimates the number of horsemen in the army with which Sitalces invaded Macedonia at about 50,000. One of the twelve labours of Hercules was to bring to Mycenae the savage mares of Diomedes, king of the Bistones in Thrace, who fed them with human flesh. (Ov. Met. 9.194) Herodotus (7.126) states that lions were found throughout the country bounded on the W. by the Achelous and on the E. by the Nestus; a statement which is repeated by Aristotle (H. A. 6.31, 8.28); so that the part of Thrace between the Strymon and the Nestus must have been infested, at least in early times, by those formidable animals. Herodotus says that they attacked the baggage-camels of Xerxes during the march of his army from Acanthus to Therme (7.125). Cattle, both great and small, were abundant, and seem to have constituted the chief wealth of a people who, like most barbarians, considered agriculture a base occupation. (Hdt. 5.6.) The fertile valleys were well adapted for oxen, and the thyme-covered hills for sheep; and it is clear, from several passages in Xenophon, that even the wildest Thracian tribes were rich in this kind of wealth. (Anab. 7.3.48, 7.53.) Aristotle informs us that the Thracians had a peculiar method of fattening swine (H. A. 8.6). He attributes the smallness of their asses to the coldness of the climate (lb. 28). Cranes are often mentioned as belonging to Thrace. (Verg. G. 1.120; Ov. A. A. 3.182; Juv. 13.167.) Aristotle says that an aquatic bird of the pelican kind (πελεκᾶνες) migrates from the Strymon to the Ister (H. A. 8.11); and that the people in some marshy districts of Thrace were assisted in catching water-fowl by hawks; which do not seem to have been trained for the purpose, but, though wild, to have been induced by a share of the game, to second the proceedings of their human associates (lb. 9.36). Eels were caught at certain seasons in the Strymon (Ib. 8.2, ad fin.). The tunny fishery was a source of great wealth to Byzantium. (Strab. vii. p.320.)
Tile principal mineral productions of Thrace were, gold and silver, most of which came from the mountainous district between the Strymon and the Nestus. There, at the southern extremity of the Pangaeus, was situated Crenides, founded by the Thasians, and afterwards called Philippi, in a hill near which, named the hill of Dionysus (Appian, App. BC 4.106), were the most productive gold mines of Thrace, to get possession of which was Philip's principal object in annexing the district in question to his dominions. He is said to have derived from the mines an annual income of 1000 talents. (Diod. 16.8; cf. Strab. vii. p.323.)4 Strabo (xiv. p.680) says that the wealth of Cadmus came from the mines of the Pangaeus; and Pliny refers to the same tradition when he states (7.57) that according to some authorities, the Pangaeus was the place where Cadmus first discovered gold-mines, and the art of melting their produce (conflatura). Herodotus (7.112) mentions silver, as well as gold, mines in the Pangaeus, which in his time were in the possession of the native tribes called Pieres, Odomanti, and Satrae. He states also (6.46) that the Thasians had gold mines at Scapte Hyle, near Abdera, from which they derived an (annual) revenue of about 80 talents; and that a part of the revenues of Peisistratus came from the Strymon, by which the mines on its banks are probably meant (1.64). (See also, 9.75; Eur. Rh. 921; Strabo (or rather his epitomiser), vii. p. 331.) According to Pliny (33.21) gold was found in the sands of the Hebrus; and this is confirmed by Paul Lucas (l.c.), and by Viquesnel, who states (p. 204) that in rainy years the affluents of that river are frequented by gold-finders, who wash the sands which contain gold in grains (en paillettes). Thucydides was interested in gold mines and works near Amphipolis, as he himself informs us (4.105). Of the other minerals of Thrace we may mention the [p. 2.1180]opal (paederos, Plin. Nat. 37.46); the Thaecia gemma, one variety of which seems to resemble the bloodstone (ib. 68); a stone which burnt in water (Id. 33.30); and nitre, which was found near Philippi (Id. 31.46). In addition to these, M. Viquesnel mentions fine marble, which is quarried from the mountains of Lidja (p. 200); excellent iron, manufactured at Samakor (p. 209); alum, produced at Chaphanê (p. 213); and potter's clay, in the district of Rhodope, used by the Turks in the fabrication of earthenware (p. 319). He states also that Rhodope abounds in mineral waters (ib.), and that there are warm springs at Lidja (p. 212).
A few miscellaneous notes will conclude this part of our subject.
The narrow portion of Thrace between the Euxine, Bosporus and Propontis, is sometimes called the Delta (τὸ Δέλτα, Xen. Anab. 7.1. 33, 5.1).
Reference is several times made to violent natural convulsions, which
destroyed various Thracian cities. Thus Strabo (1.59) says that it appeared that
some cities were swallowed up by a flood in Lake Bistonis; and he (vii. p. 319),
Pliny (4.18), and Mela (2.2) speak of the destruction of Bizone, on the Euxine,
Livy (40.22) describes the region between Maedica and the Haemus as without inhabitants (solitudines).
Herodotus (7.109) speaks of a lake near Pistyrus (on the coast N. of Abdera), about 30 stadia in circumference, abounding in fish, and extremely salt.
Thrace possessed two highroads, “both starting from Byzantium; the one (called the King's road, from having been in part the march of Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, Liv. 39.27; Hdt. 7.115), crossing the Hebrus and the Nestus, touching the northern coast of the Aegean sea at Neapolis, a little south of Philippi, then crossing the Strymon at Amphipolis, and stretching through Pella across Inner Macedonia and Illyria to Dyrrhachium. The other road took a more northerly course, passing along the upper valley of the Hebrus from Adrianople to Philippopolis, then through Sardica (Sophia) and Naissus (Nisch), to the Danube near Belgrade, being the highroad now followed from Constantinople to Belgrade.” (Grote, vol. xii. p. 34, note.) Herodotus (l.c.) remarks, with evident surprise, that the King's road had not, up to his time, been destroyed by the Thracians, a circumstance which he seems to attribute to the almost religious respect with which they regarded the “great king.” It may be safely inferred that people who were considered to have done something wonderful in abstaining from breaking up a road, were not great makers or maintainers of highways; and it is clear from Livy's account of the march of Manlius (38.40, 41) along this very road (afterwards called by the Romans, Via Egnatia, q. v.), that, although it was the principal line of communication between Europe and Asia, it was at that time (B.C. 188) in a very bad condition. From this some conception may be formed of the deplorable state in which the roads of the interior and mountainous districts must have been, and in which, indeed, they still remain. (Viquesnel, p. 312.) The Thracians no doubt were well aware that their independence would soon be lost, if there were an easy access for disciplined armies to every part of their country. Such paths as they possessed were sufficient for their own purposes of depredation, of ambush, and, when overpowered, of flight.
IV. ETHNOLOGY, MANNERS, RELIGION, ETC.--The first point to be determined here is, whether the Thracians mentioned in the ancient writers as extending over many parts of Greece, as far south as Attica, were ethnologically identical with those who in historical times occupied the country which is the subject of the present article. And before discussing the topic, it will be convenient to lay before the reader some of the principal passages in the classics which bear upon it.
It is Strabo who makes the most distinct statements on the point. He says (vii. p. 321), “Hecataeus the Milesian states that, before the Hellenes, barbarians inhabited Peloponnesus. But in fact nearly all Greece was originally the abode of barbarians, as may be inferred from the traditions. Pelops brought a people with him into the country, to which he gave his name, and Danaus came to the same region with followers from Egypt, at a time when the Dryopes, Caucones, Pelasgi, Leleges, and other similar races had settlements within the Isthmus; and indeed without it too, for the Thracians who accompanied Eumolpus had Attica and Tereus possessed Daulis in Phocis; the Phoenician companions of Cadmus occupied Cadmeia, the Aones, Temmices, and Hyantes Boeotia.” Strabo subsequently (9.401) repeats this statement respecting Boeotia, and adds that the descendants of Cadmus and his followers, being driven out of Thebes by the Thracians and Pelasgians, retired into Thessaly. They afterwards returned, and, having joined the Minyans of Orchomenos, expelled in their turn the Pelasgians and Thracians. The former went to Athens, where they settled at the foot of Hymettus, and gave the name of Pelasgicum to a part of the city (cf. Hdt. 6.137): the Thracians, on the other hand, were driven to Parnassus. Again (ix. p. 410) he says, speaking of Helicon: “The temple of the Muses, and Hippocrene, and the cave of the Leibethridan nymphs are there; from which one would conjecture that those who consecrated Helicon to the Muses were Thracians; for they dedicated Pieris, and Leibethrum, and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. These Thracians were called Pierians (Πίερες); but their power having declined, the Macedonians now occupy these (last named) places.” This account is afterwards (x. p. 471) repeated, with the addition that “the cultivators of ancient music, Orpheus, Musaeus, Thamyris, and Eumolpus, were Thracians.”
The difficulty that presents itself in these passages,--and they are in general agreement with the whole body of Greek literature,--arising from the confounding under a common name of the precursors of Grecian poetry and art with a race of men designated as barbarous, is well stated by K. O. Müller (Hist. of Greek Liter. p. 26, seq.): “It is utterly inconceivable that, in the later historic times, when the Thracians were contemned as a barbarian race, a notion should have sprung up that the first civilisation of Greece was due to them; consequently we cannot doubt that this was a tradition handed down from a very early period. Now, if we are to understand it to mean that Eumolpus, Orpheus, Musaeus, and Thamyris were the fellow-countrymen of those Edonians, Odrysians, and Odomantians, who in the historical age occupied the Thracian territory, and who spoke a barbarian language, that is, one unintelligible to the Greeks, we must despair of being able to comprehend these accounts of the ancient Thracian minstrels, and of assigning them a place in the history of Grecian civilisation; since it is [p. 2.1181]manifest that at this early period, when there was scarcely any intercourse between different nations, or knowledge of foreign tongues, poets who sang in an unintelligible language could not have had more influence on the mental development of the people than the twittering of birds.”
Müller therefore concludes that the Thracians of the ante-historical era, and those of subsequent times, belonged to distinct races. “When we come to trace more precisely the country of these Thracian bards, we find that the traditions refer to Pieria, the district to the east of the Olympus range, to the north of Thessaly, and the south of Emathia or Macedonia: in Pieria likewise was Leibethra, where the Muses are said to have sung the lament over the tomb of Orpheus: the ancient poets, moreover, always make Pieria, not Thrace, the native place of the Muses, which last Homer clearly distinguishes from Pieria. (Il. 14.226.) It was not until the Pierians were pressed in their own territory by the early Macedonian princes that some of them crossed the Strymon into Thrace Proper, where Herodotus (7.112) mentions the castles of the Pierians at the time of the expedition of Xerxes. It is, however, quite conceivable that in early times, either on account of their close vicinity, or because all the north was comprehended under one name, the Pierians might, in Southern Greece, have been called Thracians. These Pierians, from the intellectual relations which they maintained with the Greeks, appear to be a Grecian race; which supposition is also confirmed by the Greek names of their places, rivers, fountains, &c., although it is probable that, situated on the limits of the Greek nation, they may have borrowed largely from neighbouring tribes. (See Müller's Dorians, vol. i. pp. 472, 488, 501.)” After referring to the accounts of the Thracians in Southern Greece, Müller adds: “From what has been said, it appears sufficiently clear that these Pierians or Thracians, dwelling about Helicon and Parnassus in the vicinity of Attica, are chiefly signified when a Thracian origin is ascribed to the mythical bards of Attica.”
Colonel Mure, after referring to the foregoing view, which he designates as “plausible,” goes on as follows: “But the case admits of another, and perhaps more satisfactory explanation. It is certain that, in the mythical geography, a tract of country on the frontiers of Boeotia and Phocis, comprehending Mount Parnassus and Helicon, bore the name of Thrace. [See the etymology, ante.] In this region the popular mythology also lays the scene of several of the most celebrated adventures, the heroes of which are called Thracians.” The author then applies this explanation to the stories of Tereus and Procne, and of Lycurgus, “king of Thrace;” and proceeds thus: “Pausanias makes the ‘Thracian’ bard Thamyris virtually a Phocian. He assigns him for mother a nymph of Parnassus called Argiope. His father, Philammon, is described as a native of the same region, son of Apollo, by the nymph Chione, and brother of Autolycus, its celebrated robber chieftain. The divine grandsire is obviously here but a figure of his own sacred region; the grandmother Chione, as her name bears, of its snow. Others call the latter heroine Leuconoë The names of these heroines are all so many varied modes of typifying the same ‘snow-white’ Parnassus. This view of the ‘Thracian’ character of these sages becomes the more plausible, if it be remembered that the region of Central Greece, in which the Hellenic Thrace was situated, is that from which first or chiefly, the seeds of elementary culture were propagated throughout the nation. Here tradition places the first introduction of the alphabet. Here were also the principal seats of Apollo and the Muses. In the heart of the same region was situated the Minyean Orchomenos, the temple of the Graces, rivalling Thebes herself in the splendour of her princes and zeal for the promotion of art. Among the early masters of poetry or music, not vulgarly styled Thracians, the most illustrious, Amphion and Linus, are Boeotians. Nor was this region of Central Greece less favoured in respect of its religious institutions. It was not only the favourite seat of Apollo, the Muses, and the Graces, but the native country of the Dionysiac rites, zeal for the propagation of which is a characteristic of the Thracian sages.” (Hist. of Lang. and Lit. of Ant. Greece, i. pp. 150--153; cf. Niebuhr, Lect. on Ethnog. and Geog. i. p. 287.)
In thus entirely disconnecting these early “Thracians,” from those of later times, we have the authority of Thucydides (2.29), who, in speaking of Teres, the father of Sitalces, remarks: “This Teres had no connection whatever with Tereus, who married Procne, daughter of Pandion of Athens; they did not even belong to the same Thrace. Tereus dwelt at Daulia, a city of the country now called Phocis, and which was then occupied by the Thracians.” And he proceeds to show that it was not likely that Pandion would form an alliance with any one who lived so far from Athens as the country of the Odrysae.5
The consideration of the ethnological relations of the early Thracians hardly falls within the scope of this article; but since identity of name has often caused them to be confounded with the historical inhabitants of Thrace, it may be desirable briefly to discuss the subject in this place.
The view which seems to the present writer to be best supported by the evidence, and to explain most satisfactorily the ancient authors, is that which regards the mythical Thracians as members of the widely extended race to which the name of Pelasgians is usually given. It is clear from Homer that a close connection existed between the people of Southern Thrace and the Trojans, who were probably Pelasgians, and who are at the same time represented by him as agreeing, in language, religion, and other important respects, with the Greeks. Again, Homer mentions among the auxiliaries of Priam, the Caucones, who are named along with the Pelasgians (Il. 10.429), and the Cicones (Il. 2.846). These two names bear so close a resemblance to each other as to suggest the probability of the cognate origin of the tribes so designated. Now the Cicones were undoubtedly Thracians (Odys. 9.39, seqq.); while as to the Caucones, Strabo (xii. p.542) informs us that they occupied part of the coast of Bithynia, and were regarded by some as Scythians, by others as Macedonians, by others again as Pelasgians. It will be remembered that Caucones are mentioned by him (vii. p. 321) among the earliest inhabitants of Peloponnesus. Another noticeable fact is, that in the passage of Strabo already quoted (ix. p. 401), he represents the Thracians and Pelasgians as acting in [p. 2.1182]concert. The same author (xiii. p. 590) points out the similarity of many Thracian names of places to those existing in the Trojan territory. Finally, the names of the places mentioned by Strabo (vii. p.321) as common to Pieria and the southern Thracians, are evidently Greek (see Müller's Dorians, i. p. 501); and, as we have seen, the name Thrace itself is in all probability a significant Greek word.
These considerations appear to us to lead to the conclusion already stated, namely, that the mythical Thracians, as well as those spoken of by Homer, were Pelasgians; and hence that that race once occupied the northern as well as the other shores of the Aegean, until, at a comparatively late period, its continuity was broken by the irruption of the historical Thracians from the north into the country between the Strymon and the Euxine. The circumstance that the Greeks designated these barbarians by the name which had been borne by those whom they supplanted, admits of easy explanation, and history abounds in instances of a similar kind. But it may be doubted whether the Thracians had any general designation in their own language: they probably called themselves Edones, Denseletae, Thyni, Satrae, and so on; but we have no evidence that they really were all branches of a common stock. Under these circumstances, it was inevitable that the Greeks should bestow upon them the name of the earlier possessors of the country; and those Thracians who were brought in contact with the more civilised race would probably adopt it. (On the foregoing question, see Niebuhr, Lect. on Anc. Hist. i. pp. 142, 212; Lect. on Ethnog. and Geog. i. p. 287; Wachsmuth, Hist. Ant. i. p. 44, seqq.)
Respecting the historical Thracians we have tolerably full information, but not of that kind which will enable us to arrive at any very definite conclusions as to their ethnological relations. That they belonged to an extensively diffused race, whose early abodes were in the far northern regions, may be regarded as sufficiently proved by the concurrent testimony of the ancient writers. Herodotus, in a well-known passage (5.3), says that the Thracian nation is the greatest in the world, after the Indians, and that its subdivisions, of which the Getae are one, have many names, according to the countries which they severally occupy. Strabo too (vii. p. 295) states that the Getae and the Mysi were Thracians (as to the Mysi, see also i. p. 6), who extended north of the Danube (vii. p. 296). In confirmation of his assertion that the Getae were ethnologically akin to the Thracians, he adduces the identity of their language (vii. p. 303). He adds (vii. p. 305) that the Daci also spoke this language. From his remark (vii. p. 315) about the Iapodes, it would seem that he regarded the Illyrians also as nearly allied to, if not actually a branch of, the Thracians. In another passage (x. p. 471) he says that the Phrygians were colonists of the Thracians; to which race also the Saraparae, a nation still farther towards the east, north of Armenia, were reported to belong (xi. p. 531). “The Bithyni, previously called Mysi, were so named, as is admitted by most authorities, from the Thracian Bithyni and Thyni, who emigrated to that country (i. e. Asia Minor; cf. Hdt. 7.75). And I conjecture that the Bebryces, who settled in Mysia before the Bithyni and Mysi, were also Thracians. The Mysians themselves are said to be colonists of those Thracians who are now called Mysi. As the Mariandyni are in all respects like the Bithyni, they too are probably Thracians.” (Strab. xii. pp. 541, 542.) Justin couples the Thracians with the Illyrians and Dardani (11.1). In the west and south-west it is impossible to define the Thracian boundary: we have seen that Mela describes the whole of the Chalcidic peninsula as part of Thrace (cf. Thuc. 2.79); and there is no doubt that they extended as far south as Olympus, though mixed up with Macedonians, who were the preponderating race in that quarter. In later times the intrusive and undoubtedly distinct races which were mingled with the Thracians near the Danube, were sometimes confounded with them. Thus Floras (3.4) calls the Scordisci the most savage of all the Thracians.
Of the language of the Thracians scarcely a trace exists. They were too barbarous to have any literary or artistic memorials, so that the principal guides of the ethnologist are wanting. Strabo (vii. p.319) states that bria, which occurs as the termination of several names of Thracian towns, signified “city” or “town.” This and a few proper names constitute all that remains of their language.
The following is the account which Herodotus gives of the customs of the Thracians. They sell their children into foreign slavery. The women while unmarried enjoy perfect freedom in their intercourse with men; but after marriage they are strictly guarded. The men pay large sums of money for their wives to the parents of the latter. To be tattooed is considered an indispensable mark of noble birth. (Cf. Strab. vii. p.315.) Idleness is most honourable; the cultivator of the soil is regarded as the meanest of men; to live by war and plundering is most noble. The only gods they worship are Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis. But their kings differ in this respect from their subjects; for they worship Hermes especially, and swear by him alone, from whom they say that they are descended. When a wealthy man dies, his corpse lies in state for three days: his friends then make a great feast, at which, after bewailing the departed, they slaughter victims of every kind: the body is then buried, having sometimes been previously burnt. A mound is raised above the grave, upon which athletic games are celebrated (5.6--8; cf. Xen. Hell. 3.2. 5). Besides these customs, which were common to all the Thracians, Herodotus mentions some which were peculiar to certain tribes; as, for instance, that which prevailed among the people to the north of the Crestonians. “Among them, each man has many wives. When any man dies, a great contest arises among his widows on the question as to which of them was most beloved by their husband; and in this their relations take a very active part. She in whose favour the point is decided, receives the congratulations of both men and women, and is then slain upon her husband's grave by her nearest male relation. The other widows regard themselves as extremely unfortunate, for they are considered to be disgraced.” (lb. 5.) Herodotus here seems to speak of polygamy as confined to a certain tribe of Thracians; but Strabo (vii. p.297) represents this custom as general among them. In a note upon this passage, Casaubon quotes from Heracleides Ponticus to the effect that Thracians often had as many as thirty wives, whom they employed as servants, a practice still common in many eastern countries. Xenophon furnishes us with an illustration of the Thracian custom of purchasing wives. He states that at his first interview with Seuthes, the Thracian prince proposed to give his daughter in marriage to Xenophon; and if the Greek himself had a [p. 2.1183]daughter, offered to buy her as a wife. (Anab. 7.2.38; cf. Mela, 2.2.)
The want of union among the Thracians is mentioned by Herodotus (5.3) as the only cause of their weakness. Their tribes, like the Highland clans, seem to have been constantly engaged in petty Warfare with one another, and to have been incapable of co-operating even against foreign foes, except for very brief periods, and rarely with any higher object than plunder. Until a late period (Flor. 4.12.17) they appear to have been destitute of discipline, and this, of course, rendered their bravery of comparatively little avail. Thus we learn from Thucydides (2.96, 98) that, although Sitalces was the most powerful Thracian king that had ever reigned--(he seems indeed to have been subsequently regarded as a kind of national hero; Xen. Anab. 6.1. 6),--yet a large part of the army with which he invaded Macedonia consisted of mere volunteers, formidable chiefly for their numbers, and attracted to his standard by his offers of pay, or by their hope of plunder. Any one, in fact, who held out these inducements, could easily raise an army in Thrace. Thus Clearchus no sooner received supplies of money from Cyrus the Younger, than he collected a force in the Chersonesus, which, although in great part undoubtedly Thracian, was employed by him in making war upon other Thracians, until he was required to join Cyrus in Asia Minor (Ib. 1.1.9, 2.9, &c.). So when Seuthes undertook the expedition against his so-called revolted subjects, his army was soon tripled by volunteers, who hastened from other parts of Thrace to serve him, as soon as they heard of his enterprise (lb. 7.4.21). Such soldiers could not, of course, be depended upon for one moment after a reverse. A considerable number of Thracian mercenaries in the army of Cyrus took the earliest opportunity to desert to Artaxerxes after the battle of Cunaxa (lb. 2.2.7).
Tacitus (Tac. Ann. 4.46) informs us that the principal cause of the insurrection (A.D. 26) of the Thracians who dwelt in the elevated mountain districts (probably of Rhodope), was their dislike of the conscription, which, it would appear, the Romans had introduced into Thrace. This was a yoke to which they could not submit; they were not accustomed to obey even their own rulers, except when it pleased them; and when they sent troops to the assistance of their princes, they used to appoint their own commanders, and to war against the neighbouring tribes only. (Cf. Liv. 42.51; Xen. Anab. 7.4. 24, 7.29, seq.)
Thracian troops were chiefly light-armed infantry and irregular horse. (Xen. Anab. 1.2. 9, 7.6.27, Memor. 3.9.2; Curt. 3.9.) The bravest of the foot-soldiers in the army of Sitalces were the free mountaineers of Rhodope, who were armed with short swords (μαχαιροφόροι; Thuc. 2.98). The equipment of the Asiatic Thracians is described by Herodotus (7.75), and as this description agrees with what Xenophon states respecting Seuthes' forces (Anab. 7.4.4), it is no doubt substantially true of the Thracians generally. They wore caps covering their ears, made of fox-skins, cloaks, and party-coloured mantles (ζειραί,? == plaids); their boots, which came high up the leg, were made of deer-skin; their arms were shields, javelins, and daggers (cf. Thuc. 7.27). The Thracians in the army of Philip V. were armed with very long rhomphaeae, a word which some translate javelins, others swords. (Liv. 31.39; Plut. Paul. Aemil. 17.) Thracian soldiers fought with impetuosity and with no lack of bravery; but they, like all barbarian and undisciplined troops were incapable of sustained efforts. Livy (42.59) describes them as rushing to the attack like wild beasts long confined in cages: they hamstrung the horses of their adversaries, or stabbed them in the belly. When the victory was gained on this occasion (the first encounter in the war between the Romans and Perseus), they returned to their camp, singing loud songs of triumph, and carrying the heads of the slain on the tops of their weapons (lb. 60). When defeated, they fled with rapidity, throwing their shields upon their backs, to protect them from the missiles of the pursuers. (Xen. Anab. 7.4. 17）
About the time of the Peloponnesian War, Thrace began to be to the countries around the Aegean what Switzerland has long, to its disgrace, been to the despotic powers of modern Europe, a land where men might be procured to fight for any one who could hold out sufficient inducements in the shape of pay or plunder. (Thuc. 7.27, et alibi; Xen. Anab. i. pass.; Just. 11.1 & 9.) The chief causes of this, apart from the character of its people, appear to have been the want of any central government, and the difficult nature of the country, which rendered its savage independence tolerably secure; so that there was nothing to restrain those who might wish to seek their fortune in foreign warfare. Daring the period of Macedonian supremacy, and after its close, under the Roman power, Thracians are often mentioned as auxiliaries in Macedonian and Roman armies; but few of these, it is probable, were volunteers. (Liv. 31.39, 42.29, 51, et al.; Caes. B.C. 3.4; Veil. Pat. 2.112; Tac. Hist. 1.68, &c.) Cicero (de Prov. Cons. 4) seems to imply that Thracians were sometimes hired to assassinate like the modern Italian bravos; these were perhaps gladiators, of whom great numbers were Thracians. Caligula gave the command of his German bodyguard to Thracians. (Suet. Calig. 55.)
Another point in which the Thracians remind us of the natives of India, is mentioned by Thucydides (2.97) in these words: “The tribute of the barbarians and of the Greek cities received by Seuthes, the successor of Sitalces, might be reckoned at 400 talents of silver, reckoning gold and silver together. The presents in gold and silver amounted to as much more. And these presents were made not only to the king, but also to the most influential and distinguished of the Odrysae. For these people, like those of Thrace generally, differ in this respect from the Persians, that they would rather receive than give; and among them it is more shameful not to give when you are asked, than to be refused when you ask. It is true that abuses arise from this custom; for nothing can be done without presents.” (Cf. Liv. 42.19, 45.42; Tac. Germ. 15.) Xenophon (Xen. Anab. 7.3) gives some amusing illustrations of this practice among the Thracians.
Mention is often made of the singing and dancing of the Thracians, especially of a martial kind. Xenophon (Xen. Anab. 6.1.5, seq.) gives an account of a dance and combat performed by some Thracians, to celebrate the conclusion of a peace between the remnant of the 10,000 Greeks and the Paphlagonians: they danced fully armed to the music of the flute, jumping up nimbly to a considerable height, and fencing with their swords: at last, one man struck another, to all appearance mortally and he fell as if [p. 2.1184]dead, though in reality not in the least injured, His antagonist then stripped off his armour, and went out singing the praises of Sitalces, while the other man was carried out like a corpse by his comrades (cf. Ib. 7.3.32, seq.; Tac. Ann. 4.47).
Their music was rude and noisy. Strabo (x. p.471) compares it to that of the Phrygians, whom, indeed, he regards as descended from the Thracians. Xenophon, in the passage last referred to, says that they played on horns and on trumpets made of raw ox-hide. Their worship of Dionysus and Cotytto was celebrated on mountain tops with loud instruments of music, shouting, and noises like the bellowing of cattle. (Strab. x. p.470.)
Their barbarity and ferocity became proverbial. Herodotus (8.116) tells a story of a king of the Bisaltae, who punished his six sons for disobeying him by putting out their eyes. Seuthes, with his own hand, transfixed some of the Thyni who had been taken prisoners (Xen. Anab. 7.4. 6). Rhascuporis invited his nephew to a banquet, plied him with wine, then loaded him with fetters, and afterwards put him to death. (Tac. Ann. 2.64, seqq.) Thucydides (7.27, seq.) gives an instance of the ferocity of the Thracians in their massacre of the inhabitants of Mycalessus.
A truly barbarian trait in the character of the Thracians was their faithlessness, even to one another. This is especially shown in their disregard of their obligations towards the hostages whom they gave as securities for their observance of their engagements with others. Seuthes had received from the Thyni a number of old men as hostages; yet the Thyni, seeing a favourable opportunity, as they supposed, for renewing hostilities, at once seized it, apparently without a thought of the but too probable consequences of such conduct to their helpless countrymen. (Xen. Anab. 7.4. 21; cf. Liv. 40.22). Some of the tribes inhabiting the Thracian coast of the Euxine were systematic wreckers SALMYDESSUS Robbery, as we have seen, was considered honourable by them; and plunder was their chief inducement to engage in war. (Strab. vii. p.318; Cic. Pis. 34; Liv. 26.25, 38.40, seq.) Strabo (iii. pp. 164, 165), Mela (2.2), and Tacitus (Tac. Ann. 4.51) bear witness to the bravery of the Thracian women.
The deity most worshipped by the Thracians was Dionysus, whom they, as well as the Phrygians, called Sabazius. (Schol. Aristoph. Vesp. 9.) The mythical stories respecting Orpheus and Lycurgus are closely connected with the worship of this god, who had an oracle on Rhodope, in the country of the Satrae, but under the direction of the Bessi [SATRAE]. Herodotus (7.111) states that the mode of delivering the answers of this oracle resembled that which prevailed at Delphi. He compares also the worship of Artemis (whose Thracian name was Bendis or Cotytto), as he had seen it celebrated by Thracian and Paeonian women, with some of the ceremonies at Delos (4.33). These resemblances may be accounted for on the supposition that the Thracian rites were derived from the original Pelasgian population, remnants of which may have maintained themselves amid the mountain fastnesses; as Niebuhr holds (Ethnog. and Geog. i. p. 287) was the case with the Paeonians, who are mentioned by Herodotus in the passage last referred to. (On the Thracian divinities, see Strabo, x. pp. 470, 471; Soph. Antig. 955, seq.; Plin. Nat. 16.62; and the articles BENDIS, COTYS, and RHEA, in the Dict. Biog. and Myth.）
It has sometimes been asserted that the Thracians were accustomed to sacrifice human victims to their divinities; but this appears to be either an incorrect generalisation, or a confounding of them with other races; for we find no reference to such a custom in any of the ancient accounts of their manners. Herodotus, it is true, states (9.119) that when the Persian Oeobazus fell into the hands of the Apsinthii, after the taking of Sestus by the Athenians, they sacrificed him to their local god, Pleistorus; but from the next words (τρόπῳ τῷ σφετέρῳ) it is clear that he regarded the practice as characteristic of the Apsinthii, and not as one common to all Thracians: nor is it conceivable that he would have omitted to mention so striking a circumstance, in his general description of Thracian manners, which has been already quoted (5.3, seqq); for tile practice of slaying the favourite wife on the tomb of her deceased husband cannot with any propriety be called a sacrifice.
Whether indulgence in wine was regarded as a part of the homage due to Dionysus, or simply as a means of sensual gratification, certain it is that it was prevalent in Thrace, and frequently attended with violent and sanguinary quarrels: “Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis pugnare Thracum est,” says Horace, and evidence is not wanting in support of the accusation. Ammianus (27.4.9) describes the Odrysae as so fond of bloodshed that in their banquets, after eating and drinking to satiety, they used to fall to blows with one another. Tacitus (Tac. Ann. 4.48) relates that the Thracians serving with Poppaeus Sabinus against their fellow-countrymen, indulged to such a degree in feasting and drinking that they kept no guard at night, so that their camp was stormed by their exasperated brethren, who slew great numbers of them. Xenophon tells us that at his first interview with Seuthes, they drank horns of wine to each other's health, according to the Thracian custom (Anab. 7.2.23). At the banquet which Seuthes afterwards gave to Xenophon and some other important persons the drinking seems to have been deep. Xenophon admits that he had indulged freely; and he was evidently astonished that when Seuthes rose from the table, he manifested no signs of intoxication. (Ib. 3.26, seqq.) The Thracians are said to have had a custom, which prevailed in England as late as the last century, of compelling all the guests to drink the same quantity. (Callim. ap. Athen. 10.442.) The Odrysian auxiliaries of Dercyllidas poured great quantities of wine upon the graves of their slain comrades. (Xen. Hell. 3.2. 5) It would appear from Mela (2.2), that some of the Thracians were unacquainted with wine, but practised another mode of producing intoxication: while feasting, they threw into the fires around which they were seated certain seeds, the fumes of which caused a cheerful kind of drunkenness. It is possible that these may have been the seeds of hemp, which, as we have seen, probably grew in Thrace, and contains, as is well known, a narcotic principle.
The Thracians against whom Seuthes led his forces lived in villages (lb. § 43), the houses being fenced round with large stakes, within the inclosure formed by which their sheep were secured (lb. 4.14; cf. Tac. Ann. 4.49).
Pliny (7.41) states that the Thracians had a custom of marking their happy or unhappy days, by placing a white or a black stone in a vessel at the close of each day. On any one's death, the vessel [p. 2.1185]belonging to him was emptied, the stones were separately counted, and his life pronounced to have been happy or the reverse, as the white or the black were more numerous.
V. HISTORY.--Thrace is one of those countries whose people, not being sufficiently civilised to establish a national government or to possess a national literature, cannot have histories of their own. We become acquainted with the Thracians at second hand, as it were, through the narrations of foreigners, who necessarily make them subordinate to their own countrymen; and therefore it is only in connection with foreign states that their history has been recorded. Hence it is fragmentary, and, consequently, often obscure; nor would its importance, indeed, repay the labour that might be employed in elucidating it, even if we possessed the requisite materials. Destitute of union, the Thracians, notwithstanding their numbers, their wide diffusion, their powers of endurance, and their contempt of death, exerted no perceptible influence upon the general course of history; but were reduced, in spite of their wild love of independence, to assist, as humble allies or subjects, in the aggrandisement of the more civilised or politic races with which they came in contact. These were the Greeks, the Persians, the Macedonians, and the Romans, with the successors of the last in the Eastern Empire. We shall now briefly state the leading points of their history, as connected with that of the nations just mentioned; referring the reader for details, especially as to the little that known of their purely internal affairs, to the articles in this work which relate to the BESSI, ODRYSAE, and other prominent Thracian tribes.
We pass over the alleged conquest of Thrace by Sesostris (Herod, 2.103; Diod. i, 53), and that said to have been effected by the Teucri and Mysi before the Trojan War (Hdt. 7.20; cf. Eur. Rh. 406, seq.), and come at once to the strictly historical periods.
The first connection of the Greeks with Thrace was through colonies planted upon its various coasts, the original object of which seems generally to have been of a commercial kind. Only an approximation to the date of most of these can be made, since the majority were established long before the commencement of authentic history. Byzantium and Selymbria, colonies of Megara, belong to the seventh century B.C., the year 675 B.C. being assigned for the foundation of the former. In 651 B.C. an unsuccessful attempt is said to have been made by settlers from Clazomenae to establish themselves at Abdera (Solin. 10.10); but that city was not actually founded till 560 B.C., and then by emigrants from Teos. (Hdt. 1.168.) Mesembria, on the Euxine, Was a colony of the Byzantians and Chalcedonians, who abandoned their cities on the approach of the Phoenician fleet, B.C. 493. (Id. 6.33). When Dicaea, Maronea, and Aenus, all on the south coast, were established, is not known; which is the case also with Cardia and Sestus in the Chersonesus. That these settlements were generally exposed to the hostility of their Thracian neighbours, there can be no doubt, though corded as in the instance of Amphipolis. The Athenians sent no less than 10,000 men (B.C. 465) to found a colony there; and they succeeded in driving off the Edonians who occupied the country; but having advanced into the interior, they were defeated at Drabescus by the natives, and compelled to abandon the country. About thirty years afterwards, however, the Athenians returned, and this time overcame all resistance. Sometimes the relation between the Greeks and the Thracians was of a more friendly description. Thus, in the time of Peisistratus, the Dolonci, who dwelt in the Chersonesus, invited Miltiades (the elder) to rule over them, as they were unable to cope with their neighbours the Apsinthii; and this led to the Athenians obtaining a firm footing in that most important and valuable district. (Hdt. 6.34, seq.) By these various means, the Greeks had obtained possession of nearly the whole coast of Thrace, a considerable period before the commencement of the great contest between themselves and the Persian empire. Of the interior they appear to have known scarcely anything whatever; and although in some cases the surrounding barbarians may have been brought into subjection (Byzantium is said to have reduced the Bithynian Thracians to the condition of tributary perioeci), yet this was rarely the case. On the contrary, it is clear from Thucydides (2.97), that the Greeks sometimes paid tribute to the native kings. The Greeks, even when dwelling among hostile strangers, showed their tendency to separation rather than to union; and hence their settlements on the Thracian coast never gained the strength which union would have conferred upon them. Each city had a government, and to a great extent a history of its own; and we must therefore refer the reader is for information respecting those states to the separate articles in this work devoted to them.
The first Persian expedition to Thrace was that of Darius, who crossed the Bosporus with his army about B.C. 513 (or 508, as some authorities hold). As the principal object of Darius was to chastise the Scythians for their invasion of Asia in the reign of Cyaxares, he took the shortest route through Thrace; where he met with no opposition. The Greeks whom he found there were required to follow in his train to the Danube: among them was the younger Miltiades, the destined hero of Marathon, who then ruled over the Chersonesus, as his uncle had formerly done, and who had married the daughter of a Thracian king. (Hdt. 6.39.)6 On returning from the north, Darius directed his march to the Hellespont, and before crossing from Sestus into Asia, erected a fort at Doriscus, near the mouth of the Hebrus. (Hdt. 4.89-93, 143, 144, 7.59.) Megabazus was left with 80,000 men to subdue the whole of Thrace, a task which he began by besieging Perinthus, which, though previously weakened by the attacks of the Paeonians, made a brave but fruitless resistance. After this, Megabazus reduced the country into subjection, though perhaps only the districts near the sea. (Hdt. 5.1, 2, 10.) That his conquests extended as far as the Strymon appears from Darius's grant of a district upon that river to Histiaeus, who founded there the town of Mvrcinus. (Hdt. 5.11.) Megabazus soon returned to Asia; and it seems probable that he took with him the greater part of his army; for if the Persians had maintained [p. 2.1186]a powerful force in Thrace, the Paeonians could hardly have succeeded in making their escape from Phrygia back to the Strymon (Id. 5.98), nor could the revolted Ionians (B.C. 498) have taken Byzantium and all the other cities in that country. (Id. 5.103.) It is to this period that we must refer the invasion of the Scythians, who are said to have advanced as far as the Chersonesus, thus occasioning the temporary flight of Miltiades, who, they were aware, had assisted Darius in his attack upon their country. (Id. 6.40.)
After the suppression of the Ionian revolt (B.C. 493), the Phoenician fleet sailed to the Hellespont, and again brought the country under the Persian dominion, Cardia being the only city which they were unable to take. (Id. 6.33.) Miltiades made his escape from the Chersonesus to Athens, on hearing of the approach of the hostile fleet. (Ib. 41.)
Next year Mardonius led an army across the Hellespont, and advanced as far as Macedonia; but his fleet having been wrecked off Mount Athos, and his land forces having suffered considerably in a war with the Thracians, who then occupied the country W. of the Strymon, he retraced his steps, and transported his shattered army into Asia (Id. 6.43, seqq.).
It was not till B.C. 480 that the vast army under the command of Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by the famous bridges which spanned the strait from Abydos to Sestus. Of his march through Thrace, Herodotus gives an interesting account (7.108--115); but, as he met with no opposition, we need not dwell upon these circumstances.
After the disastrous battle of Salamis, Xerxes, with an escort of 60,000 men, hastened back by the same road which he had so recently trod in all the overweening confidence of despotic power: in Thrace, his miserable troops, suffered greatly from hunger and consequent disease, but do not appear to have been openly attacked. (Hdt. 8.115, seqq.)
Next year (B.C. 479) was fought the battle of Plataeae in which Thracians formed part of the motley host arrayed against Greek freedom (Id. 9.32). Artabazus led the 40,000 men, who alone remained of the Persian army, by forced marches through Thessaly, Macedonia, and Thrace. He struck through the interior of the latter country, probably for fear of the Greek cities on the coast; but he encountered enemies as much to be dreaded, and lost a great part of his army by hunger, fatigue, and the attacks of the Thracians, before he reached Byzantium.
It was now the turn of the victorious Greeks to assail their foes in their own territories. Thrace, with the exception of Doriscus, was soon cleared of the Persians. After the battle of Mycale, their fleet sailed to the Hellespont, where the Athenians laid siege to Sestus, which was taken early in the following year (B.C. 478) [SESTUS]. Eion, at the mouth of the Strymon, made a desperate resistance; but at length (B.C. 476) fell into the hands of Cimon and the Athenians, after its Persian governor had put to death all his family, and finally himself. (Hdt. 7.107; cf. Thuc. 1.98). Byzantium had been taken by Pausanias the year before. Thus the Persians were driven out of Europe, and the Greek settlements in Thrace resumed their internal freedom of action, though most of them, it is probable, were under the supremacy of Athens, as the chosen head of the great Greek confederacy.
During the administration of Pericles, 1000 Athenian citizens were settled in the Thracian Chersonesus, which was always the chief stronghold of Athens in that quarter. Under the auspices of the same statesman, in B.C. 437, the Athenians succeeded in founding Amphipolis, the contests for the possession of which occupy a very prominent place in the subsequent history of Greece. [AMPHIPOLIS Vol. I. p. 126.]
About this time flourished the most powerful Thracian kingdom that ever existed, that of the Odrysae, for the history of which see ODRYSAE Vol. II, pp. 463--465. At the commencement of the Peloponnesian War (B.C. 431), the Athenians entered into an alliance with Sitalces, the king of the Odrysae (Thuc. 2.29), who, they hoped, would enable them to subdue all opposition to their supremacy in the Chalcidic peninsula. In consequence of this alliance, Sitalces led (B.C. 429) a vast host into Macedonia, the ruler of which supported the enemies of Athens: he encountered no opposition, yet was compelled by want of supplies to return to Thrace, about a month after he had left it (Ib. 95--101). But although Sitalces was an ally of Athens, this did not prevent Brasidas from having great numbers of light-armed Thracians in his armies, while commanding the Spartan forces in the neighbourhood of Amphipolis (B.C. 422).
It would occupy too much space to relate minutely the various turns of fortune which occurred in Thrace during the Peloponnesian War. The principal struggle in this quarter was for the command of the Bosporus and Hellespont, so important, especially to the Athenians, on account of the corn trade with the Euxine, from which Athens drew a large part of her supplies. Hence many of the most important naval battles were fought in the Hellespont; and the possession of Byzantium and Sestus was the prize of many a victory. The battle of Aegospotami, which terminated the long contest for supremacy, took place to the S. of Sestus, B.C. 405. By the peace concluded next year, Athens gave up all her foreign possessions; and those in the east of Thrace fell into the hands of the Spartans and Persians. [See BYZANTIUM, SESTUS, &c.]
When the remnant of the 10,000 Greeks returned (B.C. 400) to Europe, they were engaged by Seuthes, an Odrysian prince, to assist him in recovering the dominions which had belonged to his father, in the south eastern part of Thrace. (Xen. Anab. vii. pass.) Having thus been reinstated in his principality, he showed his gratitude to the Greeks, by sending auxiliaries to Dercyllidas, who commanded the Spartan forces against the Persians, with whom they were now (B.C. 399) at war (Xen. Hell. 3.2). Next year Dercyllidas crossed over into the Chersonesus, and erected a wall across its northern extremity, as a protection to the Greek inhabitants, who were exposed to constant attacks from their barbarous neighbours (Ib. 2. § § 8--10). The same general successfully defended Sestus from the combined forces of Conon and Pharnabazus (B.C. 394: Ib. 4.8.5, seqq.). But in B.C. 390 Thrasybulus restored Athenian influence in Thrace, by forming an alliance with two native princes, and by establishing democracy at Byzantium (Ib. § 25, seqq.); and his success was confirmed by the victory of Iphicrates over Anaxibius the next year (ib. § 34). The peace of Antalcidas, however, released all the Greek states from their connection with Athens, and virtually gave the supremacy to Sparta (B.C. 387).
Nothing of any importance happened in Thrace after this event till the accession of Philip II. to the throne of Macedonia (B.C. 359). This able but unscrupulous [p. 2.1187]scrupulous monarch at once began his career of aggrandisement towards the east. He contrived to get possession of Amphipolis (B.C. 358), and thus obtained a secure footing from which he might extend his dominions in Thrace as opportunity offered. At this time there were three native Thracian princes, probably brothers, who seem to have ruled over most of the country. According to Justin (8.3), Berisades and Amadocus, two of them, chose Philip as judge of their disputes; of which position he treacherously availed himself to seize upon their dominions. Though this statement is not supported, we believe, by any other ancient author, yet it is probably true; for such conduct is highly characteristic of the Macedonian monarch; and the almost entire disappearance from history of these Thracian princes soon after Philip's accession, would thus be accounted for. Cersobleptes, the third brother, who seems to have had the E. portion of Thrace, maintained a long struggle against his ambitious neighbour. In B.C. 357 he ceded the Chersonesus to the Athenians, who sent a colony to occupy it four years afterwards. [See CERSOBLEPTES, Dict. Biog. Vol. I. p. 674: SESTUS] Philip at various times marched into Thrace, and repeatedly defeated Cersobleptes, whom he at length (B.C. 343) completely subdued and rendered tributary. Next year he established colonies in the eastern part of Thrace, and acts of hostility occurred between him and Diopeithes, the Athenian commander in that quarter. Philip was occupied the next three years in Thrace, and laid siege to Perinthus and Byzantium, which were in alliance with Athens, whose forces, commanded by Phocion, compelled Philip to abandon the sieges; and he soon afterwards left Thrace, to advance towards the south against the confederate Greeks. On his departure Phocion recovered several of the cities in which Macedonian garrisons had been placed.
Notwithstanding these checks, Philip had brought under his command a great part of Thrace, especially on the south coast: he had, above all, completely incorporated with his kingdom the district between the Strymon and the Nestus, and from the mines of the Pangaeus, which he seized in B.C. 356, he obtained abundant supplies of the precious metals.
Philip was assassinated B.C. 336: next year his successor, Alexander the Great, marched across the Haemus to attack the Triballi; but his chief attention was bestowed upon the preparations for the Asiatic expedition, which he entered upon next year, crossing the Hellespont from Sestus.
On the death of Alexander (B.C. 323), Thrace was allotted to Lysimachus, who was soon involved in hostilities with Seuthes, a king of the Odrysae. The reader is referred to the account of Lysimachus [Dict. Biog. Vol. II. pp. 867--870] for details respecting his government of Thrace: the result of his various wars was that his sway was firmly established over all the countries south of the Danube, as far as the confines of Macedonia; the Greek cities on the Euxine were garrisoned by his troops; and though many of the native tribes, in the more inaccessible districts, no doubt retained their freedom, yet he had completely defeated all their attacks upon his power. In B.C. 309 he founded Lysimachia, near the northern extremity of the Chersonesus and made it his capital. Having engaged in a war with Seleucus, the ruler of Syria, he advanced to meet his antagonist in Asia, and was defeated and slain at Corupedion (B.C. 281), upon which Seleucus passed over into Europe and took possession of Thrace. Next year, however, he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who was thereupon acknowledged king; but shortly: afterwards a vast horde of Celts invaded the country, and Ptolemy was slain in a battle with them. Anarchy now prevailed for some years in the country: the Celts again advanced to the south in B.C. 279, and under Brennus penetrated as far as Delphi, on their repulse from which they retreated northwards, and some of them settled on the coast of Thrace.
For nearly fifty years after this time little mention is made of Thrace in history; it appears to have been annexed to Macedonia; but the rulers of that kingdom were too insecure, even in their central dominions, to be able to exercise much control over such a country as Thrace, inhabited now by races differing so widely as the Thracians, the Greeks, and the Celts, and offering so many temptations to the assertion of independence. [See ANTIGONUS GONATAS, DEMETRIUS II., and PYRRHUS, in Dict. Biog.]
About B.C. 247, the fleet of Ptolemy Euergetes captured Lysimachia and other important cities on the coast; and they remained for nearly half a century under the kings of Egypt. (Plb. 5.34, 58.)
In B.C. 220, Philip V. ascended the throne of Macedonia. Under him the Macedonian power regained something of its old prestige; and had it not been brought in collision with Rome, it might have become as extensive as in former times. But Philip unfortunately directed his ambitious views in the first instance towards the West, and thus soon encountered the jealous Republic. It was not till B.C. 211 that Philip commenced his enterprises against Thrace: he then led an army into the country of the Maedi, who were in the habit of making incursions into Macedonia. Their lands were laid waste, and their capital, Iamphorina, compelled to surrender. Having made peace with the Romans (B.C. 205), he invaded Thrace, and took Lysimachia. In B.C. 200, he again attacked that country, both by sea and land; and it is evident that he did not anticipate much resistance, since he took with him only 2000 infantry and 200 cavalry. Yet with this insignificant force, aided by the fleet, he made himself master of the whole of the south coast, and of the Chersonesus. He then laid siege to Abydos, and after a desperate resistance took it (Liv. 31.16). This seems to have hastened the declaration of war on the part of the Romans; a war which lasted till B.C. 196, when Philip was reduced to procure peace by surrendering all his conquests, and withdrawing his garrisons from the Greek cities (Liv. 33.30), L. Stertinius was sent to see that these terms were complied with (ib. 35). But scarcely had the cities been evacuated by the Macedonian garrisons, when Antiochus the Great crossed the Hellespont, and took possession of the Chersonesus, which he claimed as a conquest of Seleucus (ib. 38). He refused to comply with the demand of the Romans, that he should withdraw his army from Europe; but left his son Seleucus to complete the restoration of Lysimachia, and to extend his influence, which seems to have been done by placing garrisons in Maroneia and Aenus.
In the war which ensued between the Romans and Antiochus (B.C. 190), Philip rendered the former good service, by providing everything necessary for their march through Thrace, and securing them from molestation by the native tribes (Liv. 37.7). Antiochus was defeated by Scipio at Magnesia, and [p. 2.1188]sued for peace, which was at length granted to him (B.C. 188) on condition of his abandoning all his dominions west of the Taurus (Liv. 38.38). The Romans gave the Chersonesus and its dependencies to their ally Eumenes (ib. 39). As indicative of the internal condition of Thrace, even along the great southern road, the account which Livy (ib. 40, seq.) gives of the march of the consul Manlius' army through the country on its return from Asia Minor, is highly interesting. The army was loaded with booty, conveyed in a long train of baggagewaggons, which presented an irresistible temptation to the predatory tribes through whose territories its route lay. They accordingly attacked the army in a defile, and were not beaten off until they had succeeded in their object of sharing in the plunder of Asia.
The possession of the Chersonesus by Eumenes soon led to disagreements with Philip, who was charged by Eumenes (B.C. 185) with having seized upon Maroneia and Aenus, places which he coveted for himself. (Liv. 39.24, 27). The Romans insisted upon the withdrawal of the Macedonian garrisons (B.C. 184), and Philip, sorely against his will, was obliged to obey. He wreaked his anger upon the defenceless citizens of Maroneia, by conniving at, if not actually commanding, the massacre of a great number of them (ib. 33, 34). In the course of the disputes about these cities, it was stated that at the end of the war with Philip, the Roman commissioner, Q. Fabius Labeo, had fixed upon the king's road, which is described as nowhere approaching the sea, as the S. boundary of Philip's possessions in Thrace; but that Philip had afterwards formed a new road, considerably to the S., and had thus included the cities and lands of the Maronitae in his territories (ib. 27).
In the same year, Philip undertook an expedition into the interior of Thrace, where he was fettered by no engagements with the Romans. He defeated the Thracians in a battle, and took their leader Amadocus prisoner. Before returning to Macedonia he sent envoys to the barbarians on the Danube to invite them to make an incursion into Italy (ib. 35). Again in B.C. 183, Philip marched against the Odrysae, Dentheletae and Bessi, took Philippopolis, which its inhabitants had abandoned at his approach, and placed a garrison in it, which the Odrysae, however, soon afterwards drove out (ib. 53). In B.C. 182, Philip removed nearly all the inhabitants of the coast of Macedonia into the interior, and supplied their places by Thracians and other barbarians, on whom he thought he could more safely depend in the war with the Romans, which he now saw was inevitable (Liv. 40.3). He had done something of the same kind a few years before (Id. 39.24).
Philip's ascent of the Haemus, already referred to, took place in B.C. 181: on the summit he erected altars to Jupiter and the Sun. On his way back his army plundered the Dentheletae; and in Maedica he took a town called Petra. (Liv. 40.21, seq.)
Philip died in B.C. 179, and his successor Perseus continued the preparations which his father had made for renewing the war with Rome, which did not begin, however, till B.C. 171. The Romans had formed an alliance the year before with a number of independent Thracian tribes, who had sent ambassadors to Rome for the purpose, and who were likely to be formidable foes to Perseus. The Romans took care to send valuable presents to the principal Thracians, their ambassadors having no doubt impressed upon the senate the necessity for compliance with this national custom. (Liv. 42.19.)
The advantage of this alliance was soon seen. Cotys, king of the Odrysae, was an ally of Perseus, and marched with him to meet the Romans in Thessaly, but with only 1000 horse and 1000 foot, a force which shows how greatly the power of the Odrysian monarchy had declined since the reign of Sitalces (ib. 51). Cotys commanded all the Thracians in Perseus's army in the first engagement with the Roman cavalry, which was defeated (ib. 57, seq.). When Perseus retreated into Macedonia a report was brought that the Thracian allies of Rome had invaded the dominions of Cotys, whom Perseus was therefore obliged to dismiss for their protection (ib. 67), and he does not seem to have personally taken any further part in the war, though he probably sent part of his forces to assist Perseus (44.42). His son Bitis fell into the hands of the Romans, after the battle of Pydna (B.C. 168), which put an end to the Macedonian kingdom. Cotys sent ambassadors to Rome to endeavour to ransom his son, and to excuse himself for having sided with Perseus. The senate rejected his offers of money, but liberated his son, and gave a considerable sum to each of the Thracian ambassadors. The reason it assigned for this generosity was the old friendship which had existed between Rome and Cotys and his ancestors. The Romans were evidently unwilling to engage in a war with the Thracian people at this time; and were anxious to secure friends among them for the sake of the peace of Macedonia, which, though not yet nominally made a province, was completely in their power. They sent (B.C. 167) three commissioners to conduct Bitis and the other Thracians home; and at the same time, no doubt, to make observations on the state of that country. (Liv. 45.42).
After the fall of Perseus, the senate divided his dominion's into four districts (regiones), the first of which included the territory between the Strymon and the Nestus, and all the Macedonian possessions east of the latter, except Aenus, Maroneia, and Abdera: Bisaltica and Sintice, west of the Strymon, also belonged to this district, the capital of which was Amphipolis. (Ib. 29.) It is important to recollect that the Thrace spoken of by the Latin historians subsequently to this time does not include the territories here specified, which thenceforth constituted an integral part of Macedonia.
From the year B.C. 148, when the Romans undertook the direct government of that country, they were brought into contact with the various barbarous nations on its frontiers, and were continually at war with one or another of them. For some years, however, their chief occupation was with the Scordisci, a people of Celtic origin which had settled south of the Danube, and often made devastating incursions into the more civilised regions of the south. They are sometimes called Thracians (e. g. by Florus, 3.4; cf. Amm. 27.4.4), which is the less surprising when we remember that great numbers of Celts had settled in Southern Thrace, and would soon be confounded under a common name with the other occupants of the country. The history of all this period, up to the time of Augustus, is very obscure, owing to the loss of so great a part of Livy's work; enough, however, appears in other writers to show that Thrace was left almost entirely to its native rulers, the Romans rarely interfering with it except when provoked by the predatory incursions [p. 2.1189]of its people into Macedonia: they then sometimes made retaliatory expeditions into Thrace; but seem generally to have made their way back as soon as the immediate object was accomplished. The relation existing between the Romans and the Thracians, for more than a century after the conquest of Macedonia, thus bears a close resemblance to that which has long existed between our own countrymen and the Caffres.
During the years B.C. 110, 109, the Consul M. Minucius Rufus was engaged in hostilities with the Scordisci and Triballi; and, according to Florus (l.c.), laid waste the whole valley of the Hebrus (cf. Eutr. 4.27). In B.C. 104, Calpurnius Piso penetrated into the district of Rhodope (Flor. l.c.). In B.C. 92, the Maedi defeated the praetor, C. Sentius, and then ravaged Macedonia (Cic. Pis. 34; Liv. Epit. 70). After the breaking out of the Mithridatic War (B.C. 88), mention is made in several successive years of the incursions of the Thracians into the Roman provinces, and it is probable that they were acting in concert with Mithridates, whose general Taxiles, in B.C. 86, led a vast army through Thrace, and Macedonia to the assistance of Archelaus. (Liv. Epit. 74, 76, 81, 82). On the final defeat of Archelaus, Sulla directed his march towards Asia through, Thrace B.C. 84, and, either to punish the people for their connection with Mithridates, or because they opposed his passage, made war upon them with complete success (Id. 83). C. Scribonius Curio defeated the Dardani, and penetrated to the Danube, being the first Roman who had ventured into that part of Europe (B.C. 75; Liv. Epit. 92; Eutr. 6.2). Curio was succeeded as governor of Macedonia by M. Lucullus (B.C. 73), who defeated the Bessi in a pitched battle on Mount Haemus, took their capital, and ravaged the whole country between the Haemus and the Danube (Liv. Epit. 97; Eutr. 6.10). The Bessi were again conquered in B.C. 60 by Octavius, the father of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 3; cf. lb. 94; Freinsh. Suppl. 135.2). In the years B.C. 58, 57, Piso, so well known. to us from Cicero's celebrated speech against him, was governor of Macedonia; and, if we may believe Cicero, acted in the most cruel and faithless manner towards the Bessi and other peaceable Thracian tribes. (Pis. 34, de Prov. Cons. 2, seq.). From the latter passage it appears that although Thrace was not under the government of Rome, yet the Romans claimed the right of way through it to the Hellespont; for Cicero calls the Egnatian Way “via illa nostra militaris.”
In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, several Thracian princes furnished the latter with auxiliary forces. Why they interfered in the contest, and why they preferred Pompey to Caesar, are matters of conjecture only. Pompey had been chiefly engaged all his life in the East, Caesar in the West; and that is probably sufficient to account for the greater influence of Pompey in Thrace. (Caes. B.C. 3.4; Flor. 4.2; D. C. 41.51, 63, 47.25).
At the time of Caesar's death two brothers, Rhascuporis and Rascus [Dict. Biog. Vol. III. p. 647] ruled over the greater part of Thrace; and when the war broke out between the triumvirs and the republican party, Rhascuporis sided with the latter, while Rascus aided the former. By this plan they hoped to be safe, whichever party might be victorious; and it is said that their expectations were realised.
When the power of Rome was at length wielded by Augustus. without a rival, the relation of Thrace to the Roman state seems to have become in many respects like that which the native princes of India long bore to the British. The Thracian kings were generally allowed to exercise, without restraint, their authority over their own subjects, and when needful it was supported by the arms of Rome. But all disputes among the native rulers were referred to the decision of the emperors, who disposed of the country as its acknowledged lords. These subject princes were expected to defend Thrace from external and internal foes; to assist the Romans in the field; to allow them to enlist troops, and in other ways to exercise the rights of sovereignty. For illustrations of these statements we must refer the reader to Tacitus, especially to the following passages: Ann. 2.64--67, 3.38, 39, 4.5, 46--51. The few Thracian coins which are extant afford a proof of the dependent character of the Thracian kings; they bear on the obverse the effigy of the reigning emperor, on the reverse that of the native prince. [See Dict. Biog. Vol. III. p. 653.]
The interference of the Romans in the government of Thrace was not submitted to by the nation at large without several severe struggles. The most formidable of these occurred about B.C. 14, the fullest account of which is given by Dio Cassius (lib. liv.). The leader in this insurrection was Vologaesus, a Bessian priest of Bacchus, who availed himself of his sacerdotal character to inflame the religious feelings of his countrymen. Having thus assembled a large army, he attacked, defeated, and slew Rhascuporis, a king under Roman protection; his uncle, Rhoemetalces, was next assailed and compelled to flee: the insurgents pursued him as far as the Chersonesus, where they devastated the country and captured the fortified places. On receiving information of these proceedings, Augustus ordered L. Piso, the governor of Pamphylia, to transport his army into Thrace, where, after a three years' war and several reverses, he at length succeeded in subduing the Bessi, who had adopted Roman arms. and discipline. They soon afterwards made a second attempt to regain their independence; but were now easily crushed. (Vell. 2.98; Tac. Ann. 6.10; Sen. Ep. 83; Flor. 4.12; Liv. Epit. 137.)
After this war, the Romans gradually absorbed all the powers of government in the country. Germanicus visited it in A.D. 18, and introduced reforms in its administration (Tac. Ann. 2.54). A system of conscription seems to have been imposed upon the Thracians about A.D. 26 (Ib. 4.46). The last native prince of whom we find any mention is Rhoemetalces II., who, in A.D. 38, was made by Caligula ruler over the whole country; and at length, in the reign of Vespasian (A.D. 69--79), Thrace was reduced into the form of a province. (Suet. Vesp. 8; Eutr. 7.19; cf. Tac. Hist. 1.11.) The date of this event has been disputed on the authority of the Eusebian Chronicle, which states that it took place in A.D. 47, in the reign of Claudius; but the statement of Suetonius is express on the point. It is possible that Rhoemetalces II. may have died about the year last mentioned; and if Claudius refused to appoint a successor to him, this would be regarded as equivalent to incorporating the country in the Roman empire, although its formal constitution as a, province was delayed; as we know was commonly the case. It is remarkable that Moesia was made a province upwards of 50 years before Thrace Proper, its first propraetor being mentioned in A.D. 15. (Tac. Ann. 1.79; cf. Ib. 2.66; Plin. Nat. 3.26. s. 29.) [p. 2.1190]
Thrace now shared in the general fortunes of the Roman world, on the division of which into the Eastern and Western Empires, it was attached to the former, being governed by the Vicarius Thraciarum, who was subordinate to the Praefectus Praetorio Orientis. Its situation rendered it extremely liable to the inroads of barbarians, and its history, so far as it is known, is little else than a record of war and devastation. The Goths made their first appearance there in A.D. 255; the emperor Probus, about A.D. 280, established in it 100,000 Bastarnae. In A.D. 314, and again in 323, the emperor Licinius was defeated at Hadrianople by Constantine, who, in A.D. 334, settled a multitude of Sarmatians in Thrace, which, in 376, received another accession to its heterogeneous population, Valens having given permission to the Goths to reside in it. This gave rise to innumerable wars, the details of which are recorded by Ammianus (lib. xxxi.). In 395 the devoted country was overrun by Alaric, and in 447 by the more dreadful Attila. Through all these misfortunes, however, Thrace remained in connection with the Eastern Empire, the capital of which was within its boundaries, until the year 1353, when the Turks, who had crossed over into Europe in 1341, obtained possession of the Thracian fortresses. Their leader Amurath conquered the whole country, except Constantinople, and made Hadrianople his capital. At length, in 1453, Constantinople itself was taken, and the Turks have ever since been the undisputed lords of Thrace.
VI. TOPOGRAPHY.--Under this head we shall merely collect such names as will serve to direct the reader to articles in this work, where fuller information is given.
Pliny (4.18; cf. Mela, 2.2; Amm. 27.4) enumerates the following as the principal Thracian tribes: Denseletae, Maedi, Bisaltae, Digeri, Bessi, Elethi, Diobessi, Carbilesi, Brysae, Sapaei, Odomanti, Odrysae, Cabyleti, Pyrogeri, Drugeri, Caenici, Hypsalti, Beni, Corpilli, Bottiaei, Edoni, Selletae, Priantae, Dolonci, Thyni, Coeletae. To these we may add, the Apsinthii, Bistones, Cicones, Satrae, Dii, and Trausi.
Of the towns mentioned by Pliny (l.c.), these belonged to Thrace Proper: 1. On the coast (i.) of the Aegean: Oesyma, Neapolis, Datum, Abdera, Tirida, Dicaea, Maronea, Zone, and Aenus; to these must be added Amphipolis, Pistyrus, Cosinthus, and Mesembria; (ii.) of the Chersonesus: Cardia, Lysimachia, Pachyta, Callipolis, Sestus, Elaeus, Coelos, Tiristasis, and Panormus; besides these there were Alopeconnesus and Agora; (iii.) of the Propontis: Bisanthe, Perinthus, and Selymbria; (iv.) of the Bosporus: Byzantium; (v.) of the Euxine: Mesembria, Anchialus, Apollonia, Thynias, Salmydessus, and Phinopolis. 2. In the interior: Philippopolis, Philippi, Scotusa, Topiris, Doriscus, Cypsela, Apros, and Develton. This is a very scanty list; but many of the principal inland towns were founded after Pliny's time: their names also were often changed. The following are some of the chief towns in the interior: Hadrianopolis, Plotinopolis, Trajanopolis, Tempyra, Nicopolis, Beroea, Iamporina, and Petra.
Besides the rivers mentioned in the course of this article, the following occur: the Bathynias, Pydaras or Atyras, Bargus, Cossinites, Compsatus, and Xerogypsus.
As to the political divisions of. Thrace, Pliny (l.c.) states that it was divided into fifty strategiae; but he describes Moesia as part of Thrace. According to Ptolemy (3.11.8, seq.), its districts were Maedica, Dentheletica, Sardica, Bessica, Drosica, Bennica, Usdicesica, Selletica, Samaica, Coeletica, Sapaica, Corpiliaca, Caenica, and Astica.
Ammianus (l.c.) states that in the 4th century Thrace was divided into six provinces, but of these only four belonged to Thrace south of the Haemus: (i.) Thrace Proper (speciali nomine), including the W. part of the country; principal cities, Philippopolis and Beroea: (ii.) Haemimontus, i. e. the NE. district; chief towns, Hadrianopolis and Anchialus: (iii.) Europa, comprehending the SE. district; cities, Apri and Perinthus (Constantinople, being the capital of the whole Eastern Empire, was not regarded as belonging to any province): (iv.) Rhodopa, comprising the SW. region; principal cities, Maximianopolis, Maroneia, and Aenus.
The principal modern writers in whose works information will be found respecting Thrace, have been mentioned in the course of this article. Among the other authors whom the reader may consult, we may name the following: Dapper, Beschryving der Eilanden in de Archipel, Amst. 1688, of which Latin and French translations were published at Amsterdam in 1703. Paul Lucas, Voyage dans la Turquie, l'Asie, &c. 2 vols. Amst. 1720. Choiseul, Voyage Pittoresque dans l'Empire Ottoman: of this work the first volume was published at Paris in 1782, the first part of the second not till 1809; the author died in 1817. A new edition, with. many corrections and additions, was published in 4 vols. 8vo. at Paris in 1842. This work is devoted chiefly to the antiquities of the country; of which the plates contained in the illustrative Atlas which accompanies the book give many representations. Ami Boué‘s, La Turquie d'Europe, 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1840, is the most complete work yet written on the subject; its author, a man of great scientific acquirements, made two journeys in Turkey, in 1836, when he was accompanied by M. Viquesnel, and in 1838. The first volume contains an elaborate account of the physical geography, geology, vegetation, fauna, and meteorology of the country; but takes little or no notice of its classical geography. A map is prefixed to it, which was a vast improvement on all that had preceded it; but it is now in its turn superseded by that of Kiepert, who has employed in its construction the materials afforded by M. Viquesnel's reports already referred to. (Comp. Gatterer, De Herodoti ac Thucydidis Thracia, contained in the Commentationes Soc. Reg. Gottin. vol. iv. pp. 87--112, vol. v. pp. 57--88. [J.R] - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) William Smith, LLD, Ed.
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This Biography is an abridgment of The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages published in 1902 by Father Horace Mann DD, that has been cut, edited, rearranged and sometimes supplemented with the Editor’s (Noah Moerbeek) own remarks, ideas and expressions. However, all the facts of her life are taken from the section on Saint Celestine from the original book published in 1902. It also serves as the transcript for our Audiobook on the Life of St Celestine V Seek Ye First the Kingdom of Heaven.
Part 1: A Boy Named Peter
St Celestine the Fifth baptismal name was Peter. The year of his birth seems to have been 12 10 (or 1209). His parents, Mary and Angelerius, both virtuous, were poor and of humble station. They had twelve children, of whom Peter was the eleventh, and they had always prayed that one at least of their children might be ” a true servant of God “* To his mother’s joy, for his father had died when Peter was very young indeed, her eleventh child soon began to show signs of his future sanctity. At the early age of five he was already fond of the Bible and holy books. His attachment to books, however, was not viewed with favor by his brothers. Besides their father, six of their brothers and sisters were already dead. The family was poor, and could not afford, they urged, to have one of its number brought up in idleness. Moreover, they reminded their mother that a rich man had taken a fancy to Peter, and had promised to make him his heir. But she, recalling to mind that the boy had been born with a call, persevered in her determination to bring him up for the service of God, the more so that her husband had expressed the same wish before his death. The boy corresponded with her desires, and by the time he was twelve knew the Psalms by heart. But about this time his mother was much troubled by seeing him, still a beardless youth, feeding a flock of snow-white sheep. She recovered her serenity, however, when she reflected that it was a question of the flock of Christ.
Daily did Peter grow in goodness, so that his disciples assure us that, even in his youth, he was old in virtue. Peter felt drawn to a hermit’s life. He was, however, deterred at first from carrying out his project, because, even at home, when alone he feared ” the phantoms of the night “. He did not realize that one might be a hermit in a cave and still have a companion. But when he was about twenty (c. 1230), he persuaded a companion to leave home with him and seek the real “sweet things of life” in solitude. They agreed to go first to Mother Rome to get a sanction for their proposed mode of life. But after a day’s journey, his companion returned home, and Peter had to go on alone. Hearing that there was a hermit near Castel del Sangro, he went to consult him. But enlightened from above, he left him, and, timid though he was, passed the night in the open. Comforted and encouraged by heavenly visions, he thenceforth lost all fear of darkness, and dug out for himself a cave beneath a great rock, but so small was it that, though he was not tall, he could not stand upright, nor lie down at full length within it. Here, clad in a rough tunic, he remained for three years, with no companions but snakes, toads, and lizards.
Often was the young hermit here tempted by evil spirits, and and often too, did he receive “great graces”. Peter’s sanctity spread abroad, and the many who came to visit him urged him to get ordained a priest. He accordingly went to Rome, and, returning to the a priest, took up his abode in a cave on Mount Morrone, where now stands the Church of St. Spirito.
The chronology of the life of Peter previous to his election as Pope is obscure ; and it is not possible to say exactly in what year he was ordained or in what year he became a monk. With regard to the latter event, we know at least that it took place before the year 1251, 3 and we know further that he was received into the Benedictine Order in the abbey of Our Lady of Faysolis (or in Faivolis).
Finding that his solitude which he loved so much was to too much disturbed on Monte Morrone, as it was comparatively near a town, Peter retired to the still more inaccessible range of the Majella. He was certainly there by the year 1256.
Even here men followed him, and a number of them The put themselves under his direction. The Celestine congregation was born. With some strict interpretation Celestine, the Saint placed his followers under the rule of St. Benedict which he had himself embraced; for, say his biographers, it was the will of God that this rule, which many had trampled in the mud, should be brought to light by these His new servants. As the number of his disciples increased rapidly, brother Peter had to seek out suitable places in which they could live; and when they were established in their new homes, he used to visit them frequently, in order, we are told, to strengthen their weakness and to encourage them to bear their poverty by his words and example. These, indeed, were the two things that had drawn attraction of ° Bro. Peter, them to him — the sight of his austere life, and the irresistible sweetness of his words and manner. His disciples and tell us at length of his love of prayer, how he spent much of the night as well as of the day praying, how the devotion with which he said Mass inflamed the piety of the bystanders, and how he recited the Divine Office on his knees with the greatest fervor His austerities were rigorous. He brought his body into subjection by hairshirts, knotted leather girdles, and even iron chains. When his exhausted frame could no longer stand or kneel he lay down on boards in a cramped position, with a stone or a block of wood for a pillow, and, in the bitter winter on an exposed mountain, with coverings utterly insufficient to keep out the cold. At no time did he eat more than was barely enough to support life. Often the bread that he ate was so stale and hard that it had to be broken with a hammer, and during the four or six “Lents” which, he kept every year, he often ate only twice a week, and then took nothing but bread and water. Sometimes he even went without bread, and took but some raw vegetables and apples.
On Sundays and festivals, he and his disciples partook of cooked vegetables flavored with poor oil; but, as far as he himself was concerned, he generally ate the vegetables without any kind of flavoring When not occupied in prayer, he was always engaged in reading or in some kind of manual work. He was never idle. If he was not engaged with visitors he was either reading the Bible or some pious book, or copying or binding books, or making or mending his own poor coarse clothing, or that of the brethren. He knew that idleness was the source of all evil. Except during his “Lents ” his time was very largely taken up in receiving people who came to see him from all parts. All sorts and conditions of men flocked to him. The fame of his goodness and sanctity, of his miraculous powers, and of his engaging manners drew both men and women to him in the hope of getting health of body or consolation for their stricken spirits. Not only did kings and nobles come to consult him, but even the clerics and what is the greatest miracle of all, many men of evil life were converted as soon as they came in contact with him. In fact, we are assured that no matter how dissolute some of those who visited him might be, they all left him better men.
Part 2 The Spiritual Father of Many
Brother Peters Love was not limited to those who sought him out for spiritual advice. He had the greatest love and care for the poor, and, though none so poor as he, he was able to help them with money that was given to him, and by the effect which his words had with the rich and powerful whom he ever urged to greater regard for the poor. The poor got alms from Brother Peter, the sick health, the perplexed advice, and the sorrowful comfort, his time and attention were largely absorbed by the crowds that flocked to him for these blessings. But over and above these lesser worries, his ever-growing congregation gave him much more concern. From his first house of St. Maria del Morrone, and especially from his second of St. Spirito di Majella, his religious family began to spread steadily. The Saint’s congregation had spread over Italy. In the lifetime of its founder, brother Peter’s Order counted thirty-six monasteries and six hundred monks.
It must be confessed, however, that the Order of St. Damian, or, as it was afterwards called, that of the Celestines, was not a great asset to the Church. After the effect of brother Peter’s personal example had worn off, the Order began to decay steadily. It has been pointed out that he made no definite regulation about the regular practice of mental prayer, nor about the reception of novices, nor about study. Hence, though the various houses were dependent on the abbot-general of the monastery of the Holy Ghost on Monte Morrone, they were independent of one another, and often small, unfit subjects were very frequently received, and at length profound ignorance even of the proper principles of the spiritual life became manifest among considerable numbers of the brethren of the Order. Despite the efforts of St. Robert Bellarmine, who became Protector of the Order in 1666, to reform it, disunion and corruption led to its suppression in France in 1766, and to its entire extinction in the course of the following few decades.
The first Pope who was brought into contact with the new congregation was Urban IV. In accordance with the new a request which had been laid before him on behalf of the Order. he commissioned the Ordinary Nicholas, to incorporate them with the Benedictine Order, without prejudice to the rights of any one, seeing that at present, he wrote, they are not subject to any Order whatsoever.
Wherever the Saint retired, men followed him; and, whether he wished it or not, kept him in touch with the things of the world. Thus he learnt of the great council which Pope Gregory X. had summoned, and also of his intention to suppress a number of Orders that had been recently started. In fear for his own Order, Bro. Peter with two companions walked all the way to Lyons where the council was to be held. Like other men, Gregory fell under the charm of the simple monk; and, to Peter’s great satisfaction, readily confirmed his adaptation of St. Benedict’s rule. Protected from robbers by snakes and by an angel in the guise of a beautiful horseman, the Saint and his companions returned in safety to his monks.
Soon after his return to the Majella, Peter was called to become abbot of the monastery of St. Maria in Faysolis in, which he had received the Benedictine habit. The monastery had fallen into complete decay. Its buildings and finances were ruined. After the Monastery had been handed over to brother Peter, it began to revive, and, before he left it, its possessions had been recovered, over forty monks were in residence, and he had made accommodation for sixty in about 2 years time before returning to solitude.
Though the affairs of his of his Order, however, soon called him forth monasteries again before the eyes of his fellow men.When the rumour that Gregory X. intended to suppress newly-founded religious Orders took Peter to Lyons, a number of bishops who had monasteries of his Order in their dioceses promptly declared that it had been suppressed, and laid hands on its property. However, on his return with a papal bull of approval, the bishops “with very great shame ” restored what they had seized, and most of them, moreover, ceased to worry the monks as they had done before. The Bishop of Chieti, however, was an exception, and ” so persecuted the servants of God ” that, in preparation for moving out of his diocese, they sent elsewhere their bells which they had got from Venice, their books and other properties. When, however, he was taken ill, he expressed his sorrow to Bro. Peter for the treatment he had meted out to him and his monks, and by way of satisfaction, exempted the monasteries of the new Order from episcopal jurisdiction.
Br. Peter became much occupied with a Fraternity or sort of ” Third Order ” which he established. This he founded for those who could not take the religious habit, but desired to be connected with his Order. Its members had to say every day a certain number of Our Fathers ” for the living and for the dead “, to keep from grievous sin, to give alms, to love each other, looking after one another in sickness, helping their poorer brethren, and practicing the works of mercy as far as they could. This society rapidly spread everywhere, and in some places soon counted a thousand members. Bro. Peter had retired from one place to another seeking out retreats where he could not be disturbed.
Finding, however, that the people would come to him, winter or summer, wherever he went, he decided to return to Monte Morrone, in order, says his biographer, that they might have more easy access to him. He caused a cell (St. Onofrio) to be built by a cave on an old fort (cast rum), a half a mile from the monastery of the Holy Ghost. When he came to this new abode, he was received, we are told, ” like Christ come down from heaven,” by the whole countryside (June, 1293). Here he remained for thirteen months, till the day he left it as Pope (July, 1294)
Part III The New Pope
When Brother Peter had been duly elected Pope, the formal election decree was at once drawn up and signed by all the cardinals (July 5, 1294). But, no sooner was this done, and the excitement of the extraordinary moment had passed away, than the cardinals began to regret their impulsiveness.
News of the wondrous event had, of course, already reached the whole neighborhood and Brother Peter himself. Everyone, say his disciples, was filled with joy at the news, except the hermit. He was in despair, and could not rid himself of his distress day or night. He called together his brethren, and told them that he could never accept the dignity. They, however, declared that schism would follow if he did not. ” This selection,” they argued, ” has been brought about not by you, but by God. If you refuse to accept it, you are going against the will of God.”
He accordingly resolved to fly with a single companion. But the people of the district, knowing his humility and fearing he would attempt flight, watched him day and night. He could do nothing but await the course of events, dreading on the one hand to act against the will of God, and on the other to be unable to benefit the Church. Kings and Envoys sent from different kingdoms arrived on the slopes to put immediate pressure on the new Pope as well.
Brother Peter had found in the soft rock a cave close by a well of water. Here, where in the summer no sound is heard but the scream of the hawk, and in the winter none but the howl of the wolf, he had already lived for more than a year, when he was called to his iron-grated window to receive kings and bishops.
Whilst, with the sweat pouring from them, the kings and envoys were toiling up the narrow track which led to the hermit’s cell. It is not difficult to imagine the curiosity with which Colonna and the delegates peered through the window of the little cell to see what sort of a man was the new Pope, or their wonder at what they saw. Behind the bars stood a man evidently of very great age, seemingly dazed at the sight of the dignified throng before him, and by the knowledge of the errand on which they had come. Bearded was he, and pale, with cheeks and limbs emaciated by long fasts, and with the lids of his dark eyes swollen with much weeping. Yet with all this, and with his stiff coarse garments, he was venerable; for his form and features, dress and dwelling, all bespoke the Saint.
Uncovering their heads, all present bent their knees before the pious recluse, while he in turn bowed down to accept the the earth before his visitors. Then the archbishop of Lyons told him that he had been unanimously elected Pope, handed him the decree of election, and implored him to undertake the ruling of the Church. After cardinal Colonna had added a few words of his own, brother Peter, receiving the election decree, begged the delegates to add their prayers to his that God would enlighten him as to what reply he should make. For a time he prayed prostrate on the ground, and then quietly told his hearers that he bowed to the wishes of the Sacred College and accepted the dignity of the Papacy. For the sake of his own peace of mind, he concluded, he would not allow the Church of Rome to suffer further wrongs. Straightway the assembled company hailed him as Pope, kissed his feet, and received in turn the kiss of peace. Meanwhile the mountain was alive with people swarming up its steep sides to gaze on the new Pope. Toiling up the steep slopes under the blazing July sun might be seen bishops and clergy, nobles and peasants. The new Pope left his cell, and came down the mountain to the monastery of the Holy Ghost. There he remained a few days, and then prepared to leave it, in order to be consecrated and crowned. To judge from the narrative of his disciples, he had naturally thought of going to Rome to be enthroned. But that was not to the mind of Charles II., and perhaps it is not to be wondered at that the mind of the King should impress itself on that of the new Pope. If brother Peter was never “the keeper of the King’s conscience “, he was very friendly with him, and must have been very well disposed towards him for what, certainly up to this, had been his disinterested kindness to him, and interest in his Order. At any rate, subsequent events seem clearly to prove that, in his utter ignorance of the ways of the world and of affairs of state, he put himself completely in the hands of King Charles and his lay lawyers. The members of his Order, too, did the same, as they feared that, if power again came into the hands of the College of Cardinals, they would suppress them. Accordingly, both the King and the monks persuaded the Pope that at his age he should not travel to Rome in the summer, and that he should be consecrated at Aquila instead. A letter, therefore, to that effect was dispatched to the cardinals.
Without waiting for the cardinals’ reply to his letter, the Pope decided to go to Aquila. King Charles, accordingly, sent word that the Pope and he were about to proceed to that city, and that, therefore, especially in view of the fact that people would crowd to it from every quarter to see the new Pope, he must look to it that there was an abundant supply of the necessities of life.
Despite the protests of the two kings and the great ones in the Church and State “who take delight in fine horses “, the Pope insisted on riding on an ass. Some regarded such an act as derogatory to the Papacy, though it was a profitable example to some priests and bishops. At any rate, the Pope had his own way, he entered Aquila on the 27th, with a King on each side of him leading his ass, and accompanied by three cardinals, ” counts, barons, and a countless number of people.” The reply to his letter now reached him from the cardinals a. They pointed out that it was not desirable for the Roman Curia to go into the kingdom of Naples and begged him not to give ear to men who were working simply for their own ends. Further, the bishop of Orvieto, in the name of the cardinals, begged the Pope to come at least into papal territory if the journey to Perugia was too much for him. Finally, as a last resort, the cardinals even besought the King, by all that he and his father owed to the Holy See, to support their petition.
Deceived, however, by those around him , the simple Pope would not listen to the cardinals’ reasons, but renewed his declaration that he would be crowned at Aquila, and requested the cardinals to send him the papal insignia.
As soon as the red mantle and the other papal insignia reached him, they were conferred by cardinal Orsini on the new Pope, who thereupon took the name of Celestine. Clad now in all the state that became his high office, he received the solemn homage of bishops and priests, kings and nobles, and imparted over and over again his solemn benediction to the assembled people.
In and around this Church on the Feast of the beheading of St. John the Baptist (Aug. 29) in the year 1294 stood some two hundred thousand people of whom Ptolemy of Lucca was one. 1 They had come from every hill town to this solitary little plateau to see their well-beloved saint and countryman raised to the highest throne on earth. After the ceremony in the Church, Celestine mounted a platform which had been erected outside it from which he could give his blessing to the expectant thousands. Thence, this time on a white horse, he returned amidst the joyous acclamations of the multitude to the city, in order to hold the traditional banquet.
Saint Celestine tried to lead his old style of life despite being a far way from his hermitage. A contemporary poet, Francesco da Baberino, a man in his day (1264-1348) well known in royal courts, lets us know of what magnificence were Celestine’s ordinary banquets. He tells us that he saw him walking about in his room munching a piece of dry bread whilst a monk from a little pitcher of wine gave him to drink. And he heard him say, as his mother had been wont to tell him, that eating and drinking in that manner was the most enjoyable way in the world to eat and drink. He was also wont to say to his monks: But for you I would not be Pope. Asked why, he replied: It is a greater annoyance to me to command than it was a pleasure to do everything for myself.
Part 4 A Rough Start.
A few days after his consecration, Celestine announced his election to the Catholic world, writing among others to King Edward of England. After emphatically calling attention to the inscrutable ways of God, and to the unfortunate delay in the election of a successor to Nicholas IV., he told how the cardinals were suddenly moved to elect him. Although he knew that the burden that had been put upon him was far too heavy for his weak shoulders, especially as for a very great length of time he had been leading the life of a hermit, he had accepted it, as he knew that a longer vacancy of the Holy See would be most detrimental to the Church. He also feared resisting the call of God, trusting that the Almighty would help his inexperience. Meanwhile he urged Edward to reign with justice, to work for the peace of his people and surrounding nations, promising him that he would do all he could to promote his interests.
Among the many letters of congratulation which the Letter of new Pope received one has come down to us. It was from the Archbishop of York. sent by Romanus, archbishop of York, a man who had been in favor with five Popes from Innocent IV. to Nicholas IV. Addressing his father and lord in Christ, subscribing himself the Pope’s lowly servant, and professing his complete subjection to him, he told him how the Church at large was rejoicing at the close of the long vacancy of the chief See, and how much that joy was shared by the Church of York, directly dependent as it was on the Roman Church. Praying God to grant the Pope a long and happy life, he begged him to give a favorable reception to his proctors.
Unfortunately, as a rule, neither one’s own prayers, nor those of others will make up for want of training, and Celestine had had no manner of education for the post he was called upon to fill. Despite anything that could be done by his more serious and conscientious advisers, Celestine was misled by his monks, more well-meaning than well-informed, and deliberately deceived by many who were bent solely on advancing their own interests by any means. With the place and favor seekers, with the benefice hunters, and with all that tribe, many officials of the papal chancellery cooperated for gain. They sold documents drawn up in due form and sealed which could be filled in as the purchasers desired. Although this last fact is not mentioned by the Saint’s disciple, he does tell us that ” cardinals and prelates . . . kings and magnates began to ask the Pope for benefices and fiefs (beneficia) , churches, and prebends. And he, inasmuch as he was simple and straight, generously granted all their requests “.
The more spiritually minded, such as many of his monks and laymen, sought spiritual favors It was noised abroad that he had granted a plenary indulgence to all who had assisted at his consecration. Accordingly crowds flocked to Aquila from all parts, anxious ” to drink from the fountain ” of mercy which Celestine had caused to flow, and so “on the octave of his coronation he granted a similar indulgence “. Then, adds his disciple, when he reflected how the rich ceased not to beg from him temporal goods, he bethought him how he might grant spiritual goods to the poor. He, therefore, granted a plenary indulgence to all who should visit the Church of St. Maria di Collemaggio on the feast of the Beheading of St. John the Baptist. This indulgence never became operative, as it was revoked by Boniface, who ordered the Celestines to hand over to him the bull granting it. In a word, to cite the conclusion of the famous contemporary canonist, Joannes Andreas, “He acted like an animal that lacks the light of reason (unum pecus). He would grant a favor in the morning, and in the evening recall it, and grant it to another.”
By degrees it must have filtered into the mind even of such a simple soul as Celestine that this wholesale concession of favors of every kind could not be quite in order. Before he resigned, this had become clear to him, and so, on the day of his resignation, he told the assembled cardinals that ” of the many things he had done, he would like to undo those that he had not done well, but that, as he could not be sure which those were, he left it to his successor to decide the question.” Creation of Another disastrously unwise act was his creation of cardinals. He did well in creating cardinals and in creating twelve at once. Indeed, he would have done better if he had created four or five times that number. But circumstances spoilt his otherwise useful act. Celestine’s disciple tells us that he made the new cardinals because the Church was not well served (disposita) by the existing ones, and that those he created were among the best men that were to be found. He does not, however, tell us what other historians do, i.e., that they were chosen for him, for the most part at least, by King Charles. But even if other contemporaries had been as silent on the subject as Celestine’s disciple, the list of the new cardinals’ names would have spoken for itself.
Speaking generally, the new cardinals were at any rate a body of estimable men; though, to judge from the fact that seven of them died in the course of the five years following their election, they would appear to have been advanced in age. Then the Sacred College was called together suddenly on Friday, Sept. 17, and the names were so sprung upon them that they could do nothing but accept them. The whole twelve were thereupon solemnly acclaimed on the following day. Whatever truth there may be in these details, it is made certain that the twelve were proclaimed on Sept. 18, and that one of them, the Celestine Ronci, died on Oct. 13. Then, says the author of the Golden Legend, the Pope who, in the plenitude of his power, had made twelve cardinals, in the plenitude of his simplicity made another” in the same way as he had made the others — irregularly and at the suggestion of another. This thirteenth cardinal was of a very indifferent character, John of Castrocceli, the archbishop of Benevento, who became cardinal- priest of St. Vitalis. One reason, perhaps, why Celestine made one mistake after another was that, though not altogether ignorant, he was in awe of the Sacred College, and so presumably did not consult them much ; and, though not without some skill in speaking, he would only address them simply in his mother tongue, and not in Latin, and would never himself make a public reply to any important question. No doubt, too, the relations between him and the older cardinals, especially, must have gone from bad to worse as they saw him, without or contrary to their advice, doing one imprudent thing after another. They had been particularly annoyed at the promotion of John of Castrocceli. They had seen how, to ingratiate himself with Celestine, he, Benedictine as he was, had put off his black habit and had clothed himself with that of the Pope’s Order. Then, too, he had been given the hat after dinner (post cenam) in Celestine’s private residence in Aquila. At first some of the cardinals refused to sit with him. But, says his biographer, ” patience made the Pope great.” It was finally agreed to hold an inquiry into the custom regarding such appointments, and that meanwhile John should cease to wear the cardinal’s hat. After a brief inquiry, the cardinals ” rehabilitated the man “, partly, says our poet, from fear, and partly ” from a secret hope “—a hope, perhaps, that the Pope would soon resign, or perhaps more probably that the schemer would not long enjoy his honors At any rate the ambitious man did not enjoy them long, as he died within a few months after he had received them.
Finally, in view certainly of his contemplated resignation of the Papacy, and to take away every chance of the cardinals being able to find a subterfuge for evading the conclave, Celestine issued another decision on the subject a few days before his resignation. He decreed that the conclave regulations were to hold good for ever and whether the Papacy became vacant by death, resignation, or any other way.
Despite the helplessness of the Pope, much of the work of the Church went on as usual through the instrumentality of the cardinals and the permanent officials.
Part 5 Politics as Usual
Bitter rumors of quarrels between the Kings of England and France, as well as preparations for war had wrung the heart of the Pope. He feared the gravest losses for the souls and bodies of many, and disasters for both realms and the Holy Land. He was anxious indeed that all Christian princes should live in peace, but especially that the Kings of England and France should remain at peace, as Mother Church is specially attached to them. Accordingly, he decided to send suitable persons to them to try to restore concord. “Would that we ourselves could go to you, and, putting aside all other business, thus give proof of our earnest desire for peace. But the length of the journey and our advanced age will not permit this.” He then exhorts Edward to avoid actions which will hurt the Church that had done so much for him and his predecessors. It would be hateful in the sight of God and man if violent dissensions should break out between princes so nearly related in blood. He begs him as “a soldier of Christ, a zealous supporter of the true faith, an earnest champion of the Church,” to abstain from acts which will cause such a conflagration that it will be well nigh impossible to find a remedy. “ So, therefore, devoutly incline your ears to our words, and hearken to the prayers of the Apostolic See, that you may not offend God, nay rather that you may please Him by your filial devotion, and may henceforth win His blessing more fully and that of the Apostolic See.” As the bearer of his letter, he sends Bertrand canon of Lyons, our chaplain, and Edward’s ardent partisan. He will give the King further evidence of the Pope’s mind.
Celestine did all he could to further the cause of peace among Christian Princes, especially seeing that, he was anxious about the expulsion of the infidel from the Holy Land. He was accordingly overjoyed at the prospect of the close of the Sicilian trouble, and accepted at once the treaty which had been made between the Kings of Sicily (Naples) and Aragon. Writing to Charles II. on October 1, he praised him for his unsparing efforts to make peace with James of Aragon, and for his success in having made it. As the treaty between them, he said, concerned the Roman Church, he enumerated and confirmed its terms.
On the following day (Oct. 2), and here again is manifest the paramount influence of Charles in the Papal Curia, Celestine, with regrets certainly, granted him for a year the ” Saracen ” tithes from France and England to help him recover Sicily. These were granted on the ground that its recovery would be of the greatest service to the Crusades on account of its neighborhood to the Holy Land, its fertility, and its possession of all the materials useful for war.
A few days later he wrote to the Kings of France and Aragon urging them to put no obstacles in the way of the final conclusion of the peace, and taking advantage of the opportunity to exhort James to break off his illicit connection with the daughter of the King of Castile. But even if Celestine was beguiled into doing many unwise things, his personal sanctity was still working wonders. It subdued the indomitable Guido of Montefeltro. On account of his continual active hostility to the subjects of the Church, he had again been excommunicated by Pope Nicholas IV. Hitherto he had paid no heed to the censure. Now, however, he presented himself before Celestine, and, professing his sorrow and readiness to make satisfaction, begged absolution from him. The Pope received him most kindly, and promised that he should be duly absolved. But, before the formalities had been completed, he had ceased to be Pope. This, however, was one of his undertakings which Pope Boniface his successor did not annul. Guido was duly absolved by him, and began his life of exemplary penance.
During this unhappy period the needs of the states of the of the Church were not forgotten. In the days of Martin IV., the twelve consuls of Benevento, unmindful of their recognized powers, aspired to the supreme control of the city. As a result, the Pope suppressed them altogether. But, taking advantage of the long vacancy of the Holy See, the people re-elected their twelve consuls. However, they brought down upon themselves a severe reprimand from Celestine. He annulled their election, and severely prohibited them from again choosing consuls.
Let it not be misunderstood that St Celestine V was not a tremendously effective ruler during a time that the Popes had great political and temporal power. One of the first acts of Boniface his successor was to undo all of the work which St Celestine had done during his pontificate, only later to have to reinstate certain things that he had done well despite his short pontificate.
Part 6 Saint Celestine V Resigns
When St. Celestine arrived in Naples, he was lodged in the Castel Nuovo. In one of its great halls, the Pope ordered a wooden hut to be constructed, and decided to remain in it alone, as he had done in the past. But however he might wish to be alone, he was not hidden because, like the ostrich, he had only buried his head in the sand. King Charles could still get at him and persuade him to do as he wanted. However, Celestine did contrive to remain at peace in his cell, and to find time to think over the many situations in the Church.
In the retirement of his cell, Celestine began to realize that he could not defend himself. He could not understand the language of those around him, even less the questions of law and politics that were brought before him. He began to wonder if there was a way he could step down from the burden he was bearing without danger to his soul.
Among the very few books that he had ever possessed was a little compendium of Canon Law. After consulting this, Celestine came to the conclusion that if, for good reasons, other clerics could lay down their office, so, too, could a Pope. However, having no superior into whose hands he could resign his office, was not quite sure. He then asked a friend who did agree that a Pope could resign for a suitable cause, and was of opinion that to resume one’s former mode of life was reason enough. For greater security, he consulted a second friend, who confirmed the first, and thus Celestine made up his mind. He would resign. With his mind now made up ‘ Celestine consulted some cardinals regarding his resignation. Of these, one was naturally cardinal Benedict Gaetani, who was acknowledged generally to be the most learned of his brethren, and who, even by Celestine’s disciples, is called ” the wisest and most upright cardinal of his time “, Benedict assured him that it was permissible, and even adduced instances of some Popes who had already done so. He gave him the only answer that reason and common sense, informed by the records of history, could have given. If, however, cardinal Benedict correctly assured the Pope that he could resign, he urged him not to do so, protesting that his sanctity would suffice to instruct and enlighten the Sacred College.
Word of Celestine’s intention to resign spread. When his monks found out,they tried earnestly to divert him from his purpose. His “rustic crowd” implored him not to abandon them, his “untutored flock.” They feared being classed as heretics by some of the cardinals. The monks stirred up the people of Naples and by the command of the King, a great procession in which were to be seen many bishops of the neighborhood with all the religious and priests, made its way from the Cathedral to the Castel Nuovo. Arrived at the Castel, appeal was made by it “in the usual way ” for the Pope’s blessing. Showing himself with three bishops at one of the windows, Celestine duly blessed the assembled multitude. He then listened to an address from one of the bishops of the procession, who in a voice so trumpet-like that it was heard by all the people in the square, begged the Pope in the name of King, clergy, and people, not to consent to resign “as he was the glory of their kingdom “. To this one of his attendant bishops gave, in the Pope’s name, an ambiguous answer. Supposing that his petition had been granted, the King’s orator intoned the Te Deum, which was taken up by the whole procession. This took place about the feast of St. Nicholas (Dec. 6).
As a result of the agitation of the Pope’s monks, a disorderly mob had broken into the Castel and made the same request that was afterwards made in form by the organized body of the clergy of the city. Celestine summoned the whole body of the cardinals a day or two after the dismissal of the mob. When he had put before them his previous mode of life, he asked them whether old age, formed habits, ignorance of Latin, or of polished speech, limited intelligence, experience, and training were not reasons enough to justify his resignation. Though the cardinals could not but agree that the reasons adduced were sufficient to justify resignation, they urged him to test his powers, and to remain in office for a time longer, and meanwhile, refraining from following bad advice, to pray himself and order prayers to ascertain the will of God for the good of the world.
Public prayers were accordingly ordered, and for some eight days Celestine so acted as to allay all suspicion that he still entertained any idea of resigning. Meanwhile, however, with the aid of cardinal Gaetani, he drew up a deed of renunciation. The cardinals were ordered to meet the Pope on the feast of St. Lucy (Dec. 13). Swinging open the very door which still gives entrance into this magnificent apartment, they found the Pope seated on his throne in full pontificals. When he had signified that he did not wish any interruption, Celestine suddenly produced the deed of renunciation which, with pale face, he read out clearly to the assembled fathers. He told them that of his own accord and free will, he resigned the papacy, as his age and other defects rendered him incapable of fulfilling its duties, and he wished to put an end to further disasters, and to attend to his soul’s salvation. He then exhorted the cardinals to show their care for the world by electing a worthy pastor who would lead the flock to pastures abundant and fresh, and who would correct the many mistakes he had made. Then, to the profound astonishment of the cardinals in front of him, straightway descending from the throne, he took off, one after another, the insignia of the papacy — his mitre with its crown, the red mantle, the ring, and the other pontificalia, even to the alb. All this he did with every sign of joy. If he took the chair of Peter with sorrow, he left it with gladness.
He then withdrew, and returned wearing the simple garb of his Order, and taking the lowest step on the throne, said “Behold, my brethren, I have resigned the honor of the Papacy; and now I implore you by the Blood of Jesus and by His Holy Mother, quickly to provide for the Church a man who will be useful for it, for the whole human race, and for the Holy Land.” When he had said this, he rose to go, but the cardinals who had not been able with dry eyes to look at this scene so touching in its simple humility, entreated him not to leave them until he had duly provided for the future.
To put the situation in order, it would be well if he would decree that a Pope could resign, and that the cardinals could accept such resignation. A decree to that effect was accordingly at once drawn up, and signed, and afterwards inserted by Boniface VIII. in his Liber Sextus of the Canon Law.
Celestine’s best deed was his self-sacrificing acceptance of the papacy, thereby putting an end to its disastrous vacancy, and his second best act was his humble resignation of it, whereby he saved himself from inflicting irreparable harm on it and the Church.
Part 7 Pope Boniface VIII is Elected as his Successor : Brother Peter Runs away
Shortly after the resignation of Saint Celestine, Pope Boniface the VIII was elected. Though St Celestine wanted to retire and resume his former mode of life according to the disciples of St Celestine, Pope Boniface had other designs in his regard, and said that he did not wish him to return to his cell, but that he should accompany him into Campania. They even insinuate that Boniface began to bully the saint. The fact merely was that no one better than the new Pope understood how simple Peter was, and how liable he was to be influenced by those in whom he trusted. He naturally feared that designing men who hoped everything from Peter de Morrone might succeed in persuading him that he could not resign the Papacy, and so that, especially in view of his popularity with the multitude, a dangerous schism might be brought about. He was aware that many had disapproved of Celestine’s renunciation, and so he judged it better to keep him under his eye.
Peter’s subsequent conduct showed how well founded were the suspicions of Boniface. The new Pope had naturally decided to leave Naples as soon as possible, 1295 and to go to Rome. Bidding Peter accompany him, he left Naples perhaps before December was out, but, at any rate, in the beginning of January, 2 1295, as he reached Rome on January 17. Having told Peter to journey in his company, Boniface presumed that he would do so, and evidently did not order any very strict watch to be kept over him. Meanwhile, however, Peter had allowed himself to be influenced by those around him. They had put all kinds of ideas into his mind as to what Boniface intended to do with him. Among other things they said that he was taking him into Campania to imprison him there. Arguing that he had only resigned in order that he might be able to lead the same sort of life as he had done before his election, Peter decided to return to it, despite anybody. He had left with quite a large company, including his former disciple, Angelarius, Abbot of Mt. Cassino. When, however, he reached San Germano, he quickly, with the aid of a priest, slipped away, and returned to his cell on Mt. Morrone amidst the greatest manifestations of joy on the part of the people of all the country around.
On hearing of his secret departure, Boniface was perturbed, and justly annoyed. He feared that the simple monk had been induced to resume the Papacy. He, accordingly, straightway dispatched his chamberlain, Theodoric of Orvieto, and the abbot of Monte Cassino to seek him. They had no difficulty in tracking him to his cell, where they found him giving thanks to God that He had brought him back there. They upbraided him for having gone off without the Pope’s permission, and bade him return at once lest Boniface should be angry with him. Peter, however, replied by pointing out that he had resigned in order to be able to return to his former mode of life, and he begged the Pope’s messengers to entreat him to allow him to end his life in solitude as he had begun it. He undertook, moreover, not to speak to anyone but to his monks. Extracting a promise from him that he would not leave his cell till they should return with the Pope’s answer, the messengers departed.
On their return journey, they were met by another papal messenger, who informed them that they were to bring Peter back with them whether he wanted to come or not. Before the chamberlain could retrace his steps, word of his errand had reached the hermit ; so that when the messenger reached the cell, Peter was not to be found. It was to no purpose that the chamberlain scoured the country, uttered threats and offered rewards. Peter’s hiding place was not to be discovered. However, the irate official seized the two monks whom he found in the hermit’s cell. But, as one was too ill to travel, he carried off the other, Presumed to be privy to Peter’s flight, the unfortunate monk was imprisoned in the rocky islet of Martana, one of the two little islands in lake Bolsena. Here he died in a few days.
Meanwhile, Saint Celestine was making his way to ” a certain wood in Apulia in which there were a number of good servants of God “, and which was about four days’ journey from his cell. Though clad “in a most vile cloak “, he was, we are told, everywhere recognized as he walked along, even by people who had never seen him before. In the wood he remained concealed till Palm Sunday (March 27), but when on that day a Benedictine Abbot, searching for him, passed through the wood, Peter resolved to fly across the sea to Greece. Some of his monks, accordingly, engaged some sailors of Rodi, on the coast below the northern slopes of Mt. Gargano, to convey him across the Adriatic. For five or six weeks, however, storms and contrary winds prevented their putting to sea, and when, at last, they sailed out they were driven back, and had to come ashore close to Viesti only fifteen miles from Rodi round the promontory.
Again, for several days, the sailors were unable to launch their boat, and word reached ” the Captain” of Viesti that the ex-Pope was in the neighbourhood. Overjoyed at the news, the Captain, seized him, and at once sent word to the Pope and to the King of Naples and his officials regarding his capture.
Saint Celestines disciples tell us on the one hand that “those good lords “, the King’s Commissioners, treated Peter with as much deference as if he were still Pope, and on the other hand that ” many men ” were constantly urging him to reclaim the Papacy, as he had no legal right to renounce it. “All men were on his side.” But, adds the biographer, I myself heard him reply : “Far be it from me to cause dissension in the Church. I did not give up the Papacy to take it back again ; and I am still of the same mind come what may.” So great were the number of the Saint’s admirers who came to salute him on his journey, that at length his escort had to insist on travelling by night. By night also was he brought secretly into where the Pope was residing, and lodged close to him. The next day he was brought before Boniface, and it was decided by the Pope that Saint Celestine should be kept in safe confinement. He was, therefore, after being retained two months, whilst such a place was being prepared, conveyed by night to the castle on Monte Fumone, some eight miles above Ferentino. The little town of Fumone, standing on a round, stony isolated hill, and commanding the whole district, forms, like the Italian hill-towns generally, as it were a large fortress, with its castello as a sort of citadel in its centre. It was in a very small room in this castle that the ex-Pope was confined (c. August, 1295). When he saw it, he gave thanks to God, exclaiming : “I have longed for a cell and a cell I have got.” At his request, two of his brethren, with whom he could recite the divine office, were allowed to remain with him. At first, they had to be changed frequently, as they could not endure the close confinement. But at length two stronger ones were found who remained with him till his death, which took place some ten months after his arrival. Though it is true that in brother Peter’s cell there was barely room to turn, we are assured that he never made any complaint about it, and it may certainly be said that, to say the least of it, it was no worse than his cell on Mt. Morrone. Hence it is, that though Peter’s cell was so narrow, and though no one was allowed to converse with him or his two companions, still contemporary historians, as a body, assert that he was treated with consideration. Death came in ten months, brother Peter bore his confinement without any inconvenience.
Part 8 The Holy Death of Saint Celestine V
St Celestine now in his 80’s had already long outlived the allotted span of human life, and God now thought fit to bring his sixty-five years of penance to a close. The Saint’s disciples narrate how, after he had celebrated with great devotion the feast of Pentecost (May 13), for which he had prepared himself by special prayers and fasts, he fell ill before the day had expired. A doctor was sent for at once, but he declared that there was no hope. The Saint was suffering from an abscess in his right side which gave him great pain. Predicting his death to his brethren, he received the last sacraments, and bade his companions disturb him as little as possible so that he could devote all his thoughts to preparing for his last end. After lying thus for a week, he died on the Saturday, at the hour of vespers, just as he said the words : ” Let every spirit praise the Lord ” of the psalm : ” Laudate Dominum in Sanctis suis ” (May 19, 1296).
From the day before till the hour of his death, soldiers on guard declared to Pope Boniface and everybody that they had seen a golden cross suspended in the air in front of his room. The disciples add that by this miracle the Almighty wished to show that He was pleased with the way in which His servant had for so many years borne the cross of penance. They also state that the brothers who were with the dying Saint were so much concerned with his state that they had no wish to leave his room in order to see the shining cross.
This apparition of a luminous cross is given as miraculous in the bull of Celestine’s canonization, Another somewhat different account was also given by several others these men asserted that before the death of the Saint there had appeared before the door of his room a ball of fire which gradually formed itself into a cross of a golden color and remained suspended in the air for more than an hour.
Word of the Saint’s death was immediately sent to Rome, and, though the disciples themselves assure us that Boniface showed signs of grief at the news, they, in some way best known to themselves, concluded that he was ” exceedingly rejoiced ” at it. At any rate, the Pope straightway dispatched to Mt. Fumone, cardinal Thomas and his chamberlain, Theoderic, with orders that all honor should be paid to the body of the one-time Pope. Meanwhile, he himself with great solemnity sang Mass in St. Peter’s for the repose of his soul.
St Celestine V had not been long dead when an agitation began for his formal canonization. It was taken up by princes and people alike. At length on May 5, 1313, Pope Clement V., preached on the saintly life of Peter of Morrone ; and afterwards, on the same day, issued the bull ” Qui facit magna “, by which, ” relying on the power of Almighty God, and on the authority of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and on our own, we decide that he (Peter of Morrone) is to be enrolled in the Catalogue of the Saints. | <urn:uuid:2a806df7-f420-4a61-9463-49bbec26f8ea> | {
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Herbert Clark Hoover
Wartime Relief Efforts
After graduating (1895) from Stanford, he worked as a mining engineer in many parts of the world. He became an independent mining consultant and established offices in New York City, San Francisco, and London. When World War I broke out in 1914, Hoover, then in London, was made chairman of the American Relief Commission. In this post he arranged the return to the United States of some 150,000 Americans stranded in Europe. As chairman (1915–19) of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, he secured food and clothing for civilians of war-devastated Belgium and N France. After the United States entered the war, he became U.S. Food Administrator, a member of the War Trade Council, and chairman of the Interallied Food Council.
Appointed a chairman of the Supreme Economic Council and director of the European Relief and Reconstruction Commission at the Paris Peace Conference, he coordinated the work of the various relief agencies; he was given direct authority over the transportation systems of Eastern Europe in order to ensure efficient distribution of supplies. After the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, Hoover returned (1919) to the United States, although he continued to direct the American Relief Administration, which was to feed millions in the 1921–23 famine in the USSR.
Sections in this article:
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:794729c7-d14f-4205-8622-4b71839be682> | {
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The Economic Research Service provides key indicators, outlook analysis, and a wealth of data on the U.S. food and agricultural system. Along with information on farming practices, structure, and performance, ERS produces data on such diverse topics as farm and rural households, commodity markets, food marketing, agricultural trade, diet and health, food safety, food and nutrition assistance programs, natural resources and the environment, and the rural economy.
Foreign Agricultural Service maintains a global agricultural market intelligence and commodity reporting service to provide U.S. farmers and traders with information on world agricultural production and trade for use in adjusting to changes in world demand for U.S. agricultural products. Reporting includes data on foreign government policies, analysis of supply and demand conditions, commercial trade relationships, and market opportunities. In addition to survey data, crop condition assessment relies heavily on computer-aided analyses of satellite, meteorological, agricultural, and related data.
National Agricultural Statistics Service collects, summarizes, analyzes, and publishes agricultural production and marketing data on a wide range of items, including number of farms and land in farms, acreage, yield, production, stocks of grains, and numerous commodities. The Census of Agriculture is conducted every five years to collect information on the number of farms, land use, production expenses, value of land, buildings, and farm products, farm size, characteristics of farm operators, market value of agricultural production sold, acreage of major crops, inventory of livestock and poultry, and farm irrigation practices.
Rural Business-Cooperative Service collects, summarizes, analyzes, and publishes data from annual surveys of U.S. farmer, rancher, and fishery cooperatives. The data is published in RBS Service Reports. The data is also available in Excel spreadsheets by state and type of cooperative. The Cooperative Directory presents a listing of those cooperatives willing to be listed, by State. The directory contains: contact information, type of cooperative, and products sold, and is updated monthly.
The World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB) serves as USDA's focal point for economic intelligence and the commodity outlook for U.S. and world agriculture. The Board coordinates, reviews, and approves the monthly World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report and houses OCE's Joint Agricultural Weather Facility. | <urn:uuid:0f7b295e-c2b5-4e93-b0a4-ec764be751fd> | {
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Building a Bionic Hand
In this activity, pupils will build a bionic hand made out of cardboard, strings, straws and rubber bands. They will relate the bionic hand to their own hand to understand the function of the fingers and the importance of the thumb, to grab or hold objects with different shapes and forms. Pupils will also learn that it would not be possible to move the human hand if it was only composed of bones. The pupils will understand how bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments work, by comparing them with the materials used on the bionic hand to move the fingers.
When humans are working in space, or in environments such as the surface of Mars, they must wear pressurized space suits. This means that it requires more force for them to grasp objects, as they are working against the pressure in the suit. The development of bionic hands that can be remotely operated can help to complete tasks which would be difficult or tiring for a human.
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Darius Varize, Lauren Baldock-Wood, Lionell Jones, Luke Wenger
The employment of drones within the past decade has skyrocketed since they were first introduced to the spotlight in 2001. Since, there has been a great amount of controversy in relation to the ethics and legality of their usage in military combat. Our group saw this assignment as an excellent opportunity to explore the history of drone technology as well as their capabilities. The purpose of drones has been to keep soldiers distant from harm. However, there are also privacy violations and hazards that accompany the devices themselves. A drone pilot may or may not recognize the dangers associated with their work. However, the reality is that drones can cause far more harm than initially intended.
The research question we attempted to answer is “What are the strategic economic and human effects of the integration of drones on modern warfare?” In our project we wrote three different types of essays to vividly interpret the purpose of drones for people. The definition essay clearly explains what a Drone is, while the Cause & Effect essay explains the consequences of operating a UAV, and finally the narrative essay gives an example of what damage drone technology is capable of.The goal for our title was to create a name that was catchy yet true to the material we were providing and found through research. | <urn:uuid:586c27d4-1bed-4cc3-9bab-187b945db3a6> | {
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My wife loves to garden. She gets the most pleasure from designing the landscape around our house. Since we have lived in our home, she has reworked the gardens in our yard several times. These redesigns, of course, involve putting in new plants and taking out old ones.
To my dismay, Amy doesn’t limit her activities to small plants and bushes. Her redesigns frequently involve trees. I can’t tell you how many trees I have taken out and planted in the last ten years. I dislike nothing more than cutting down a tree and taking out the stump. (In fact, as I write this piece there is a tree trunk in our backyard awaiting my attention.)
A recent “big picture” analysis of life’s history forces evolutionary biologists to rethink the landscape of life’s history. Instead of life unfurling in a gradual, branching tree-like fashion, the data indicates that the major transitions in the history of life happened explosively. This latest analysis chops down the evolutionary tree of life, one of the most enduring metaphors for evolutionary biology; and at the same time comports nicely with the RTB creation model for life’s history.
According to Eugene Koonin, the author of the article, phlyogenetic studies indicate that biological innovations happen abruptly in life’s history without any trace of intermediate forms. Examples include: 1) the origin of protein folds; 2) the origin of cells; 3) origin of bacteria and archaea and major divisions within these domains; 4) origin of eukaryotes and major eukaryotic divisions; and 5) the origin of animal phyla. These major transitions appear to occur rapidly. Once completed, diversification takes place in a slow tree-like manner.
Koonin proposes a mechanism to account for this pattern of changes. He suggests that at certain periods in life’s history extensive genetic “scrambling” (horizontal gene transfer, recombination, fusion, fission, transposition) took place. Most of this genetic chaos proved nonproductive, but on rare occasions—by chance—a stable genetic combination emerged. These robust islands of genetic novelty represent a transition to a new regime of biological complexity.
Koonin points out that his idea merely extends the speculations made by other biologists such as the late Stephen Jay Gould, Niles Eldredge, Lynn Margulis, Carl Woese, and Thomas Cavalier Smith, who have all suggested the identical pattern for aspects of the history of the biosphere.
The primary implication of Koonin’s proposal is that no evolutionary tree of life exists.
Koonin’s proposal is intriguing, and on the surface makes sense, but upon more careful reflection raises a number of questions. Why is this pattern of explosive innovation repeated throughout life’s history? What causes the genetic scrambling to take place? Why doesn’t this process happen continuously throughout the history of life? Why should the mechanism Koonin envisions ever result in coherent changes that lead to stable genetic islands that represent discontinuous increases in biological complexity?
Interestingly, the pattern Koonin identifies is similar to the one predicted by RTB’s creation model. This model asserts that a Creator intervened repeatedly to bring about progressive changes in life’s history. This intervention should produce discontinuities in the history of life and take place without any trace of transitional forms. If nothing else, Koonin’s analysis affirms that the patterns of the history of the biosphere match the predictions of the RTB model and validate the notion that a Creator must be responsible for life’s history.
Koonin’s hypothesis has one other interesting consequence for RTB’s creation model. Could he have identified a possible means by which God could have brought about biological innovations? Could the Creator have engaged in extensive genetic engineering to create? Perhaps He reworked preexisting genetic templates to generate new levels of biological complexity, a type of Divine genetic engineering. From an evolutionary perspective, it would look as if dramatic and rapid bouts of horizontal gene transfer, recombination, fusion, fission, and transposition took place. From a creation model vantage point, these changes are not random, but carefully orchestrated by the Creator.
This suggestion is fun speculation. What is certain, however, is that the landscape of life’s history has been reworked and the new design no longer features the evolutionary tree of life. Now that’s a tree stump I don’t mind removing. | <urn:uuid:d39344a8-5f6f-43bb-842a-4c08d3518f6f> | {
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Literary and Philosophical Essays. The Harvard Classics. 190914.
ERNEST RENAN was born in 1823, at Tréguier in Brittany. He was educated for the priesthood, but never took orders, turning at first to teaching. He continued his studies in religion and philology, and, after traveling in Syria on a government commission, he returned to Paris and became professor of Hebrew in the Collège de France, from which he was suspended for a time on account of protests against his heretical teachings. He died in 1892.
Renans activity divides itself into two parts. The first culminated in his two great works on the Origins of Christianity and on the History of Israel. As to the scientific value of these books there is difference of opinion, as was to be expected in a treatment of such subjects to the exclusion of the miraculous. But the delicacy and vividness of his portraits of the great personalities of Hebrew history, and the acuteness of his analysis of national psychology, are not to be denied.
The other part of his work is more miscellaneous, but most of it is in some sense philosophical or autobiographical. Believing profoundly in scientific method, Renan was unable to find in science a basis for either ethics or metaphysics, and ended in a skepticism often ironical, yet not untinged with mysticism.
He was an amazing writer, says M. Faguet, and disconcerted criticism by the impossibility of explaining his methods of procedure; he was luminous, supple, naturally pliant and yielding; beneath his apparently effeminate grace an extraordinary strength of character would suddenly make itself felt; he had, more than any nineteenth-century writer, the quality of charm; he exercised a caressing influence which enveloped, and finally conquered, the reader.
In no kind of writing was Renans command of style more notable than in the description of scenery. In his pictures of his native Brittany in the essay on The Poetry of the Celtic Races, as well as in his analysis of national qualities, two of his most characteristic powers are admirably displayed. | <urn:uuid:9d207d38-ab21-4523-9bb8-903d65d1c90b> | {
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Melanie Kirkpatrick compares it to Harriet Tubman’s:
The way it’s set up is similar. The safe houses and transit routes are kept secret and vary a lot. There is another similarity in that many of the people who operate on the underground railroad are ethnically Korean, just as many of the operators on the original underground railroad were free blacks. Another similarity is that the enslaved person has to make that initial decision to leave. It’s very difficult to get access to a person in North Korea and talk to him about getting out. In many cases the North Korean has to make that decision on his own and make his way to China. That’s changed some in the past couple of years. There are now brokers and missionaries that have contacts that help them reach into North Korea and get people out. And once they get to China another set of operators take over. | <urn:uuid:30b3de4e-ee59-4d0f-9dbf-ee0012a61bf2> | {
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December 21st~Today is the Winter Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the shortest day of the year. The solstice (from the Latin ‘solstitium’ meaning ‘sun-stopping’) occurs at 3:44 am MST in Phoenix, Arizona, (use this link to find the local time of the solstice in your location, plus lots of other interesting information about solstices and equinoxes).
The daylight hours will lengthen from this point until the March Equinox, when day and night are nearly equal in length. Lights, feasting and festivals around the world celebrate this turning of the sun, the return of the light. As we mark this time of year, we celebrate connections with each other and with our Earth. Prepare for light, growth, and unexpected gifts which may surprise. (Incidentally, in the Southern Hemisphere, this is the Summer Solstice.) | <urn:uuid:5abc6404-1c52-40cf-a105-c30545381c40> | {
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Organizational structure depends on the company and/or the project. The structure helps define the roles and responsibilities of the members of the department, work group, or organization. It is generally a system of tasks and reporting policies in place to give members of the group a direction when completing projects. A good organizational structure will allow people and groups to work effectively together while developing hard work ethics and attitudes. The four general types of organizational structure are functional, divisional, matrix and project-based.
People who do similar tasks, have similar skills and/or jobs in an organization are grouped into a functional structure. The advantages of this kind of structure include quick decision making because the group members are able to communicate easily with each other. People in functional structures can learn from each other easier because they already possess similar skill sets and interests.
In a divisional structure, the company will coordinate inter-group relationships to create a work team that can readily meet the needs of a certain customer or group of customers. The division of labor in this kind of structure will ensure greater output of varieties of similar products. An example of a divisional structure is geographical, where divisions are set up in regions to work with each other to produce similar products that meet the needs of the individual regions.
Matrix structures are more complex in that they group people in two different ways: by the function they perform and by the product team they are working with. In a matrix structure the team members are given more autonomy and expected to take more responsibility for their work. This increases the productivity of the team, fosters greater innovation and creativity, and allows managers to cooperatively solve decision-making problems through group interaction.
Project Organization Structure
In a project-organizational structure, the teams are put together based on the number of members needed to produce the product or complete the project. The number of significantly different kinds of tasks are taken into account when structuring a project in this manner, assuring that the right members are chosen to participate in the project.
- top of the chart image by Steve Johnson from Fotolia.com | <urn:uuid:7d46ad56-4fdf-459c-b93a-bb8dc4af4718> | {
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Over the past decade, African countries have experienced varying economic and political fortunes. Several economies, such as the ones of Ghana, Ethiopia, Rwanda and the United Republic of Tanzania, have experienced growth rates between 8 and 10 percent while making major progress in the areas of health and education. Others however, such as the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea Bissau, Mali, and, more recently, South Sudan, have suffered precipitous declines in living standards and worsening human development trends.
Why is it that progress eludes so many African countries, and what can be done to reverse these troubling trends? Only by understanding the root causes of the problem is it possible to transform the continent’s many deep-seated challenges into opportunities. Such opportunities would allow for Africa’s diverse, dynamic, creative, and innovative populations to create value, promote economic growth, and improve living standards.
Changing the Civic Mindset
Adopting a “can do” mind set is a prerequisite if Africa is to transform its fortunes. For far too long, Africa’s leaders have been blinkered by orthodox approaches, reluctant to embrace new approaches to growth and development. By contrast, the positive and self-reliant “can do” attitude of Asian economies, especially the so-called "Asian Tigers," has generated rich rewards, engendering many powerful emerging economies. The experience of these countries underlines the importance of taking ownership of a country's own development and to galvanize its capacities and resources in a concerted effort to boost economic performance and living standards. Modifying mind sets, however, is a notoriously challenging process. Some believe revolution is the only way to do so–especially where corruption is rife. Others highlight the benefits of cultivating a more entrepreneurial mentality among students and young people to ensure that Africa’s private sector thrives.
At a meeting organized by the African Leadership Institute, Thabo Mbeki, a former President of South Africa noted that “Africa has the resources and human capital to turn the 21st century into the African century”. We Africans must believe that we can rise to the challenge and that we can all contribute to transforming the continent’s fortunes. We need to embrace the fact that Africa has the capacity to find solutions to the challenges it faces.
While adopting a more positive and proactive outlook will not occur overnight, there are a number of steps that can be taken to help pave the way. Although literacy rates are low across Africa, radio programs and traditional get-togethers are invaluable means to inform and educate the public about critical every-day issues such as healthcare, water conservation, agricultural best practices, etc. Stories, puppet shows, music, and concerts are all effective means of conveying messages and ensuring that such messages take root in the minds of local people while bringing about bring about social, political, and economic change within communities.
Policymakers and community leaders also have a key role to play in shaping perspectives at the community level. For example, when a tribal chief asked his President to instruct the Ministry of Health to post female staff to his area to attend to the local women, his request was met with an emphatic “no." The President said he would not send other people’s daughters unless the chief sent the girls in his community to school. This ultimatum brought about a significant shift in local cultural practice because, under the Chief’s guidance, parents stopped marrying their daughters young—preferring to send them to school to get an education and the healthcare they needed.
These isolated examples demonstrate what can be achieved when Africans put their minds to something. Such shifts in perspective are necessary across Africa if the Continent it so raise living standards and realize its full potential. Poverty can no longer be used as an excuse for inaction.
Moving Away From Dependency
While countries in Africa have enjoyed political independence for decades now, some continue to be emotionally dependent on former colonisers. There is, however, no future in perpetuating such dependency, which belongs to another era. Some suggest this is an addiction to foreign aid and lay the blame for this squarely on lacklustre African leaders. Africa’s future depends on breaking this addiction. If Africa is to thrive, policy-makers need to focus their energy not on winning ever-declining development assistance, but on exploring ways foster entrepreneurialism in Africa and to developing its private sector.
While development assistance plays a role, many African countries and donor agencies alike have fallen into the foreign aid trap. All too often the first reflex of policymakers is to call for outside assistance to resolve problems, in blind belief that such action will suffice. Unfortunately, all too often such blind faith has proven misplaced. The experience of the Millennium Villages project illustrates the risks that policymakers expose themselves to when they hand over responsibility to external donors. The UN Millennium Villages initiative, a five year plan touted as a new approach to fighting poverty, sought to increase economic growth through food production, health care, and education. In spite of its laudable intentions, the sponsors of the initiative stubbornly continued despite evidence that the initiative was failing to achieve its stated goals. Instead of pulling the plug on the initiative, the sponsors simply moved the goal posts and sought additional funding. To avoid repeating such costly mistakes, African leaders need to focus attention on creating an enabling environment that stimulates and attracts investment. We need to focus on encouraging local angel investors and venture capitalists to ensure that our fledgling companies can attract the resources they need to develop their operations. African governments also need to continue to encourage and strengthen public-private partnerships, such as the 40-year old collaboration that has existed between the De Beers diamond company and the Government of Botswana, the proceeds of which have enabled Botswana’s economy to thrive and attain the economic status of a middleincome country.
Every effort should be made to both stimulate the involvement of the local business community and to harness local resources. The Kenyan tradition of “harambee,” meaning “all pull together” in Swahili, and the self-help initiatives it has inspired, including in the areas of education, health, and infrastructure, offer interesting examples of what can happen when Africans pull together to resolve the challenges they face.
By adopting an harambee-like approach African countries can start focusing on devising innovative solutions that add value to local products such as fruit, coffee, tea, and cocoa. In this respect, the experiences of Kenya and Rwanda are instructive. Both has been successful in transforming their abundant local resources into high value products and are now reaping the financial benefits of such an approach, which in turn fuels the development of their respective national economies.
Focusing On Action
While the Continent’s policy makers have proven very talented in formulating policies, they have not enjoyed equal success in the implementation of these policies. This can be attributed to a number of factors:
• First, many least developed countries suffer a genuine lack of resources and capacity to translate policies into reality, even in core areas of agriculture, education, and health. It is all too common to find one single official tasked with the implementation of multiple projects in all three sectors. This unworkable situation means that progress is slow at best and will likely grind to a halt in the officer’s absence.
• Second, new faces occupying senior-level government posts is a common consequence of the frequent re-shuffling of government positions. Recent appointees are keen to disassociate themselves from the past and often want to start with “a clean slate." Regrettably, in so doing, many good projects and ideas disappear or fade into the obscurity of bureaucratic limbo.
• Third, implementation can be hampered as a result of inadequate risk analyses at the design stage of a project. For example, implementation of a tobacco project in western Kenya was hindered by the fact that a road cut straight through the project site. The population on one side of the road perceived tobacco negatively, and those on the other side, while their views toward tobacco were more liberal, had no experience in planting the crop. Those responsible for designing and implementing the project had not understood how critical working with communities and understanding their beliefs could be to the successful design and implementation of development projects.
• Fourth, project implementation is almost certainly affected by changes in government policies and priorities, as well as by a civil war. In such cases, projects may easily come to a standstill, as witnessed in South Sudan and the Central African Republic.
African leaders and policymakers need to adopt a more measured, results-oriented approach that focuses on developing and implementing projects that will generate realistic, tangible, and sustainable benefits for the communities concerned.
Notwithstanding these constraints, African leaders and policymakers need to adopt a more measured, results-oriented approach that focuses on developing and implementing projects that will generate realistic, tangible, and sustainable benefits for the communities concerned.
Learning By Example
Amid the many challenges confronting Africa, there are a number of success stories that may serve as sources of inspiration for policymakers. For example, the West African River Blindness Programme, conducted from 1974 to 2002, was an outstanding success. Its implementation is an excellent example of sound cooperative governance. The programm, which lasted 28 years, directly involved 11 countries and 32 partners. Its success is attributable to good governance and, in particular, to transparency in all financial dealings and rigorous implementation of planned activities.
The role played by the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in liberating Liberia from its brutal civil war offers another source of inspiration. Without the intervention of ECOMOG, it would have been all but impossible to achieve agreement among the warring parties in that vicious conflict and to organize elections in 1997.
The M-PESA mobile phonebased system for money transfer and microfinancing offers a third example of how Africa can find innovative solutions to its problems and have an impact on practices elsewhere. Established by Safaricom and Vodacom in Kenya, M-PESA enables those with no chance of opening a conventional bank account to pay bills and make financial transactions within Kenya and beyond. The concept is now gaining traction around the world as a convenient way for individuals to settle their bills.
Study tours where officials are sent abroad to gather new ideas and practices for adaptation to the national context is yet another practical means of bringing about the changes need in African policy and practice. While it is not always the case, by nominating the right people for these tours, it is possible to generate valuable feedback reports that can generate constructive and fruitful discussion. To be effective, study tours need to be well planned and the feedback reports of participants carefully reviewed to ensure any useful insights are captured.
If Africa is to transform its development landscape from one littered with failed development projects to one that cultivates success stories, its policymakers need to adopt a cool-headed, open, and pragmatic approach underpinned by incisive analyses of what works and what does not work in different cultural settings. In Africa, we need to embrace the idea that that our “home grown” ideas have as good a chance as any, if not a better one, of solving the challenges we face.
Ensuring Quality Leadership
Effective leadership is the key to transforming the economies of developing countries and to Africa’s success in fostering economic growth and improving living standards. Corruption, however, continues to be rife in many countries, and many others are ill equipped to manage the affairs of state properly. In Africa, we do not need look far for examples of inspiring leadership. The late Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, for example, believed in Africa, the importance of collective leadership, and in giving credit where credit is due. Through his efforts, South Africa has emerged as a rainbow state embracing everyone regardless of race, colour, ethnicity or religion. His qualities of leadership have transformed a region socially, economically and politically.
Over the last 50 years, Africa has been a laboratory for failed development experiments, such as the structural adjustment programmes piloted by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In the wake of this experience, it is up to the African people to take charge of their own destiny and to develop their continent. With a view to ensuring that Africa is a full partner in its development and not just a recipient of hand-outs, former South African President Thabo Mbeki and his colleagues spearheaded the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in 2001. To date, NEPAD’s success has been partial. If we are to translate NEPAD’s aspirations into reality, we must change our mind set; we must break the bondage of dependency; we must overcome the foreign aid trap; we must talk less and do more, learn from best practices and elect honest leaders who can drive development and add value to Africa’s rich resource endowments. Only then can we change outside perceptions of Africa and make the world believe that we are a “can do” continent. | <urn:uuid:7997ca11-81d9-44d5-9daa-f54a8c3c31ef> | {
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23 CFR 751.7 - Definitions.
For purposes of this part, the following definitions shall apply:
(1) A Junkyard is an establishment or place of business which is maintained, operated or used for storing, keeping, buying, or selling junk, or for the maintenance or operation of an automobile graveyard. This definition includes scrap metal processors, auto-wrecking yards, salvage yards, scrap yards, autorecycling yards, used auto parts yards and temporary storage of automobile bodies and parts awaiting disposal as a normal part of a business operation when the business will continually have like materials located on the premises. The definition includes garbage dumps and sanitary landfills. The definition does not include litter, trash, and other debris scattered along or upon the highway, or temporary operations and outdoor storage of limited duration.
(2) An Automobile Graveyard is an establishment or place of business which is maintained, used, or operated for storing, keeping, buying, or selling wrecked, scrapped, ruined, or dismantled motor vehicles or motor vehicle parts. Ten or more such vehicles will constitute an automobile graveyard.
(3) An Illegal Junkyard is one which was established or is maintained in violation of State law.
(4) A Nonconforming Junkyard is one which was lawfully established, but which does not comply with the provisions of State law or State regulations passed at a later date or which later fails to comply with State regulations due to changed conditions. Illegally established junkyards are not nonconforming junkyards.
(b) Junk. Old or scrap metal, rope, rags, batteries, paper, trash, rubber, debris, waste, or junked, dismantled, or wrecked automobiles, or parts thereof.
(c) Main traveled way. The traveled way of a highway on which through traffic is carried. In the case of a divided highway, the traveled way of each of the separated roadways for traffic in opposite directions is a main traveled way. It does not include such facilities as frontage roads, turning roadways, or parking areas.
(d) Industrial zones. Those districts established by zoning authorities as being most appropriate for industry or manufacturing. A zone which simply permits certain industrial activities as an incident to the primary land use designation is not considered to be an industrial zone. The provisions of part 750, subpart G of this chapter relative to Outdoor Advertising Control shall apply insofar as industrial zones are concerned.
(e) Unzoned industrial areas. An area where there is no zoning in effect and which is used primarily for industrial purposes as determined by the State and approved by the FHWA. An unzoned area cannot include areas which may have a rural zoning classification or land uses established by zoning variances or special exceptions. | <urn:uuid:c895b047-93d7-493a-9064-6e021eb02b3b> | {
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Links and documents
1863/01/01 to 1863/12/31
Listed on the Canadian Register:
Statement of Significance
Description of Historic Place
Benjamin Wier House is a two-and-a-half storey brick house trimmed in sandstone in the Italianate style. The house has the basic structure of a Georgian dwelling with Italianate features. It is located on Hollis Street across from Government House and on a block shared by the Keith Brewery Market in Downtown Halifax, Nova Scotia. This structure is located among other registered buildings on the street. The heritage designation applies to the building and the land it occupies.
Benjamin Wier House is valued for its association with its original occupant. The house was built by Henry Peters for Benjamin Wier in 1863. Wier was a Member of the Provincial Legislative Assembly (MLA) and served on the Provincial Executive Council with other notable members such as Joseph Howe. Later in his political career he was appointed to the Senate. As a businessman and shipyard owner, Weir benefited from the events of the American Civil War. Wier's company repaired the “Tallahassee,” a Confederate raider vessel in 1864, when it arrived in Halifax for refuelling. The “Tallahassee” was responsible for the sinking of many Union merchant vessels. Under the laws of neutrality, the “Tallahassee” was only allowed to dock in Halifax for forty-eight hours and had to flee in the middle of the night to avoid being attacked from enemy ships that had followed it to Halifax.
Benjamin Wier House is also valued for its association with other residents. Sir Adams Archibald lived in the house from 1885 to 1892. He was a lawyer for the City of Halifax, MLA, also sat on the Executive Council, and a Solicitor General for Nova Scotia. Most notably Archibald was the first Secretary of State in the first Federal cabinet. Archibald was also leader of the Liberal Party at the time of Confederation, and was knighted in 1886. Another father of confederation, William Henry also lived in the house from 1884 to 1885. Henry was a Judge of the first Supreme Court. In 1930 the house became home to the Elk's Lodge.
Architecturally, Benjamin Wier House if valued as an excellent example of Italianate style as reflected in the building’s Palladian and bracketed hooded windows. Typical of this style is the wrought iron ornamentation on the second storey balcony. The rear of the building features a Romeo and Juliet balcony that is characteristic of the Italianate style found in villas.
Source: Heritage Property File: Benjamin Wier House, 1459 Hollis Street, found at HRM Planning and Development Services, Heritage Property Program, 6960 Mumford Road, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The character-defining elements of Benjamin Wier House relate to its Italianate style and include:
- two-and-a-half storeys
- brick building materials;
- symmetrical façade and central doorway;
- decorative sandstone accents;
- round headed windows with hoods;
- wide bracketed eaves;
- dormer and Palladian windows;
- wrought iron balcony;
- Romeo and Juliet balcony;
- truncated gable roof;
- elaborate sandstone carving;
- sandstone sills and string course on first and second storey.
Local Governments (NS)
Heritage Property Act
Municipally Registered Property
Theme - Category and Type
- Peopling the Land
- Governing Canada
- Politics and Political Processes
- Expressing Intellectual and Cultural Life
- Architecture and Design
Function - Category and Type
- Commerce / Commercial Services
- Office or Office Building
- Single Dwelling
Architect / Designer
Location of Supporting Documentation
HRM Planning and Development Services, 6960 Mumford Road, Halifax, NS B3L 4P1
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Published at Monday, April 22nd, 2019 - 13:37:00 PM. Worksheet. By Phillipa Breton.
Worksheets are Too Abstract, Young children are still in Piaget’s Preoperational Stage, which means they need symbols to represent objects. These young children cannot think abstractly. For example, they need a ball in their hands to understand what a ball is. Seeing the word ball on a worksheet or sometimes even just a picture of a ball, means nothing to them. That’s why hands on learning is best because it gives the child a symbol for their thinking. Related: Cognitive Development. Writing on Lines is Not Appropriate. A very popular type of worksheet for this age group is handwriting sheets where the child is expected to trace the letter. These are not developmentally appropriate for young children. Even though huge letters that take up the whole page may be annoying to most adults, it’s normal for a child to write this way. Their fine motor skills are not refined enough to focus on tracing small letters. I know worksheets are the easy way to give a child something to do and easy to plan, but sometimes the best things in life are not easy. Happy Learning!.
Worksheets Do Not Allow for Higher Level Thinking, Again, worksheets are there for spitting out information. Where is the thinking in that? Hands on manipulation of objects, gives children the opportunity to create hypothesis, test them out, and use their problem solving and critical thinking skills to completely understand how it works. Worksheets May Be “Teaching” What a Child is Not Ready For or Interested In, This is more towards workbooks, especially if you follow the workbook page by page. Just because the workbook says it’s for 3 year olds, does not mean your child is ready for it. Related: What to Teach My Preschooler and When to Teach It. It’s best to teach your child based on their interests and signs of readiness. A workbook does not allow room for every child’s unique growth and development sequence. Worksheets Leave No Room to Challenge The Norm. This is a huge one for me. When I taught in the public schools, we were told to get kids to think for themselves and defend their answers. But, their answers and evidence must match the teacher’s guide and test answer key. Really? How is it possible to get a child to think for themselves and defend their position, but also be correct 100% of the time according to an answer key? It’s just not possible! I look at it this way, if a child can defend their answer to any question using evidence then it’s correct whether the answer key says so or not. In 20 years, do we want people running this country who only know how to give one answer, or do we want people who can be creative and think outside the box?
Any content, trademark’s, or other material that might be found on the Inotivity website that is not Inotivity’s property remains the copyright of its respective owner/s. In no way does Inotivity claim ownership or responsibility for such items, and you should seek legal consent for any use of such materials from its owner. | <urn:uuid:5516041b-488a-408d-bc99-5a96d29fc87e> | {
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All the 7 Rainbow colors representing each day of creation and when combined produce white color. It is a known fact that shining white light through a prism produces the rainbow colors. White signifies purity and goodness. No wonder on the 6th day, God declared that everything he has created during the 6 days of creation as very good and blessed it on the 7th day.
Genesia1:31 God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the sixth day.
Genesis2:1 Thus the heavens and the earth were completed in all their vast array.
2 By the seventh day God had finished the work he had been doing; so on the seventh day he rested [a] from all his work. 3 And God blessed the seventh day and made it holy, because on it he rested from all the work of creating that he had done. | <urn:uuid:c74dd20c-ec3e-4878-85b0-6d2b3c23c28b> | {
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reply to post by zenius
I can answer that one, if that's cool with you.
Okay, the sorts of indicators that seismologists, geologists and volcanologists look for in regard to "non-normal" activity (ie not "abnormal", which
means something quite different) are:
-- an increase in the number of tremors in and around the volcano. Even if they're only seismic tremors, something is causing them and that something
might be the volcano building up to blow.
-- an increase in the release of certain gases that are associated with impending eruption. This is well known by volcanologists and is something they
are always aware of and some of these gases are extremely toxic. Their volumes of release can suddenly change from a few cubic metres per hour to
several magnitudes beyond that prio to an eruption and their toxicity can be fatal (never mind the fact that some are extremely hot), so the experts
would then watch closely for other signs.
-- any significant rise in observed surface temperatures within the caldera or close to it: this can be measured directly (and often is with
"worrying" volcanoes), but can also be deduced by rises in flow of streams -- in winter, in colder climes -- that indicate increased melt on the
volcano's slopes. Obviously this doesn't apply to volcanoes in places like Indonesia as a rule since it's to warm, but on the hand they can still
measure temperature changes in the streams. A quick uptick of a couple of degrees is cause for concern. The river that connects with Lake Yellowstone
is also temp-monitored year round for the same reason. Water getting heated beyond what the environment would allow, automaticaly implies a volcanic
type of heat source and so it's worth keeping an eye on.
-- a change in the character of the tremors from "regular" (ie sesimic type) tremors to "volcanic" tremors, which have a very distinctive pattern and
only occur in actively volcanic areas: this always
gets the attention of the watching experts, and if some of the other factors also indicate
that the volcano is building up to something, it will often trigger a raise in status to "eruption imminent" and authorities will be informed to begin
evacuating people. This was the case with Merapi in Indonesia some weeks back. But even if most other factors are absent, the "volcanic tremors" are
so strongly indicative of trouble that they may raise the status to "eruption imminent" anyway.
It's like a doctor diagnosing a patient. There may be several symptoms, but while some are not too worrying, for a major illness there is always at
least one that is so definitive, the doctor can very confidently say what's wrong. These scientists do the same.
So, when they start issuing their guarded statements of "concern", we need to read between the lines because these people don't get all concerned over
most of what goes on, even when it looks rather alarming to most of us. When they start muttering publicly about "increased activity" and "watching
the situation closely", that when we need to sit up and take notice.
It's a dilemma for the experts, actually, because if they announce an "eruption imminent" for a US volcano, then some people will get panicky and
there could be accidents on the roads as people flee the area and so forth. At the very least, people will skip work to grab the kids and dog and
start packing valuables before bugging out.
The trouble is, the experts could get it wrong and the volcano just bubbles away for a few days then quietens down again. It happens. Just like
sometimes a doctor can misdiagnose a patient. However if people get injured or killed while fleeing on the basis of the warning, then you know someone
is going to wind up getting sued. That's what happens in the US and many other countries.
So, they experts have to be very careful and very, very sure. This also means that they have to wait longer before issuing official warnings.
Smart folks will read between the lines of the "guarded" statements and be packed and ready to go well before the official warnings come out.
Anyway. Hope that answers your question.
edit on 30/12/10 by JustMike because: typos | <urn:uuid:f0f1383c-e17d-4ad0-a209-0f7dc866cbf2> | {
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Based on CD4017 this fun circuit works for a line of six LED in bidirectional sequence. Unlike many similar circuits, this uses the negative signal of each output. In other words a dark LED runs back and forth.
As you can see on the circuit schematic, each middle LED is controlled by two outputs. If these are both low (so they put out the negative signal) the central pin of the transistor is supplied with a resistance of 23,5K(due to the diodes the current does not flow through the low resistances).
When one output takes the high level the central pin of the transistor is bypassed by the low resistance connected to that output.
So the transistor collector turns off and the LED becomes dark.
In the video the circuit works at the maximum speed, but you can make it faster by using a smaller capacitor. | <urn:uuid:94fce60e-6ef6-4c58-a8f7-4b862de2a355> | {
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Ballet Rehearsal on Stage, painted in 1874, was not a typical impressionist painting. The painting is an oil on canvas. The lack of color is evidence of the painting's anit-impressionism.
The most obvious difference between this painting of ballet and another impressionist's ballet scene is that the dancers are rehearsing. Keith Roberts said, "It retains little quiet charm, like
most ballet scenes did".
Most ballet scenes show dancers performing for an audience, but Degas shows the dancers in a different way. The dancers are not only dancing but they are stretching and yawning. Though all of the dancers shown are dressed uniformly, their faces are not uniform. Every dancer has a different facial expression, but all of the expressions read as one mood: fatigue. One dancer obviously yawning, with both hands stretched back behind head, head raised, and mouth wide open. The dancers do not show the beauty seen on the stage. Author, Francesco Salvi, has his own view of Degas' depiction: "In The Rehearsal on Stage he captures the repetitious nature of a job like any other: the ballerinas' movements, rehearsed and re-rehearsed, an old teacher, two bored onlookers".
In the bottom right corner of the painting, the first empty row of the theater is shown, once again reiterating that it is a rehearsal shown. The colors are dull, reinforcing the mood. Ballet Rehearsal on Stage is a prime example of Degas' work. This painting clearly shows the Parisian culture because ballet was a major aspect at that time. | <urn:uuid:4ab29838-d794-4926-8101-841498067b36> | {
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I’ve been working with children with neurological disorders for over 23 years. Yet every single day I continue to be surprised by how little we know about children who are labelled as “disabled.” We (therapists), with all post-graduate degrees and training on new techniques and treatment approaches, a lot of times still find it hard to figure out how best to work with our young patients and, as a consequence, fail to make significant progress even after years of therapy.
So what is going on?
I think a key issue is that many therapists, and medical community alike, take a standard / template approach to children with neurological disorders. We, in a lot of cases, don’t take the time to really get to know each child’s personality, level of perception and ability to process information, and just at the end to look at his disorder.
There’s also a tendency amongst therapists and medical profession to put “all eggs in one basket” and attribute everything the child does or doesn’t do to his or her disorder. In most cases, this is done with good intentions since the therapist is merely trying to “alleviate stress” from the kid, who is viewed as “suffering already.” So a child’s aggressive behaviour is often excused because of the disorder, or blamed on the disorder. At the same time, the therapist structures treatment not as a time for learning but as a time for playing – again because of a desire to lessen the child’s stress.
These approaches simply do not work. The question is: what stance and approaches will work?
First of all, I’d like to say that parents and therapists aren’t doing the kids any favours by trying to always spare their feelings and alleviate their stress. Therapy is work, so why not let the child know that’s what they’re coming in for instead of making them believe they’re coming in to play? Do we hide from a “regular” child the fact that he or she is going to see the doctor or the dentist? No, we don’t. So why go through this deception with a child who has a disorder? Although games are often part of therapy, therapy is simply not play. It’s a learning process and game is a function in which learned skill is integrated.
The more we hide from the child, the less connection and trust we build with the child. This applies to all aspects of life, not just therapy.
My approach to children with ANY neurological disorder is to treat them as “regular” children who happen to have a certain disorder. And my job is help them become independent in EVERY aspect of their lives.
I want to share with you the story of Helena and Alex, who came to our clinic from Poland. Alex, who is three years old, has Down’s syndrome. We started to work. The next day Helena came to the clinic, and told me: “Alex was fighting with you. I think the treatment was powerful for him. Please do not push him.” I changed the way of the treatment right away. I started to give instructions to Helena, and SHE started to work with Alex. In a few minutes, Alex started to cry. Then he tried refusing to follow his mother’s commands and requests.
“He is trying to fight you. Just explain to him what to do and why it needs to be done, and continue” I said to Helena. She agreed.
Was my treatment on the first day of treatment pushy? I don’t think so. I am always respectful and careful with every child. But it was his first day and he was in a completely unfamiliar environment. He did not know what to expect. In addition, I asked him to do things which I NEEDED HIM TO DO, and not what he wanted to do. Of course he was showing his displeasure. I was really happy when next day Helena walked in the clinic and said: “I do not know what you did, but he is so much better!” She just made my day.
There is no just motor function without cognitive. I cannot teach Alex – or any child for that matter – motor function without explaining the purpose of the function. But I cannot explain anything to him unless he learns how to listen, perceive and process information. Violence, screaming and hysteria are a consequence of not being understood by others, and of an inability to do certain things which “others” can. All of these lead to frustration. Therefore my mantra is: respect, observe, explain, show and repeat. This will eventually lead to the child learning the function. Never let yourself to be sorry for your child. This is not what he is looking for. He is looking for understanding and for someone who will teach him how to be himself, and not somebody else. The same as any other “regular “child. | <urn:uuid:12e11ce2-eff8-47ff-a837-409ed6f2f053> | {
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Learn to generate new ideas by embracing every crazy idea!
Identify the differences between ideas and opportunities and understand how each affects the other.
Learn how to properly give a pitch by demonstrating your interests with real-world examples.
Think of a Business Venture as a Business ADVENTURE. When you embark on an adventure you may have an idea of where you’ll end up, and you may have some of the tools you need to get you to your destination, but you have no idea what will happen along the way. A Business Venture is the same! You have an idea for a product or service you want to offer, and you may have some of the tools or skills you need to make that idea a reality. But, you have no idea what will happen along the way. Where will your Business Adventure take you?
If someone gave you one million dollars to start a pizza shop, and you decide to give away all your pizzas for free, what will eventually happen? It may take some time, but eventually you’ll run out of money, and therefore run out of free pizza to give away. However, if you use that same money to get your pizza shop started, and then charge $10 for every pizza you make, you can use that new money to buy more ingredients and make more pizzas. A self-sustaining venture can support itself without any help from the outside. A self-sustaining pizza shop charges for pizzas and doesn’t rely on outside support. A free pizza shop may be tasty and fun for awhile, but is not self-sustaining.
If you spend time working on something and when you’re done working you can say, “Hey, look at this thing I made!,” then you have a product. Maybe the thing you used to do the work was your mind and the thing you made is a short story. Your short story is a product! Or, maybe you have a lot of people in a car factory working many hours to build a car. That car is a product! Big or small… cheap or expensive… if you labored to create something, that “thing” is your product.
At the local cupcake shop the baker in the kitchen mixes all the ingredients to create a product, delicious cupcakes. But, there is also someone at the front counter helping customers choose the perfect cupcake. The front counter helper didn’t bake the cupcakes, but they are doing something important for the business. They’re providing a service, or doing something that helps someone else. Some businesses have a few people that provide a service, like the front counter worker at the cupcake shop. Some business ventures, like a locksmith or a tutor, are built entirely around providing a service to their customers and not making a product.
If you take apart a laptop computer and scatter the parts across a desktop you’ll have a lot of fancy, expensive pieces, but nothing that can function by itself. It is only when those parts are assembled the right way, in the right order, with the right commands being passed from piece to piece do you have a complete system we call a “computer.” A new business venture may focus on creating or improving a system. That venture could take a lot of different pieces (not always small computer pieces… sometimes those pieces could be other businesses!), assemble them in a logical way, and end up with something new for the world to use.
After all the brainstorming, idea sketches, tinkering, building, revisions, rebuilding, and last-minute changes, you’ll eventually be ready to put your amazing creation into the hands of a real customer. This is the moment you’ve been waiting for! Now all you can do is step back and watch. Did the customer like your creation? Did they use it the way you intended? Were they confused by any part of it? Did it solve a problem they had? Would they be willing to pay for what you’ve created? If your customers liked your creation, wanted to use it more, would pay for it, and thought it improved their lives… you’ve been validated! Showing customer validation means providing evidence that the users of your creation like what you’ve made and agree it is a great idea.
If you take this fancy business term and break it into parts, it will be a lot easier to see how it may impact your venture. First, “recurring” means something that happens over and over again. Next, “revenue” means money coming into your business. And, lastly, a “model” is a plan or strategy. So, for your business, how do you create a plan to keep money coming in? If you are a cell phone company, you have your customers sign contracts so you know, month after month, they’ll be paying for your service. If you own a magazine, you have readers sign up for a subscription so they keep getting issues and you keep getting paid. Or, if you create a really great product, you can count on your customers coming back for more. After all, who wants gas station coffee when you could have Starbucks?
Prepare a one-page executive summary outline of the business idea and market opportunity.
Consider preparing an optional visual aid for your pitch presentation. We recommend using Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote, or an app/website that can generate a PDF.
Record a video of your pitch presentation! All members of your team must speak at some point during your pitch. It should be 3-5 minutes in length and must be be uploaded to Vimeo, YouTube, or provide a working video file link. If you use a slideshow, be sure it is visible. The slideshow will be submitted separately.
Deadline for online submission!
Regional Pitch Competition
Revise and prepare for live competition
Live Pitch Competition in Indianapolis | <urn:uuid:bebacac7-da94-4946-8435-331aac050a25> | {
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Traditional learning has taken place in a transmission mode: one adult transmits information to many students. This “old school” approach supported the accumulation of information; “new school” learning supports exploration and problem solving. Recent research indicates that robust learning is multi-modal and distributive. Students learn most effectively when all senses are engaged. They learn through constructive, meaningful and challenging problem solving, and through social engagement with others. Students also learn best when they are healthy, alert and emotionally engaged with the material. In response to this brain-based learning research, architects are designing schools that more actively engage the whole student. This exhibit by Cambridge firm HMFH Architects focuses on five trends in education and explores this new understanding of how students learn in a series of innovative new schools from Europe, Asia and the United States. | <urn:uuid:e7bc1a8e-ebd5-49dd-bc2e-848421484b37> | {
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This works great for topic discussions (an example would be when we watched the animated movie "Persepolis", and needed to analyze and discuss it). It also works well for quick student critiques.
There are 6 stations in the classroom where students sit in groups of 4 - 6. I will put a large sheet of paper (18 x 24 or bigger) at each station.
- In the middle of the paper I will write a prompt (6 different prompts in total, one for each station). I might also provide an art image and written prompt for art history critique.
- Students have pencils ready.
- They have 3 minutes to visit each station as a group.
- At each station, students write (on the large sheet of paper) whatever comes to mind regarding the prompt.
- I have them work their way around the classroom in clock-wise formation.
- During the 3 minute period I play music as a cue for students to write. At the end of each 3 minute section, I stop the music as a cue for students to stop writing and move to the next station. This makes it fun and like the musical chairs game.
- Once the students have gone around the room and are back at their own station, we go into discussion mode.
- Students read the responses to each other and begin discussing the issue at their table.
- Students must find at least 5 main responses to the prompt topic and discuss them. They must have at least 2 responses that someone disagrees with, and discuss why they disagree and what their opposing point is as a result.
- The group "Recorder" writes down what their group discusses in a bullet list formation.
- The next day each group has 3 minutes to present discussion notes to the whole class. Each presentation, students in the class must have at least 1 response to challenge the group, question the group, or make a supportive remark. Often there is more than one response :). The group must counter any class feedback with an answer or explanation of their viewpoint.
- Students receive points for group discussion/recorded notes, and separate points for presentation to class.
- The results of this technique makes for what seems like chaos, but is really several fast-paced and animated discussions. Everyone in the class gets to participate first in a small-group setting for each topic, and then in larger group setting for all topics.
- I find that several things have made people forget about being self-conscious and silent in this kind of group discussion: 1) the whole thing is rather like a game and fun, 2) the fast pace puts pressure on people to come up with a response, 3) prompts give a clear indication of where I want them to start, 4) the structure provides a framework for definite but open-ended answers. 5) the grading structure insures that students must have something to present and a way to respond to the presentations (ensuring a flow of ideas and conversation), 6) since all students write on each of the prompt sheets, there is a sense of sharing information. Students get to use each others ideas to provoke further thought, 7)students become very loyal to their group and want to defend their stance to the class.
- I like to use this for progress critique when students are half way through an artwork and need feedback.
- 6 stations are set up free of clutter. Each student has their artwork placed on the table with a form next to it.
- The form is typed by me and has 3 prompts:
- In addition are two more sections: "Student response to critique", "Teacher response to critique."
- Students must travel to each station as a group. They have 4 minutes at each station and move around the room in clock-wise formation.
- Music is played to let students know when to write. Music stops and restarts to let students know when to switch stations.
- Student can choose to look at and critique any of the artworks at the table during the 4 minutes.
- They are moving as a group, but not working together as a group. Rather they address artwork and write individually. Often though, they are making verbal comments to each other as they look at the work.
- They must write 3 responses on the form next to the artwork. They must address the 3 prompts.
- All artwork must have responses on the form, so if students see a blank form, they have to make sure that someone writes on it.
- When students have visited all 6 stations, they return to their own station and artwork. They read what their classmates have written.
- Students spend remaining time writing their own reflective response to the critique of their work.
- Artwork and critique forms are turned in to teacher.
- Teacher writes a response to the critique.
- This has proven very helpful in addressing weaknesses in the artwork. I noticed that students take a peer's constructive advice for improvement more often than listen to me tell them the same thing.
- This can be used with the SHoM framework as a topic prompt.
*art projects: Mixed Media Blitz and Materials Madness. I'll describe them in another blog post. | <urn:uuid:1f3aef1e-d90b-4c15-a6b6-9ddba728c859> | {
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