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|Li, A - UNIV OF IDAHO, MOSCOW, ID|
|Trent, A - UNIV OF IDAHO, MOSCOW, ID|
|Hou, Y - WSU, PULLMAN, WASHINGTON|
Submitted to: Crop Science
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: January 5, 1997
Publication Date: N/A
Interpretive Summary: The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is rising, which may affect future precipitation patterns and the water supply for the soil. Elevated CO2 has been known to increase the rate that plants use CO2 and to decrease the rate that they use water. A greater supply of the building blocks for growth will increase potential growth. Elevated CO2 increased the rate of elongation and widening of the shoots of spring whea grown in an open field under elevated CO2. Longer shoots did not have more spikes, but they did not have more sites where grain could grow. Because more florets were produced because of elevated CO2, grain production per acre is anticipated to be greater in a future high CO2 world assuming that CO2 does not adversely affect climate. This increase in yield will benefit both producers and end-users.
Technical Abstract: The CO2 concentration of the atmosphere is rising, which may affect potential growth of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L). This study determined the rates of apical elongation and widening over the main stem and tillers in cv. Yecora Rojo grown under two levels of atmospheric CO2 concentration, 550 (elevated) or 370 (ambient) umol mol-1, in a free-air- CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiment conducted at the University of Arizona Maricopa Agricultural Research Center. Plants were sampled at different developmental stages and dissected to measure, with a stage micrometer, the length and widths of the apices of the main stem (MS), coleoptile (T0) and primary (T1,T2, and T3), and secondary tillers (T00, T01, T02, T10, T11, and T12). Elevated CO2 increased the apex lengths of T2 at the double ridge stage and of T3 and T10 at the double ridge and the terminal spikelet stages, and the apex widths of T2 at the double ridge stage and of T2, T3, T10, and T11 at the flag leaf appearance stage. Elevated CO2 changed apex elongation or widening within a plant by enhancing elongation or widening rates of the MS and later-formed tillers. Early-formed tillers were less responsive to elevated CO2 levels. These results have enabled us to better predict wheat apical development and grain production in the elevated CO2 environment of the future. | <urn:uuid:5ab56ac2-f6c3-4d61-9971-f977b278163c> | {
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What is play therapy?
In play therapy, children are invited to play with a variety of toys and materials to encourage emotional exploration and expression through the symbolic lens of imagination. The therapist creates a safe and engaging environment that both provides the unconditional positive regard needed to heal traumatic emotional experiences and allows developmentally appropriate space for children to comfortably explore significant life experiences that may be affecting behavior and health.
What are the benefits of Play Therapy?
Play therapy can be beneficial to all age ranges, though it is most useful for children ages 3-12. Play therapy has been used to address childhood behavioral and emotional issues including anger management, bereavement, academic problems, learning disorders, autism spectrum disorders, anxious or depressive symptoms, trauma, obsessive or fearful thoughts, compulsive behaviors, and family transitions.
How does Play therapy work?
During Play Therapy sessions, therapists can access the manners of play, aid children in the expression of thoughts and emotions that may be difficult to verbalize at early ages, and develop emotional regulation, coping techniques, and problem-solving skills. In addition to engaging in play therapy with the child, a therapist may provide additional consultation, counseling, and psychoeducation for family members and integrative care providers such as teachers and health care professionals. Through the process of child centered play therapy children can become more competent and confident in their abilities to manage distress, identify and verbalize emotions, explore creative solutions, develop empathy, tolerance, and social skills, and increase self-acceptance and self-efficacy. | <urn:uuid:bc0850d3-103f-4c9c-ba35-12146cd3a546> | {
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Although agriculture is important for the livelihood of most Africans, especially the poor, donors did not accord it a high priority. Both volume and share of aid earmarked for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa not only remained low, around five per cent, but continuously declined beween 1981-2001, before picking up after the world food crisis in 2007-08. Aid recently became a top agenda in donors' priorities because of concerns about its effectiveness and also because of budget pressures in donor countries as well as queries raised by their tax payers. However, despite skepticism about its effectiveness there exist successful experiences in aid supported projects that could be candidates both for scaling up and transferability across countries.
agriculture foreign aid effectiveness upscaling transferability sustainable | <urn:uuid:b120b3d3-cfef-4f88-acff-ed88800bfabe> | {
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Evolutionary theorist Leigh Van Valen, PhD, 1935-2010
October 20, 2010
The originator of the influential and widely debated Red Queen hypothesis, Leigh Van Valen, PhD, professor emeritus in the Department of Ecology and Evolution, and a member of the Committees on Evolutionary Biology, Genetics and the Conceptual Foundations of Science at the University of Chicago, died at St. Mary of Nazareth Hospital Center in Chicago on Saturday, October 16, 2010, from a recurrent respiratory infection. He was 75 years old.
An internationally recognized evolutionary biologist, known for his theoretical studies of extinction and diversification, the evolutionary and ecological role of energy flow in regulating diversity, and the radiation of mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs, Van Valen was one of the founders of the field of paleobiology, which combines research on current life forms with the study of fossils to answer questions about the processes shaping large-scale evolutionary and ecological patterns. He was also one of the earliest modern advocates for the importance of development in evolution, as captured in his much-quoted aphorism: "Evolution is the control of development by ecology."
In his most famous paper, "A New Evolutionary Law," published in 1973, he introduced novel observations and a radical interpretation that together continue to shape the field. The first, which he labeled the law of constant extinction--often called Van Valen's Law--states that the probability of extinction for species and larger evolutionary groups bears no relation to how long it may have already existed. The fossil record, he argued, shows that lineages become neither more extinction-resistant nor more vulnerable over time.
To explain this surprising pattern, he proposed the Red Queen hypothesis, a model of co-evolutionary interaction, and one of the most enduring metaphors in modern biology. It holds that the struggle for existence never eases up, so that no species or lineage ever pulls ahead for long. Instead there is a constant arms race among species or larger groups, such as a community of competing lineages or parasites and their hosts. In a world with a fixed amount of energy, each must continually develop new adaptations, weapons, or defenses to keep up with the other, a prolonged sequence of mutational one-upmanship.
The title comes from Darwin's contemporary, Lewis Carroll. "It takes all the running you can do to keep in the same place," the Red Queen tells Alice in Through the Looking Glass (the sequel to Alice in Wonderland). "If you want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as that."
Considered unconventional even by eccentrics, Van Valen had a wide range of interests, spanning the history of all life forms. "I don't work linearly," he explained in a note to his department chair. I am a generalist and tend to open new approaches more than fill them in. What I work on changes irregularly and unpredictably with the progress of theory and knowledge."
"Leigh Van Valen was an unbelievably broad thinker, uniquely so," recalled his colleague David Jablonski, PhD, the William Kenan Jr. Professor in Geophysical Sciences at the University of Chicago. "The breadth of his work was staggering. He was interested in big questions--in everything, actually--but especially in topics like how diversity came about, how it changed over time."
"He was also an extraordinary teacher," Jablonski added. "His graduate course on evolutionary processes was legendary. It provided invaluable training for generations of graduate students, many of whom are now the leaders in the field."
"Van Valen was an intellectual giant," said former graduate student and colleague Benedikt Hallgrimsson, PhD, professor of cell biology and anatomy at the University of Calgary. "People have devoted their entire lives to working out the ramifications of some of his papers. He had a tendency to create seminal works that would send the field off into a new direction of inquiry. He would then move on, never to publish in that field again."
"Leigh was a brilliant paleontologist," said Dan McShea, PhD, a former graduate student who is now an associate professor of biology and of philosophy at Duke University. "He was one of the top two or three synthetic minds in evolutionary studies in the second half of the 20th Century."
Leigh M. Van Valen was born August 12, 1935, in Albany, New York. He showed early promise, being chosen as "most academic," in first grade. He completed his bachelor's degree in zoology at Miami University of Ohio in three years, graduating at the age of 20 with awards in biology, chemistry and poetry, a hobby he maintained. He earned his PhD in 1961 from Columbia University, the epicenter of evolutionary research at the time. He did post-doctoral fellowships at Columbia; University College, London; and the American Museum of Natural History before joining the faculty at the University of Chicago in 1967 as an assistant professor of anatomy. He rose steadily through the ranks, becoming an associate professor in 1971 and a professor in 1976.
The author or co-author of more than 300 papers in academic journals, Van Valen managed to remain remarkably productive despite his growing unease with the system that regulates research funding. He worried that relying on grants, from any source, could constrain research into unimaginative ruts. "The required conformity stultified my research," he wrote in an opinion piece for Nature. "When one knows just what one will do, it is done." So he found ways to proceed without government grants.
He nevertheless held important roles in several professional groups, serving as vice president of the Society for the Study of Evolution and the American Society of Naturalists. He also served on the editorial boards of several journals, including the Journal of Molecular Evolution, Evolutionary Biology, Carnivore, and Cryptozoology, and as assistant editor for Evolution and Paleobiology. In the 1970s, frustrated by the constraints of narrowly focused specialty publications, he founded and edited two new journals: Evolutionary Monographs and Evolutionary Theory.
Van Valen's research papers tended to be "of enormous scope, genuinely imaginative and strikingly original," said Jablonski, yet his ideas were often too innovative, too daring to get printed. "It signaled to Leigh that there was a dearth of outlets for such research. So he launched his own."
The paper that introduced the Red Queen hypothesis, rejected by several leading journals, appeared in 1973 on page-1 volume-1 of Evolutionary Theory. It was soon recognized, said Jablonski, as "one of the most important ideas in modern biology." In 2008, Nature, which had turned down the original study, acknowledged the extraordinary influence of this seminal work, exemplified by numerous follow-up studies confirming Van Valen's 35-year-old theory.
Unpredictable and quirky, Evolutionary Theory soon developed loyal readers. "We used to look forward for each issue," Jablonski recalled. Delivery was somewhat irregular, and esthetics incidental, but that was consistent with the journal's motto: "The primacy of content over display."
Van Valen felt the same way about his work environment. "His office was breathtaking," said former student and colleague, lecturer Melissa Stoller, PhD. At one time, it housed an estimated 30,000 books. It was "a dark labyrinth of stacked shelves," wrote Matt Ridley, a journalist who interviewed Van Valen for his book The Red Queen. To reach his source, Ridley had to penetrate "past ziggurats of balanced books and three-foot Babels of paper. Squeeze between two filing cabinets and emerge into a Stygian space the size of a broom cupboard, where there sits an oldish man in a checked shirt, with a grey beard that is longer than God's but not as long as Charles Darwin's."
That description, say colleagues, does not do justice to Van Valen's wardrobe. "Pocket protectors," said Stoller. "He was a long-standing supporter of the pocket protector." He selected garments for their pockets. These were filled with 3 by 5 note cards, packed with microscopically small handwriting. "The world was his laboratory," Stoller said, "and he could take notes while conversing."
Van Valen is survived by his wife, Virginia Maiorana, one daughter, Katrina Van Valen of Richmond, VA, and his long-time friend, Towako Katsuno, of Chicago and Tokyo. Another daughter, Diane, died in 1995.
A memorial service is being arranged for 3 p.m., January 13, 2011, in the University's Bond Chapel (1025 E 58th St.), followed by a reception. On January 14, from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m., three speakers--John Damuth, Frederic Bouchard and Carl Simpson, who represent academic areas that interested Van Valen--will present at a symposium in remembrance of him.
The University of Chicago Medicine
950 E. 61st Street, Third Floor
Chicago, IL 60637
Phone (773) 702-0025 Fax (773) 702-3171 | <urn:uuid:078a9ac5-937f-4976-9591-00f29ac82af3> | {
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It is officially spring! Spring is the time of birth, where yang
energy is full and abundant. For many people, however, spring and
summer are seasons for allergies.
Allergies, or allergic rhinitis, are due to an over-reactivity
of the immune system to certain allergens. During spring and
summer, allergies are generally induced by wind-born tree, grass or
weed pollen, and can cause such symptoms as: sneezing; nasal
congestion; runny nose; watery, itchy, or red eyes; headaches;
fatigue; and sometimes coughing and wheezing. When allergens and
antibodies react in individuals with allergic rhinitis, their nasal
mucosa becomes swollen and may obstruct drainage from the sinuses
causing sinusitis in many people. Thus, sinus infections are a
frequent complication and consequence of allergic rhinitis.
While spring and summer are the seasons of the year that bring
us outdoors, many people are unable to enjoy these warmer months
due to uncomfortable symptoms. Chinese medicine can help bring
relief of symptoms, correct imbalances of the immune system,
prevent the occurrence of infection, and allow healing of tissues
of the sinuses.
From a Chinese point of view, allergic rhinitis is due to a
deficiency of the Lung and Kidney's Defensive-Qi systems, combined
with retention of chronic "Wind" in the nose.
Allergic rhinitis often starts in early childhood, with a
constitutional weakness, but it may also start later in life, with
a progressive decline of Kidney-Qi. Lung and Kidney Qi Deficiency
is the root of the problem, therefore, with herbal medicine and
acupuncture, we strengthen and nourish these organs. The
manifestation of the disease is Wind invading the Lung channel in
the nose. This accounts for the acute attacks. With herbs and
acupuncture, we clear the Wind, reduce congestion, and open the
nasal passages. It is necessary to treat both the root and the
manifestation in order to produce lasting results.
The western treatment of allergic rhinitis relies mostly on the
use of antihistamine agents. Unfortunately, antihistamines only
treat the manifestations of the disease and not the root. In
addition, they cause side effects such as dizziness, fatigue,
insomnia, nervousness, dryness, and gastrointestinal
Chinese medicine offers allergy sufferers a way to strengthen
their bodies and significantly reduce their symptoms, without
unpleasant side effects. You do not have to spend another season
living with allergies.
Here are acupuncture points from my class notes and CAM book. I
have clinically used these points in the clinic and I feel they are
very effective in treating allergies, postnasal drips and
Wind-Cold Affecting the Lung
Wind-Heat Affecting the LU
Signs & Symptoms
Word to the wise: The treatment protocols mentioned above are to
be used after a complete tongue and pulse examination. The
effectiveness of these treatments may vary based on the
differential diagnosis, while other points should be added or not
used based on your patient history and complete
Thank you for your continued support of the AOM blog. Have a
It is true that poor diet, pollution and stresses of daily life
all have negative impact on our health and well-being. Let's face
it, in our very busy lives we are bombarded by physical and
emotional stress that robs us of our vital life energy called Qi.
According to Traditional Chinese Medicine, Qi fuels the essence
that connects our body, mind and spirit. Qi travels and circulates
through the channels of our bodies. When your Qi is weak, it
stagnates in these channels instead of powerfully flowing. As you
age, you may feel as though you no longer have the energy that you
I don't about most of us but I am always searching
for a way for a Qi-boost. Most days. I am bombarded with the noise
of five children and information overload from AOM classes at
night, online classes for herbal studies and holistic nutrition
certification, then working part-time on and off campus,
volunteering 4 hours a week, hitting the gym 3 times a week--and
that's just my schedule not including my kid's extracurricular
With all the non-stop activity, I easily feel drained,
scattered, stressed, and completely run-down. My desire is like
most of us who are busy people--how can I feel energetic and clear
minded and focus? Basically, I want to feel alive and not half-dead
My personal research has led to some great tips that I have
integrated into my life style that may be helpful for students,
faculty and our patients.
Also, keep in mind that to receive optimal benefits from food
and herbs, it is crucial that you choose in-season, natural foods
with no chemical additives or residues. Also, avoid overeating and
under eating because both will rob you of a consistent source of
I am currently taking the herb, Bu Zhong Yi Qi Pian to help
boost my Qi.
I hope that these tips will renew your energy.
Thank you for the continued support of the AOM blog. Remember to
increase your Qi this week!
• Fertility and TCM
• Cupping Therapy
• Boost Your Qi
• AOM and Autism
• New Spring AOM Interns
To read older blog posts, scroll to the bottom and click the "Older Posts" button. | <urn:uuid:f674d0a3-1ba4-4536-afec-c22daf33820b> | {
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Persistent asthma is most effectively controlled with daily, long-term-control medication, specifically anti-inflammatory therapy. To that end, several new drugs have been introduced in the pediatric market for administering to children in the campaign against asthma. These are Accolate, Pulmicort, and Singulair. Dr. Phyllis Weiner, chairperson of pediatrics and acting chairperson of the Ambulatory Care Center at Jamaica Hospital Medical Center, sees thousands of children yearly who are admitted to the hospital for asthmatic occurrences. In fact, "it's the number one admission to the hospital in pediatrics," she reports. Dr. Weiner lends her expertise on the subject and on the latest developments: Different classes of asthmatic medications work in different ways.
Leukotriene receptor antagonists block the action of the 'leukotrienes', messengers of inflammation that cause muscles to constrict and mucus membranes to become swollen. Because these messengers are believed to be responsible for the characteristic airflow obstruction, bronchial hyperactivity, and airway inflammation of the disease, stopping them can shut off the inflammatory process, increase airflow and produce overall improvement. Accolate and Singulair are both leukotriene receptor antagonists.
Accolate, prescribed in a tablet form, can be used for children ages 12 and older. Taken twice daily one to two hours following meals, it can effectively and significantly improve lung function in patients with mild to moderate asthma.
For the younger child, age six and up, Singulair is conveniently prescribed in a 5 mg, cherry chewable tablet. Taken once daily in the evening, it has been clinically shown to improve all parameters of asthma control and decrease daytime and nighttime symptoms.
Another class of preventive medications is the steroid. Steroids can be given orally or inhaled, sending the spray directly to the lungs, thereby calming down the inflammation.
Used with great success in Europe, the Pulmicort Turbuhaler is now available in the United States. Approved for patients six years and older, "it's an innovation of a tried and true method," says Dr. Weiner. "It contains a medicine called budesonide, a synthetic corticosteroid, a substance found in the body that helps fight inflammation by reducing the swelling and irritation in the walls of the small air passages in the lungs. Instead of being an aerosol spray, it's packaged as a powder and doesn't have propellant. To use, you twist in a measured amount, put your lips around it and inhale deeply. It requires some coordination and therefore must be taught properly."
Why choose one over another? Some children could have trouble with the inhaler, and if it doesn't get into the lungs, it's worthless. Also, the term 'steroid', while medically unproven, causes some trepidation.
Unfortunately, Dr. Weiner sees a lot of children with asthma caused by a multitude of factors - including the environment, genetic disposition, and a susceptibility to viral infections which can trigger asthmatic attacks. "But when people are educated towards self- care and use the right medication," she says, "they can be symptom-free and suffer no school or work loss."
To accomplish this, she recommends keeping your home as clean as possible; exercising; and staying away from cigarette smoke, cleaning sprays, and hair, perfume and deodorant sprays. And, of course, scheduling regular visits to the doctor to ensure that control of the disease is maintained.
There are many levels to asthma severity and always strict asthma guidelines to follow. As with any medication, it is vitally important that you consult your physician before using any of these drugs.
An Alternative Treatment By Mara Weisman
Seven-year-old Yakov Merkin breathed in through his nose and exhaled. He pinched his nostrils closed with his fingers and began walking across the living room, his mother counting each step. At about 94 steps, when he couldn't hold his breath anymore, he fell to the floor, triumphant yet nearly exhausted.
Yakov, an asthmatic who suffered severe coughing fits, is practicing a new method of breathing called Buteyko. It incorporates exercises, like the one described above, to monitor progress, and shallow breathing through the nose.
"It's the best thing he ever did," says Dr. Linda Merkin, Yakov's mother. Before he began practicing Buteyko, he was taking Albuterol (a broncho-dilator) through a nebulizer (an electric pump that converts medications into a fine mist) twice a day for about 20 minutes. "I just wanted his asthma fixed," Dr. Merkin recalls.
So she and her husband took to the Internet and conducted searches on alternative treatments for asthma. They found Buteyko, a drug-free treatment currently used in Australia, New Zealand and England. "It sounded very different," Dr. Merkin says, "because each story was just as good as the last."
Since Buteyko is virtually unknown in the United States, Dr. Merkin traveled to London to treat her son's asthma. There she met with Dr. Christopher Drake, a Buteyko practitioner, and convinced him to introduce the method in New York.
Buteyko is named after a Russian professor, Konstantine Buteyko, who developed the method over 40 years ago. It is based on the physiological fact that asthma sufferers, as well as others with breathing disorders, breathe a greater volume of air per minute than healthy people. But their levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are off balance, causing the body to react by constricting the breathing passages. This is due to lower levels of carbon dioxide, which is not only a byproduct of respiration, but also necessary for the maintenance of pH levels in the body's fluids. "All asthma symptoms are mechanisms to defend or compensate against the body's excessive loss of carbon dioxide," Dr. Drake says.
Conventional asthma treatments usually require the use of a broncho-dilator, which opens the breathing passages. Buteyko is nearly the opposite; it is designed to recondition breathing and reduce the total volume of air breathed per minute to normal levels.
"This method is contrary to everything we've ever learned about breathing," says Alyssa Slomovic, whose 10-year-old son, Chaim, suffers from asthma. What they learned was that Chaim should be breathing deeply through his mouth and that he should take more medicine when he feels an attack coming on. "It's upsetting," says Chaim, "because everything the doctors give you makes you worse." By practicing the Buteyko method of taking shallow breaths through the nose, Chaim is able to run, he sleeps better, and his concentration in school has improved.
"I'm confused, to be honest," says his mother. "I have nothing except my own observations to verify it."
She is not alone. Heidi, whose three children suffer from asthma and other symptoms, finds it equally baffling. "It's wild; their noses are so clear now," she says.
Reactions to the method by professionals are mixed. Yakov's pediatrician encouraged him to try alternative approaches, but the Slomovics encountered resistance. Dr. Sicklick of Cedarhurst, who did not return calls, refused to treat them. "He called it witchcraft," says Linda Merkin.
While the Buteyko method boasts a 90 percent success rate in patients, it is not a medical treatment and practitioners encourage patients to continue medical treatment. Buteyko is taught in workshops, which cost $450 for five sessions, including individual meetings with a certified Buteyko instructor if necessary. A full refund is guaranteed if there is no improvement in breathing.
For more information, call the Respiratory Health Institute at (212) 984?, or Dr. Linda Merkin at (718) 853?.
OPEN AIRWAYS Letting Students Breathe Easy By Helyne Klauck
An asthma attack. Not a pleasant time for anyone involved, especially if the one having the attack is your child. Just the thought of the last attack sends your heart racing, fearful of the next one, maybe more serious than before.
"Open Airways for Schools", a new program created by the American Lung Association of Queens, in partnership with Columbia Presbyterian's Drs. Robert Mellins and Robert Evans, and Glaxo-Wellcome Pharmaceuticals, is designed to ease some of the burden for young asthma sufferers. Tailor-made for second through sixth graders, its goal is to train and equip school nurses (so far in Districts 25, 28, and 29) to teach students just how to react when an attack occurs. Training for the nurses is a two-day process, covering relaxation techniques combined with the basic triggers of an attack.
While many factors can trigger an asthma attack - from extreme cold and exertion, to pollution and second-hand smoke - often an attack can be eased by relaxation techniques, practical approaches (deep cough exercises, tensing and relaxing exercises), and focusing until medical attention is available.
Carlos Alvarez, executive director of the American Lung Association of Queens, proudly comments, "Last year, Open Airways covered only 110 schools. This year, we are in all 600 schools." With asthma the number one cause of school absences, Dr. Gloria Gasper, American Lung Association program associate for school programs, couldn't have been happier seeing the nurses complete their training. "All have done extremely well," she states enthusiastically. "There is such a need for everyone involved in the student's life to be educated about their condition. Both parental involvement and schools play a vital role in containing attacks as much as possible."
"Open Airways for Schools" is recommended by the National Association of School Nurses, and most of the school nurses in Districts 25, 28 and 29 have completed their training. Parents in these districts with children who are diagnosed with asthma are encouraged to speak with their school nurse and get involved in the "Open Airways" training. Says Maxine Ferguson, RN, school nurse at P.S. 160Q in District 28: "The feedback from parents has been very helpful. When the kids do go into a crisis, the classes taught are put into practice without a second thought. The kids make pictures and do skits to help them realize that when an attack occurs, they are in control."
If you are interested in the program, or if your child's school doesn't yet have this asthma self-management program, contact the American Lung Association of Queens at 1?- LUNG-USA or (718) 263?. Free in schools with pre-trained nurses, it's a program which may just be as precious as your child is - and as every breath she takes. | <urn:uuid:6e678867-7d45-46ba-af0e-01587b25209d> | {
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A Universal Vaccine For All Influenza Possible?
The latest research done by the Crucell and the Scripps institute regarding influenza virus type A and B has yielded surprising results. Across the globe, institutes have been trying to develop some vaccine that is effective against the various viral strains of the influenza virus. Now, the companies mentioned above have succeeded in developing three different antibodies that are capable of destroying all the viral strains of influenza virus type B.
Furthermore, one of the antibodies was also effective against the A strains of the virus. The research published in one of the journals titled ‘Science’ was conducted on mice and has the potential to develop a vaccine that acts universally against all the strains of influenza.
Back in 2008, Crucell along with scientists from Scripps Research and the University of Hong Kong conducted extensive investigation to develop broadly effective antibodies against the influenza A type 2 viruses and fully human broad-spectrum influenza A antibodies. Both these types of antibodies have the capability of neutralizing and destroying almost all the viral strains of Influenza type A.
Moreover, the development of the only antibody that is effective against both type A and type B viruses, namely CR9114, may play an important role in this struggle to provide immunity against Influenza universally. This goal has always been unattainable until now. With the latest progress in the development of antibodies that are effective against viral strain B along with the previous findings regarding Type A,scientists are hopeful that they would be able to make a vaccine that is effective and neutralizes ALL influenza strains hence, achieving the inevitable.
Let’s keep our fingers crossed for it will play a major role in the medical field, having a positive impact on people’s lives. | <urn:uuid:96bbbf8c-2083-446e-89bb-01e854f6b1cc> | {
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Researchers from the Department of Chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden, have managed to construct a molecular catalyzer that can oxidize water to oxygen very rapidly. In fact, these KTH scientists are the first to reach speeds approximating those is nature's own photosynthesis. The research findings play a critical role for the future use of solar energy and other renewable energy sources.
Researchers all over the world, including the US, Japan, and the EU, have been working for more than 30 years on refining an artificial form of photosynthesis. The results have varied, but researchers had not yet succeeded in creating a sufficiently rapid solar-driven catalyzer for oxidizing water.
"Speed has been the main problem, the bottleneck, when it comes to creating perfect artificial photosynthesis," says Licheng Sun, professor of organic chemistry at KTH.
But now, together with research colleagues, he has imitated natural photosynthesis and created a record-fast molecular catalyzer. The speed with which natural photosynthesis occurs is about 100 to 400 turnovers per seconds. The KTH have now reached over 300 turnovers per seconds with their artificial photosynthesis.
"This is clearly a world record, and a breakthrough regarding a molecular catalyzer in artificial photosynthesis," says Licheng Sun.
The fact that the KTH researchers are now close to nature's own photosynthesis regarding speed opens up many new possibilities, especially for renewable energy sources.
"This speed makes it possible in the future to create large-scale facilities for producing hydrogen in the Sahara, where there's an abundance of sunshine. Or to attain much more efficient solar energy conversion to electricity, combining this with traditional solar cells, than is possible today," says Licheng Sun.
He points to the problem of skyrocketing gasoline prices, and these advances with the rapid molecular catalyzers can in turn lay the groundwork for many important changes. They make it possible to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into various fuels, such as methanol. And, technology can be created to convert solar energy directly into hydrogen. Licheng Sun adds that he and his research colleagues are working hard and pursing intensive research to make this technology reasonably inexpensive.
"I'm convinced that it will be possible in ten years to produce technology based on this type of research that is sufficiently cheap to compete with carbon-based fuels. This explains why Barack Obama is investing billions of dollars in this type of research," says Licheng Sun.
He has conducted research in this field for nearly twenty years, more than half of that time at KTH, and adds that he and many other researchers see efficient catalyzers for oxidation of water as key to solving the solar energy problem.
"When it comes to renewable energy sources, using the sun is one of the best ways to go," says Sun.
The research findings are of such importance that they have recently attracted the attention of the scientific journal Nature Chemistry.
The research pursued by Licheng Sun and his colleagues is funded by the Wallenberg Foundation and the Swedish Energy Agency. They collaborate with researchers at Uppsala University and Stockholm University, and, together with Professor Lars Kloo at KTH, they run a joint research center involving KTH and Dalian University of Technology (DUT) in China.
- Lele Duan, Fernando Bozoglian, Sukanta Mandal, Beverly Stewart, Timofei Privalov, Antoni Llobet, Licheng Sun. A molecular ruthenium catalyst with water-oxidation activity comparable to that of photosystem II. Nature Chemistry, 2012; DOI: 10.1038/nchem.1301
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Food magnesium is needed to prevent and reverse osteoporosis, osteopenia. A 2013 study published in Nutrients titledMagnesium and Osteoporosis: Current State of Knowledge and Future Research Directions, showed that too little as well as too much magnesium is not good for building strong bones. See: Food Magnesiium
This need for not too much as well as not too little is one reason why some advise getting our magnesium needs met by our diets, rather than by supplements.
But few food labels include notice of how much magnesium may be in a product and of course fresh foods never include such information. So
Here is a list of common foods and the amount of magnesium contained in each.
If you want to estimate the amount of food magnesium you consume each day this chart may be of some use.
1 oz. of pumpkin seeds yields 152 mg. (One ounce is a small handful.)
1/2 cup of roasted peanuts is 131. mg. (A large handful.
1/2 cup raw, regular tofu gives 127 mg
1/2 cup raw peanuts 123 mg ( Special Note: peanuts found raw in store bins often contain traces of a mold that is a known carcinogen. This is one food that might be better bought packaged.)
2 large stalks of broccoli, cooked 120 mg (most people do not eat that much broccoli at a meal!)
1/2 cup of 100% bran cereal is also rich source. It gives 128.7 mg of magnesium.
A 1/2 cup of Oat bran yields 96.4 mg.
1 cup of cooked brown rices gives 83.8 mg.
1 ox of almonds (about 22 almonds) yields 81.1 mg.
1/2 cup of cooked chopped spinach gives 78.3 mg.
1/2 cup of cooked chopped Swiss chard gives 75.2 mg.
1/2 cup of canned tomato paste yields 67mg.
1/2 cup of cooked lima beans offers 62.9 mg.
2 shredded wheat biscuits give 54.3 mg.
1 oz of hazelnuts is 49 mg.
1/2 cup of cooked sliced Okra give 45.6 mg.
1/2 cup of cooked black eyed peas is 42.8 mg.
1 medium banana is 34.2 mg.
As you can see from the above vegetarians and vegans should have no problem getting enough magnesium. Rather for some, too much magnesium could be a problem. See the article suggested above: Food and Magnesiium
NOTE: If you are wondering how much magnesium should be in your diet each day, go to the page about Magnesium dosing.
Some other pages worth reading: | <urn:uuid:cf6f9887-bfcc-4112-b163-e4a284eb184f> | {
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A new blood test for Down's syndrome during pregnancy could reduce the number of women who undergo further invasive testing to detect fetal abnormalities, new research suggests.
The test — which looks for traces of fetal DNA in the mother's blood — is highly accurate, and has a lower false positive rate than current methods of testing, the study found.
While the test has been available since 2011, it is not widely used, and few studies have followed women forward over time to examine how the test would be incorporated into the care that patients already receive.
In the new study, about 1,000 women in England underwent the test, called cell-free DNA testing, at 10 weeks of pregnancy. They also had an ultrasound and a hormone analysis at 12 weeks, which are standard screening methods for detecting fetal abnormities.
The researchers compared the new test to the standard methods by looking at how well each detected cases of aneuploidy in fetuses. Conditions of aneuploidy, including Down syndrome, stem from having an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Results showed that both the new test and the standard screening methods detected all cases of Down syndrome, Edwards syndrome (Trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (Trisomy 13).
But the cell-free DNA testing had a much lower false positive rate: 0.1 percent, compared with 3.4 percent for standard screening methods. Because all positive screening tests need to be confirmed with invasive testing — either amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, procedures that have a small risk of causing miscarriage — the use of the cell-free DNA test reduces the number of invasive tests, the researchers said.
The study is published today (June 7) in the journal Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology.
Although cell-free DNA testing is very accurate, the test cannot replace current screening methods for aneuploidy — it should be used in conjunction with these methods, said Dr. Mislen Bauer, director of genetics and metabolism at Miami Children's Hospital. Bauer said her institution started using the new test about six months ago.
The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that the test be offered only to women at high risk of having children with aneuploidies, including women ages 35 and over and those with abnormal ultrasound results.
But ACOG does not recommend the test as part of routine prenatal screening. Few studies have examined the accuracy of the test in low-risk women, or those carrying twins or multiples, so it is not yet recommended for these groups, ACOG says.
Because the test is a screening test, and not a diagnostic test, the results need to be confirmed with amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, ACOG says. And a negative test result does not definitively rule out aneuploidy.
In about 4 to 5 percent of cases, there is too little fetal DNA in the blood sample to obtain a result, and the test may need to be repeated. | <urn:uuid:27675253-1714-41ce-9a21-d3cb7bf39fc0> | {
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With the toughest (and most controversial) anti-bullying law going into effect in New Jersey yesterday, what better time is there to discuss teasing and bullying with the children in your home or classroom?
With activities from The Anti-Bullying and Teasing Handbook and Socially Strong, Emotionally Secure it’s easier to handle difficult topics such as how words can affect others, how it feels to be included or excluded, and about the importance of kindness and accepting differences in others.
Below is an activity from The Anti-Bullying and Teasing Handbook that teaches children how everyday words can be used to hurt others and the effect that hurtful words has on everyone.
Can Words Hurt Us?
Circle time or meeting time
- Two hand puppets
- Pictures of a shrimp and rat
Time for this activity: 15 minutes
- Begin by asking the question, “Do you ever think that words can hurt us?” Say, “Let’s think about it.” Give children a chance to talk about how words can be hurtful. Explain to children that sometimes it is not the word itself, but the way it is used that makes them hurtful. Use the word shrimp as an example. Ask, “Does anyone know what a shrimp is?” Children may or may not know that a shrimp is small sea creature. Show them a picture of a shrimp. Then say, “Let’s watch the puppets to see how shrimp can become a hurtful word.”
Puppet 1: “You’re too little to be in this class. You’re a shrimp.”
Puppet 2: “I’m not a shrimp. I’m a person.”
Puppet 1: “You’re a shrimp. Your name is ‘Shrimpy.’ Ha, ha.”
Puppet 2: “I don’t want to be a shrimp. A shrimp is a little fish. I’m a boy.”
Show the puppet “Shrimpy,” hanging its head and looking sad.
- Talk about the puppet story with the children. How did being called “shrimp,” make the puppet feel? Was “shrimp” a hurtful word? Say, “Let’s think about another word.” Ask, “Does anyone know what a rat is?” Children will probably be able to describe a rat. If not, you can describe its physical characteristics or show a picture. “Let’s watch the puppets to see how rat can become a hurtful word.”
Puppet 1: “Give me that truck. I need it for my building.”
Puppet 2: “I had it first, and I need it for my game. I’ll give you a turn later.”
Puppet 2: “No, I won’t. It’s my turn.”
Puppet 1: “You’re a rat. Ratty, rat, rat.”
Puppet 2: “I’m not a rat. I was trying to be fair.”
Show the puppet, “Rat,” walking away and looking sad.
- Talk about the puppet story with the children. How did being called “rat,” make the puppet feel? Was rat a hurtful word?
- Summarize the discussion. “We really need to think about not using words in a way that can hurt another person’s feelings. Think about how we might feel if someone called us an animal name just to make us feel bad.”
- Close by saying that animals are fine creatures in nature, but calling people by animal names hurts their feelings.
For more activities on teaching children how name-calling hurts others and how children can recognize feelings in themselves and others, check out some of the take-home activities from the book, Socially Strong, Emotionally Secure. This website features several activities you can do with your children or students to help stop bullying before it even begins. For more helpful tips and activities, purchase a hard copy of the book.
Have a great Labor Day weekend! | <urn:uuid:1c5fab5e-22db-43f9-b75c-467e66bc96c6> | {
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A lot of people at the time of the Civil War just thought that Mary was a slave. In the beginning she was "owned" by the Van Lew family. John Van Lew was a wealthy hardware merchant. When John died (1843) the women of the Van Lew family freed all of their slaves.
Mary continued to work for the family as a free, paid servant. After working a while for them, she was sent by Elizabeth Van Lew (the daughter) to an African American Quaker school. The conflicts between south and north started and she had to come back to Richmond, Virginia, before she finished her education. She began to work for the Van Lew family once again.
The war went on for a little while before Elizabeth asked Mary to help her and become a spy. Mary agreed to Elizabeth's proposal and started her life as a spy. She changed her name to Ellen Bond and started her job in the Confederate White House, for President Davis and his wife. Ellen (Mary) was considered "dim-witted, also slightly crazy, but able servant". Even though she was free, she still had to act like she was a slave.
Elizabeth trusted Mary with a big job, she couldn't do it by herself. Elizabeth needed the help because she was an important member of Richmond, but only because of her father's status and wealth. She was really apart of the Union, but she had to pretend to be on the side of the Confederates. Elizabeth helped the slaves and spies escape and she would also shelter them. Elizabeth was very helpful to the Union side of the Civil War.
Mary couldn't just "do her job" to get the information she needed. She had to listen in on the conversations about the troop strategies and movements. She did this while she was clearing the dishes and such. No one of the confederate side minded talking about this stuff in front of her because they thought she wouldn't know what they were talking about, or even remember. Mary did remember every single word said between the confederates, and she told a man named Thomas McNiven. McNiven was a baker. Their exchanges went unnoticed because he was "making deliveries" and she would talk to him briefly.
At the end of the Civil War the Mary was suspected for being the "leak" in the plans of the confederates. Mary fled when she was suspected, in January 1865. She tried to burn down the Confederate Capitol as one last act as a Union Sympathizer. Her attempt was unsuccessful. After that day, there was no record of Mary or her husband. They do not know when or where she died.
After the Civil War the federal government destroyed all records of the Southern Spies. Those files included Mary, Elizabeth, and Thomas and their actions during the war. This is one of the reasons that all of the dates and places aren't exactly in full detail. There are many stories to what happened to the diary Mary kept when she was a slave at the Confederate White House. Today the diary with all of the interesting information is still missing, there are many rumors to what has happened to the journal.
In 1995, the U.S. government honored Mary Elizabeth Bower for her efforts in spying, by inducting her in the "U.S Army Military Intelligence Corps Hall of Fame".
What was Said at the Ceremony
"Ms. Bowser certainly succeeded in a highly dangerous mission to the great benefit of the Union effort. She was one of the highest placed and most productive espionage agents of the Civil War. ... [Her information] greatly enhanced the Union's conduct of the war. ... Jefferson Davis never discovered the leak in his household staff, although he knew the Union somehow kept discovering Confederate plans." | <urn:uuid:90eb5864-af55-48fb-a0e9-be5814f98f75> | {
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Family Cymodoceaceae and
learn only 3 things about them ...
Not all seagrasses look like land grasses.
They grow from underground stems and will be damaged if
they are stepped upon. Avoid stepping on seagrasses.
eat mainly seagrasses!
Seagrasses are found on almost all our shores. Undisturbed shores
tend to have more luxuriant growths, but any natural shore is likely
to have some, albeit sparse, growths of seagrasses. Where they grow
thickly, our seagrass meadows are like underwater forests, teeming
What are seagrasses? Seagrasses are the only flowering
plants adapted to grow submerged in the sea. Seagrasses generally
grow in intertidal areas to depths of 30m. Seagrasses do not belong
to the same family of plants as the land grasses (Family Graminae).
Despite the name, the leaves of seagrasses are not always grass-like.
Seagrasses in Singapore belong to either the Family Cymodoceaceae
or Family Hydrocharitaceae.
Features: Like other 'normal'
land plants, seagrasses have green leaves where photosynthesis takes
place. These leaves have veins to transport water around (called a
Seagrass leaves emerge from rhizomes (underground stems). These rhizomes
spread along the soft sediments. Roots anchor the plant. Thus seagrass
form a firm mat over the sea bottom. Unlike land plants, seagrass
absorb water and nutrients through all parts of the plant, not just
the roots. Seagrasses also have air canals in their leaves and rhizomes
so they can 'breathe' while underwater.
Sometimes confused with green
seaweeds. Unlike seagrasses, seaweeds lack veins, roots that absorb
nutrients, and do not produce flowers or fruits. Here's more on how
to apart seagrasses and green seaweeds.
Seagrass flowers: Seagrass flowers
are usually small and inconspicuous. Water plays a big role in pollination. One study of a temperate seagrass (not found in Singapore) suggest that they may be pollinated by zooplankton and tiny bottom dwelling animals.
Their seeds are also dispersed by water. In some species, the same
plant produces male and female flowers. In others, male and female
flowers are produced in separate plants.
However, seagrasses seldom flower. They spread mainly through vegetative
reproduction through their underground rhizomes. Thus seagrasses do
not easily colonise new places.
Seagrasses need the sea: Seagrasses
dry out easily because, unlike land plants, their leaves and stems
lack a waxy covering. They can tolerate short periods out of water,
but must be submerged most of the time.
Keep off the grass! Seagrasses
can rapidly regrow their leaves. However, if their underground stems
are damaged, it takes them longer to recover. So please do not step
on the seagrasses.
Role of seagrasses: Seagrass meadows
are a vital habitat that is often overlooked and loses out in media
coverage to the more glamorous reefs.
The meadows of seagrass leaves create a miniature underwater forest.
A host of small plants and animals thrive in these thickets. Seagrasses
provide shelter for many animals that are not adapted for fast swimming
(e.g., the seahorse and filefish). These include juveniles of larger
fishes and animals that later move out into deeper waters and include
commercially important fishes and sea creatures. Seagrass leaves also
provide a place for animals to lay
their eggs, and for small animals to settle
Trackers have noted that the seagrass meadows on Cyrene Reef are
important and possibly the only habitat left in Singapore where baby
sea stars (Protoreaster nodosus) can be found in large
The underground stems and roots of seagrasses form a mat which stabilises
the ground, while their leaves slow the water flow and thus help keep
sediments down and the water clear. The leaves also trap sediments
and detritus and contribute to the nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.
In the stabilised ground, many burrowing creatures make their homes.
Few animals can eat seagrasses, because few can digest the cellulose
that makes up these plants. Among those that do feed on seagrasses
are the sea turtles
such as the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata) as well as the Dugong
However, seagrasses do provide food indirectly. Microscopic algae
grow on their leaves and larger seaweeds get entangled among the seagrasses.
Many small animals graze on these algae. They are in turn eaten by
larger animals. In this way, seagrasses are an important part of the
food chain in other ecosystems nearby, such as sandy shores, mangroves
and coral reefs.
Seagrass meadows are vital part of a rich and diverse shore. Dead
seagrass leaves as they decay, provide nutrients to other ecosystems.
By trapping sediments, the meadows keep the water clear for coral
reefs to develop nearby. The stabilised areas where seagrasses grow
may eventually be colonised by mangroves.
According the Seagrass-Watch
site, seagrass meadows are considered the third most valuable
ecosystem globally. The average value of seagrasses for their nutrient
cycling services and the raw product they provide has been estimated
at US$ 19,004 per hectare per year (1994). This value would be significantly
greater if the other services of seagrasses were included.
Human uses: In Southeast Asia,
especially in the Philippines, seagrasses are used in all kinds of
ways. They are woven into baskets, used to thatch roofs, stuffed into
mattresses and used a fertiliser. A durable fibre useful for fishing
nets is also made from the Tape seagrass
(Enhalus acoroides). Modern rugs are also woven out of seagrasses.
Status and threats: All our seagrasses
are listed among the threatened plants of Singapore. Seagrasses are
affected by careless visitors who may unknowingly trample on their
delicate underground stems. Nets dragged over seagrasses also uproot
them and kill the animals that live there. Marine litter (plastic
bags and other rubbish) smother seagrasses. They may also trap and
kill small animals. Larger animals may accidentally eat them and die.
Seagrasses are also affected by pollution that poison the water. Activities
that stir up sediments also obscure sunlight and affects photosynthesis
and thus the growth of seagrasses.
However, the most damaging impact to seagrasses is habitat loss due
to land reclamation and development of our shores. Seagrasses grow
best on flats that are shallow but seldom totally out of water, and
relatively calm. Too deep and there is not enough sunlight for photosynthesis;
too shallow and the seagrasses are regularly out of water. Reclamation
usually results in steeply sloping shores where seagrasses don't grow
Where are the animals in the seagrass meadows?
Many are well camouflaged or hide in burrows. Some are tiny. Look
carefully and avoid stepping on lush patches of seagrasses.
Where can we explore seagrass meadows in
has the last large mainland seagrass meadows. There are also narrow
and patchy seagrass areas at Changi. Among our northern islands, there
are vast seagrass meadows at Chek
Jawa on Pulau
Ubin. While on our Southern islands, there are extensive seagrass
meadows at Pulau
Semakau and some at Sentosa.
vast meadow of seagrasses
Pulau Semakau, Mar 05
different species of seagrasses
can be found growing near one another.
Cyrene Reef, Jun 10
leaves have veins.
Chek Jawa, Jul 02
Seagrass have underground stems with roots
Chek Jawa, Aug 05
Fern seagrass has a leaf made up
of little leaflets
Chek Jawa, Jun 05
Flowering Spoon seagrass?
Changi, Apr 05
Female flower of Tape seagrass
with tiny male flowers in the centre.
Pulau Semakau, Mar 05
Flowers of the Sickle seagrass
Labrador, Mar 06
A fresh dugong feeding trail!
Chek Jawa, Jan 07
Bleaching following oil spill in May 10.
Chek Jawa, Jun 10
Bleaching, cause unknown.
Sentosa, Apr 11
Burnt, cause unknown.
Sentosa, Apr 11
on Singapore shores
Wee Y.C. and Peter K. L. Ng. 1994. A First Look at Biodiversity
red are those listed among the threatened plants of Singapore
from Davison, G.W. H. and P. K. L. Ng and Ho Hua Chew, 2008. The
Singapore Red Data Book: Threatened plants and animals of Singapore.
+from NParks BIodiversity Centre
Hydrocharitaceae (marine species only)
- L. J. McKenzie, S. M. Yaakub, R. Tan, J. Seymour & R. L. Yoshida Pp. 60-77. 29 June 2016. Seagrass habitats in Singapore: Environmental drivers and key processes. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 2016 Supplement No. 34 (Part I of II).
- Siti M Yaakub, Lim RLF, Lim WL & Todd PA (2013) The diversity and distribution of seagrass in Singapore. Nature in Singapore, 6: 105–111.
- Lee Q, Siti Maryam Yaakub, Ng NK, Erftemeije PLA & Todd PA (2012) The crab fauna of three seagrass meadows in Singapore: a pilot study. Nature in Singapore, 5: 363–368.
L.J., Yaakub, S.M., and Yoshida, R.L. (2007). Seagrass-Watch:
Guidelines for TeamSeagrass Singapore Participants (PDF).
Proceedings of a training workshop, National Parks Board, Biodiversity
Centre, Singapore, 24th-25th March 2007 (DPI&F, Cairns). 32pp.
- Tan, Hugh
T.W. L.M. Chou, Darren C. J. Yeo and Peter K.L. Ng. 2007. The
Natural Heritage of Singapore.
Second edition. Prentice Hall. 271 pp.
G.W. H. and P. K. L. Ng and Ho Hua Chew, 2008. The Singapore
Red Data Book: Threatened plants and animals of Singapore.
Nature Society (Singapore). 285 pp.
H. P. & Menez, E. G., 1997.Field
Guide to the Common Mangroves, Seagrasses and Algae of the Philippines.
Bookmark, Inc., the Philippines. 197 pp.
Michelle (et. al). 2004. A Guide to Tropical Seagrasses of
the Indo-West Pacific. 2004. James Cook University. 72 pp.
John M. 2000. Marine
Plants of Australia
University of Western Australia Press. 300pp.
- Lim, S.,
P. Ng, L. Tan, & W. Y. Chin, 1994. Rhythm of the Sea: The Life
and Times of Labrador Beach. Division of Biology, School of
Science, Nanyang Technological University & Department of Zoology,
the National University of Singapore. 160 pp.
- Ong, Jin
Eong & Gong, Wooi Khoon (eds.), 2001. The
Encyclopedia of Malaysia (Vol. 6): The Seas
Didier Millet, Malaysia. 144 pp.
- Hsuan Keng,
S.C. Chin and H. T. W. Tan.1998, The
Concise Flora of Singapore II: Monoctyledons
Singapore University Press. 215 pp. | <urn:uuid:a6fca81b-eb0a-4cfc-ad65-4689cb7896fb> | {
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Reprinted with permission from The Jewish Catalogue: A Do-It-Yourself Kit, edited by Richard Siegel, Michael Strassfeld and Susan Strassfeld, published by the Jewish Publication Society.
The shofar can be made of the horn of a ram, antelope, gazelle, goat, or Rocky Mountain goat. These hornsare not solid bone, but contain cartilage, which can be removed. The word shofar means “hollow.” The above animals are kosher, since they have spilt hooves and chew their cud.
Rams horns can be obtained from slaughterhouses. Butcher storeowners may be able to get them from their suppliers.
Boil the shofar in water for at least two hours and probably as long as five. A bit of washing soda added to the water facilitates later cleaning. The cartilage can be pulled out with the aid of a pick. If the horns are small, the cartilage can be removed in about half an hour.
With a soft wire, measure how far the hollow of the shofar extends. Measure one inch farther on the outside and cut the tip off with a coping saw or hacksaw. The horn should completely dry before cutting.
Drill a 1/8”hole with an electric drill from the sawed-off end until the bit reaches the hollow of the horn.
Using various bits from an electric modeling set (we use the Dremel M #2 Moto- Tool Set, which looks like a light-weight electric hand drill comes with about 24 attachments), carve a bell-shaped mouthpiece at the end of the shofar, similar to the one on a trumpet. Smooth the edges of the mouthpiece with the electric model tool. The mouthpiece may require modification in size and shape for each shofar and person. An experienced shofar-blower or trumpet player can test out the shofars.
The electric modeling tool can also be used to carve designs on the outer edge of the shofar as well as on the body of the shofar. There must be no holes in the sides of the shofar and no paint or anything added to the shofar.
Thus far we have not been successful in reshaping the curves of the shofar. We used them as they came naturally.
With the electric tool, the outside and inside surfaces of the shofar can be smoothed. We do not smooth over shofars; they are rough and uneven. However, when blown properly, the shofars sound beautiful.
Did you like this article? MyJewishLearning is a not-for-profit organization. | <urn:uuid:6e4ef4fd-5b26-45b6-a48c-b42f95334df4> | {
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From the New York Department of Environmental Conservation
-- New York hunters are encouraged to participate in two surveys for popular game species during the this fall's hunting seasons. Citizen science efforts provide wildlife managers with valuable data and give hunters the opportunity to help monitor New York's wildlife resources. As the state's forests mature, New York is losing the early successional habitats many species depend upon.
Tracking grouse and cottontail populations will help the DEC understand how the changing landscape affects these and other species using similar habitat.
New England Cottontail Survey
The New England cottontail is the only native cottontail rabbit east of the Hudson River in New York. However, its range has been greatly reduced by habitat loss and competition with the more abundant Eastern cottontail. New England cottontails look nearly identical to Eastern cottontails and are only reliably identified by genetic testing of tissue, fecal samples or by examining morphological skull characteristics.
DEC requests rabbit hunters in Wildlife Management Units in Rensselaer, Columbia, Dutchess, Putnam and Westchester counties contact the department to learn how to submit the heads of rabbits they harvest. A map of the survey area can be seen online at http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/67017.html. The skulls will be used for identification to assist the department in determining the distribution of the New England Cottontail.
Hunters interested in participating or looking for more information, can call (518) 402-8870 or e-mail [email protected] and using "NE Cottontail" in the subject line. Participating hunters will receive instructions and a postage paid envelope they can use to submit heads from harvested rabbits. Results of these efforts will be available after the close of the hunting season.
Cooperator Ruffed Grouse Hunting Log
Annually, around 75,000 grouse hunters harvest 150,000 ruffled grouse, one of the state's most popular native game birds. The forest species is widely distributed across the state. While some grouse are found in more mature forests, the greatest population densities are in younger forests. These preferred habitats are declining as most of New York State's forests grow older, resulting in a decline in grouse numbers since the 1960s.
The survey asks hunters to record their daily grouse hunting activities on a Cooperator Ruffed Grouse Hunting Log. The log requests information such as the number of hours hunted, number of grouse flushed and the number of birds killed. Starting this fall, hunters are also asked to record the number of woodcock they flush while afield. Grouse and woodcock share many of the same habitats, so the information will help monitor populations of both of these great game birds as habitats change both locally and on a landscape scale.
Hunters interested in participating can download a Ruffed Grouse Hunting Log from the DEC website at http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/9351.html to record their observations. Detailed instructions can be found with the form. Survey forms can also be obtained by calling (518) 402-8886 or by e-mailing [email protected] and indicating "Grouse Log" in the subject line.
Habitat/Access Stamp, an optional stamp that helps support the DEC's efforts to conserve habitat and increase public access for fish and wildlife-related recreation, are available. The 2010-2011 stamp features a drawing of a pair of Common Loons. Buying the $5 stamp is a way to conserve wildlife heritage. More information about purchasing a Habitat Stamp is available at http://www.dec.ny.gov/permits/329.html.
More information is available online. New England Cottontail Survey: http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/67017.html. Cooperator Ruffed Grouse Hunting Log: http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/9351.html. Citizen Science Initiatives: http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/1155.html. | <urn:uuid:5e2a7ef0-ece8-4b7e-8cca-1ac8f9ba4c60> | {
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WESTERN SLOPE, Colo. Earthquakes could become more common on the Western Slope.
The United States Geological Survey updated its hazard map for the first time since 2008.
The map shows where earthquakes could occur, how often and how strong they can be in certain areas.
An increase in seismic activity and a change in the modeling techniques used to evaluate the earthquakes has part of the Western Slope at a slightly higher risk on the 2014 map compared to the 2008 map.
The USGS said there are no fault lines in Western Colorado that have been identified yet, but they could just be undiscovered.
The map doesn't account for the earthquakes that possibly stemmed from waste-water injections, said Mark Petersen, of the USGS.
Those kinds of earthquakes will be studied further in the next year and a new map will be made showing the chances of earthquakes that don't stem from natural causes. | <urn:uuid:ffc714f0-2f71-4abb-91dc-53eee8b2de33> | {
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"In Antiquity, when the archipelago was home to a Greek colony, the islands were called the Absyrtides. This is because, according to an episode in the legend of the Argonauts, Jason and Medea were said to have taken refuge here on the island of Minerva to escape pursuit by Absyrtus, the sorceress's brother, after they had stolen the golden fleece. Medea's brother found them, however, and fell into a trap she had laid: he was chopped into pieces and thrown into the sea where his body parts formed the many islets surrounding Cres and Losinj. The Kolchians, who had come with them, remained here and founded the city of Absoris."
Customs and traditions
Due to its significant distance from mainland Croatia and the many cultures which have through the years governed it, the people from Susak have many unique traditions. Some traditions are exclusively the island’s own (such as the island’s language and the fanciful clothing). Other traditions, such as cuisine, are a blend of the diverse customs from southern and central Europe.
The people from Susak speak a distinct dialect which is heard only on the island and among the older generation of the island’s emigrants. Additionally, most of the island’s population over the age of 60, to varying degrees, speaks Italian.
Susak is perhaps best known for the ornate and elaborate costumes worn by younger women primarily for special occasions such as a wedding or feast day. The costume is made up of a short, brightly, almost neon, colored skirt with multiple ruffled petticoats underneath which gives the wearer the appearance that she is dressed in a ballet tutu. A similar-colored vest is generally worn over a long-sleeved, white chemise. The outfit is accentuated by pink or orange woolen stockings, leather shoes, and a headpiece which matches the colors of the skirt. When wearing this traditional outfit, women generally place one or both hands their hips to emphasize the dress’s uniqueness.
Older and working women generally wear darker, longer skirts without ruffled petticoats. They wear white or dark, long-sleeved shirts, a short veil to cover their hair, and dark, woolen stockings.
Male costumes from Susak are less ornate than their female counterparts. Men traditionally wear dark trousers and a dark vest over a long-sleeved, white, collared shirt. The outfit is completed by a soft, dark cap and may be accentuated with a colorful belt or ribbons on the vest.
During a period of mourning—generally following the death of close family member such as a spouse, parent, sibling, or child—people from Susak wear all black for a period of time. | <urn:uuid:4f223ae2-ebce-4ede-9544-d730fbd9c401> | {
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Although humans have no instincts (only drives, reflexes, urges, etc.), there is a brief period during childhood when youngsters are vulnerable to religious training. Their concepts of right and wrong are formulated during this time, and their view of God begins to solidify. As in the case of the gosling, the opportunity of that period must be seized when it is available. Leaders of the Catholic church have been widely quoted as saying, "Give us a child until he is seven years old, and we'll have him for life"; they are usually correct, because permanent attitudes can be instilled during these seven vulnerable years. Unfortunately, however, the opposite is also true. The absence or misapplication of instruction through the prime-time period may place a severe limitation on the depth of a child's later devotion to God. When parents withhold indoctrination from their small children, allowing them to "decide for themselves," the adults are almost guaranteeing that their youngsters will "decide" in the negative. If parents want their children to have a meaningful faith, they must give up any misguided attempts at objectivity. Children listen closely to discover just how much their parents believe what they preach. Any indecision or ethical confusion from the parent is likely to be magnified in the child. After the middle-adolescent age (ending at about fifteen years), children sometimes resent heavy-handedness about anything—including what to believe. But if the early exposure has been properly conducted, they should have an anchor to steady them. Their early indoctrination, then, is the key to the spiritual attitudes they carry into adulthood.
Dr. James Dobson, Focus on the Family 34 Comments
[11/1/2002 12:00:00 AM]
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The term “carbon footprint” is often applied to industrial facilities, where significant consumption of various forms of energy is measured against the effects on the environment as compared to the product output. In the hospitality, gaming and resort industries, the energy impact is clearly not trivial. If you take a walk through a casino at 3 a.m., you will think it is the middle of the day with a lot of energy-consuming lights and sounds.
Though there aren’t published energy consumption data of such, it is undeniable that these footprints are significant with the lights, elevators and air conditioning running 24 hours a day. This is especially true in the desert where temperatures are more than 100 degrees outside and 68 degrees inside. But a recent trip overseas reminded me of things that could be done to reduce this footprint without dampening the glitter that is part of the allure of the industry and without compromising the power quality for reduced power quantity.
Let’s start with the ride up the elevator to the 23rd floor. Use of adjustable speed drives (ASD) to control the elevators allows for maximum power for acceleration while reducing consumption once up to speed. The rectified input of the power supply section turns the 50/60 Hz AC into DC before turning it back into AC voltage at a different and variable frequency, which is how the speed is modified since that is what controls the revolution per minute (rpm) of the motor.
By nature of the rectifier, the current is nonlinear, which results in harmonics. So, while less power consumptions reduces one form of pollution, another form of pollution is increased, namely the “harmonic” pollution unless proper filters are also installed.
Exiting the elevator into the hallway of the 23rd floor was another enlightening experience—also another opportunity for energy conservation. The use of motion sensors to activate the hall lights would reduce the lighting load in the hallways significantly. Except during spring break when the room parties overflow, the hallways are probably unoccupied more than 90 percent of the time, yet the lights are on all the time. Though one could argue that the constant turning on and off of the lights would shorten the life of the light bulbs, which would require more to be produced (increasing the carbon footprint of the manufacturer). However, I think this tradeoff is an overall win in the net sum game.
Opening the door to your room, you’ll sometimes feel a blast of cold air from the AC that was cranked up earlier (but not turned down when exiting the room), along with a number of lights and TV left on. On occasion, there will be the need to go back down to the front desk because you left the key card to open the door in the room. These situations can be eliminated by installing a card detection sensor just inside the door, where the occupant must insert the room key in order to activate the lights and AC controls. Remove the key and only one safety light comes on, while the AC is set to a reasonable level. Put the key card in, and the light switches, outlets and AC controls now all work. And the key card is always right by the door, obvious to the occupant when exiting the room and automatically turning off the energy-consuming equipment. Not only is the energy conserved, but the impact on the power quality is only positive by reducing the harmonic loads caused by the unnecessary operation of the TV and HVAC when the room is unoccupied. This technology is common in many other countries and seems to work just fine.
Changing lighting sources to more efficient types is another way to reduce the carbon footprint, though the glittering lights on the Las Vegas Strip will probably never be converted to LED-based lighting. Nor is it likely that the thousands of cars and taxis cruising up and down all day and night ever be replaced with energy-efficient people movers. But then again, the aforementioned methods of “shrinking shoe sizes” are not limited to Las Vegas, Atlantic City or even just the gaming industries. The thousands of hotels throughout the country and the world could all contribute to this reduction with a relatively small capital investment.
Reducing the energy consumption and the resulting pollution from its generation is a process that moves just one bulb at a time.
BINGHAM, a contributing editor for power quality, can be reached at 732.287.3680. | <urn:uuid:ec046767-9df1-4711-a5c1-1f1c8d84b0d6> | {
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Definition of disallow
1 : to deny the force, truth, or validity of
2 : to refuse to allow
disallowanceplay \-ən(t)s\ noun
Examples of disallow in a sentence
The touchdown was disallowed because of a penalty.
<disallowing the philosophical concept of free will>
First Known Use of disallow
DISALLOW Defined for English Language Learners
Definition of disallow for English Language Learners
: to refuse to allow (something) : to officially decide that (something) is not acceptable or valid
Legal Definition of disallow
1 : to deny the truth, force, or validity of <disallowed the deduction> <disallow a bankruptcy claim>
2 : to refuse to allow <disallow payment of benefits>
Seen and Heard
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A common criticism of AGW campaigners is that they have drunk their own KoolAid so badly that they cannot see reality, even when it is in front of their own eyes. This is a perfect example of that. Climate Researchers trying to highlight the Artic ice loss by sailing around the North West Passage to prove ice is receding. Except they got stuck by ice that was obviously there on the maps & satellite, but they simply refused to believe it was really there.
The problem is of course that this is being financed by taxpayers. Note also that the ship they are using is quite small, and can navigate a very small opening that a large freighter could not navigate. So use of the word "open" is subjective at best.
Here is a story about this and at the bottom is a link to an ongoing report of the expedition, which is apparently on the move right into the ice that is not there. This will be interesting. The comments at the bottom of this link are most instructive and well worth a read.
A group of adventurers, sailors, pilots and climate scientists that recently started a journey around the North Pole in an effort to show the lack of ice, has been blocked from further travels by ice. The Polar Ocean Challenge is taking a two month journey that will see them go from Bristol, Alaska, to Norway, then to Russia through the North East passage, back to Alaska through the North West passage, to Greenland and then ultimately back to Bristol. Their objective, as laid out by their website, was to demonstrate “that the Arctic sea ice coverage shrinks back so far now in the summer months that sea that was permanently locked up now can allow passage through.”
There has been one small hiccup thus-far though: they are currently stuck in Murmansk, Russia because there is too much ice blocking the North East passage the team said didn’t exist in summer months, according to Real Climate Science.
Real Climate Science also provides a graph showing that current Arctic temperatures — despite alarmist claims of the Arctic being hotter than ever — is actually below normal.
The Polar Ocean Challenge team is not the first global warming expedition to be faced with icy troubles. In 2013, an Antarctic research vessel named Akademik Shokalskiy became trapped in the ice, the problem was so severe that they actually had to rescue the 52 crew members.
In 2015 a Canadian ice breaking ship, the CCGS Amundsen, was forced to reroute and help a number of supply ships that had become trapped by ice.
The icy blockade comes just over a month after an Oxford climate scientist, Peter Wadhams, said the Arctic would be ‘completely ice-free’ by September of this year. While it obviously isn’t September yet, he did reference the fact that there would be very little ice to contend with this summer.
“Even if the ice doesn’t completely disappear, it is very likely that this will be a record low year,” Wadhams told The Independent in June.
Wahdams says he expects less than one million square kilometers by summers end, but the current amount of Arctic sea ice is 10.6 million square kilometers, according to data from the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). The NSIDC puts the rate of ice loss for June at just about 60,ooo square kilometers a day. If that number were to hold, it would take approximately 160 days for the Arctic to dip down to the predicted one million square kilometers.
Read updates at Real Climate Science
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By answering the second question you can help uncover the real or underlying value for you. So for you, perhaps money is not the real value; perhaps the real value is “security” or “being successful” or “being independent” or “being able to provide for my family.” It’s always helpful to anchor or relate the values you express to real world situations. If you say you value “honesty” or “teamwork,” write down what “honesty” or “teamwork” would mean in terms of your behavior and how it would impact others.
Author’s Excerpt: from CHAMPION YOUR CAREER: Winning in the World of Work
Step 3: Now you have two lists. Go back and compare your two sets of answers to the question. Is there anything there that surprises you or concerns you? For example, if you are concerned because the word money is on your list, you might ask, “What does money mean for me?” Your answer might be “Money means security” or “Money means success” or “Money means freedom” or “Money means being able to provide for my family.” | <urn:uuid:adf7315b-18ce-4d65-a04f-5d0af440ce5a> | {
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The creative spark of invention comes from a deep curiosity about how something works and then asking, "How can I make it better?"
Donald Williams sold offshore power generation systems to oil and gas companies in his home country of Venezuela. He understood the engineering behind his products and soon found himself asking why they couldn't generate more power with less fuel. He pondered whether the thermodynamics of air conditioning could boost a generator's productivity.
He left his employer, Houston-based Stewart & Stevenson, to start his own company, but the political turbulence created when Hugo Chavez became Venezuela's president in 1999 forced him to flee. Caracas' loss, though, was Houston's gain, because Williams has solved his puzzle, engineering a natural gas-fired generator and air-conditioning system that burns extremely cleanly and cuts energy bills by about 40 percent.
This summer, Houston-based M-Trigen moved from making prototypes of Williams' PowerAire system at its Houston plant and moved to commercial production. The units are about the size of a large refrigerator and burn natural gas or propane to power central air conditioners, a hot water heater, a clothes dryer, a water distillation system and can even warm a swimming pool while generating enough electricity to power a typical 3,000-square-foot home.
"This is how the electric grid is going to evolve," Williams said.
The idea for what he calls a tri-generation system started in 2008, when Williams wanted to improve on tried-and-true systems that generate electricity by burning fuel and then use the exhaust heat for other purposes. The missing element was cooling, and after five years of tinkering, he deployed a prototype in 2013 in an NRG-sponsored experimental home alongside cutting edge equipment from Siemens and General Electric. He won a Department of Energy cash prize to further develop his invention.
"The tri-generation system used in the M Street home, which incorporates cooling, heating and power production, is the first of its kind," an Energy Department white paper said. "The air conditioner is removed from the home's electrical load, resulting in a sizable electricity savings."
Williams said the goal of the PowerAire is not necessarily to take homes or businesses off the electric grid, though it could, but to play an intermediary role in the grid of the future, when homes will carefully manage and even generate power. He compares this evolution to computing, which originally relied on a central computers with hundreds of terminals but ultimately moved toward millions of network-connected personal computers.
The PowerAire is modular, with DC to AC inverters and batteries built in, so owners can plug in solar panels or wind turbines in addition to relying on the natural gas generator or the electric grid. A control module can choose the least expensive source of power at any moment, using inexpensive wind power from the grid at night, firing up the natural gas generator in the mornings and evenings, and tapping solar panels during the day.
"With all of this renewable power coming into play, there was an opening here for a product that can balance those renewables," Williams said. "There's revenue opportunities at three levels, at the wholesale power level, at the power management level and at the retail level."
M-Trigen has installed prototypes in homes and small businesses across Texas to perfect the technology, collect data and earn industry certifications, including a UL safety rating. Next month the company will begin installing 24 units at Great American Business Products, a Houston-based company that wants to replace it's diesel backup generators and reduce its electricity bill.
M-Trigen's main competitors are natural gas fuel cells that generate electricity and are used primarily in California where companies get tax breaks because of their very low emissions. Williams invites the comparison because unlike fuel cells, his generators can vary their electricity production depending on demand and generate the same levels of nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide with far lower carbon dioxide thanks to a patented catalytic convertor and carburetor.
"Our road map is to get to zero carbon emissions," Williams said.
The company expects to generate $2 million in sales in 2016 and is raising $2 million in seed money with plans for a formal Series A share offering in 2017. The big push at the moment is to perfect commercial production to lower the cost with plans to make it comparable to backup power systems and high-efficiency air conditioning units, which run about $12,000.
The units can pay for themselves within three to seven years, though, from lower monthly energy bills and tax credits, Williams said. Running the generator on natural gas is cheaper than buying electricity from the grid.
Natural gas and electric utilities in France and the Caribbean are testing units, and interest is particularly high in Latin America and Africa places where people have access to propane deliveries but not the electric grid. Williams said he plans to keep assembling the system in Houston and build a strong customer base among the 60 million natural gas users in the U.S., particularly in areas prone to power outages like the Gulf Coast.
The units can also help shave demand when power prices peak and provide backup power for renewable energy.
"We don't believe the solution for solar and wind is a battery pack. We believe the solution is some form of fuel," Williams said.
M-Trigen is an example of the Houston startups that will lead the next generation of energy companies. By some estimates, the U.S. has enough natural gas for the next 300 years, and renewable sources of energy are becoming more affordable. Finding hybrid high-efficiency systems is the key to having the best of both worlds. | <urn:uuid:702199d1-04ed-4bd0-96a4-cff3f293c16d> | {
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Some say the world will end in fire;
Some say in ice.
The existence of methane hydrates, or "combustible ice," might give Robert Frost's poem scientific credibility...
Burn, Baby, Burn
Though methane clathrate, also known as methane hydrates, may seem like something out of an episode of The X-Files, the truth is flaming ice is real, abundant, and believed to have played a part in the massive climate shifts throughout earth's long history.
What's more, there's enough of it to power the world for 1,000 years.
Back in the 1930s when oil and gas companies started drilling in Alaska, they discovered this mysterious substance: ice that would burn.
It's called methane hydrates (MH), and it's basically molecules of the hydrocarbon caged inside the crystalline lattice of water ice.
Ice in My Tubes
The early drillers didn't like MH, as it clogged up their pipes and made production of oil more complicated.
But then in the 1960s, large fields of MH were found across Canada, Alaska, Siberia, and even in the depths of the planet's oceans...
The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated totals of methane hydrates at 317 quadrillion cubic feet — a number that defies being measured even in Rhode Islands, Olympic swimming pools, or “money stacked to the moon five times.”
But alas, according to Ray Boswell, the methane hydrates technology manager for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory, it's mostly unattainable.
However, a massive amount could be extracted...
Even if gas producers restricted themselves to the most workable sandy formations, the amount of recoverable methane in hydrates could be around 10,000 trillion cubic feet.
That would add about 60% to the current estimated recoverable reserves of traditional natural gas in the entire world.
Last year, I told you how Japan was working hard to find a way to commercialize this hydrocarbon asset with a working plant, due in 2016.
China is also experimenting with finding methane hydrates on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and Russia has the only working methane hydrates plant in Norilsk.
Washington: On the Job
According to Sean Cockerham over at Governing.com:
The Department of Energy has successfully completed an unprecedented test of harvesting the vast storehouse on Alaska’s North Slope of methane hydrate, essentially natural gas locked in ice crystals under the permafrost.
Producing methane hydrate is still a long way from being commercial, but the potential is huge.
The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that the North Slope of Alaska holds 590 trillion cubic feet of methane hydrate, potentially at least three times as much as the huge amount of conventional natural gas on the North Slope.
The Department of Energy said there is the potential to eventually unlock massive reservoirs of methane hydrates that are believed to exist under the ocean floor in the Gulf of Mexico.
The Department of Energy recently ran a test for 30 days. At its conclusion, scientists said they were successful in safely extracting a steady flow of natural gas.
New Harvest Technology
In the past, there were two ways of releasing MH: You heated it with hot water, or you relieve the pressure.
Both of these methods released a lot of MH into the atmosphere, which is 20 times as bad in terms of greenhouse gases as CO2.
The most recent DoE experiment was innovative.
Researchers injected a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen into the hydrate formation, which took in the carbon dioxide and released the methane...
They lowered well pressure to make the hydrate flow and get the gas out.
In other words, this method removed a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere and produced an energy source.
Even my environmentally-conscious colleague Jeff Siegel of the Power Portfolio would give two thumbs up for that.
The Department of Energy said the next step in its research effort will be testing gas hydrate production over longer periods, with the eventual goal of making a sustained harvest possible. They are offering $6.5 million in research grants and requesting $5 million from Congress for an additional testing effort.
Since 1995, Christian DeHaemer has specialized in frontier market opportunities. He has traveled extensively and invested in places as varied as Cuba, Mongolia, and Kenya. Chris believes the best way to make money is to get there first with the most. Christian is the founder of Crisis & Opportunity and Managing Director of Wealth Daily. He is also a contributor for Energy & Capital. For more on Christian, see his editor's page. | <urn:uuid:8b09ea2a-5065-4a2d-a846-7c7f4e67f259> | {
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Home Page - Normal NewbornPágina Principal - Recién Nacido Normal
Preparing for Your New Baby
Baby's Care After Birth
Normal Newborn Behaviors and Activities
Bathing and Skin Care
Umbilical Cord Care
Getting to Know Your New Baby
Breastfeeding Your Baby
Infant Feeding Guide
When to Call Your Physician
The New Mother - Taking Care of Yourself After Birth
Today, babies have more opportunities than ever before to grow into healthy children, adolescents, and adults. Each year in the US, more than four million babies are born.
Advances in medical research, the advent of new vaccines and medications, and the development of new technologies have helped improve the health care of both well and sick newborn babies.
Further, innovations in baby care equipment have made the tasks of caring for babies much easier.
A newborn baby brings many joys as well as many questions. Along with the happiness parents feel with the birth of their child, they often have concerns about his or her health and how to properly care for their child.
Fortunately, there are many knowledgeable health care professionals to guide you and teach you, as parents and caregivers, about your new baby. With their help, you can become confident in your own abilities and knowledge as you love and care for your newborn. | <urn:uuid:08c18a18-c853-49ec-abdf-fe1e9b472976> | {
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Choosing a sprinkler: The ABCs of DRCs
Ideally, irrigation systems apply water like rain--uniformly. But a typical sprinkler's basic throw pattern shows that it applies more water close to the head and less water near the outer edge of its radius. This is why we space sprinklers so carefully--to make up for these differences.
Knowledge of a system's application patterns can help you make sound decisions that improve your system's application efficiency and thereby save water. We call this pattern or curve the single-leg distribution rate curve (DRC).
The term single leg refers to the pattern of a single ray originating from the center of a circle drawn around the sprinkler. On rotor sprinklers, all legs or rays exhibit the same DRC when operated in non-windy conditions.
The single-leg DRC isn't as valid for pop-up sprays because of variability between rays. Research suggests that you truly need a three-dimensional depiction of a pop-up spray to be able to compare pop-up sprinkler performance.
Figure 1 (opposite page) depicts the effect of overlapping and complementing sprinklers. Designers often space sprinklers at the effective radius recommended by the manufacturer. The figure shows each sprinkler's DRC as a smooth curve. The figure also shows that the actual depth of applied irrigation water varies due to the combined effect of multiple sprinklers. You can see how the desired minimum application is a flat horizontal line indicating the minimum amount of water you must apply to keep the turf healthy and aesthetically appealing.
To put Figure 1 into perspective, understand that the low spots of the actual application must be at or above the desired minimum application. This is because we assume that any turf receiving less irrigation than that minimum likely will show stress. Of course, this figure is idealized and probably too simplistic in some ways. After all, the shape of a real-world DRC is never so smooth, and the actual depth of application varies much more dramatically.
With that in mind, imagine--in general--what happens if you stretch the sprinkler spacing. Why would anyone stretch sprinkler spacings and exceed the manufacturer's recommended maximum? So one sprinkler contractor can underbid competitors by using fewer sprinklers. Fewer sprinklers translates to fewer laterals, less piping, less wiring, fewer controller stations, etc.
When a low-ball sprinkler contractor stretches the sprinkler spacings, the DRC remains the same, but the sprinklers no longer can throw to their complementing sprinklers. Imagine if you sketch this new scenario out into an illustration similar to that in Figure 1. You'll find that a dip forms in the middle area between the sprinklers. The dip represents less applied water and, consequently, inadequately irrigated turf.
In this situation, to achieve the minimum depth of application between sprinklers--where even less water now is applied--you will begin wasting large amounts of water near the sprinklers. An astute buyer recognizes the inherent problem in a bid showing stretched spacings. He or she then contracts with a different installer who presents a sound and water-efficient design. Unfortunately, however, some buyers take the low-cost system, regardless. They are ultimately saddled with poor uniformity and higher annual water bills.
Differences in DRCs Laboratory researchers determine sprinkler DRCs, so wind doesn't distort the sprinkler patterns. For these tests, researchers operate a sprinkler with a given nozzle at a known pressure. They space catch cans evenly away from the sprinkler and then measure the depth of water in each receptacle, recording it after completing the test.
To thoroughly understand what spacing between sprinklers is best, you must use the actual DRC for the sprinkler and nozzle in question, operating at a specified pressure. Figure 2 (above right) shows several representative DRCs.
DRC "A" is ideal--and non-existent in real life. Its shape is that of a wedge. Imagine another sprinkler, with a similar wedge-shaped DRC, located at the tip of the wedge. The two wedges would complement each other perfectly, and the resulting application from both sprinklers would be perfectly flat, resulting in perfectly irrigated turf. As you well know, no one can achieve this ideal DRC.
Thus, consider DRC "B," an actual DRC for an actual sprinkler/pressure/nozzle combination. If you were considering an irrigation system, would you choose this sprinkler if you knew its DRC looked like this? Of course not. The irregularities in this system's DRC would make it virtually impossible to achieve a uniform, efficient irrigation application.
Now consider DRC "C." This is also a real DRC for a real sprinkler/pressure/nozzle combination. You can see that the shape of this DRC is much more uniform and more predictable than that of DRC "B." You could easily design an efficient irrigation system using this sprinkler, pressure and nozzle.
Conceivably, DRC "B" and DRC "C" could result from the same sprinkler and nozzle operated at different pressures. Therefore, it's important not to discount a sprinkler or nozzle solely because it has an unacceptable DRC for one operating circumstance. Instead, pick a sprinkler then evaluate which nozzle and pressure combinations provide an acceptable DRC.
You can obtain DRCs from manufacturers as well as from independent facilities. For example, the Center for Irrigation Technology (CIT) in Fresno, Calif., operates an independent testing lab to determine and publish DRC data. The data from all of CIT's tests are available through its publications or its database, which is integrated with analysis software.
In the past, some irrigation manufacturers were reluctant to offer DRC data. However, irrigation designers and scrutinizing end-users have begun demanding it. The design community has learned to properly evaluate a DRC and use it for both the designer's and the manufacturer's advantage. Manufacturers' catalogs may one day publish DRC data, along with other performance data. As a result, manufacturers inevitably will place increased emphasis on developing nozzles that offer better DRCs, improved performance and better sprinkler uniformity.
Along those lines, some manufacturers are using new technologies to improve nozzle-development programs while decreasing research and development costs. For example, stereo lithography is a technique that allows manufacturers to quickly and inexpensively fabricate an irregular shape, such as a sprinkler nozzle, from epoxy. They then can use these plastic-like, three-dimensionally-correct prototype nozzles for testing. Stereo lithography dramatically decreases nozzle development and testing time. More importantly, the technology makes it easier for design engineers to conceptualize and develop prototypes of nozzles with unique shapes and characteristics. Another process, called selective laser-centering, results in a similar, but flexible, end product also suitable for tests.
Using comparative metrics You can evaluate sprinkler uniformity from a theoretical basis by using the sprinkler DRC and an assumed sprinkler spacing and pattern. Irrigation designers use three uniformity parameters or metrics to do so. Christiansen's Coefficient of Uniformity (CCU) is the oldest parameter, having been developed for agricultural sprinkler systems in the 1940s. Another is the distribution uniformity (DU) parameter. It is influenced by under-irrigated areas in the turf and is more widely used than CCU. In recent years, many have recognized still another--the scheduling coefficient (SC)--as the preferred parameter for turf irrigation because it is sensitive to under-watered areas. CCU compares the average difference in a measured depth from a catch can to the mean depth. DU corrects for some of the turf-related shortcoming and deficiencies of CCU by evaluating the average precipitation rate of the driest 25 percent of the catch cans divided by the mean precipitation rate. Although DU is a considerable improvement over CCU, it may still cause you to lose perspective of unwatered areas.
Thus, as mentioned, many have accepted SC as the metric for turf-sprinkler evaluation. CIT developed SC with manufacturer input. Put simply, it is the average precipitation rate divided by the least precipitation rate extracted from the catch cans.
A perfect--and non-existent--SC is 1.0. Good sprinkler nozzles will have an SC of 1.15 to 1.5. SC is named from the fact it can be used as a run-time multiplier. For example, assume the SC is equal to 1.2. If a runtime of 30 minutes is adequate based strictly on the turf water requirement and the sprinkler precipitation rate, then the actual run time would be 30 minutes multiplied by 1.2 or 36 minutes. This is the operating time necessary to provide adequate (minimum) water to the relatively dry areas in the landscape to ensure optimal turf appearance.
Obviously, simply purchasing a sprinkler without understanding aspects such as DRCs can be risky. Look at a variety of factors, consider DRCs, and then you can be assured you've purchased the most appropriate sprinkler for your site.
Stephen W. Smith is president of Aqua Engineering Inc. (Fort Collins, Colo.) He recently published Landscape Irrigation: Design and Management.
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Recognizing mental health issues
Taking care of your mental health is as important as taking care of your physical health. However, while many people willingly make the trip to a doctor when experiencing a physical symptom, they are often embarrassed by issues with their mental health and will ignore symptoms or leave them untreated.
Getting over the stigma associated with mental illness is the first step toward treatment, recovery or learning to manage symptoms. Whether you suspect that you may suffer from a mental health issue or you see signs and symptoms in someone you love, it's important to confront the issue and take steps toward diagnosis and treatment.
Signs of Mental Health Issues
Mental illnesses have their own unique symptoms, but they can also have many symptoms and warning signs in common, such as:
- Change in mood. Conditions like depression, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are all characterized by mood changes. These changes may be subtle or severe, depending on the condition.
- Unusual behavior. Patients with conditions like Alzheimer's or dementia may exhibit odd behaviors like extreme absentmindedness, memory loss and confusion.
- Secretive behavior. Many mental illness sufferers attempt to cover up their condition through secretive behavior. For example, someone with an eating disorder may hide food, or a gambling addict may lie about their whereabouts if family members inquire.
Mental Health Services
For those who suffer from a diagnosed mental health illness, treatment options are available. Treatment generally starts with a doctor's visit, where he or she can work to diagnose the underlying cause of the symptoms and establish a treatment plan.
Depending on your diagnosis and the severity of your condition, treatment options may include any or all of the following:
- Mental health counseling. This should be provided by a licensed psychiatrist, psychologist or mental health counselor.
- Support groups. Support groups exist for many mental health issues and can play a critical role in treatment.
- Treatment facilities. Treatment facilities are often equipped to handle both the medical and the emotional sides of patient recovery, and they are generally staffed with both doctors and therapists.
From a financial perspective, most mental health care options are covered by insurance, which can help take the stress out of seeking treatment. Check with your insurance provider to find out what kind of mental health insurance coverage you have to help you pay for treatment. | <urn:uuid:666274f3-ec64-4c7b-b39f-1fb2a0cd3f79> | {
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The result, then, was that Honorius restored his authority to a certain extent everywhere on the Continent, but not in Britain.
Her purpose was accomplished when he was declared joint emperor with Honorius.
In 410 the Britons implored the Emperor Honorius to send them help.
Of all things, Honorius could not bear that his father should reproach himself.
He proposed--the proposal had all the effect of a command--a treaty of alliance with Honorius.
The said Honorius himselfe when he had run the race of his naturall life, 653.
Honorius earnestly pleaded for his restitution, but Hubert and Langton stood firm against him.
Perhaps Honorius felt that this sermon was rather soporific.
And Honorius managed to invest even the fall of Rome with ludicrous associations.
Referred to some time between the reigns of Valens and Honorius. | <urn:uuid:bcd8c675-0f41-40c4-9d64-1b01d605df42> | {
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Mainland Southeast Asia
Mainland Southeast Asia harbors a significant proportion of the world's rare and endemic species, including several species of hoofed mammals, rodents, and birds that have only recently been described by scientists. The country of Vietnam is at a critical juncture in its efforts to study and conserve its rich diversity of plants and animals, as many species are threatened or endangered by some of the world's fastest rates of both human population growth and deforestation. In the 1990s, the Vietnamese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development recommended that the forested area within the National Protected Area System be increased from 1.3 million to two million hectares.
In 1998, the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation (CBC) initiated a research program in Vietnam that has informed the government's decisions concerning the location and expansion of protected forest areas. The project — with participation from across the American Museum of Natural History's zoological and anthropological departments as well as the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR) in Hanoi, the World Wildlife Fund's Greater Mekong Programme, and BirdLife International's Vietnam Programme — is unprecedented for its degree of collaboration among research institutions, the variety of scientific disciplines involved, and the immediacy with which research results are being translated into conservation action.
Over the course of eight field seasons, the CBC scientific team has discovered new species of amphibians, small mammals, invertebrates and birds, improving our understanding of Vietnam's biodiversity. In 2000, using self-triggering "camera traps," CBC-trained Vietnamese scientists confirmed the existence of a species of otter thought to have been extinct in Vietnam for several decades. The CBC team has also mapped the distribution of biodiversity in several proposed protected areas, and worked with people living near these sites to study resource use.
In the fall of 2005, Biodiversity Specialist for Herpetology Raoul Bain, along with our in-country partners IEBR and WWF Indochina, completed a survey in Thua-Thien-Huế Province to assess priority areas for conservation in a "green corridor" connecting Bach Ma National Park to Phong Dien Proposed Nature Reserve. They recorded eight threatened species and several new amphibian records. During the survey, the team interviewed local hunters and directly identified and mapped trade routes for illegal hunting and logging. Preliminary results were presented to the Director of the Forest Protection Department of Thua-Thien-Huế, who plans to incorporate their suggestions into the province's conservation plan.
The CBC continues to offer in-country training for conservation specialists in the use of biodiversity informatics techniques — tools critical for assessing Vietnam's highly fragmented but globally significant habitats. In spring 2006, staff of the CBC and Vermont's Gund Institute conducted a workshop on watershed modeling for the Song Bung IV dam that will be constructed in Quang Nam Province. The workshop brought together 34 participants from across Vietnam and included members of government agencies, NGOs, and universities. All materials were translated into Vietnamese and distributed throughout the region. In spring 2007 the CBC held workshops on conservation monitoring as part of its MacArthur initiative in the Central Highlands of Vietnam and Lao PDR. The workshop participants included conservation staff from the forest protection department in each country, as well as conservation non-governmental organizations, and universities.
Spring 2006 marked the publication of the award-winning book Vietnam: A Natural History by Yale University Press. Authored by CBC Director Dr. Eleanor J. Sterling along with CBC scientists Drs. Martha M. Hurley and Le Duc Minh, this is the first book geared toward a general audience that summarizes recent research of Vietnam's wildlife and wildlands. The Vietnamese version of the book was published by Lotus Press in spring 2007, and has been distributed to libraries, conservation organizations, and professionals throughout Vietnam, and will also be available at local bookstores.
CBC's Vietnam program is continuing to improve access to resources about Vietnam's biodiversity through the Mainland Southeast Asia Conservation Library. Highlights and recommendations from our 2003 symposium Tiger in the Forest: Sustainable Nature-Based Tourism in Mainland Southeast Asia are also available online. This symposium provided a forum to explore ways to address the needs of unique and fragile ecosystems through the economic and conservation potential of ecotourism. Research results from CBC efforts in Vietnam are available online as well, and finally, the CBC's photographic exhibition, Discovering Vietnam's Biodiversity, brings the incredible diversity of animals and plants in Vietnam to a broad audience. | <urn:uuid:51d1eac6-bcc3-4cc7-a05f-fee990a68646> | {
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As matriculants are well on their way with preparations for their final exams, one thing is common in their minds; what career path should they pursue after grade 12. This is a thought that gives many sleepless nights as they prepare for the life changing exam.
A career in agriculture is one that isn't always the popular choice amongst the youth generally. This is a trend that continues despite the growth that the South African agricultural sector has shown. Even in the most trying years as it continues to be the cornerstone of the South African economy. In 2017 the industry contributed 2.4% to the country's GDP and grew by 24%, these are clear indications that a career in agriculture is well worth exploring.
As the matriculants get ready for their final exam, at Agri EC, we thought to have a look at some of the fantastic career opportunities within our sector.
Agronomists are sometimes known as crop scientists or agricultural engineer and specialize in producing and improving food crops through conducting experiments and developing methods of production.
As plant scientists, agronomists can have many career paths, their careers are generally focused on increasing the quality and amount of food produced for the country's food supply.
There are numerous career paths for agronomists from being teachers, agricultural business consultants, researchers, or even work for the Department of Agriculture. As an agronomist, you'll often work in the fields, on farms, or in agricultural labs and mills. A bachelor's degree in agricultural is required to become an agronomist, although many professionals pursue further degrees. Agronomists have a definite career outlook due to the continuous need for the food crops they help develop.
Food Process Engineer
In a country where malnutrition and poverty continue to plague society, food process engineers are critical to ensure a supply of food that is up to standard.
Food engineers are also known as agricultural and food scientists. Food engineers combine engineering concepts with microbiology, chemistry and other sciences to create the best ways to make processed foods tasty, healthy and safe. They're responsible for every step of food production, from production to distribution. It's also their job to figure out the most reliable and most environmentally friendly ways of processing, packaging, preserving and storing foods for delivery.
This means food engineers should be able to work well in an office, laboratory or manufacturing plant environment. As the economic climate continues to change, this has seen an increasing number of these professionals being self-employed, but the majority work for private companies in the food industry. Jobs in this field are expected to grow alongside the need for safe and sustainable food science technologies.
Agricultural economists utilize principles and concepts of economics to learn more about the supply and demand of goods and services in the agricultural sector. This includes the analysis of production, consumption, and distribution. These professionals often choose an area of expertise, such as crop and livestock sciences, environmental economics, policy analysis, agribusiness, food safety, international trade, rural development, or marketing systems.
Agricultural economists typically work with agricultural data and statistics in office settings, but they may travel as part of a research group to collect information. Additionally, they may teach and conduct research at colleges and universities with undergraduate or graduate programs in agricultural economics.
In South Africa’s economic climate, it is essential to choose a career path that has the potential to yield a secure job for one. As the youth, it is equally important to have all the necessary information before choosing that career path. With agriculture continuing to grow at the rate it is, a career options in this field is no doubt a wise choice.
From us at Agri EC, we wish all the matriculants well on their exams and trust that you’ll make the right career choices for yourselves.
We’d love to hear from you about which other careers within the agriculture industry you find interesting, do share your thoughts with us. | <urn:uuid:1d6be96c-7b6b-45f3-b7cd-faf0262d086f> | {
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* Niagara Falls State Park, Niagara, New York *
Located on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, the “Canadian Falls” or “Horseshoe Falls” is the most famous and most attracted spots at the Niagara Falls wonder. Over 90% of the Niagara River flows over these falls and is used for massive hydro-power generation. The Remaining 10% of the river flows over the American Falls. These falls are located between Terrapin Point on Goat Island and Table Rock in Ontario. The Falls have been fought over between America and Canada throughout history.
The Myth of the Maid of the Mist is a Native American legend from the Ongiaras Tribe about a young woman, named Lelawal, the Maid of the Mist. She lost her husband at a very young age and was lost in sorrow. She canoed along the Niagara River to the Falls, singing a death song paddling into the current. She was caught up in the rough waves and hurled into the falls, but as she fell, Heno, the God of Thunder who lived in these falls caught her carrying her down to his home beneath the veil of waters falling. Heno and his sons took care of her until she healed. One of his sons fell in love with her, married, and bore a son who learned to be a God of Thunder. The Maid however missed seeing her family and tribe. Heno reported to her that A great snake came down the mighty river and poisoned the waters of her people. They grew sick and were dying, being devoured by the snake until the mass disappearance of the tribe occurred. She begged Heno to be able to go back to the realm of her people to warn them of the dangers, so he lifted her through the falls back to her people. She advised them to move away from the river onto higher lands until the danger passed. Heno came back and brought her back to her husband. Once the great snake discovered that the people deserted the village, it went into a rage hissing and going upstream to search for them. Heno rose up through the mist of the falls and threw a giant thunderbolt at the snake killing it in one blast. The giant body floated downstream and lodged just above the cataract creating a large semi-circle that deflected huge amounts of water into the falls just above the God’s home. Heno swept through the falls trying to stop the massive influx of water caused by the position of the corpse. His home was destroyed. He called for the Maid and his sons returning up into the sky making a new home in the heavenly realms watching down over the humans, Heno thundering in the clouds as he once did in the falls. The thunder of the falls is Heno’s voice. [ http://americanfolklore.net/folklore/2010/09/the_maid_of_the_mist.html ] Other legends claim Lelawala was betrothed by her father to a king she despised and secretly wanted to be with He-No, the God of Thunder, who lived beneath Horseshoe Falls. In the middle of heartache she chose to sacrifice herself to him, paddling her canoe into the Niagara River and swept off into the Falls. He-no caught her, merged with her spirit, and lived forever in his sanctuary behind the falls, whereas she became the “Maiden of the Mist”. | <urn:uuid:86f37637-6fae-48da-a7b0-d84ad33bc61a> | {
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As AC pointed out below, this cost likely includes the design, build, launch and maintenance for the satellite. Before Space-x The launch alone could have been a tenth or more of that total $13B, as most weather satellites are around 3000 kg (http://noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/genlsatl.html), but with Space-X's projected costs per payload ($850/lb from Delta Heavy's $8600/lb) (http://www.nss.org/articles/falconheavy.html) this cost likely can now be in the single $M range.
While economies of scale would likely get those drones into the range of cost you suggested, it certainly wouldn't take into account the cost to maintain and monitor such a system. The congressional research service (CRS) (http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RS21698.pdf) identified that for operation (facilities, maintenance) it can be at least 100% or more of the cost of the drone, So that would have to drop the number of drones available to 140,000. Secondly, all drones, by FAA mandate, are required to be a operated by a licensed pilot. I would imagine the training and licensing involved for this would not be cheap, as last estimated the number of pilots was ~598K in 2009, with only ~320K certified with instrument ratings http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_certification_in_the_United_States), and It's likely commercial air pilots would have to have a pretty big incentive to go (http://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Commercial_Pilot/Salary) but keeping it on the low scale, that would have to be $50K per pilot per drone, making even a yearly cost of operation at $7B (140,000 drones * $50K/pilot). That doesn't go into operation times either, as drones are listed to operate from 10-48 hrs (CRS reference). So turn-around times for getting those drones back up would end up having even less drones available at any time for weather surveillance.
However, looking at a combination of mini-satellites might be the best option, as redundancy and low cost could take this project down by a large amount (~300K per satellite) (http://www.hawaii.edu/offices/op/innovation/taylor.pdf) . While it might end up with similar issues as stated above, there would be significantly less satellites needed based on the larger surface area covered from their height (50 km for possible best drone (http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/02/24/high-altitude-surveillance-drones-coming-to-a-sky-near-you/)) and 870 km for satellite (http://noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/genlsatl.html). But this might not be available just yet for our weather measurement needs.
In Summary, it may seem like a huge amount of money, but you need to consider all aspects of the project, not just the non-recurring costs. | <urn:uuid:37260133-bbb1-4afc-8766-e9ba95a47979> | {
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Image by graur razvan ionut
How to use water to improve your cars consumption.
Image by George Stojkovic
Your car uses an INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE. The fuel goes into the COMBUSTION CHAMBER mixes with air and is ignited with a spark from the SPARK PLUG. Thus you have an explosion, pushing the piston down driving the crank shaft. The crank shaft drives the gearbox via the clutch, eventually to the wheels.
Image by xedos4
Water is made up of H2O, That is 2 Hydrogen Particals and one Oxygen.
Image by Filomena Scalise
If you can break the water into hydrogen and oxygen both gasses will burn
Hydrogen has an insane energy release when ignited.
According to the US Energy Information Administration, hydrogen has three times the power of gasoline by weight and has the highest energy content of any known fuel.
Image by Salvatore Vuono
To find out how to do this yourself | <urn:uuid:140c6f0f-eec8-4b6a-9de4-5a2559caf5f2> | {
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by John Greenleaf Whittier
On hearing the bells ring on the passage of the constitutional amendment abolishing slavery. The resolution was adopted by Congress, January 31, 1865. The ratification by the requisite number of states was announced December 18, 1865.
IT is done!
Clang of bell and roar of gun
Send the tidings up and down.
How the belfries rock and reel!
How the great guns, peal on peal,
Fling the joy from town to town!
Ring, O bells!
Every stroke exulting tells
Of the burial hour of crime.
Loud and long, that all may hear,
Ring for every listening ear
Of Eternity and Time!
Let us kneel
God’s own voice is in that peal,
And this spot is holy ground.
Lord, forgive us! What are we,
That our eyes this glory see,
That our ears have heard the sound!
For the Lord
On the whirlwind is abroad;
In the earthquake He has spoken;
He has smitten with His thunder
The iron walls asunder,
And the gates of brass are broken.
Loud and long
Lift the old exulting song;
Sing with Miriam by the sea,
He has cast the mighty down;
Horse and rider sink and drown;
“He hath triumphed gloriously!”
Did we dare,
In our agony of prayer,
Ask for more than He has done?
When was ever His right hand
Over any time or land
Stretched as now beneath the sun?
How they pale,
Ancient myth and song and tale,
In this wonder of our days,
When the cruel rod of war
Blossoms white with righteous law,
And the wrath of man is praise!
All within and all about
Shall a fresher life begin;
Freer breathe the universe
As it rolls its heavy curse
On the dead and buried sin!
It is done!
In the circuit of the sun
Shall the sound thereof go forth.
It shall bid the sad rejoice,
It shall give the dumb a voice,
It shall belt with joy the earth!
Ring and swing,
Bells of joy! On morning’s wing
Send the song of praise abroad!
With a sound of broken chains
Tell the nations that He reigns,
Who alone is Lord and God! | <urn:uuid:95060789-19b7-4860-8968-e6201bd770d5> | {
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Eighth Air Force destroyed some 75 percent of Schweinfurt’s ball-bearing production and severely damaged industrial, railroad, and urban areas.
Many know of the initial Eighth Air Force raid on Schweinfurt, Germany’s, ball-bearing factories. Fewer are aware of the second strike, on Oct. 14, 1943.
To its survivors, the mission came to be known as “Black Thursday.”
Even before World War II began, the US Army Air Corps had created a target list for a potential strategic bombing campaign in Europe, should one be needed. Besides obvious objectives such as transport netorks, aircraft factories and petroleum, a prime potential choke point seemed to be Germany’s sophisticated ball-bearing production.
The “anti-friction” industry was vital to nearly every wartime product including aircraft, vehicles, and instruments. For example, a typical aircraft engine used more than 1,000 bearings; an 88 mm flak gun had 47; and a 200 cm searchlight needed 90.
In 1941, Britain’s Ministry of Economic Warfare identified ball bearings as a vital component of the Reich’s manufacturing industry. Schweinfurt, an industrial city in Southeastern Germany, accounted for more than 40 percent of the nation’s ball-bearing production; nearly three times the next-biggest producer, Stuttgart.
Schweinfurt was one of only two cities below 100,000 in population among the joint command’s top thirty targets; the other being Bitterfeld’s chemical plants.
The Casablanca Conference in January 1943 formalized allied bombing strategy, with major goals of destroying or interdicting Germany’s military, industrial, and economic systems; undermining enemy morale; and destroying Luftwaffe aircraft production. The ball-bearing industry was specifically designated “a complementary target.”
In 1943 the Army Air Forces (renamed from the Air Corps in June 1941) was committed to the prewar doctrine of daylight precision bombardment. “Precision” was a relative term, despite the vaunted “pickle barrel” accuracy of the Norden bombsight. In truth, the AAF was delighted if half the ordnance struck within 1,000 feet of the aimpoint—a goal seldom achieved. When Col. Curtis LeMay took his B-17 group to Britain in 1942, he found that no more than 20 percent of bombs struck within five miles of the target.
The lack of adequate fighter escort didn’t help. In the prewar era, Air Corps doctrine focused on bomber self-defense, since there were no fighters with enough range to escort the bombers. This led to the heavily armed B-17 Flying Fortress. A few years earlier, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin intoned, “The bomber will always get through.”
The Anglo-American Combined Bomber Offensive, formulated in May 1943, put more emphasis on single-point failures like ball bearings. That set the stage for two epic missions against Schweinfurt’s four biggest plants.
SCHWEINFURT I AND II
The first Schweinfurt mission had been complex, ambitious, and nearly disastrous. On Aug. 17, 1943—the anniversary of the first US bombing mission over Germany—Eighth Air Force launched a dual strike against Schweinfurt and Regensburg, with two task forces intending to split defenses 110 miles apart.
Bad weather kept the Schweinfurt-dedicated bombers of the pincer from getting off the ground in time, but the Regensburg groups launched on time.
The plan called for a landing in Tunisia.
Of the 376 bombers launched, the “Mighty Eighth” lost 60, and 50 more—though they made it back—were severely damaged; some beyond repair. The 16 percent loss rate was four times what the AAF could sustain, with 564 fliers killed or captured.
The Luftwaffe lost only 51 planes defending both targets, claiming 52 bombers and five Allied fighters—an uncommonly accurate assessment.
Two months later the Mighty Eighth tried again.
“Schweinfurt II” was a maximum effort but many groups were hard-pressed to make their quota. Some were still recovering from recent strain and attrition.
The 95th Bomb Group at Horham near the English Channel had logged a rough one, four days previously over Munster, leaving just 18 aircraft operational. That wasn’t unusual: the Eighth had lost nearly 90 bombers in three previous missions. One group’s flight surgeon confided, “morale is the lowest that has yet been observed.”
Nonetheless, the aerial “second front” against Germany proceeded apace. Eighth Bomber Command at High Wycombe, northwest of London, planned to put 360 B-17s and 60 B-24 Liberators over Schweinfurt for a second go, but that was wildly optimistic.
The command’s operations officer, Brig. Gen. Orvil A. Anderson, issued a statement for crew briefings: “This air operation today is the most important ... yet conducted in this war. The target must be destroyed. It is of vital importance to the enemy. Your friends and comrades that have been lost and that will be lost today are depending on you. Their sacrifice must not be in vain. Good luck, good shooting, and good bombing.”
Though understrength, Mission 115 launched sixteen bomb groups totaling 291 Flying Fortresses against Schweinfurt, more than 450 miles from the English coast. Approximately 20 B-24s also participated in the primary mission.
At Polebrook, the 351st BG’s schedule was typical. Crews boarded their planes at 9:10 a.m. and started engines an hour later. After 10 minutes to warm up the Wright Cyclones, squadrons began taxiing at 10:20 a.m. with the lead element lifting off 15 minutes later.
The survivors returned at 5:07 p.m.—an eight-hour work day characterized by galling fear, lethal danger, numbing cold, and enduring courage.
The 1st and 3rd Air Divisions flew parallel tracks southeast from the English coast with the 1st about 20 miles to the north. Col. Budd J. Peaslee led the 1st Division, flying as a copilot with the 92nd BG.
Meanwhile, the 2nd Division sent 21 Liberators over the North Seas feinting toward Emden; the intended diversion proved unsuccessful.
Brig. Gen. Curtis LeMay (r), commander of Eighth Air Force, speaks with Col. Frederick Castle and Lt. Col. Elliott Vandevanter after the second Schweinfurt raid in 1943.
Photo: American Air Museum
Four miles high, typically the B-17s approached German airspace at an airspeed of about 220 mph. P-47 Thunderbolts and British Spitfires escorted them as far as possible, but it was nowhere near far enough.
The Luftwaffe response was massive. Nearly every fighter unit in Western Europe—seven fighter divisions—came up to meet the bombers. There were nine single-engine fighter wings, two twin-engine fighter wings, six night fighter wings, and two bomb wings. Additionally, at least four fighter training wings also launched sorties.
The P-47s hung in until they neared Aachen, when low fuel forced them to turn back. The 56th and 353rd Fighter Groups kept their rendezvous with the “big friends” and claimed 13 kills, but the 4th Group was foiled by weather.
From bases near the Dutch border, Jagdgeschwader 3 intercepted the bombers as they crossed the Belgian coast, giving up seven Bf 109s for a P-47 and two other Thunderbolts wrecked. Top score with a double was the 353rd Group’s Capt. Walter Beckham, destined for 18 victories, a POW camp, and a physics doctorate.
At the time, no P-38 groups were operational, so the P-47 “Jugs” left the big planes on their own still an hour from bombs away.
Over the Netherlands, the battle intensified as elements of two Luftwaffe wings slammed into the task force. The 305th Group was shot out of the sky, as Focke-Wulf Fw 190s of JG.1 and JG.26 hacked down 13 of Chelveston’s 15 B-17s.
Bomber crews reported the en route weather as “awful.” Of the 351st Group’s 18 bombers, 10 took off and bombed, while eight were weather aborts. Six returned to base and three landed elsewhere.
The 3rd Division doglegged straight south just east of the Belgian border for 60 miles, then turned hard left over Luxembourg for a straight 180-mile run to Schewinfurt. The dodge was largely successful, as the 3rd escaped heavy fighter attention until well into German airspace.
Flak was “spotty, meager, and inaccurate” during the ingress, becoming “moderate and fairly accurate at the target,” one crew reported.
The 303rd Group was typical, launching 20 aircraft from Molesworth, Cambridgeshire, with two aborts. Gunners expended nearly 100,000 rounds of .50 caliber to claim 24 interceptors downed.
Mission 115 turned into a running firefight lasting three hours, fifteen minutes. The defenders lofted 882 fighter sorties with 675 attacking US formations. Germany’s practiced radar controllers vectored three-quarters of their airborne interceptors onto the bomber stream.
As LeMay noted, all too frequently the fighter “escorts” bore black crosses on their wings. A 100th BG flier said, “No need to consider aircraft identification of those little spiteful creatures because they all meant us harm.” The single-engine fighters were persistent and aggressive. Many attacked the bombers head-on, some slow-rolling in their gunnery passes, stopping inverted for a last burst before departing in a split-S. Though some bomber men considered the tactic merely showboating, it made good sense: the fighters maintained positive G in their breakaway, exiting on the same course as the bombers so they could make another try.
The 41st Wing crews counted some 300 fighter passes in 90 minutes of sustained action. Germans mostly attacked from astern; one report noting “rocket guns were experienced.”
The Kugelfischer plant in Schweinfurt, Germany, after being destroyed by American bombers in the devastating raid.
ENTER THE B-17G
Until then, the B-17 F model had been dominant. It was produced in greater numbers than all previous versions combined (3,400 from Boeing, Douglas, and Vega, versus 650 previously). That October, the B-17G was brand-new in theater, distinct with its chin-mounted two-gun turret controlled by the bombardier. It was a belated response to the Luftwaffe’s head-on tactic that avoided the Flying Forts’ heaviest firepower—to the sides and rear. At least one G model from the 305th fell near Cologne.
While 109s and 190s often attacked from ahead, the twin-engine Zerstorer (“destroyers”) settled astern. Gauging the range carefully, Me 110s lobbed 55 mm rockets into the US formations from 500 to 600 meters, connecting occasionally.
On his fourth mission, a 384th Group navigator, Lt. Carl Abele said, “The fighters were unrelenting; it was simply murder.”
Each B-17 carried about 7,500 rounds of machine gun ammunition, and some crews fired nearly every .50-caliber round on board. Nevertheless, the Jagdwaffe pressed through streams of armor-piercing incendiaries to get at the Viermots.
Feldwebel (Sergeant) Wolfgang Brunner, an Fw 190 pilot, reported intercepting the Americans near Koblenz, 120 miles west of Schweinfurt:“One Boeing B-17 shot from formation from 7,200 meters at [1:55 p.m].“At [1:47 p.m.] we sighted two escorted US heavy bomber Verbande (groups) flying southeast at 7,200-7,500 meters. Because of the escort we were compelled to drop our tanks, but that of my Rottenfuhrer (flight leader) would not drop away. After a brief delay he ordered me to attack alone. As a result, I closed upon three Fw 190s flying at the same height as the first enemy pulk (bunch) and with them attacked the first pulk of the Verbande flying on the right, which comprised five Boeings flying alone in close formation. The attacks were carried out from the left and right sides. I attacked the last of these from the left side to an angle of 30 degrees from behind. I saw hits in the fuselage and tail and saw the vertical tail break up.
“After I pulled away, I saw the Boeing sheer away from the pulk and drop below. I had to depart, owing to low ammunition and fuel. Final destruction was obtained by JG.26.”
Of the 291 bombers dispatched, 37 had aborted, leaving 254 crossing the coast into occupied Europe. En route attrition reduced effective sorties to 222 bombers striking their briefed targets.
Visibility improved near the target, allowing navigators to confirm their approaches and bombardiers to spot their aimpoints. The two bomber tracks merged over Schweinfurt for an 18-minute aerial deluge between 2:39 p.m. to 2:57 p.m. In the 303rd BG, bombing from 24,000 feet, each B-17 dropped three half-ton general-purpose bombs and five incendiaries on the V.K.F Ball Bearing Plant.
Then the bombers exited to the south for the return, intending to coast out near Boulogne.
The B-17 El Rauncho crash-landed in England on return from the first Schweinfurt raid on Aug. 17, 1943.
Photo: American Air Museum
However, the Americans got little respite on the egress as some German fighter groups flew far from their bases in the Netherlands and northern Germany. 1st Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 2 flew 180 miles to the 3rd Division’s outbound track.
Generalleutnant Adolf Galland, commanding Germany’s day fighters, wrote, “We were able to break up several bomber formations and to destroy them almost completely. The approach and return routes were marked by the wreckage of shot-down aircraft.”
Some of the fallen Flying Forts had strayed far afield. A 305th BG bomber, Lazy Baby, landed wheels up in Switzerland. Far in the opposite direction, another Chelveston aircraft was shot down near Hamburg, apparently trying to make it to Sweden.
Even nearly home, losses continued. Almost out of fuel, the 303rd BG crew of the battle-damaged Cat-O-Nine Tails bailed out over England. All fliers landed within four miles of the crash, in a Risley resident’s backyard.
Paper Doll of the 96th Group, three months old, returned with a dead pilot and badly wounded copilot. The navigator was Lt. Miles McFann, a prewar private pilot who got her down at an RAF field. He recalled, “We could have bailed out, instead of risking a crash-landing. I suppose a lot of fellows wouldn’t want to take a chance on having a navigator act as pilot, but they weren’t sticking because of their confidence in me. They all knew that [Lt. Robert] Bolick was dead inside that ship, and none of us was going to bail out and leave him in there. We just wouldn’t do it.”
Some 2,900 airmen flew the mission, of whom 648 were listed killed, wounded, or missing in action; a staggering 18 percent casualty rate.The 1st Division took the heaviest losses by far: as noted, the 305th BG wrote off 13 bombers while the 306th lost 12. In contrast, the entire 3rd Division lost 15.
Eighth Bomber Command listed 60 Flying Forts missing, plus five that crashed in England, with seven written off as “Category E,” or damaged beyond repair. All told, a horrific total loss of 72 bombers. Of the remainder, about three-quarters bore battle damage.
Aircrew gunnery claims were typically extravagant; understandable with multiple B-17s often engaging the same fighters. The original figure was an unrealistic 288, reduced to 186 “confirmed” fighters downed.
In fact, the Luftwaffe lost 53 aircraft with 29 aircrew killed or missing and 20 wounded.
The cold comfort for the severe losses was that the B-17s apparently inflicted severe damage on Schweinfurt. In some of the best bombing yet seen over Europe, 1st Division’s 91st Group scored the most hits on the target.
The 351st’s lead bombardier, Capt. Harvey D. Wallace, put all his own ordnance inside the desired 1,000-foot circle around the aimpoint. But the Eighth’s youngest bomb group, the 390th, showed the veterans how it was done: their aircraft placed 51 percent of their bombs inside the 1,000-foot circle. It was all the more impressive because the lead aircraft’s autopilot had gone haywire, forcing the crew to target manually.
The AAF intelligence assessment was favorable, predicting a 25 percent reduction in ball bearings over the next three months. However, subsequent analysis was less optimistic, noting the heaviest concentration of bombs hit between the buildings, though rail lines were impaired.
Albert Speer, Germany’s production genius, was quick to react. Despite downed phone lines, he spoke with a plant manager who reported that, beyond blast damage, the oil baths ignited serious fires. Schweinfurt’s ball-bearing production plummeted to 23 percent of the previous figure.
But Speer and his minions had options. They increased imports, especially from Sweden and shifted to slide bearings where possible. From 1937 through to 1942, Sweden provided an average 57 percent of Germany’s bearings (subsequent years lack full data). Sweden also sold bearings to Britain.
The Germans braced for the seemingly inevitable third blow, but it did not come.
Speer recalled, “The enemy—to our astonishment—once again ceased his attacks on the ball-bearing industry. … The Allies threw away success when it was already in their hands. Had they continued the attacks with the same energy, we would quickly have been at our last gasp.”
Both Schweinfurt missions had long-term effects on Eighth Air Force operations and morale. The Fall of 1943 was a grim period, when statistically it seemed impossible to complete a combat tour: four percent attrition over 25 missions was considered acceptable. After Schweinfurt II, the Eighth rolled back its deep-penetration missions for awhile, but help was close at hand: The first long-legged P-51 Mustang groups went operational starting in December.
The Mighty Eighth did return to Schewinfurt, but only five times between February and October 1944. The RAF followed up the February mission with a night strike that caused little lasting damage.
By the time ball-bearing production became a problem for Nazi Germany in late 1944, it was too late to matter: Allied bombing of oil and transport systems proved more effective in crippling the Third Reich’s industry.
Barrett Tillman is an award-winning historian who has written 50 books, including Forgotten Fifteenth: The Daring Airmen Who Crippled Hitler’s War Machine. His most recent article for Air Force Magazine was
“Hard Targets," in the February 2015 issue.
Daily Report: Read the day's top news on the US Air Force, airpower, and national security issues.
Tweets by @AirForceMag | <urn:uuid:e61a34c2-d47a-4590-8eb0-7a381fe87d0b> | {
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Plastic is threatening our planet’s survival, from poisoning and injuring marine life to disrupting human hormones, from littering our beaches and landscapes to clogging our streams and landfills. Together, we can make a difference.
Earth Day is now a global event each year, and more than 1 billion people in 192 countries now take part in what is the largest civic-focused day of action in the world.
It is a day of political action and civic participation. People march, sign petitions, meet with their elected officials, plant trees, clean up their towns and roads. Corporations and governments use it to make pledges and announce sustainability measures. Faith leaders, including Pope Francis, connect Earth Day with protecting God’s greatest creations, humans, biodiversity and the planet that we all live on.
You will have heard that Theresa May wants to lead the way in the UK by banning plastic straws and cotton buds.
Here at Alfriston we have been profiling our use of plastic and highlighting waste. Some girls have been collecting the plastic waste from our lunches and snacks over a two-week period at the end of which we will weigh it all. P16 girls have carried out a survey and made recommendations to the Senior Leadership team about how we can reduce plastic use in school.
In English girls have been using the topic as a focus for their writing and we are looking forward to hearing more about their ideas.
In addition, we have been thinking about how wasteful our society is and some groups have been on visits to see what happens to our waste after we have binned it or flushed it. We have also been running a swap shop in school to encourage the idea that you can pass on things you don’t want anymore rather than throwing them out. There was a queue at the door on the opening day and lots of great items to swap. | <urn:uuid:dad02e57-f19e-4a81-864d-e7a8bbc10e31> | {
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by Staff Writers
Salt Lake City (UPI) Apr 19, 2013
Big earthquakes can trigger other quakes far from their geographical center at least 9 percent of the time, a statistical analysis by a U.S. researcher shows.
With a number of huge earthquakes in recent years -- in Sumatra, Indonesia, in December 2004, Chile in February 2010 and Japan in 2011 --leading many to question whether one large quake can cause another on the other side of the world, Tom Parsons of the U.S. Geological Survey surveyed catalogs of seismic activity on every continent except Antarctica going back to 1979.
Of the 260 earthquakes of magnitude 7 or greater during that period, small earthquakes on separate fault systems followed in the wake of 24 of them, triggered by seismic waves passing through distant lands, he said.
"It's a small hazard, but there is a risk," he said.
Parsons, who presented his results Friday at the Seismological Society of America annual meeting in Salt Lake City, says his next step will be to investigate the 24 quakes that caused far-off events and see if there is anything special about them.
"So far they look fairly ordinary. So we're going to have to really dig into them," he said.
Seismic activity during deadly Utah mine collapse yields insights
The owner of the Crandall Canyon coal mine initially blamed the collapse, which killed six miners and three rescue workers, on an earthquake but University of Utah researchers say analysis of the recordings of the tremor and hundreds of small aftershocks suggests they were a result of mining activity and the subsequent collapse.
"We can see now that, prior to the collapse, the seismicity was occurring where the mining was taking place and that, after the collapse, the seismicity migrated to both ends of the collapse zone," said Tex Kubacki, a graduate student in mining engineering.
Mapping the locations of the aftershocks "helps us better delineate the extent of the collapse at Crandall Canyon," he said.
A previous University of Utah study, based on far fewer aftershocks, said the epicenter of the collapse was near where the miners were working and the aftershocks showed the collapse area covered 50 acres.
The new study, based on data of hundreds of additional aftershocks, has extended the area of the collapse to the full extent of the western end of the mine, Kubacki said.
"It's gotten bigger," he said.
Most of the seismic activity before the collapse was due to mining, the researchers said, although they are investigating whether any of those small jolts might have been signs of the impending collapse.
So far, however, "there is nothing measured that would have said, 'Here's an event [mine collapse] that's ready to happen,'" said Michael "Kim" McCarter, a mining engineering professor and the study's co-author.
Bringing Order To A World Of Disasters
When the Earth Quakes
A world of storm and tempest
|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2014 - Space Media Network. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement| | <urn:uuid:322f13f8-2e84-4892-8e66-1dd397d1ae6f> | {
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Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) affects an estimated 10 million people worldwide every year and survivors can experience a variety of effects that last a lifetime. Apart from the short term effects on cognition, epidemiology suggests that having suffered a TBI, the chance of developing dementia in later life increase from 2 to 4 times.
Whilst we are using one label to describe a brain injury - TBI - the fact is that the condition is very variable in both it's presentation and its effects and consequences. It is actually very difficult to even link the specific nature of a person's brain injury to an expected outcome. This variability is a challenge for health care systems that try to link patient assessment outcomes to a treatment regime with a reasonable expectation of reaching a particular outcome. A more personalised approach is being sought.
Whilst personalised medicine is a rational approach - in other words varying the specific approach to the precise assessment of an individual - this too is challenging.
We simply dont know enough about what treatments work best for whom and under what circumstances.
An ongoing study aims to provide the evidence on which to base best practice treatment. With funding of £25 million from the European Union, more than 60 hospitals and 38 scientific institutes are participating in the Collaborative European NeuroTrauma Effectiveness Research in TBI (CENTER-TBI) project. In total, data will be collected for 20,000–30,000 patients, including extremely detailed data for over 5,000 patients. - See more at: http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/head-first-reshaping-how-traumatic-brain-injury-is-treated | <urn:uuid:a742a173-f90c-4d7b-a6be-ecf91797a7ff> | {
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What is radioisotope carbon dating? Liquid scintillation counting is another radiocarbon dating technique that was popular in the s. Carbon dating uses the carbon isotope, with a half life of about years. American Journal of Science. The possible confounding effects of contamination of parent and daughter isotopes have to be considered, as do the effects of any loss or gain of such isotopes since the sample was created.
Due to this, it is not possible to do carbon dating at home unless you happen to have a mass spectrometer lying around. The fission tracks produced by this process are recorded in the plastic film. Most, if not all, organic compounds can be dated.
Other radiometric dating techniques are available for earlier periods. Which element is used in radio carbon dating? It is rapidly oxidized in air to form carbon dioxide and enters the global carbon cycle.
Radiocarbon dating is a method that provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that originated from living organisms. See related links for more information. Geodesy Geomagnetism Geophysical survey Seismology Tectonophysics.
Zircon has a very high closure temperature, is resistant to mechanical weathering and is very chemically inert. However, it can be used to confirm the antiquity of an item. What technology is used carbon dating? Interesting Facts About Hurricanes. The scientists find a radioactive isotope of carbon Carbon and using the average amount of carbon in an object get a relative time when the object was alive.
Beta particles are products of radiocarbon decay. What isotope is used for radiocarbon dating? Carbon is radioactive and used in C dating. The relative dating is the technique to ascertain the age of the artifacts, rocks or even sites while comparing one from the other. The above equation makes use of information on the composition of parent and daughter isotopes at the time the material being tested cooled below its closure temperature.
In this method, the sample is in liquid form and a scintillator is added. The following are the major methods of relative dating. Archaeology and other human sciences use radiocarbon dating to prove or disprove theories. What Tools do Archaeologists Use.
Relative dating is a less advanced technique as compared to absolute dating. What dating method was used to estimate age after something dies? Nuclear Methods of Dating. Which method of archaeological dating determines an artifact's age in relation to other objects?
This technique is based on the principle that all objects absorb radiation from the environment. These values have been derived through statistical means. Famous Chemists and Their Contributions. This technique dates the time period during which these rings were formed.
Facts about Albert Einstein. Earth sciences portal Geophysics portal Physics portal. The law of conservation and mass states that matter can not be destroyed nor created. This technique relates changes in amino acid molecules to the time elapsed since they were formed.
- Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese.
- How does carbon dating work ma?
- Absolute radiometric dating requires a measurable fraction of parent nucleus to remain in the sample rock.
- What kind of dating method is Carbon dating?
- Carbon dating is used for carbonaceous dating, i.
Would you like to take a short survey
- Facts about Thomas Edison.
- Concepts Deep time Geological history of Earth Geological time units.
- You do not find the half life in carbon dating.
- It is used for destermiing the age of samples of one-living entities.
- The results of carbon dating are compared with dendrochronology data.
Finally, correlation between different isotopic dating methods may be required to confirm the age of a sample. Accuracy levels of within twenty million years in ages of two-and-a-half billion years are achievable. When an organism dies, it ceases to take in new carbon, and the existing isotope decays with a characteristic half-life years.
It is the only naturally occurring radioisotope of carbon. If the igneous rock sample does not have plant material on it, carbon dating is useless. All Rights Reserved Terms and Conditions. What do scientists used to date the exact age of fossil? Libby and his team of scientists were able to publish a paper summarizing the first detection of radiocarbon in an organic sample.
Absolute dating provides a numerical age for the material tested, while relative dating can only provide a sequence of age. Thus both the approximate age and a high time resolution can be obtained. In other words, we can say that in relative dating the archaeologist determines that which of the two fossil or the artifacts are older. He graduated from the University of California in with a degree in Computer Science. International Journal of Chemical Kinetics.
Journal of African Earth Sciences. This in turn corresponds to a difference in age of closure in the early solar system. It must be noted though that radiocarbon dating results indicate when the organism was alive but not when a material from that organism was used. Absolute dating is the process of determining a specific date for an archaeological or palaeontological site or artifact.
Although both relative and absolute dating methods are used to estimate the age of historical remains, the results produced by both these techniques for the same sample may be ambiguous. However, not all fossils or remains contain such elements. The procedures used to isolate and analyze the parent and daughter nuclides must be precise and accurate. The application of radiocarbon dating to groundwater analysis can offer a technique to predict the over-pumping of the aquifer before it becomes contaminated or overexploited.
Absolute dating, also called numerical dating, arranges the historical remains in order of their ages. This is technique of absolute age dating. Contrary to this, absolute dating is the technique, using which the exact age of the artifacts, fossils, or sites are ascertained. Other forms of radioactive dating are more broadly applicable.
Is carbon 14 dating relative dating or absolute dating
The method does not count beta particles but the number of carbon atoms present in the sample and the proportion of the isotopes. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Plotting an isochron is used to solve the age equation graphically and calculate the age of the sample and the original composition. What can be learned from radioactive dating? | <urn:uuid:c2b1ad06-3e7c-4389-9161-12be2e465abc> | {
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One of the most basic and widely-understood concepts in modern biology is Darwinian evolution, wherein DNA is inherited by offspring from the parent organism. This view of evolution, also called vertical gene transfer, is increasingly becoming too simple to explain sections of the human genome. The science journal called Genome Biology published a study last September, 2014, describing the evidence and conclusions behind an alternative mechanism of gene acquisition called horizontal gene transfer or HGT. HGT is when genetic material transfers between otherwise non-genetically-related organisms. HGT actually already evidenced in several single-celled bacteria, but this study proved higher organisms display traits and DNA evidence from outside their ancestry. Last falls Genome Biology report was able to show signature DNA in humans that did not come from the understood human lineage.
HGT is sometimes called Lateral Gene Transfer. The concept is that organisms ingest or otherwise absorb DNA from the organisms they encounter in their environment. Much of the conceptualization behind HGT originated in Seattle in 1951 Horizontal gene transfer was first described in Seattle in 1951 by Victor J Freeman in the Journal of Bacteriology. This new study is significant because it shows human genealogy may have fungal DNA through such lateral transfer.
The 2014 study shifts the conventional POV that animal evolution solely uses genes passed down from parental lineage. Because evolution is an ongoing process, this new aspect of that process is implied to be ongoing. We are still absorbing DNA from other organisms right now~!
Alastair Crisp at the University of Cambridge:
“This is the first study to show how widely horizontal gene transfer (HGT) occurs in animals, including humans, giving rise to tens or hundreds of active ‘foreign’ genes.”
There are many advantages to organisms which evolve laterally. One long-refernced example in the genetics community is quickly-evolving bacteria that can resist anti-biotics after only a few generations. In the Darwinian model, only the bacteria that had a chance mutation would resist the drug. By transfering genetic material from other related bacteria, a bacterium can adopt an immunity it did not originally have a mutation for. HGT might be an important part of the evolution of complex organisms, too, including animals. We now have evidence that nematode worms can acquired genes from the microorganisms and plants they exist in cohabitation with. Another example from the new study shows a type of beetle displayed bacterial genes which enabled them to digest coffee berries.
HGT in humans is controversial because it implies organisms in our natural – and unnatural – environments can affect our DNA, and that of our offspring. Humanity has created a planet where organisms are repeatedly exposed to organisms which would not otherwise be part of our environment.
Researchers were able to calculate the likelihood that similar genes from other species were transferred this way. Last September’s study showed the genomes of 12 species of fruit fly, four species of nematode worm, and 10 species of primates, had overwhelming evidence of HGT. The primate list included humans!
The numbers also help estimate when the genes were acquired. Most of the genes in humans that can be shown as a match to non-human organisms are blood or enzyme related. Most importantly the ABO blood group gene in humans, are confirmed to have been acquired through vertebrates using HGT. Most of the other genes were related to metabolism. This might lead to discoveries about the human diet that can change or modify metabolism.
Past studies have attempted to prove this same phenomenon but have only proven 17 genes attributed to HGT. This latest study shows 128 additional foreign genes in the human genome.
Researchers even identified which organisms the transferred genes came from. Bacteria & protists, which together comprise another class of microbes are the most common lateral gene donor. Perhaps future studies might show that the trait of HGT is one possessed by simple single celled life, rather than one controlled by the expression of multicellular organisms.
Even more strange: most of the foreign genes in primates, including humanity, seemed to come from viruses. Some genes even seemed to have originated from fungi which explains why previous studies focused on bacteria missed the most likely lateral lineage.
Despite the ongoing nature of evolution, the mutation and gradual adaptation is slow. The roots of HGT expressed in primates are ancient. Some of the DNA may have been with our species since a common ancestor was shared between Chordata & Primates.
The implications of this are far-reaching, such as rethinking the invasiveness and shared DNA in host-parasite relationships. Mistakes or incompatible DNA that is nonetheless laterally transferred could be responsible for genetic mutations that are not desirable such as a tendency for heart disease or cancer. Solid proof of HGT that can be reproduced and relied on can also mean new cures for those exact same diseases.
Most importantly HGT will change the way we discuss and teach evolution. | <urn:uuid:26b08928-39cb-4d79-a302-2ebc76861b12> | {
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Monday, March 7, 1864
The war has been going on far longer than anyone thought, so long that I fear we have become accustomed to it. We have grown accustomed to having no men around, accustomed to things we had taken for granted — coffee, ink, flour for baking — all becoming precious, and accustomed to all the gaiety having vanished from our lives. We seem to have lost all hope, as if this is the way it will be forever.
(from When Will This Cruel War Be Over? The Civil War Diary of Emma Simpson, page 40)
Part of the Dear America historical fiction diary series for young readers, When Will This Cruel War Be Over? The Civil War Diary of Emma Simpson is set in Gordonsville, Virginia, in 1864 toward the end of the American Civil War. Barry Denenberg gets into the head of a fictional 14-year-old girl who keeps a diary over the course of one year — a year filled with war, loss, and hardship, probably the toughest year Emma Simpson (and girls like her) ever faced.
The diary starts off with the loss of Emma’s brother, Cole, in the war. Her brother’s death hits her and her mother hard, especially as it occurred just before Christmas. With her father off fighting as a colonel in the Confederate Army, nothing is the same for the Simpson family, and Emma can’t help but remember how just one year before, she and her extended family had a festive Christmas. Cole’s death is the beginning of the end of life as Emma knew it. In the coming months, she will meet a young man who captures her heart then rushes off to fight, she will lose more family members to illness, and the war will arrive on her doorstep as the Yankees take over her home and force her and her family to a few rooms on the third floor.
Meanwhile, the slaves on other farms are rebelling, sometimes violently, sometimes just running off. Readers will have to understand where Emma is coming from when she describes how her family’s slaves are loyal and content and not likely to run off. It is not likely that her family’s slaves are content, and it is not likely that they appreciated her father’s “firm guiding hand,” but Emma is the daughter of a slave owner and has grown up thinking slavery is normal and that blacks are simply inferior to whites. The letters from her father insist that the Abolitionists must be beaten, but Emma’s letters from her boyfriend, Tally, and the things she has seen with her own eyes show her how war isn’t always black and white.
I find it impossible to imagine them lying cold upon some battlefield with no one to care for them. I cannot bring myself to believe — as others seem to — that somehow it would be worth it. Is anything worth dying for? Is this awful waste — this painful sacrifice — justified in God’s eyes? (page 129)
One could call The Civil War Diary of Emma Simpson a homefront novel of sorts. While the men are off fighting, Emma and her cousin, Rachel, are pondering hair styles, clothes, and marriage. But those conversations come to an end when Emma confronts death, hunger, cold, and Yankee soldiers. The war actually comes to her doorstep, though what she experiences is nowhere near as horrible as what the men experienced on the battlefield. It really drives home the point that war is a hardship for everyone, though at different degrees.
The Girl (age 11) read this book first, then told me I had to read it, too. She says she thought it was interesting for the most part, but some parts dragged, and she didn’t think it was necessary for Emma to call her family Brother Cole, Cousin Rachel, and Baby Elizabeth over and over. She thought that was annoying. I see her points, but the book was so short that these things didn’t bother me as much.
The Civil War Diary of Emma Simpson is a good book for parents and children to read together about the Civil War. It definitely raises some talking points about war and slavery, how war dramatically changes every day life, how it forced children to grow up early, and how it pushed people to their limits. The novel is not a cheerful one, and at times, Emma seems to lose all hope and wonders if things will be this bad forever. But that feeling of desolation, helplessness, and pain is what makes it authentic.
© 2011 Anna Horner of Diary of an Eccentric. All Rights Reserved. Please do not reproduce or republish content without permission. | <urn:uuid:560e4089-2261-42b2-b50d-49d9bfbc2f25> | {
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Ab ovo: From the beginning; complete; thorough.
The literal translation of this Latin phrase is “from the egg”.
The Romans used a phrase, “ab ovum usque ad malum” to describe a complete process. The phrase means, “from the egg to the apple”. It describes a complete Roman meal, ending in dessert – the apple. The phrase is similar to our English idiom “soup to nuts”.
The Latin word for “egg” is ovum. From ovum, English derives:
- ovate: an oval outline
- ovule: a small ovum
- ovoid: egg shaped
- Ovaltine: a drink mix with eggs as ingredients
- ovoviviparous: eggs hatched within the body of the parent… some snakes are ovoviviparous
- oviparous: producing eggs
- oval: egg shaped
- oviform: egg shaped, and | <urn:uuid:ae9a77d6-9417-4cb5-b5e7-dc4973cf709e> | {
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Now that you've got a pretty good idea of how the different parts of your camera work, we're going to take a look at its various settings. In this lesson we'll cover the basics, and in the following lesson we'll take a look at manual mode.
Here's a look at what we'll be covering today:
- Shooting modes, or the different ways your camera can assist you in taking a photograph.
- Flash modes and when to use them.
- What different image enhancement settings do and what they're good for.
- Shooting assistance functions, like auto focus.
- A brief look at video mode.
Most cameras come with a few different types of shooting modes, from full automatic to full manual. We're going to take a look at the most common and discuss when you should use them. You may not be familiar with terms like shutter speed, aperture, and ISO but don't worry—we'll be going over those in detail in the next lesson.
Automatic takes care of everything for you. There's not much to explain here.
Program automatic sets your aperture and shutter speed automatically, but gives you control over other settings like ISO (the rating that affects how sensitive your camera's sensor is to light—similar to film speed in film cameras).
Scene modes generally have icons to represent their purpose, such as a mountain for landscapes or a fast-moving person for sports. Scene modes can be useful if you want the camera to assist you in photographing the types of photos each mode is designed for, but hopefully after you're done with these lessons you won't need or want to use them anymore.
Shutter priority allows you to set the shutter speed and ISO but allows the camera to set the aperture automatically. This mode is useful if the shutter speed is the most important consideration when taking a photo. This is often the case when you want to make sure you take a photo fast enough to capture motion but do not care about the aperture. This is useful for photography sports, dance, or anything with a lot of movement.
Aperture priority allows you to set the aperture and ISO but lets the camera set the shutter speed automatically. This is useful when the aperture is the most important consideration in your photograph. The aperture can have some of the greatest visual impact on your photographs because it is one of the largest contributing factors to depth of field. A wide aperture (represented by a low f-stop like f/1.8) will produce a photo where your subject is in sharp focus but the background is very much out of focus. This is useful for portraits, or focusing on a single object in an otherwise busy frame. A narrow aperture (represented by a higher f-stop, like f/8) will produce a photo where most everything appears to be in focus. This is useful for landscapes, or any other situation where keeping everything in focus is desirable. Wider apertures also let in more light, so they're useful when you don't have much and want to avoid using a flash. Aperture priority is one of the best shooting modes your camera has because you can still control your ISO settings (light sensitivity) and the shutter speed is often something that's best left for the camera to decide unless you have a reason to choose it yourself. Don't worry if you don't fully understand this yet. We'll be discussing aperture, shutter speed, and ISO in much more detail in the next lesson.
Manual mode lets you set everything, and we'll be discussing this mode in detail in the next lesson. It's worth noting, however, that this mode does not imply manual focus with DSLR cameras. Switching between manual and automatic focus is generally a dedicate hardware toggle switch on your lens and not on the camera. If you want to focus manually on a DSLR, you can use any shooting mode you want if the switch is set to manual on the lens.
Your camera has a couple of different flash modes, and most of them you'll never need. Here's what they're called and what they do.
Automatic flash will only fire the flash when needed, which the camera determines by reading the available light on the subject. This generally happens when there isn't enough light anywhere in the frame or if the subject is backlit and appears dark to the camera as a result.
Automatic flash with red eye reduction works the same as the regular automatic flash mode but attempts to reduce the red eye effect that flashes often produce. If you're going to use an automatic flash mode, you might as well use this one.
Forced/Fill-in flash means the flash fires with every exposure regardless of whether or not the camera believes it's necessary. This is the mode you choose when you know you're always going to need the flash, or just think it's funny to cause temporary blindness to a bunch of people in rapid succession.
Slow shutter flash (with red-eye reduction) is what you want to use in a very low light situation, as the shutter speed will be reduced and the flash needs to offer a repeated bursts of light to compensate. If you're using an automatic mode, the camera will determine when this is necessary and do it automatically. If you know you're going to need a slow shutter flash, however, you can force it with this mode.
No flash is pretty obvious. It turns the flash off so it won't be used under any circumstances.
Fancier flashes will have additional modes and settings on the flash units themselves, so if you have a nice external flash be sure to experiment with everything it can do.
Image Enhancement Settings
Not all cameras have image enhancement settings, but it's become more common in DSLRs and nicer compact cameras in recent years. The ones you want to want to pay the most attention to are lighting correction and noise reduction. Lighting (and tone) correction, which is referred to as D-lighting on Nikon cameras and Auto Lighting Optimizer and Highlight Tone Priority (the modes are split into two) on Canon, will try to retain more detail from under- and over-exposed parts of your photographs while improving color as well. Noise reduction does what you'd expect—it reduces noise. It also reduces detail. Lighting correction tends to increase noise. Basically, these modes are nice but they have their drawbacks. Often times you can set how aggressively they alter your photos. Low settings are recommended.
We're dealing with photography, so we're not going to talk much about video mode. It's also handled very differently by different cameras as there isn't currently much of a standard. Additionally, video mode varies significantly between the different types of cameras. Point-and-shoots can often automatically focus very quickly in video mode and act a lot like a dedicated video camera. Compact mirror-less cameras with interchangeable lenses tend to provide a higher quality video but automatically focus a bit slower and are not terribly easy to focus manually. DSLR cameras generally produce the highest quality video, automatically focus extremely poorly (if they do at all), but provide excellent control over manual focus. If you're recording video with a DSLR, you'll want to become comfortable with manually focusing your lenses.
When you record video on any camera, it's generally saved in the same folder as your photos on your flash card, but some cameras have a dedicated folder for video. If the file was saved as an AVI, MOV, or MP4, you should be able to just copy it off your camera and play it back. All of these formats also work fine for uploading to video sharing sites like YouTube or Vimeo. Other formats may be video streams which generally require conversion to be useful, so consult your camera's manual if you don't recognize the file type.
If you'd like to learn more about video, be sure to check out our guide on recording great video with your DSLR.
That's all for this lesson, but next time we'll be diving into your camera's manual settings and learning how they affect its operation and the resulting photos. As always, if you're behind on our lessons, you can find everything you've missed and a PDF of all the lessons in the Basics of Photography Complete Guide .
Check out the full Lifehacker Night School series for more beginners lessons covering all sorts of topics. | <urn:uuid:3a365e4b-c990-43a5-9320-e203771c72d3> | {
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Dr. Periklis Gogas
Department of Economics, Democritus University of Thrace
The Greek debt crisis led to an unprecedented reduction in the country’s real GDP by 26.5%. This recession is one of the largest crises that the world economy has ever seen. For comparison, the Great Depression in the US in the later 1920’s resulted in a GDP reduction between 25% to 30%. Moreover, the Great Depression lasted for four years, while the Greek crisis reaches almost 8.
Simply stating that Greeks lost 26.5% of their income paints a gruesome picture. The true impact of the crisis is even worse. We compare current Greek real GDP to the one in 2009 just before the crisis. By doing so we are not taking into account a very significant stylized fact of every economy: growth. All economies show a strong positive trend in their GDP time series. This is the result of a steady growth in the factors of production, i.e. human and physical capital. The available human-working-hours increase due to population growth and the amount of physical capital stock also increases over time as a result of investment in fixed capital. Last but certainly not least, an additional very important factor for continuous growth is the improvement in technology. Technology significantly increases the productivity of both human and physical capital.
Continue reading What is the real cost of the Greek crisis?
George A. Haloulakos, CFA, is a university instructor, author and entrepreneur [DBA Spartan Research and Consulting]. His published works utilize aviation as a teaching tool for Finance, Game Theory, History and Strategy.
Value is the key performance measure in a market economy because it encompasses the long-term interests of all stakeholders in a company. In highly competitive global businesses – especially with diversified companies — it is essential for a firm to be effective in all three phases of managing cash flow — operations, investing and financing – to generate cash at a return exceeding its cost of capital. The concept of stakeholder management has broadened the responsibility of management to include financial stakeholders (i.e., equity owners and creditors) and non-financial stakeholders such as customers, employees and suppliers. This task is magnified for diversified companies whose corporate structure is based on a mix of different types of product or business groups having a variety of financial requirements. Corporate financial strategy for diversified companies based on a portfolio management style may benefit from a stakeholder approach in order to cope with a myriad of challenges including, but not limited to, achieving economy of scale, diversification and growth in difficult or less predictable environments. Two different eras – the “stagflation” period from the mid-1970s to the very early 1980s and the “globalization” decade of the 2000s – provided extremely competitive market conditions where diversified companies achieved mixed results with divergent stock price performance. The case studies reviewed here offer a study in contrast in how the stock market values diversified firms with different corporate financial strategies.
Continue reading VCFS-4DC: VALUATION AND CORPORATE FINANCIAL STRATEGY FOR DIVERSIFIED COMPANIES
George A. Haloulakos, CFA, is a university instructor, author and entrepreneur [DBA Spartan Research and Consulting, 1995-to date]. His published works utilize aviation as a teaching tool for Finance, Game Theory, History and Strategy.
The Convair B-58 Hustler, a pioneering aircraft that helped usher advancement in aeronautics while providing object lessons in Finance, Strategy and Game Theory makes for a compelling story. Finance explains how capital is employed to create added-value. Strategy explains how resources are mobilized to capitalize on opportunities while achieving victory. Game Theory embodies strategies and tactics in situations of conflict or competition in which participants are faced with choices of action in which they win or lose based on what others choose to do or not to do. Statistics may provide guidelines or rules of thumb but in the midst of conflict where human behavior comes into play, actions and outcomes do not necessarily conform to a statistical norm or numeric formula. The long-retired supersonic B-58 is a unique teaching tool for these disciplines made all the more interesting by its remarkable achievements during its service life from 1960-1970. In the following excerpt from my forthcoming book CALL TO GLORY, basic principles in Game Theory are demonstrated in this historic case study that are useful in evaluating two major public policy issues facing our nation today: the merits of launching a new strategic bomber and dealing with adversaries that have publicly declared their intention to destroy us.
Continue reading CALL TO GLORY– How the Convair B-58 Hustler Helped Win the Cold War | <urn:uuid:45cd2cf6-7f7c-40ca-97dd-ce39092229cd> | {
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What is blockchain?
The blockchain is a digital ledger that makes and records every transaction of your business that you undertake with others. It includes not only financial transactions but covers agreements and contracts prevalent in the business world. Widely known as the platform for Bitcoin transactions, blockchain provides for validating the transactions across a distributed network. One of the key benefits of blockchain development in recent years is the security it offers for your online transactions. Since it uses the peer-to-peer network for creating and distributing data structure related to the transactions, all the transactions over the blockchain platform are safe and incorruptible. The transactions are validated by multiple users over the network nullifying the scope for tampering and the involvement of any central authority.
Why is blockchain development important from the business perspective?
As one of the fast emerging disruptive technologies, blockchain development is not limited to Bitcoin alone; it finds its use in several other industries where transparency, trust and complexity of the transactions matter the most for the successful execution of the transaction. For businesses with blockchain development company, it makes absolute sense for the following reasons
- Blockchain negates the risk involved when an authority/ entity centrally holds data
- Users can transact directly without the need for an intermediary/ entity/ authority
- With distributed ledgers, simple contracts can be coded which execute automatically when the specific conditions are met
- Blockchain development holds great potential for clearing and settlements where transparency is the key element
- It is a self-auditing platform where every data and transaction is transparent
- Absolutely no room for any kind of tampering with the data or any unit of information in the blockchain; thus, making the entire network highly safe
- Brings in the highest level of accountability among the participating entities of the transactions
- No scope for missed or erred transactions either by humans or machines
- Every transaction is validated by recording in the distributed ledgers
Uses of blockchain development
Blockchain development has found its way into various other industry sectors apart from financial and banking where it has found its extensive implementation in the recent past.
Eliminating intermediaries in sharing economy
Blockchain development will enable direct peer-to-peer payments eliminating the need for intermediaries
Creative works are protected online
Smart contracts will protect the copyright holders by automating the sale of the original work and eliminating the risk of its unauthorized copying and redistribution online.
Decentralized data storage
The distribution of data over the network protects the data from hacking, tampering or its loss.
Internet of Things (IoT)
Smart contracts makes it possible to automate remote systems leading to an increase in efficiency and cost improvement
Blockchain use in share settlements will help in instantaneous settlements between peer-to-peer eliminating the need for intermediaries such as clearing house, auditors etc.
Why choose Maxtra for blockchain development?
Our niche skills in emerging technologies backed by our experience in executing complex projects make us a frontrunner in providing blockchain consulting services.
- We have a dedicated team of skilled blockchain software developers whose expertise is based on executing projects successfully across industry sectors
- We understand your business requirements well to match our capabilities and design custom blockchain development for the desired results
- Our strict adherence to project timelines will help you reap cost benefits in blockchain app development
- Our extensive support service will ensure hassle-free maintenance and continued performance of the solutions | <urn:uuid:578a46b7-5cfb-47f1-86e4-2d8d31512f39> | {
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Marty Cooper (Credit: Eric Risberg / Associated Press)
Forty years ago today, Cooper made the first call ever on a portable cellular phone, a device he and his team at Motorola had just completed. (That call, ironically, was to the head of the research department at rival Bell Labs, which was racing Motorola to invent the technology.)
Today, Cooper's invention is ubiquitous. The number of people who have a cell phone subscription globally now tops 6 billion, roughly 85 percent of the world's population. Smart phone users stand at 1 billion, a figure that's expected to double by 2015.
Cell phones have revolutionized more than just the telecommunications industry, of course. They've made the world rethink what a computer is. They've changed our language (imagine a world without "LOL" and "BRB"), and, in recent years, they've completely upended the video game world.
The number of gamers saying they played more mobile games in 2012 (compared to 2011) increased 50 percent, according to The NPD Group. Angry Birds maker Rovio is one of the biggest gaming beneficiaries of the cell phone, with sales last year hitting $194.8 million, double their 2011 number.
Cell phones themselves? They've come a long way, too. The Motorola DynaTAC 8000x, the first cell phone to hit the market, weighed 2.5 pounds. When it went on sale, it cost $4,000, which works out to $9,000 today. No word on what the carrier charges were, but endless talk and text packages weren't even a distant dream at that point. It kind of puts that $200 charge for an iPhone or Galaxy Note II in context, doesn't it?
A few other fun facts about cell phones to keep in mind as Cooper (who, at last check, used a Droid Razr) and Motorola blow out the candles on the cell phone's birthday cake:
- Motorola made its first workable prototype in just three months.
- The battery life on the first cell phones was just 20 minutes.
- The first text message – "LOL" - was sent 19 years after the creation of the cell phone.
- It took 10 years for the FCC to green-light cell phones for use among the general public.
- The first smartphone didn't appear until 1993.
- Tetris was the first game to appear on cell phones, making its debut in 1994.
- The world's most popular cell phone is the Nokia 1100, which has been sold more than 250 million times.
- Handheld & Connected Devices
- Technology & Electronics
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other topics: use search box
The Vancouver Sun reports (from Agence France-Presse, June 6) that European researchers found dyslexic children read more easily — faster and better — when offered text with wider than usual spacing. Crowded letters are a problem.
A sample of dyslexic children aged eight to 14 doubled their reading accuracy and increased their speed by more than 20 percent.
The scientists believe the improvement occurred because people with dyslexia are more affected than normal readers by a phenomenon known as “crowding.” Crowding makes a letter more difficult to identify when it is close to other letters.
Marco Zorzi, of the University of Padua in Italy, is the leader of the study. He says “Our findings offer a practical way to ameliorate dyslexics’ reading achievement without any training.”
The group studied 54 Italian and 40 French dyslexic students.
The children were given a text made up of 24 short sentences to read in either the standard or the expanded versions.
In the standard text, words were printed in a Times-Roman, 14 point font size. The expanded text increased the space between the letters by 2.5 points, so that space between the i and the l in the Italian word “il” (meaning “the”) was 2.7 pt in normal text and 5.2 pt. in spaced text.
In addition, the space between lines of text was also increased, thus keeping a proper amount of white space on the page.
The children were given either French or Italian versions, according to their native language. The regular and extra-space sessions were scheduled two weeks apart, to minimize the effect that memorization might have on reading speed.
Not only was reading speed improvement seen, but even greater benefits were observed in children who had the most problems in identifying letters.
Those children who had no reading challenges showed no increase in reading speed when given more widely spaced texts. Researchers say this suggests that the benefit is unique to children with dyslexia.
According to the study,
Practitioners know only too well that getting dyslexic children to read more is a key component in achieving long-term improvements in reading skills. Extra large letter spacing, which could even be optimized adaptively on an individual basis, can certainly contribute to achieving this goal.
Orton-Gillingham tutoring in Columbus OH: Adrienne Edwards 614-579-6021 or email [email protected] | <urn:uuid:15b54894-970e-48c1-a88d-b98d8ddb82a8> | {
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Infants who observe someone putting more effort into attaining a goal attribute more value to it, a new study finds. Past work has shed light on ways in which infants come to realize the differences in the value of an object; for example, if a person consistently chooses one item over another, infants will attribute more value to the selected item. Yet, it remains to be determined whether infants can grasp concepts of reward and associated "cost." Here, Shari Liu and colleagues presented ten-month-old infants with animations in which a character was faced with varying costs in order to achieve a goal; for example, in one scenario, the character had to jump over either a low wall or a much higher one to get its reward. If the cost of acquiring the reward was too much, the character would refuse to expend the effort to retrieve it. The researchers monitored as infants watched these test events, observing the lengths of their gazes. The researchers ran two additional and similar experiments in which the character had to climb a ramp or jump a gap to retrieve the reward, to ensure that it wasn't just speed or height that mattered, to infants' perception of cost, but indeed the effort exerted. Regardless of whether a character cleared higher barriers, climbed steeper ramps, or jumped wider gaps to reach one target over the other, infants gazed longer at the scenario in which the character went after the less desirable reward, which indicated they were surprised by the choice. They expected the character to prefer the goal it attained through costlier actions. Thus, it appears that infants are able to assign greater value to rewards that are more costly to attain. | <urn:uuid:71714d6e-ed52-4c43-bf68-50ece71e73fd> | {
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Many modern skeptics, following scholars such as Bertrand Russell and Albert Schweitzer, have believed Jesus to be a false prophet because he predicted his “coming on clouds” within the lifetime of his disciples. Did Jesus have the Second Coming in mind or does “coming on clouds” have a different meaning?
First, when Jesus told Caiaphas and the court that condemned him to death that he was the Son of Man who would come “on the clouds of heaven” he was not speaking of his second coming but of the coming judgment of Jerusalem (Matthew 26:63–64). As Caiaphas and the court well knew, clouds were a common Old Testament symbol pointing to God as the sovereign judge of the nations. In the words of Isaiah, “See, the Lord rides on a swift cloud and is coming to Egypt. The idols of Egypt tremble before him, and the hearts of the Egyptians melt within them” (Isaiah 19:1, emphasis added). Like the Old Testament prophets, Jesus employs the symbolism of clouds to warn his hearers that as judgment fell on Egypt, so would judgment soon befall Jerusalem.
Furthermore, the “coming on clouds” judgment metaphor was clearly intended for Caiaphas and the first–century crowd who condemned Christ to death. In the words of our Lord, “I say to all of you: In the future you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven” (Matthew 26:64, emphasis added). The generation that crucified Christ would see the day that he was exalted and enthroned at “the right hand of the Mighty One.”
Finally, Jesus’ “coming on clouds” to judge Jerusalem in the first century points forward to the end of time when he will appear again “to judge the living and the dead” (2 Timothy 4:1; cf. 1 Peter 4:5). Indeed, as Jesus promised, a day is coming when “all who are in their graves will hear his voice and come out—those who have done good will rise to live, and those who have done evil will rise to be condemned” (John 5:28–29). Or as the writer of Hebrews put it, “he will appear a second time, not to bear sin, but to bring salvation to those who are waiting for him” (9:28).
For further study, see Hank Hanegraaff, The Apocalypse Code (Nashville:W Publishing Group, 2007).
“Look, he is coming with the clouds and every eye
will see him, even those who pierced him;
and all the peoples of the earth will mourn because
of him. So shall it be! Amen.” | <urn:uuid:71a006f2-43ec-4db9-b058-551021b5d0c3> | {
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"As well as helping your plants flourish, composting is a great way to reduce your kitchen waste and use up all those weeds and other garden materials."
Summer is the perfect time to start a new garden, or make your current garden even more awesome. No matter what your level of gardening expertise, you can start your own compost to enrich your soil and help your plants grow to their greatest potential. Even Bill Yosses, the White House executive pastry chef, is tossing fruit scraps from the White House kitchen into a "biocycler," a three-part composting system that's part of Michelle Obama's Kitchen Garden project.
Composting is the process of combining kitchen scraps, dry material from your yard, and other organic matter (including soil) into a big pile—and then letting it sit, stirring occasionally. The compost pile becomes very hot internally as microorganisms work to decompose the organic matter. After a time span of four weeks to a few months, the compost has turned into a uniform, soil-like compound. This is called humus, and it can do wonders for your plants.
As the organic matter is breaking down, minerals and nutrients are being concentrated into a super-soil that you can add to your garden beds. You can even grow plants directly in your compost pile, but often the compost is put to best use when spread around for maximum plant exposure. As well as helping your plants flourish, composting is a great way to reduce your kitchen waste and use up all those weeds and other garden materials.
Now that we have the basics down, let's build a compost pile.
What Kind of Container
While you can just heap your compost in the backyard, most people will build the pile in some sort of container to keep things orderly and more aesthetically pleasing. If you use a container, pick one that's at least 3x3x3. It's best if there are holes or slats on the top and sides to aerate the pile. Make sure you can reach over the top of your container, to stir the compost and access the mature compost at the bottom.
What Goes Inside?
So, what do you put in your compost pile? The basic components of any compost, however, are "brown" and "green" materials. Brown materials include things like dead leaves, twigs, and branches. Green material includes vegetables scraps, live plants like weeds, and fruit peels. There are differing opinions on what order you should add the ingredients to your compost recipe. But at the most basic level, you can throw down a bunch of brown material, add a little water to keep things moist, and then start adding soil and green materials.
What Does NOT Go Inside?
There are certain things that you should not add to your compost pile. For instance, diseased plants are a no-no. It's generally a good idea to limit the amount of animal fat or grease you're adding. Dairy is a bad idea—it can rot and give off an odor, or attract rodents.
And if you do add paper, try not to add paper that's been printed on with non-soy-based ink. Basically, apart from dairy, if you wouldn't want to put something in your mouth, don't put it in your compost.
How to Speed Up the Process
Your composting process can be accelerated by stirring the compost to ensure even decomposition. If you keep a regular eye on your pile, you can have mature compost in as few as four weeks. Take a more hands-off approach, and it may take a few weeks longer. But either way, your plants will be happy when the process is complete! | <urn:uuid:679b1d0f-e80c-4f4b-a11f-0430e53a73c5> | {
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| Regional Foods | Cooking Articles
| Culinary Dictionary
History of Hushpuppies
Hushpuppies are finger-shaped
dumplings of cornmeal that are deep-fried and traditionally served with fried catfish.
Also know as corn dodgers, they are especially popular throughout the South. There are
several interesting stories of the origins of hushpuppies:
The oldest story is that
hushpuppies originated in the settlement of Nouvell Orleans (later called New Orleans,
Louisiana), shortly after 1727. They were created by a group of Ursuline nuns who had come
from France. The nuns converted cornmeal into a delicious food that they named croquettes
de maise. The making of these croquettes spread rapidly through the southern states.
An African cook in Atlanta
is said to have given the name hushpuppy to this food. When frying a batch of catfish and
croquettes, a nearby puppy began to howl. To keep the puppy quiet, she gave it a
plateful of the croquettes and said, "hush, puppy." Since the name was cut, it
stuck. This same story is also attributed to a Creole cook.
Hunters and trappers could
be on the trail for days at a time. At suppertime the hunting dogs would get hungry, so
the hunters would mix a batter out of cornmeal or flour and cook it in grease on the
campfire. Then they would throw the fried dough to the pups, telling them to be quiet,
shut up, or "hush."
Confederate soldiers would
sit beside a campfire preparing their meals. If they detected Yankee soldiers approaching,
they would toss their yapping dogs some of the fried cornmeal cakes with the command
In the South, the Salamander
was often known as a "water dog" or "water puppy." These were
deep-fried with cornmeal and formed into sticks. It is said they were called hushpuppies
because eating such lowly food was not something a southern wife would want known to her
Hushpuppy Recipe - How To Make Hushpuppies
The following recipe is from my friend Andra Cook of Raleigh, North Carolina. Andra says,
"My mother-in-law, Belle Cook, would make these hushpuppies, cooking them in an iron pot over
an open fire at the Neuse River in North Carolina. They were delicious with fresh fish, cole slaw,
French fries, and a big dose of fresh air. They never tasted so
Yields: 2 dozen
Prep time: 10 min
Cook time: 5 min per batch
Total time: 20 min
4 cups vegetable oil, beaten
2 cups yellow cornmeal
1 cup all-purpose
1/4 teaspoon baking soda
2 cups milk or buttermilk
In a large mixing bowl, combine cornmeal, flour, egg, salt,
baking soda, and milk or buttermilk. Mix until batter is smooth and free of any lumps. Batter
should be stiff (if batter is too dry, add milk; if batter is too thin, add cornmeal).
Andra's comments: "Add
the liquid until it gets to the batter consistency desired. Some recommend
stiff batter while others seem to go for towards pancake batter. I think the
proper consistency is in between."
cast-iron skillet or a large heavy fry pan over medium-high heat, heat
vegetable oil to 350° F. or until a small amount of batter dropped into the hot oil
sizzles and floats. Do not let the oil get too hot or the center of the hushpuppies will not cook thoroughly.
is the type of cooking and meat thermometer that I prefer and use in my cooking. I get many readers
asking what cooking/meat thermometer that I prefer and use in my cooking, baking,
and deep frying. I, personally, use the
Thermapen Thermometer shown in the photo on the
right. To learn more about this excellent
thermometer and to also purchase one (if you desire), just click on the underlined:
Using two spoons, push a small amount of batter into hot
oil (370° to 380° F). After about 10 seconds, hushpuppies will float to the top and
begin to brown. Fry for approximately 5 minutes or until golden brown, turning to brown all sides.
Remove from oil and place hushpuppies on paper towels; continue cooking the
remaining batter (fry in small batches, adding 4 to 6 hushpuppies to the oil at a time).
NOTE: They can be held in a 200° F oven until serving time (approximately 30
minutes). Serve hot.
Makes 2 dozen hushpuppies.
Linda Stradley - By
What's Cooking America© copyright 2004 by Linda Stradley - United States
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- Listening to speech in the presence of other sounds
C J Darwin
Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363:1011-21. 2008
..The separation of sounds is arousing substantial attention in psychoacoustics and in computer science. An effective solution to the problem of separating sounds would have important practical applications...
- Auditory objects of attention: the role of interaural time differences
C J Darwin
Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Sussex, England
J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 25:617-29. 1999
- Effects of fundamental frequency and vocal-tract length changes on attention to one of two simultaneous talkers
Christopher J Darwin
Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
J Acoust Soc Am 114:2913-22. 2003
..The increase in performance varied with the intonation patterns of individual talkers, being smallest for those talkers who showed most variability in their intonation patterns between different utterances...
- Limits to the role of a common fundamental frequency in the fusion of two sounds with different spatial cues
C J Darwin
Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QG, United Kingdom
J Acoust Soc Am 116:502-6. 2004
..This constraint mirrors the natural filtering by head-shadow of sound sources presented to one side. The mechanisms underlying perceptual fusion may thus be similar to those underlying auditory localization...
- Effectiveness of spatial cues, prosody, and talker characteristics in selective attention
C J Darwin
University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
J Acoust Soc Am 107:970-7. 2000
..Overall, the results show that prosodic and vocal-tract size cues can override spatial cues in determining which target word belongs in an attended sentence...
- Formant-frequency matching between sounds with different bandwidths and on different fundamental frequencies
Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
J Acoust Soc Am 110:409-15. 2001
- Processing unattended speech
Laboratoire de Psychologie Experimentale, CNRS, Universite Rene Descartes, Institut de Medecine Aerospatiale du Service de Sante des Armees, France
J Acoust Soc Am 119:4027-40. 2006
..The results demonstrate that repetition priming can be produced by words in unattended continuous speech provided that there is a difference in F0 range between the voices...
- Unattended speech processing: effect of vocal-tract length
J Acoust Soc Am 121:EL90-5. 2007
..A priming effect of 13 ms was found when messages were in the same F0 range but had different (15%-30%) vocal-tract length, suggesting that the processing of unattended speech strongly relies on the presence of perceptual grouping cues...
- Across-ear interference from parametrically degraded synthetic speech signals in a dichotic cocktail-party listening task
Douglas S Brungart
Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL HECB, WPAFB, Ohio 45433, USA
J Acoust Soc Am 117:292-304. 2005
..These results suggest that speech-like fluctuations in the spectral envelope of a signal play an important role in determining the amount of across-ear interference that a signal will produce in a dichotic cocktail-party listening task... | <urn:uuid:044a7f67-ab5c-40e9-9463-4ebfd3d1cbeb> | {
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- How is this music taught and learned?
- How much is improvised?
- How old or new is this repertoire?
- What are the connections of this music to geographical locations, past and present?
- What meanings and associations does this music have for the people who make it? How are those different from any associations we might have about the sounds being made?
- What values are used to judge whether this is a “good” performance of this type of music?
- Who made this recording and what is that person’s relationship to the performer(s)?
- What other questions could help lead you to the kinds of information would help to understand more about each example?
Arab music is performed in parts of the Arab Peninsula, North Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Middle East, as well as among diasporic communities in the US, Europe, and elsewhere. This is an example of a takht ensemble, a traditional type of performance that was especially popular in the early eighteenth century. Many other kinds of music are now also common, from various types of folk music to Arab pop music.
Texture and Tuning
The texture of Arab music is heterophonic. This means that each individual musician is playing the same melody, and in fact each would be reading off the same single-line score as in this example, but they are each ornamenting and embellishing the melody in different ways. In Arab music, each instrument uses its own idiomatic techniques of embellishment. For example, the ‘ud (Arab lute, seen in the first solo in this video at 1:00) can strum repeatedly or will play octaves to emphasize important notes or moments in the melody, the violin (whose solo starts at 2:18) can vary vibrato or bend pitches easily, the qanun (plucked lap zither, whose solo starts at 4:03) can easily play runs, and the nay (Arab reed flute, featured here at 6:25) player will often trill, bend the pitch, or alter the timbre of the sound. You can learn more about Arab musical instruments here.
People unfamiliar with Arab music may perceive that the musicians are occasionally playing out of tune. This is not the case, but rather has to do with the tuning system used. In addition to whole tones and semi-tones, Arab music also includes quarter tones, and scores include symbols for half sharps and half flats. These symbols can be seen in the key signature and the first line of the notation example, linked above. These extra possibilities in combinations of intervals contribute to the rich and complex system of modes, called maqam. This example is in maqam hijaz, and you can explore more about this and other maqam-s here.
Improvisation and Audience Interaction
You may also notice the audience reacting vocally and with applause at certain moments in the middle of the performance (for example at 4:32, and at the end of most of the taqasim). The structure of many pieces allows for taqasim, or improvised solos, by individuals. During this time, the rest of the ensemble may drop out or play a drone or riff softly on a short phrase, providing an aural backdrop to the solo. The soloist will then improvise within the particular maqam, usually following a typical structure involving gradually introducing or outlining the maqam and increasing in complexity and intensity, and may include modulations to other maqam, before a triumphant return to the original maqam and characteristic phrase of the piece.
The goal or any performance and especially of taqasim, is for both the performers and the audience to achieve a feeling of musical ecstasy, or tarab. This is often achieved by expertly and creatively expressing the emotional qualities and essence of the particular maqam. If the audience members feel that the soloist has played an especially evocative or moving passage, for example, they may respond with applause or words of encouragement or praise. This in turn can encourage the inspiration of the soloist to continue performing well, eventually leading to the experience of tarab. | <urn:uuid:98bcf362-9895-4a5f-a691-095f6773a380> | {
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According to researchers at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, primary metabolism likely arose from promiscuous primeval metabolic reactions and evolved toward greater catalytic precision and efficiency. This image illustrates the stepwise assembly of a specialized metabolic pathway using descendents from enzyme folds rooted in primary metabolism (indicated by circular phylogenetic trees and highlighted by Greek letters). Products of one reaction serve as substrates for another. Red arrowheads indicate the recruitment of single enzymes from protein families. The extensive radiation of the specialized metabolic system in plants have greatly contributed to plants' dominance in the terrestrial environments. Credit: Jing-Ke Weng, Salk Institute
"Plants produce a repository of structurally diverse chemicals ..." That's how a new paper begins that proposes some provocative ideas about how plants developed the wide assortment of chemicals they use to sustain life and how they developed other chemicals that may or may not contribute to their immediate survival, but instead often ensure reproductive success in changing, earth environments.
In a June 29 journal Science review paper, Joseph P. Noel, a lead investigator at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and colleagues speculate that plant chemodiversity results from rapid and sometimes unanticipated evolutionary steps.
Noel, along with Jing-Ke Weng and Ryan Philippe also with the Salk Institute, theorize that a very early form of chemical reactions that occurred in the prebiotic soup paved the way for production of chemicals important to the survival of the earliest cellular organisms—chemicals including those essential for building nucleic acids—biological molecules such as DNA, RNA and proteins necessary for encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information.
The researchers speculate these chemical processes, now catalytically robust, evolved into separate pathways both in early plants and in their aquatic ancestors.
One pathway—having chemical processes termed primary metabolism—allowed the production of life-sustaining chemicals.
The other pathway produced chemicals that no longer carry life sustaining functions. Instead, these chemicals have more subtle effects on plants' fitness, or reproductive success in their local environments.
In the paper, the researchers hypothesize these secondary chemical processes arose from the more conserved, life-sustaining processes and term them "specialized metabolism."
"Understanding how plants evolved their ability to synthesize secondary metabolites—such a vast and diverse array of chemicals—is a challenging problem," said Parag Chitnis, director of NSF's Division of Molecular & Cellular Biosciences, which funded Noel's research. "In this article, Dr. Noel and his colleagues present an attractive and plausible explanation."
Noel, Weng and Philippe speculate that specialized metabolism is more malleable than life-sustaining metabolic processes, and that specialized metabolic systems can evolve rapidly to produce new "tailor-made molecules" as means to adapt to ever-changing environments.
"Primary metabolism likely arose from promiscuous primeval metabolic reactions and evolved toward greater catalytic precision and efficiency," the researchers write in their article. "Specialized metabolism likely emerged from primary metabolism."
Salk Institute for Biological Studies researcher, Joseph Noel, and colleagues have been asking how has evolution shaped the complex natural chemistry of plants the world over and what role do these critical natural chemicals play in allowing plants to adapt to such a diverse set of complex and challenging ecosystems? This work funded for more than a decade by the National Science Foundation, is providing new discoveries in plant metabolism, their amazing chemistry and even the development of new technologies to benefit humankind in nutrition, disease prevention and the guilty pleasures of flavors and fragrances. More importantly though, this decade plus study, has provided unanticipated clues as to the rules governing the evolution of plant metabolism and their amazing repetoire of enzymes allowing humans to harness this information to engineer new kinds of metabolism for the burgeoning biorenewables and biofuels industries. Credit: Jing-Ke Weng, Salk Institute
According to the researchers, specialized metabolism likely permitted more and varied chemical reactions and natural products because the enzymes responsible for their synthesis were more flexible in ways scientists are only now beginning to understand at the molecular level.
The upshot was the emergence of secondary chemical reactions that produce color in flowers; rubber for vehicle tires; flavor, smells, nutrition and browning in fruits and wine; natural plant antibiotics; fragrances to attract pollinators and repel herbivores, and even the characteristic aroma and flavor of the cabbage and tomato families.
"Plant secondary metabolism generates a huge diversity of chemicals that are not only very important to the plant, but also for humans," said Greg Warr, a program manager in NSF's Division of Molecular & Cellular Biosciences. "For example, we often depend on plant products for nutrition, fuel, biorenewable chemicals, clothing, shelter and pharmaceuticals."
What's more, Noel and colleagues speculate the depth of specialized metabolism likely mirrored the takeover of Earth by plants that form the essential core of the global food network. As primary metabolism produced life-sustaining chemical reactions, specialized metabolism gave rise to secondary chemical reactions that allowed plants to adapt to geographically dispersed environments, many of which are challenging to other forms of life.
For example, some metabolites, plant hormones regulate various aspects of plant growth and development in response to environmental cues, while others act as ultraviolet sunscreens and prevent dehydration.
"The ability of these complex biological systems in plants to evolve quickly to solve problems of plant survival and reproduction, will ultimately teach us the lessons learned over a 500 million year old experiment plants have been conducting since the dawn of terrestrial life," said Noel.
"Without this ongoing experiment, humankind and all the animal life we know of on the terrestrial earth would cease to exist."
The researchers hope the Science review paper will help provide a provocative and more informed set of hypotheses regarding the amazing tapestry of plant chemistry while also posing still unanswered but fundamental problems to life. "It will certainly guide future research in this important area," said Chitnis.
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What Kind of Water?
There are many kinds of water out there. Here is a brief guide to let you know some of the pros and cons of each
- Tap water: Sure it’s convenient, but what’s in it? Unless you enjoy good water that is tested regularly, you can’t be sure what’s in today’s municipal water supplies. Besides the chemical taste that comes from using chlorine to kill bacteria, the tap water in your home can contain trace amounts of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides and minute amounts industrial chemicals.
- Bottle water: Usually of better quality, bottled water comes from many sources. Normally it is labelled as having come from a particular source, such as a spring, glacier, spa or even a filtered and ozonated public water supply. Even though consistent labelling regulations are not in place, read the label.
- Mineral water: This is a type of spring water that means that the mineral content of the water has not been altered. Plus, to be called “natural spring water” it cannot be extracted from a spring, but must flow freely from its source and bottled at that location.
- Sparkling water: This is water with dissolved carbon dioxide, either from its natural source or added during the bottling process. Interestingly, carbon dioxide is a waste product that your body removes with each breath. Carbonated beverages (especially with added sugars!) may taste good, but aren’t very good for you.
- Distilled water: This is the purest form of water that is collected from condensing the steam from boiling water. Most of the minerals and pollutants have been left behind, leaving a tasteless liquid that is the safest to drink. Some purists add some lemon juice or apple cider vinegar to give it some flavour.
Regardless of the water you drink, drink enough each day and consider drinking it at room temperature. A cold drink slows down the assimilation process in your stomach in the same way an ice pack can reduce blood flow around an area of inflammation.
If you suspect the tap water you use for drinking and cooking contains substances you’d rather not ingest, there are a variety of household water filters you may want to consider.
- Carbon filters: Most of the drinking water filters available for home use are granulated activated carbon filters. Carbon has long been used to adsorb impurities and improve the taste of water. In fact, a pound of carbon has a surface area of 125 acres and can adsorb thousands of different chemicals. However, heavy metals such as lead do not bond to the carbon, making carbon filters of little value if this is your primary concern.
- Reverse osmosis: Using a semipermeable membrane, particles of a certain size or smaller are allowed to pass through, keeping back larger ones. However, some contaminants can make it through the membrane. These systems can reduce heavy metals and minerals and are often combined with activated carbon filters.
- Ozonation: Ozone is mainly used at public water treatment facilities and is becoming popular for those who use well water. This type of treatment “superoxygenates” water. Since this is a process that primarily addresses bacterial contamination, it’s usually combined with carbon filtration to be most effective. It is the most expensive to maintain. | <urn:uuid:1233993f-0f1b-47a3-920a-55bbd93a0f43> | {
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PASADENA, Calif. - NASA's Juno spacecraft is 30 days before its first launch window opens. "The launch window is the length of time allotted every day for an attempt to launch the spacecraft," said Jan Chodas, Juno project manager from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. "The launch period is the period of time in days when everything is in the right place to get your mission off to the right start."
For a mission like Juno, getting everything in the right place includes considering the size of the rocket and spacecraft, where our home planet -- and in particular Juno's launch pad -- is pointed at any moment, and its location in space relative to other celestial objects like Juno's final target, Jupiter.
"One month from today, our first launch window opens at 11:34 a.m. EDT (8:34 a.m. PDT) and lasts 69 minutes," said Chodas. "Our primary launch period is 22 days long, and so if weather or other issues come up on Aug. 5, we have 21 more days to get Juno flying. Once we get Juno into space, it's a five-year cruise to Jupiter."
Juno is scheduled to launch aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket from pad 41-C at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Fla. The solar-powered spacecraft will orbit Jupiter's poles 33 times to find out more about the gas giant's origins, structure, atmosphere and magnetosphere and investigate the existence of a solid planetary core.
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., manages the Juno mission for the principal investigator, Scott Bolton, of Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. The Juno mission is part of the New Frontiers Program managed at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Denver, built the spacecraft. Launch management for the mission is the responsibility of NASA's Launch Services Program at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. | <urn:uuid:7f3900c4-6548-4f2d-a730-342cee75040f> | {
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I've noticed that some cyclists who have been introduced to the concept of the rate of climbing uphill falsely think that Michele Ferrari pulled this out of his own pocket, as in, he invented it or something of that nature. Negative. He only went ahead and popularized the idea, putting a confusing trademark name to it such as "VAM" and developing some of his own methods to look at it with respect to cycling performance. But the idea itself is rooted in centuries old elementary geometry and Newtonian physics. Click here for the history of vectors.
Let's have some *serious* fun with climbing rate. You'll start to see simple relationships that may finally make some sense to you as a cyclist. If you love analysis, this may be for you.
I'll show 5 different ways to study vertical speed, or rate of climbing. 3 of them are using math. The 4th involves using some field work with math. I'll show you what Tom Danielson's climbing rate was for the record ascent up Mount Washington and I'll also show you an error analysis done on it with an example, which is pretty important on anyone's estimations. Finally, the 5th method shows how using some devices do this all for you instead of number crunching.
Let's begin. Enjoy over a cup of tea. If you see something fishy, I welcome you to call out any errors in the proceedings.
METHOD I - A Power Perspective
The overwhelming portion of total propulsion power in Watts needed to just climb uphill on a bicycle is given by the following relation :
9.81 = acceleration due to gravity on earth's surface (meters per second squared)
M = total mass of a bicycle and rider (kilograms)
Vg= ground speed (meters per second).
G = grade of hill, expressed as a fraction = (Rise/Run). To see a graphic of what rise and run mean, click here.
This is only power for climbing and does not include power to overcome wind and rolling resistance, drive-train losses or power for acceleration.
Note 1 : For steep grades, instead of simply (Rise/Run), G should be replaced with :
To put into perspective, at a steady 10% gradient, error % between the small angle approximation of (Rise/Run) and the real formula above is about 0.5%. At a steep 20% grade, it is 1.9%. At a near to impossible 30% grade, it is 4.2%. At a vertical asphalt of 45% grade, the error is way off at 9%.
Rate Of Climbing Broken Down
Now if I were to take the above power equation and break it down into 2 little packages, here is what each package would mean in a practical sense.
In other words, power equals the product of a force (total weight acting downwards) and vertical speed, which in other words is the rate at which you cover vertical distance.
Let's take the second package, the climbing rate.
This is it. Its a beautiful equation. Its units are in meter/second and you can convert it to meter/hour. 1 meter/second = 3600 meters/hours. Its also called VAM by Ferrari, which may be a pretty confusing term to people.
Practical And Theoretical Limits Of Climbing Rate
The equation for climbing rate, with G substituted, is :
If we chuck out the sine function using an overhead crane and plot it, it looks like the following :
Fig 1 : The Climbing Rate Curve for a ground speed of 1 m/s. Cyclists climbing on human power alone can only use a tiny portion of this curve above y=0, ranging from 0% grade to 40-45% grade.
In the linear yellow region, any point on the curve can be given by the equation (rise/run) with negligible error. I have chosen about 10-12% for the upper limit of the linear portion. For any hill grade above this, its better to represent G in the power equation with "Vg.sin[arctan(rise/run)]" than just "Vg.(rise/run)" to avoid errors.
Also notice the point on the curve that signifies 45 % gradient. It is impossible to ride efficiently above 40%. After 45% is the curve signifying landslide possibility, which cannot be attempted by any cyclist. This is the upper limit for practical climbing rate.
Observe the upper and lower limits of the curve in blue. They are called asymptotes because the curve tends to approach towards them but never reaches -1 or +1.
The effect of the ground speed term Vg (other than 1m/s), when multiplied to this sine function f(x) will be to stretch out f(x) like a rubber band and extend the upper and lower limits of the asymptote to -Vg and +Vg. What this is telling us is that if a cyclist's ground speed is, say, 5 m/s (11.2 mph, 18 kph), his climbing rate cannot go below -5 m/s (-18,000 m/hour) or above +5m/s (18,000 m/hour). These are the absolute upper limits of theoretical climbing rate for his given ground speed of 5m/s. Its the heaven and hell of climbing. Both are impossible. (Whether hell is above or below is upto you to decide. I think in climbing, hell should be above!)
Note 2 : If grade kept increasing and increasing, do you think gravity will actually allow you to keep climbing on your own power? In other words, would rate of climbing keep on increasing with step increases in % gradient, as Ferrari's website may have you believe? Yes, it does. But there's a limit where we can't go further and vertical speed drops to zero. As you ascend uphill your muscles have to supply the power to increase your potential energy. It doesn't come from thin air. Eventually, you will become tired. Your mechanical gearing advantage will decrease as you have a finite set of gears. Your speed will decrease exponentially and at some critically steep grade possibly 40% or more, your velocity will be reduced to near zero and you can roll backwards or fall. It doesn't become efficient to propel yourself anymore. See Fig 2 below. This is why I argued in the past that on very steep grades, it is more practical energy wise to get off your bike and walk. Why? Because the speeds are more or less the same cycling or walking!
Note 3 : Human muscular power is also very different from electrical motor power. The capability of a human to deliver bicycle propulsion is a function of time before becoming exhausted, also called endurance time represented by the symbol tau (T). Every individual has a power curve (Watts vs Time) that generally curves downwards from left to right. It tells us that high power can be sustained for lesser time than lower (but slower) power output. It is very unlikely that a high climbing rate can be sustained for a very long time through human power alone (unless you're some freak). This can be seen in the graph below.
Fig 2 : Pick a certain W/lb and while staying on the horizontal line, notice how your ground velocity Vg decreases drastically as you move towards the sloping lines representing higher grades.
Relationship Of Climbing Rate To Grade Inside And Outside Linear Curve
In the linear portion of Fig 1, a 10% relative increase in grade in the linear region (say from 7% to 7.7%) should theoretically result in a 10% increase in climbing rate. In other words, climbing rate is directly proportional to the vertical ascent and inversely proportional to the horizontal length of climb. So if we kept ground speed and run constant, a higher rise leads to higher climbing rate and vice versa. Say we doubled the ascent, then climbing rate is double the initial rate. Conversely, if we kept ground speed and rise constant, a longer length of climb will decrease climbing rate or vice versa. Say we doubled the length of the climb, then the climbing rate is halved from the initial rate. If we halved the length, the rate is doubled.
Outside of this linear curve after about 10% gradient, a 10% relative increase in grade (say from 17% to 18.8%) should only result in a 3.8% increase in climbing rate. So even though climbing rate increases, it doesn't increase as much due to the nature of the curve above. You can see how its trying to level off.
An Example : Andorre Arcalis 10.6 km, avg. 7.1 %, catégorie HC
We can take the profile information of the ascent to the ski resort of Arcalis and compute our climbing gradient for each kilometer using kilometer specific gradient and kilometer specific ground speed. The grade isn't steep, hence you can use G = (rise/run).
Do this for all 10.6 kms, add them up and take their average. You should end up with an approximation of your total climbing rate for the mountain. Here is first example done for Kilometer 1 :
METHOD II - A Geometric/Vector Perspective
If you remember some vector theory, you know that any vector can be resolved into component vectors. In our 3-D world, the velocity vector of a cyclist uphill can be resolved into an x-component, y-component and z-component velocities. For the sake of simplicity, if we looked at it in 2-D, it would look like the following. The upward velocity component is the climbing rate or vertical speed. Refer to the equations on the right side to solve for these Cartesian component vectors.
Try to visualize this picture of blue, red and green arrows in your mind as you imagine the cycling moving uphill. The length of each vector signifies the magnitude of the speed. As the cyclist changes speed or accelerates, the length of the ground velocity vector changes in real-time and so will its components since they're all connected. Once the cyclist approaches the downhill section over the other side, the direction of ground velocity vector points downward and its length increases because of the action of gravity and the quickening of pace (until terminal velocity is reached or above). The vertical component will then point directly down and its length signifies the descending rate.
Note 4 : In the real world, since we have a third vector for the lateral swaying/zigzagging motion as you climb a hill, the climbing rate calculated from 2-D resolution of vectors would be some percentage off from the real value. This is the error resulting from simplification.
METHOD III - A Time Perspective
Suppose you don't care for any of the above nonsense to calculate your climbing rate, you can still find it out using your time. Go out to a climb like Mt. Washington in the United States and time yourself using a stopwatch. For example, back in 2002, Tom Danielson set an unbeaten record of 49'24" for the 1432m ascent at 11.9% ave.
Plug in what we know for Mt. Washington. Ascent = 1432 height meters. Climb time = 49.4 minutes.
Tom's VAM estimate from time comes out to 1739 meters / hour. If you want to break his record, you need to aim for round about this vertical speed. Else... you can sit at home and eat ice cream.
Climbing Rate Error Analysis
Now we all are human beings. Our stop watches are not very precise instruments. And when someone tells you that the ascent in meters of a mountain is "x", what is the error in it and how does it propagate into the final climbing rate calculation based on Method III?
Well, that is simple. Here the error equation :
δClimbing Rate = Error in climbing rate (meters/hour)
δAscent = Error in ascent (meters)
δTime = Error in time measurement on a device.
Lets put this into perspective. Lets just suppose that the person who measured Tom Danielson's climbing rate was 50 meters off in his estimate of the total vertical climb and there was a time measurement uncertainty of 0.2 seconds or .003 minutes (20% of least count of a watch of 1 sec is a good rule of thumb). If we plug this into the error equation, we get :
What this is telling us is that because of the uncertainties in the vertical rise of the climb and time taken in our example, the uncertainty in Danielson's climbing rate (or VAM) is 103.8 m/hour. The relative error is then a 6% error in the initially calculated figure of 1739 m/hour.
This is just an example, mind you. I did not declare that someone estimated the ascent 50 meters off the real value. Yet, this shows that its important to do an error analysis on anyone's climbing rate measured out on the field. Michele Ferrari does not show an error analysis on his data presented on his website concerning this year's Tour de France. People are bound to look at inflated values and declare, "HE DOPED, HE DOPED!! CATCH HIM!"
METHOD IV. An Analytic Perspective
If you still want to dig deeper into some relations using the power of partial differential equations, see Dan Connelly's page on an analytic treatment of climbing rate. You get more mathematical ideas and can do more cool things with it. Dan is a semiconductor engineer from California and like all engineers, loves his number crunching.
METHOD V - A Device Perspective
If you think math and science are beyond you, then spare some coin and try a nifty little device called a variometer, or vario for short. Paragliders use wrist-mounted variometers to check their vertical speed and altitude. This is an expensive but lightweight gear. It uses electronic pressure sensors to sense the change in pressure around them. Since there is a correlation between pressure and altitude, it is possible to calculate instantaneous rate of ascent or descent. For example, between the foot and the peak of the Arcalis climb, there is approximately 0.08 kg/cm2 of pressure difference.
The one shown in the picture, made by a company called Ascent, displays vertical speed with adjustable averaging (m/s or ft/min). Its resolution is 0.1 meters/s or 360 meters/hour. It can record data for 200 'flights' and has a rechargeable lithium-polymer battery with life of upto 10 hours or 4 hours standby time. Because a cyclist's vertical speed range is so small in comparison to a paraglider (the speed range of a paraglider is typically 20,000–60,000 metres per hour), such a device may even be impractical. Here's a video of how it works. I have not used one so it'll be interesting to find out whether they work in any useful manner for a cyclist.
Another option is the Avocet Vertech II Alpin which is built for mountain hikers. It is claimed it can show you current climbing rate of range 0 to 28,000 feet per hour in with 100 ft/hour resolution or 30 meters/hr. See other features here.
A reader also commented that Mavic's Wintec Ultimate cyclocomputer that costs about $200 can also show you vertical climbing rate, but I cannot confirm this.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES :
Power To Weight Ratio
Air Pressure And Altitude Above Sea Level Reference Table
The Standard Rule For Climbing Bragging Rights
Contador's Climbing Rate & Power to Weight Ratio on L'Alto de Angliru (Spain)
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Studies have shown that language development varies between the sexes, with males generally gaining language skills at a slower rate. Prenatal testosterone is known to influence fetal neurodevelopment, and preliminary studies have suggested that the hormone is associated with language delay. Researchers from the U of Western Australia explored this issue in a large cohort of children. They collected umbilical cord blood samples from 861 randomly selected births and measures the bioavailable testosterone levels. As expected the males had a much higher level of testosterone in the umbilical cord blood than the females. For the following three years the parents completed an Infant Monitoring Questionnaire annually that measured communication (language), gross-motor, fine-motor, adaptive and social development.
As previously reported in other studies, a greater proportion of males had greater communication delay at all three assessments stages. In addition to the language deficits, males were more likely to have delays in fine-motor function and personal-social skills at age 3. Conversely, females exposed to the highest levels of testosterone had a reduced likelihood of having a language delay at that age.
This study suggests that high prenatal testosterone levels are a risk factor for language delay in male children. In contrast to the increased risk for delay in males, higher levels of testosterone appeared to reduce the risk of language delay among females.
Males exposed to the highest testosterone levels were more than twice as likely to have a language delay at age 3, according to Andrew Whitehouse, PhD, of the University of Western Australia in Perth, and colleagues.
"These data suggest that high prenatal testosterone levels are a risk factor for language delay in males, but may be a protective factor for females," according to Whitehouse. "Replication of these findings is essential, and may help refine our understanding of the level of testosterone that is associated with a detrimental effect on language development in boys." The researchers expected the results in males but found it difficult to explain the protective effect in females.
They speculated that it might have to do with sex differences in how the brain lateralizes function across left and right hemispheres.
Whitehouse A, et al "Sex-specific associations between umbilical cord blood testosterone levels and language delay in early childhood" J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02523.x. | <urn:uuid:cfa165d4-c766-4415-a28b-dc53c9cc8f37> | {
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The Unit 1 pre-assessment question from Teachers College Reading units of Study Grade 4 asks:
How did the [character] change from the beginning to the end of the story and why? (Unit 1 -“Papa’s Parrot” by Cynthia Rylant.)
In previous posts, I questioned this kind of assessment that asks about character change in a story.
- Is a Question about Character Change in Elementary Texts Worth Asking? Part 1
- Is a Question about Character Change in Elementary Texts Worth Asking? Part 2 or What Does the Character Learn?
I have argued in these posts that in texts for the 3rd grade -and even in more sophisticated texts up through Grade 12- there may not be a character change.
In this assessment, the character in Rylant’s story does not change. His character is the same, but once he learns about the parrot, he experiences a change in his feelings towards his father…and the parrot.
The character change question above may have been generated by a misread of the ELA Common Core State Standards. The Reading Literature Standard 6.4 (grade 6) states that students in grade 6 should be able to:
Describe how a particular story’s or drama’s plot unfolds in a series of episodes as well as how the characters respond or change as the plot moves toward a resolution.
It should be noted that the question asked above is not even part of a Grade 4 standard, nor does the question ask how a character responds.
The question also does not directly ask if the opinions or viewpoint of the character have evolved during the story. Readers may see such changes in the character’s sentiment or fortune or direction or purpose. Even in the most predictable book series for grade 4 readers, there could also be a change of mind, or stripes, or tune, or ways.
But a change in character?
Students in 4th grade will have several years to go before they meet the kinds of characters (usually British) who are radically altered by circumstance in the plot. They will have years before they meet Golding’s Jack (Lord of the Flies), Huxley’s John (Brave New World), and Milton’s Lucifer (Paradise Lost). They have more to read before they encounter the long list of Shakespeare’s radical transformations in the characters of Juliet, Macbeth, Richard III, Henry IV, etc.
And even with evidence of change on these heavy hitters, there are literary scholars who could still argue that the character is not so much changed but that character is revealed over the length of the text.
A report from Eileen K. Graham, et al. in 2017 (A Coordinated Analysis of Big-Five Trait Change Across 16 Longitudinal Samples) reviewed data on almost 50,000 people in the hopes of answering that question on changes in human personality. This meta-analysis looked for the common ground, between the belief in the 1970s that “personality is unstable for nearly everyone” (Mischel,1969, 1977) and the belief in the 1980-90’s that “personality is stable for nearly everyone”(Costa &McCrae, 1986; Costa & McCrae, 1980).
While sudden dramatic changes in personality are rare, Graham et al. found in the analysis that studies did reveal a change in certain aspects of human personality. These changes in people took time, over a course pf years or decades, not days or weeks.
“We conclude from our study that neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness go down over time, while agreeableness remains relatively stable.”
In other words, the study noted that agreeableness (or a lack of) in humans remains a constant personality trait. In humans, the other changes in personality traits-moodiness, sociability, carefulness, and tolerance- are measured as a loss.
This finding is contrary to what happens to characters in literature. In literature, characters experience some kind of gain, good or bad. Characters make a discovery, an anagnorisis, literally the Greek word for discovery. Anagnorisis is the transition in which a character may gain wisdom, knowledge, or maybe enlightenment. Even when the cost of experience results in punishment or in tragedy, the character gains a new understanding.
The character learns something.
So, back to the 4th grade to the question of about character change which has caused so much concern.
Texts that students can (or choose) to read independently at that grade level do not contain any character change. They can point to the popular Dork Diaries, Origami Yoda, Big Nate, Diary of a Wimpy Kid as examples.
While there is no change in character in any of these series, (the characters remain immature, sometimes shallow) these characters do learn important life lessons. These life lessons are intentionally directed at students who are themselves are learning as they move from innocence or ignorance to experience and knowledge.
The more sophisticated stories taught at the fourth-grade level, such as Tuck Everlasting or Hatchet, echo similar messages. In these novels, “You are good as you are” seems counter to the idea of character change, especially when coupled with a cautionary “learn from others” or “learn from your mistakes.”
The difference between “character change” and “what a character learns” can be a direct route to helping a student determine the book’s theme. The story’s theme is always tied to a character’s discovery (the anagnorisis), for example:
- Frindle (Andrew Clements) that language is flexible.
- Matilda (Roald Dahl) that adults don’t know everything.
- Esperanza Rising (Pam Munoz Ryan) that families who stick together can survive.
In each of these stories, it is not the character that changes, but the character’s thinking or feeling. Since the question of character change itself needs to change, the revised question for grade four students is:
“What does the character learn from the beginning to the end of the story, and why is this significant?”
Rephrasing the question to what the character learned can help students discover the message of a story, connecting how an author creates a character’s change of heart or a change of sides to the theme or message of the story.
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Suppose, though, that the vegetarian overcomes her feelings of distaste, and decides to eat the chop, perhaps out of politeness to her host. Has she done something morally reprehensible? Chances are that what she has been served won’t be the kind of humanely raised meat that some (but not all) ethical vegetarians find permissible to consume. More likely, it would be the product of cruel, intensive factory farming. Eating the meat under these circumstances couldn’t then be an act of what the philosopher Jeff McMahan calls “benign carnivorism.” Would the vegetarian guest have done something wrong by breaking her own moral code?
Most vegetarians are concerned about animal suffering caused by meat consumption, or about the impact of factory farming on the environment. For simplicity’s sake, I will consider only the case of animal suffering, but the same argument could be applied to the other bad consequences of today’s practices of factory farming, including, for example, greenhouse gas emissions, inefficient use of land, and use of pesticides, fertilizer, fuel, feed, and water, as well as the use of antibiotics causing antibiotic resistance in livestock’s bacteria which is then passed on to humans.
Because eating meat typically supports the practice of raising animals in factory farms where they are inhumanely treated and killed, eating meat is likely to contribute to animal suffering (or to the other bad consequences of factory farming). Now, if we agree that one of the good reasons for being vegetarian is that eating meat to some degree encourages practices that cause animal suffering, then at a first glance it might seem that eating meat only rarely is morally permissible (but see the philosopher Shelly Kagan for a counterargument) because it is very likely that eating meat only occasionally will not have any impact on the amount of suffering inflicted on animals.
However, by not eating meat, and especially by not eating meat when they are offered it in front of non-vegetarians, vegetarians send out a message to other people. By sticking to their ethical commitment, vegetarians signal that there is something wrong with being a carnivore, thus prompting other people to consider the morality of their habit of eating meat and perhaps even persuading them that consuming meat is wrong. In other words, the positive impact of being a vegetarian, in terms of reduction of animal suffering, might be amplified when vegetarianism is publicly defended and demonstrated in social contexts. And, conversely, making exceptions to vegetarianism might convey the message that eating meat is not so bad after all. If even vegetarians sometimes eat meat, then eating meat can’t be so reprehensible from a moral perspective, can it? So perhaps the guest who ate the pork chop was morally wrong for this reason: she sent out the wrong message to the people who were having dinner with her.
But it isn’t as simple as that. Avoiding meat in all circumstances, including in the circumstances in which the vegetarian guest found herself, is a strategy that can backfire. Plausibly, the ‘right’ message to be sent to non-vegetarians is one that increases the chances that as many of them as possible will give up meat or at least reduce their meat consumption. If people perceive vegetarianism as a position that allows for no exception, they are probably less likely to become vegetarian. A flexible moral position is more appealing than a rigid one that allows for no exceptions. It is more likely that people would be convinced to become flexible vegetarians—that is, that they abstain from eating meat with some exceptions—than to become rigid vegetarians, and being a flexible vegetarian is preferable, from a moral perspective, to being a carnivore.
So the vegetarian guest’s eating meat when offered has probably shown the host that it is possible to be a (flexible) vegetarian and, at the same time, occasionally enjoy some meat without feeling guilty. This has certainly made (flexible) vegetarianism look more accessible and more appealing than it would have been if the guest had refused to eat meat. Granted, perhaps by eating meat only occasionally one would lose the right to call herself a ‘vegetarian’, but this might not be all that important. What matters more is that a world with many people who eat meat only occasionally is far preferable to the world we currently live in where there are relatively few vegetarians and a vast majority of carnivores.
This article was originally published at Aeon and has been republished under Creative Commons. | <urn:uuid:885e864e-2d79-49f7-81c5-85e2b94afccd> | {
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Infrared heats people, floors, walls, and other surfaces directly without heating the air first. The result is an instant warming effect, similar to the effect felt when the sun emerges from the clouds on a chilly day. When infrared heating is used in an enclosed building, objects in the space absorb the emitted infrared energy. Once absorbed, the energy is converted into heat which in turn warms the surrounding air. With convection space heating, the air must first be heated and then circulated in order to warm objects and people in the space.Through various methods of heat transfer (radiation, re-radiation, conduction and convection) the air is heated secondarily as it passes over the warm concrete. Therefore, the heaters can be controlled by air temperature sensing thermostats.
|Infrared heating is a system or appliance that provides heat by thermal radiation. A gas fired infrared heating system emulates the efficiency of the sun by generating radiant energy that is converted into heat when absorbed by objects in its path. Once the infrared energy is absorbed by the floors, machinery, stock and people, it is then re-radiated to warm the surrounding air.| | <urn:uuid:b02aecb7-d24d-4f73-9221-e40eceecb1c4> | {
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When a parent fears that their child has dyslexia, and investigates, there are 3 likely scenarios.
Scenario 1: It’s ‘Visual Dyslexia’ (aka ‘Scotopic Sensitivity’ – parents call it Irlen Syndrome)
Basically this is when the words are appearing to slide shake, fade or somehow move on the page when your child looks at the page. This is good news because it is often fairly straightforward for parents to put simple things in place that make a big difference very quickly.
Most of the time, when parents have come to me fearing that their child has dyslexia, it has usually turned out to be what parents call ‘visual dyslexia’, and what the experts would call ‘Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome’ or ‘Irlen Syndrome’.
Common indicators of this ‘Visual Dyslexia’ (Scotopic Sensitivity):
There are lots of different indicators of this type of visual dyslexia. Here’s a quick check for indicators that works for a lot of parents: Ask your child to stare at a dot in the middle of a WHITE page of text for at least 10 seconds. Then ask the child to tell you what the words are doing on the page. Be very careful to not put words in your child’s mouth, but listen carefully for your child telling you that the words are appearing to shake, come off the page, slide around, go blurry or fade away.
Scenario 2: It’s ‘Phonological/Auditory Dyslexia’ (Official dyslexia)
This is classic dyslexia – where the words are not appearing to move or do anything funny on the page. However, when your child is processing books or text in their brain, things just aren’t quite working the way they should. Phonological/Auditory Dyslexia is a lifetime issue, and it is present if all 3 of these criteria are happening:
- Your child is definitely behind in reading and therefore has a reading problem (as compared to other children there age and from a similar education background).
- There is “unexpectedness” and “surprise” that your otherwise normal child is behind in reading skills (and this can’t be explained by poor teaching, extended school absences, brain injuries, or some other valid reason that would account for why your child is behind).
- Your child struggles with phonological skills (can’t quickly grasp and rearrange words), yet your child has grasped plenty of other, more difficult higher-level skills that are not affected.
Common indicators of Phonological/Auditory Dyslexia:
People with this type of phonological dyslexia really struggled to read made-up/nonsense words. They can read words like ‘sanity’ and ‘cheese’, but when you put a word like ‘nitpog’ or ‘simgin’ in front of them, they are very slow to sound out those words. Another skill they really struggle with is being told to read a word, but to take a letter out first… e.g to read words like ‘plain’ and ‘black’ but without the ‘l’ sound. Children with phonological dyslexia are often very slow to read, even as adults and find reading very exhausting.
Scenario 3: Your child actually does not have dyslexia or visual issues
There is another clear, easy-to-spot explanation for your child is lack of reading success… For example, your child was taught by 4 different teachers last year, none of whom took the time to really understand your child PLUS your child’s school is the lowest performing school in the worst school district PLUS your child is extremely shortsighted and only recently got glasses.
Reasons why people can accidentally misdiagnose scotopic sensitivity or phonological dyslexia
There are plenty of reasons. Three of the main reasons would be that your child needs glasses, that your child has a hearing issue or that your child has a working memory issue.
IMPORTANT TO GET PROFESSIONAL HELP:
If you seriously think that your child has dyslexia, then it’s a great idea to get a professional opinion about that. This is especially true if your child is facing serious challenges at school. The more severe your child is difficulties are, the more important it is to get local, professional help.
If, after looking through this section and these indicators, you are fairly confident that your child is dealing with some form of dyslexia, it’s important to get professional advice. You wouldn’t diagnose yourself with cancer by reading Wikipedia, and you wouldn’t rewire your house based on a Youtube clip. This is just a starting point.
Can a child have visual dyslexia AND phonological dyslexia at the same time? – Question sent by a Mum
MICHAEL’S ANSWER: The answer to your question is technically “Yes”. However, the most likely situation (I’m guessing about 90% likely in your situation) is that your child has visual dyslexia (scotopic sensitivity/visual stress or whatever people want to call it) and that that is causing it to be difficult for your child to read. Then, when your child is struggling to read, people will think your child has phonological dyslexia. But if you fix the issue of the visual dyslexia, it is highly, highly likely that it will turn out the child does not have phonological dyslexia.
Now, there are some people who would disagree with what I’m saying, and who we want to run a lot of tests for your child that are very expensive for phonological dyslexia. However, until you get to the bottom of the visual dyslexia then those tests would not be accurate anyway. Does that make sense? If you are worried, then your “Mum-radar” is probably working well. | <urn:uuid:cb27c9f1-efeb-433e-a374-40d4618020d0> | {
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Economics Lecture 4
What affects your decision to go to the movies?
Market = group of buyers and sellers
4 types of market structure
1. Perfect competition – lots of buyers and sellers, goods are the same
2. Monopoly- one seller, they determine the price
3. Oligopoly- few firms in the market, similar to monopoly
4. Monopolistic Competition – lots of sellers but different products | <urn:uuid:73eef69e-60fe-414e-b3bb-ff157a94cc45> | {
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||This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the Russian Wikipedia. (November 2010)|
|Madhura, Basa Mathura بَهاسَ مَدورا|
|Region||Island of Madura, Sapudi Islands, northern coastal area of eastern Java, Singapore|
|15 million (2007)|
Arabic script (Pegon alphabet)
mad – Madurese proper
kkv – Kangean
Madurese is a language of the Madurese people of Madura Island and eastern Java, Indonesia; it is also spoken on the neighbouring small Kangean Islands and Sapudi Islands, as well as from migrants to other parts of Indonesia, namely the Tapal Kuda ("horseshoe") area of neighbouring Java (comprising Pasuruan, Surabaya, Malang to Banyuwangi), the Masalembu Islands, and even some on Kalimantan. The Kangean dialect may be a separate language. It was traditionally written in the Javanese script, but the Latin script is now more commonly used. The number of speakers, though shrinking, is estimated to be 8-13 million.
Links between Bali–Sasak languages and Madurese are more evident with the "low" form (common form). There are some common words between Madurese and Filipino languages as well as between Madurese and Banjar. There are several dialects.
Phonology and morphology
Madurese has more consonants than its neighboring languages due to it having voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated, and voiced sounds. Similar to Javanese, it has a contrast between dental and alveolar (even retroflex) stops . Nouns are not inflected in gender and are pluralized via reduplication. Its basic word order is SVO. Negation is expressed by putting a negative particle before the verb, adjective or noun phrase. As with other similar languages there are different negative particles for different kinds of negation.
- Man: lalake
- Woman: babine
- Yes: iya
- No: enja
- Water: aeng
- Sun: are
- Three: tello'
- I/me: Engko'
- You: be'na
- Nationalencyklopedin "Världens 100 största språk 2007" The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007
- Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Madurese". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
- Stevens, Alan (2001) "Madurese", in Facts About the World's Languages, Jane Garry (ed.) & Carl Rubino (ed.), New York: H. W. Wilson
- Davies, William D. 2010. A grammar of Madurese. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
|This Austronesian languages-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|
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Hydrogeological risk activities
Hydrogeological risk is one of the major risks afflicting Italy.
Calamities hitting the domestic territory have taught us that, to effectively protect the life of the people and keep the infrastructures in good condition, we must be able to foresee possible events in an area, identify possible damages and the actions to take before, during and after an emergency: this is precisely the reason why prediction and prevention have taken on increasing importance as compared to what happened in a not too distant past.
Prediction and prevention is based on increasingly close contacts between civil protection and the world of scientific research, with new technological systems for collecting and processing information and data processing centres capable of warning about the probability of a catastrophic event occurring with maximum possible notice, by preparing sophisticated and efficient risk maps, and promotion of normative and technical measures to prevent and mitigate damages.
In the hydrogeologycal risk, prevision activities help to understand expected phenomena, especially extreme meteorological events. To achieve this goal, we use tools and sophisticated techniques are used together: applied meteorology, satellite images, weather radars, hydraulic models, etc..
Prevention activities help to avoid or minimize the possible occurrence of damage due to a flood, a landslide etc. Prevention activities are thus designed to take measures designed to eliminate or mitigate the effects on the ground.
Prevention measures may be structural or non-structural. Structural interventions consist of active or passive arranging works, which aim to reduce the danger of the event, lowering the probability of occurrence or mitigating its impact. Examples of structural interventions are the banks, the rolling tanks , the hydraulic-forestry, consolidation of slopes, etc.. Non-structural measures consist of those actions aimed at reducing damages through the introduction of constraints that prevent or limit the urban expansion in areas at risk, emergency planning, the establishment of early warning systems and monitoring networks.
Prediction tools and monitoring networks allow to implement a warning and surveillance system able to activate well in advance the civil protection machine in case of a planned event whose estimated or measured intensity exceeds the predetermined threshold of criticality in the intensity. Exceeding these thresholds will lead to the implementation of activities under the emergency planning and, in particular, those for the safety of people.
A system of gathering centres is active on the Italian territory for collecting, monitoring and sharing of weather, hydrology and hydraulics data. The network of these centres is the National System for early warning and monitoring. The management of the national alert system is provided by the Civil Protection Department and the regions through the network of functional centres, regional structures and competence centers. Each Region shall establish procedures and methods of its own early warning system for civil protection at regional, provincial and municipal levels. | <urn:uuid:1b719e60-854a-4479-b2e0-d8f7459a6007> | {
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The African Meeting House
of the Museum of
African American History
The African Meeting House on Beacon Hill was built in 1806 in what once was the heart of Boston's 19th-century African American community. It is today a showcase of Black community organization in the formative years of the new republic.
The African Meeting House is the oldest black church edifice still standing in the United States. Thomas Paul, an African American preacher from New Hampshire, led worship meetings for blacks at Faneuil Hall. Rev. Paul, with twenty of his members, officially formed the First African Baptist Church on August 8, 1805. In the same year, land was purchased for a building in the West End. The African Meeting House, as it came to be commonly called, was completed the next year.
The $9.5-million-dollar historic restoration, complete with new elevator and stair tower making it accessible for all, has returned the African Meeting House to its 1855 appearance, with elegantly curved pews and pulpit, period wainscoting and wall finishes, cast-iron posts and golden chandelier. This National Historic Landmark, now open to the public after being closed six years, welcomes visitors with Words Spoken at the Meeting House etched on granite panels towering in the new courtyard entryway.
This year we are excited to re-start our partnership with both the Museum of African American History and the African Meeting House to present partnership concerts showcasing New England Conservatory students! | <urn:uuid:63578d86-0cb2-45f7-8804-8ef6e7e58ed1> | {
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Potassium is the eighth or ninth most common element by mass (0.2%) in the human body, so that a 60 kg adult contains a total of about 120 g of potassium. The body has about as much potassium as sulfur and chlorine, and only calcium and phosphorus are more abundant (with the exception of the ubiquitous CHON elements). Potassium ions are present in a wide variety of proteins and enzymes.
- resting cellular-membrane potential and the propagation of action potentials in neuronal, muscular, and cardiac tissue. Due to the electrostatic and chemical properties, K+
ions are larger than Na+
ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell membranes can differentiate between the two ions, actively pumping or passively passing one of the two ions while blocking the other.
- hormone secretion and action
- vascular tone
- systemic blood pressure control
- gastrointestinal motility
- acid–base homeostasis
- glucose and insulin metabolism
- mineralocorticoid action
- renal concentrating ability
- fluid and electrolyte balance
Potassium homeostasis denotes the maintenance of the total body potassium content, plasma potassium level, and the ratio of the intracellular to extracellular potassium concentrations within narrow limits, in the face of pulsatile intake (meals), obligatory renal excretion, and shifts between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
Plasma potassium is normally kept at 3.5 to 5.0 millimoles (mmol) [or milliequivalents (mEq)] per liter by multiple mechanisms. Levels outside this range are associated with an increasing rate of death from multiple causes, and some cardiac, kidney, and lung diseases progress more rapidly if serum potassium levels are not maintained within the normal range.
An average meal of 40-50 mmol presents the body with more potassium than is present in all plasma (20-25 mmol). However, this surge causes the plasma potassium to rise only 10% at most as a result of prompt and efficient clearance by both renal and extra-renal mechanisms.
Hypokalemia, a deficiency of potassium in the plasma, can be fatal if severe. Common causes are increased gastrintestinal loss (vomiting, diarrhea), and increased renal loss (diuresis). Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex response; and in severe cases, respiratory paralysis, alkalosis, and cardiac arrhythmia.
Potassium content in the plasma is tightly controlled by four basic mechanisms, which have various names and classifications. The four are 1) a reactive negative-feedback system, 2) a reactive feed-forward system, 3) a predictive or circadian system, and 4) an internal or cell membrane transport system. Collectively, the first three are sometimes termed the "external potassium homeostasis system"; and the first two, the "reactive potassium homeostasis system".
- The reactive negative-feedback system refers to the system that induces renal secretion of potassium in response to a rise in the plasma potassium (potassium ingestion, shift out of cells, or intravenous infusion.)
- The reactive feed-forward system refers to an incompletely understood system that induces renal potassium secretion in response to potassium ingestion prior to any rise in the plasma potassium. This is probably initiated by gut cell potassium receptors that detect ingested potassium and trigger vagal afferent signals to the pituitary gland.
- The predictive or circadian system increases renal secretion of potassium during mealtime hours (e.g. daytime for humans, nighttime for rodents) independent of the presence, amount, or absence of potassium ingestion. It is mediated by a circadian oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain (central clock), which causes the kidney (peripheral clock) to secrete potassium in this rhythmic circadian fashion.
The action of the sodium-potassium pump is an example of primary active transport. The two carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane on the left are using ATP to move sodium out of the cell against the concentration gradient; The two proteins on the right are using secondary active transport to move potassium into the cell: this process results in reconstitution of ATP.
- The ion transport system moves potassium across the cell membrane using two mechanisms. One is active and pumps sodium out of, and potassium into, the cell. The other is passive and allows potassium to leak out of the cell. Potassium and sodium cations influence fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments by osmotic forces. The movement of potassium and sodium through the cell membrane is mediated by the Na+/K+-ATPase pump. This ion pump uses ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell, creating an electrochemical gradient and electromotive force across the cell membrane. The highly selective potassium ion channels (which are tetramers) are crucial for hyperpolarization inside neurons after an action potential is triggered, to cite one example. The most recently discovered potassium ion channel is KirBac3.1, which makes a total of five potassium ion channels (KcsA, KirBac1.1, KirBac3.1, KvAP, and MthK) with a determined structure. All five are from prokaryotic species.
Renal filtration, reabsorption, and excretion
Renal handling of potassium is closely connected to sodium handling. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells [150 mmol/L, (4.8 g)], while sodium is the major cation of extracellular fluid [150 mmol/L, (3.345 g)]. In the kidneys, about 180 liters of plasma is filtered through the glomeruli and into the renal tubules per day. This filtering involves about 600 g of sodium and 33 g of potassium. Since only 1–10 g of sodium and 1–4 g of potassium are likely to be replaced by diet, renal filtering must efficiently reabsorb the remainder from the plasma.
Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits; potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits. Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved also, but, because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium, the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, urine usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high.
With no potassium intake, it is excreted at about 200 mg per day until, in about a week, potassium in the serum declines to a mildly deficient level of 3.0–3.5 mmol/L. If potassium is still withheld, the concentration continues to fall until a severe deficiency causes eventual death.
The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell membrane. When ions move through pumps there is a gate in the pumps on either side of the cell membrane and only one gate can be open at once. As a result, approximately 100 ions are forced through per second. Pores have only one gate, and there only one kind of ion can stream through, at 10 million to 100 million ions per second. The pores require calcium to open although it is thought that the calcium works in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores. Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the amino acids mimic the water hydration that takes place in water solution by the nature of the electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the pore.
Detection by taste buds
Potassium can be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ions taste sweet, allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices, while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of high-potassium solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation by liquid drinks a palatability challenge.
Adequate potassium intake is achieved by eating a variety of foods. Potassium is present in all fruits, vegetables, meat and fish. Foods with high potassium concentrations include yam, parsley, dried apricots, milk, chocolate, all nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, bananas, avocados, coconut water, soybeans, and bran. Dried apricots have the highest concentration of potassium by weight of any food. Many processed foods contain no potassium.
Epidemiological studies indicate that diets high in potassium can reduce the risk of hypertension and possibly stroke (by a mechanism independent of blood pressure). The 2004 guidelines of the Institute of Medicine specify a Dietary Reference Intake (DRI]) of 4,700 mg of potassium (100 mEq); most Americans consume only half that amount per day. Likewise, in the European Union, in particular in Germany and Italy, insufficient potassium intake is somewhat common. However, the British NHS recommends a lower intake, saying that adults need 3,500 mg per day and that excess amounts may cause health problems such as stomach pain and diarrhoea. A meta-analysis concluded that a 1640 mg increase in the daily intake of potassium was associated with a 21% lower risk of stroke.
Supplements of potassium are most widely used in conjunction with diuretics that block reabsorption of sodium and water upstream from the distal tubule (thiazides and loop diuretics), because this promotes increased distal tubular potassium secretion, with resultant increased potassium excretion. A variety of prescription and over-the counter supplements are available. Potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste make liquid supplements unpalatable. Typical doses range from 10 mmol (400 mg), to 20 mmol (800 mg). Potassium is also available in tablets or capsules, which are formulated to allow potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix, since very high concentrations of potassium ion that occur adjacent to a solid tablet can injure the gastric or intestinal mucosa. For this reason, non-prescription potassium pills are limited by law in the US to a maximum of 99 mg of potassium.
Since the kidneys are the site of potassium excretion, individuals with impaired kidney function are at risk for hyperkalemia if dietary potassium and supplements are not restricted. The more severe the impairment, the more severe is the restriction necessary to avoid hyperkalemia. | <urn:uuid:1fe0215e-edc3-4c08-bdf1-68dcfc6e96d8> | {
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Dealing With Triggers: Pets
Being around animals can be a trigger for many kids.
Why Are Pets a Trigger?
Pets have a protein in their saliva (spit), urine (pee), or dander (tiny flakes of dead skin) that can set off a person's asthma or allergy symptoms.
How Can I Help My Child Deal With It?
If you think being around a pet is making your child's symptoms worse, have your child tested for allergies.
If your child has an animal allergy, you'll have to decide whether to keep your pet or find it a new home. The best course is to remove the pet from your home, though this isn't usually the easiest or happiest solution. Your child, other kids in the family, and even adults may have a tough time with this decision.
In some cases, your doctor may say it's OK to keep a pet if your child takes medicine or gets allergy shots. If so, you'll still need to limit your child's exposure to the animal.
Here are some tips:
- Keep pets out of your child's bedroom and playroom.
- Encourage your child not to hug or kiss the animal.
- Vacuum and dust regularly and avoid rugs and wall-to-wall carpeting, especially in your child's bedroom.
- Have someone other than your child wash or brush your pet every week. Bathing your animal weekly may help reduce the amount of dander it spreads in the home.
- If you have a cat, keep your child away from the litter box, and place the box away from air vents.
- Encourage everyone in the family wash their hands after playing with your pet.
- If you have a pet that lives in a cage, keep it in a room that your child doesn't spend time in regularly. Also, have someone other than your child clean the cage daily. Let teachers know about your child's allergies if there's a caged animal in the classroom.
- Consider buying an air cleaner with a HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter for your child's bedroom or playroom. Central air filtration systems are also an option, but are much more expensive.
Sometimes, such measures may not be enough. Because animal allergens are airborne, heating and ventilation systems will spread allergens throughout the house, even if the pet is kept out of bedrooms.
What If We Can't Keep Our Pet?
If your child still has symptoms after taking medicines, including allergy shots, or needs a bunch of medicines to be around your pet, your only choice might be to find a new home for your pet.
If so, be sure to discuss this with your child. Reassure your child that this isn't his or her "fault" — and make sure siblings don't blame the child. Losing a pet, even to a friend's home, can be hard for everyone in the family.
After a pet is removed from the home, it can take several months before dander is totally gone.
When going to a house with a pet, your child should first take any prescribed allergy medicine and (as always) bring along quick-relief medicine (also called rescue or fast-acting medicine).
- School and Asthma
- Asthma Center
- How Do Doctors Test for Allergies?
- All About Allergies
- Allergy Shots
- Managing Asthma
- Dealing With Triggers: Mold
- Dealing With Triggers: Pollen
- Dealing With Triggers: Irritants
- Dealing With Triggers: Cockroaches
- Your House: How to Make It Asthma-Safe
- Asthma Center
- Learning About Allergies
- If I Have Asthma, Can I Keep My Pet?
- Dealing With Asthma Triggers
- Handling an Asthma Flare-Up | <urn:uuid:9d70cba8-e717-4781-aa58-7e749ee3fe55> | {
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Madurai Sultanate was a short-lived independent Muslim Kingdom based in the city of Madurai; today it is a part of the Indian State of Tamil Nadu.
Jalal Al-Din Ahsan Shah was the first sultan of Madurai Sultanate. In the year 1335 CE, the sultan declared his independence over Delhi Sultanate and formed this sultanate. He and his descendants ruled Madurai Sultanate until 1378 when the last sultanate of Madurai lost the battle against the forces led by Vijayanagar Empire.
During the reign, he issued gold, silver, copper, and billon coins. The denominations are Pagoda, Paisa, Tanka, and Jital and their different fractions.
This Billon Jital issued by Jalal Al-Din Ahsan was struck in the Hijri Year 738. The obverse of this coin is inscribed with the legend ‘Al-Husani’. The reverse of a coin is inscribed with the legend ‘Ahsan Shah’ with AH date 738.
Image Source: Classical Numismatic Gallery | <urn:uuid:0876fc06-8674-4ca6-9c7e-06f107541f9b> | {
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Can two planets share the same orbit?
Is it technically possible for two planets to share the same orbit, as in exact polar opposites to each other travelling at the same speed?
Graihagh Jackson put this question to Dr Stuart Higgins from the University of Cambridge...
Stuart - In theory... yes.
Graihagh - Well, now that we've got that straight. Only joking. Astronomers actually have a special name for these things.
Stuart - Astronomers call such systems where two objects are orbiting around each other with a common centre between them - binary systems. You might have recently about a binary system of two black holes whose fingerprint was discovered in gravitational waves, measured by the LIGO experiment. In that case, the two black holes were spiralling into each other, merging but could it be possible for a less destructive scenario to occur with two planets.
Well, first of all it's actually worth noting that when the Moon orbits the Earth, it's not just the Moon moving. The mass of the Moon has enough gravitational pull to also influence the motion of the Earth. However, if you imagine drawing a line between the centre of the Moon and the centre of the Earth, the point on that line about which the Moon and Earth are rotating is located deep inside the Earth, very close to the centre in fact. So, while the Moon does cause the Earth to wobble about a bit, because the Earth is so much bigger than the Moon, it's essentially as though the Moon is just moving around the Earth.
Whereas, when we think of a binary system, say between two more equally matched objects. If you were to draw an imaginary line between these, the point on that line about which they were rotating wouldn't be inside either of the objects, they're both rotating round a point of empty space. And a classic example of this is Pluto and its moon, Charon. Because they have roughly similar masses (Charon is about 12% the mass of Pluto), the impact it has on Pluto's orbit is much greater than say the Moon's orbit on the Earth. This means that Pluto and Sharon slowly rotate around a point in space. It looks a bit like an adult swinging a child around in the playground. The adult's feet remain at the centre of the rotation but, as they lean back, their head is also rotating around their feet as is the child.
Graihagh - Okay. Spinning children till their sick is one thing but I wanted to know is have we ever actually seen the rocky equivalent out there in the universe?
Stuart - Well, in 2012, astrophysicists using the KEPLER space telescope observed something even more complicated than that. A pair of planets orbit round a pair a stars. Imagine two suns orbiting orbiting closely around each other and then two planets at different distances orbiting around those rotating suns. If you were standing on the surface of one of those planets and looked up at the sky, you would see two suns like the famous fictional planet of Dantooine from Star Wars.
Graihagh - Science fiction turns to science fact. Great, I love it when that happens but that's only one example. Is there any other evidence that hint at these binary planets. Well according to Stuart, we should be thanking our lucky stars...
Stuart - In 2014, scientists from the California Institute of Technology developed a computer simulation that binary systems of two earth-like planets are also possible.
Graihagh - There you have it Jonathan. In theory yes but we're yet to find too many examples. So, watch this space. A big thank you to Stuart Higgins who helped us out with this one. Next time on question of the week we're hot on the trail of Lebohang's predicament. | <urn:uuid:694703a1-9a0d-4f26-a6af-f17534f01b27> | {
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The newest catalytic converters in diesel engines blast away a pollutant from combustion with the help of ammonia. Common in European cars, the engines exhaust harmless nitrogen and water. How they do this hasn't been entirely clear. Now, new research shows that the catalyst attacks its target pollutant in an unusual way, providing insight into how to make the best catalytic converters.
Reporting in the journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition, a team of researchers in the Institute for Integrated Catalysis at the Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory led by chemist Janos Szanyi showed that the artificial catalyst works much the same way that similar bacterial enzymes do: by coming at the target from the side rather than head on.
"What I find exciting is the correlation between this artificial catalysis and enzyme catalysis," said Szanyi. "Nature is telling us what to do. Nature's been at it for many millions of years, and it does this beautifully."
Zeolites are crystalline alumino-silicate minerals that can accommodate metal ions -- metal atoms with a slight charge -- for catalytic applications. In some catalytic zeolites, the metal ions can break down the pollutant nitric oxide in vehicle emissions. However, the zeolites crumble and clog easily, leading to early failure. In addition, they produce as a byproduct the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (known to dental patients everywhere as laughing gas).
Recently, researchers have produced a new zeolite that is surprisingly stable and makes very little nitrous oxide from nitric oxide, a chemical that depletes ozone. The zeolite produces mainly water and atmospheric nitrogen -- the main component of air -- but it needs to be fed ammonia, such as from urea.
Some of the diesel vehicles in Europe are now using this catalyst, and drivers must top off their urea tank as well as their diesel. Called Cu-SSZ-13, the zeolite uses copper as its added metal and has smaller spaces in its alumino-silicate scaffolding compared to other zeolites.
Researchers have assumed that this zeolite would break down nitric oxide in the same way that other zeolites do, following the same series of chemical reaction steps. However, something else must be going on because researchers can make the older zeolites work faster by adding nitrogen dioxide -- but Cu-SSZ-13 doesn't respond in the same way. This indicates Cu-SSZ-13 must be taking a different chemical route.
To explore how Cu-SSZ-13 breaks down nitric oxide, the team of researchers investigated the structure of the zeolite in the process of performing the reaction. Using tools designed to find such answers at EMSL, DOE's Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory on PNNL's campus, team members first looked at what molecules stuck to the surface of the zeolite.
There they unexpectedly found a charged nitric oxide molecule bound to the copper ions. This molecular combination could only happen one of two ways, the more common of which requires the presence of nitrogen dioxide. Because the researchers saw no nitrogen dioxide, they ruled out that common reaction pathway.
That left the copper metal itself directly hooking up with nitric oxide. In the process, copper borrows one of nitric oxide's electrons, giving nitric oxide a charge. This early theft sets the stage for ammonia to react with the charged nitric oxide in the first of several chemical steps, ultimately pumping out atmospheric nitrogen and water.
Catalysis Imitating Life
Zooming in on the zeolite's structure and reconstructing it with NWChem, software that models molecular chemistry, the team found something unusual. In most zeolite catalysts, nitric oxide is essentially a barbell combining a nitrogen atom and an oxygen atom. The barbell is bound to the metal atom on its head, most often at the nitrogen end of the molecule. However, in Cu-SSZ-13, the copper metal bonded with both the nitrogen and the oxygen halves of the nitric oxide barbell, as if the copper and nitric oxide formed a three-membered ring. Chemists refer to this orientation as "side-on."
"The side-on complex is uncommon in this type of synthetic catalysis," said Szanyi. "But bacteria have an enzyme called nitrite reductase that works this way. This enzyme breaks down nitrites into atmospheric nitrogen."
The chemists also determined that the side-on angle causes the barbell to bend slightly. With no bend, the angle is 180 degrees, but positioned within the zeolite, the angle between the nitrogen and oxygen is about 146 degrees.
The computer reconstruction of Cu-SSZ-13 in action showed the spaces within the aluminum and silicon lattice can only hold one nitric oxide molecule. Other zeolites have almost twice as much space for the nitric oxide to move around.
"The small pore size just fits the reactants and provides precise control," said Szanyi. "This reaction mechanism explains the prior studies -- things like why we don't get nitrous oxide."
The researchers are continuing to explore whether this side-on intermediate is common in other catalyst materials and in other reactions.
This work was supported by the Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
- Ja Hun Kwak, Jong H. Lee, Sarah D. Burton, Andrew S. Lipton, Charles H. F. Peden, János Szanyi. A Common Intermediate for N2Formation in Enzymes and Zeolites: Side-On Cu-Nitrosyl Complexes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2013; DOI: 10.1002/anie.201303498
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If you enjoy watching wildlife and wandering in a beautiful rural environment, there is no better place locally than Dalzell Estate, Motherwell.
As you explore the many varied pathways, you are very likely to see grey squirrels, roe deer and many different bird species, all against a background of wild flowers and magnificent trees.
This article is to draw your attention to a particular species of bird found there which is a comparatively new arrival - the Nuthatch.
This species had inhabited the Scottish Borders for many years, but then started to extend its area gradually northwards, the first pair arriving in Dalzell in April 2005.
You can see from the photo (Plate 1) what a striking bird this is.
Fairly small and compact, but with a beautiful blue back, russet underside and a typical “bandit” face with the white divided by a thick black line ending in an impressively strong beak.
If you have a garden bird-feeder, you’ll certainly notice when one of these birds turns up. Apart from its appearance, it is quite a feisty bird and will readily chase off tits and other small birds.
Nuthatches nest in tree holes, either natural or man-made – even old woodpecker holes can be used. In Dalzell we have many oak trees which are by far the best for natural cavities and these are used by 90 per cent of the Nuthatch population.
The actual nest is simple, made from little bits of dead wood and often a layer of very thin Scots Pine flakes which it picks off from the upper branches of these trees.
In the 42 hectares of Dalzell there are currently 20 active Nuthatch nesting sites.
This really means that wherever you go in the estate, you are likely to be fairly close to some of the birds.
They give away their presence in two ways – sound and activity.
Firstly, the sounds Nuthatches make are really loud and arresting.
In winter there are only contact calls between the birds and this is heard as a repeated “tweet-tweet”, the kind of call we associate with the typical bird of cartoons.
However in the months of March-May we hear the real territory calls of the male which are loud and penetrating and heard a long way off. When we hear those calls we know that a nesting site is nearby.
Secondly, the activity of Nuthatches, especially in the breeding season, is eye-catching and very specialised.
The female uses mud to reduce the tree hole to a very small round entrance opening so that predators such as woodpeckers can’t rob the nest(Plate 2).
She will then carry in the nest materials, and you can see that these activities will occasion many flights back and forth to and from the nesthole and make it easy even for a casual observer to watch this species.
Later when the young are due to be fed, both parents will then be making repeated trips with spiders, insects and grubs.
Dalzell woodlands are fortunate to have this very high density of such an interesting bird.
They are not a shy species and will usually ignore watchers on a pathway near the nest.
Nuthatches will visit any gardens in the adjoining housing areas if peanuts are on offer, and usually feed hanging upside down (Plate 3), so why not put a feeder out and you might be lucky enough to attract them.
To learn more about nuthatches visit www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/nuthatch-family. | <urn:uuid:3bc98930-6748-42b5-9705-4c5e0bf2d663> | {
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Operators must be defined on values of specific types. For instance,
+ is defined on numbers, but not on structures. Operators are
often defined on groups of types. For the purposes of Modula-2, the
following definitions hold:
CARDINAL, and their subranges.
CHARand its subranges.
POINTER TO type.
The following operators are supported, and appear in order of increasing precedence:
Function argument or array index separator.
Assignment. The value of var
:= value is
Less than, greater than on integral, floating-point, or enumerated types.
Less than or equal to, greater than or equal to
on integral, floating-point and enumerated types, or set inclusion on
set types. Same precedence as
=, <>, #
Equality and two ways of expressing inequality, valid on scalar types.
Same precedence as
<. In GDB scripts, only
available for inequality, since
# conflicts with the script
Set membership. Defined on set types and the types of their members.
Same precedence as
Boolean disjunction. Defined on boolean types.
Boolean conjunction. Defined on boolean types.
The GDB “artificial array” operator (see Expressions).
Addition and subtraction on integral and floating-point types, or union and difference on set types.
Multiplication on integral and floating-point types, or set intersection on set types.
Division on floating-point types, or symmetric set difference on set
types. Same precedence as
Integer division and remainder. Defined on integral types. Same
Negative. Defined on
Pointer dereferencing. Defined on pointer types.
Boolean negation. Defined on boolean types. Same precedence as
RECORD field selector. Defined on
RECORD data. Same
Array indexing. Defined on
ARRAY data. Same precedence as
Procedure argument list. Defined on
PROCEDURE objects. Same precedence
GDB and Modula-2 scope operators.
Warning: Set expressions and their operations are not yet supported, so GDB treats the use of the operator
IN, or the use of operators
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Dr. Aftab Alam Khan and Md. Abdul Hoque
The Daily Star
Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to earthquake activities.An extensive seismological observatory network must be set-up in Bangladesh equipped with the modern and sensitive earthquake monitoring facilities. This includes strainmeters, accelerometers, velocity and displacement seismographs. Monitoring facilities of micro-seismicity and on-line real-time seismological facilities must be introduced. Highly sensitive seismographs with all components of recording system must be installed for continuous monitoring and for valid prediction.
Earthquakes are caused by the explosion or the release of accumulated strain due to various stress-fields in the earth's materials. Earthquakes have been a source of terror and wonder for as long as people have inhabited the earth. Terror stands for unexpected, sudden-onset of earthquake events those are capable of producing many casualties among the local population and massive destruction of property, while it is a wonder because people are awe-struck by the forces of nature that suddenly disrupt the environment and alter the surface of the planet. Earthquakes are one of the major natural hazards threatening life, property, and economic well being in many nations. Death tolls from major events can be sighted as 255,000 in Tangshan, China in 1976 and 10,000 in Mexico City in 1985. The economic loss in the 1995 Kobe, Japan, earthquake was more than U.S.$100 billion. Nations striving for full economic development may find the investments and progress of decades wiped out in a few minutes. Vis-a-vis the devastation or the loss of lives and economy due to an earthquake in developed countries like China and Japan where the advancement of earthquake research is quite appreciable, it is needless to say that a catastrophic condition will emerge if a large magnitude earthquake occurs in an earthquake prone country like Bangladesh. Inquiring minds have long sought to understand the processes responsible for this violent activity. The reasons for the unawareness about potential earthquakes are the lack of systematic monitoring and follow up of trends of seismicity and micro-seismic events. An overall scenario of earthquake events in and around Bangladesh lends support to a vulnerable situation and it is recommended that some relevant steps must be taken to ameliorate the public awareness.
Earthquakes are related to faulting and tectonic instability of an area. Signifying the movement along a fault, it is written in the Bible-Zechariah 14:4, " The Mount of Olives shall cleave in the midst thereof toward east and toward the west, and there shall be a very great valley; and half of the mountain shall remove toward the north and half of it toward the south". It is very clear from this statement that an impending devastation would occur along an active fault movement. The overall tectonics and the nature of fault movement within Bangladesh and the adjoining region are conducive for the frequent and recurring earthquakes. Threatened earthquake disaster inside Bangladesh may also be expected from active fault zones outside the national boundary.
Tsunami is the terrific tidal wave caused by the underwater earthquakes, which usually strikes the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. Bay of Bengal including Java trench in the southeast of Bay of Bengal have also such seismogenic potentiality because more than twenty earthquake events have so far been recorded in the Bay of Bengal in recent years. Hence, the possibilities of tsunami in the Bay of Bengal cannot be ruled out.
A good background of historical earthquake information is essential to evaluate the seismicity. Information on earthquake events in and around Bangladesh is available for the last 250 years. The earthquakes those affected Bangladesh and its surroundings including the historical earthquakes are in records from 1664 till today. The earthquake record suggests that more than 100 moderate to large earthquakes occurred inside Bangladesh since 1900, out of which more than 65 events occurred after 1960. More than 125 earthquake events have occurred in and around Bangladesh since the beginning of the new millennium. Of which about 27 events of magnitude ranging 4 to 5 have occurred inside Bangladesh. Fifteen new epicentres have been identified inside Bangladesh since January 2001. This clearly indicates an increased frequency of earthquakes in Bangladesh. The increase in earthquake activity in Bangladesh is an indication of fresh tectonic activity or the propagation of fractures from the adjacent seismic zones. Although Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to seismic activity, the nature and the level of this activity is very poorly defined. The main constraint is the earthquake observational and monitoring facilities, which is totally absent in Bangladesh.
A quantitative assessment of earthquake events in Bangladesh reveals that the annual rate of strain (4.5 X 1021 ergs) accumulation corresponds to M = 6.5 and enough strain to the tune of 2.5 X 1023 ergs is already accumulated for an earthquake of magnitude M > 7.5. The study further suggests that the present accumulated strain to the tune of 2.5 X 1023 ergs is likely to precipitate an earthquake greater than magnitude 7.5 should a single event occurs with plausible time forecast of between years 1993 and 2005. The probability of occurrence and the return period calculations of the major earthquakes in Bangladesh suggest that the probability of occurrence of 6.8 and 7.4 magnitude earthquakes are 98 and 99 percent respectively with return periods 50 and 100 years respectively. The ground surface acceleration (g) in the various seismic zones of Bangladesh has been calculated and it ranges from 0.15g to as high as 0.6g in the epicentral region of a recurred earthquake located in that zone. All these findings lend support to conclude that all the earthquake source parameters are vulnerable to severe earthquake in Bangladesh.
The recurrence of earthquakes in an earthquake prone region cannot be prevented. Rather, what could be done is only to make a prediction and issue warning to minimise loss of lives and property. Although precise prediction is not always possible, an acceptable valid prediction of an earthquake will certainly minimise the loss of lives and property. A valid prediction depends on four essential elements. Earthquake disaster mitigation approach involves a) pre-disaster planning, b) building measures, and c) management. Pre-disaster planning involves measures at physical planning level, assessment of potential risk zones, assessment of potential man-made risk zones, land-use pattern, infrastructural network, safety standards and norms, building shape, height, and group, and evacuation and emergency preparedness. Building measures involve damage rating, building code, and a seismic design and practice. The management involves both pre-disaster and post-disaster administrative principles, implementation of building code, relocation, and mass awareness both for pre-disaster preparedness and post-disaster management.
Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to earthquake activities. Four zones have been identified as the severest zones in Bangladesh in terms of maximum ground surface acceleration and the probable movements of the deep-seated crustal faults and lineaments. The severest zones include northern part of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Tangail, northern part of Dhaka, Khulna, Jessore, Kushtia, and Chittagong. 1885 earthquake of Manikganj, 1897 earthquake of Great Assam, 1918 earthquake of Srimangal, 1930 earthquake of Dhubri, and 1950 earthquake of Assam all are quite matured to recur any time and may create devastation in Bangladesh. An extensive seismological observatory network must be set-up in Bangladesh equipped with the modern and sensitive earthquake monitoring facilities. This includes strainmeters, accelerometers, velocity and displacement seismographs. Monitoring facilities of micro-seismicity and on-line real-time seismological facilities must be introduced. Highly sensitive seismographs with all components of recording system must be installed for continuous monitoring and for valid prediction.
Dr Aftab Alam Khan is Associate Professor and Convenor, Geohazard Research Group and Md Abdul Hoque is a Bose Fellow, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka.
by Raquib Siddiqi , The Independent
Biman is surely heading towards another bout with turbulent head winds if immediate action is not taken to improve fleet dependability. Old and unreliable fleet still haunt national flag carrier Biman Bangladesh Airlines even after three decades.
Management and fleet are the two vital areas of any airline and efficiency of both greatly contributes to success. But unfortunately, these two areas are the weakest in Biman.
2001 can be described as the year of misfortune for Biman. Two efforts, initiated to strengthen two perennially weakest areas of the airline-management and fleet, fizzled out after showing early promises. The first and most important of the two efforts was restructuring of Biman with finding Strategic Partner. The other one was modernisation of fleet with new generation aircraft. Improvement of both these areas was long overdue. Because of improper management inadequate and unreliable fleet were troubling the airline right from its birth.
The journey of Biman Bangladesh Airlines began with no aircraft and no ancillary facilities. All it had was manpower of 2,400- skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled-former employees of Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), and an incomplete building in Dhaka.
Absence of aircraft and massive shortage of fund had a crippling effect on the newborn national airline of a war ravaged newborn country. As a result, its struggle for survival began right from the word go. The many uncertainties along the way sometimes created an atmosphere verging on abject frustration. But Biman showed resilience and fought hard to keep its nose up and ride over a number of severe adverse situations.
However, the potential of Biman can be judged from the fact that despite severe operational limitations and practically no freedom in decision-making, Biman has not performed that badly. Had there been no control, things would have been much better.
There is no doubt and dispute that freedom of operation is required for any airline-big or small-to make them strong and capable of meeting new challenges head-on. Less freedom and more control means turning a potential airline weak and dependent on more protection. Unfortunately, Biman is a classic example of such an airline.
Until the recent years, national airlines all over the world used to be regarded as important flag bearer for countries concerned and as physical demonstration of a country's achievements in technology and progress. Biman also enjoyed such status. But due to poor management, which resulted in inefficiency and negative image, the airline has failed to bring pride for the people.
A vibrant, successful airline operation will almost certainly count state-of-the-art equipment and fleet among its most vital assets. Incidentally, currently this is the weakest point of Biman..
Modernisation of Fleet
The history of Biman is the history of its sufferings in the absence of perspective planning and enough dependable fleet for smooth and unhindered operation. Unlike in the past, for the first time in it's nearly three decades history couple of years ago it took initiative to replace the ageing aircraft before the situation became too critical and operation of services too hazardous.
The airline decided to phase-out its four DC-10-30 aircraft and replaces those with new generation higher capacity aircraft of 300-350 seats to operate mainly on long-haul destinations. Accordingly, it has invited offers only from manufacturers, owners, operators, airlines, and leasing or financial institutions having aircraft of its own for Operating Lease/Lease Purchase/Lease with option to purchase four A340-300 or Boeing 777-200ER aircraft and in response received 10 offers.
The aircraft were to be delivered in 2-class configuration identical to Biman Bangladesh Airlines livery according to phase-in and phase-out programme. At present the airline operates to 25 international destinations across three continents. These destinations are mainly served by DC-10-30 aircraft with 274-seat capacity-30 Business Class and 244 Economy Class.
Each aircraft will be leased for a period of 10 years and the delivery of the four aircraft will be required to be made in three phases. In the Phase-I two aircraft-A340-300 or B777-200ER-to be delivered in first year on wet lease and during the period wet lease to be converted into dry lease. With the delivery of first two aircraft, two DC-10-30 of Biman to be phased out, under a trade-in/trade-out, arrangement.
In the Phase-II, third aircraft to be delivered in second year on dry lease. On delivery of the third aircraft, the third DC-10-30 of Biman to be phased out, under a trade-in/trade-out arrangement.
In the Phase-III, fourth aircraft to be delivered in the third year on dry lease. On delivery of the fourth aircraft, the fourth DC-10-30 of Biman to be phased out under a trade-in/trade-out arrangement.
All the four aircraft should be identical and must conform to Biman's specifications concerning engines and configuration; allay and service equipment; maintenance assistance; spares and tools; manuals; warranty; operational performance; financial terms and conditions; mode of payment; insurance; cockpit crew and operational crew cost; cabin crew training and general conditions.
Offers could be made both for brand new aircraft or used ones. In case of used aircraft, acceptable year of manufacture would be 1995 or later.
As per financial terms and conditions, total price for Biman's four DC-10-30 aircraft is to be quoted along with the schedule of payment and adjustment. Price quoted for the four DC-10-30 is to be used for the Down Payment, Rentals and Maintenance Reserve of Leased Aircraft on diminishing balance method. Biman will not make any Down Payment or pay for Rental, Maintenance Reserve in cash for the leased aircraft until the value of Biman's DC-10-30 aircraft is adjusted in full.
However, the Lessor might offer his own terms and mode of payments considering the agreed/quoted value of Biman's four DC-10-30 aircraft.
The seller or lessor were required to provide 12 sets of Cockpit Crew, including at least four Training and Check Captains at its own cost. In addition, the seller or lessor will also be required to provide conversion and familiarization training of 12 sets-each set consists of 15-cabin crew- of Biman's cabin crew and two instructors.
From the bitter experience of the past, the steps to modernize the fleet of Biman's international sector must be viewed with positive note and receive universal acclaim.
The Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism, which was taking active interest in this regard argued that increase in capacity of Biman and improvement of its schedule regularity, are a must. There is need to replace the present DC-10-30 fleet and induct higher capacity new generation aircraft, before the situation turns critical. With no Strategic Partner in sight, the time has come to act immediately.
Schedule & Cost: In addition to capacity constraints, the dependability of the current international fleet has also been considerably reduced. Technical delays and breakdown on the route has become more frequent and regular feature.
Apart from frequent delays and breakdown of services, maintenance and operational cost of old aircraft is also comparatively very high. The operating cost of DC-10-30 is, according to an estimate, US dollar 1000 more per block hour than the new generation aircraft (not precisely known whether the comparison is with A340-300 or B777-200ER or both).
It was calculated that if the new generation aircraft are utilized 10 hours each per day, each aircraft will save US dollar 3,00,000 per month. Thus, four new generation aircraft will save Biman US dollar 1.2 million per month in operating cost alone. In addition, new aircraft and higher capacity are expected to generate higher revenue as well as much better schedule regularity.
Unfortunately, however, after receiving offers, the management of Biman in general and the ministry in particular suddenly decided to shelve the plan. No formal announcement in this regard was made. It is learnt, with election approaching, the previous government thought it proper to shelve the matter. The first attempt to overcome two great weaknesses of Biman has failed. But efforts must be renewed without much delay for the greater interest of the national flag carrier. It is heartening to learn that, the Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism has shown interest in this regard and asked management of Biman to activate the dormant offers it received in response to the international tenders. Action must be made as soon as possible, because unless something is done without delay, sufferings of the airline will continue and likely to developed into a serious crisis.
Accident of Air Parabat training aircraft
by Capt. A Muzaffar, The Independent
I have read the article "A different view ( Accident of Air Parabat training aircraft)" by Capt. Badrul Alam, Bir Uttam published in The Independent on July 9, 2002 regarding my article about the fatal accident of Air Parabat training aircraft on June 7, 2002.
Capt. Badrul Alam mentioned that the Met Department had informed the Air Traffic Controller on June 8, 2002 that the weather was good, but the accident occurred on June 7, 2002 and not on June 8, 2002. It is evident that the weather developed very quickly which is normal for Nor'westers (Kalbaishaki), in this time of the early Monsoon in Bengal.
That is why an instructor of the Flying Club should have been present at the airport with R/T (Radio Telephony) or at the control tower to guide the ab-initio pilot. It is also clear that the trainee pilot was not properly briefed about the air traffic rules to follow the directives of the air traffic controller (ATC), unless it is necessary to disregard the instruction of the controller to avoid an accident or incident. It is mandatory under civil aviation law that an under-trainee pilot is well conversant about air traffic rules before one is sent solo (independent flight). From the article of Capt. Badrul it is again established that the unfortunate trainee pilot Saqueeb did not follow the instruction of ATC as evident from the report that the other student pilot shouted over radio to Saqueeb requesting him not to go to ZIA and come back to Tejgaon runway for landing as directed by the ATCO.
Now let's come to my report regarding re-inquiry of another fatal accident of Air Parabat Training Aircraft S2-AAN on Sept 27, 1998 in which two would-be pilots Syed Rafiqul Islam and Fareea Lara both died. The Government of Bangladesh Order, Ref: BPM/CA-2/KN- 15/98 dated 15-3-99 may be looked into. The investigation committee comprised A.R. Sheikh, Chief Engineer, Flying Academy Kurmitola, Dhaka, member, Capt. Rafiqul Haque, Director, Flight Operation, Biman, member and Group Captain M. Iqbal Hossain of Civil Aviation Authority, Bangladesh, as Chairman. In the finding of that investigation in Paragraph 17.1 it is stated that the aircraft S2-AAN had history of high oil consumption, thereby having an engine failure after 50 minutes flight. As regards weather in paragraph 18 of the report it stated that, "from weather analysis it appears to us that there was no CB (cumulonimbus-thunderstorm cloud) at that time and place where the accident happened.
Capt. Badrul Alam may please go through the investigation report.
© Copyright and
Fair Use . SDNP Bangladesh holds the ©
copyright to its publications and web pages but | <urn:uuid:8dc0c3ec-2280-48e9-84bb-ad4328b05887> | {
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In the book A=B, the authors point out that while the identity
is provable (by a very simple proof!), it’s not possible to prove the truth or falsity of all such identities. This is because Daniel Richardson proved the following:
Let denote the class of expressions generated by
- The rational numbers, and .
- The variable
- The operations of addition, multiplication, and composition.
- The sine, exponential, and absolute value functions.
Then the problem of deciding whether or not an expression in is identically zero is undecidable. This means as well that the problem of deciding whether or not two expressions are always equal is also undecidable, since this is equivalent to deciding if is identically zero.
A summary of Richardson’s proof (mostly from Richardson’s paper itself) is below.
For all , iff there exist such that .
At the time that Richardson proved his result, the MDRP theorem was not proven. Instead, only the weaker result where is allowed to be an exponential polynomial (i.e., the are allowed to appear as exponents in ) had been proven, and so that’s what he used. I haven’t read Richardson’s proof closely enough to determine if his result can be improved using the full MDRP theorem.
In any case, since there are recursively enumerable sets which are not decidable, we may let be an exponential polynomial such that the problem of deciding, given , whether or not there are such that is undecidable.
Therefore, the problem of deciding, given , whether or not there are non-negative real numbers such that
Now, let be an exponential polynomial which grows very fast (and such that is very large). Then, if is a natural number and there are non-negative reals such that
is less than one, then both and are small. From this last fact, we conclude that each is close to a natural number. Let be the natural number closest to . Then, will be small. But then, because it’s an integer, it will be zero.
Therefore, we have an expression formed from sine and exponential functions (and rational numbers, addition, and multiplication) such that for each , there exist non-negative reals such that iff there exist natural numbers such that (which is an undecidable problem).
By an argument which I won’t reproduce here, we can replace with with the property that for each there exists a real such that iff there exist natural numbers such that . (Notice that now ranges over all reals.) But now, consider the sequence of functions
Each is identically zero iff the corresponding is ever less than zero, which is an undecidable problem.
The reference for Richardson’s paper is: Daniel Richardson, “Some unsolvable problems involving elementary functions of a real variable,” Journal of Symbolic Logic, Volume 33, 1968, pages 514–520
Another reference is: B.F. Caviness, “On canonical forms and simplification,” Journal of the ACM, volume 17, 1970, pages 385–396. | <urn:uuid:a098f998-548c-4601-947a-bd15f5e93399> | {
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Power Spring Basics:
A Power Spring in it's
simplest form is a flat strip of spring material that is cut to length, wound around a forming arbor, and unwound into
There are many names for power springs. They are commonly referred
to as coil springs, hair springs, spiral springs, clock springs, motor springs, mainsprings, recoil springs, wind springs,
retractor springs, and flat springs.
The performance of the spring is defined by the dimensions
of the spring material (Thickness (t), Width (b), & Length (L)) and the space available (Housing (D) & Arbor
(a) Diameters). Unfortunately, even though these parameters are basic, the design and performance of a power spring
is a complicated matter and completely understood by very few people in the industry.
C&S Power Spring Design Software makes the complicated design process possible using formulas and finite element
analysis. By inputting the basic parameters and adjusting the manufacturing details, an engineer can determine possible
spring performance and save significant time in the development process.
This summary is
intended to provide an overview of the basics of power springs while touching on some of the more complicated factors.
Prestressed vs. Conventional:
One of the most invisible differences in a power spring relates to the free
state or shape of the spring when it is not retained in its housing.
A conventional spring has a shape which spirals away from center in the same
direction as it is wound.
A prestressed or
backwound spring has a portion of it's shape that spirals in the reverse direction of winding.
When viewed in the housing, it is difficult to determine the spring type, and both types can appear the same. The
prestressed spring, however, creates higher stresses which result in significantly higher torque. Both methods
have their advantages and disadvantages, and the best option varies depending on the application and requirements.
These are some advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages - Lower stress, Best cycle life, Easiest to manufacture.
Disadvantages - Lower torque, Lower turns, Torque not as flat
Advantages - Higher torque, Flatter Torque
- Lower cycle life, More difficult and sometimes costly to manufacture, Size and Forming methods sometimes limited.
conventional spring is typically wound from a flat condition which makes it easiest to manufacture. A prestressed spring
first requires coiling (forming the material into a coil or spool) either before, during, or after cutting. Most often
it is then stress relieved (through heat treatment), and finally backwound into the housing.
Our Power Spring Design Software can model both conventional and prestressed springs accurately by calculating the
free states for each design and using that information to determine spring performance.
Conventional - Wound Set
Conventional - Precoiled
Prestressed - Wound Set
Prestressed - Precoiled
The above torque graph and spring simulations show a comparison of similar sized power springs manufactured using different methods.
The higher stresses created using the prestressed fabrication methods result in higher torque output than the conventional
Precoiling (see summary below) can also result in increased torque
output and can be identified by the reduction in "dead turns" or those turns visible when unwound in the housing.
Also of note are the slight turn differences from both prestressing and precoiling methods.
Torque and Turns:
Torque and turns are the most important outputs in a power spring design.
Torque commonly starts at zero, increases rapidly during the initial turns, and continues to increases at a lower rate till
it is fully wound. The resulting flattened torque curve (see torque graph below) is useful in many
The torque graph shows a red and blue line. The red line
is the winding torque while the blue line is the unwinding torque. The unwinding torque or output torque is always lower
than the winding torque due to friction or histeresis. Although some is unavoidable, friction can be reduced through
proper design, lubrication, and special techniques.
The geometry of the spring design largely determines
design turns. There is a certain amount of available space between the housing and the arbor. The % of that area
taken up by the spring material determines what % of the maximum turns available can be achieved (see % full graph).
As you can see the parabolic shape of the graph shows that as the % full is increased (by adding material length) from 0%,
turns increase rapidly. As the % full approaches 50%, however, turns do not increase significantly. Commonly,
as material is added from 45 to 50%, the increase in turns is not significant and can result in wasted material and an inefficient
design. It can also be seen that increasing the % full greater than 50% results in a decrease in turns that can be an
even more significant waste of material (note... certain applications that require cycle life sometimes benefit from
higher fill rates).
Other parameters that are important to an efficient design are the ratio
of arbor diameter to material thickness (a/t) and the ratio of length to material thickness (L/t).
Calculation of spring turns and torque is a complicated matter. Mecca C&S Power Spring Design
Software not only calculates these outputs for you, but it allows you to adjust and fine tune the design so that you can make
the spring efficient. By using the optimum thickness or eliminating unnecessary material, you can provide savings
for the life of your products.
A power spring is commonly wound and unwound between two specific points or number
of turns. (For example, in a hose reel application, the spring is preloaded to maybe 3 turns. The hose when extended
winds the spring an additional 10 working turns. Therefore, the spring is wound from 3 turns to 13 turns when the hose
is extended and from 13 turns back to 3 turns when the hose is retracted. This is considered 1 cycle.)
Many factors affect cycle life including stress amplitude, alternating stress,
coil friction, spring forming methods, material type, edge condition, lubrication, and special design configurations.
Because there are so many factors, cycle life is difficult to calculate. Most commonly, stresses are calculated
and an S-N logarithmic endurance curve is used to calculate the cycle life for a given material. Because there
are so many factors, once design cycle life is calculated, it is typically compared to a prototype or similar spring.
Then, by adjusting the design, the cycle life can be re-calculated to try to reach an accurate approximation for a new
Any amount of cycle life testing will add development time. Having software that can estimate cycle life can
save time and money. Our design software calculates cycle life based on the calculated stresses and adjusts automatically
with changes to the design. Although no cycle life calculation is perfect, the software can steer you in the right direction
initially, and once you have a tested prototype, you can further use the software to refine the design and evaluate the changes
to cycle performance. By using these methods you can reduce your development time significantly.
Power spring manufacturing methods are somewhat simple, although the equipment
can be highly specialized. In it's most basic form, a power spring is cut to length, wrapped around a forming arbor,
and then unwrapped into a housing. For a prestressed spring, the material has to be coiled or spooled first and then
wrapped in the reverse direction around the arbor.
Many of the details including; end forms and shapes, coiling equipment, cutting dies, heating equipment, winding equipment,
and special forming methods are very complicated.
C&S Power Spring Design Software gives the designer control of the design output by adjusing the manufacturing details. Arbor
size, anneal length, free coil diameter, and precoiling details are both estimated and available for entry allowing designers
to fine tune the design and prepare for production at the same time.
The following discusses some of the special methods used in power spring designs.
Precoiling: This is a method used to preserve the
original shape of the material and increase torque and turns. It is most often visible by a reduction in "dead
turns" observed when the spring is unwound (see comparison pictures above). When the material is wrapped around
a forming arbor the first time, the high stresses typically exceed the material yield stress which results in a permanent
shape deformation and the common spiral shape. Precoiling uses methods to reduce the forming stress and change the spiral
shape to a larger spiral. This can be done using a shim during winding, or by using multiple winding arbors, or by some
combination of both. Although precoiling tends to improve torque and also slightly increases total turns it is not without
it's disadvantages. It usually involves extra production steps, and can cause stress concentrations which can significantly
reduce cycle life. Special process forming methods can help reduce stress concentrations.
Annealing: When spring material is formed to a small
radius the yield stress of the material can be signifcantly exceeded. The high surface stresses created can
sometimes cause the material to fracture or crack. In these cases, it is advisable to soften the material through
an annealing process. By heating the material till it is glowing red and then allowing it to cool, the material structure
is transformed, and the hardness is significantly reduced. Once annealed, the material can be formed to a smaller
radius without cracking.
Annealing a longer length at
the inner end of the material can also change the forming radius. This is sometimes helpful because it can create a
tighter wrap of annealed material around the arbor. It also increases the arbor diameter required to form the material
resulting in a precoiling effect.
vs. final arbor: The final arbor or customer arbor is the arbor used to wind the spring in the end application.
The winding arbor is usually smaller than the final arbor in order to form the material to the proper inside diameter.
If the winding arbor is larger than the final arbor (as is sometimes used in special situations), the spring can never
be wound completely to solid, or it will change the free shape of the material resulting in a loss of turns, a torque
output reduction, and reduced cycle life. Winding arbors are a very important part of the manufacturing process
and have to be designed properly to form material correctly and to avoid stress concentrations.
End Configurations: There are numerous ways to connect
the spring material to the arbor and housing. Material can be formed to a sharp angle to form a connection hook
or bend, it can be pierced or notched to allow a connection point, and it can even be spot welded. The design
challenge is to create a connection that is most importantly secure and secondly manufacturable at a reasonable cost.
Retaining Methods: A power spring must be contained
by some method. Some commonly used retaining options are; a metal or plastic housing, a band or ring, a "C"
shaped keeper, and a riveted outer wrap of material (called an integral band).
Features: Sometimes, a leaf spring is added to the outer end of the spring to increase the torque and assist
in unwinding the spring to the outside of the housing. This leaf spring is sometimes called a bridle and can be very
helpful to the performance of the spring. When properly designed, it can increase torque, reduce histeresis, and improve
cycle life. These same benefits can also be achieved through a properly designed outer end connection. | <urn:uuid:e12eab09-15d0-4efe-bb2f-1273f55d8ff7> | {
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PHS students learn about wildland fires
On Thursday, May 16, 18 fire science students from Portola High School teamed up with Beckwourth Ranger District Fire Department for a day of mock firefighting. The students spent the year learning about fire behavior and their final challenge was to spend the day working in the field to earn their certification with the Forest Service. They cut a 4-foot line between the pretend fire and the rest of he forest with hand tools and chainsaws, all while wearing heavy fire protection gear. Photos submitted
From the younger days with Smokey Bear to the high school years of fire science, a child’s education is filled with opportunities to learn about fire safety techniques. Portola High School fire science teacher Brad Miller saw a chance to flame that knowledge and turn it into a career opportunity.
On Thursday, May 16, 18 students from Miller’s class worked with Beckwourth Fire District in a wildland field day to get their Wildland Firefighting Certificate.
The fire science class is a recently restored addition to the Portola High School curriculum as a part of the Storrie Fire agreement between the Forest Service and Plumas Unified School District. The agreement encourages the schools to further educate and collaborate with the students in the Storrie Fire area to help them better understand fire safety and environmental health.
Miller said the aim for the class is to give the students the jobs skills and required certifications necessary to get a job with Forest Service as a wildland firefighter. The class encompasses five certification classes and basic education on fire behavior, tree identification and topography.
Miller said the field day participation makes up about 60 percent of the class. The students left in the morning for the Beckwourth Fire District station. From there they were given hand tools and the thick fire gear and sent out into the woods with Crew One from the fire department.
The students’ job was to fight a mock fire. There were ribbons tied all around the forest marking where the fire was. Using the ribbons to gauge, the students began cutting 4-foot lines between the mock fire and the rest of the forest.
Beckwourth Fire District Chief Greg McCaffrey said there was a friendly competition between the crew and the students, as they were both trying to clear their lines quickly.
“They did awesome,” McCaffrey said. “I was pretty impressed. They were all there to learn.”
This was the first time the fire department has teamed up with young students to complete what McCaffrey called “the Basic 32,” which means the foundational 32 hours a potential firefighter must complete in order to volunteer or work with a department.
According to Miller the students have officially received their certifications and, if they are 18, can now work with the Forest Service for the season. Miller also said the fire science class is in the curriculum for next year.
“Even if they don’t want to get into fire for their career, at least it gives them a job opportunity,” said Miller. | <urn:uuid:2b210ba9-39a3-4f84-b033-954e8fc5d6f5> | {
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To quickly review from my Introductory Lesson, the I – IV – V7 chords in the key of G are G Major, C Major and D Dominant Seventh (G – C – D7). Here are the chord diagrams on the 5-string banjo for these 3 fundamental chords in the open position:
If you have these basic changes down, you are ready to tackle some real picking and some closed-position, movable chords. Let’s begin by reviewing the tablature system as it applies to the 5-string banjo.
Tablature for the banjo isn’t much different than guitar tablature, in concept. The big difference is that we use five lines to represent the five strings of the banjo, with the top line representing the first string and the bottom line representing the fifth string:
Note that the tablature indicates the tuning of the five strings, as discussed in the first column. Just as with guitar tablature, notes are indicated by showing the fret number to be played on the particular line or string. A zero indicates playing the open string, and you’ll find there’s a lot of that in banjo picking.
Five-string banjo, played in the bluegrass style, uses the thumb, index finger, and middle finger of the picking hand to pick the strings. Almost invariably, bluegrass banjo pickers use a thumb pick (usually plastic) and two fingerpicks (metal). There are lots of lively discussions about the advantages and disadvantages of particular brands of picks, but I won’t get into that here. The main message I have at the outset is to get used to wearing picks at all times when picking the banjo. If you’re not used to them, it may be tempting to play with naked fingers, but the sound and feel you get is entirely different and this won’t help you get where you want to go.
Another important aspect to discuss at this point is anchoring your picking hand by placing the tip of your pinky and/or ring finger on the surface of the banjo head. This stabilizes your hand and gives you a point of reference to help you hit the correct strings. Many players recommend anchoring with both the pinkie and the ring finger for maximum stability. But many others are quite successful anchoring just one or the other. Here’s a photo showing my hand in place on the banjo as I am preparing to pick:
Another tip for you: always use a strap, even while playing seated. Because of the round shape of the banjo, the neck has a tendency to slide down toward the floor due to gravity, and if the strap doesn’t support the neck you end up having to support it with your fretting hand. This creates tension and bad hand position. I repeat: ALWAYS use a strap. Adjust the strap so that the banjo is in the same position relative to your body whether you are sitting or standing.
Picking Patterns, or “Rolls”
Here’s a simple picking pattern using open strings:
Here’s an MP3 file so you can hear what this sounds like.
Note that I have indicated which finger to use to pick each note (Thumb, Index, Middle). This is useful at first, but before long the finger to use will be apparent, and the letters won’t be needed. Most of the tablature you are likely to encounter won’t show the picking fingers unless there is a particularly tricky passage.
These picking patterns, which banjo pickers generally call “rolls,” are often given names to characterize the pattern and aid in communication between players. For example, the roll above is called the “alternating thumb roll” because the thumb bounces back and forth alternating between playing a melody note on the third (or fourth) string and a drone note on the fifth string.
This might be a good time to give you some general guidelines about how the picking fingers behave. For starters, the middle finger generally picks the first string only, and is usually the only finger used on the first string. The index finger typically picks the second, third, and occasionally the fourth string. The thumb tends to play the third, fourth and fifth strings, occasionally going down to the second or first string. The thumb is the only finger that picks the fifth string.
One of the most difficult aspects of learning bluegrass banjo is bringing the melody (or other important) notes out and making them heard above the barrage of other notes that typically accompany the melody. This is widely neglected in the teaching materials I have seen. I want to help you relate to this from the outset by showing you which notes to emphasize. In standard music notation, an accent mark is placed above a note to be emphasized, and I like to follow that convention. Here is the simple alternating thumb pattern with the appropriate accents shown:
Play this pattern over and over at a slow and steady pace, putting a little extra “punch” on the first note of each four-note group. Because the thumb is the strongest finger, we try to use the thumb whenever possible to play melody notes to make it easier to bring the melody forth. But there is a paradox here. The thumb is also used to play the fifth string exclusively, and you generally want that fifth-string drone note to be subdued. So you need to concentrate to make the melody notes stand out, and yet maintain a delicate touch on the fifth string.
Here’s an MP3 file illustrating what we’re after:
Incorporating Chord Changes
Once you have this pattern working smoothly, try changing chords while keeping the pattern going. Start with the open G, then switch to C, then back to G, then D7, over and over. Here’s what this looks like in tab:
And here’s what it should sound like:
Play it nice and steady, at a pace you’re comfortable with, over and over. Remember to keep your picking hand anchored and don’t forget to practice wearing your picks – you’re only cheating yourself if you don’t. When you have it down slowly and smoothly, pick up the pace a bit. Here’s what it sounds like at a medium speed:
Of course you can vary this basic roll in numerous ways. As a simple example, take a look at this:
Notice that we are introducing some melody notes that are not in the chord – for example the fourth string second fret (E) note in the first measure. There is also an example of altering the basic roll to introduce extra melody notes. Look at the fourth measure. You are holding a C chord at that point, but to get the melody note on the third string second fret (A), move your middle finger over from the fourth string to the third string just long enough to play that note. Be prepared to return it to the fourth string in time to play the extra melody note, which is the second-to-last note in the measure.
The seventh and eighth measures are interesting. This is a common descending run in D. To get the fourth string fourth fret (F#) in the second half of the seventh measure, you need to stretch down with the pinky. Then to get the fourth string second fret (E) in measure eight, move your middle finger over from the third string.
We end the tune with a pair of half-notes – the third string open, and then a “pinch” where you simultaneously pick the fifth string with your thumb and the first string with your middle finger.
Practice this piece over and over until you can play it smoothly and steadily. It should sound something like this:
Although it is a lot of work, I am enjoying putting these lessons together, and very much appreciate the feedback I’ve already received. Please drop me an email at [email protected] if you have any comments, questions or suggestions. Next time, I’ll show you how to play simple rhythm backup, and introduce you to the all-important closed major chord positions that will allow you to play all over the neck in any key.
Let me close this lesson with an improvised bit of musical doodling based upon the information in this lesson, just to stimulate your imagination. I encourage you to experiment to see if you can incorporate similar sounds into your own playing. Listening and stealing bits of what you hear is an extremely valuable element of your musical education, and certainly a part of the “oral tradition” of folk music and bluegrass. | <urn:uuid:82b873be-cd42-436a-8ecd-f671a3b14463> | {
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Provenance: Thomas Jefferson; by descent to Virginia and Nicholas Trist; by descent to a private collection; by gift to Thomas Jefferson Foundation in 1956
Accession Number: 1956-29
Historical Notes: Mills probably made his drawing of Thomas McBean's St. Paul's Church (1764-66) in lower Manhattan on his 1802-03 trip through the northern states to study architecture. The design was much influenced by the London church St. Martin-in-the-Fields (1722-26), designed by McBean's teacher James Gibbs.1 Mills probably gave the drawing to Jefferson when he returned to Washington in 1803.2
The most important advancement of Mills's career came in 1803, when Jefferson introduced him to the British émigré architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe – whom he had just appointed surveyor of public buildings in Washington. Mills later told Jefferson that when he began working with Latrobe, "I began first to imbibe the true & correct principles of Architecture ...."3
My present ideas of this noble art & science, which are dramatically opposite to those I enter’d Mr. L[atrobe]’s office with, I trust are founded on the details of Reason & nature, because these are the only true foundations of correct taste, and real beauty.4
Mills worked under Latrobe for five years as a draftsman and clerk. When Mills entered his office, Latrobe's Bank of Pennsylvania, completed about two years earlier (1801), was commanding enormous attention.
When Mills decided to leave Latrobe's office in 1808 to establish a practice in Philadelphia, he wrote a characteristically complimentary letter to Jefferson. In seeking his help, Mills appealed to the president's well-known belief in the ability of the citizens of his country:
My wish is to endeavor to shew to the European who visits us from the metropolis of his country, that the american talent for architecture is not a whit inferior to the European's, under the same advantages.5 | <urn:uuid:2d277efe-86e7-402c-8f6c-5ba4ca5f6fa6> | {
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Although the 'Great Migration' developed from 1718 onwards, emigration from Ulster to America had actually begun earlier, in the previous century. The first concerted effort was in 1636, when 140 Presbyterians from County Down sailed on the Eagle Wing for New England, though bad weather forced the ship to abandon its voyage. During the remainder of the seventeenth century migration from Ulster to America was ‘spasmodic and individualistic’.7
Most of these early migrants (no more than a few hundred) secured cheap passage on Belfast tobacco boats bound for Delaware and the shores of the Chesapeake. Between 1688 and 1703 at least 12 ships left Belfast for the Chesapeake Bay. However, probably the ‘most significant link’ between Ulster and America in the years before 1718 was that of Presbyterian missionaries. During the 1680s, for example, several Presbyterian ministers migrated to America from the Laggan area of County Donegal.8
Such links facilitated at least one early Presbyterian-organised attempt to transplant Scots-Irish communities to America. In 1685, members of the Laggan Presbytery sought to migrate to New England but this plan was abandoned after certain religious restrictions were lifted following Charles II’s death. The Laggan Presbytery sent Francis Makemie, a native of Ramelton, County Donegal, to administer to the Scots-Irish emigrants on the eastern shores of Maryland and Virginia in 1682. In 1706 Makemie became the Moderator of the first Presbytery, which met in Philadelphia.
Makemie later sought permission from the Governor of New York to preach to the Dutch and French reformed churches but permission was refused. He defied the Governor and preached openly and publicly; he was later arrested on the charge of preaching without a licence. However, he was found innocent at his trial but was obliged to pay the expenses.
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7 McCourt (1999), p. 304.
8 Bolton (1967), p. 18. | <urn:uuid:1eddeab4-f373-414d-86d1-3b5782031fa8> | {
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About Bloody Monday
In the mid 1800’s, the American Nativists (also known as “Know Nothings”) were convinced that the newly arrived (mostly Irish and German and other Catholic immigrants would undermine the American way of life. In cities across this country, there was unrest: it was a time of great change and uncertainty, fear, violence, slavery, and prejudice (“No Irish Need Apply”)… and rioting. Louisville’s “Bloody Monday” election day rioting in August 1855 was certainly among the most violent outbreaks, with 22 confirmed deaths (though there is reason to believe that the real number was greater). In 1995, then-AOH president Paul Whitty applied for a Bloody Monday historic marker to be placed between 10th and 11th Streets on West Main, the site of the burning of a row of frame houses owned by an Irishman, Patrick Quinn. (The street was barricaded and the buildings burned… several were shot while trying to escape the flames, including Mr. Quinn, who was subsequently thrown back into the fire.) In 2006, after the 150th anniversary memorial events, the AOH and German-American Club raised the funds to erect the marker and took part in its unveiling on August 5, 2006. Those assembled then proceeded to Nelligan Hall (2010 Portland Ave) in the historically-Irish and nearby Portland neighborhood… Irish and German food and entertainment were available for purchase.
Unveiled on Saturday, August 4, 2006
Kentucky Historical Highway
The Back of the Marker reads:
AMERICAN (KNOW-NOTHING) PARTY
This party feared that Catholic immigrants from Germany and Ireland threatened Protestantism and democracy. By 1854, the party claimed a million members nationwide and led Jefferson Co. govt. They split over slavery and by the end of the Civil War they had vanished from politics in Louisville and Jefferson Co. Given by Anc. Ord. Hibernians & German-Amer. Club
Location: 1011 West Main Street, Louisville, Kentucky
This marker was unveiled 151 years after the event… thanks to the efforts of Paul Whitty, Esq. who submitted the wording to the state historic landmark board and to the German American Club and the AOH for funding this marker. It can be found between 10th and 11th Streets on West Main Street in front of the Ky Lottery Corporation.
For Those Who Perished in the Riots of Bloody Monday
He fled his home,
Across the land
To the Irish Sea,
He lost his mom,
father, friends and generations three.
So he set asail,
Across the water,
To a place of food and free,
The hopes of dreams,
Did trust the breeze,
The sights that did unfold,
New Orleans port
He found himself.
Up the Mississippi River
He toiled away,
Kentucky lore attracted him,
And that’s where he stayed.
The water so blued,
And the fields so green,
His life there he made,
And time flew by.
Things were grand,
The pain behind was gone,
He took a bride,
And made a life.
He never could conceive,
That things would change,
Until the famous day,
of Prentice boys,
Who knew nothing.
His mind went back,
From where he’d come
And realized then,
That he had not escaped
The horrors of Ireland.
As the fires did rage,
He only surmised,
It’s time and he passed away.
– A.J. Brian
From 1855… (150th Anniversary Article from 2006 is below)
Bloody Monday – Louisville Daily Journal – August 7, 1855
(Courtesy of Janis Fowler)
THE ELECTION RIOTS.
MURDER AND ARSON. TWENTY MEN KILLED.
We passed yesterday through the forms of an election. As provided for by statute, the polls were opened, and privilege granted to such as were “right upon the goose,” with a few exceptions, to exercise their election franchise. Never, perhaps, was a greater farce, or as we should term it, tragedy, enacted. Hundreds and thousands were deterred from voting by direct acts of intimidation, others through fear of consequences, and a multitude form alack of proper facilities. the city, indeed, was, during the day, in possession of an armed mob, the base passions of which were infuriated to the highest pitch by the incendiary appeals of the newspaper organ and the popular leaders of the Know Nothing party.
On Sunday night, large detachments of men were sent to the First and Second Wards to see that the polls were properly opened. These men, the “American Executive Committee” supplied with the requisite refreshments, and and as may be imagined they were in very fit condition to see that the rights of freemen were respected. Indeed they discharged the important trusts committed to them in such manner as to commend them forever to the admiration of out-laws! They opened the polls; they provided ways and means for their own party to vote; they bluffed and bullied all those who could not show the sign; they in fact converted the election into a perfect farce, without one redeeming or qualifying phase.
We do not know when or how their plan of operations was devised. Indeed we do not care to know when such a system of outrage–such perfidy–such dastardly– was conceived. We only blush for Kentucky that her soil was the scene for such outrages, and that some of her sons were participants in the uefarious (sic) swindle.
It would be impossible to state when or how this riot commenced. By day break the polls were taken possession of by the American party, and in purauance (sic) of their preconcerted game, they used every stratagem or device to hinder the vote of every man who could not manifest to the “guardians of the polls” his soundness in the K. N. question. We were personally witness to the procedure of the party in certain wards, and of these we feel authorized to speak. At the Seventh Ward we discovered that for three hours in the outset in the morning it was impossible for those not “posted” to vote, without the greatest difficulty. In the Sixth Ward a party of bullies were masters of the polls. We saw two foreigners driven from the polls; forced to run a guantlet, beat unmercifully, stoned and stabbed. In the case of one fellow the Hon. Wm. Thomasson, formerly a member of Congress from this district, interfered, and while appealing to the maddened crowd to cease their acts of disorder and violence Mr. Thomasson was struck from behind and beat. His gray hairs, his long public service, his manly presence, and his thorough Ameribanism (sic), availed nothing with the crazed mob. Other and serious fights occurred in the Sixth Ward, of which we have no time to make mention now.
The more serious and disgraceful disturbances occurred in the upper wards. The vote cast was but but a partial one, and nearly altogether on one side. no show was given to the friends of Preston, who were largely in the majority, but who in the face of cannon, muskets and revolvers, could not, being an unarmed and quiet populace confront the mad mob. So the vote was cast one way, and the result stands before the public.
In the morning, as we state elsewhere, George Berg, a carpenter living on the corner of 9th and Market, was killed near Hancock street. A German named Fritz, formerly a partner in the Galt House, was severely, if not fatally beaten. In the afternoon a general row occurred on Shelby street, extending from Main to Broadway. We are unable to ascertain the facts concerning the disturbance. Some fourteen or fifteen men were shot, including Officer Williams, Joe Selvage and others. two or three were killed, and a number of houses, chiefly German coffee houses, broken into and pillaged. About 4 o’clock, when the vast crowd, augmented by accessions from every part of the city, and armed with shot-guns, muskets and rifles were proceeding to attack the Catholic church on Shelby street, Mayor Barbee arrested them with a speech, and the mob returned to the First Ward polls. Presently a large party with a piece of brass ordnance, followed by a number of men and boys with muskets. In an hour afterwards the large brewery on Jefferson street, near the junction of Green, was set fire to.
In the lower part of the city, the disturbances were characterized by a greater degree of bloody work. Late in the afternoon three Irishmen going down Main street, near Eleventh, were attacked, and one knocked down. then ensued a terrible scene, the Irish firing from the windows of their houses, on Main street, repeated volley’s. Mr. Rodes, a river-man, was shot and killed by one in the upper story, and a Mr. Graham met with a similar fate. An Irishman who discharged a pistol at the back of a man’s head was shot and then hung. He, however, survived both punishments. John Hudson, a carpenter, was shot dead during the fracas.
After dusk, a row of frame houses on Main street between Tenth and Eleventh, the property of Mr. Quinn, a well known Irishman, were set on fire. The flames extended across the street and twelve buildings were destroyed. These houses were chiefly tenanted by Irish, and upon any of the tenants venturing out to escape the flames, they were immediately shot down. No idea could be formed on the number killed. We are advised that five men were roasted to death, having been so badly wounded by gun shot wounds that they could not escape from the burning buildings.
Of all the enormities and outrages committed by the American party yesterday and last night, we have not time now to write. The mob having satisfied its appetite for blood, repaired to Third street, and until midnight made demonstrations against the “Times” and “Democrat” offices. the furious crowd satisfied itself, however, with breaking a few window panes, asd (sic) burning the sign of the Times office.
At one o’clock this morning a large fire is raging in the upper part of the city.
Upon the proceedings of yesterday and last night we have no time, nor heart now to comment. We are sickened with the very thought of the men murdered, and houses burned and pillaged, that signalized the American victory yesterday. Not less than twenty corpses from the trophies of the wonderful achievement.
Recalling Bloody Monday
Events to mark 1855 anti-immigrant riots in city
By Peter Smith
Moving through the main streets of town, the Protestant mobs attacked and slaughtered immigrant Catholics — with ropes, guns, clubs and pitchforks.
At the end of what the Catholic bishop described as a daylong “reign of terror,” and what history would call Bloody Monday, at least 22 people were dead. And it happened in Louisville.
“You run into a lot of people who don’t even know what Bloody Monday was,” said Vicky Ullrich, a Louisville woman whose German-speaking Swiss ancestors fled to Indiana for safety after the events of that day — Aug. 6, 1855.
Yet, “given what the situation is today, with another influx of immigrants increasing the diversity of Louisville,” Ullrich said, it’s important that Bloody Monday be remembered “so that a similar event does not happen again.”
That’s why she’s helping to organize a series of commemorations next Saturday to mark the 150th anniversary of Bloody Monday, election-day riots in which Protestant mobs bullied immigrants away from polls and began rioting in Irish and German neighborhoods.
The anniversary events, sponsored by metro government and civic groups, will include a panel discussion and a bus tour of places connected to the riots.
Stories of atrocities from that day in 1855 abounded, such as of an elderly longtime citizen whose murdered body was thrown into the flames of his burning property. The victim’s only “crime,” lamented the Daily Democrat newspaper, was “that he was an Irishman and a Catholic.”
Though Protestants were among the dead, most victims were Catholics targeted by mobs who feared the immigrants’ growing numbers.
Irish and German immigrants, most of them Catholic, made up nearly a quarter of Louisville’s population of 43,000 at the time, according to the Encyclopedia of Louisville. Most native-born residents were Protestant.
Roy Fuller, who lectures on religion at the University of Louisville, said students today can scarcely believe the stories of Bloody Monday and similar anti-Catholic attacks of that era in other cities.
“We have grown up in an America where Catholics have been very visible and significant in terms of numbers,” he said. “It’s hard to imagine there would be attacks like this directed against Catholics.”
Students also are baffled by the propaganda of the day, which demonized Catholics as members of a sexually perverse, treasonous conspiracy that was secretly trying to turn America over to the pope.
“They’re even more surprised that people would believe such things,” Fuller said.
Some have said the riots caused many immigrants to flee or avoid Louisville, sapping its economic strength and allowing St. Louis and Cincinnati to eclipse it.
While other historians disagree with that notion, many civic and religious leaders today say that Louisville has since gone out of its way to promote tolerance.
Present-day immigrants find Louisville “very welcoming and open to people from not only Germany and Ireland but also Somalia and Jordan and Mexico and Vietnam,” said Omar Ayyash, a native of Jordan and director of the Louisville Metro Office for International and Cultural Affairs. “It’s an unfortunate thing that human nature has to go to extreme hatred and bloodshed to learn that a society cannot flourish and grow” that way, he said.
Today, Louisville has three private agencies that bring refugees from troubled lands, and the city has gained national attention for such interfaith endeavors as its annual Festival of Faiths and its network of neighborhood community ministries.
“In contrast to times past, there is such a wonderful ecumenical environment,” said the Rev. Bill Hammer, head of the Office of Ecumenical and Interreligious Relations for the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville.
While Protestants remain the city’s largest religious group, there now are about 157,000 Catholics — still nearly a quarter of the population.
Semsudin Haseljic, a case manager for Kentucky Refugee Ministries, said city officials and residents have welcomed immigrants and supported them during such recent incidents as when Muslims weathered harassment after the 2001 terrorist attacks.
“Outside of some events after 9/11, it’s been a smooth ride,” said Haseljic, a Muslim who came to Louisville 11 years ago as a refugee from the religious war in his native Bosnia.
The Rev. Clyde Crews, author of a history of the Archdiocese of Louisville, said that then-Louisville Bishop Martin Spalding and Protestant leaders began establishing this more tolerant environment immediately after Bloody Monday, when they called for calm rather than revenge.
Had the two sides taken a harder line, Louisville could have become “the Belfast of America,” said Crews, a Bellarmine University theology professor.
Editor’s ‘tarnished legacy’
But the ghost of Bloody Monday haunts the legacy of one prominent newspaper editor.
George Prentice, editor of the Louisville Daily Journal newspaper, a predecessor of The Courier-Journal, was widely accused of inflaming the mobs in editorials in the days before the riots. He denounced the “most pestilent influence of the foreign swarms” loyal to a pope he called “an inflated Italian despot who keeps people kissing his toes all day.”
Some say Prentice gets too much blame and that city officials created riot conditions with poorly policed, overcrowded voting precincts.
Periodic campaigns to remove Prentice’s statue from outside the Louisville Free Public Library downtown — which honors his other political and literary achievements — eventually resulted in the placing of a plaque describing his “tarnished legacy.”
Prentice’s “raw bigotry” is “part of the past that we have to live with, but I don’t think that’s our legacy,” said Courier-Journal Forum editor Keith Runyon, who edited a historical supplement on the newspaper’s 125th anniversary in 1993. The newspaper of 1855 “was about as far as you can get from The Courier-Journal of 2005,” Runyon said. “Editorially, we always have been concerned in modern times about minority rights, about assimilation, about fair treatment of immigrants.”
Bloody Monday has also left a burden for Louisville historians, who continue to wrestle with the sketchy, partisan accounts of it that appeared in the city’s newspapers and official records.
“We don’t argue about what happened in the earthquakes of 1811-12,” said historian and Metro Councilman Tom Owen. “We don’t argue about what happened in the 1937 flood or the tornado of 1890. But professionals debate both the causation and the result of Bloody Monday.”
Yet the important thing, he said, is not “who fired the first shot.”
What is crucial, he said, is to “resolve to never let the fires of passion, of fear or of hatred ever so overwhelm us that something like this would ever happen again.” | <urn:uuid:607b7d97-1085-434b-a759-53a1e1f41117> | {
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SCZ602: Marine Biology (2011-2012)
CURRICULUM PROGRAM: Science
COURSE TITLE: Marine Biology
CALENDAR YEAR: 2011-2012
GRADE LEVEL: 10-12
COURSE LENGTH: 36 weeks
Laboratory Requirement: Students who take this course spend a minimum of 30% of their time engaged in hands-on laboratory exercises. All DoDEA Science courses have a minimum 30% dedicated time period for laboratory exercises. This translates to approximately 54 instructional days or 16 to 27 multi-day laboratories dedicated to student hands on laboratory time. Demonstrations and virtual laboratories, while useful in the classroom, do not count toward the 30% laboratory requirement.
Major Concepts/Content: Marine Biology is designed to be an elective course for students with a career or special interest and high motivation for an in-depth study of marine biology. Marine Biology focuses on to the identification, classification and interaction of marine organisms. Information is presented in an integrated approach with science as inquiry, science & technology, science & social perspectives, and the history & nature of science. The course integrates unifying science concepts and processes of systems, order & organization, evidence, models & explanation, change, consistency & equilibrium, and form & function.
Scientific inquiry and understanding about inquiry are emphasized through practical implications and meaningful applications. Topics students study include ecological concepts of the sandy beach, rocky shore and benthic communities, seaweeds, planktonic forms, plankton and their relationship to marine life cycles, nekton, benthos, marine bacteriology, marine biological resources, and marine pollution. Additional special topics may be selected for study.
Major Instructional Activities: Scientific inquiry is defined as the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Scientific inquiry also refers to the activities through which students develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world (NSTA, 2004). Based on the philosophy that scientific knowledge is best acquired through inquiry, the course uses a variety of techniques to promote and inquiry in the classroom (ex. multiple revisions, high quality questioning, synthesis, making conclusions based on evidence, etc).
Instructional activities are staged in appropriate settings. They include laboratories, classrooms, forms of technology, and field studies. Teaching strategies include in depth laboratory investigations, demonstrations, collaborative peer-to-peer discussions, and student hands-on experiences.
Major Evaluative Techniques: All aspects of progress in science are measured using multiple methods such as authentic assessments, performance assessments, formative assessments, observational assessments, projects, research activities, reports, group and individual student work and conventional summative assessments.
Course Objectives: Upon completion of Marine Biology, students should be able to:
- Engage in full and partial scientific inquiries to design, conduct, and communicate scientific investigations to explore ideas about the natural world.
- Use scientific inquiry to design and conduct scientific investigations to meet a human need, make a decision, solve a human problem, or develop a product.
- Recognize and describe the interrelationship between science and technology.
- Apply the tools of technology (e.g., computers) in scientific endeavors.
- Identify qualities inherent in scientific behavior (e.g., reasoning, insight, energy, skill, and creativity).
- Discuss contributions of men and women of various social and ethnic backgrounds to science and technology.
- Apply science concepts to make decisions (weighing risks and benefits) about students' personal health and well-being.
- Describe how information is acquired through observations and measurements of marine phenomena.
- Demonstrate a manifestation of the critical thinking skills by examining marine biological-oriented problems.
- Describe the structure, function, and behavior of representative marine life forms.
- Describe interactions between physical and biological factors occurring in various marine environments.
- Identify and describe major energy transformations in the marine environment.
- Identify and analyze current issues in marine science and technology.
- Describe the impact of current marine-oriented issues on human and other populations. | <urn:uuid:6797cfee-b3a4-4b9a-be24-5d3ece4eec27> | {
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Published in Evrensel, 23 October 2017.
Reprinted with permission.
Claims and facts about the right of nations to self-determination, following the independence referendums in Iraqi Kurdistan and Catalonia.
Following the independence referendums in Iraqi Kurdistan and Catalonia, the right of nations to self-determination has become a popular debate. Here are some of the claims and facts about this right:
Claim 1. Defending the right of nations to self-determination ignites separatism
The right of self-determination is a way of respecting a nation’s right to live the way it chooses to. Lenin states that this right applied even to the most ‘extreme’ options, including the ‘right to secession’. For this reason, the right of nations to self-determination forms the ‘right to establish a separate state’. This means that even if a majority of a nation now calls to ‘break off from’, i.e. ‘secession’, this right must be recognised. However, Lenin did not want this right because he wanted a separation, but because he wanted to advocate a genuine fraternity and unity among peoples. According to the programme of the Bolsheviks, the solution to the national question was to recognise the right of self-determination, and through this, removing all national privileges under a single state framework as a voluntary union based on equal rights. In order for the peoples to live together, the ‘right to secession’ must be recognised. Prohibition of this right encourages separation. For example, the more the demand of Turkey’s Kurds to have autonomous life is repressed, the more the Kurdish people gain a sense of need for ‘separation’. Therefore, the right of nations to self-determination does not mean to advocate separation but to defend the removal of national privileges and the conditions of voluntary unity.
2. The national question has already been resolved in Iraq. Language, cultural freedoms and autonomy have been provided. The Kurds are no longer an oppressed nation. The referendum serves the interests of Barzani, the President of Kurdistan Regional Government.
It is true that the recent independence referendum is linked with Barzani’s political interests. However, reducing the national question to the issue of language and culture is a liberal approach. For example, why has the national question in Catalonia not been resolved? They have their language, culture, local government and own parliament, but the national question still was not resolved. There is a similar situation in Iraqi Kurdistan and the Kurdish question in Turkey. Even if we assume that language and cultural equality were to be provided, the Kurdish question would not be resolved without the demands of the Kurds for autonomy were met. The national question cannot only be seen as a cultural rights issue. The problem will continue as long as the Kurds request for autonomy is interfered with and prevented from the outside. In the final analysis, the national question is the rejection of the right of a nation to self-determination. In some cases, this will include matters such as language, culture and so on (just like the situation in Turkey for instance) and not in others (Catalonia and Iraqi Kurdistan). And so the national question can not be solved without the recognition of the right to self-determination. For this reason, Turkey’s left’s refusal of this right in ‘good faith’ opens the way to the nationalism of the oppressive nation.
3. To defend the right to a referendum that will clearly lead to separation is to support separatism through the rhetoric of ‘principles’ and ‘rights’.
A socialist from Turkey cannot handle this issue abstractly without taking into consideration the historical context as if they were living in Australia. In Turkey, the nationalism of the oppressive nation is institutionalised and is highly effective among the working people. This nationalism is based on anti-Kurdishness and therefore there is a hysterical hostility to a possible Kurdish state. Establishing a state is seen as a privilege that the Turks hold and therefore a Kurdish state is not deemed appropriate. This is why socialists of Turkey firstly have the duty to help the working people gain an internationalist consciousness and to oppose all national privileges.
The question is as follows: How will an equal friendship-fraternity relationship be established between the Turkish workers and the Kurdish workers? How will the common struggle be achieved? If socialists of Turkey will not respect the will of the Kurds demanding independence in Iraqi Kurdistan, can equality and fraternity even be considerable? The only way to establish trust, fraternity and equality between the nations in the medium term so that a common way of fighting is achieved is only through the recognition of the right to self-determination.
4. Those who support the right to self-determination do not care about the common struggle of the peoples.
For the common struggles and fraternity of peoples and show to them that we are brothers, it is necessary to respect their preferences in order to break the prejudices of a people who have been massacred for centuries. This is the foundation of voluntary unity. The right to self-determination is not only a defence of an abstract principal but also a compulsory principle to provide for the fraternity, common struggle and voluntary unity of the peoples. As Lenin says “Humanity … can only achieve the inevitable union of nations by getting over a transition period when all oppressed nations are liberated, i.e. when they have the freedom of secession from the oppressive nation.”
5. Kurdish parties did not support the referendum. Therefore, the referendum does not reflect the will of the Kurdish nation.
It is true that there are differences between the Kurds and their parties. However, the objection of Kurdish parties is not to the referendum itself, but Barzani’s desire to make the referendum an instrument to serve his own political future. Nearly all Kurdish parties criticized this and called for a ‘yes’ vote the day before the referendum. There will always be division and political infighting within a national movement; their existence does not invalidate the right of people to self-determination; especially for the socialist of another country.
6. In the age of imperialism, the right of people to self-determination is invalid. It is not possible. Small countries get annexed to imperialism.
This is exactly the content of Lenin’s polemics with Luxemburg on the right of people to self-determination. Lenin naturally defends the right of people to self-determination as the solution to the national question. As the right of people to self-determination does not solve patriarchy, press freedom or lowered wages problems, nor does it solve the problem of imperialist economic hegemony.
In his polemic with Luxemburg, Lenin argued this democratic principle not as a solution to all the problems in the world but as an idea to put an end to the national oppression in a multinational country. Of course, this country will be united with the struggle against imperialism and its stance under revolutionary conditions, i.e. progressive or socialist party leadership of the nation. This is the call of the III. International and we defend it. Unfortunately, this is not what is happening in the case of Iraqi Kurdistan.
7. While the concept of the right of people to self-determination is the revolutionary concept of yesterday, this question cannot be discussed ‘idealistically’ unless the concept of imperialism in others dependent on itself is seen today.
Imperialism wants to use the right of people to self-determination to serve its own interests. This was done in Yugoslavia. This, however, requires the socialist not to reject the right of people to self-determination, but the perspective to struggle against and combat imperialism. Big monopolies may suggest control of unregistered employment, in part due to the fact that it is an element of “unfair competition”. As seen in WTO meetings, some representatives of imperialist countries may oppose low pay in countries like Bangladesh, in fear of competition. Imperialist countries such as the USA and Russia may fight against ISIS. All this does not require socialists to give up on these claims and defend ISIS. However, it requires one to struggle and act in a revolutionary context. Therefore, apparent defence of this principle by imperialists in some cases cannot be an excuse for socialists to give up. As Lenin expressed in the then current circumstances, “Just as in the example of Latin countries, conditions, where people were lied to with republican slogans and these were used by financial oligarchy for financial pillage cannot be a reason for social-democrats to give up on republicanism; in the same way, in the fight for freedom against the imperialist state, the condition that this could be used by another ‘bigger’ imperialist state for imperialist intentions of same order, cannot be a reason for social-democrats to reject the right of people to self-determination”.
8. If the national movement is collaborative or bourgeois-led, the right of people to self-determination cannot be defended.
If a national movement was not led by the bourgeoisie, there would be no debate on the right of people to self-determination. The reason for the debate is the bourgeois nature of national movements. Thus, the right of people to self-determination is valid under conditions of bourgeois-led national movements; or even co-operation with imperialism. Socialists recognize it but fights against the nationalistic exercise of this right. For example, some in the Turkish left opposition to the referendum in Iraqi Kurdistan openly reject the right of people to self-determination. The referendum is to be respected. The fact that the referendum was brought about by Barzani for various reasons is an internal problem for the people of Kurdistan. When these internal problems are dealt with, there will be no such thing as the right of people to self-determination. Excuses such as “Talabani is a compromiser”, “Goran is a nationalist”, “PKK is nationalist” etc. to deny the right of people to self-determination will never seize to exist. Because an immaculate national movement in human history can never be found. Therefore, it is not the referendum that we should oppose. What we should criticise is Kurdish support for Barzani. And our friendly call to Kurdish workers and labourers is thus: “Do not support Barzani, the representative of the Kurdish co-conspirator bourgeoisie, take your fate into your own hands, do your own politics. Do not let independent Kurdistan become a toy for imperialism.” This call is a sign of our friendly, revolutionary support and solidarity, not a “lecture”. The right of people to self-determination and support for Barzani are two separate things. This is what separates internationalists from Kurdish nationalism.
9. For Lenin, the right of people to self-determination was not a principle but a tactic.
It was beyond a dilemma of whether it was tactics, principles or strategy. It was all of them; tactical principle and strategic principle. Along with being a democratic principle, it was the only way to safeguard the unity of the working class. From this point of view, it had an unbreakable connection with socialist goals. By his statement; “Wherever we see ties relating to international oppression – without preaching for the need to separate – we will vigorously defend the right to self-determination and the right to separation for each nation. To defend, recognise and side with this right means: to defend equal rights between nations; to resist oppression; to fight against national privileges of any nation; and hence, to develop the class struggle between workers of every individual country”.
10. Independent Kurdistan will be a second Israel in the region.
The basis of this thesis is clearly the traditional bourgeois-nationalist sensitivity to an independent Kurdish state. If it remains in Barzani’s leadership, Kurdistan will indeed be an important figure in US imperialism, and therefore Israel’s anti-Iran strategy. It will be a co-conspirator state. However, it will not be a second Israel because there is no Palestine in Kurdistan, there is no Zionism. As a co-conspirator administration to imperialism, it will look more like Turkey than Israel. However, with its size, population and economic dependency it will probably be a weaker partner than Turkey.
11. Kurdistan will be an advanced outpost of imperialism.
It seems likely to be so under the collaborator Barzani administration. At the referendum, the decision was for independence. It must be implemented in accordance with the right of people to self-determination. However, there is great opposition amongst Kurds too. Perception of an independent Kurdistan as an “unchanging, collaborator country” is also linked to the nationalist hysteria of hate against the Kurds. Barzani can be overthrown, independent Kurdistan can advance in a popular, anti-imperialist and democratic line. This popular option is not blocked by independence. In other words, Kurdistan does not have to be an imperialist outpost just because it is Kurdistan. Kurdish people harbour a vigorous vein of opposition in their collective historical memory that advocates the opposite.
12. Independent Kurdistan will trigger a war in the region.
Independent Kurdistan is not a disaster. In fact, Kurdish autonomous region operates like an independent country already. The administration is now a collaborator of imperialism. For that reason, unless war originates from hostility to Kurds; it should be seen as a disaster for the region. Disaster can only happen when politics of Kurdish hate leads to a war, started by reactionary countries in the region. In that case, it is not the Kurds demanding independence, but the reactionary states of the region that should be blamed and fought against.
13. ‘Socialists’ on Turkish left that reject the right of the people to self-determination are fascists.
Of course, rejection of the right of people to self-determination is a step in support of oppressive state nationalism. However, some parties that reject this right on a theoretical level defend recognition of the results of the referendum and oppose military action or oppression against Kurdistan. These parties and movements cannot be accused of fascism. What we see is the result of being influenced by a deviation to the right and oppressive state nationalism.
14. Lenin defended the right of revolution to self-determine, not right of people to self-determination.
Lenin’s perspective was undoubtedly revolutionary. He addressed the solution of every problem with a revolutionary perspective. For this reason, he unfalteringly defended the right of people to self-determination. He did not point to a tautology of “right of revolution to self-determine” because revolution cannot be expressed in terms of a right; it is a matter of power. When sufficient power is gained, neither counter-revolution nor revolutionary forces will be trapped in an abstract notion of right. Revolution does not take place by rights but by the force. However, the right of people to self-determination is defensible and defended as a right and principle.
15. Independence of Iraqi Kurdistan will also open Turkey’s borders to debate.
It is a pity that this argument came from the ‘left’. Of course, the struggle cannot be carried out without considering existing borders. However, today’s borders were drawn by imperialists on the basis of oppression and division of Kurdish peoples. It is the duty of socialists to defend their unity on the basis of equal rights and not act as “border guards” in a geography where peoples are oppressed and massacred, and in order to do this unfailingly, they must recognize the right of people to self-determination.
16. The father of the right of people to self-determination is US President Wilson. Lenin quickly adopted this principle to gain the support of colonial peoples against Wilson.
This principle entered socialist agenda long before Wilson expressed it. This principle was included in the decisions of the Second International Congress held in London in 1896. It has been in the program of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDIP) since its first Congress.
17. Lenin defended this principle not in the era of imperialism but in the era of socialist revolutions.
The right of people to self-determination was the subject of a further four comprehensive discussions for Lenin and the Bolsheviks after being re-admitted into the 1903 program. First; In 1913, the right of people to self-determination was defended against the Austrian national-socialist Otto Bauer’s “national cultural autonomy” formulation and its reflections in Russia. In 1914, Lenin defended the right of people to self-determination in the Bolshevik Party against rising national movements, and in opposition to those who claimed it will inflame apartheid. In 1916, Lenin again explained in detail the right of people to self-determination against the Bukharin and Kievsky thesis that “the right of people to self-determination cannot be realized in the era of imperialism” and that “it will serve imperialism”; he described their opposition as “Marxism’s cartoon” and “imperialist economics”. Finally, it was proposed by Lenin in the Third International, expanding the scope of the formulation of the struggle against the imperialism of the colonial countries. | <urn:uuid:4ecd44d5-1165-4942-9593-72509030974c> | {
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Jumping spiders are the largest family of spiders in the world, with over 5,000 species. The most common species of jumping spiders are in the family Salticidae, which includes over 90% of all jumping spiders. Salticids are identified by their distinct appearance and the way they move and attack their prey.
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Jumping spiders are daytime hunters with acute vision. The most distinctive feature of jumping spiders is their eyes. Jumping spiders, like all spiders, have eight eyes. The front row of consists of four eyes, two large eyes in the middle and a smaller eye on each side. Jumping spiders have a second and third row of eyes located on the cepahalothorax. They have eight legs and a distinct flat face. They are small, usually less than 15mm long.
Jumping spiders are known for their jerky movements. They get their name from the way that they attack their prey. They do not spin webs and capture their prey like other spiders do. Jumping spiders are one of the fastest arthropods. Their speed and excellent eyesight allow them to pounce on flies, crickets and even other spiders with amazing accuracy. They are true predators and are able to climb, crawl and leap at their prey and capture it. According to Michigan State University they are the most common biting spiders in the United States.
The most common saliticid is the bold jumping spider, or Phidippus audax. The bold jumping spider can be found in a widespread area including the United States, Canada and New Mexico. It is known as a prairie and grassland species, but it can be found almost anywhere, including in and around homes. It is a common predator of crop pests including boil weevils, beetles, stinkbugs, bollworms and mosquitoes. The bold jumping spider is very distinct in its appearance, just like other species of jumping spiders. It has a robust body with the characteristic eight eyes. It is mostly black. The bold jumping spider has a large white or red spot on the top of its abdomen and a smaller pair of spots on its posterior. Juvenile bold jumping spiders have an orange spot on the abdomen that turns white at maturity. According to the University of Arkansas Arthropod Museum the bold jumping spider spends the winter after hatching as a sub-adult, matures and mates during spring and then produces egg sacs in the summer.
- 20 of the funniest online reviews ever
- 14 Biggest lies people tell in online dating sites
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Is it the luminous pale pink plumage with red highlights or the long bill with the spoon shaped tip that so enchants those lucky enough to view this long-legged wader that is a member of the ibis family?
The roseate spoonbill is a resident breeder in South America, generally east of the Andes, and coastal areas of Central America, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico (Dumas 2000). Mangrove islands and occasionally dredge-spoil islands are the preferred nesting habitat for the species. In Florida, the species is found in Florida Bay, Tampa Bay, and Brevard County.
The spatulate bill of this species has an important function. It has sensitive nerve endings that help the spoonbill detect prey. As it sweeps the bill from side to side through shallow water, the spoonbill encounters small fish, shrimp, crayfish, fiddler crabs and aquatic insects, which it snaps up and swallows. | <urn:uuid:f7c7f02e-62d1-4e69-bc36-77633b3e787c> | {
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LAST UPDATED: APRIL 25, 2017
When your braces first go on, whether you’re using traditional shiny metal brackets or Invisalign treatment, there are several foods that you should avoid. This isn’t your orthodontist advice. Instead, it’s necessary in order to keep your brackets, wires, and appliances in place, doing their job to make a better, brighter smile.
What are some Foods to Avoid?
There are several foods that are on the list that you shouldn’t eat at all while you’re wearing braces. They include:
- Whole apples, pears, and other crunchy fruits that haven’t been cut into thin wedges
- Uncooked carrots, including baby carrots
- Crunchy corn chips
- Gummy candy
- Whole nuts
- Hard candy and crunchy candy, including treats like peanut brittle
- Whole, crunchy pickles
- Hard, crunchy pizza crusts (soft crust and the rest of the pizza are fine; just avoid the crunchy crust)
- Peanut butters
- Extremely sticky candies like taffy
- Corn on the cob (off the cob is fine)
- Tough meats–beef jerky and Slim Jim type snacks, in particular
- Ribs and chicken wings on the bone–taking the meat off the bone makes these edible again
What are some Non-Food Items to Avoid?
It’s amazing how many things you discover that you put in your mouth when you’re undergoing orthodontic treatment and can’t anymore. These bad habits aren’t just hard on your teeth in general. They’re even harder on those critical brackets and wires! To help keep your orthodontics in good shape, avoid the following:
- Chewing your nails. It can bend wires or even cause brackets to pop off.
- Chomping on ice. You can still have ice in your drink, but you shouldn’t put in your mouth by itself. This includes “sucking” on the ice, which could still cause rough handling of your brackets.
- Chewing on pens and pencils, which can lead to unnecessary stress on brackets and wires.
- Chewing gum. Some orthodontists may allow the use of sugar-free gum, but in general, it’s best to avoid it altogether.
What are Foods to Eat With Caution?
Yes, your orthodontist is serious when they tell you to exercise caution when consuming certain foods! While they can be consumed safely, it’s important to follow proper consumption instructions so that you aren’t endangering the integrity of your brackets, wires, or Invisalign treatment.
- Chewy bread like bagels should be consumed carefully. It’s better to break them up into small pieces before consuming. It’s also important to note that bread, in general, may get balled up underneath your wires, making it difficult to clean them.
- Hard, crunchy chips and hard tacos should be consumed with caution. Typically, it’s better to break them up in pieces or consume them one at a time.
- Candies and soda, in general, should be consumed cautiously when you’re undergoing orthodontic treatment. It’s hard enough to get your teeth clean when you don’t have a mouthful of appliances! Decay can sneak in when you least expect it, so avoiding or minimizing treats that are high in sugar will be best for the time being.
- Bread with a hard, firm crust like French or Italian bread should be cut up into small pieces. Cut the crust off entirely or chew it with your back teeth to avoid causing problems with your brackets.
- Raw vegetables need to be cut up in small pieces before consuming. For an even better option, try steaming or sauteing vegetables to create a softer texture that will be easier to chew.
- Hard, crunchy cookies should be softened in milk or avoided for their softer counterparts for the time being.
What are Foods You Can Have with braces?
The list of foods that you can’t have while wearing braces is extensive and often frustrating! Fortunately, there are plenty of foods that you can still have. Many of them may become your new favorites. If you’re having trouble putting together a new grocery list or figuring out what to eat, try some of these:
- Soft fruit like watermelon, cantaloupe, plums, and peaches, especially cut up into small pieces.
- Small fruits like grapes, blueberries, and strawberries, though it might be best to opt for seedless grapes for now.
- Yogurt, frozen yogurt, and ice cream
- Bread, especially soft ones
- Muffins, cakes, and soft cookies that don’t contain nuts
- Eggs in any form–scrambled, hard boiled, and over easy are all approved!
- Pasta noodles in any sauce you like, as long as it doesn’t contain nuts
- Soups, stews, and chilis
- Hamburgers and hot dogs
- Any meat of your choice as long as it’s not on the bone
Adapting to a new diet because of your orthodontic work can be difficult at first. Keep in mind, however, that it’s done to help complete your treatment in a timely manner and ensure that you don’t experience discomfort as a result of bent or broken appliances. When in doubt, assume that you need to avoid hard, sticky, or potentially damaging foods and check with your orthodontist at your next appointment.
Offering a Free Consultation
For expert treatment from a personable expert, visit Tisseront Orthodontics in Reston, Va., for a free consultation concerning your malocclusions. Our orthodontist is Dr. Stephan Tisseront who is able to examine and treat adults, teenagers and children. We provide an assortment of orthodontic treatments that include:
• Lingual braces from Incognito and Harmony
• Invisalign aligners designed for teenagers and adults
• Traditional metal and wire brackets
• Surgical treatments
11720 Plaza America Drive, Ste. 110 Reston VA 20190-4762 Phone: (703)773-1200
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The Qur'an Possesses Revelation and Exegesis
We shall discuss the word, exegesis, ta'wil, in relation to three Qur'anic verses. Firstly, in the verses concerning the implicit mutashabih and the explicit verses:
"But those in whose hearts is doubt pursue, in truth, that which is allegorical talking dissension by seeking to explain it. None knows its explanation except God". (III: 7)
Secondly, the verses, "In truth we have brought them a scripture which we expound with knowledge, a guidance and a mercy for a people who believe. Do they await anything but the fulfillment of it".
(Here the word ta'wil is used connoting the appearance or clarification of meaning).
"On the day when the fulfillment of it comes, those who are forgetful of it will say: the messenger of our Lord brought the truth."(VII: 52-53)
Thirdly, the verse "And this Qur'an is not such as could ever be invented ... but they denied that, the knowledge of which they could not encompass and the interpretation (ta'wil of which had not yet come to them. Even so it was that those before them deny. Then [X: 37-39]see what was the consequence in the wrongdoers.
In conclusion, we should note that the word exegesis ta'wil comes from the word awl, meaning a return. As such, ta'wil indicates that particular meaning towards which the verse is directed. The meaning of revelation tanzil, as opposed to ta'wil, is clear or according to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed.
* * *
The Meaning of Exegesis, According to the Commentators and Scholars
There is considerable disagreement as to the meaning of exegesis, ta'wil, and it is possible to count more than ten different views. There are, however, two views which have gained general acceptance. The first is that of the early generation of scholars who used the word exegesis, ta'wil, as a synonym for commentary, or tafstr. According to this view, all Qur'anic verses are open to ta'wil although according to the verse, "nobody knows its interpretation (ta'wil) except God, it is the implicit verses whose interpretation (ta'wil) is known only to God. For this reason, a number of the early scholars said that the implicit verses are those with muqatt'ah-letters at the beginning of the chapter since they are the only verses in the Qur'an whose meaning is not known to everyone.
This interpretation has been demonstrated in the previous section as being incorrect, a view which is shared by certain of the late scholars. They argued that since there is a way of finding out the meaning of any verse, particularly since the muqatt'ah-letters are obviously not in the same classification as the implicit verses then the distinction between the two (muqatta'ah and implicit, mutashabih) is clear.
Secondly, the view of the later scholars is that exegesis refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning and that not all verses have exegesis; rather only the implicit, whose ultimate meaning is known only to God. The verses in question here are those which refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow apparently attributed to God and, also, those verses which apparently ascribe faults to the messengers and Prophets of God (when in reality they are infallible).
The view that the word exegesis refers to a meaning other than the apparent one has become quite accepted. Moreover, within the divergence of opinion amongst scholars, exegesis has come to mean "to transfer" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof called ta'wil; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this view has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Qur'anic verses for the following reasons. Firstly, the verses:
Do they await anything but the fulfilment of it [VII: 53]
"But they denied that, the knowledge of which they could not encompass and the interpretation of which had not yet come to them (X: 39) indicate that the whole Qur'an has exegesis, not just the implicit verses as claimed by this group of scholars. Secondly, implied in this view is that there are Qur'anic verses whose real meaning is ambiguous and hidden from the people, only God knowing their real meaning. However, a book which declares itself as challenging and excelling in its linguistic brilliance could hardly be described as eloquent if it failed to transmit the meaning of its own words. Thirdly, if we accept this view, then the validity of the Qur'an comes under question since, according to the verse:
Why do they not reflect upon the Qur'an, if it where from other than God they would have found in it many inconsistencies.
One of the proofs that the Qur'an isot the speech of man is that, despite having been revealed in widely varying and difficult circumstances, there is no inconsistency in it, neither in its literal meaning nor in its inner meaning, and any initial inconsistency disappears upon reflection. If it is believed that a number of the implicit verses disagree with the sound, or muhkam, or explicit, verses this disagreement may be resolved by explaining that what is intended is not the literal meaning but rather another meaning known only to God.
However, this explanation will never prove that the Qur'an is "not the speech of man". If by exegesis we change any inconsistency in the explicit, or sound (muhkam), verses to another meaning beyond the literal, it is clear that we may also do this for the speech and writing of man. Fourthly, there is no proof that exegesis indicates a meaning other than the literal one and that, in the Qur'anic verses which mention the word exegesis, the literal meaning is not intended. On three occasions in the story of Joseph, the interpretation of his dream9 is called ta'wil (exegesis). It is clear that the interpretation of a dream is not fundamentally different from the actual appearance of the dream; rather, it is the interpretation of what is portrayed in a particular form in the dream.
Thus Joseph saw his father, mother and brother falling to the ground in the form of the sun, the moon and the stars. Likewise, the king of Egypt saw the seven-year drought in the form of seven lean cows eating the seven fat cows and also, the seven green ears of corn and the seven dry ears. Similarly, the dreams of Joseph's two fellow-inmates in the prison: one saw himself pouring wine for the king (in the form of the first pressing of wine), while the second saw himself crucified (in the form of birds eating from the bread basket on his head). The dream of the king of Egypt is related in the same chapter, verse 43 and its interpretation, from Joseph, in verses 47-49 when he says:
you will sow seven years as usual, but what ever you reap leave it in the ear, all except a little which you will eat. Then after that will come a year when people will have plenteous crops and then they will press (meaning wine and oil).
The dream of Joseph's fellow-inmates in the prison occurs in verse 36 of the same chapter. One of the two young men says to Joseph:
"I dreamt that I was carrying upon my head bread which the birds were eating. "
The interpretation of the dream is related by Joseph in verse 41:
"O my two fellow-prisoners! As for one of you he will pour out wine for his Lord to drink and as for the other, he will be crucified so that the birds will eat from his head. "
In a similar fashion, God relates the story of Moses and Khidr in the chapter "The Cave" [XVIII: 71-82]. Khidr made a hole in the boats; thereafter, killed a boy and, finally, straightened a leaning wall. After each event, Moses protested and Khidr explained the meaning and reality of each action which he had carried out on the orders of God; this he referred to as ta'wil. Thus it is clear that the reality of the event and the dream-picture which portrayed the event-to-be are basically the same: the ta'wil, or interpretation, does not have a meaning other than the apparent one. Likewise God says, talking about weights and measures:
Fill the measure when you measure and weigh with a right balance, that is proper and better in the end," (that is, more fitting in the final determination of the Day of Reckoning) [XVII: 35].
It is clear that the word ta'wil used here in respect to the measuring and weighing refers to fair dealing in business practices. Thus the ta'wil used in this way is not different from the literal meaning of the words "measuring" and "weighing"; it merely deepens and extends the significance of the mundane to include a spiritual dimension. This spiritual dimension is of significance for the believer who has in mind the reckoning of the final day together with his own day-to-day reckoning in the affairs of trade. In another verse God again uses the word ta'wil:
And if you have any dispute concerning any matter, refer it to God and the messenger ... that is better and more fitting in the end (IV: 59)
It is clear that the meaning of ta'wil and the referring of the dispute to God and His messenger is to establish the unity of Society and to show how each action or event in a community has a spiritual significance. Thus, the ta'wil refers to a tangible ordinary reality and is not in opposition to the actual text in the verses which refers to the dispute. In all, there are sixteen occasions in the Qur'an in which the word ta'wil is used but on no occasion does it have a meaning other than the literal text. We may say, therefore, that the word ta'wil is used to extend the idea expressed to include a further meaning which, (as will be made clear in the next section), is still in accordance with the actual word ta'wil occurring in the verse. Thus, in the light of these examples, there is no reason why we should take the word ta'wil in the verse about the explicit muhkam, and implicit, mutashaibih, meanings to indicate "a meaning basically other than the apparent meaning."
* * *
The Meaning of Exegesis in the Tradition of the Qur'anic Sciences
What is apparent from the verses in which the word ta'wil occurs is that ta'wil does not indicate a literal meaning. It is clear that the actual words of the dream described in chapter XII, "Joseph", do not in themselves contain the literal interpretation of the dream; the meaning of the dream becomes clear from the interpretation. And, likewise, in the story of Moses and Khidr, the actual words of the story are not the same as the interpretation which Khidr gave Moses. Moreover, in the verse: Fill the measure when you measure and weigh with a right balance the language does not in itself indicatethe particular economic conditions which we are intended to understand. Again, in the verse: "And if you have a dispute concerning any matter then refer it to God and the messenger"
There is no immediate literal indication that what is meant is the Unity of Islam. Thus, although the words indicate something not essentially different from their literal meaning, there is, nevertheless, in all the verses the same shifting of perspective, namely, from the actual words to the intended meaning. Moreover, all the meanings are based on a real situation, an actual physical event. In the case of the dream, the interpretation has an external reality which appears before its actual occurrence in a special form to the dreamer. Likewise, in the story of Moses and Khidr, the interpretation that the latter gives is, in fact, a reality which is to take place as a result of his action. Therefore, the interpretation of the event is rooted in the event. In the verse which orders man to fair dealing and measuring, the aspect of the verse is a reality which appears as a social benefit.
Thus the order is connected to the effect it is supposed to have in the raising up of society and, in particular, of trade. In the verse concerning referral of the dispute to God and His messenger, the meaning is again fixed to reality, namely, the spiritualization of the life of the community. To conclude, we may say that interpretation of each verse springs from a reality; the interpretation looks forward to or, in a subtle way, actually brings into being the reality it is talking about. Thus its meaning both contains and springs from a future or ulterior event. Just as the interpreter makes the interpretation meaningful, so the manifestation of the interpretation is already a reality for the interpreter.
The idea is also present in the form of the Qur'an since this sacred book has as its source realities and meanings other than the material and physical or, we may say, beyond the sensory level. Thus it expresses meanings which are more expansive than those contained in the words and phrases used by man in the material world. Although these realities and meanings are not contained in the literal explanation of man, the Qur'an uses the same language to inform man of the unseen and to produce correct belief and good action. Thus, through belief in the unseen, in the last day and in the meeting with God, man adopts a system of morals and a quality of character which allows him to achieve happiness and well-being. In this way the Qur'an produces a spiritual effect which, in turn, produces a physical social change, the importance of which will become clear on the Day of Resurrection and the meeting with God. There is further reference to this same theme when God says in chapter XLIII:2-4:
By the Book which makes plain. Take heed, we have appointed it a lecture in Arabic that perhaps you will understand. And indeed the source of the Book which we possess, it is indeed sublime, decisive.
It is sublime, in that the ordinary understanding cannot fully comprehend it, and decisive in that it cannot be faulted. The relationship of the last part of the verse to the meaning of exegesis ta'wil, (as we have discussed above) is clear. It says, in particular, that "perhaps you will understand," implying that one may or may not understand it; it does not imply that one will understand the book fully, merely by studying it.
As we have seen in the verse concerning the explicit muhkam, and the implicit mutashabih, knowledge of exegesis ta'wil, is particular to God; moreover, when in this same verse corrupt men are blamed for following the implicit mutashabih, verses and for intending to sow dissension and conflict by searching for an exegesis, ta'wil, or special interpretation, it does not state that they necessarily find it. The exegesis of the Qur'an is a reality, or several realities, which are to be found in the Source Book, the Book of Decrees with God; the Source Book is part of the unseen and far from the reach of corrupters. The same idea is treated again in chapter LVI:75- 80 when God says:
Indeed I swear by the places of the Stars - And truly that is surely a tremendous oath if you but knew - that this is indeed a noble Qur'an, in a book kept hidden, which none touch except the purified, a revelation from the Lord of the Worlds.
It is clear that these verses establish for the Qur'an two aspects, namely the position of the hidden book protected from being touched and the aspect of revelation which is understandable by the people. What is of particular interest to us in this verse is the phrase of exception, "except the purified. " According to this phrase, we can arrive at an understanding of the reality of the exegesis of the Qur'an.
This positive view of man's capability to understand the Qur'an does not conflict with the negation of the verse, "And no one knows its ta'wil except God." Since the comparison of the two verses produces a whole which is independent and harmonious. Thus we understand that God is alone in understanding these realities, yet one may come to know these truths by His leave and teaching. Knowledge of the unseen is, according to many verses, the special domain of God but in chapter LXXII:26-27, those who are worthy are excepted from this:
"He is the knower of the unseen and He reveals to no one His secret, except to every messenger whom He has chosen. "
Again we conclude that knowledge of the unseen is particular to God and that it is fitting for no one except Him and for those he gives leave to. Thus the purified amongst men take the verse concerning the "purified ones" as leave to enter into contact with the reality of the Qur'an. In a similar way we read in chapter XXXIII:33 :
"God's wish is but to remove uncleanliness from you, O people of the Household, and clean you with a thorough cleaning."
This verse was revealed, (according to a sound tradition with an unbroken chain of transmission), specifically with regard to the family of the Prophet. | <urn:uuid:4fbfed0f-7a21-4949-8f7f-94769c107e44> | {
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More Lessons for High School Chemistry
A series of free High School Chemistry Video Lessons and solutions.
In this lesson, we will learn
Three States of Matter
- three states of matter
- phase change
- phase diagrams
- boiling points
The three states of matter, also called the phases of matter, are solid, liquid and gas. Matter changes phases based upon thermodynamic principles like enthalpy and entropy. At room temperature, different elements are in different states because of their intermolecular forces.
The properties of the three phases of matter
• definite shape and volume
• Are the particles in motion?
Types of Crystalline Solids and their characteristics
3) covalent network
• no definite shape but has definite volume
• fluidity - ability to flow
• viscosity - how much it resists flow
• surface tension - measurement of inward flow
• no fixed shape or volume
Gases and Kinetic Molecular Theory
How to describe the behavior of gases in terms of motion?
Assumptions or postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of gases
• Gases do not attract/repel each other.
• Gas particles have no volume.
• Gas particles are in constant/random motion.
• No kinetic energy is lost when particles collide with each other or the walls of the container.
• Al gas particles have the same kinetic energy at a given temperature.
Plasma - the fourth state of matter
For certain substances, if we continue to apply heat to their gaseous form, another change of state could occur. These substances can go from a gas to a state of matter called plasma. For this change of state to occur, very strong heat must be applied. When heat is sufficiently strong, the electrons are stripped from their respective atoms, creating free electrons and positive ions. Although there are both negative and positive particles, overall, plasma is neutral as there are equal amounts of oppositely charged particles. Because there are free electrons, substances in a plasma form can conduct electricity.
This is what separates a gas from plasma – gases cannot conduct electricity, but plasma can.
Naturally occurring plasma include lightning and the Northern lights. Stars also exist in plasma form – in fact stars are just really hot balls of plasma. Plasma can be found in fluorescent light bulbs, neon signs, and plasma TVs.
Introduction to the states or phases of matter and intermolecular forces
Phase changes are the transformations from one state of matter to another due to thermodynamics. The processes of phase change between solid and liquid are called melting and freezing. Phase changes between liquid and gas are vaporization and condensation. Phase changes between gas and solid are deposition and sublimation. Phase changes can be spontaneous or non-spontaneous.
How to predict and understand the circumstances under which matter changes phase?
What does a phase change look like at the molecular level?
We'll look at the molecular structure in solid, liquid, and gas phases, and see how the kinetic energy of the particles changes. We'll talking about melting, vaporization, condensation, and freezing.
Phase diagrams graphically depict the state of matter in varying temperatures and pressures. The x-axis of a phase diagram is always temperature while the y-axis is always pressure. There is a point on a phase diagram called the triple point at which all three phases of matter exist simultaneously.
How to draw and interpret phase diagrams?
How phase change diagrams are made and how to read them?
Boiling point is the particular temperature where vapor pressure equals to of a liquid equals to the surrounding environmental liquid. At this temperature the liquid begins to bubble as liquid below the surface turns to gas and escapes upwards.
The point at which matter boils.
How to relate vapor pressure to boiling point?
Why there are different boiling points at different elevations?
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Barbecue or barbeque (with abbreviations BBQ, Bar-B-Q, and Bar-B-Que, diminutive form barbie used chiefly in Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, and called Braai in South Africa) is a method and apparatus for cooking food, often meat. It uses the heat and hot gases of a fire, smoking wood, or hot coals of charcoal and may include application of a marinade, spice rub, or basting sauce to the meat. The term can refer to foods cooked by this method, to the cooking apparatus itself, or to a party that includes such food.
Barbecue is usually cooked in an outdoor environment heated by the smoke of wood or charcoal. Restaurant barbecue may be cooked in large brick or metal ovens specially designed for that purpose. Alternatively, an apparatus called a "smoker" with a separate fire box may be used. Hot smoke is drawn past the meat by convection for very slow cooking. Barbecue has numerous regional variations in many parts of the world. Notably, in the Southern United States, practitioners consider barbecue to include only indirect methods of cooking over hardwood smoke, with the more direct methods to be called "grilling."
Barbecue is reminiscent of the first forms of cooking over an open fire. The gathering of people around a barbecue, whether at home or at a larger more public occasion, generally is experienced with pleasure and harmonious companionship and a certain feeling of harmony with other people and nature.
Barbecue is a method and apparatus for cooking food, often meat, with the heat and hot gases of a fire, smoking wood, or hot coals of charcoal. It may also include application of a marinade, spice rub, or basting sauce to the meat.
The techniques used in barbecue are hot smoking and smoke cooking. Hot smoking is where the meat is cooked with a wood fire, over indirect heat, at temperatures between 120 °F (49 °C) and 180 °F (82 °C), and smoke cooking is cooking over indirect fire at higher temperatures. Unlike cold smoking, which preserves meat and takes days of exposure to the smoke, hot smoking and smoke cooking are cooking processes. While much faster than cold smoking, the cooking process still takes as many as 18 hours. The long, slow cooking process leaves the meat tender and juicy.
An important ingredient in barbecue is the wood. The wood smoke flavors the food, with different woods imparting different flavors, so availability of various woods for smoking influences the taste of the barbecue in different regions.
The last, and in many cases optional, ingredient is the barbecue sauce. Sauces run the gamut from clear, peppered vinegars to thick, sweet, tomato and molasses sauces, from mild to painfully spicy. The sauce may be used as a marinade before cooking, applied during cooking, after cooking, or used as a table sauce. An alternate form of barbecue sauce is the dry rub, a mixture of salt and spices applied to the meat before cooking.
The origins of both the activity of barbecue cooking and the word itself are somewhat obscure. Most etymologists believe that "barbecue" derives ultimately from the word barbacoa found in the language of the Taíno people of the Caribbean. The word translates as "sacred fire pit" and is also spelled barbacoa. The word describes a grill for cooking meat, consisting of a wooden platform resting on sticks.
Traditional barbacoa involves digging a hole in the ground and placing some meat (usually a whole goat) with a pot underneath it, so that the juices can make a hearty broth. It is then covered with maguey leaves and coal and set alight. The cooking process takes a few hours.
There is ample evidence that both the word and cooking technique migrated out of the Caribbean and into other languages and cultures, with the word moving from Caribbean dialects into Spanish, then French, and English. The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first recorded use of the word in the English language in 1697 by the British buccaneer William Dampier.
The word evolved into its modern English spelling of "barbecue" and may also be found spelled as "barbeque," "bar-b-q." or "bbq."
The origins of American barbecue date back to colonial times, with the first recorded mention in 1610, and George Washington mentions attending a "barbicue" in Alexandria in 1769. As the country expanded westwards along the Gulf of Mexico and north along the Mississippi River, barbecue went with it.
The first ingredient in the barbecue tradition was the meat. Pigs came to the Americas with the Spanish explorers, and quickly turned feral. This provided the most widely used protein used in most barbecue, pork ribs, as well as the pork shoulder for pulled pork.
Barbecue in its current form grew up in the poor South, where both black and white cooks learned to slow roast tough cuts of meat over fire pits to make them tender. This slow cooking over smoke leaves a distinctive line of red just under the surface, where the myoglobin in the meat reacts with carbon monoxide from the smoke, and the smoky taste essential to barbecue.
These humble beginnings are still reflected in the many barbecue restaurants that are operated out of hole-in-the-wall locations, by individualists with shady reputations; the "rib joint" is the purest expression of this. Many of these will have irregular hours, and remain open only until all of a day's ribs are sold; they may shut down for a month at a time as the proprietor goes on vacation. Despite these unusual traits, rib joints will have a fiercely loyal clientèle.
Barbecuing encompasses two distinct types of cooking techniques. One type is grilling over direct heat, usually a hot fire for a short time (minutes). Grilling may be done over wood or charcoal or even gas. The other technique is cooking by using indirect heat or low-level direct radiant heat at lower temperatures and longer cooking times, often with smoke.
The distinction between smoking and grilling is the heat level and the intensity of the radiant heat; indeed, smoking is often referred to as "low and slow." Additionally, during grilling, the meat is exposed to the open air for the majority of the time.
The choice and combination of woods burned result in different flavors imparted to the meat. Woods commonly selected for their flavor include mesquite, hickory, maple, guava, kiawe, cherry, pecan, apple, and oak.
Stronger-flavored woods are used for pork and beef, while the lighter-flavored woods are used for fish and poultry. More exotic smoke generating ingredients can be found in some recipes; grapevine adds a sweet flavor, and sassafras, a major flavor in root beer adds its distinctive taste to the smoke.
Woods to avoid include conifers. These contain resins and tars, which impart undesirable resinous and chemical flavors. If these woods are used, they should be burned in a catalytic grill, such as a rocket stove, so that the resins and tars are completely burned before coming into contact with the food.
Different types of wood burn at different rates. The heat also varies by the amount of wood and controlling the rate of burn through careful venting. Wood and charcoal are sometimes combined to optimize smoke flavor and consistent burning.
Cooking with charcoal is a more manageable approximation of cooking over a wood fire. Charcoal cooking does not impart the rich flavor of cooking over hardwoods, but is cheap and easy to purchase in sizes appropriate for close proximity cooking in typical home grills. Many barbecue aficionados prefer charcoal over gas (propane) for the authentic flavor the coals provide.
Charcoal cannot be burned indoors because poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) is a combustion product. Carbon-monoxide fumes may contribute to the pink color taken on by barbecued meats after slow cooking in a smoker.
A charcoal chimney-starter is an inexpensive and efficient method for quickly obtaining a good charcoal fire. A few pages of newspaper are wadded up underneath the chimney to start the fire. Other methods are to use an electric iron to heat the charcoal or to soak it with aliphatic petroleum solvent and light it in a pyramid formation. Charcoal briquettes pre-impregnated with solvent are also available.
Once all coals are ashed over (generally 15 to 25 minutes, depending on starting technique), they can be spread around the perimeter of the grill with the meat placed in the center for indirect cooking, or piled together for direct cooking. Water-soaked wood chips (such as mesquite, cherry, hickory, or fruit trees) can be added to the coals for flavor. As with wood barbecuing, the temperature of the grill is controlled by the amount and distribution of coal within the grill and through careful venting.
For long cooking times (up to 18 hours), many cooks find success with the minion method, usually performed in a smoker. This involves putting a small number of hot coals on top of a full chamber of unlit briquettes. The burning coals will gradually light the unlit coals. By leaving the top air vent all the way open and adjusting the lower vents, a constant temperature of 225 degrees F can easily be achieved for up to 18 hours.
The Japanese-style kamado cooker utilizes lump charcoal for fuel. The kamado is made from ceramic and can be adjusted to cook for more than 30 hours on a single load of fuel, the heat being retained in the ceramic walls, radiating into the food. There is no need to use water pans or replenish fuel during the cook, as is the case with steel water smokers. The very small amount of air needed to keep a ceramic cooker going at low temperature helps maintain a moist environment, whereas in a steel smoker, steam must be added from a water pan over the briquettes to keep the food from drying out.
Grilling with natural gas or propane is a step further removed from cooking over a wood fire. Despite this, and the higher cost of a gas grill over a charcoal grill, many people prefer cooking over a gas flame.
Gas grills give very consistent results, although some charcoal and wood purists argue that it lacks the flavors available only from cooking with charcoal. Advocates of gas grills claim that gas cooking lets you "taste the meat, not the heat" because it is claimed that charcoal grills may deposit traces of coal tar on the food. Many grills are equipped with thermometers, further simplifying the barbecuing experience. However, propane and natural gas produce a "wet" heat (water vapor) that can change the texture of foods cooked over such fuels.
Added wood-smoke flavor can be imparted on gas grills using water-soaked wood chips placed in an inexpensive smoker box (a perforated metal box), or simply a perforated foil pouch, under the grilling grate and over the heat. Using such smokers on quick-grilled foods (steaks, chops, burgers) nearly duplicates the effects of wood and charcoal grills, and they can actually make grilling some longer-cooked foods, such as ribs, easier, since the "wet" heat makes it easier to prevent the meat from drying out.
Gas grills are significantly more expensive due to their added complexity. They are also considered much cleaner, as they do not result in ashes, which must be disposed of, and also in terms of air pollution. Proper maintenance may further help reduce pollution. Most barbecues that are used for commercial purposes now use gas for these reasons.
There have been a number of designs for barbecues that use solar power as a means of cooking food. The device usually involves the use of a curved mirror acting as a parabolic reflector, which focuses the rays of the sun on to a point where the food is to be heated.
Smoking can be done with wood or charcoal, although many common commercial smokers use a gas, such as propane, to heat up a box of wet wood chips sufficiently to cause smoke. The heat from the propane fire helps cook the meat while the smoke adds its unique and delicious flavor.
During smoking, the BBQ lid or smoker door is closed, making a thick dense cloud of smoke to envelope the meat. The smoke must be able to move freely around the meat and out of the top of the apparatus quickly; otherwise, foul-tasting creosote will build up on the meat, giving it a bitter flavor. Smoked meats such as pork exhibit what is known as a smoke ring: a thin pink layer just under the surface which is the result of the smoke interacting with the water in the meat.
Barbecue is primarily a source of protein. At its most generic, any form may be used, including beef, pork, lamb, poultry, fish, and seafood. The meat may be ground, as with hamburger, processed into sausage or kebabs. Vegetarian alternatives to meat, such as soyburgers and mushroom caps, are often prepared similarly. The meat may be marinated or rubbed with spices before cooking, basted with a sauce or oil before and/or during cooking, and/or flavored in numerous ways after being removed from the heat. Barbecue may be accompanied by vegetables (also barbecued or served separately) and bread, producing a balanced meal.
The grilling of meat can also form potentially carcinogenic compounds.
It is believed that the air quality associated with barbecue can be hazardous. Barbecuing has been found to be a small but significant source of particulate air pollution. Therefore, the Maryland Department of the Environment in the United States regulates the installation of non-residential charbroilers or pit barbecues with a total cooking area that is greater than 5 square feet (0.46 m²)..
The word "barbecue" can be used to refer to a social gathering where food is served, usually outdoors in the early afternoon. In the southern U.S., outdoor gatherings are not typically called "barbecues" unless barbecue itself will actually be on the menu.
The U.S. is known for its barbecues. Much of the population barbecues every year. One of the most frequent days for barbecuing is Independence Day, celebrated on July Fourth.
There are hundreds of barbecue competitions every year, from small local affairs to large festivals that draw from all over the region. The non-profit Kansas City Barbeque Society, or KCBS, sanctions over 300 barbecue contests per year, in 44 different states. Despite the "Kansas City" name, the KCBS judges all styles of barbecue, which is broken down into classes for ribs, brisket, pork, and chicken. Memphis in May World Championship Barbecue Cooking Contest may be the largest, and there is even a contest dedicated to sauces, the Diddy Wa Diddy National Barbecue Sauce Contest.
Barbecue has many regional variations, based on several factors:
In the United States, especially the southeastern region, barbecue refers to a technique of cooking that involves cooking meat for long periods of time at low temperatures over a wood fire; often this is called "pit barbecue," and the facility for cooking it is the "barbecue pit." This form of cooking adds a distinctive smoky taste to the meat; barbecue sauce, while a common accompaniment, is not required for many styles.
The core region for barbecue is the southeastern region of the United States, an area bordered on the west by Texas and Oklahoma, on the north by Missouri, Kentucky, and North Carolina, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean. While barbecue is found outside of this region, the thirteen core barbecue states contain 70 of the top 100 barbecue restaurants, and most top barbecue restaurants outside the region have their roots there. Often the proprietors of southern-style barbecue establishments in other areas originate from the southeast. In the southeast, barbecue is more than just a style of cooking, but a subculture with wide variation between regions, and fierce rivalry for titles at barbecue competitions.
Although regional differences in barbecue in the U.S. are blurring, as are many other aspects of U.S. regional culture, significant variations still exist. While the wide variety of barbecue styles makes it is difficult to break barbecue styles down into regions, there are four major styles. These are Memphis and Carolina, which rely on pork and represent the oldest styles, and Kansas City and Texas, which utilize beef as well as pork, and represent the later evolution of the original deep south barbecue. Pork is the most common protein used, followed by beef, often with chicken or turkey in addition. Mutton is found in some areas, such as Owensboro, Kentucky, and some regions will add other meats.
Memphis barbecue is primarily ribs, which come "wet" and "dry." Wet ribs are brushed with sauce before and after cooking, and dry ribs are seasoned with a dry rub. Pulled pork, from the shoulder, is also a popular item, which is served smothered in a hot, sweet, tomato-based sauce.
The Carolinas use primarily pork, both pulled and ribs, marinated in a peppery vinegar sauce before smoking. The pulled pork differs from Memphis pulled-pork in that the whole hog is used in the Carolinas. There, however, the consistency ends, as the sauces used vary widely. South Carolina sauce mixes ketchup and mustard with vinegar to make a unique orange-colored sauce. North Carolina varies from a clear vinegar sauce in the east, to a vinegar and ketchup sauce in the west.
Kansas City has a wide variety in proteins, but the signature ingredient is the sauce. The meat is smoked with a dry rub, and the sauce served as a table sauce. Kansas City style sauce is thick and sweet (with significant exceptions) based on tomatoes and molasses.
Texas-style barbeque usually uses mesquite or pecan wood as the fuel and always uses the indirect-heat method of cooking. Beef (primarily ribs and brisket) and pork are both acceptable meats; the recipes are varied. Texas sauces are tomato based, less sweet than Kansas City and spicier, and are not generally used during cooking, but are used as a table sauce. Texas also adds smoked sausages, adopted from local German and Mexican populations.
Other regions of the core barbecue states tend to draw their influence from the neighboring styles, and often will draw from more than one region. Oklahoma barbecue, for example, combines elements of Texas, Kansas City, and Memphis barbecue, in addition to adding its own unique elements, such as smoked bologna sausage. Good southern barbecue is available outside of the core states; while far less common, the variety can be even greater. With no local tradition to draw on, these restaurants often bring together eclectic mixes of things such as Carolina pulled-pork and Texas brisket on the same menu.
Canadian barbecue takes many influences from its American neighbor, but also takes influences from British, Irish, French, and Australian barbecue styles. The most common items grilled on a Canadian barbecue are chicken, burgers, ribs, steaks, sausages, and shish kebabs. As in the United States, barbecue competitions are quite common.
Asado is a technique for cooking cuts of meat, usually consisting of beef alongside various other meats, which are cooked on a grill or open fire. Asado is quite popular in the Pampa region of South America, and it is the traditional dish of Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Paraguay.
An asado can be made al asador or a la parrilla. In the first case a fire is made on the ground or in a fire pit and surrounded by metal crosses (asadores) that hold the entire carcass of an animal splayed open to receive the heat from the fire. In the second case, a fire is made and after the coals have formed, a grill (parrilla) is placed over with the meat to be cooked.
The meat for an asado is not marinated, the only preparation being the application of salt before and/or during the cooking period. Also, the heat and distance from the coals are controlled to provide a slow cooking; it usually takes around two hours to cook an asado. Further, grease from the meat is not encouraged to fall on the coals and create smoke which would adversely flavor the meat, indeed in some asados the area directly under the meat is kept clear of coals.
An asado also includes bread, a simple mixed salad of, for instance, lettuce, tomato, and onions, or it could be accompanied with verdurajo (grilled vegetables), a mixture made of potatoes, corn, onion and eggplant cooked on the parrilla and seasoned with olive oil and salt. Beer, wine, soda, and other beverages are common. Dessert is usually fresh fruit.
Churrasco is a Portuguese (IPA-pt: /ʃuhasko/) and Spanish (IPA-sp: /tʃurˈrɑskɔ/) term referring to beef or grilled meat more generally, differing across Latin America and Europe, but a primary dish in the countries of Argentina, Brazil, Nicaragua, Uruguay, Puerto Rico
In Brazil, churrasco is the term for a barbecue, similar to the Argentine asado, which originated in southern Brazil. Brazilian churrasco contains a variety of meats which may be cooked on a purpose-built churrasqueira, a grill or barbecue, often with supports for spits or skewers. Portable churrasqueiras are similar to those used to prepare the Argentinian and Uruguayan asado, with a grill support, but many Brazilian churrasqueiras do not have grills, only the skewers above the embers. The meat may alternatively be cooked on large metal or wood skewers resting on a support or stuck into the ground and roasted with the embers of charcoal (wood may also be used, especially in the State of Rio Grande do Sul).
Barbecuing is a popular outdoor cooking and eating style, common in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Many homes have a barbecue, usually located in the back garden. Most popular are steel-built "kettle" and range-style barbecues, with wheels to facilitate moving the barbecue. Due to the typically wet weather of the climate of the British Isles, during the autumn and winter, many British and Irish people store their barbecues in a garden shed or garage, although permanent brick barbecues are also common.
The most popular foods cooked on a British-style barbecue are chicken, hamburgers, sausages, beef steaks, shish kebabs, and vegetarian soya or Mycoprotein based products. Such vegetarian products require extra attention due to their lower fat content and thus tendency to stick, as well as their weaker structure due to the manufacturing process of such foods. Less common food items include fish, prawns, lobster, halloumi (cheese), corn-on-the-cob, asparagus, pork fillets, pork patties, and pork or beef ribs. Similar to the United States, barbecue sauce is sometimes spread onto the meat while it is cooking.
Barbecue in the UK is mostly influenced by traditional English, Scottish, and Welsh cuisines. However, as modern British cuisine as a whole is also heavily influenced by its multi-ethnic minority communities, Continental Western European and Mediterranean cuisines, and to a lesser extent, Middle Eastern, Asian, and Oriental cuisines may occasionally influence the food cooked at the British barbecue. For example, in addition to barbecue sauce, persillade may be put on top of the meat as a garnish. Overall, British barbecue is similar to a mix of American, Australian, German, and Mediterranean styles.
In the Republic of Ireland, the Irish people have their own tradition of barbecue which is influenced by traditional Irish cuisine. In addition to meat and vegetables, potatoes, a staple in Irish cuisine, are also grilled.
Germans are enthusiastic about their version of barbecue, grilling (Grillen), especially in the summertime. It is the one area of traditional home cooking that is a predominantly male activity. Germans grill over charcoal or, increasingly, gas, and grilled meats include all of the local sausage variations as well as steaks (especially marinaded pork steaks from the shoulder) and poultry.
Barbecue variations are also popular among the immigrant communities in Germany, with notable traditions of outdoor grilling in Germany developed by immigrants and visitors from the United States, Turkey, Greece, other Balkan States, and among the German-speaking immigrants from the states of the former Soviet Union.
Barbecuing is popular in Mediterranean countries. It is influenced from traditional Mediterranean gourmet cooking; thus olive oil is a key part of the Mediterranean barbecue style. The most common items grilled are chicken, beef steaks, souvlakis also known as brochettes (small pieces of meat and sometimes vegetables grilled on a skewer), with other traditional Mediterranean ingredients. Often, barbecue items are garnished with various herbs and spices; basic persillade and variations are often put on top of the meat.
Jamaican jerk cooking is a form of barbecue. This method derives from Native cooking of the Taino and Caribs, with influences from African slaves. The Tainos would construct a grid of green sticks some distance above a smoldering fire of green pimento wood (that is, the wood of the allspice tree) in a shallow pit, place meat on the grid and cover it with pimento leaves to impart further flavor while trapping the smoke for maximum effect. Similarly the Caribs would construct makeshift grills of green sticks over an open fire to prepare jerkies and grilled meats. Today, a grill over an open fire with seasonings that include allspice (Jamaican pimento) and Scotch bonnet peppers suffices.
In Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean, such as Cuba, Dominican Republic, and especially Puerto Rico, Lechon is a common and extremely popular delicacy. Lechon consists of taking a whole pig, slicing it from the head to the rear from the underside, and slow-grilling the hog as it is turned on a rod roasted over charcoal.
In southern China, pork barbecue is made with a marinade and cooked in long, narrow strips. This form of barbecue is known as char siu. Char siu literally means "fork burn/roast" after the traditional cooking method for the dish: Long strips of seasoned boneless pork are skewered with long forks and placed in a covered oven or over a fire. The meat, typically a shoulder cut, is seasoned with a mixture of honey, five-spice powder, fermented tofu, dark soy sauce, hoisin sauce, and sherry or rice wine (optional). These seasonings turn the exterior layer of meat dark red, similar to the "smoke ring" of American barbecues. Maltose may be used to give char siu its characteristic shiny glaze.
Outdoor barbecues (usually known simply as BBQ) are popular among Hong Kong residents on short trips to the countryside. These are invariably coal-fired, with meat (usually beef, pork, sausage, or chicken wing) simply marinated with honey, then cooked using long, hand-held forks.
Barbecue is very popular in Japan as part of outdoor activities. Normally more vegetables and seafood are incorporated than in the US, and soy sauce or soy-based sauces are commonly used.
Yakitori (焼き鳥 やきとり), "grilled bird," is a Japanese type of skewered chicken. It is made from several bite-sized pieces of chicken meat, or chicken offal, skewered on a bamboo skewer and barbecued, usually over charcoal.
Diners ordering yakitori usually have a choice of having it served with salt (and sometimes lemon juice) or with tare sauce, which is generally made of mirin, sake, soy sauce, and sugar. The sauce is applied on the skewered meat and is grilled until delicately cooked and is served with the tare sauce as a dip. It is the Japanese version of shish kebab.
Bulgogi (불고기) is thinly sliced beef (and sometimes pork or chicken) marinated in soy sauce, sesame oil, garlic, and chili pepper, cooked on a grill at the table. Bulgogi literally means "fire meat." It is a main course, and is therefore served with rice and side dishes such as Kimchi.
The more common "Korean BBQ" is called galbi (갈비), which is marinated pork or beef ribs; a variation using seasoned chicken is called (Dakgalbi). It is sliced thicker than bulgogi and cooked on a metal plate over charcoal in the center of the table.
Nomadic Mongolians have several barbecue methods, one of them called khorkhog. They first heat palm-sized stones to a high temperature over the fire and sandwich several layers of lamb or goat and stones in a large urn. The Mongolians believe that the heat and fat have beneficial or even healing effects, and after the cooking is finished they pass the stones around from hand to hand for good health. Khorkhog is a popular dish in the Mongolian countryside, but not usually served in restaurants.
The "Mongolian barbecue" often found in restaurants is a style of cooking falsely attributed to the mobile lifestyle of nomadic Mongolians, but is neither Mongolian nor barbecue. Having its origins in Taiwan, Mongolian barbecue is a restaurant style of stir-frying meats and vegetables over a large, round, solid iron griddle.
Satay is popular in several Southeast Asian countries: Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines. It consists of pieces of meat skewered on a bamboo stick; the more authentic version uses skewers from the midrib of the coconut leaf. Diced or sliced chicken, goat, mutton, beef, pork, or fish are grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire, then served with various spicy seasonings. The meat is marinated in a mixture of spices similar to a curry mix, of which turmeric is a compulsory ingredient which gives the dish its characteristic yellow color. It may be served with a spicy peanut sauce dip, or peanut gravy, slivers of onions and cucumbers, and ketupat (rice cakes).
In the Philippines, Lechon is a centerpiece of the main cultural diet. It is extremely rare for any celebratory occasion to lack lechon. Filipino lechon is made similarly to the same fashion as in the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean. The hog is cut, slicing it from the head to the rear from the underside, and slow-grill as it is turned on a rod. Even though the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean and the Philippines do not share a common language, it is still referred to with the same pronunciation. This may be in due to both regions being ruled by Spain for many centuries.
Mangal (Turkish) is the act of grilling meat on coals outdoors, and also known as "on the fire." A typical mangal meal will consist of grilled vegetables, shish kebabs of various kinds, and meatballs called köfte. Grilled chicken wings, chicken breasts, and offal are also common. Salads and other cold foods accompany the meal.
Shish lik is an Arabian barbecued rack of lamb. Other typical Arabian barbecue includes beef steaks, chicken parts, Middle-Eastern kebab made from beef and lamb, hot dogs, and beef burger.
There are various types of Persian-style, barbecued kabobs. The main type is koobideh kabob, which is seasoned ground beef that is skewered and barbecued outside on a charcoal flame. There is also a marinated chicken-kabob called jujeh kabab and a filet mignon steak-kabob, called kabob barg. All three main types of kabob are usually served with saffron rice and salad Shirazi, but may also be eaten with Middle-Eastern lavash flatbread.
Similar to the traditional Persian cuisine jujeh kabab is Shish taouk. This is a traditional Turkish shish kebab, and can also be found in Syrian and Lebanese cuisines. It is very popular in Israel from ritual dietary considerations, where it is called shipudei pargiyot ("spring chicken on a skewer," Hebrew: שיפודי פרגיות) in which cubes of chicken are skewered and grilled. Common marinades are based upon yogurt or a tomato puree, though there are many variations. Shish taouk is typically eaten with garlic paste toum.
Braai (abbreviation of braaivleis, Afrikaans for "meat grill") originated with the Afrikaner people of Southern Africa. The tradition has since been adopted by South Africans of all ethnic backgrounds in Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Zambia. The braais are utilized in cooking almost daily by many South African families.
Similar to a potluck party, the "Bring and Braai" is a grand social event (but still casual and laid-back) where family and friends converge on a picnic spot or someone's home (normally the garden or verandah) with their own meat, salad, or side dish in hand.
A braai is a social occasion that has specific traditions and social norms. In black and white South African culture, women rarely braai (cook) meat at a social gathering, as this is normally the preserve of men. The men gather round the braai or braaistand (the fire or grill) outdoors and cook the food, while women prepare the pap, salads, desserts, and vegetables for the meal in the kitchen. The meal is subsequently eaten outside by the braai, since the activity is normally engaged in during the long summer months. The cooking of the meat is not the prerogative of all the men attending, as one person would normally be in charge. He will attend to the fire, check that the coals are ready, and cook the meat. Other men may assist but generally only partake in fireside conversation. The person in charge is known as the braaier (chef), and if his skills are recognized, could be called upon to attend to the braai at other occasions as well.
In Australia and New Zealand, barbecues are a popular summer pastime. Public-use electric barbecues are common in city parks. While Australian barbecue uses similar seasonings to its American counterpart, smoking or sugary sauces are used less often; more commonly, the meat is marinated for flavor and then is cooked on a grill. The barbecuing of prawns is popular.
Barbecues are also common in fundraising for schools and local communities, where sausages and onions are served on white bread with tomato sauce. These are most often referred to as "Sausage Sizzles."
Barbecuing is popular in the Australasian, Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian islands. Every country has its own version, but some of the most legendary and continuously practiced examples of pit cooking can be found in the South Pacific.
New Zealand’s Maori have the hangi, an ancient method of cooking food using super heated rocks buried in the ground in a pit oven. Prior to colonization and the introduction of metals and wire, food was laid out on clean sticks, bark, large leaves and other vegetation to minimize direct contact with the super hot rocks and reduce burning. Carved bowls and flat rocks were also used for this purpose. Leaves, sticks and vegetation were used to cover the food and to prevent crushing from the weight of the earth on top.
Tahitians call this method hima’a, and a thousand miles away in the Marquesas Islands, there is the umu. As with many tropical islands' styles of cooking, the meat is glazed with sauce and decorated with fruits.
All links retrieved December 17, 2012.
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Thu November 15, 2012
Loophole Lets Toxic Oil Water Flow Over Indian Land
Originally published on Fri November 16, 2012 11:55 am
The air reeks so strongly of rotten eggs that tribal leader Wes Martel hesitates to get out of the car at an oil field on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. He already has a headache from the fumes he smelled at another oil field.
Martel is giving me a tour of one of a dozen oil and gas fields on the reservation. These operations have the federal government's permission to dump wastewater on the land — so much that it creates streams that flow into natural creeks and rivers. And this water contains toxic chemicals, including known carcinogens and radioactive material, according to documents obtained by NPR through Freedom of Information Act requests.
The fumes hitting Martel's nose are hydrogen sulfide, which can be deadly. So Martel makes sure the wind is at his back before walking over to a pit the size of several tennis courts. Pipes are emptying dirty brown water that came up from oil wells into the pit, which is completely covered in goopy black oil.
The oil is supposed to float to the surface, and then a truck will vacuum it up. Any solid stuff should fall on the bottom of the pit, before the water rushes out and forms a stream. But there are still chemicals in the water — some from the earth, some from the oil, and some the companies add to make the oil flow faster.
About a half-mile from the pit, Martel stops the car on a bridge over that stream of murky gray water. A shiny film covers the water in some places.
"I wish a lot of people could see this," says Martel, the vice chairman of the Eastern Shoshone Business Council, the tribal government. "This is something that's going on in the reservation: This don't look too cool."
In most of the country, this would be illegal. Most oil fields reinject wastewater far underground, where it cannot cause harm.
So why is this wastewater being released into a desert wilderness of sagebrush-covered foothills and sandstone cliffs that blaze with reds and oranges?
The few cows grazing nearby provide a clue.
"You can see the tracks into the water here," says Martel. "This is one of their watering holes."
Inside EPA, Distress Over Dumping Loophole
Without the wastewater, this area would be bone dry most of the year.
In the 1970s, when the Environmental Protection Agency was banning oil companies from dumping their wastewater, ranchers, especially in Wyoming, made a fuss. They argued that their livestock needs water, even dirty water.
So the EPA made an exception, a loophole, for the arid West. If oil companies demonstrate that ranchers or wildlife use the water, the companies can release it.
Off the reservation, Western states get to decide what oil companies must do with wastewater; over time, states' rules have become stricter than the EPA's. Some states have all but outlawed dumping.
But on the Wind River Reservation, the EPA controls whether companies can release wastewater on a case-by-case basis.
The EPA refused multiple requests for interviews, but in a statement, the agency said it was evaluating the permits it gives some of the companies to expel this water on the reservation.
"EPA is reviewing new information associated with these permits and intends to meet with the Tribes in upcoming weeks to discuss next steps," the statement reads.
The responses to NPR's two Freedom of Information Act requests include emails between staffers, correspondence with the companies, results of water-quality tests, the permits, and documents justifying each permit. Most of this information had not been public before.
The documents show hints of mutiny inside the EPA. Some EPA staffers clearly are appalled by the wastewater releases.
One wrote in an email to colleagues: "Can we get together and discuss a strategic approach for sending our message of concern? I have attached pictures of this ridiculousness."
Another staffer warns that the chemicals in the water could have "irrevocable human health and environmental impacts."
The documents also show recent detective work that some EPA staffers did to try to figure out what chemicals companies are putting in the water. Their research reveals that some of the waste streams sometimes include chemicals from hydraulic fracturing, an engineering technique designed to increase the flow of wells. They also include chemicals whose warning labels clearly state "toxic to aquatic organisms," "prevent material from entering sewers or waterways," and warnings about cancer and birth defects at low levels.
The documents suggest that at least some people inside the EPA are advocating for stricter rules. But much of this debate has been kept secret. The EPA refused to give NPR 757 documents about the loophole, claiming they can be kept secret because they are between the EPA and its attorneys or among EPA staffers.
'We Should Know Better By Now'
Experts, including scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey, say it's very rare for oil field water to be released into drainages or streams because it nearly always contains harmful chemicals.
"It's a very uncommon situation in the United States and, I believe, most of the rest of the world," said John Veil, a retired wastewater expert at the Department of Energy's Argonne National Laboratory, who now works as a consultant.
In one analysis that Veil did for Argonne, he found that 98 percent of the water that companies pump up with oil is reinjected deep underground. Veil says it's usually far too salty to discharge.
Some scientists were alarmed when they learned about the oil field wastewater releases, especially given that it is happening on tribal land.
"I was shocked when I heard this," says Rob Jackson, a Duke University environmental scientist. "I was very surprised this was allowed. It's just something that we should know better by now. We should know that dumping our waste onto the surface of the ground is a bad solution."
Other experts agreed that the chemicals in the water raise concerns. However, some scientists, including staffers from the U.S. Geological Survey, felt uncomfortable commenting for the record without doing their own testing.
Jackson reviewed many of the EPA documents released to NPR, including analyses of the chemicals in the wastewater streams and warning labels for some of the chemical treatments that companies add to the wells.
He stresses that they include hazardous air pollutants such as hydrochloric acid and naphthalene, and carcinogens like benzene and ethyl benzene.
"There are many things in this water that you don't want in the environment or in people's drinking water. You don't need to be a genius to know this is a bad idea," Jackson says.
He urges the EPA to consider the consequences of its policy and how it looks.
"Are we doing something on tribal lands we wouldn't allow somewhere else? I think that's something we have to be asking ourselves."
On The Reservation, Dead Ducklings, Dangerous Fumes
Outside the reservation, Western states decide how oil field waste is handled — and their rules are stricter than the EPA's. For instance, off the reservation, the state of Wyoming requires companies to inject wastewater deep underground and out of harm's way if they've added toxic chemicals to the wells. Other states have set tougher water quality standards that have nearly eliminated these releases.
On the Wind River Reservation, these oil field wastewater streams have flowed for several decades without attracting much interest, even from the tribes, according to Wes Martel and other officials of the two tribes that share the reservation, the Eastern Shoshoni and Northern Arapaho.
"Most of our elders were very trusting, very trusting people. They were glad they had the opportunity to get some revenue. Most of them were just thinking, 'We're being watched over, and things are being taken care of,' " says Martel, 65, who was in tribal government many years ago and was elected two years ago to return to government.
But in 2005, the Wind River Environmental Quality Commission sampled the water downstream of some of the oil fields. Researchers found toxic levels of some chemicals, stretches of streams that were lifeless, and streambeds splotched with black ooze, white crystals and purple growths. They recorded water temperatures as high as 125 degrees, and found dead ducklings, according to a draft report prepared by the tribes' environmental department.
During tours of four of the oil fields earlier this fall, I witnessed visible violations of the plain language of the permits that the EPA gave these companies to discharge wastewater. For instance, I saw streambeds covered in white crystals and rock-like formations below outfall pipes. The permits prohibit visible deposits in the receiving waters or shoreline. They also prohibit any visible foam or sheen — I saw both. At the wastewater discharge site at one oil field, company officials warned us to leave after a few minutes because of the danger of respiratory distress or death from hydrogen sulfide fumes.
The companies were reluctant to talk. One agreed to meet at its oil field on the reservation but backed out the night before. Others failed to return multiple phone calls. Houston-based Marathon Oil Corporation, which runs three oil fields on the reservation, agreed to an interview but refused to be recorded.
"As far as I know, there has never been concerns and opposition for the quality of the water that I'm aware about," says Bob Whisonant, Rocky Mountain operations manager for Marathon Oil, which has three oil fields on the reservation.
Whisonant stresses that the water from his oil fields meets EPA's requirements.
"We're really fortunate within Wyoming that the water is extremely fresh, very suitable for livestock and agriculture purposes. That's why we're able to discharge," Whisonant says.
But the EPA's permits, which are reissued every several years, tell a different story. Even the state of Wyoming, which is known to be pro-industry, questioned the fact that the EPA's requirements didn't seem to protect aquatic life. The EPA's response was that the tribes had not adopted their own water quality standards.
The EPA permits acknowledge that oil field water may not meet the agency's own water quality criteria.
The agency requires only minimal water testing at most of the oil fields, and it does not do its own testing to verify the companies' claims; nor does it sample water quality in the streams receiving the wastewater.
In 2007, the EPA required one company to test aquatic animals to see if they'd die in the water flowing from one oil field — it's a standard test of water quality known as whole effluent toxicity. The minnows and bugs in the sample died within an hour. The EPA asked the company to figure out what was killing the animals and propose remedies, but it let the company go on releasing the water for years. Five years later, the company, Marathon, says it is waiting for the EPA to OK a plan to lower high levels of sulfide in the water.
Wes Martel says he's been pushing the EPA to thoroughly study the wastewater and then require the companies to purify it or inject it underground.
He worries about water quality and wildlife — and about food safety, too. Oil field water abounds on the reservation, and the cows that graze there will eventually end up on dinner plates.
"So it really makes you wonder: What impacts is this having on not only aquatic life, but our wildlife?" Martel says.
"You've got to wonder, what types of chemicals are those beef retaining? And when that goes to the slaughterhouse, what's in your steak?"
Ranchers Still Want The Water
But Eastern Shoshone member Darwin Griebel, one of a handful of ranchers whose livestock use the oil field water, pooh-poohs Martel's concerns.
"Animals drink it. People aren't going to drink it. Hell with the quality of the water," says Griebel.
Griebel has known Martel for nearly 60 years, since they were in elementary school and slept over at each others' houses. But he says they don't agree on this issue.
Griebel says his cows haven't suffered health problems from drinking the water, and the impurities clear up after the streams have run for a while. (The tribes' water study backs up that idea: Concentrations of various harmful chemicals tend to decrease the farther you get from the oil fields.)
What's most concerning to Griebel is that the water has been crucial to his family's business for generations. Without it, he says: "There would be no water for the cows. There would be no water for the deer, the antelope. Nothing. It would put us out of business is what it would do."
But Martel says that if the EPA does not put a stop to this, the tribes will step in.
If the oil companies say that reinjecting or cleaning the water would be so expensive that it would no longer be profitable to pump oil, Martel knows what his response will be: "Good riddance."
"We'll take it over ourselves and do it right," he says.
Martel dreams of putting tribal companies in charge of their oil fields. Then the tribes would get all the profits, instead of just the royalties the companies pay them. They'd also be able to protect water quality for future generations.
MELISSA BLOCK, HOST:
From NPR News, this is ALL THINGS CONSIDERED. I'm Melissa Block.
AUDIE CORNISH, HOST:
And I'm Audie Cornish.
NPR has obtained internal documents from the Environmental Protection Agency that show that the agency has long been allowing oil companies to release polluted water on an Indian reservation in Wyoming. Millions of gallons every month create streams of this water, and it ends up in natural rivers.
NPR's Elizabeth Shogren is joining us to talk about the documents. And, Elizabeth, to start, what's going on here?
ELIZABETH SHOGREN, BYLINE: Well, the federal government actually banned this kind of dumping in the 1970s, but they made an exception, a loophole for the arid West. And I learned about this recently. It surprised me, so I put in some Freedom of Information Act requests to the EPA to try to learn more.
CORNISH: So what did find in the documents?
SHOGREN: Well, what I found out is that there are some staffers at the EPA who are trying to figure out what's in this water. And they're learning it has some nasty stuff in it. There's some toxic chemicals and carcinogens and radioactive material. But there's a lot we don't know about the EPA's thinking. They kept 750 documents from us, and they wouldn't let me speak with anybody. So I felt like I really had to go to the Wind River Reservation to understand what's going on.
CORNISH: You actually went there. I mean, did you see this water? How much water are we talking about?
SHOGREN: Yes. One of the things that shocked me is how much water - it's literally small rivers of this water in the reservation in some places. And what I did expect is that I wouldn't want to take a sip of this water, but what I didn't expect is that it would be dangerous to even stand next to it. And that's where I'm going to start my story.
CORNISH: I'm with one of the tribal leaders, Wes Martel. He's a fit 65-year-old with a long graying ponytail. And he's taking me out to show me this water.
Ooh. Ooh, can you smell that?
WES MARTEL: Yeah.
MARTEL: That's why I'm hesitating in getting out here.
SHOGREN: We pulled up next to a big black pit. The air reeks of rotten eggs. Martel tells me it's hydrogen sulfide. It can be deadly. So before we get out of the car, we make sure the wind is at our backs. Martel takes me over to the pit.
This is like about a football field size, right?
MARTEL: Probably, three or four tennis courts maybe.
SHOGREN: The whole pit is covered with goopy black oil. There are these big pipes. Brown wastewater from oil wells is gushing out of them into the pit.
It's so much water that it creates those streams. Half a mile away, we stop the car on a bridge over this stream of wastewater.
(SOUNDBITE OF RUNNING WATER)
SHOGREN: Does that look natural to you?
MARTEL: No way. Just that color. When a stream is healthy, it's green. This is not green.
SHOGREN: It's murky gray. In some places, there's a shiny film on the surface.
MARTEL: I wish a lot of people could just see this and - see, this is something that's going on on the reservation. This don't look too cool.
SHOGREN: Now, in most of the country, this would not be allowed. So why is it allowed here on the Wind River Reservation? It's beautiful here.
SHOGREN: You've got big sandstone hills that blaze with reds and oranges. Other than the oil wells, it's just desert wilderness, mostly empty except for a few cows. And these cows are supposedly the reason why oil companies get to do this.
MARTEL: You can just see their tracks right down - in that water. This is one of their watering holes.
SHOGREN: Without this water, this area would be bone-dry most of the year. Back in the 1970s, the EPA was banning this kind of dumping. But ranchers, especially here in Wyoming, fought back. They said their cows need this water, any water, even if it's dirty.
We're standing on the other side of the bridge where the stream is rushing out of big corrugated pipes.
(SOUNDBITE OF RUSHING WATER)
SHOGREN: Wes Martel thinks this can't be good.
MARTEL: Well, you know, especially this volume of water, and this is constant. So it really makes you wonder what kind of impact is this having on not only aquatic life but our wildlife. And then, you know, you've got to wonder what types of chemicals are those beef retaining. And when that goes to the slaughterhouse, what's in your steak, right?
DARWIN GRIEBEL: Oh, come on, Wes. What difference does it make? Animals drink it. People aren't going to drink it. The hell with the quality of the water.
SHOGREN: That's Darwin Griebel. He's one of a handful of ranchers whose livestock use the water. He's known Martel since they were in elementary school together and slept over at each other's houses. He's talking to me while we're going to pick up some cows that escaped to a neighbor's ranch.
Have you ever noticed any health problems with your animals?
GRIEBEL: Oh, no. No, no, no, no. No. The production water leaves the oil field. By the time it runs probably four, 500 yards, it starts purifying. In fact, when you're in Five Mile Creek, there's fish in there.
SHOGREN: Have you ever noticed anything weird about the water?
SHOGREN: All the kind of the white crystals and stuff?
GRIEBEL: Well, that's right at the start of it. But, you know, after, like I said, after it flows for a while, that's all gone.
SHOGREN: And then I ask Griebel about a suspicion I've had: Do cows really need this water? Or are oil companies just making it up, so they can have a cheaper way to dispose of it?
He tells me, yeah. For generations, his family has depended on this water.
What would it be like without the production water?
GRIEBEL: Then there would be no water for the cows. There would be no water for the deer, the antelope, nothing. It'd put us out of business is what it would do.
SHOGREN: Griebel has got a point. There's a lot of water flowing on the Wind River Reservation. All in all, there are about a dozen different oil fields here with permission to continuously spew out this water.
The water is from deep underground. It gets pumped to the surface with the oil. By the time it's released into streams, most of the oil has been separated out. But there are still chemicals in the water: chemicals from the earth, chemicals from the crude and chemicals that companies add to their wells to maintain them and get the oil to flow faster.
Now, the EPA does require some testing, but for the most part the agency doesn't know exactly what's in the water.
ROB JACKSON: I was shocked when I first heard this.
SHOGREN: Rob Jackson is an environmental scientist at Duke University. He researches the petroleum industry.
JACKSON: I was very surprised that this was allowed. It's just something that we should know better by now. We should know that dumping our wastes onto the surface of the ground is a bad solution.
SHOGREN: Other experts, including scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey, say dumping oil field water is rare because it nearly always contains harmful chemicals.
Rob Jackson reviewed many of the documents the EPA gave NPR in response to Freedom of Information Act requests. These documents include analyses of chemicals found in the water and warning labels for treatments the companies put in the wells.
JACKSON: The chemicals that are in this water contain hazardous air pollutants, such as naphthalene and hydrochloric acid, and carcinogens like benzene and ethyl benzene. There are many things in this water that you don't want in the environment or in people's drinking water. You don't need to be a genius to know that this is a bad idea.
SHOGREN: You can tell from reading the internal EPA documents that some EPA staffers are appalled. One staffer refers to what's happening on the Wind River Reservation as, quote, "ridiculousness." Another staffer writes about, quote, "irrevocable human health and environmental impacts."
Duke University's Rob Jackson agrees that the EPA needs to reconsider how this looks and the consequences.
JACKSON: Are we doing something on tribal lands that we wouldn't allow somewhere else? I think that's a question we need to be asking ourselves.
SHOGREN: Off the reservation, the states decide what companies get to do with the water. Their rules are stricter than the EPA's, and some states have virtually outlawed dumping. Most oil companies re-inject this water deep underground where it can't do harm. But on the Wind River Reservation, the EPA has control.
Eastern Shoshone leader Wes Martel believes this problem has escaped scrutiny for so long because the oil fields are remote and on tribal land. Royalties from this oil help support the tribes and their members.
MARTEL: Yeah, most of our elders were very trusting, very trusting people. And they had the opportunity to, you know, get some revenue. And, you know, most of them were just thinking we're being watched over.
SHOGREN: Martel is pushing the EPA to make oil companies clean up this water or put it back underground.
And if the operators say, well, it's too expensive to re-inject it, we're packing up and going away, what would you and your people think about that?
MARTEL: Good riddance. We'll take it over ourselves and do it right.
SHOGREN: Martel dreams of putting tribal companies in charge of their oil fields. Then the tribes would get all the profits instead of just royalties. They'd also be able to protect water quality for future generations.
But the EPA hasn't told the tribes what its plans are. It also refused to give interviews to NPR. But the agency said in a statement that it's evaluating the permission it gives some companies to do this.
Elizabeth Shogren, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. | <urn:uuid:1f5d2c8b-47ca-4b32-bdc8-b6e48ebd44d4> | {
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Security is not a new concept; it is, in fact, one of the oldest and most basic ideas embedded in the human consciousness, and as of late, it is becoming more and more difficult to implement properly. If you think back to the beginning of this term’s usage, you will realize that security involved protecting physical resources. This is to say food, water, stone, metal, and any other items that were deemed to be important.
In those days the defense of those items was relatively simple, but society has quickly become much more complex. Information has become a more important resource and modern communications have made it very difficult for us to fulfill our security obligations. To put it as simply as possible, there is a greater need for security experts than ever before. If you want to join the ranks of those charged with protecting information and resources, you will need to consider attending information technology school.
Information Technology Security in a Corporate Setting
In the corporate setting, information technology security covers many different forms of information transmission and storage. Some of these systems could include but are not limited to the following:
* Fax machines
* Cellular Phones
* SMS Messages
This is a short list, but it does give you an idea of what you will be working towards protecting should you choose to enter this field after completing your information technology training.
Data Protection in Larger Companies
In larger organizations, the protection of information technology is normally a reference to both laptop and desktop computers. Keep in mind however that this extends to the networks and routers that keep them in business, so to speak. Keeping those networks and files protected has become a serious challenge, especially when the computers involved are connected to the internet. While there is a dream of keeping systems disconnected, it will never happen – businesses need connectivity to function and they, therefore, must be connected. Whether they are connected to the internet or through a private intranet, you will learn the basics of protecting them in your information technology training.
Controlling Access to Sensitive Information
Information technology security boils down to controlling access to sensitive information from both inside and outside sources. Constant advances in technology not only make this a complex affair, but an ever-changing one as you will soon find out. In information technology security there are three major objectives which include:
* Confidentiality – Making sure that private data stays private within the organization, and within the departments where it is intended to stay.
* Integrity – Ensuring that the data being stored remains intact and readable while it is stored within company servers.
* Availability – While restricting access to data is important, it is also crucial to ensure that the right and authorized individuals have unrestricted access to it whenever they require.
As you can see, information technology and the security that accompanies it have become extremely complicated over the years with all of the latest advancements. The problem is that we cannot expect the advancements to slow down; they will become better, they will become faster, and they will require us to become more attentive than ever before. While it is an extremely challenging career these days, it can be a very rewarding one; keep that in mind and explore your educational opportunities with our extensive information technology training courses.
For more information about graduation rates, the median debt of students who completed the program, and other important information, please visit our website: https://www.iticollege.edu/disclosures.htm | <urn:uuid:87b8ce97-2739-4032-a8b5-77ac517e67a1> | {
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There is an old rule of thumb around endurance sports that states 10 per cent of your total training time should be spent stretching. But is this a rule or an old wives’ tale?
After all, there has been no definitive research produced to show that athletes who stretch are better performed or have a lower incidence of injury than athletes who don’t. In short, around sports science and coaching realms, stretching is one of the most controversial subjects imaginable.
My personal experiences as a coach/athlete suggest that regular stretching is a must, and when done properly can actually help in the prevention of, and rehabilitation from, certain sorts of injuries.
Unfortunately there is no answer as to the scientifically measured benefits (or not) of stretching, and none of the major issues surrounding the topic have been resolved. Nevertheless, based on observational research (in other words watching athletes over more than two decades) and personal experience, I’m confident in saying that every triathlete should stretch regularly. A couple of things are certain, if you stretch correctly it will never injure you and it may help prevent and rehabilitate you from certain maladies. The four forms of stretching that I will touch on here are; (i) static; (ii) active-isolated; (iii) proprioceptive-neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching and (iv)yoga.
You can decide which form best suits your needs and requirements.
(i) Static is probably the most easily recognisable style of stretching for athletes. Touching your toes is an example of this form of stretching. Static style stretching generally means that the specific targeted muscles aren’t stretching themselves. If we use the toe-touch example just mentioned, the hamstrings aren’t stretching themselves, nor are the quads on the opposite side of the leg producing the stretch. The stretch is brought about by the tilting of the pelvic girdle, which in turn places tension on the origin of the hamstring muscle group leading to the stretching sensation through them. Most of the time, such a stretch is held for a short period (10-to-30 seconds ideally) and repeated executions of this style of stretching tend to work better than one.
(ii) Active-isolated stretching was originally developed to overcome various shortcomings inherent in static stretching. In this style of stretching you place yourself in a position that allows you to stretch a specific muscle group (e.g. hamstrings) while contracting the muscles opposite (quads). Each stretch is held for a few seconds and repeated a number of times. This sort of stretching generally requires something like a rope to pull the region to be stretched into position. The main drawback of this style is that it tends to be awkward and often times the athlete doesn’t feel like it is doing much.
(iii) PNF stretching isn’t unlike active-isolated stretching. Using the hamstring example, with a PNF stretch you’d be lying on your back with both legs fully extended along the floor, then one leg is either picked up by a training partner or placed by yourself against an immoveable objective at slightly less than a right angle to the ground. You then do an isometric contraction of the targeted muscle group (in our example, the hamstrings), hold it briefly and then relax. This contraction/relaxation process helps trigger a reflex that allows the muscle to be moved through a greater range of motion. Many studies have shown this form of stretching to be an effective means of improving the range of motion around certain joint capsules and it is most effectively completed with a training partner.
(iv) Yoga involves a combination of active and static stretching, it is in fact a combination of the different forms of stretching described above. With yoga style stretching you assume a static stretching position. Like PNF stretching you contract (and then differently to PNF stretching) relax the targeted muscle in a coordinated sequence. With yoga you hold one set of muscles in an isometric contraction, while relaxing and stretching the antagonist (opposite side) muscles with a view to eventually reversing the whole process. As illustrated by the popularity of yoga over the last 10-to-15 years, many see this activity as a complete exercise regimen. It increases both passive and dynamic flexibility – crucial in most sports – as well as balance and coordination. Current research also indicates that yoga may have other benefits in that it lowers anxiety and stress. Just the sort of thing you need after four hours in the saddle when riding home through city streets! Certain forms of yoga have also been shown to improve muscle strength, because of the repeated isometric contractions done through a range of motion, however this largely depends on the style of yoga practiced. The downside for triathletes is that yoga requires repeated isometric contractions, so it is far more taxing and tiring than the other more passive forms of stretching. That said, yoga may prove beneficial for general conditioning, balance and coordination early in a preparatory training phase and can probably be used to replace swim, bike and run sessions early in the season. However, as competition looms closer you’d be better served switching to a more passive form of stretching and spending more time on the specific triathlon disciplines.
So while the scientific jury may be still out arguing the pros and cons of stretching, practical experience and observation by numerous people at the coal-face would suggest stretching is a no-brainer.
article courtesy of Rod Cadero | <urn:uuid:56625bd5-943a-45fb-8d64-07a4434ae326> | {
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A Child's Right to Safe, Clean Drinking Water
Every Monday we profile a Dow Live Earth Run for Water partner organization that works toward providing solutions to the nearly 1 billion people who lack access to clean, safe water. To donate to one of these projects, visit liveearth.org/give.
A Child's Right (ACR) is unique in the water field as its sole focus is bringing clean, safe, purified drinking water to vulnerable children in impoverished urban and peri-urban centers – specifically to sites burdened with unsafe water quality and high concentrations of at-risk children. In the last three years alone, they have provided safe drinking water to more than 250,000 children in orphanages, street shelters, rescue homes, schools, displacement camps and children's hospitals in cities around the world.
ACR is an implementing organization and has projects, offices and staff in Cambodia, China, Ethiopia and Nepal. All projects are monitored routinely by in country staff for efficacy and safety, and each site project assists between 100 - 5,000 children (depending on the site). The process and system coverage are scalable and have been used in both Cambodia and Nepal's largest pediatric hospitals to assist more than 100,000 children per site annually.
ACR's most ambitious project to date is their five-year mission to bring clean drinking water to every orphanage in China – an undertaking that will encompass more than 500 orphanages in every province and municipality across China. ACR launched this project in partnership with the Chinese government in May 2008, and has already completed more than 150 system installations in orphanages throughout the country. With staff and offices in 5 cities, they will be averaging 200 orphanage installations annually in China.
Thirty percent of ACR's work is focused on cleaning well water, while the remaining projects target contaminated municipal or surface water sources. Prior to every project they undertake comprehensive water quality testing and site analysis to ensure each location is provided unique care and any dangerous water parameters are remedied. Post-project all sites receive constant and continuous support via ACR's international staff.
ACR designs and distributes all equipment, oversees all water station construction, water system installations, scheduled maintenance and review, resupplies of spare parts and provisions, and periodic water quality tests through their US and international offices and staff.
ACR was established in 2006 by founder and executive director, Eric Stowe, and is headquartered in Tacoma, Washington.
You can find out more about A Child's Right by visiting www.achildsright.org. | <urn:uuid:35950fc9-e49d-43a1-8cfd-920e220ea9c1> | {
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ARGUING WITH SIBLINGS, FRIENDS, AND MOTHERS: DEVELOPMENTS IN RELATIONSHIPS AND UNDERSTANDING
Judy Dunn University of London
Susan Ervin-Tripp's extraordinary sensitivity to the differences in children's discourse in varying social situations has not only taught us key lessons about children's developing language ( Ervin-Tripp, 1987), about their understanding of power relations, and about the structure of control and deference within the family ( Ervin-Tripp, Guo, & Lampert, 1990; Ervin-Tripp, O'Connor, & Rosenberg, 1984). Her arguments for the importance of focusing on children's talk in a variety of discourse contexts also have far-reaching lessons for those interested in the development of relationships and the links between social understanding and emotional experience. In this chapter I take the example of young children's arguments in conflict with their mothers, siblings, and friends, over the course of their fourth year, as an illustration of what we can learn from studying children's talk in different close relationships ( Dunn, 1992). Conflict talk is an especially useful forum for investigating children's social understanding: Their knowledge of social rules can, for example, be revealed in their excuses and justifications, and their grasp of the other person's desires, expectations, and beliefs in their attempts to conciliate and negotiate. The lessons to be learned concern a range of developmental issues, centering on a core question: What are the connections between children's developing understanding of others and their social relationships with those others?
The wealth of current research on children's developing understanding of others' minds and emotions (e.g., Frye & Moore, 1991; Perner, 1991; Wellman, 1990) has shown that there are major developmental changes between the ages of 3 and 5 years in children's grasp of others' inner states. It is paradoxical that with all the interest in____________________ | <urn:uuid:3937ac97-a7f8-488d-a1c2-28d5cfe35caf> | {
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You might think a McDonald’s meal would have the same nutritional content the world over - but American fast food is super salty, says new research.
According to findings published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal, the exact levels of salt in Burger King, KFC, McDonalds, Pizza Hut, Domino’s Pizza and Subway snacks vary based on the country you live in.
A study of food from Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, the UK and the US, found that US McNuggets have twice as much salt as their European versions, according to the Daily Mail.
Overall, dishes from the six chains generally contained more salt than the same menu items in Europe, Australia and New Zealand.
Scientific American reported: “A Big Mac, for example, has 2.6 grams of salt in the U.S. versus 2.1 grams in the U.K. Chicken nuggets have an even wider disparity: a serving of about six nuggets contains 1.5 grams of salt in the U.S. and less than half of that in the U.K. (0.6 g)."
According to Katharine Jenner, campaign director for World Action On Salt And Health, and co-author of the report, the survey demonstrates "a great success story" for UK public health - but adds there is still more to done.
Reducing salt in your diet substantially reduce blood pressure and risk of heart attacks and strokes, she explains. But voluntary targets agreed between manufacturers and government to reduce salt in their food by the end of 2012 are unlikely to be met.
"Despite Andrew Lansley's lacklustre efforts to coerce the fast food giants into offering healthier food via the government’s Responsibility Deal, only Subway has pledged to reduce their salt levels in dishes. We want ALL fast food companies, including McDonalds. Burger King and Pizza Hut to take responsibility for their customers' health and to stop putting so much salt in our food,” says Jenner.
“A gradual reduction in salt can easily be done across all countries and would save millions of lives, but the global food brands still seem reluctant to provide their healthiest products to everybody.”
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A gravel road is a type of unpavedroad surfaced with gravel that has been brought to the site from a quarry or stream bed. They are common in less-developed nations, and also in the rural areas of developed nations such as Canada and the United States. In New Zealand, and other Commonwealth countries, they may be known as 'metal roads'. They may be referred to as 'dirt roads' in common speech, but that term is used more for unimproved roads with no surface material added. If well constructed and maintained, a gravel road is an all-weather road.
Forest Highways or Forest Routes are a category of roads within United States National Forests. They are built to connect the national forests to the existing state highway systems, and to provide improved access to recreational and logging areas.
The federal statues define the term Forest Highway as "a forest road under the jurisdiction of, and maintained by, a public authority and open to public travel."
Forest highways are designated by the United States Forest Service and funded by the federal government, but are generally owned and maintained by the states or counties in which they are located. The forest highway system comprises approximately 29,000 miles (47,000km) of roads. Forest highways are usually marked with markers of the style shown at right. To qualify for inclusion in the system, a roadway must "be wholly or partially within, or adjacent to, and serving the National Forest System" among other criteria.
In the 1920s, forest highway was a class of federal aid, and could be used outside forests, as long as the projects improved access to the forests.
A frontage road (also access road, service road, parallel road, etc.) is a local road running parallel to a higher-speed, limited-access road. A frontage road is often used to provide access to private driveways, shops, houses, industries or farms. Where parallel high-speed roads are provided as part of a major highway, these are also known as local-express lanes.
A frontage lane is a paved path that is used for the transportation and travel from one street to another. Frontage lanes, closely related to a frontage road, are common in metropolitan areas and in small rural towns. Frontage lanes are technically not classified as roads due to their purpose as a bridge from one road to another, and due to the architectural standards that they are not as wide as a standard road, or used as commonly as a standard road, street, or avenue.
Frontage roads provide access to homes and businesses which would be cut off by a limited-access road and connect these locations with roads which have direct access to the main roadway. Frontage roads give indirect access to abutting property along a freeway, either preventing the commercial disruption of an urban area that the freeway traverses or allowing commercial development of abutting property. At times, they add to the cost of building an expressway due to costs of land acquisition and the costs of paving and maintenance. | <urn:uuid:8e9b2cca-a75d-490c-8de8-1751863d9be8> | {
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Colors in nature
The world of nature is colorful and bright and human ingenuity cannot hope to match it. Right from the sky above to the sea below, nature abounds in the richness of color. The human eye and the human mind respond to this world of color and identify themselves with it. When a person is cheerful and bright we refer to him as a ‘colorful personality’, similarly the different colors are used to indicate human moods and attitudes: blue is associated with depression, white is likened with serenity, green with jealousy and red with rage. Color is also used to relieve tension. Psychologists have investigated the effect of colour on the working ability of workers and have come to the conclusion that certain colors are more conducive to Positive thinking than others.
Nature fulfils man’s longing for color: there is variety in everything. The sky can be clear and blue, it can be dark with clouds, it reflects the glory of the rising sun and the variegated hues of the setting sun. The sea which is normally associated with blue is not really so all the time. The sea water can he blue, green, grey and many more subtle shades and even the rivers and streams reflect the surrounding area and acquire that colour. Coleridge’s poem ‘The Ancient Mariner’ is rich in its description of the world of nature. People who do not observe are not able to notice the finer shades and are consequently not able to enjoy this valuable side of life.
In the west, seasonal changes bring in changes in the landscape. While spring is rich with colour, autumn provides a restful view to the eye with its soft browns and ripe greens and winter brings in the whiteness of snow along with its stillness conveying the effect of sleepiness and hibernation. And if on the one hand there is joy and vivacity in spring, there is coolness in the abundance of the green forests, and a challenge in the dark rocks of the mountains and an immensity in the vast, barren stretches of sand.
On the question of birds, I have discovered that in their world there are endless color combinations. If green and grey birds mate, the new born chick has a lovely soft green color; if yellow and blue mate the chicks may be either a heightened blue or a softened yellow. No painter’s effort can successfully capture the elusive world of nature.
Nature’s world of color, especially among the animals, has a deeper purpose than there variety. The colour of animals helps them to successfully camouflage themselves. If the toad is brown and mingles with the color of the earth, the frog merges with the green colour of the scum. The polar bear is white but not so the tropical bear. Fishes also have the ability to change colour in order to mingle with their surroundings as do some birds like the willow ptarmigan. Lizards also have different colors according to their surroundings – a desert lizard will be sand-colored while a lizard in a heavy monsoon area will be of greenish hue. Butterflies and insects also share this characteristic. This is not to say that animals and birds do not have bright colors which contrast with their surroundings. This also has a purpose. The bright colors of the peacock are not only a pleasure to the human eye but they also push the peahen into obscurity and offer her greater protection. A male bird may display some brilliant coloration to scare a rival. The Chinese ring-necked pheasant does exactly this, he puffs out his red pouches on the side of his neck when confronted by another male.
Thus color does not only give pleasure, it also has a purpose. Imagine life without the color of nature! It would indeed be dull and monotonous: the sparkle of life will not he there. Color also has brought up problems. The whole problem of racial discrimination is connected with the color of the human skin. Men are hidebound in their narrow beliefs and have not yet learnt to value the variety of color and have not understood nature’s purpose behind this. | <urn:uuid:bf994b6f-4d60-484a-ab06-ac512443f029> | {
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Running is one of the most convenient and inexpensive forms of cardiovascular exercise. In general, running for any sustained period of time longer than two minutes burns calories mostly from fat. However, it takes a more holistic approach of diet combined with individualized prescriptions of exercise intensity and duration to reduce body fat content and increase muscle mass.
The body uses a mixed energy system to fuel physical activity. Quick bursts of exercise such as a sprint draw energy mostly from carbohydrates while a three mile run burns mostly fat combined with some carbohydrates and protein for fuel. How much fat a person burns from running three miles is specific to the intensity of the run, your starting weight and other metabolic factors.
One way to gauge energy expenditure and stay in a fat-burning zone while running is to use a heart rate monitor. Running with a monitor provides an individualized overview of the amount of calories burned and heart rate. Use these readings to adjust intensity and keep target heart rate in a fat-burning zone, or between 65 to 85 percent of maximum. Calculate your maximum heart rate by subtracting your age from 220 and then aim to reach 65 to 85 percent of that. For example, a 32 year old should aim to stay between 122 to 160 beats per minute.
Fitness experts such as those at the American College of Sports Medicine recommend combining strength-training with cardio activities. While aerobic activities like running provide many benefits for the cardiovascular system and burn calories for weight loss, resistance training helps to build muscle and reduce body fat content through boosted metabolism. A leaner body means more efficient metabolism and fat-burning for runners. The ACSM recommends doing 8 to 10 strength-training exercises with 10 to 15 repetitions, two to three times per week.
While running is a good way to burn fat, engaging in any physical activity that repeatedly uses the same muscles can increase the risks for injury. A weekly running schedule should provide days of rest in between bouts of activity. Another consideration is that nutrition plays an important part in fueling physical activity. When combined with exercise, lean diets based on heart-healthy fats, moderate calories, lean protein, whole grains and fruits and vegetables account for long-term maintenance of reduced body fat. | <urn:uuid:5b0a4747-5e40-471d-9a0d-4955fcd004c5> | {
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Mercury spills occur across the country, sometimes as a result of children finding mercury and handling it. Mercury contamination is a serious health risk. This video was produced by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and the Environmental Protection Agency specifically for children to strongly communicate that children should never touch mercury.
To those of us in the know… this video is another glaring example of ignoring dental amalgam as the main contributor of mercury exposure for roughly 120 million Americans.
Please share this video as widely as possible. Don’t Mess With Mercury
Accessible version: http://dontmesswithmercury.org
Spanish version: http://www.dontmesswithmercury.org/in…
View this photo gallery if you want to see what every dentist office in the country (who places or removes amalgam) would look like if we applied the same stringent regulations to them as evveryone else when dealing with elemental mercury. | <urn:uuid:3a2e330d-599f-4505-95ab-94f82ff0b222> | {
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Many people recognize the most common bird species in Virginia, but according to Ashley Peele, a research associate with the college’s Conservation Management Institute, there is still much that scientists don’t know about these species.
To fill those knowledge gaps, Peele is coordinating the second Virginia Breeding Bird Atlas. This statewide project sponsored by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries gathers data collected by volunteer birders over a five-year period to determine where birds are living and breeding. “We tend to assume that common birds stay common,” Peele said. “But bird populations can begin to decline without us even realizing it. The atlas will provide an overview and assess the status of all bird species in the state, not just the ones that we’re already monitoring.” | <urn:uuid:7d098732-e80e-4c68-afaf-6c9389d58e10> | {
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