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Stumble Into Indonesia's Unseen Places
Submitted by mumunmumun on 2 February 2017
So you’re traveling and you end up in Indonesia. Suddenly, you wind up lining up at the sitting toilet booth, while the squatting toilet is free. It’s intimidating. You skip the option and stay in line, dancing awkwardly, holding in pee. Once you’re in the booth, you’re left confused. There’s a bucket of water? A bin full of used toilet paper? Why is it suddenly complicated? In that 2 by 1-meter cubicle, you wished you knew more about Indonesian toilets, before you were stuck in one.
Toilets are the most and least favorite talked about topic, when traveling. Toilets are different all around the world, and considering most humans have the same nature calling, anyone who travels will have the challenge of using whatever local toilet there is. Eventually, travelers will have stories about toilets and Indonesia is not too foreign from the list. From our travels, we learned that some people have no idea on how to use the common Indonesian toilet or bathroom. Maybe, we can give you some pointers.
While you’ll most likely find the usual sitting toilets in modern urban structures, Indonesian toilet default is the squat toilet. Derived from the phenomenon of a hole in the floor, the more modern version still involves having your knees up to your chest while doing your business.
Health wise, the bowel movement is assisted during the squatting position, no need to push as hard, especially when constipated. However, if you’re not used to squatting for a good 5 minutes, you’ll get cramps. Having cramped legs during number two is an extreme challenge! Choices are bare with the cramps or cut things shorts. Gah!
In the default bathroom, you’ll find a bucket filled with water and smaller scoop-like device called ‘gayung’. When finished with business, then you take a scoopful of water and splash it on your private parts. When number 2, we use our left hands to clean with water and wash up afterward. That’s why, sometimes you’ll find soap in a toilet.
Gross? Relative. For some, cleaning with water feels more hygienic, rather than with toilet paper. For some, they can’t stomach the ass touching. It might be an acquired skill.
My mother can’t live without a bucket of water in the toilet. The mini bucket on the toilet is a ‘gayung’.
In more modern Indonesian structures, toilets provide both, tissue and water to clean. Most of the time, it’s in the form of a hand pump or hose that’s connected to a tap, located beside the closet. You can also find taps beside the seats to release water. Once finished with wasting, we pump water to clean up, and in the case of number two, sometimes we don’t even have to touch our ass.
The problem for me of these pumps is that there’s no default pressure. Sometimes it’s to weak, leaving me holding the pump too close to my privates. Sometimes, it’s too hard, making things painful. Ouch! So beware and test the water. Literally!
The automated flush is a luxury. Not all toilets in Indonesia have these buttons or levers that can help you throw all your waste to a far far land. If any, not all work well. Our default is that we flush ourselves using the water from the bucket. This requires skill. At times of pooping, one or two pieces can get away from your manual flush, thus you need to keep the water coming and heavy to get those suckers down. I’ve been through a few moments like this; it’s a battle of the sinking ship! Hiya! And it’s a bummer if you find a toilet without buckets of water but the flush is week. Prob.Lem.
In consideration to water amount, the manual flush is so much water friendly. You can control the amount of water you use to flush. Sure, you have the small button for the limited amount of water, but in public toilets I find more broken buttons than working ones. Eventually, flushing big time even for pee.
You might find it odd to see a trash can just for used tissues, but there’s a whole set of issues when it comes to tissues. First, not all Indonesians understand which is toilet paper and which is plain tissue. So, public toilet managements don’t encourage flushing them down toilets as sometimes we use normal tissues. This too, sometimes, is because the toilet doesn’t supply toilet paper, while some of us grew up with them. So, people use any kind of tissues, including paper towel if necessary.
Still think it’s odd that we confuse toilet paper and regular tissue? You won’t be as soon as you find your first roll on the dining table.
Second, most of the Indonesian toilets and drainage system were made to support the default toilets, meaning water treatments didn’t incorporate degradable tissues as part of the material that needs to be treated. Thus, when people start doing it, there will be clogging. I confirmed this with a friend that used work for a private water treatment company. Hence, throw your used tissue in the smaller bin within the cubicle, unless otherwise.
Nature calling is for everyone, and we figure, these tips are too. Considering all toilets are quite similar around Asia, these tips might do some good when traveling the area. Well, except for Japan. They have their own world of toilets, ones worthy to be in ‘Ripleys Believe It or Not’.
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Maria lives in Portugal. She is 44, her daughter is 13. Divorced and jobless, she used to work as an executive secretary but has been unemployed since 2004. Now she survives on minimal social support of around 280 euros per month.
She said: “Putting food on the table is the hardest thing. I couldn’t without help from my father. My daughter and I drink tap water, since I can still pay for that.
“What gives me the strength to get up in the morning is my daughter sleeping just across from me.
“I hope the future will be better for my daughter. I don’t expect anything for myself any more.”
To say that Maria’s story is one in a million would be wrong. There are more than one hundred million stories like hers in Europe today. The crisis of runaway national debts has been staggering for efforts to beat poverty, but the European Union’s current strategy policy objective is to lift 20 million people out of poverty by 2020.
The EU’s statistical office says there were 79 million poor in Europe in 2007 and that by 2010 there were more than 115 million. It must be more today.
The total EU population is 503 million.
Of the 115 million poor, well over one quarter are children. The number of old people living in poverty is around 20 percent.
The anti-poverty network estimates there are now 120 million Europeans in the grip of poverty, including many people working for salaries well below the average in each country.
As the need for help rises, so does difficulty in meeting demand.
Sérgio Aires, president of the European anti-poverty network (EAPN) told us that Europe is at a critical stage.
Patricia Cardoso, euronews: “In the last two years, the words poverty and social exclusion have disappeared from the majority of political speeches. What should we read into that?”
Sérgio Aires, president of European anti-poverty network (EAPN): “They have disappeared from speeches, but perhaps, even worse, disappeared from policies. One is a reflection of the other. I would say that from 2005 the words ‘poverty’ and ‘social exclusion’ started to become invisible, or at least, to be treated in a way that doesn’t correspond with their priority, plain and simple: eradicating poverty should be on a par with economic development, growth and jobs.”
euronews: “Is the absence of statistics a symptom of European politics?”
Aires: I’d say it is a symptom of the absence of care and of the will to confront the poverty question. It’s an old story. It’s a story of denying that there is poverty in Europe. No one wants poverty in their own backyard.
“So everyone refuses the idea, right from the small community, that only recognises poverty when they want to receive European funds. In that case they say “yes, we have poverty, we need help”. Otherwise they quickly say ‘no’ because, politically, it is difficult to recognise failure, because, poverty is a failure of society’s organisation and the way that society solves its problems.
“Poverty is a denial of human rights. You can’t fight poverty quickly, and get results straightaway. Politics is too immediate and fast. So, few politicians invest or want to invest because the results are not fast enough to recognise their efforts.”
euronews: “Can we say that the European social model has disappeared?”
Aires: “If the European social model hasn’t disappeared yet, it is at risk of doing so, at least at a fundamental level. It’s very serious. The European social model is a contract. I pay my taxes, and I have many rights, but naturally many duties as well. It’s a contract that in some way is under threat. And as it is under threat, everything is at risk, because at that point citizens can start asking: ‘Why am I paying taxes?’
“After all, the European model and the social protection that we have acts as a calming influence on what is happening now.
“If we didn’t have this model, even without reductions and cuts, particularly in the countries worst hit by the crisis, I guarantee that we would probably have a different scenario from the one we have today, which at least has some calm even though there is a lot of despair.”
euronews: “Isn’t it a utopian idea to think that poverty can be eradicated?”
Aires: “I’m not interested in philosophical discussions about what is or what isn’t utopia. I used to say that I liked to put utopia into practice and that’s the case. I don’t know if it’s possible to eradicate poverty or not. I’d like to believe it is, and I do believe it is possible.
“I am absolutely sure that I cannot say to people around me that there is no solution to poverty, that if you are born into it, you will die in it, that nothing can be done about it. It can not be like this. It must not be like this. And it there is proof that it must not be like this.” | <urn:uuid:aebf3ca5-9a2d-45e3-9b32-30e2025dd32e> | {
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“The Badlands grade all the way from those that are almost rolling in character to those that are so fantastically broken in form and so bizarre in color as to seem hardly properly to belong to this earth.” ~ Theodore Roosevelt
The Badlands story, of which Theodore Roosevelt National Park is a part, began over 65 million years ago. While the Rocky Mountains were rising from the earth, bucking and writhing to claim their place in the landscape, massive amounts of sediments were being carried east on the wind and in the water, creating this desolate mural. Savagely erupting volcanoes in surrounding states were belching ash to combine with the Rocky Mountain sediments. The badlands are the result of layers of sandstone, mudstone, siltstone, and bentonite clay air-brushed into unusual rock formations and vivid striated buttes.
This national park was once on the eastern edge of a swamp and over time these sediments compressed and broke down, causing chemical changes that resulted in the formation of lignite, a soft coal that Teddy Roosevelt shoveled into his stove to heat his home. In these striated buttes, lignite can still be seen. Lightning strikes and fires cause the lignite to smolder, which in many cases can continue underground for years. The hardened red-brick caps, known as “scoria”, seen on many rock formations, come from the oxidation of iron released from the burning of this coal. The artistry of time, wind, and erosion have created the landscape we see today, which is constantly being transformed.
The 110 square miles of Theodore Roosevelt National Park cover three distinct areas of Badlands in western North Dakota and the Little Missouri River snakes through all of them.
- The larger South Unit within the town of Medora, where we are camped
- The smaller North Unit, ~80 miles north of the South Unit, off Hwy. 85
- Roosevelt’s Elkhorn Ranch located between the two. Only cornerstones remain there today.
Both the North and South Units have similar topography and many of the same wildlife, deer, bison, prairie dogs. The North claims the longhorn steer and bighorn sheep, while the South boasts elk, pronghorn, and feral horses. I had also read about a phenomenon in the North Unit that Nina had introduced us to while on the coast of Oregon that has enchanted me ever since – concretions. I knew a trip up north was in my future.
On a rare sunny, rain-free day I pointed the car north on the hunt for longhorn steer and cannonball concretions. While the steer remained elusive, I found the concretions hiding in the shadows.
I could have gone back south and been happy but I had the day so a couple of hikes and a visit to a prairie dog town seemed in order. I chose the Caprock Coulee Nature Trail and the Buckhorn Trail, taking me through open prairie, aromatic sagebrush, canyons with unusual rock formations, and a town where only prairie dogs are welcome, as they will let you know if you get too close.
Our visit has been more rain than sun and locals say this part of ND has had a very wet summer. On one of those cloud-filled mornings I headed out bright and early, hoping to get a hike in before the rains came. My goal was to tackle part of the Maah Daah Hey, a trail that stretches 97 miles across the National Grassland, connecting all three units of the park. Over 7 miles of it runs through the South Unit, just a couple of miles from our campground and it’s a great trail for hiking and mountain biking. Plans were thwarted when I got to the Little Missouri, a necessary water crossing I thought would be easy. Given the recent rains we have had, no way was the river allowing me passage. :(
On a rare rain-free evening I ventured into the park hoping to catch a memorable sunset on top of Buck Hill, noted for its dramatic evening views. Although the sunset didn’t wow me, what I spotted around a curve in the road did…the feral horses!
And although the sunset wasn’t spectacular, it was a nice ending to my stay at Theodore Roosevelt NP. | <urn:uuid:e634808b-e291-4cae-81fe-fd9fd7a3775c> | {
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Leisure Poem by William Henry Davies Critical Appreciation
Leisure Poem Critical Appreciation
Describe the poem “Leisure” as a criticism on the time worship?
In this poem, Leisure” William Davies has criticized the worship of time and the fast moving life in the western society .Modern man is missing the beauty of nature and the charm of innumerable animate and inanimate objects. The poet repents that the modern people have become materialistic and are sunken in their worldly and material pursuits. Moreover they are spiritually and morally hollow. While moving through the forest they have no spare time to stop and observe the beautiful squirrels, which are a part of the beauty of nature, are hiding the walnuts, in the grass.
In addition to it, they pass beside the streams; they do not observe the silvery bright waves, glittering just like the stars which twinkle in the sky in the night. So they are neglecting and missing the beauty and blessings of nature. At the same time they have no time to amuse themselves with the beauty for lady or the glance of goddess of beauty who also contributes to the beautiful nature. They have no time to watch how marvelously her feet are moving and how her talk can enhance that magical smile which her looks sprinkles later on. In this poem the poet personifies the beauty of nature as “a goddess of nature”, which is always charming and fascinating So, those who have no spare time to enjoy the beautiful images are unfortunate. The main theme of this poem is that the modern has totally neglected the importance and beauty of nature and it is crystal clear that the modern man is more sensitive towards the woes and anxieties of this modern and materialistic life.
Note: Distance learning technology is called distance learning. Distance learning- this is not a form of education, but an educational technology (DOT). The purpose of using DOT by educational institutions is to enable students to study at their place of residence without attending regular classes. From the ordinary distance learning, distance learning differs in that a student can master educational programs without leaving the office at home, having a computer on the desktop with an Internet connection. The student receives teaching materials on paper or in electronic form. Students are given the opportunity to work in distance learning classes or in a virtual audience. Consultations are available on weekends or in the evening, as well as online at the e-learning portal. Here you can take a computer test. When it comes to the use of computers and the Internet, there are many questions about the quality of education received not in the academic audience. It is clear that any form of education has its drawbacks and most importantly, the lack of regular classes under the close attention of teachers. Independent distribution of time for classes, self-organization – not everyone can do. | <urn:uuid:142d8c8d-5305-4455-b7ea-a97b41987140> | {
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New Brunswick to outlaw energy-greedy appliancesThe New Brunswick government is amending regulations under the provincial Energy Efficiency Act to ban the sale of low-efficiency appliances, such as refrigerators and stoves, which use abnormally high amounts of energy, especially electricity, compared to more efficient units.
The amendments will help bring the 1995 regulation up to date. They will not apply to any new appliances, manufactured prior to August 31, 2004, currently being offered for sale in stores. This will enable retailers to clear any existing inventory. The regulation also has no bearing on private sales of used appliances through such means as yard sales, newspaper ads, or through second-hand stores.
The amendments cover a wide range of appliances including stoves, refrigerators, freezers, clothes dryers, dishwashers, furnaces, heat pumps, florescent lamps, induction motors, swimming pool heaters, transformers, vending machines, water coolers and water heaters (both gas-fired and electric). They also set a new baseline for additional efforts by the province to continue to improve the efficiency with which it uses its own energy resources.
Energy Minister Bruce Fitch said the province has already committed to buying the most energy-efficient appliances available whenever possible, usually those meeting the Energy Star(r) rating level. He noted that the amendments better reflect the higher minimum standards that are becoming more commonplace among appliance and equipment manufacturers. "In the end, the biggest winners are the individual consumers and the environment," he said.
In its 2001 Energy Policy, the province committed to "expand the list of equipment regulated for energy efficiency levels in harmonization with other jurisdictions, support the development of energy efficiency standards on any additional equipment, and encourage the installation of high performance appliances."
Natural Resources Canada estimates that since regulations have been put in place nationally on appliances and equipment, they have prevented the release of 44 million tones of carbon dioxide (CO2) and reduced average energy consumption for those appliances by 10% from 1991 to 2002.
In formulating the new amendments, the provincial Energy Department consulted extensively with New Brunswick manufacturers and retailers, with other provincial and federal government departments, as well as the inter-departmental committee developing the Climate Change Action Plan.
Consultation was also carried out with the Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters Association, the Heating and Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Institute of Canada, Canadian Federation of Independent Business, NB Power, and other utilities.
Information on specific equipment covered by the regulation can be obtained by calling the department at 506/453-6461. | <urn:uuid:eca83c11-ea5f-42ac-9041-c4308c00e454> | {
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Perhaps in a century and a half or so, there really will be a James T. Kirk — and an Enterprise.
Based on NASA's sky's-the-limit philosophy when considering the universe, it's certainly possible.
NASA's administrator, former astronaut Charles F. Bolden, Jr. is confident when he says the agency leads the world in space exploration. He says NASA's mission is, in part, to better explore farther than we have ever gone before. Sound familiar?
We're already exploring beyond the moon.
Fueled by our innate "Curiosity," a one-ton man-made device that landed on Mars less than a year ago is still exploring the planet's surface. Last year on these pages we suggested that funding such exploration a wise, big-picture investment.
The next question is: Should we go farther and spend more?
It's not as though we, as a nation or as individuals, have money to burn. After all, in earth money — sequester money — spending $2.5 billion to travel 352 million miles for a red planet excursion works out to a bit more than $7.10 a mile. Hardly a hybrid vehicle.
But space money is different; over time, the return on investment is much better than $7 per mile.
There are decades of examples.
Our nation's space exploration program has given us everything from adjustable smoke detectors to advanced satellite technology; our roads are safer, our weather patterns are more predictable and NASA continues to explore and implement projects directed at making aviation technology as safe as possible.
Airports as well as roads have safety grooving that help prevent accidents by increasing the friction between wheels and concrete.
The ongoing legacy of space exploration is about more than Tang and memory-foam mattresses. Portable X-ray devices, programmable pacemakers, voice-controlled wheelchairs, breast cancer detection and invisible braces are all spinoffs of NASA programs.
In large ways and small the agency has brought us closer together. Because of NASA projects we have GPS, satellite radio and satellite TV programming that offers rural communities where cable isn't available access to both expanded video programming and Internet.
The agency also plans to significantly expand its contribution and impact on STEM — science, technology, engineering and math — programs nationwide. Our future scientists, engineers and astronauts will need shoulders to stand on.
For those who can't yet see beyond the lowest clouds, there's potential for economic benefits right here in Virginia.
The scheduled Antares rocket departure from Wallops Island could help establish the Mid-Atlantic Regional Space (MARS) as a hub for commercial space enterprise.
Curiosity makes sense — and dollars.
This year, to fund its mission NASA is asking for $17.7 billion.
It's a pittance.
As we noted last year, even a 12-year old knows why.
Kansan Clara Ma's winning essay suggesting "Curiosity" for the Mars exploration vehicle reproduced here, captures the essence of why we should be willing to fund efforts that go farther than we have ever gone before:
". … Curiosity is the passion that drives us through our everyday lives. We have become explorers and scientists with our need to ask questions and to wonder. Sure, there are many risks and dangers, but despite that, we still continue to wonder and dream and create and hope. We have discovered so much about the world, but still so little. We will never know everything there is to know, but with our burning curiosity, we have learned so much."
For impact in Virginia, the Antares launch is a leap in the right direction. Dale K. Nash, executive of the Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority says he wants the facility " to become a major player in the U.S. space program."
Neil Armstrong said we went to the moon because it's human nature; " ... we're required to do these things just as salmon swim upstream."
It's also in our nature to build on the heroic efforts of others. We reach greater heights by standing on the shoulders of giants; those with the "right stuff."
We can be giants, too. | <urn:uuid:6eb235a8-af1f-4b56-a29f-3b0277010f8b> | {
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As many states prune their education budgets it is worth considering the impact of fewer dollars being spent on education. A decline in academic achievement means an increase in students who fail to finish high school.
High school dropouts face many hardships ranging from lower incomes to higher rates of incarceration. According to the Trends in High School Dropout and Completion Rates in the United States: 1972–2008, compiled by the National Center for Education Statistics,
the median income for people ages 18 through 67 who had not completed high school was roughly $23,000 in 2008. By comparison, the median income for people ages 18 through 67 who completed their education with at least a high school diploma, including a General Educational Development (GED) certificate, was approximately $42,000. Over a lifetime, this translates into a loss of approximately $630,000 in income.
An income on average 40 percent lower than an educated counterpart may not necessarily seem like a reason to turn to a life of crime, but estimates from the most recent data available indicate that approximately 34 percent of federal and state inmates and 50 percent death row inmates lack a high school diploma. Estimates for those 25 and older indicate that during the same years 15 percent of the general population were dropouts.
Educational failure and crime rates correspond. Policymakers would do well not to ignore public safety when considering the impact of cuts in education funding.
To read more: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011012.pdf
Cameron Brown Moving to California Prison Soon?
21 hours ago | <urn:uuid:e05147f7-e5c0-4ed6-958c-3064e14e2278> | {
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When it seems as if there's always something new to do, it's easy to get overwhelmed. And if you keep it all in your head, there's a chance to not only forget something, but to get frustrated with all you have to do. To keep it straight and come up with a plan, you need to make a to do list. You may even need to make multiple. Here's how to get started.
To start, write down everything you need to do. Small projects, big projects, errands, cleaning, whatever you have swimming in your mind. Get it down onto paper so you can breathe. Write down items for work. Write down items for home. Write down items to remind your kids or your significant other. Write down everything.
Break It Down
Take any projects or large tasks and write down the individual steps you would need to complete them. For example: "clean the house" is rather vague. Break it up into rooms, or even parts of each room. This creates smaller, more manageable, tasks that are actionable rather than overwhelming.
Next, evalute what you've written down. If the items fall into several different categories or areas of your life, you may want to separate them. Figure out an organizational system that works for you and create individual lists for each section. For example, separate work from personal, or make lists for errands, cleaning, and organizing.
Evaluate the items on your lists. Are they concrete tasks or hazy ideas? Determine specific, actionable tasks for anything that may be just a general concept. You need a list of things you can do, not just items to think about. If you need to think up concepts for a party or meeting, write down "brainstorm ideas." The more specific you can be, the better. Vague items will get ignored, as you may not know what you have to do. By writing down specific, actionable tasks, you'll know exactly what has to get done.
Which items are pressing? What can wait a while? Make a note next to items that are urgent. Write dates or times next to items that have a deadine. If appropriate, prioritize the rest of the items to determine which are more important than others.
Put Forth a Plan
A list of items to do isn't worth much if they never get done. Look at your schedule and find times to fit in your tasks. Pencil them in to your planner or create a mini list for each day. Make sure you're taking into consideration any deadlines or pressing concerns.
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Dear EarthTalk: What’s going on with all the cases of autism cropping up and no one seems to know why? It stands to reason it must be something (or some things) environmental, yet every study allegedly turns up no conclusion? What are the possible causes?
-- Jessica W., Austin, TX
No doubt about it, autism rates have skyrocketed in the U.S. and beyond in recent years. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the disease affects one in every 150 children born today in the U.S., up from one in 500 as recently as just 10 years ago. It’s become the fastest-growing developmental disability—more prevalent than childhood cancer, juvenile diabetes and pediatric AIDS combined—and it continues to grow at a rate of 10 to 17 percent per year.
While researchers think there is a genetic component to autism, they also believe environmental factors are playing a role in its recent increase. Environmental mercury and other heavy metal exposure, contaminated water, pesticides, a greater reliance on antibiotics—and even extensive television viewing by very young children—may be factors in mounting autism rates. Researchers at the American Academy of Pediatrics and other institutes have also identified flame retardants as possible culprits.
Vaccines containing the mercury preservative thimerosal (now mostly removed from the market) have long been blamed for causing autism, but scientific links are inconclusive. In lieu of a smoking gun, a more complex picture of autism’s environmental causes is now emerging.
Some researchers are focusing on the role of food in a young child’s development. Many autistic children suffer from digestive diseases or have genetic dispositions rendering them unable to naturally rid their bodies of toxins. As such, exposure to heavy metals, pesticides, contaminated water and even processed food could have a devastating cumulative effect, some researchers think. According to Brian MacFabe, a researcher at the University of Western Ontario who has studied autism triggers in rats, simple changes such as removing wheat and dairy from the diet could potentially bring about improvements.
Groups such as the nonprofit Healthy Child Healthy World say it’s about time researchers are looking at environmental factors. “Whatever triggered this current autism epidemic...autistic kids clearly need extra protection from further environmental assault,” the group writes on its blog. They advise parents to be vigilant about the industrial cleaners used in school buildings and the pesticides sprayed on playing fields, where kids spend 25 to 30 hours per week. They and other groups are also looking at the role of untested chemicals in common cleaning products: phthalates, glycol ethers and other known toxins.
Others wonder if a collective “nature deficit disorder” among children plays a factor in rising autism rates. Outdoor exposure has long been associated with healthier cognitive functioning in children, with reduction in Attention Deficit Disorder symptoms and greater emotional capacity. But new findings suggest it could impact autism, too. Last year, Cornell University researchers found higher rates of autism in counties where more households subscribed to cable and children under the age of three regularly watched TV. The Amish, with almost no exposure to TV, have little evidence of autism, notes the study.
GOT AN ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTION? Send it to: EarthTalk, c/o E/The Environmental Magazine, P.O. Box 5098, Westport, CT 06881; submit it at: www.emagazine.com/earthtalk/thisweek/, or e-mail: [email protected]. Read past columns at: www.emagazine.com/earthtalk/archives.php | <urn:uuid:09785259-feb2-41dd-96db-eaa6237e63a3> | {
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‘Very quickly, the school observed our son’s talents and interests and has sought to develop them with stretching classroom work but also opportunities outside of school,…’
All Rokeby boys aim to be smart in how they appear and also in their achievements; in how they think and learn, how they act. They learn to develop pride in how they behave towards others and towards their environment.
They will learn to achieve their very best, to develop agile minds and become confident in their learning. They will build a solid foundation of knowledge about the world and apply it to the challenges of real life. They will know how to talk to others, how to act in groups, how to relate to adults and how to cope with obstacles in their path. They will learn how to achieve high standards but without becoming strained.
We want our boys to achieve well across the board. We will help them to achieve high results, to aim for excellence and to celebrate all of their achievements.
Skills are developed over time. Skills are flexible and can be used for a lifetime. We want our boys to become skilful. To begin with they will learn the fundamentals thoroughly. Later they will develop thinking skills, to become physically skilful, to become socially adept, to be able to play music and to speak in front of an audience and to act, to create.
We want our boys to leave us at 13+ as successful individuals having passed into the schools of their choice. Yet we also want them to leave us as skilful individuals, able to turn their hands to many things, in many different situations, and to excel in much, as independent learners and self-starters.
‘Boys describe it as a ‘caring’ school.’
We want our boys to develop real kindness. Whether the trait comes naturally to an individual, or not, we create a supportive environment to encourage mutual appreciation.
We recognise the benefits of competition, yet we also strongly encourage a co-operation. We want each boy to aim to win and experience the thrill of success and yet also to be generous in spirit, whether they win or lose, succeed or fail.
We actively promote collaboration: sharing ideas and skills for the good of the group, the team or the community. We want each boy to be free to learn at his own pace, without fear of humiliation if, and when, he makes mistakes.
We want boys to understand how to relate to others, whether natural friends or those who are different from themselves. We want them to be respectful, civil, positive and balanced. We want them to experience the pleasure of giving and making others happy whilst dealing with their own feelings of frustration with honesty and without being hurtful to others. We want our boys to express kindness, to themselves and to all those they meet and know.
‘The spirit of kindness is everywhere there: you see it in the children, the staff, it’s in the air!’ | <urn:uuid:4674bcee-7227-4921-84d9-60c831186607> | {
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“I think many people recognize that CRP is only a small marker and may not be that sensitive a marker,” says Dace L. Trence, MD, Director of the Diabetes Care Center at the University of Washington Medical Center in Seattle. “We know that CRP can go up with a cold and then come right back down again, so it isn’t as simple as taking one test to check whether or not inflammation was going on; you wouldn’t have any symptoms, and that’s the problem.”
The test may be useful for people at moderate risk for heart disease to determine if they are at more risk than they thought, but Dr. Fonseca does not recommend testing the average person with obesity and/or diabetes. “The American Heart Association and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggest screening with CRP for people at moderate risk for heart disease, but we’re not making recommendations about people at moderate risk for diabetes because we don’t know that any intervention to suppress inflammation will do any good.”
Inflammation, heart disease, and diabetes
Scientists are just beginning to understand how widespread the effects of chronic inflammation may be throughout a person’s body and what kind of damage it might do. They have a tighter grasp on what it does to blood vessels, however, which is where most of the research has focused. In a nutshell, chronic inflammation stresses arterial walls and is associated with the development of atherosclerosis, the buildup of fatty deposits in arterial linings.
It’s also becoming clearer that inflammation may be behind insulin resistance, the reduced ability of the cells to respond to insulin, which is a cause of high blood glucose in Type 2 diabetes. Markers that indicate inflammation and are predictive of heart disease are higher in people with Type 2 diabetes than in those without, even when matched with other risk factors for inflammation such as body-mass index, smoking, and sex. “In fact,” says Dr. Fonseca, “in people with diabetes, almost every tissue has a little bit of inflammation.”
Lifestyle habits over time may play a role in chronic inflammation. “We think that while there are clearly genes involved in the development of diabetes, there are also environmental components,” says Allison B. Goldfine, MD, Section Head of Clinical Research at the Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston and the lead researcher investigating the impact of an anti-inflammatory medicine on diabetes (see “Salsalate Study”). “The sedentary lifestyle and excess caloric intake that lead to excess weight gain promote this chronic, sub-acute inflammation, which then participates in the development of Type 2 diabetes.”
It’s possible that simply being overweight triggers inflammation. “Maybe lack of exercise [is a cause],” says Dr. Trence. “This is an area where there are a lot more questions than answers, and I think people are beginning to recognize that there may be various factors that play a role.”
Whatever causes inflammation in the first place, its presence creates an unfortunate set of consequences in a few very concrete ways. “The immediate contributions of the inflammatory state are, first, atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke; and second, insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes,” says Paresh Dandona, MD, Director of the Diabetes-Endocrinology Center of Western New York and Chief of the Division of Endocrinology at the Medical School of the State University of New York at Buffalo. “Of course, Type 2 diabetes feeds into heart attack and stroke as well. The rates of heart attack and stroke are two to four times greater in the diabetic population.” | <urn:uuid:46abb60f-cceb-4950-b474-aba009100eb6> | {
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MATA MEḤASYA, town situated in S. Babylonia, on the Euphrates River near *Sura where the river divides into two. In geonic responsa Sura is often identified with Mata Meḥasya; thus Sherira Gaon in his famous letter at the end of the tenth century (ed. by B.M. Lewin (1921), p. 79, Spanish version) wrote that "after Rav came to Babylon in 219 he left Nehardea moving to a place where there was no Torah, viz., Sura, which is Mata Meḥasya" (the French version reads: "Sura which is called Mata Meḥasya"). The same identification is found in the work of Benjamin of Tudela in the 12th century. However, it would seem that the two places are not identical. They were two separate settlements near each other; and elsewhere in his letter (p. 84) Sherira Gaon explicitly distinguishes between the two places, stating that the school of Huna, the pupil and successor of Rav in the academy of Sura, was situated "near Mata Meḥasya." The Talmud also clearly distinguishes between the two places (Beẓah 29a). Mata Meḥasya is not mentioned in the Talmud before the time of *Ashi, who headed the Sura academy in the years 367–427. He extended the academy and transferred it to Mata Meḥasya (pp. 90–92). Of its inhabitants Ashi said: "The people of Mata Meḥasya are 'stouthearted' (cf. Isa. 46:12), for they see the glory of the Torah twice a year [in the *kallah months of Adar and Elul], and never has one of them been converted" (Ber. 17b). R. Mesharsheya praised the scholars of Mata Meḥasya, saying: "Rather sit on the rubbish heap of Mata Meḥasya than in the palaces of Pumbedita" (Hor. 12a).
B. Eshel, Jewish Settlements in Babylonia during Talmudic Times (1979), 149–50. | <urn:uuid:7aaa3371-0e1a-473b-a21d-3b9d0d4d5a54> | {
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CARING FOR YOUR LOVED ONE WITH ALS
Would you know what to do? Watch the following video
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (“ALS” or “Lou Gehrig Disease”) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord. The progressive degeneration of the motor neurons in ALS eventually leads to their death. Currently, there is no cure for ALS.; however, medications might be also recommended to control emotions) or reduce muscle spasms.
There are 3 stages of ALS:
Early signs of ALS
Most people with ALS will first feel muscle cramps, spasms or twitching) in one of their arms or legs. Other signs include weakness in the hands and feet or loss of balance
Middle stages of ALS
As the disease spreads, many of the muscles weaken and start to stiffen. Range of motion exercises is often recommended to help keep muscles loose and prevent contractures and muscle pains. .At this stage, individuals with limb-onset ALS may need a cane, walker, or wheelchair due to difficulties walking and maintaining balance.
Late stages of ALS
At this stage of the disease the muscles become paralyzed and the individual may require a wheelchair to get around. communicate through devices such as eye-tracking device or a letter board and invasive ventilation to help keep them breathe.
MediCrest Home Care Will Provide All The Help You Need Every Step of The Way
MediCrest’s experienced caregivers will provide the care and support you and your family need as the disease progresses. Our caring team provides ongoing professional supervision, evaluations and modifications to the Plan of Care, as needed. Our caregivers are caring professionals who will provide the right care and will be with you every step of the way. | <urn:uuid:38e3b93b-7a01-4666-aafb-6f416e78b54b> | {
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HAMPTON: A CENTURY OF TOWN AND BEACH, 1888-1988
Back to previous section -- Forward to next section -- Return to Table of Contents
Chapter 15 -- Part 2
Most hotels and the Casino had their own icehouses, which the ice men filled. One winter, the Hotel Whittier bought 300 tons of ice from DeLancey, who had a large icehouse of his own on the Mill Pond off High Street. Between 15 and 20 men were used for the harvesting, which was done when the weather was the coldest and the ice the thickest. A cover of snow, which had to be removed, made the work much more difficult. Sometimes the ponds would yield two cuttings of ice, but ordinarily the men could supply their customers through the summer on one cutting. The ice was stacked high in the icehouses and covered and layered with hay or sawdust as insulation.
In February 1914, the Union reported that "Thomas Cogger has a new ice house on Guinea road and has filled it with 1,070 tons. He also has an icehouse at the beach." A year later, Cogger filled the new icehouse with 1,000 cakes of ice and he expected to cut the pond again before the end of winter. Other ice harvesters in this century were the families of David Lamprey and Eugene Leavitt, who had icehouses at Lamprey Pond on Woodland Road, and Oscar and Horace Batchelder, who continued their father's business on Towle Farm Road at the site of today's Batchelder's Park and Pond.
This pond was once just a tiny stream, but Nathaniel Batchelder scooped out a depression with horse-drawn equipment to make a small ice pond. Horace later enlarged the pond and was cutting ice there as late as the mid 1960s. In more recent times, the Batchelders had ice-making equipment, and eventually the old icehouses were torn down.
The Beach remained the major market for ice, and it was used in restaurants, by many small cottage owners who hadn't bought electric refrigerators, and also by fishermen who used the ice to preserve their catch. In hot weather, the icemen sometimes came to the Beach twice a day. Regular customers received cards that were placed in their windows. When turned a certain way, the cards indicated to the delivery man how much ice the customer needed. One of the last houses was Eugene Leavitt's on Woodland Road, which was destroyed by fire in 1963. The Lamprey family continued to use their icehouse until the mid- 1970s, when the building was removed. Many of the old ice ponds were popular skating areas. Once periodically scooped out and cleared of vegetation, these ponds are now filling in and will one day disappear. | <urn:uuid:df194d44-a6ed-4f13-a7e0-1407617242b9> | {
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I like to refer to Matthew McAdam as the “most zen person” in our class. It is hard to even imagine him upset. One day during lunch, he told me about his training as meditation instructor and about his current project bringing meditation to health care providers.
I reached out hoping to learn more about meditation and mindfulness and what role it could play in medicine.
- In his book Full Catastrophe Living, Jon-Kabat Zinn, the developer of the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, defines mindfulness as “the awareness that arises by paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1991).
- Mindfulness meditation was originally taught by the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, as a means of ending suffering through the transformation of human consciousness (Kabat-Zinn, 1991).
- There is a large body of literature documenting high levels of anxiety, depression, and stress in medical students compared to the general population (Sarid, Anson, Yaari & Margalith, 2004).
- Educators are turning to health promotion interventions to decrease stress and promote resilience in university students (Regehr, Glancy, & Pitts, 2013)
- Mindfulness and Mediation seems like a promising, low-cost intervention for stress, anxiety and depression. Unfortunately many of the studies are not large clinical trials.
- . Across the four studies (n’s = 65 to 141), the authors concluded that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress (Weinstein, Brown, & Ryan, 2009)
- In a study of 45 clinicians caring for patients infected with HIV, patients rated clinicians with higher mindfulness scores more highly on clinician communication and on overall satisfaction (Beach et al., 2013)
- Conclusions from systematic review of 19 studies included 1815 participants: Mindfulness-based interventions decrease stress, anxiety, and depression and improve mindfulness, mood, self-efficacy, and empathy in health profession students (McConville, McAleer, & Hahne, 2016)
- The role of mindfulness on pain reduction seems less convincing. A review of three randomized control trials with a total of 117 chronic low back pain patients found inconclusive evidence of effectiveness of mindfulness in improving pain intensity or disability in chronic low back pain patients (Cramer, Haller, Lauche, & Dobos, 2012)
- The role of mindfulness on inflammation has contradictory findings. In a systematic review of 20 RCT studies with a total of 1602 participants, the authors concluded possible effects of mindfulness meditation on specific markers of inflammation, cell-mediated immunity, and biological aging, but these results are tentative and require further replication (Black, & Slavich, 2016)
- In a study with 64 depressed females, two groups were created with half the participants assigned to a 4-week mindfulness-based intervention or a contact-control group. For both groups, salivary cytokines and depressive symptoms were assessed at baseline and posttreatment. Authors found that both groups showed similar reductions in depression. However, mindfulness group (vs. control) had greater reductions in IL-6 and TNF-α; changes in IL-6 were sustained at 3-month follow-up (Walsh, Eisenlohr-Moul, & Baer, 2016).
- Matt mentioned the following study: Thirty-seven patients with psoriasis about to undergo ultraviolet phototherapy (UVB) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention guided by audiotaped instructions during light treatments, or a control condition consisting of the light treatments alone with no taped instructions. Analysis showed that subjects in the tape groups reached the Halfway Point and the Clearing Point significantly more rapidly than those in the no-tape condition for UVB treatments. (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1998)
- Some other claims made on the podcast, supported below.
- Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010). developed an app to find out how often people’s minds wander, what topics they wander to, and how those wanderings affect their happiness. They analyzed samples from 2250 adults. Mind wandering occurred in 46.9% of the samples and multilevel regression revealed that people were less happy when their minds were wandering than when they were not [slope (b) = –8.79, P < 0.001].
- Matt mentioned a famous psychology study by Brickman et al (1978) comparing happiness between lottery winners, paraplegic patients and controls. Study 1 compared major lottery winners with controls and also with paralyzed accident victims who had been interviewed previously. Lottery winners were not happier than controls. Study 2 indicated that these effects were not due to preexisting differences between people who buy or do not buy lottery tickets or between interviews that made or did not make the lottery salient.
- Mindfulness and Meditation in Medicine schedule for VGH and MSAC https://mmmatubc.wordpress.com/
- Jon Kabat-Zinn’s book – Full Catastrophe Living https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/589455.Full_Catastrophe_Living
- Free MBSR online course – https://palousemindfulness.com/
- Free meditation retreats – dhamma.org
- Apps for guided meditation – Headspace, and 10% Happier
Mindfulness and mediation is a cheap, non-pharmaceutical intervention with some evidence of benefits for stress and anxiety reduction with negligible side-effects. Seems like a useful tool for medical students. May even be helpful for patients as an adjunct to medical therapy (not as a replacement). In short, it seems like something worth trying out.
Black, D. S., & Slavich, G. M. (2016). Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Beach, M. C., Roter, D., Korthuis, P. T., Epstein, R. M., Sharp, V., Ratanawongsa, N., … & Saha, S. (2013). A multicenter study of physician mindfulness and health care quality. The Annals of Family Medicine, 11(5), 421-428.
Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 36(8), 917.
Cramer, H., Haller, H., Lauche, R., & Dobos, G. (2012). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for low back pain. A systematic review. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 12(1), 162.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1991). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Dell Pub.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Wheeler, E., Light, T., Skillings, A., Scharf, M. J., Cropley, T. G., … & Bernhard, J. D. (1998). Influence of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention on rates of skin clearing in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis undergoing photo therapy (UVB) and photochemotherapy (PUVA). Psychosomatic medicine, 60(5), 625-632.
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932-932.
McConville, J., McAleer, R., & Hahne, A. (2016). Mindfulness Training for Health Profession Students—The Effect of Mindfulness Training on Psychological Well-Being, Learning and Clinical Performance of Health Professional Students: A Systematic Review of Randomized and Non-randomized Controlled Trials. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing.
Regehr, C., Glancy, D., & Pitts, A. (2013). Interventions to reduce stress in university students: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of affective disorders, 148(1), 1-11.
Sarid, O., Anson, O., Yaari, A., & Margalith, M. (2004). Academic stress, immunological reaction, and academic performance among students of nursing and physiotherapy. Research in nursing & health, 27(5), 370-377.
Walsh, E., Eisenlohr-Moul, T., & Baer, R. (2016). Brief mindfulness training reduces salivary IL-6 and TNF-α in young women with depressive symptomatology.
Weinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). A multi-method examination of the effects of mindfulness on stress attribution, coping, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 374-385. | <urn:uuid:713e1a47-3d9d-4751-957f-9c490cc02241> | {
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From powering the generators that give hospitals electricity within 10 seconds of a blackout to fueling military and disaster-relief vehicles, diesel is a key player in protecting our public health and safety.
Emergency Backup Power
Each second counts in the operating room, and diesel is a silent yet reliable partner to virtually every hospital across the country. No other energy source provides full-strength backup power within seconds of a failure by the primary electricity grid.
In the aftermath of hurricanes, diesel-powered equipment immediately goes to work, aiding in rescue operations and clean up processes. Diesel's work continues as a partner in the rebuilding efforts. During power outages, diesel supplies the back-up power to keep critical services in operation.
Call 911, and odds are that a piece of diesel-powered equipment will respond. Fire trucks, ambulances, and other rescue equipment all rely on diesel. Diesel is also becoming the power of choice for police cars.
Homeland Security and Public Safety
Diesel vehicles play an important role in protecting our public safety and homeland security. Approximately one-third of the fuel consumed by the U.S. military each year is diesel. And, in the aftermath of the 2001 terrorist attacks, diesel-powered construction equipment played a major role in the recovery and cleanup operations.
Just what is clean diesel? Learn about the components of clean diesel technology from the engine to the fuel to the emissions control systems. | <urn:uuid:e0017837-7725-4a00-a588-9a5fbf7a011e> | {
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A croissant is made with a buttery, flaky pastry, and is named after its distinctive crescent shape. Legend has it that a courageous and watchful Viennese baker, at a time when Vienna was under siege by the Turks, was working late one night. He heard strange rumbling noises and alerted the city’s military leaders. They found that the Turks were trying to get into the city by tunnelling under its walls. The tunnel was destroyed and the baker became a hero. The only reward he asked for was the sole right to bake a special pastry to commemorate the fight. This pastry was shaped like a crescent, the symbol of the Ottoman flag, and presumably meant that the Austrians had eaten the Turks for breakfast. It was Marie-Antoinette from Austria that made this ”Viennoiserie” such a success in France, after she introduced it in 1770. In the 20th century the croissant became the number one breakfast staple. | <urn:uuid:aa924ebd-da04-40d1-954b-954fbdde689b> | {
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Types of Anti-Inflammatory Medication for Back Pain
Back pain is a problem that most people develop at some point in their life. Common reasons for back pain include poor posture or body mechanics, traumatic injuries and strenuous physical activities. These factors increase your risk for developing degenerative joints, insomnia, depression, stress and anxiety.
Chronic back pain often requires more than one therapeutic intervention. Anti-inflammatory medication is usually part of a comprehensive back pain relief protocol. These medications reduce inflammation and may enable you to resume many of your normal activities. Aspirin, acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents are some of the most common examples.
Hippocrates was the first known physician to prescribe aspirin for pain. It has shown to relieve headaches, muscle pains, and other painful conditions.
Aspirin help reduce pain by preventing pain signals from reaching the thalamus. This area of the brain is involved in the perception of pain and serves as an information relay center.
Aspirin also alleviates pain by stopping a chemical chain reaction by blocking prostaglandin, a natural substance that makes your nerve cells more sensitive to pain and inflammation.
Prostaglandins also safeguard the stomach lining. This is why aspirin can cause stomach issues, such as bleeding, pain and ulcers.
Acetaminophen is frequently recommended for back pain relief. It is not an anti-inflammatory agent.
Acetaminophen relieves pain by altering the way that your body perceives the sensation by blocking the pain signals. The medication is frequently recommended for osteoarthritis, a degenerative joint disorder.
Acetaminophen should be used strictly by its recommended dosage amounts. It is less likely to cause stomach problem than aspirin and provides similar pain relief. Exceeding the recommended dosage may increase your risk for developing liver damage.
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, also known as NSAIDs, relieve pain and inflammation. This group of medications is frequently used for migraines, headaches, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, an inflammatory disorder that affects the entire body. NSAIDs block pain and inflammation by reducing the level of prostaglandins in the body.
Patients who require stronger pain management should speak with a physician who specializes in back pain relief. In addition to over-the-counter versions, NSAIDs are available as a prescription medication in higher doses or in combination with an opiate, such as codeine.
Like aspirin, NSAIDs can cause stomach problems. There is a risk for headaches, stomach cramps, nausea and dizziness. Patients who take NSAIDs in combination with steroids have an increased risk for ulcers. Combining NSAIDs and anticoagulants or taking NSAIDs with other anti-inflammatory medications increases the incidence of stomach bleeding.
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We care for them, we feed them, and we let them into our lives, and give them the best life possible. But what if we now learn that our pets can actually improve our mental and physical health? That would be just another reason to love them even more.
Caring for pets has been proven to help deal with anxiety and depression. The company of a cute puppy or playing with a cat can also help reduce stress. Besides the unconditional love that comes from a pet, these are some ways in which your furry companion can help.
- The companion of a furry pet can help with your loneliness, make you more active, and even improve cardiovascular health.
- Levels of dopamine and serotonin are increased when you play with a dog or a cat.
- Dogs can help a patient more easily recover from a heart attack. Statistical information reveals that heart attack patients that own a dog are likely to survive longer than those who do not.
- Taking your pet for a walk, helps you exercise and take some fresh air. Research has shown that daily exercise is more likely accomplished by dog owners than those who are not.
- Pets do not live in the past. They model for us a lifestyle of living one day at a time. Their companionship can help alleviate anxiety by offering comfort.
- As a consequence of exercising with your dog, the chances of you suffering a heart attack decrease.
- Petting a dog or a cat helps in several ways. It lowers blood pressure, cuts down on the stress hormone, and several other anxiety-related maladies.
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Forget Earthquakes: Fires Are the Biggest Threat to US Nuclear Plants
Fires occur at US nuclear plants a total of ten times a year on average, but most sites are underprepared for the event of a disaster, according to two reports published today by ProPublica and iWatch News. The independent reviews highlight how over the last three decades, industry neglect and gaps in regulatory enforcement have contributed to the risk of fire-induced nuclear accidents at the 104 existing plants across the country. The reports come in the wake of the March earthquake that triggered a leak at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi reactor, which has resulted in the country freezing its own nuclear power expansion plans. Here are some of the reports' most alarming findings:
- Fires are often triggered by accidents as likely as a short circuit in an electric cable or a spark igniting oil in a pump.
- Most existing safety plans focus on containing and putting out fires rather than preventing them, and rely on time-consuming manual actions like sending in a worker to activate a pump that will ensure a reactor is shut down.
- At two dozen of the nation's reactors, spent fuel are stored in unsecured, above-ground pools with potential lethal waste exceeding those stored in Japan. (If a cooler at one of the reactors were to break down, spent fuel could overheat or catch on fire, releasing radiation that could kill people living within 50 miles of the plant.)
- The Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the main nuclear safety enforcement body, has in the past resisted issuing citations to violators, and when it does often exempts them from paying penalties, numbering more than 900 exemptions as of 2001. The NRC does not keep its own list of fire safety gaps, but instead relies on plants to provide them during inspections.
- Most plants are ill equipped to stamp out large-scale fires; reactor owners get away with using electrical cables wrapped in fire-proof materials that have previously failed safety tests.
Nuclear plant fires have not killed any Americans to date, which might explain why the hazard has been downplayed. But shortcomings like fire protection violations make disasters more likely, the Union of Concerned Scientists' David Lochbaum told ProPublica. And as the map below shows, nuclear reactors are clustered in some of the most dense areas of the US, meaning the risk of fire is simply too dangerous to go unaddressed. "The NRC is to nuclear power today what the SEC was to Wall Street three years ago," Richard Brodsky, a former Westchester, NY assemblyman told iWatch. | <urn:uuid:4be4d28d-b3e3-4bd9-bc82-b0a1c359d901> | {
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Tarquin and the Eagle
As Tullus Hostilius was dead, the Romans wished to elect a new king; and they soon chose Ancus Martius, a grandson of the good and pious Numa Pompilius who had governed them so well. The new ruler was very wise and good. Although he could not keep peace with all his neighbors, as his grandfather had done, he never went to war except when compelled to do so.
There were now so many people in Rome that it was not easy to govern them as before. In fact, there were so many wrongdoers that Ancus was soon forced to build a prison, in which the criminals could be put while awaiting judgment. The prison was made as solid as possible, with thick stone walls. It was so strong that it still exists, and one can even now visit the deep and dark dungeons where the prisoners used to be kept more than six hundred years before Christ.
During the reign of Ancus Martius, as in those of the kings before him, many strangers came to settle in Rome. They were attracted thither by the rapid growth of the city, by the freedom which the citizens enjoyed, and by the chances offered to grow rich and powerful.
Among these strangers was a very wealthy Greek, who had lived for some time in a neighboring town called Tarquinii. This man is known in history as Tarquinius Priscus, or simply Tarquin, a name given him to remind people where he had lived before he came to Rome.
As Tarquin was rich, he did not come to Rome on foot, but rode in a chariot with his wife Tanaquil. As they were driving along, an eagle came into view, and, after circling for a while above them, suddenly swooped down and snatched Tarquin's cap off his head. A moment later it flew down again, and replaced the cap on Tarquin's head, without doing him any harm.
Tarquin and the Eagle.
This was a very strange thing for an eagle to do, as you can see, and Tarquin wondered what it could mean. After thinking the matter over for a while, he asked his wife, Tanaquil, who knew a great deal about signs; and she said it meant that he would sometime be king of Rome. This prophecy pleased Tarquin very much, because he was ambitious and fond of ruling.
Tarquin and his wife were so rich and powerful that they were warmly welcomed by the Romans. They took up their abode in the city, spent their money freely, tried to make themselves as agreeable as possible, and soon made a number of friends among the patricians.
Ancus Martius became acquainted with Tarquin, and, finding him a good adviser, often sent for him to talk about the affairs of state. Little by little, the man grew more and more intimate with the king; and when Ancus died, after a reign of about twenty-four years, no one was surprised to hear that he had left his two young sons in Tarquin's care. | <urn:uuid:3c914584-f09c-4149-8673-231834319a6b> | {
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UCLA chemists report in the Feb. 28 issue of Science a room-temperature chemical method for producing a new form of carbon called carbon nanoscrolls. Nanoscrolls are closely related to the much touted carbon nanotubes -- which may have numerous industrial applications -- but have significant advantages over them, said Lisa Viculis and Julia Mack, the lead authors of the Science article and graduate students in the laboratory of Richard B. Kaner, UCLA professor of chemistry and biochemistry.
"If nanotubes can live up to all their predicted promise, then we believe that we have a method for making analogous materials for a fraction of the cost," Mack said.
Nanotubes are pure carbon sheets in a tubular form, capped at each end. Viculis and Mack's carbon nanoscrolls are also pure carbon but the sheets are curled up, without the caps on the ends, potentially allowing access to significant additional surface area. While nanotubes are normally made at high temperatures, nanoscrolls can be produced at room temperature.
"Our method involves scrolling sheets of graphite, which could give us a much higher surface area," Viculis said.
"If we can access the entire surface area on both sides of the carbon sheets -- unlike with carbon nanotubes, where only the outside surface is accessible -- then we could adsorb twice the amount of hydrogen -- an enormous increase," Mack said, "improving on hydrogen storage for fuel (an alternative to fossil fuels)."
"Nanoscrolls can be made by a relatively inexpensive and scalable process at low temperatures," Mack said. "Our starting materials are just graphite and potassium metal. The idea is beautiful in its simplicity."
"Carbon surfaces are known to adsorb hydrogen. A difficulty with using hydrogen as a fuel source for cars, instead of gas, is obtaining a material capable of storing enough hydrogen to make the approach feasible," Viculis said.
"Carbon nanoscrolls could make pollution-free, hydrogen-powered cars better than they would otherwise be," said Kaner, the third co-author on the Science paper. "This research is a good start. We have a long way to go. For this approach to work well, we need to get down to individual carbon layers, and we are not there yet. On average, the nanoscrolls are 40 layers thick. We have not yet realized the full surface area or all the properties we are after. The challenge is to reduce the nanoscrolls to individual layers. We have many good leads, and have started new collaborations."
The research may lead to numerous applications.
"For electronic applications, nanotubes may work well," Kaner said. "For applications where high surface area is important -- such as hydrogen storage, or energy storage in super-capacitors -- these nanoscrolls may be better."
Other possible applications for nanoscrolls, Kaner said, include lightweight but strong materials for planes and cars, and improved graphite-based tennis rackets and golf clubs.
Kaner, Viculis and Mack are collaborating on mechanical properties and applications with H. Thomas Hahn, UCLA's Raytheon Professor of Manufacturing Engineering, and chair of the UCLA Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.
"We see this research as a jumping-off point," Viculis said. "We believe it will give people ideas. Colleagues are finding us for collaborations, in engineering as well as chemistry."
Viculis, Mack and Kaner, who have been working on this project together for more than two years, have continued to make significant progress even in the time since they submitted the Science paper.
The research is funded by the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and UCLA's Academic Senate.
The above story is based on materials provided by University Of California - Los Angeles. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.
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Interested in raising revenue and reducing global warming, some policymakers in Washington are floating the idea of a carbon tax. In order to sway conservatives to support a carbon tax, proponents are pushing for either revenue neutrality or replacing the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) greenhouse gas regulations. These proponents ignore three critical realities of implementing a carbon tax.
1. A Carbon Tax Would Damage the Economy
Since an overwhelming majority of America's energy needs are met by carbon-emitting fossil fuels, regulations of these fuels directly raise the cost of electricity, gasoline, diesel fuel, and home heating oil. Since low-income families spend a larger proportion of their income on energy, a tax that increases energy prices would disproportionately affect the budgets of the poorest American families.
Businesses, faced with higher energy costs, would likely pass those costs on to consumers. However, if a company had to absorb the costs, high energy costs would squeeze profit margins and prevent businesses from investing and expanding. Investors might even move their funds away from energy companies and toward less regulated business enterprises, thus depriving fossil-fuel-based companies much-needed cash for more efficient power generation. The result is higher energy costs, lower income, and fewer jobs.
In 2012, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) made a comparison analysis for a carbon tax that starts at $25 and rises by 5 percent per year (after adjusting for inflation). Compared to the baseline case, without the carbon tax, this would:
Cut the income of a family of four by $1,900 per year in 2016 and lead to average losses of $1,400 per year through 2035;
Raise the family-of-four energy bill by more than $500 per year (not counting the cost of gasoline);
Cause gasoline prices to increase by up to $0.50 gallon, or by 10 percent on an average gallon price; and
Lead to an aggregate loss of more than 1 million jobs by 2016 alone.
In particular, energy-intensive industries and manufacturing would feel the adverse effects of a carbon tax, which comes at a time when many companies, lured by the prospect of abundant and cheap natural gas, are moving to the United States. A recent KPMG analysis of the U.S. chemical industry emphasizes, "With a new and abundant source of low-cost feedstock, the US market has transformed to become one of the most advantageous markets for chemical production in the world." A carbon tax would unnecessarily reverse this resurgence.
2. A Carbon Tax Would Not Save the Planet
Unilaterally reducing greenhouse gases would not make a dent on global emissions and, consequently, would do next to nothing to reduce global temperatures. Even if the U.S. were to curb carbon emissions 83 percent below 2005 levels by 2050 (what cap-and-trade bills required), it would reduce global temperatures by only a few tenths of a degree Celsius by the close of the century.
This is because future carbon emissions will come overwhelmingly from the developing world (China and India, for example), which shows little appetite for squeezing economic growth for the sake of the environment.
A common argument is that if the U.S. leads in reducing emissions, the rest of the world would follow suit. But this is clearly not the case. Despite actions taken by the EPA to regulate carbon dioxide, the developing world has massive expansions planned to increase coal consumption. According to a recent report from the World Resources Institute, there are plans to build nearly 1,200 coal-fired power plants in 59 different countries totaling over 1.4 million megawatts. China and India alone account for 76 percent of the proposals.
Developing countries want access to cheap, reliable electricity (especially since many areas do not even have access to electricity) and have more pressing environmental needs. It is simply wishful thinking to assume that these countries would follow America's lead and curb economic growth to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Revenue Neutrality or a Regulations Swap Is Unrealistic
Two suggestions to garner more bipartisan support for a carbon tax have been to ensure that the tax is revenue neutral by reducing other taxes or to replace the EPA's regulations of greenhouse gas emissions with the CO2 tax. Both proposals are political impossibilities.
Just the sniff of a new revenue stream to the tune of hundreds of billions of dollars annually has the special interests in Washington running to Congress for more handouts. Before carbon tax legislation has even been introduced, ideas on how to use the revenue already include income transfers, paying for defense spending cuts, reducing the deficit, transferring money to developing countries to adapt to climate change and the list goes on. History shows that any time more money comes into the coffers of the federal government, there is a political interest to spend it one way or another.
Some proponents of a carbon tax believe that the tax properly prices the externalities that vex opponents of fossil fuels and, therefore, eliminates the need for regulation of carbon dioxide. By this logic, cap and trade would also have eliminated the need for carbon regulation. However, instead of reducing regulations, the cap-and-trade bills would have added to them. For instance, the Waxman-Markey bill went on for nearly 700 pages before it even began the cap-and-trade section.
Just in case there is any confusion as to whether the left is willing to trade off regulation for a carbon tax, Representative Henry Waxman (D-CA) recently cleared things up: "A carbon tax or a price on carbon would be a strong incentive for the development of new technologies. But because it's so complicated, I would not support preempting EPA. EPA can assure us that we can actually get the reductions we need." In short, a carbon tax would be no substitute for regulation.
Bad Policy All Around
The economic, environmental, and political realities surrounding a carbon tax are clear indications that this is bad policy. Recently, two bipartisan resolutions publicly denounced the possibility of a carbon tax, highlighting the crushing economic and minimal environmental effects of the tax. One resolution, sponsored concurrently by Senator David Vitter (R-LA) and Representative Mike Pompeo (R-KS), and a second by Representative David McKinley (R-WV) and co-sponsored by five other Republicans and three Democrats expressed their disapproval of the idea.
Whether the American economy is booming or heading off a fiscal cliff, the right time for a carbon tax is never.
--David W. Kreutzer, PhD, is Research Fellow in Energy Economics and Climate Change in the Center for Data Analysis and Nicolas D. Loris is Herbert and Joyce Morgan Fellow in the Thomas A. Roe Institute for Economic Policy Studies at The Heritage Foundation.
Show references in this report
The EIA makes a variety of assumptions for the projections in its Annual Energy Outlook (AEO) 2012. It alters those assumptions to produce the side cases. For instance, in its reference case, it assumes that there is no tax on carbon dioxide. In the carbon tax side case we use, the EIA assumes that there will be a carbon tax starting at $25 per metric ton in 2012 and rising by 5 percent per year in real dollars. The reference case and side cases for the AEO 2012 can be downloaded at ftp://ftp.eia.gov/pub/forecasts/aeo/full/textdata/ (accessed January 8, 2013).
The EIA reference case imposes a 3 percentage point premium on the cost of capital for coal-fired power plants to account for the risk of possible regulation. This undercounts the cost of regulation by attributing a portion of it to the reference case. Therefore, we use the “No Greenhouse Gas Concern” side case as our baseline.
Mike Shannon, Paul Harnick, and Tom Meike, “The Future of the US Chemical Industry,” Reaction, 2012, http://www.kpmg.com/Global/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Reaction/Documents/reaction-magazine-seventh-edition.pdf (accessed December 5, 2012).
Chip Knappenberger, “Climate Impacts of Waxman-Markey (Part II)—Global Sign-Up,” Master Resource, May 7, 2009, http://www.masterresource.org/2009/05/part-ii-a-climate-analysis-of-the-waxman-markey-climate-bill%e2%80%94what-if-the-world-played-along/ (accessed December 5, 2012).
Ailun Yang and Yiyun Cui, “Global Coal Risk Assessment: Data Analysis and Market Research,” World Resources Institute, 2012, http://www.wri.org/publication/global-coal-risk-assessment (accessed December 5, 2012).
Robert Higgs, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 6–34.
See David W. Kreutzer, “The Right Time for a Carbon Tax Is Never,” National Journal, Energy Experts blog, November 20, 2012, http://energy.nationaljournal.com/2012/11/is-washington-ready-for-a-carb.php#2268790 (accessed December 5, 2012).
News release, “Sen. Vitter, Rep. Pompeo to Introduce Concurrent Resolution Opposing ‘Carbon Tax,’” November 29, 2012, http://www.vitter.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressRoom.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=4d391f67-047f-79c4-2f71-920cedc32259 (accessed January 4, 2013), and U.S. House of Representatives, 112th Congress, H. CON. RES. 142, November 20, 2012, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/hconres142 (accessed December 5, 2012). | <urn:uuid:832ce700-7a19-4b29-9a8d-7c93c1a7a2ad> | {
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Nutrition for Planning and Preparing for Pregnancy
There is so much advice out there; how do I choose what to eat?
Why are folic acid (or folate) and iron so important?
What is considered "healthy eating" for women who are planning to become pregnant?
What is a serving size?
What foods should I be careful about eating?
As part of a healthy diet, what should I drink?
Is it ok to drink alcohol while I am planning to get pregnant?
what to eat should be based on a balanced diet and the amount of
calories you need to carry out your daily activities. Avoid fad diets
and those that over-emphasize or downplay any of the six main dietary
nutrients: water, protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, and minerals.
Healthy eating will help you function at your best and achieve and
maintain a healthy body weight.
part of the revised FDA national dietary guidelines for healthy eating,
there are two specific recommendations for pre-pregnant women that
relate to iron and folate (folic acid):
- Consume adequate synthetic folic acid daily (from fortified foods
or supplements) AND food forms of folic acid from a varied diet.
Whether you are planning to get pregnant or not, you must be sure to get enough folic acid (sometimes called folate).
acid is a B vitamin that helps a baby's neural tube -- the part of the
embryo that becomes the brain and spinal cord -- develop properly. It
is critical to start taking it before conception and to continue taking
it through the third month of pregnancy, when the baby's neural tube is
developing, to prevent birth defects in the spine and skull.
You can get folic acid by taking a multivitamin with 400 micrograms
(mcg) of it daily. You will also find it in fortified breakfast
cereals; citrus fruits and juices; dried peas and beans; and green,
leafy vegetables such as spinach, collard and turnip greens, and
- Eat foods high in heme-iron, iron-rich plant foods, iron-fortified
foods, or foods that facilitate iron absorption, such as vitamin C-rich
is important during pregnancy as it prevents anemia, a condition in
which the body isn't able to produce enough healthy red blood cells.
Developing infants need a high level of red blood cells in order to
receive enough oxygen. And, anemia in the mother can be passed on to
You can get heme-iron by eating food such as red meats, fish, and
poultry (basically, food from animal sources). Iron-rich plant
foods include cooked beans, lentils, and enriched pasta. Many
breakfast cereals are also iron-fortified.
Foods that help iron absorption consist of fruits (oranges, orange
juice, cantaloupe, strawberries, grapefruit) and vegetables (broccoli,
brussels sprouts, tomato, tomato juice, potatoes, and green and red
peppers), and are effective when eaten with iron-rich foods like meat,
fish, and poultry.
two exceptions, healthy eating for pre-pregnant women is the same as
healthy eating for most people of the same age, gender, and physical
activity level. Those exceptions are iron and folate/folic acid.
New national dietary guidelines and a revised Food Pyramid were
released April 2005 by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA). Reviewed and revised as necessary every five years, the
guidelines' purpose is to provide advice for healthy Americans about
food choices that promote health and prevent disease.
Current national dietary guidelines are:
- Focus on fruits. Eat a variety of fruits--whether fresh,
frozen, canned, or dried--rather than fruit juice for most of your fruit
choices. For a 2,000-calorie diet, you will need 2 cups of fruit each
day (for example, 1 small banana, 1 large orange, and 1/4 cup of dried
apricots or peaches).
- Vary your veggies. Eat more dark green veggies, such as
broccoli, kale, and other dark leafy greens; orange veggies, such as
carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, and winter squash; and beans and
peas, such as pinto beans, kidney beans, black beans, garbanzo beans
(chick peas), split peas, and lentils. Frozen produce is often as good
for you as fresh since it's frozen immediately after harvest.
- Get your calcium-rich foods. Get 3 cups of low-fat or
fat-free milk--or an equivalent amount of low-fat yogurt and/or low-fat
cheese (1-1/2 ounces of cheese equals 1 cup of milk)--every day. If you
don't or can't consume milk, choose lactose-free milk products and/or
calcium-fortified foods and beverages. The recommended daily allowance
- Make half your grains whole. Eat at least 3 ounces of
whole-grain cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or pasta every day. One
ounce is about 1 slice of bread, 1 cup of breakfast cereal, or 1/2 cup
of cooked rice or pasta. Look to see that grains such as wheat, rice,
oats, or corn are referred to as "whole" in the list of ingredients.
- Go lean with protein. Choose lean meats and poultry. Bake
it, broil it, or grill it. And vary your protein choices with more
fish, beans, peas, nuts, and seeds.
- Nosh on nuts. Five ounces a week of nuts is a healthy
addition to any diet – unless you're allergic to them. Stick to
almonds, walnuts, and hazelnuts as they have less fat and have more
nutrients. Eat them raw and unsalted...you'll get used to the taste!
- Know the limits on fats, salt, and sugars. Read the
Nutrition Facts label on foods. Look for foods low in saturated fats
and trans fats. Your body needs a certain amount of fat, so you should
not eliminate it totally. Plant oils from nuts, nut butters, olives,
and avocados are good for you. Choose and prepare foods and beverages
with little salt (sodium) and/or added sugars (caloric sweeteners).
Remove the skin and fat from meats and fish.
- Understand your fats. Look for foods low in saturated fats,
trans fats, and cholesterol to help reduce the risk of heart disease.
Five percent of the daily value (DV) or less is low; 20% of the daily
value (DV) or more is high. Most of the fats you eat should be
polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. Keep total fat intake between
20% - 35% of all the calories you take in each day.
- Reduce sodium (salt), increase potassium. Research shows
that eating less than 2,300 milligrams of sodium (about 1 teaspoon of
salt) per day may reduce the risk of high blood pressure. Most of the
sodium people eat comes from processed foods, not from the saltshaker.
Also, look for foods high in potassium (such as bananas), which
counteracts some of sodium's effects on blood pressure.
- Don't sugarcoat it. Since sugars contribute calories with
few, if any, nutrients, look for foods and beverages low in added
sugars. Read the ingredient list and make sure that added sugars are
not among the first few ingredients. Some names for added sugars
include sucrose, glucose, high fructose corn syrup, corn syrup, maple
syrup, and fructose.
- Check servings and calories. Look at the serving size and
how many servings you are actually consuming. If you double the
servings you eat, you double the calories and nutrients, including the
percent of daily values.
- Make your calories count. Look at the calories on the label
and compare them with the nutrients you are also getting. Decide
whether the food is worth eating. When one serving of a single food
item has over 400 calories per serving, it is high in calories.
A serving size is
usually described in terms of numbers of cups, teaspoons, tablespoons,
ounces, or slices. A serving is not what you are served! Our tendency
to severely misjudge serving size has been dubbed "portion distortion."
Though the name is cute, the problem is not. In fact, it is cause for
serious concern since it leads many of us to overeat.
Here are healthy one-portion servings for women:
- Whole grains
- breads: 1 slice of bread, 1/2 English muffin, 1/2 hamburger bun, 1/2 bagel, 1 tortilla
- pasta: 1/2 cup cooked
- rice and other grains: 1/2 cup cooked
- cereal: 1 ounce ready-to-eat cereal, 1/2 cup cooked
- Plant oils
- oils: 1 tablespoon
- fatty plant foods: about 15 nuts, 1 tablespoon nut butters, about 20 medium olives, 1/3 of an avocado
- Vegetables and Fruit
- raw: 1 piece or 1 cup
- canned or cooked: 1/2 cup
- dried: 1 ounce
- juice: 6 ounces
- Poultry, fish and eggs
- poultry: 3 ounces
- fish: 3 ounces
- eggs: 1
- milk: 1 cup
- cheese: 1 ounce
- yogurt: 1 cup
- soy milk: 1 cup
- calcium fortified orange juice: 1 cup
- tofu: 3 ounces
- Red Meat
careful about eating certain fish, including shark, swordfish, king
mackerel and tilefish. Sometimes these fish have levels of
methylmercury that can damage the nervous system of a fetus.
Although almost all fish and shellfish contain small amounts of
mercury, you can enjoy some with lower mercury levels (shrimp, canned
light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish) in moderation (no more than
12 ounces a week, according to the FDA and EPA). Because albacore (or
white) tuna or tuna steaks are higher in mercury than canned light
tuna, it's recommended that you eat no more than 6 ounces a week.
Do not eat raw or undercooked seafood, poultry and meat.
Thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables.
You should drink about 8 cups of non-alcoholic, noncaffeinated liquids each day.
Plain water is best, but you can also get the liquid you need from
soups and juices (though, be careful…you'll add calories with these
Drinks that have caffeine, and that includes many sodas, have a
diuretic effect – meaning they will cause increased urine output. This
is true of alcohol as well.
is best not to drink alcohol while you are planning to get pregnant.
The first 8 weeks of your pregnancy are a particularly vulnerable time
for your fetus as its vital organs are being developed. Because you may
not know you are pregnant for a few weeks, or sometimes months, after
conception, it is best to abstain from alcohol and avoid this serious
risk. In addition, evidence shows alcohol may inhibit ovulation,
perhaps making it more difficult to conceive.
Most recent page update: 10/26/2012
© 2015 National Partnership for Women & Families. All rights reserved.
Founded in 1918, Childbirth Connection has joined forces with and become a core program of the National Partnership for Women & Families. Together, these two women's health powerhouses are transforming maternity care in the United States.
News and Features
Check out our resource, "Hormonal Physiology of Childbearing: Evidence and Implications for Women, Babies, and Maternity Care" Read more
Childbirth Connection has joined forces with and become a core program of the National Partnership for Women & Families. Read more Our History
This interactive timeline highlights our trailblazing work since 1918. Launch timeline Our Vision
We want all women and babies receive the best possible maternity care. Play video | <urn:uuid:d9dabd46-a4d1-4f37-99b3-90eaba5e1a20> | {
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As we rush outdoors to soak in the summer sunshine, consider taking steps to fend off an almost invisible danger — tiny ticks carrying Lyme disease. In Virginia, the number of Lyme disease cases has risen every year since 2000. The disease is caused by a spirochetal bacteria, which can be transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected deer tick. “The tick can be as small as a poppy seed and the bite is usually painless; most individuals do not know they have been bitten. Tam Ly, M.D., infectious disease specialist with Fauquier Health, said, “Recognizing the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease may help detect and treat it earlier, avoiding the serious complications that can appear during the later stages of the disease.”
Symptoms This painless bite can produce severe and chronic symptoms that affect the brain, nerves, eyes, joints and heart. Although symptoms can vary from person to person, here are some that can occur over several months after contact with an infected tick: • A bull’s-eye type rash may appear one to three weeks after exposure. • A flu-like illness with fatigue, chills, fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes, heart palpitations and dizziness. In some cases, these may be the only symptoms of infection, and they may come and go. • Bell's palsy, which is the loss of muscle tone on one or both sides of the face. • Meningitis, which involves severe headaches, neck stiffness and sensitivity to light.
Diagnosis and Treatment Dr. Ly explained that, “During the early stages of the disease, your doctor will consider your symptoms, exposure and medical history to determine whether you have Lyme disease. In the later stages of the disease, laboratory tests can confirm Lyme disease, although they are not a good way to test whether the disease has been cured. Antibiotics are used to treat Lyme disease, and the earlier they are started, the better.”
Protect Yourself and Your Family from Lyme Disease • Use insect repellents with 20 to 30 percent DEET. Apply to exposed skin areas and clothing. Permethrin, another insect repellent, can be used on clothing only, not on skin. • Wear long pants, long sleeves and long socks to keep ticks off your skin. Tuck pant legs into socks or boots and tuck shirts into pants. • Wear light-colored clothing to help spot ticks. • Ticks that transmit Lyme disease thrive in humid, wooded areas. Identify and stay away from potential danger zones. • Mow the lawn frequently and clear leaf litter, tall grasses and brush around the home. Ticks die quickly in sunny, dry environments. • Do a full-body tick check at the end of every day, especially if you and your family are spending a lot of time outdoors during the summer months. If you do find a tick, remove the tick promptly with tweezers, not with your fingers, by gently pulling it straight out. Be careful not to squeeze the tick while removing it. Don’t forget to check your pets, especially dogs, before you bring them into the house. | <urn:uuid:2211d648-4c00-425a-934c-714724994bfa> | {
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These days it seems that every other person has high cholesterol, high triglycerides, fatty liver disease or is overweight. Many have combinations of these problems and are constantly on medications to try to control runaway cholesterol or triglycerides. Statin drugs, used to lower cholesterol, are plagued with serious side effects that keep many people from using them. Fatty liver disease results when the body does not manage the metabolism of fats properly and fats accumulate in the liver instead.
Why does the body sometimes do such a poor job of managing these factors? The answer may surprise you! Our human bodies do not function well at all without the population of symbiotic bacteria that live in the intestines. A recent research study showed that gut bacteria produce bile salts that help control host functions. Bile salts are used as a messenger in a “microbe-host dialog” to normalize the metabolism of fats. The bacteria are therefore able to control:
-Fat (lipid) metabolism of the host
-Circadian rhythms (when you naturally wake or sleep, and how much)
This is an example of the holobiont concept at work; the host does not function normally at all without the symbiont organisms. What are the factors that promote healthy gut bacteria? What are the factors that are harmful to gut bacteria? What do we need to do in order to grow healthy gut bacteria? These are just some of the questions that will be answered in The Symbiont Factor, due to be published next month!
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ERIC Number: ED064181
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1969
Reference Count: 0
Social Studies, Grade 3. Cultures Around the World: Cultural and Geographic Relationships. Course of Study and Related Learning Activities. Preliminary Materials.
New York City Board of Education, Brooklyn, NY. Bureau of Curriculum Development.
This course of study for the third grade explores a potent force in the development of all civilizations: the interplay of man and his natural environment. Patterns of culture have evolved in response to environmental conditions. Though cultural traditions vary from one society to another, all groups of people attempt to use nature to create a better environment. Each theme introduces young learners to the characteristics of a particular geographic region. To develop insights into the ways in which men respond to natural conditions, pupils undertake case studies of two cultural groups presently living within similar geographic regions. These studies foster an understanding and appreciation of cultural similarities and differences through conceptual teaching rather than memorization of facts about a group of people. The teacher will also make a conscious effort to help pupils use these understandings to build a global frame of reference by placing emphasis upon human ingenuity and inventiveness in shaping societies and cultures. The course of study guide contains an introduction, suggested learning activities, six themes for teaching areas, a bibliography and an appendix covering basic concepts and skills in the social studies. (Related documents are: ED 016 625, ED 016 675-676, ED 023 694; ED 028 046-48, ED 029 681-82, ED 029 694, and SO 000 984.) (Author/AWW)
Descriptors: Anthropology, Area Studies, Cross Cultural Training, Cultural Awareness, Cultural Differences, Curriculum Guides, Discovery Learning, Elementary Education, Environmental Influences, Fundamental Concepts, Grade 3, History, Human Geography, Inquiry, Multimedia Instruction, Non Western Civilization, Resource Materials, Social Sciences, Social Studies, Sociocultural Patterns, Units of Study
Board of Education of the City of New York, Publications Sales Office, 110 Livingston Street, Brooklyn, New York 11201 ($7.00)
Publication Type: N/A
Education Level: N/A
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Glucose Oxidase, first described in Aspergillus niger), catalyzes the oxidation of glucose into gluconic acid whilst in an aerobic environment. Glucose Oxidase is one of the most widely used biomarkers due to the large enthalpy change observed when it oxidizes glucose. Glucose oxidase can be used as a label in immunoassays when attached to antibodies and for staining tissues. In respect to glucose oxidases' ability to stain tissues, it is most commonly used to determine the levels of glucose in blood, serum, and plasma, as part of colorimetric assays.
Anti-Glucose Oxidase Antibody is ideal for investigators in Immunology, Molecular Biology, and Hematology Research.
Beta D Glucose Oxygen 1 Oxido Reductase antibody, Glucose oxidase (Precursor) antibody, Glucose Oxyhydrase antibody, GOD antibody
Glucose Oxidase [Aspergillus niger] | <urn:uuid:0490f1f5-f6ad-4ad2-94b9-f5516b902613> | {
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Red brick was used for foundation construction in the early 1900's. It has been our experience that as these foundation walls age the mortar and red brick both deteriorate. The deterioration of the red brick is visible as scaling or peeling of the brick surface. The surface may even be disintegrating into a powder. With this deterioration the walls lose strength, possibly causing them to develop cracks and bow inward. The inward bowing is caused by the lateral or horizontal earth pressure pushing the weakened foundation wall inward. Lateral earth pressure increases significantly as the soil becomes saturated with water. With these older red brick foundations the problem is made worse as perimeter drain tiles were rarely installed. This is usually evident as the basement area may be wet.
If the mortar joints are deteriorated but the foundation wall is not cracked or bowed, and the objective is to simply extend the serviceable life of the foundation walls, then the solution may be as simple as cleaning and tuck pointing the mortar joints. If water penetration is an issue, then the exterior may have to be excavated and a perimeter drainage system installed. At the same time this is done, the exterior of the stone foundation walls should also be cleaned, tuck pointed, parge coated (covered with a layer of mortar), and water proofed. Care must be taken when back filling red brick foundation walls so as to not damage them with the impact of the back fill material.
If the mortar joints are deteriorated and the wall has developed cracks or is bowed inward, then the foundation may have to be replaced or reinforced with a new concrete wall in front of it. Unfortunately bracing the foundation wall with vertical steel beams is not usually a viable option as the wall will continue to bow and crack between the vertical braces.
Click the thumbnails to view a larger image | <urn:uuid:a23c88e7-30dc-48e7-8cf0-e8dd496d1f06> | {
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SALT LAKE CITY — To commemorate the 100th anniversary of Girl Scouting in America, Gov. Gary Herbert declared March 12, 2012 Girl Scout Day in Utah during a ceremony at the Capitol, and congratulated the Girl Scouts for operating in Utah for 92 years.
The first Girl Scout meeting in America was on March 12, 1912, when Juliette Gordon Low assembled 18 girls from Savannah, Ga.
Gov. Herbert stated in a declaration that during the past 100 years, the Girl Scout program has played a vital role in Utah communities by promoting programs in environmental awareness, financial literacy and leadership development; and that the Girl Scouts’ 50 million alumnae provide evidence of impact through the fact that 80 percent of women business owners, 69 percent of female United States senators and members of the House of Representatives and nearly every female astronaut who has flown in space were Girl Scouts.
"During the ceremony, Gov. Herbert and Rep. Rebecca Chavez-Houck (D-District 24) encouraged the girls to continue in leadership roles and run for public office as adults," said Celeste Diller, Troop 2272 Junior Girl Scout leader from Blessed Sacrament Parish. "The governor said Utah is the number one state for selling Girl Scout cookies and they also have the highest per girl cookie sale average in the nation. He also congratulated the girls on their promotion of science, technology, engineering and math education and said that it’s critical for girls to compete in today’s global marketplace and encouraged them to get a good education."
Chavez-Houck pointed out that the skills the girls are learning will benefit them in a variety of capacities. "If they are interested in a career in politics or policy development, Girl Scouts will teach them leadership, collaboration and teamwork skills," she said. "My mother was a Girl Scout and felt strongly that I and the girls in my catechism class experience Girl Scouts and started a troop at Saint Joseph the Worker Parish in the early 1970s when I was in fourth grade."
In high school, Chavez-Houck was on the Senior Girl Scout Planning Board, and she and other girl scouts represented troops throughout the state and were involved in planning and program development. "I learned a lot about the government and how to get along with others with differing opinions," she said. "A lot of what I have been able to use as a leader in my community, I garnered as a senior Girl Scout, so I encourage girls to stick with the program through high school."
In 1976 at age 15, Chavez-Houck participated in a national bicentennial fundraising project that allowed her, three other girl scouts and two troop leaders to take a month-long trip to the East Coast.
"We stayed with host families throughout the country," she said. "In Washington D.C., we learned more about our government and how we, as girl scouts, could become involved in being part of our representative democracy. We went to Boston and Philadelphia and saw bicentennial celebrations. This experience made a big imprint on my mind about my citizen involvement and community engagement."
As a high school senior, Chavez-Houck attended Wider Opportunity workshops through Girl Scouts that were offered throughout the country that changed her career path from a medical field to journalism. "I received a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Utah in broadcast journalism and also joined a sorority and was involved with a leadership team because of what I learned in Girl Scouts," she said.
As a legislator, Chavez-Houck said negotiating issues and managing an environment of public policies, passing bills, trying to persuade people and trying to articulate a case for different issues have their roots in what she learned through Girl Scouting. | <urn:uuid:ffb109ab-df72-497b-be5d-513ea328c5d6> | {
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I regularly watch the Science Friday video podcast. This week they had an interesting piece on potamology (OK, I just learned that word and wanted to use it in my post: potamology is the scientific study of rivers). The podcast showcased the work Christian Braudrick and Bill Dietrich of University of California, Berkeley, who achieved what had not been done before; they were able to create a meandering river in a laboratory setting.
Such rivers lazily snake back and forth through a gently sloping field. They change shape over time by continually eroding the outer bank of each curve and depositing silt on the inner bank. Occasionally two bends in the river come together, changing the topology of the river, and ultimately leaving behind an oxbow lake.
In passing, the narrator mentioned a very interesting mathematical fact about meandering rivers. It turns out that the size of a river cannot be determined by its shape on a map. In particular, if you looked at an aerial snapshot of a meandering river, you would not be able to tell whether it is the Amazon or a small neighborhood stream! I had to investigate this stunning fact.
It appears that nature forces certain geometric relations on the features of the river. Let denote the length of a meander (the “wavelength”) and be the width of the river (see my drawing below). The curves in a meander are roughly circular (rather than sinusoidal, for example). Let denote the radius of curvature of a bend.
It turns out that these variables are almost always related in the following way:
I was stunned to learn this. What a beautiful fact. To see a remarkable scatterplot of the first relationship, see Figure 12.16 in The environment: principles and applications, By Chris C. Park (p. 374).
I have no idea why there is a linear relationship between these variables, but it seems to me that if you know that such a relationship exists and you knew one of the constants, then you could estimate the other one. For example, suppose you knew that . In each cycle, a river winds clockwise around one circle of radius , then counterclockwise around another circle of radius . In doing so it will produce a wavelength of roughly . | <urn:uuid:819b64d9-e5c6-4716-bcb4-a0886a4be407> | {
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Q & A Library
Do you have any advice for overcoming eating disorders - including compulsive overeating?
Answer (Published 1/21/2003)
Compulsive overeating, also known as "binge eating disorder," is similar to bulimia, another eating disorder in that it involves frequent binging on huge amounts of food. As you probably know, bulimia also involves purging - vomiting or using laxatives to rid the body of the excess food to avoid gaining weight. Some people who suffer from bulimia exercise compulsively to work off their binges. No purge is involved with compulsive overeating so the end result is weight gain and, potentially, medical problems associated with obesity. An estimated two to five percent of Americans experience binge-eating disorder in a six-month period. An estimated 0.5 to 3.7 percent of women will suffer from anorexia nervosa and 1.1 percent to 4.2 percent of women will suffer from bulimia at some point in their lifetime.
Compulsive overeating usually begins during adolescence although many of those affected don't seek help until they become adults and try to lose weight. Symptoms include:
Experts suspect that in some cases binge-eating is learned behavior, the outgrowth of the use of food in some families for comfort and to deal with stress. However, another theory holds that it may be due to a glitch in the brain's appetite control apparatus - the failure of the hypothalamus to signal hunger and fullness appropriately. Serotonin, a brain chemical involved in mood and some compulsive behavior, may also play a role.
All eating disorders are serious medical conditions that can have a long-lasting impact on health and should be treated by experts in the field. Each may require a slightly different approach. For example, treatment of anorexia nervosa, characterized by a distorted body image and low body weight, begins with efforts to restore lost weight. I encourage you to ask your physician for a referral to psychologist, psychiatrist or treatment facility that specializes in eating disorders. For more information about eating disorders and organizations that can help you, you might want to visit the Harvard Eating Disorders Center at www.hedc.org.
Andrew Weil, M.D.
Some Rights Reserved Creative Commons Copyright Notice
A portion of the original material created by Weil Lifestyle on DrWeil.com (specifically, all question and answer-type articles in the Dr. Weil Q&A Library) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. | <urn:uuid:35670f34-6771-4c4a-a8cd-80993547db76> | {
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Understanding Headaches that Cause Visual Disturbances
Headaches are never pleasant, but they are very helpful warning signs. At the very least, they are a signal that a patient may need to start or stop doing something fundamentally different in life, such as to start eating breakfast, start wearing reading glasses, start getting more sleep, stop drinking so much coffee, stop smoking, or stop getting into so many stressful situations. If a patient does not respond to these headaches, they probably develop more severe physical problems in the future. But headaches can also mean something terribly ominous, something that must be evaluated immediately. Usually, these headaches do not go away completely, but rather get worse (but not always!). In addition, these headaches are often accompanied by signs and symptoms relating to the eyes.
Why do Headaches Hurt?
The brain never will feel pain! This is because there are no nerve fibers of the type that transmit pain signals located within the brain substance. In fact, neurosurgeons routinely operate on patients under regional anesthesia while the patients are awake and able to speak. Pain in the head comes from signals originating in the bone, the eyes, the sheathes surrounding the brain (called the meninges), and the blood vessels. Headache is generally caused by an inflammation or pressure on these structures and the physician will make use of the patient's description of the quality (i.e., pressure, throbbing, tightness, burning, etc.) and location (over or behind the eyes, near the nape of the neck, the temples, etc.) of the headache to help pinpoint the problem.
Why would a Headache Affect Vision?
Approximately 70% to 90% of the brain is involved in either seeing, interpreting visual information, or controlling the muscles of the eye. It should be no surprise that disease in the head would somehow affect one's vision. In addition, the eyes, when sick, will often hurt, and therefore cause pain in the head. This is why patients suffering with chronic headaches should always see an ophthalmologist. An ophthalmologist is a doctor with special training in the ways that the eye and brain interact, as well as in ways systemic and cranial disease can affect the eyes. Ophthalmologists are frequently consulted in patients who suffer chronic headaches, especially those patients who suffer visual changes or disturbances along with the pain.
What Visual Disturbances are Associated with Headache?
As any migraine sufferer might tell you, headaches can be accompanied by virtually any visual disturbance. Migraines, for example, are often preceded by flashing lights or by deficits in the visual field so that a patient might describe "everything to the left becoming dark". In addition, once the migraine has commenced, the patient will often note severe irritation and pain from bright lights (or photophobia).
Patients with serious and perhaps life-threatening diseases of the main arteries bringing blood to the head, the carotid arteries, may notice shooting pain from their neck to their head associated with the eye on the affected side seeing poorly at distance (while seeing better for reading) and having a small pupil and somewhat droopy eyelid. Patients with increased fluid pressure in the brain may notice that they are seeing double, or a friend may tell them that one of their eyes is turned out. These patients will often suffer severe headaches and maybe even nausea or vomiting.
Patients with aneurysms, (abnormal bulges in their cranial blood vessels), will often experience severe headache as well as an inability to see up close with one eye (although the same eye may see normally at distance!), double vision, and a larger pupil in the affected eye. Patients with brain tumors may notice headache associated with a slowly progressive loss of vision, often from one eye and then the other, while elderly patients with an inflammatory disease called Temporal Arteritis (or Giant Cell Arteritis) may notice severe pain in the temples and sudden visual loss.
Patients with meningitis, infectious inflammation of the meninges, may notice blurred or double vision as well as severe headache and especially neck pain. Therefore, headaches associated with visual disturbances of any kind can be quite deadly or lead to catastrophic visual loss. This information is presented not to frighten patients but to remind them that a headache is a warning sign and the body's way of telling a patient that some intervention is needed while there is still enough time to seek help.
How does an Ophthalmologist Diagnose Headaches?
The "wiring" in the brain is becoming better understood all the time. Ophthalmologists use their understanding of these connections to localize the source of a headache. For example, a patient complaining of headache associated with unilateral pupillary dilation, double vision, and an inability to move the affected eye any way but to the side clearly raises the likelihood of an aneurysm in the blood vessel called the Posterior Communicating Artery. This diagnosis will permit the ophthalmologist to immediately arrange emergent surgical intervention so that the aneurysm can be treated before it bursts, a potentially fatal occurrence. Notably, a routine CAT scan or MRI of the brain might not detect this lesion! The best imaging technology available today still cannot pinpoint a lesion as well as a thorough physical examination and history of the patient's illness, and these advanced tests are used more appropriately to corroborate the clinician's findings. Concerning that aneurysm, the ophthalmologist would know to order a special test called angiography, that highlights only the blood vessels, thereby permitting detection of the sick artery. Sometimes, the cause of a headache is not so clear; in these cases, the ophthalmologist will help the patient map out their headaches by instructing the patient to keep a headache diary. Often, triggers for the headaches will become obvious within a few weeks. Ultimately, the cause of most headaches can be discovered, and the ophthalmologist will work closely with the patient and other members of the patient's health care team to formulate an effective and safe treatment plan for the headache sufferer. | <urn:uuid:696f529f-1896-46f7-b14c-eb9741af4d6f> | {
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Ripping the legs off live crabs and crowding lobsters into seafood market tanks are just two of the many practices that may warrant reassessment, given two new studies that indicate crustaceans feel pain and stress.
The findings add to a growing body of evidence that virtually all animals, including fish, shellfish and insects, can suffer.
Robert Elwood, the lead author of both papers, explained to Discovery News that pain allows an individual to be "aware of the potential tissue damage" while experiencing "a huge negative emotion or motivation that it learns to avoid that situation in the future."
Both pain and stress are therefore key survival mechanisms.
Elwood, a professor in the School of Biological Sciences at The Queen's University in Belfast, and colleague Mirjam Appel studied hermit crabs collected from rock pools in County Down, Northern Ireland. All of the crabs survived the experiments and were later released back into their native habitat.
Elwood and Appel gave small electric shocks to some of the crabs within their shells. When the researchers provided vacant shells, some crabs — but only the ones that had been shocked —left their old shells and entered the new ones, showing stress-related behaviors like grooming of the abdomen or rapping of the abdomen against the empty shell.
Grooming, as for a person licking a burnt finger, "is a protective motor reaction and viewed as a sign of pain in vertebrates," the researchers wrote.
It has been thought that the behavior of crustaceans is mostly reflexive, but the fact that they showed signs of physical distress at the same time they changed a behavior — in this case, moving into another shell — suggest they feel pain as well, according to the researchers.
The research has been accepted for publication in the journal Animal Behavior.
For the second paper, slated for publication in the journal Applied Animal Behavior Science, Elwood, along with Stuart Barr and Lynsey Patterson, outline seven reasons, with supportive findings, they believe crustaceans suffer.
For one thing, they argue, crustaceans possess "a suitable central nervous system and receptors." They learn to avoid a negative stimulus after a potentially painful experience. They also engage in protective reactions, such as limping and rubbing, after being hurt.
Physiological changes, including release of adrenal-like hormones, also occur when pain or stress is suspected. And the animals make future decisions based on past likely painful events.
If crabs are given medicine — anesthetics or analgesics — they appear to feel relieved, showing fewer responses to negative stimuli. And finally, the researchers wrote, crustaceans possess "high cognitive ability and sentience."
Rarely seen creaturesIn the past, some scientists reasoned that since pain and stress are associated with the neocortex in humans, all creatures must have this brain structure in order to experience such feelings. More recent studies, however, suggest that crustacean brains and nervous systems are configured differently. For example, fish, lobsters and octopi all have vision, Elwood said, despite lacking a visual cortex, which allows humans to see.
It was also thought that since many invertebrates cast off damaged appendages, it was not harmful for humans to remove legs, tails and other body parts from live crustaceans. Another study led by Patterson, however, found that when humans twisted off legs from crabs, the stress response was so profound that some individuals later died or could not regenerate the lost appendages.
Chris Sherwin, a senior research fellow in the Clinical Veterinary Science division at the University of Bristol, has also studied pain in invertebrates.
Sherwin told Discovery News, "The question of whether invertebrates experience pain is fundamental to our legislation that protects animals and our behavior, attitude and use of these highly complex organisms."
He said that while the recent studies suggest crustaceans experience "something akin to pain, rather than fixed, reflex responses," additional research is needed.
© 2012 Discovery Channel | <urn:uuid:ba6553ee-97d5-4755-9f63-c62995bc9f70> | {
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The Object of XMLHTTPRequest allows to send the HTTP request on the server and get the response the back from the server. Throws this XMLHTTPRequest object there are basically two parts of client server interaction.
When the client passes any message to the server to pass to the another client. The the server process the data this data sent by the client and save into the database. This data is pinged by the another client another.
The minimum requirements for the Ajax IM is PHP 5.2, MySql 5.0.
For the more detail and Installation please go to ajaxim.com.
Posted on: April 18, 2011 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles | <urn:uuid:9c5c17d1-d3bb-4b29-8b6e-41dfc58a68e4> | {
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Sun Oct 23 10:51:38 CEST 2011
Spreadsheets are nice, but if we want to truly get a feel for FRP we'll
have to think beyond them. If we look at a spreadsheet at an abstract
level it pretty much consists of cells of two types: value cells (`19`)
and formula cells (`=A1*(1+B1/100)`). Let's lose the reference to
spreadsheets and talk about boxes.
Say, for now, that there are two kinds of boxes: formula boxes and value
boxes. Both support a "get" operation that returns a value. Value boxes
additionally support a "set" operation that sets the value.
Formula boxes can contain any kind of pure function. They can also refer
to the values of other boxes (both formula and value boxes). Value boxes
don't have a function inside them, they have a value.
The translation of our VAT spreadsheet would be something like a formula
box *fIncl1* containing the expression
`get(vExcl1) * (1 + get(vVat) / 100)`. This expression uses two value
boxes: *vExcl1* and *vVat*.
We could also write *fIncl1* using a helper formula box *fVat*. Let
*fVat* have the formula `1 + get(vVat) / 100` and *fIncl1* have the
formula `get(vExcl1) * get(vVat)`. I'll use `:=` for this kind of
definition, the `:=` is there to remind you that this isn't Haskell.
It's important to note that any kind of value may be put into value
boxes, including IO actions and functions.
Try doing this with a spreadsheet:
`fIncls := [get(ve) * get(vVat) | ve <- vExcls]`. Or this:
`fIncl1 := apply(get(vVatFunc), get(vExcl1))`.
If you're wondering why I'm not using Haskell syntax, it's to focus on
the meaning of boxes rather than what the functions and combinators
mean. That said, this pseudo-imperative syntax is on its way out as
it's getting too clunky (that `apply` function is really just ugly). For
a quick peek ahead the last few examples would be something like this in
fIncls = map (\ve -> (*) <$> ve <*> fVat) vExcls
fIncl1 = fVatFunc <*> vExcl1
Let's say we want to build the worlds worst synthesizer. We have 7
buttons: "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f" and "g". Our output is generated
by sampling a box twice per second and playing the frequency in the box
until the next sample is taken.
This can't be expressed with the crude formula and value boxes system
we've had so far. There is no way to express key presses in that system,
a key press isn't like changing a value, it's something that occurs on a
specific point in time but after it occurs it's forgotten (your keyboard
doesn't remember key strokes, at least mine doesn't).
In this new system we'll forget about formula boxes and value boxes and
introduce event boxes. Event boxes are like formula boxes in that they
can refer to the value of other boxes. Event boxes can also react to
Events can be thought of like signals in something like D-Bus. Multiple
things (event boxes) can listen to them and do something once a specific
event is fired (triggered).
Every event has a value associated with it. Sometimes the value isn't
important because the fact that the event has occurred is what's
interesting but often we do want to know the value.
Events come in streams. When we say event box *b1* changes to the value
of event *e1* when it receives that event we're actually saying that
whenever an event from the stream of events we colloquially call *e1*
comes *b1* changes to the value of that event.
Yes, that's confusing so I'll try to be precise. Just remember that when
I refer to something like *e1* when defining an event box it's always to
a stream of events, never a specific event.
If you're puzzled by the stream just think of it as an acknowledgement
that a certain kind of event can occur multiple times. It actually goes
a lot deeper than that, involving those confusing `[(t, e)]` types, but
for now just remembering that a kind of event can occur multiple times
with possibly different values is good enough.
Events have values and we can use that to chose to do something only for
events with some value. So not only can we determine which streams of
events we'll do something with when defining an event box, we can also
determine for what values of events we'll do something.
For example if we have an event that directly sets our synthesizer
frequency we can apply a filter that only allows events with frequencies
that are pleasant to the human ear.
Some Reactive-Banana syntax
Expressing event handling with the pseudo-code I've used before is
tricky and gets near impossible soon. So it's a good thing that once
you've understood or at least got a basic idea of the concepts of event
streams and event boxes the syntax of reactive-banana starts to make
sense. In this section I'll explain the most fundamental functions and
If you're reading the [reactive-banana 0.5
there are a few things to keep in mind. The first is that what I've
called an event box in the previous section is called a Behaviour in
reactive-banana. To avoid confusion I'll stop using the term event box
from here on.
In the reactive-banana haddocks you'll find a lot of references to
time-varying functions and lists involving time variables. Just ignore
those, they're important but we'll get to them later. As a general rule
just ignore what you don't understand.
You'll also notice a `t` parameter on the `Event` and `Behavior` types.
It's basically similar to the `s` parameter for `STRef`, it's a trick to
use the type system to prevent constructs that would result in undefined
or incorrect behavior. Just ignore it.
For understanding the next sections you'll need to know about a basic
subset of reactive-banana which I'll explain here. First up: event
Event streams are represented by the type Event in reactive-banana. The
type `Event t Int` means a stream of events carrying Int values.
There are three basic things you can do with just event streams. You can
transform the events in them, you can filter in events in them and you
can combine the event streams.
Transforming an event stream means changing the values carried by the
events in them. As this is *Functional* Reactive Programming the streams
themselves are not changed. When you transform a stream you create a new
stream. Whenever an event in the old stream is fired an event in the new
stream is also fired, but with a different value.
Transforming an event stream is done primarily by good old fmap. The
expression ``show `fmap` eInt`` (or with the (`<$>`) operator
`show <$> eInts`) with *eInt* having the type `Event t Int` creates
a new event stream of the type `Event String` with the int in every
event in the original stream being a string in the new stream.
To replace the value of an event (if the event doesn't carry a useful
value) just use (`<$`): `"MOO!" <$ eWhatever` causes every value in the
stream eWhatever to be replaced by MOO!. Like (`<$>`) this is an
operator from Control.Applicative.
Filtering is done using the `filterE` function. When you filter an event
stream you create a new event stream with the same associated values but
which doesn't contain all the events from the original stream. To only
deal with events with positive integers you can create a filtered stream
using ``filterE (>= 0) eInt``.
Combining event streams creates a new event stream with all the events
from both streams. So if you combine *eOne* and *eTwo* into *eThree*
there will be an event in *eThree* for every event in *eOne* and for
every event in *eTwo*.
Combining is done with the union function: ``eThree = eOne `union`
eTwo``. Beware however that when events come in at the same time things
can get a little tricky, you'd have to wonder in what order the events
are processed. Reactive-banana contains several functions to handle
simultaneous events. For the purpose of this document we'll do the
easiest thing and ignore simultaneous events. In real world code you
would need to think about it.
To create a behavior (event box) in reactive-banana you'll typically use
one of two functions: `stepper` and `accumB`. Both work with an initial
value and an event stream. The difference is that when an event occurs
`stepper` changes the value of the behavior to the value in the event
while `accumB` applies the function in the event to the value of the
eNewVal :: Event t Int
bSet :: Behavior t Int
bSet = stepper 0 eNewVal
eUpdater :: Event t (Int -> Int)
bUpdated :: Behavior t Int
bUpdated = accumB 0 eUpdater
The expression `bSet = stepper 0 eNewVal` creates a behavior named
*bSet* with initially value 0. Once an event from the *eNewVal* stream
comes in the value of *bInt* changes to the value in that event. So if
an event comes in with value 2 the value of bSet becomes 2.
On the other hand the expression `bUpdated = accumB 0 eUpdater` makes
*bUpdated* a behavior with initially the value 0 but which gets updated
(modified) whenever an event comes in. If an event comes in with value
(+1) (a slice, so `\x -> x + 1`) and the current value of *bUpdated* is
1 the new value becomes 2.
That's basically it for behaviors. Well, there's a third way to create
behaviors: using `pure`. To create a behavior with the value 1 which
doesn't change at all use `pure 1`. In case you didn't know, for
applicative functors (which behaviors are) `pure` is what `return` is
To create a behavior that's depends on old behaviors (`f3 := get(f1)
+ get(f2)` in our old formula box syntax) we have to use applicative
functor functions in reactive-banana. There is unfortunately no option
to use monad syntax. To express that the value of *b3* is the sum of the
value of *b1* and the value of *b2* we write: `b3 = (+) <$> b1 <*> b2`.
Example: The Worlds Worst Synthesizer
Now for an example. We'd like to create a synthesizer. The synthesizer
will use our keyboard for input, which we notice through a stream of
events called *eKey* with as associated value a Char containing the key
that was pressed. Something outside our program (and scope of
discussion) samples the behavior *bNote* every 100ms and plays the tone
currently in there until the next sample time.
To avoid getting caught up in music theory (read: I'm lazy and can't be
bothered to look up tone frequencies) the note to play is expressed as
an algebraic data type.
type Octave = Int
data Pitch = PA | PB | PC | PD | PE | PF | PG
data Note = Note Octave Pitch
-- Type signature for the key event, it comes from outside our
eKey :: Event t Char
You'll notice the octave. To change the octave we'll use the '-' and '+'
keys. To set the pitch we'll use the 'a'..'g' keys on the keyboard.
Never mind that it's really annoying to play with those keys as they're
scattered all over the keyboard, this is about the FRP logic not
Those chars in the *eKey* event stream need to be translated to pitches.
Here's one way to do that.
ePitch :: Event t Pitch
ePitch = (PA <$ filterE (=='a') eKey) `union`
(PB <$ filterE (=='b') eKey) `union`
(PG <$ filterE (=='g') eKey)
The "trouble" here is that we're filtering the stream multiple times,
not very efficient. Here's a better way.
table = [('a', PA), ('b', PB), ..., ('g', PG)]
ePitch = filterJust $ (\e -> lookup e table) <$> eKey
The `filterJust` function is a simple helper in reactive-banana. It
filters out `Nothing` events and returns the value inside the `Just`
constructor for `Just` events. To get *ePitch* we first look up the
characters in the translation table and then remove all events who's
chars aren't in the table, removing the `Just` wrapper from events
who's chars are in the table at the same time.
The *bNote* behavior will not use these events directly, instead
*bOctave* and *bPitch* will each store part of the note and *bNote* will
combine the information.
eOctUp, eOctDown :: Event t Char
eOctUp = filterE (=='+') eKey
eOctDown = filterE (=='-') eKey
bOctave :: Behavior t Octave
bOctave = accumB 0 $ ((+1) <$ eOctUp) `union`
((subtract 1) <$ eOctDown)
bPitch :: Behavior t Pitch
bPitch = stepper PC ePitch
bNote :: Behavior t Note
bNote = Note <$> bOctave <*> bPitch
If you understand what's going on here you should have a basic idea of
what FRP is in practice. There are of course considerations in the real
world that we've skipped over here, such as how to get the keyboard
event and how to play the sounds. To get a better idea of what FRP in
the real world looks take a look at the [reactive-banana
they should be easy to follow.
When following those examples you'll come across the (`<@`) and (`<@>`)
operators. I'll give a short introduction here to make it easier to
understand the examples. The (`<@`) operator is used like this: `e2 = b1
<@ e1`, if an event in stream *e1* comes in the value of that event is
replaced in the *e2* stream by whatever value is in *b1* at the time.
The (`<@>`) operator is used in much the same way, but it doesn't
replace the value from *e1* outright but uses it to compute a new value.
bOne :: Behavior t Int
bOne = pure 1
bPlusOne :: Behavior t (Int -> Int)
bPlusOne = pure (+1)
eAlwaysOne, ePlusOne :: Event t Int
eAlwaysOne = bOne <@ eWhatever
ePlusOne = bPlusOne <@> eInt
Time-varying values and functions
If you've read about FRP before you're likely to have come across the
term "time-varying function". This sounds difficult, but once you
understand the basics of behaviors and events it's really no big deal.
Here's the clue: a behavior contains a value, but the value can change.
Therefore at different points in time a behavior can have different
values. So we could say that a behavior has a value that varies in time.
We could also throw away the concept of boxes and say a behavior *is*
a value that varies in time. This is more correct, those boxes are
helpful as teaching concepts but once we talk directly about time they
are no longer needed.
So, a time-varying value is simply a behavior as behaviors can have
different values at different points in time. A time-varying function is
also just a behavior, one where the value is a function (functional
programming 101: the clue to every riddle is that functions are values).
To go further down the rabbit hole a time-varying value can actually be
thought of as a function by making time explicit. If a behavior has
value 1 up to the 30th's second and from that point forward value 2 we
could express the behavior as: `\t -> if t < 30 then 1 else 2`. This is
important: by making time explicit we can reason about behaviors as if
they were pure functions. While in practice we're dealing with
applicative functors (or in other libraries monads or arrows) we can
think of behaviors as pure functions.
Real world behaviors aren't as simple as from 30 seconds onwards change
to value 2. They interact with events. So to express such behaviors as
pure functions events need to be expressed in a way that works for pure
functions. This is where the `[(t,e)]` type comes in. We can see events
as a list of values at certain points in time, for example `[(10, 1),
(20, 2), (30, 3)]` for events that occur on second 10, 20 and 30 with
values 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
When viewing events in such a way it becomes easy to create a behavior
that changes to whatever value was last:
type Time = Int
stepped :: [(Time, Int)] -> Time -> Int
stepped es t = case takeWhile (\(t', _) -> t' <= t) es of
-> 0
xs -> snd (last xs)
For once this is actually runnable code. If we invoke it as `stepped
[(10,1),(20,1),(30,1)] 2` the result is 0, if we invoke it as `stepped
[(10,1),(20,1),(30,1)] 12` the result is 1, as expected.
Stepped sounds a lot like stepper and we can create that function by
making a few small adjustments.
type Time = Int
stepper :: a -> [(Time, a)] -> (Time -> a)
stepper d es = \t -> case takeWhile (\(t', _) -> t' <= t) es of
-> d
xs -> snd (last xs)
If you understand this bit, why behaviors and events can be expressed by
making time explicit you have a good intuition of what FRP is. Good luck
on your endeavors in FRP land.
More information about the Haskell-Cafe | <urn:uuid:cd2ed56b-7ad7-4816-8ae8-ea75f9b6a28e> | {
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A visit with the god of America.
- photo by Mitch Waxman
Brazen and gilt, this representation of the American Augustus is appropriately found at the N.Y. Grand Lodge of the Free and Accepted Masons on 23rd street in Mahattan. It adorns a library room, and honors a significant member of that centuried secret society.
The founder of our nation, as General Washington is known, enjoyed a lifestyle that could only be maintained by a subjugate army of slaves. I’d like to believe that he would be resistant to having his birthday celebrated with a crass and consumerist bacchanal, as he’d be embarrassed by it – but as I’m a non-slaver, it’s difficult for me to imagine the mindset of the “founding fathers” and walk a mile in their proverbial moccasins.
Titled Washington’s Birthday, the federal holiday was originally implemented by the United States Congress in 1880 for government offices in the District of Columbia (20 Stat. 277) and expanded in 1885 to include all federal offices (23 Stat. 516). As the first federal holiday to honor an American citizen, the holiday was celebrated on Washington’s actual birthday, February 22. On 1 January 1971, the federal holiday was shifted to the third Monday in February by the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. This date places it between February 15 and 21, which makes the name “Washington’s Birthday” a misnomer, since it never lands on Washington’s actual birthday, February 22. A draft of the Uniform Holidays Bill of 1968 would have renamed the holiday to Presidents’ Day to honor the birthdays of both Washington and Lincoln, but this proposal failed in committee and the bill as voted on and signed into law on 28 June 1968, kept the name Washington’s Birthday.
- photo by Mitch Waxman
The General died badly, but everybody does that, and one such as myself doesn’t shed tears for a dead slave master even if they did accomplish a lot at their day jobs. Unfortunately, for a fellow so immersed in the “Enlightenment” and who was very much a rationalist and a logician – he thought the answer to illness was exsanguination (which was how his slaves were “cured” of ailments as well). His doctors bled him to death, but the holiday today is about his birth, not his death. This compound holiday (Washington and Lincoln’s birthdays are celebrated coterminously) was offered to the nation, as of 1968, as it was determined that there were too many Monday holidays in February and it was getting in the way of business. I’ve often thought we should celebrate a Monday holiday which specifically mentions the subjugation and forced generational labor of millions, but there you go.
On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback, in snow, hail, and freezing rain—later that evening eating his supper without changing from his wet clothes.
That Friday he awoke with a severe sore throat and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed, yet still rode out in the heavy snow, marking trees on the estate that he wanted cut. Sometime around 3 a.m. that Saturday, he suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and almost completely unable to speak or swallow. A firm believer in bloodletting, a standard medical practice of that era which he had used to treat various ailments of enslaved Africans on his plantation, he ordered estate overseer Albin Rawlins to remove half a pint of his blood.
A total of three physicians were sent for, including Washington’s personal physician Dr. James Craik along with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick. Craik and Brown thought that Washington had what they diagnosed as “quinsey” or “quincy”, while Dick, the younger man, thought the condition was more serious or a “violent inflammation of the throat”. By the time the three physicians had finished their treatments and bloodletting of the President, there had been a massive volume of blood loss—half or more of his total blood content being removed over the course of just a few hours.
Recognizing that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing, Dr. Dick proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy, a procedure that few American physicians were familiar with at the time, as a last-ditch effort to save Washington’s life; but the other two doctors rejected this proposal.
- photo by Mitch Waxman
One of my little fantasies is the one where I magically pluck General Washington from the back of his horse and draw him into our future to witness that which has been wrought in his name. He gets introduced to the imperial majesty of present day America in this fugue of mine, and witnesses not just the modern military might but the relative luxury (compared to his era) and civil treatment that even the basest members of our society can and do expect. I suspect that the General would be shocked at the size and reach of a standing military which operates out of 900 military bases in 150 countries. I don’t think he’d be surprised that the slaves had been freed and offered citizenship, nor the lousy treatment they’d received. More shocking to him would be the relative importance and status of France and almighty England, which were the Americas of their time.
Of course, that was before an American God came along who did the work of the Great Architect of the Universe.
Washington was initiated into Freemasonry in 1752. He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and often praised it, but he seldom attended lodge meetings. He was attracted by the movement’s dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason and fraternalism; the American lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective that made the European lodges so controversial. In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia; however, Washington declined, due to his necessity to lead the Continental Army at a critical stage, and because he had never been installed as Master or Warden of a lodge, he did not consider it Masonically legal to serve as Grand Master. In 1788, Washington, with his personal consent, was named Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22.
“follow” me on Twitter- @newtownpentacle | <urn:uuid:0750796a-d1e8-4932-a3b1-116de040e6cc> | {
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BREAST HEALTH TIP #1: Supplement Your Diet with Omega-3 Fatty Acids Eating proper amounts of certain types of fats called "omega-3 fatty acid reduces your risk of breast cancer and if you have breast cancer, they will help you fight your disease. Omega-3's have four main benefits: they decrease the strength of estrogen in the breast tissue, quell the cancer-promoting fires of chronic inflammation, cause breast tumors to shrink in size and prevent them from metastasizing or spreading. Women with the highest amount of omega-3 fatty acids in their bodies, have a 500% lower incidence of metastasis compared to women with the lowest levels of omega-3's.
With the enormous media attention on the health perils of high fat diets, and the ensuing low-fat food craze, you might think eating any type of fat is bad. Wrong. The truth is our bodies need fat to function properly. For instance, every cell in our body has a membrane that is primarily composed of fat. Without proper amounts of fat in our diet, our cells are unable to function optimally. Another example: All the nerve cells in our body, including those in the brain, are coated with fat. It is this fat that allows electrical impulses to travel through nerve cells. If there is a problem with this fatty sheath, as in multiple sclerosis, the ability of nerve impulses to conduct is severely impaired and consequentially, so is our ability to move and think. Fat also provides structural insulation for our body, and protects it from trauma.
Researchers have found our body functions best when we eat a ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to omega-6 fatty acids in the range of 1 to 4. Omega-3 fatty acids, in general, are the most health-promoting type of fat you can eat. They reduce your risk of heart disease, inflammatory conditions (especially arthritis and skin conditions like psoriasis), and of several different types of cancer, including breast cancer.
Omega-3 fatty acids protect against breast cancer in several different ways. First, they decrease the strength of estrogen in the breast tissue. This means cells won't divide as rapidly as they normally do in response to estrogen. Secondly, omega-3 fatty acids have powerful anti-inflammatory properties. Scientists have found inflammation plays a significant role in the initiation and growth of tumors. Women who take anti-inflammatory medication on an average of 3 times a week are found to have up to a 50% lower incidence of breast cancer.
Omega-3 fatty acids also help to fight breast cancer if you already have it. And does so very impressively, I might add. Research shows omega-3 fatty acids cause breast tumors to shrink in size and prevent them from metastasizing or spreading. They are so powerful in stopping the spread of tumors in the body that women with the highest amount of omega-3 fatty acids in their bodies are found to have a 500% lower incidence of metastasis compared to women with the lowest levels of omega-3's.
The best plant source of omega-3 fatty acids is flax seeds. They contain more omega-3 fatty acids than any other known edible plant. Walnuts are also a good source of omega-3 fatty acids.
Certain fish, like salmon and herring, contain significant amounts of omega-3 fatty acids. But -- and this is a big but -- we've polluted our lakes, rivers, and oceans so much, that fish is now one of the most toxic foods you can eat. Fish contains more concentrated amounts of dangerous chemicals than any other food source. If you think eating farm raised fish is safer, think again. An article published in the New York Times July 30, 2003, reported findings by the Environmental Working Group, a nonprofit environmental research and advocacy group, on 10 samples of farmed salmon bought at markets on the East and West coasts. Farmed salmon accounts for 60% of all salmon eaten in the US. All the samples of fish were found to be contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls or PBCs at levels far higher than any other protein source, including all other types of seafood. PCBs are a group of industrial chemicals that the EPA recognizes as a "probable carcinogen." High levels of PCBs are also associated with learning disabilities and other nerve and reproductive disorders. They were banned from being manufactured in the 1970's, but because they don't break down easily, most of the PCB's ever made are either still in use or exist our environment somewhere.
Your safest choice is to eat organically grown flax seeds and flax oil. The recommended amounts to eat each day are 3 tablespoons of ground flax seeds and 1 or 2 tablespoon of flax oil. The best type of flax oil to purchase is fresh and organically grown. You will find it in the refrigerated section of your grocery store or health food store. It should be in a dark bottle to protect it from the light. Use the oil within 2 months from the time you purchase it. There should be an expiration date on the bottle. One of the best brands of organic flax oil and one I always use and recommend is made by Barlean's. | <urn:uuid:4f714f02-2c34-46e9-82c4-9e6451d3c85b> | {
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Lake Toba is a volcanic lake with a length of 100 kilometers and 30 kilometers wide, located in North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. This lake is the largest lake in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. In the middle of this lake there is a volcanic island called the island.
It is estimated that Lake Toba explosion occurred at about 73000-75000 years ago and is a Supervolcano eruption (super volcano) the most recent. Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University estimate that volcanic materials spewed out of the mountain as much as 2800 km ³, with 800 km ³ of rock and 2,000 km ³ overlies the volcanic ash which is expected in the wind to the west for 2 weeks. Volcanic dust in the wind has spread to half the earth, from China to South Africa. The explosion occurred during a week and throw the dust up to 10 km above sea level.
This incident caused mass death and in some species also followed extinction. According to some DNA evidence, this eruption also reduced the number of people to about 60% of the total human population of the earth at that time, which is about 60 million people. The eruption also caused the ice age, although experts are still debating.
After the eruption, the caldera formed which is then filled with water and became what is now known as Lake Toba. Upward pressure by magma that has not come out cause the appearance of the island of Samosir
Lake Toba is about 1700 square meters with a depth of approximately 450 meters. Situated 906 meters above sea level, this place is a haven for many interesting plants. You can swim in the lake, or boating around the lake. You can also visit the island of Samosir to see the traditional houses of the kings of ancient Batak is also the king’s tomb in the territory of Tomok. Golf courses are also available for those fond of this one sport. Some people who enjoy the view of sunrise and sunset in the region said that Lake Toba makes them forget all their problems.
The atmosphere is cool and refreshing, beautiful and enchanting scenery, with mountains that surround this area will probably make you feel at home.
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From Mexico to Cuba
Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors came to the Americas along with their European musical traditions. Their colonisation followed by the slaves from Africa, brought about a situation in which different cultures and musical styles from Africa, Europe and India were mixed, giving birth to a new musical genre, filled with cosmopolitan and hazardous rhythms, harmonies and melodies.
Central America, is as it says, a central geographical area. It thus became a place where various styles such as Rumbas, Mazurkas, African rhythms, were freely associated until they reached a point of fusion. Here is an example of this propogation mode that the Carribeans are quite familiar with : amongst the African slaves that lived in these parts, there were some slaves known as "talents" (or so they were named by their owners at the time), musicians who were identified as "gifted" and who were consequently sold or traded for more money amongst owners in the different Carribean colonies, from New Orleans all the way to Trinidad. With their performances, they naturally spread and influenced musical trends wherever they travelled or were taken to, and contributed a great deal to establish what soon became the Music from the New World. In order to play these Latin-American musics, guitars were definately the easiest and most convenient choice of all instruments. Guitar duos and trios are still very much part of the Porto-Rican and Mexican musical traditions. (Check out the other stars from the 50s and 60s, not just Maria Elena !). Instrument makers and musicians had to create or adapt their instruments based on those brought from Spain and Portugal, to be able to play these popular and festive styles along with the violins, percussions, voices, accordions... Inexpensive, easy to alter or carry around, Latin guitars are suitable to play in accompaniement, bass lines or solos in any register : huge Mexican Sextos, 12 string mixes with bass, or even Cuban Tres, to 3 double strings, a sort of mini 12 string. American instrument makers slowly became aware of the Bajo Sexto trend along with the boarder Tex-Mex culture. Fender was the first to create the "Bajo Sexto" Telecatser model, a six string electric barytone model. For your information, I have added details on the register and tunings of these "tropical" guitars. (When the double strings are an octave apart, I used capitals and lower cases).
BAJO SEXTO = A hybrid instrument originating from the North of Mexico, a mix between a bass and a 12-string. Associated with the button assordion played by groups like "Conjuto" on both sides of the Tex-Mex border.
Telecaster Bajo Sexto 6-strings tuned E (022/032/042/052/062/072) or A for enhanced precision (016p/026p/036/046/056/066)
- CAVAQUINHO/REQUINTO = DGBD, DGBE . 4 strings, in Brazil can alternatively be replaced with the 4-string banjo-mandolin. (like the one played by Kali in the West Indies)
- CUATRO = BbEeAADDGG, 10 strings (5x2) (as its' name does not say). The Porto Rican national instrument, also played in Cuba. The body is shaped like a violin.
- GUITARRONE = EADGBE , 6-string acoustic bass, a typical Mariachi instrument.
- TIPLE = CEAD, from 4 to 12 strings, it's the Cuban, Mexican or Colombian chord. Played for over 500 years, it's name stands for "high pitch". One of the most unique instruments to have tripled strings (At least an E and an A for a 10-string)
- AaDdDF#f#F#BB (or AA), the Tiple chord's american version with 10 strings. Martin still manufactures a few.
- TRES = FfddAa, GgccEe, GgbbEe. 6 strings (3x2). A typical Cuban instrument, mostly used for the "Son", from which the Salsa has originated. In a recording, can often be mistaken for a 12-string. The Tres can easily be made from a small classical guitar.
- TRICORDIA = GGGDDDAAAEEE , a 12-string mandolin (4x3) played in Mexico.
- VIHUELA = 5 strings, looks like a miniature guitarrone, but beware of the 3 bass strings which are actually an ocatve higher = ADGBE, strings 5 and 6 are therefore one tone under the first two.
The West Indies' "Washé". Originally from the Washboard in New Orleans. The most characteristic rhythmic guitar played in biguine music, using the fingers. As for the right hand, there seems to be as many Washés as there are guitarists in the West Indies. I would naturally be quite wary of this transcription. The best way to learn is to listen to the locals, with or without the occasional "ti punch" and can only reccomend you listen to the expert West Indies pickers : Francisco, Jacob from Kassav on electric but also Gerard LaViny and Yvon Rosillette on acoustic you can hear on the most recent Ralph Thamar CD.
If you are not into deciphering ancient scriptures, you can easily
listen to this sample in Real Audio
which will certainly give you an idea of the richness of this "local" rhythm that remains a mystery to many a French metropolitan guitarist. (Tempo goes from slow to rapid). | <urn:uuid:beb227da-c1fc-4a59-97d2-4a7853fe30f3> | {
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Diabetes affects nearly 30 million Americans today and the link to gum disease may surprise you.
The surprising fact that periodontal disease (gum disease) has a direct association to diabetes really shouldn’t be alarming at all. In fact, if you think about it, the mouth is the pathway to the body. What you breathe, eat and digest directly affects the health of your body.
According to the American Diabetes Association, “Not only are people with diabetes more susceptible to serious gum disease, but serious gum disease may have the potential to affect blood glucose control and contribute to the progress of diabetes.” The association notes that almost 2 million people are diagnosed annually with Diabetes, while another 86 million are estimated to have prediabetes.
Periodontal disease is the most common dental disease in people who are living with diabetes.
Am I At Risk?
People with diabetes are unfortunately at a higher risk of developing oral health issues. This is due to the fact that the risk of bacterial infection is greater with the decreased ability to fight off bacteria in the gums. Basically, your body fights hard to do the simple task of removing waste while attempting to deliver the nutrients necessary for the body. As you age, the risk of getting periodontal disease is greater due to poor sugar control.
What are the symptoms?
When left untreated, diabetes has several symptoms in relation to your oral health. A few of these symptoms are:
1. Dry Mouth
2. Gingivitis (inflamed gums)
3. Susceptible to infection inside the mouth
4. Higher risk of cavities
Stay In Control!
One of the best ways to treat periodontal disease if you have diabetes is to stay in control of your blood sugar. Practicing good oral hygiene will help maintain healthy gums and assist in the prevention of gum disease. This includes brushing your teeth at least twice a day and remembering to floss each and every day as well. If you are not in control of your blood sugar, you are much more likely to have gum disease and the probability of losing your teeth is much higher. If you wear dentures, be sure to clean them every single day.
Visit Your Dentist Regularly.
Make sure you are visiting your dentist for regularly scheduled hygiene appointments. Treating periodontal disease has been shown to improve blood sugar control for those living with diabetes. Our expert team of dental professionals use only the most advanced state-of-the-art equipment to diagnose and treat our patient’s conditions. Routine visits to Advanced Dentistry South Florida in Delray Beach, FL will help you maintain that beautiful smile and keep you healthy.
Where Can I Find
Advanced Dentistry South Florida?
Advanced Dentistry South Florida is dedicated to providing first class dental services for over three decades, enhancing the overall health of patients from Delray Beach, Boca Raton, Boynton Beach, West Palm Beach and surrounding areas in South Florida. Whether you are in need of general dentistry, cosmetic dentistry, oral surgery, endodontics, or periodontics, our elite team of doctors is dedicated to helping you achieve your greatest smile and optimum oral health. Contact us today at 561-404-4083 to schedule your appointment with one of our dental professionals, or visit us on the web at www.ad-sf.com. Stop by our office in the Village Professional Center at 15340 Jog Road, Suite 100, Delray Beach, | <urn:uuid:194ed79a-aeb0-4d51-9215-b838d1b1e622> | {
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Origami involves the making of the papers into several different designs. The art is applied in several disciplines like in education, psychology and creativity.The art is more than just the simple craft idea. The skills which are beneficial and useful in very many ways. The art could be applied to bother the children and the older people in general.
For instance his origami can be able to stimulate development in many ways. The people are turned out to be the active consumers and not the passive consumers who become essential in the latest technology. It is much easier to involve the people who take part in the origami making when it comes to creativity of the individuals.
Origami assist the people who experience low esteem problems. This is especially in the establishment and formation of many arts. The mind is separated from the otherworldly beliefs whereby the hands are kept busy and thus the hands are left to work on a given piece of work.
Origami designs are beneficial in the clearing of the environment. Instead of making the environment and the surrounding dirty, origami ensures that the papers are removed from the environment. Take the case whereby the surrounding is mismanaged and much dirt is deposited to the surrounding. the origami can be used as a way of making use of the trash and other materials from the environment.
The origami designs are the petals that are applied in the jointed learning and in this the students who are in a class could be asked to make the designs. If the students in a class ae asked to make a certain design they are likely to take part in the making of the design a group. The origami designs can be applied by the learners who can relate the structures to mathematical aspects.There are fundamental algebraic rules which could be learnt by the students who create and design specific special designs.
It is essential for cognitive development. They use the hands in the specific sequence producing a visible results which shows creativity . The origami flowers can be applied to the customers and the clients especially in the formation of the origami flowers. The children also learn the importance of patience and the exploration of the material offers assistance in developing tolerance.
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Vol. 12, No. 2
Consumption and Environment
Published in: Vol. 1, No. 1. (1996)
This article concerns consumption and its connections with environmental concerns. In the market economy, consumers play a dual role. On the one hand consumers are objects of marketing and promotional efforts. On the other hand they are active agents who engage in consumption work. Through their activity, consumers have capabilities and possibilities to influence decisions regarding environmental conditions made by firms and the state.
Recently, consumption and environment has received increasing academic interest. In Finland Liisa Uusitalo has approached the issue from the standpoint that consumers are coproducers of collective goods; and her focus is on consumer rationality (Uusitalo 1995). A second recently used approach was to link consumer values and attitudes with environmentally conscious behaviour. Puohiniemi (1995) examined whether consumers belonging to different value types vary in their disposition to environmental problems and in pro-environmental behaviour.
What is consumption in contemporary society
Consumption as a human conduct is typical of all societies and all periods in history. But the function of consumption and its significance for an individual and for society has shifted. What makes consumption such an important topic is that consumption, the economic system, and value system are interconnected (Uusitalo 1979). In the modern market economies consumption is incompensable, and we live in a society where consumption has a central status. It is even claimed that consumption has taken the place of production and labour work. (Bauman 1992, 49). For example, consumption is seen as more important than work as regards individual self construction and the composition of societal divisions.
As consumption is a significant domain of the everyday life it should not be considered only selecting, purchasing and using of goods and services but should be defined broadly. The sociocultural significance of consumption should also be recognized. Douglas & Isherwood (1979) put forward the idea of consumption as essentially symbolic activity which creates order in the mental world of individuals. Their idea has been widely accepted and applied. In contemporary society, consumers are active in attaching symbolic meanings to goods and services. Actually they are eagerly seeking the meanings and signifigance of goods. Contemporary, modern and postmodern, consumer theories admit that consumption is social activity by which symbolic meanings as well as social codes and relations are produced and reproduced (Baudrillard 1975). In these theoretical perspectives consumption is viewed as full of hidden meanings, as creative work where everyday life and cultural patterns are actively produced and reproduced.
Furt hermore, consumers can influence structures as well as their own position by their on activity (Uusitalo 1995, 20). Since consumers actively select their roles and positions in society they may adopt a life style according to the situation and current trends, and in this process, they consume material or non-material commodities. A central theme regarding the new consumption forms is their capacity to change the balance of consumption and environment towards more favourable to the environment. That is to say, the focal issue is whether green consumption is ever possible.
Is there postmodern consumption?
The new paradigms of consumption, frequently referred to as postmodern paradigms, emphasize the idea of an independent, self-constructing consumer. According to these new streams of thought consumers are capable of self-reflection of their own preferences and actions. They are active in reinterpreting and accommodating signs to their own culture (Bauman 1993). At the same time there has been a shift in morality, that is from the universal morality towards private morality. Each individual is to make his or her own decisions and is personally responsible for them. The postmodern theorists further suggest that individuals are characterized by weak commitment, they are not committed to any single task but are partially interested in several issues, the interest shifting from one issue to another (Bauman 1993,198). Consumers are responsible only for themselves, and they are weakly committed to collective issues, such as environment. Thus, a question arises whether environmentally responsible consumption is possible within the postmodern paradigm.
The postmodern perspective provides, however, an alternative to the excessive consumption of material goods. Since consumption activities are seen as surpassing reality, what is consumed are signs and symbols rather than material goods (Baudrillard 1988). Real goods are replaced by simulations, and a new reality is created which has lost its reference to the original. In effect, nothing else but symbols are consumed (Baudrillard 1988). Accordingly, consumption becomes a play by which symbols are created and manipulated. This is, according to Baudrillard, the world of hyperreality. The image of purchase as well as the actual act may motivate the consumer to obtain resources which facilitate consumption. Consumption resources are obtained through paid labour, which is more and more a matter of creating real and imaginary consumption possibilities. As it is symbols and ideas that are consumed, we may suggest that consumption goes beyond the physical and observable acts. Self-construction may occur at an imaginary level.
Aspects of consumption
The previous consumer research has put forward several models or theories which describe the various aspects of consumer behaviour. While consumer research is an exceptionally diverse and multidisciplinary field, I bring up a few perspectives. Especially, attention is paid to the contemporary paradigms (see e.g. Sherry 1991; Belk 1995).
Consumption as work Daniel Miller (1987) has advocated the view that consumption is work. According to him, consumption work is realized as mass-produced objects are recontextualized so as to make them more accessible. Through consumption work, the consumer becomes familiar with the whole culture of a given consumption domain, he or she learns the rules, norms, expectations and proper behaviour. Environmentally favourable rules of behaviour should be included in consumption cultures, e.g. in leisure-time patterns, in food-preparation patterns. In consumer socialization these rules could be easily internalized.
Consumption and the sense of self In the contemporary society, an important function of consumption is self-definition and expression. Belk (1988) presented an interesting view about the relationship between possessions and sense of self. He maintained that consumers regard some of their possessions so highly that these possessions become a part of their selves. Certain goods may extend individuals knowledge, abilities, or sense of self. Goods may have important functions in individuals' lives.
Maximizing utility According to the economic consumer theory, commodities are purchased and used because of the utility obtained from them. The economic models rely on the assumption that consumers prefer more commodities, thus consumers are thought to maximize their utility within a budget limit.
Enjoying The idea that the pursuit of pleasure is the motor of consumption in contemporary society was put forward by Campbell (1987). He argued that distinction should be made between satisfaction of needs and obtaining pleasure. Generally, needs can be satisfied through particular material objects while images, dreams, and feelings can bring pleasure. People daydream, and always desire new goods which have the potential to fulfil their desires. The possibility for pleasurable experience is in new goods, but not necessarily material goods. Imagined experiences can bring pleasure, but on the condition that the consumer possesses imaginative competences and capabilities. Various forms of consumption, e.g. leisure shopping are sources of pleasurable and aesthetic experiences for consumers (Featherstone 1991).
Struggling for societal position In so far as the signifigance of consumption for an individual has surpassed labour work, social divisions and hierarchies are marked by consumers' life styles, consumption styles, and goods and services (Bourdieu 1984; Uusitalo 1979). Thus the struggle for power and legitimated taste in society is within the field of consumption. Consumers are busy earning economic and cultural capital so as to be able to show their competitive position in relation to other consumers. Competence and distinction could be displayed in the field of environmentally conscious consumption. It is possible that the legitimated position is attached to the individuals with knowledge and capabilities concerning environment and consumption.
What skills and competences consumers need to avoid negative consequences of consumption?
Consumption is integrated in the everyday life of individuals; it is typical of various time periods and various societies. Moreover, individuals construct their sense of self and their sense of society through consumption. But unfortunately this positive phenomenon has also inevitable negative consequences. Especially extensive packages, rapid and short fashion cycles, constant flow of innovations etc have caused damages attributable to consumption. In the western industrialized world, at least, consumption is now under scrutiny because of its harmful consequences. The protection of environment concerns everybody: sorting of garbage is regulated by laws and public norms, recycling is facilitated by money incentives. At the same time, consumers are becoming aware that they can, through their choices, influence what is produced and how. Recycling and sorting are gradually becoming compulsory. "Green" goods and services, and "green" labels are widely available. But consumers are not happy with the green labels only. More and more, also environmentally friendly production methods as well as social responsibility is required from firms.
Skills in attaching meanings
Consumption is sociocultural activity situated within a social environment, entailing interaction with other consumers. Consumption is thus not only about purchasing and consuming particular goods, but is is also about producing and reproducing culture. The pattern of consumer culture include ideas about how to consume, what to consume, what consumption of certain goods and services means, and about the links between individual character and consumption behaviour.
The contemporary consumer theories assume that an ordinary consumer is an active, critical and creative person. At the same time, consumption is viewed within the social and cultural context. The central idea is that consumers actively produce and reproduce culture in their everyday life and activities. Consumers' actions influence social and cultural conditions, and also the norms and structures which form the conditions where consumers must live. Environmentally conscious consumers are active agents rather than manipulable objects. They have opportunities for resistance, and they have the survival strategies. Meanwhile, they have responsibilities. So as to conduct environmentally conscious consumption and choices, consumers have to obtain new skills. In addition, it is necessary that they become more committed to the quality of environment and consious of the consequences of their decisions and actions.
Assael, Henry (1995), Consumer behavior and marketing action. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing.
Baudrillard, Jean (1975), The mirror of production. St Louis: Telos Press.
Baudrillard, Jean (1988), Consumer society, in Mark Poster (ed.) Selected writings. Oxford: Polity Press.
Bauman, Zygmunt (1992), Intimations of postmodernity. London: Routledge.
Bauman, Zygmunt (1993), Postmodern ethics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Belk, Russel W. (1988), Possessions and the extended self, Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (September), 139-168.
Belk, Russel W. (1995), Studies in the new consumer behaviour, in Daniel Miller (ed.) Acknowledging Consumption. London: Routledge.
Bourdieu, Pierre (1984), Distinction. A social critique of the judgement of taste. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Campbell, Colin (1987), The romatic ethic and the spirit of modern consumerism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Douglas, Mary & Baron Isherwood (1979), The world of goods. London: Allen Lane.
Featherstone, Mike (1991), Consumer culture and postmodernism. London: sage.
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DISCUSSION & CONCLUSIONS
RMLANDS is a stochastic landscape model that simulates disturbance and post-disturbance recovery of vegetation within a heterogeneous landscape. The landscape structures produced by this model were analyzed with FRAGSTATS, which summarizes landscape structure by means of numerous quantitative metrics, and HABIT@, which summarizes wildlife habitat capability by means of species-specific models for selected indicator species. We applied these models to the problem of characterizing the range of variability in landscape structure and wildlife habitat within the Uncompahgre Plateau Landscape in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA. The model was parameterized on the basis of our best empirical understanding of the pre-1900 disturbance regime in this region. The period of several centuries prior to 1900 represents a time when broad-scale climatic conditions were generally similar to those of today, but Euro-American settlers had not yet introduced the sweeping ecological changes that now have greatly altered many Rocky Mountain landscapes -- through fire suppression, grazing, road-building, timber cutting, recreation, and other activities (Knight et al. 2000). Thus, the pre-1900 period provides a suitable reference condition against which we can compare current landscape structure and dynamics (Swetnam et al. 1999, Landres et al. 1999). In addition, an understanding of natural landscape structures and variability during this reference period also provides a basis for forest management policies that seek to mimic natural disturbance patterns in our logging, grazing, and other activities involving commodity production from public forest lands (Romme et al. 2000, Buse and Perera 2002).
Scope & Limitations (Sources of Uncertainty)
The results of our HRV analyses must be interpreted within the scope and limitations of this study - this is of paramount importance. Most importantly, our analyses were designed to simulate vegetation dynamics under a chosen historic reference period. We chose the period from about 1300 to the late 1800s, representing the period from Ancestral Puebloan abandonment to EuroAmerican settlement, as the reference or benchmark. This period is often referred to as the period of indigenous settlement, in contrast to the period of EuroAmerican settlement that began in the mid to late 1800s (Romme et al. 2003). The period of several centuries prior to 1900 represents a time when broad-scale climatic conditions were generally similar to those of today, but Euro-American settlers had not yet introduced the sweeping ecological changes that now have greatly altered many Rocky Mountain landscapes -- through fire suppression, grazing, road-building, timber cutting, recreation, and other activities (Knight et al. 2000). Thus, the pre-1900 period provides a suitable reference condition against which we can compare current landscape structure and dynamics (Swetnam et al. 1999, Landres et al. 1999). An understanding of natural landscape structures and variability during this reference period also provides a basis for forest management policies that seek to mimic natural disturbance patterns in our logging, grazing, and other activities involving commodity production from public forest lands (Romme et al. 2000, Buse and Perera 2002).
It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the chosen reference period was not a time of stasis, climatically, ecologically, or culturally. For example, the “Little Ice Age” occurred during this time, and there were small shifts in the position of the upper timberline and in the elevational breadth of the forest zone on the middle slopes of the mountains (Petersen 1981). Local human inhabitants obtained horses and new technology and were affected by disease and displacement of other tribes brought about by European colonization farther to the east (Whitney 1994). Nevertheless, compared with some other periods in history, the period from about 1300 to the late 1800s was a time of relatively consistent environmental and cultural conditions in the region, and a time for which we have a reasonable amount of specific information to enable us to model the system. It should be emphasized, however, that our choice of reference periods does not suggest that it should be our goal in management to recreate all of the ecological conditions and dynamics of this period. Complete achievement of such a goal would be impossible, given the climatic, cultural, and ecological changes that have occurred in the last century. It also would be unacceptable socially, economically, and politically. Nor do we suggest that the reference period was completely “natural” or preferable in all ways to today’s landscape. However, the period of indigenous settlement does provide a good benchmark for evaluating current conditions, because it appears to have been a time when the ecosystem apparently supported rich biodiversity, conserved soils and nutrients, and ran sustainably on solar energy (Kaufmann et al. 1994).
Because our study relied on the use of computer models, it is imperative that the limitations of these models be understood before applying the results in a management context. Here, we discuss several important limitations, some general to the modeling approach employed here and some specific to how we parameterized these models for application on the UPL.
First, this report (and RMLANDS) focuses on the effects of two major natural disturbances: fire and insects/diseases. Other kinds of natural disturbances also occur, including wind-throw, ungulate and beaver herbivory, avalanches, and other forms of soil movement, but the impacts of these other disturbances tend to be localized in time or space and have far less impact on vegetation patterns over broad spatial and temporal scales than do fire and insects.
Second, this report (and RMLANDS) devotes more attention to upland vegetation types than to riparian or aquatic types; indeed, riparian and aquatic vegetation are covered only briefly. There are two reasons for this emphasis on upland vegetation in RMLANDS: (1) riparian and aquatic vegetation cover only a small (but ecologically critical!) portion of the total landscape, and (2) vegetation patterns and dynamics of riparian and aquatic vegetation are more complex, more variable, and more difficult to model in a straightforward fashion than are patterns and dynamics of upland vegetation. Additional research is needed to fully characterize the range of variability in riparian and aquatic ecosystems in this landscape. We note, however, that the patterns and ecological processes of surrounding upland vegetation have profound influences on aquatic ecosystems; thus, our results for terrestrial vegetation provide a partial basis for future assessments of aquatic HRV.
Third, it is important to realize that RMLANDS and HABIT@ models require substantial parameterization before they can be applied to a particular landscape and species, respectively. To the extent possible, we have utilized local empirical data. However, due to the paucity of local data, we also drew on relevant scientific studies, often from other geographic locations, and relied heavily on expert opinion when scientific studies and local empirical data were not available. The quality of the empirical data - which provides the best means of parameterizing the model - for this application varied considerably. In general, we had very little local empirical data on insect/pathogen disturbance regimes for the reference period. Consequently, our model parameterization largely reflects the opinions of several local and regional experts, supported in part by sparse empirical data often from other landscapes. By comparison, we had excellent empirical data on historical fire disturbance regimes, but its existence and quality for our application varied considerably among cover types. In general, we had good to excellent data for mountain shrublands and several forest cover types (especially spruce-fir forest, pure aspen forest, warm dry mixed-conifer forest, ponderosa pine forest), principally from Romme et al. (2003), from which to estimate the mean fire return interval (or rotation period) and/or the stand age distribution for the reference period. For other cover types, in particular the semi-desert grassland and savannah communities and mesic sagebrush cover type, we had no data at all and were forced to rely exclusively on expert opinion. Unfortunately, there was no objective way to verify our model findings for cover types without empirical data, so our model outcomes for these types must be viewed with extreme caution, or even discarded altogether if you are not willing to accept the expert opinion. The source of information used to parameterize the models is fully documented and subject to review. Thus, our results should not be viewed as definitive, but rather as an informed estimate of the HRV based on our current scientific understanding. In this regard, it is important to understand that our estimate of the HRV is subject to change as new scientific understanding or better data become available.
A good example of the evolving state of knowledge is our newly emerging understanding of disturbance regimes in pinyon-juniper woodlands. At the time of our modeling exercise, the only empirical data we had available was preliminary data on stand age distribution from the UPL and surrounding region (Eisenhart 2004). We parameterized the model to be consistent with our initial interpretation of this stand age distribution. However, recent work by Shinneman and Baker (in review) highlights several potential biases in our interpretation of the Eisenhart data. In particular, the fire rotation period for this cover type may be substantially greater than what we simulated. A longer simulated fire rotation period would have resulted in an older stand age distribution and a greater proportion of stands in the late-seral (tree-dominated) stage than we observed. Hence, in light of these new observations, our findings regarding pinyon-juniper woodlands must be viewed with extreme caution.
Fourth, it is important to consider the major sources of uncertainty in the model as they relate to sensitive parameters, especially with regards to sensitivity in model outputs of key interest given the objectives of the study. Although it was not feasible to conduct a formal sensitivity analysis of the model parameters, given the shear number of parameters and their interactions, it was possible to qualitatively consider model sensitivity issues and identify important sources of uncertainty in model outcomes - these ultimately determine the level of confidence we can place in the model outcomes. Although what follows is not an exhaustive and detailed description of all known sources of uncertainty, it provides a qualitative summary of three major sources of uncertainty that should help guide the interpretation of our findings by managers as well as to help identify information needs which should serve as the focus for future research and/or model refinement.
• The vegetation transition models developed from expert input define the discrete stand conditions (seral stages) and the rates of successional development and transitions following disturbances for each cover type. These models ultimately determine the quantitative consequences of any specified disturbance regime and, in our case, influence the reported simulated historic range of variation in landscape composition - the model output of key interest in this application. A faster transition rate between two stand conditions, for example, would result in proportionately more area, on average, in the later seral stage. Thus, our reported HRV statistics are fundamentally influenced by these vegetation models, and any modifications to these models would be expected to produce a change in the HRV statistics. Continued improvement and refinement of these models should be a focus of any future simulation experiments.
• Due to the approach we took for implementing disturbance processes in RMLANDS, landscape context is inherently important, and even though landscape context is not a parameter(s) of the model per se, the output is sensitive to the way in which landscape context influences results. This is particularly important with regards to the effects of fire on vegetation dynamics. Fire disturbance events initiate and spread across the landscape (and across cover types) in relation to a number of factors. Cover type is just one of many factors potentially influencing fire behavior and effects. As a result, the quantified fire regime at a location is influenced by the local conditions (including cover type) as well as the landscape conditions around that location (i.e., its landscape context). Ultimately, all stands of the same cover type (often including widely varying landscape contexts) are combined together for reporting purposes. It is important to recognize that these global statistics can be misleading and may connote a single disturbance regime when in fact spatial variation is the trademark of these regimes. The problem lies not so much in the way RMLANDS treats disturbances or in the reporting by cover type, but the lack of empirical data on the role of landscape context. No local studies have been conducted that explicitly address the role of landscape context, so we have no way of objectively verifying our model results in this regard. Improving our understanding of the role of landscape context remains an important focus for future research.
• One of principal objectives of this study was to quantify the range of variation in landscape structure. Among the many factors that influence the range of variation (e.g., climatic variability, scale, etc.), the shape of the disturbance size distribution is one of the most important. In particular, the length and weight of the tail of the size distribution determine the maximum size and frequency, respectively, of largest disturbance events. These relatively infrequent large disturbances have a disproportionate impact on vegetation patterns and dynamics and can cause the landscape to fluctuate widely among states (Turner et al. 1993). Consequently, the range of variation in landscape structure is highly sensitive to the specified length and weight of the tail of the disturbance size distribution. Unfortunately, available empirical data do not allow us to precisely estimate the tail of the size distribution, even though they allow for a robust estimate of the remainder of the distribution (i.e., small and intermediate disturbances). For this application, we specified a maximum fire size of 100,000 ha and a probability of 0.0005 of any given fire being in the 10,000-100,000 ha size class. The weight of the tail was estimated from empirical data representing recent historical fires (1970 to present) within the ecoregion. The largest recorded fire was approximately 22,000 ha (Missionary Ridge fire, 2002). We reasoned that historical fires during the reference period had the potential to be much larger, but how much larger we did not know. There is evidence of contemporary fires exceeding 100,000 ha in other ecoregions (e.g., Yellowstone National Park, Romme and Despain 1989) and there is evidence of extensive fires of unknown extent that “burned across the San Juan landscape” during the reference period (Romme et al. 2003). Our final specification of 100,000 ha represented a reasonable estimate (in our opinion) based on available data, but was nevertheless imprecise. Unfortunately, it is unlikely that we will ever be able to precisely estimate the size distribution for fires during the historic reference period. Consequently, the best we can do is to quantify the sensitivity of the model in this regard - the subject of current investigation. In the interim, managers should exercise caution in interpreting the reported ranges of variation in landscape structure.
In summary, our approach relies heavily on the use of computer models, and while it is important to recognize the many advantages of models, it is critical to understand that models are abstract and simplified representations of reality. RMLANDS, in particular, simulates several natural disturbance processes, but does not simulate all of the disturbance processes (as noted previously) or all of the complex interactions among them that characterize real landscapes. In addition, ultimately the results of a model are constrained by the quality of input data. While RMLANDS utilizes a rich database, the data layers themselves are not perfect. For example, the vegetation cover layer is subject to human interpretation errors and objective classification errors, and is further limited by the spatial resolution of the grid. Moreover, while we utilized a rich array of empirical studies to parameterize RMLANDS, our estimates are not perfect. For example, our estimate of the mean fire return interval in ponderosa pine forest does not take into account the potentially important role of landscape context. Thus, our results should not be interpreted as “golden”. Rather, they should be used to help identify the most influential factors driving landscape change, identify critical empirical information needs, identify interesting system behavior (e.g., thresholds), identify the limits of our understanding, and help us to explore “what if” scenarios.
Disturbance Processes & Dynamics
Wildfire.--Numerous types of natural disturbance occurred in the study area during the reference period: fire, snow avalanches, windthrow, and a variety of tree-killing insects, fungi and other pathogens (Veblen et al. 1989, Lertzman and Krebs 1991, Veblen et al. 1991a, b, Roovers and Rebertus 1993, Veblen 2000, Romme et al. 2003). However, the most important and coarsest in scale of these natural disturbances was fire. Based on a number of fire history studies and relatively extensive empirical data from the region surrounding the UPL, Romme et al. (2003) concluded that the median fire return interval varied dramatically across the landscape along an elevational gradient in relation to fuels and moisture conditions, ranging from 10-30 years (for low-mortality fires) in the lower elevation ponderosa pine type, 20-50 years (for low-mortality fires) in the dry mixed-conifer type, 140-150 years (for high-mortality fires) in the aspen type, and 200-350 years (for high-mortality fires) in the spruce-fir type. Unfortunately, our empirical understanding of fire history in the lower elevation woodlands is much more limited, and it is essentially non-existent in the low elevation semi-desert communities. Recent studies in Mesa Verde (Floyd et al. 2004) and on the UPL (Shinneman and Baker, in review) suggest a long rotation period of perhaps 400 years or more for stand-replacing fires in pinyon-juniper woodlands. However, at the time of our simulation experiments these data were not available and we assumed a shorter return interval of 200-300 years (for high-mortality fires). Romme et al. (2003) also noted that many individual stands escaped fire for far longer than the median return interval and some burned at shorter intervals, creating a complex vegetation mosaic at the landscape scale. They further hypothesized that under these reference period conditions, stand replacement fires initiated stand development and maintained a coarse-grain mosaic of successional stages and cover types across the landscape, while non-replacement fires functioned to maintain communities in a particular condition (e.g., open canopy ponderosa pine forest) or accelerate the successional process of stand development.
Our simulations largely confirmed these observations and provided a detailed quantitative summary of the wildfire disturbance regime. In particular, we recorded a similar elevational gradient in mean fire return intervals (or rotation periods) among the forested cover types, ranging from 50-years (for low-mortality fires) in the lower elevation ponderosa pine (without and with aspen) type, 71-79 years (for low-mortality fires) in the warm dry mixed-conifer (without and with aspen) type, 144 years (for high-mortality fires) in the pure aspen type, 183-189 years (for high-mortality fires) in the cool moist mixed-conifer (with and without aspen) type, and 181-182 years (for high-mortality fires) in the spruce-fir (with and without aspen) type (Table-rotation). Similarly, we recorded mean fire return intervals ranging from 153-216 years (for high-mortality fires) in pinyon-juniper woodland types. The differences between our findings and those previously reported in pinyon-juniper woodlands largely reflect differences between the data we used to parameterize the model and more recent data not available at the time of our experiments. Otherwise, the differences can be attributed to biases associated with the approaches used to estimate return intervals in each study, and these biases are important to understand in order to properly interpret our results.
First, return intervals in cover types with surface fire regimes (e.g., ponderosa pine forests) can be calculated in a number of ways that influence the computed statistics (Baker and Ehle 2001). For example, our estimate of a 50-year mean return interval for low-mortality fires in ponderosa pine-oak forests was based on the computed rotation period for low-mortality fires in this cover type. The rotation period is equivalent to the cell-specific mean return interval for the cover type, and is a nonspatial representation of the disturbance regime because it does not depend on the explicit spatial distribution of disturbances; rather, it depends only on the total area disturbed each time step in relation to the total eligible area. In our simulations, the rotation period is equivalent to the average interval between fires in a 25-m cell. In contrast, most published return intervals are derived as a composite mean return interval, which represents the frequency in which disturbance occurs anywhere within a sampling area of fixed size - usually corresponding to a forest “stand”. The composite mean return interval is profoundly influenced by the size of the sampled area: a larger area will encompass more disturbances and will therefore have a shorter composite mean return interval. In addition, because disturbances often only disturb a portion of the specified sampling area, the actual return interval to any particular location is usually much longer than the return interval to the sampling area. To help resolve this uncertainty, and to help reduce the effect of small, localized disturbances on the composite mean return interval, some investigators also compute a filtered composite mean return interval, based only on disturbances that are recorded on, say, >25% of recorder trees. These are the disturbances that presumably affect a greater proportion of the stand. The filtered composite mean return intervals are often twice as long as the unfiltered, but filtering does not resolve the fundamental issue of what fraction of a sampling area actually was affected by each disturbance event. Alternatively, the mean return interval can be computed by taking an average across all recorder trees of all recorded intervals. In this case, each recorded interval represents a separate observation, as opposed to a plot of ground in the previous approaches. Again, return intervals calculated in this manner are often much shorter than the actual rotation period (or mean return interval to a particular location). When we computed the mean return interval between low-mortality fires in ponderosa pine-oak forest using this approach (which we refer to as the sample mean return interval), in which each recorded interval between low-mortality fires in a cell was treated as an independent observation, the median and modal return interval was somewhat shorter (30 and 20 years, respectively) and within the range reported by Romme et al. (2003). In this report, we report all results using the population (i.e., cell-specific) mean return interval approach; readers should exercise extreme caution when comparing our results to published return intervals.
Second, the differences between our mean fire return intervals and those previously reported for several cover types can be attributed to biases associated with the landscape context of stands sampled in the field. This is particularly true for the forested cover types sampled by Romme et al. (2003). In general, the stands sampled in the field were restricted to large contiguous stands, whereas our estimates from the simulation were based on an exhaustive summary of every stand regardless of landscape context. For example, in our simulations, large contiguous stands of ponderosa pine exhibited a much shorter fire return interval than the average across the entire population of ponderosa pine stands; the latter included a rather large proportion of stands interspersed with less flammable cover types at the lower and upper elevational limits of the cover type distribution (e.g., pinyon-juniper woodlands and warm, dry mixed conifer forest, respectively). Hence, it is not surprising that our return intervals were somewhat longer than those reported by Romme et al. (2003). Unfortunately, we have no way of determining the magnitude of the bias to be expected in this regard.
Third, some of the discrepancy between our results and those previously reported can be attributed to our regional parameterization of the model. Specifically, we parameterized the model based on empirical data (and other sources) derived from different areas within the broader regional landscape - although generally within the South Central Highlands Section. In particular, we used data sources from both the San Juan National Forest (SJNF) and the UPL to parameterize and calibrate the model for application anywhere in the region. For this purpose, we utilized the “best” data available for simulating disturbances in each cover type. In general, the model was calibrated to produce the desired behavior in each cover type separately using the landscape containing the greatest extent of that cover type. For example, the SJNF contains proportionately more spruce-fir forest than the UPL (18.2% versus 1.2% of the landscape). Thus, we calibrated the model to produce the desired disturbance regime (e.g., fire rotation period) and stand age distribution on the SJNF and then simply applied these parameters to the UPL. We used a similar process for each of the major cover types. Hence, the simulation results in a particular landscape reflect the impact of the local landscape structure on the disturbance regime and vegetation dynamics. For example, the high-elevation forests on the UPL are less extensive and more interspersed with relatively flammable cover types that have shorter fire return intervals (e.g., mountain shrubland) than on the SJNF. Thus, the observed rotation periods for high-mortality fires in these cover types on the UPL were considerably shorter than we observed on the SJNF, where they were consistent with the empirical data from Romme et al. (2003).
Overall, taking the biases mentioned above into account, our results are generally consistent with those reported by Floyd et al. (2000, 2004), Romme et al. (2003), Eisenhart (2004), Shinneman and Baker (in review) and others based on local (or nearby) empirical field studies. The most notable exception is the possible simulation of too much fire in the low and mid elevation woodland communities. If this be the case, then we may be reporting a much younger seral-stage and stand age distribution than is realistic for this landscape.
Consistent with Romme et al. (2003), we also noted the distinct variability in fire return intervals among locations within a single cover type. For example, in pinyon-juniper woodland, the most extensive cover type on the UPL (~20 % of landscape), the mean return interval between fires (of any mortality level) varied spatially across the forest from 24 years to >800 years, with a mean and median of 197 and 267 years, respectively, and roughly 5% of the area escaped disturbance altogether over the course of an 800-year simulation (Figure-return, Figure-map). In general, return intervals decreased for stands embedded in a neighborhood containing cover types with shorter return intervals (e.g., mountain shrublands and ponderosa pine forest at the higher elevations and semi-desert grasslands and savannahs at the lower elevations) and increased in areas containing extensive, contiguous pinyon-woodlands. These patterns of variation were remarkably consistent among all cover types, highlighting the importance of landscape context on fire regimes and demonstrating that no single statistic, such as mean fire interval (MFI), is adequate to characterize fire regimes, and that the widely used MFI actually may be quite misleading if taken literally - it may connote homogeneity and/or consistency when in fact spatial and temporal variability is the trademark of these regimes.
Perhaps the single greatest insight gained from our simulations with regards to wildfire is the shear magnitude of wildfire disturbance that is required to produce the widely accepted return intervals for the reference period. On average, once every two decades, >10% of the area (~66,000 ha) was burned, and roughly once every 120 years, >20% (~132,000 ha) was burned (Figure-recurrence), inclusive of both high- and low-mortality affected areas. This is a tremendous amount of burning and perhaps a magnitude of burning that is poorly appreciated by land managers and the general public based on public reactions to recent “large” fires in the west. Note, the largest recorded fire in the region was the Missionary Ridge fire of 2002 on the SJNF, which burned a mere 20,000 ha, yet prompted significant reaction among managers and the public. As note above, it is quite possible that we simulated too much fire, especially in the low and mid elevations, but even if we were to double the fire rotation period for the landscape as whole, it would still result in a tremendous magnitude of wildfire.
Insects & Disease.--Hundreds of species of insects, fungi, and other pathogens that cause tree death or damage also inhabited these forests during the reference period (Furniss and Carolin 1977). Any of them may have been locally important on occasion (Schmid and Mata 1996). However, it was not feasible to explicitly simulate more than a handful of insects and diseases in a complex landscape model like RMLANDS. Therefore, we identified four insect species and one insect/disease (pathogen) complex that have had the most frequent and widespread impact on vegetation in the SJNF region (Romme et al. 2003). The insects included mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and its affiliates, Douglas-fir bark beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae), spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis), and western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis). The insect/disease complex that we treated is referred to as "pinyon decline" and includes a combination of black stain root rot (Leptographium wagneri) and the pinyon ips beetle (Ips confusus).
In contrast to wildfire, there was comparatively little empirical data on insect/disease disturbance regimes for the reference period and almost no local data. Consequently, we were forced to draw heavily on contemporary observations of outbreaks from throughout the Rocky Mountain region (Schmid and Mata 1996) in combination with local and regional expert opinion. In addition, due to the paucity of empirical data available for model verification purposes, we were forced to calibrate the simulations based on the user-specified disturbance regimes. Not surprisingly, therefore, our simulations produced disturbance regimes consistent with our parameterization. While this may seem a bit circular, it was a necessary process for a complex model such as RMLANDS. Plus, our real emphasis was on quantifying the vegetation patterns and dynamics resulting from these disturbance processes. Hence, we gained few true insights from our simulations regarding the insect/disease disturbance regimes. Nevertheless, there were a couple of important observations worth noting.
First, the overall rotation periods for insect/disease disturbances were generally much longer than wildfire, which had an overall rotation period of 100 years (Table-rotation). Spruce budworm had the shortest rotation period of any insect/disease agent at 104 years (Table-rotation), followed by pinyon decline at 197 years (Table-rotation), pine beetle at 222 years (Table-rotation), spruce beetle at 323 years (Table-rotation) and Douglas-fir beetle at almost 1,247 years (Table-rotation). Hence, taken individually, with the exception of spruce budworm, insect and disease disturbances had much less overall impact on the landscape than wildfire. However, taken collectively, insects and diseases clearly impacted more area per unit time than wildfire. We might conclude, therefore, that too little attention has been given to the potentially important role of insects/disease compared to wildfire.
Second, the ecological impacts of insect/disease outbreaks were fundamentally different than wildfire in a couple of important ways with regards to vegetation patterns and dynamics. With few exceptions, insect/disease outbreaks resulted in proportionately very little stand replacement or none at all. Most disturbances were low mortality and either promoted successional development of younger stands by thinning the tree canopy and facilitating understory development or acted within older stands as a gap-scale disturbance processes that facilitated the development of the true old-growth, shifting mosaic stand condition, or in some cases (e.g., pinyon-juniper woodlands) caused retrogression to a previous stand condition (e.g., low-mortality pinyon decline shifting stands from the tree-dominated condition to the shrub-tree condition). Even high-mortality outbreaks in most cases did not cause stand replacement due to the host specificity of the insect/disease agent. For example, spruce beetle outbreaks were principally high-mortality disturbances, and in this way were similar to wildfires in high-elevation conifer forests. However, the high mortality was limited to the host species, Engelmann spruce. Consequently, high-mortality spruce beetle outbreaks did not cause stand replacement unless they were concurrent with a high-mortality spruce budworm outbreak - a rare occurrence. Thus, the more important affect of spruce beetle outbreaks was to thin stands and shift the species composition of the post-disturbance stand in favor of subalpine fir. In contrast, wildfire in most cover types resulted in proportionately more stand replacement and was therefore principally responsible for the maintenance of the coarse-grained mosaic of successional stages across the landscape. Insect/disease disturbances in most cases also exhibited notably different spatial patterns than wildfires. In general, wildfires produced relatively contagious disturbance patches (i.e., large, contiguous patches containing relatively few gaps - a spatial property known as low lacunarity, Plotnick et al. 1993), whereas most insect/disease outbreaks produced relatively non-contagious patterns characterized by a great deal of internal fine-grained heterogeneity (i.e., high lacunarity)(Figure-lacunarity). Although not universally true, in general, insect/disease agents were responsible for creating much of the fine-scale heterogeneity in vegetation patterns in our simulations.
Vegetation Patterns & Dynamics
It is widely accepted that during the reference period natural disturbance processes, notably wildfire and a variety of insects/diseases, operated to create and maintain a complex vegetation mosaic of successional stages and cover types (Romme et al. 2003). It is less clear whether this vegetation mosaic was stable in structure (composition and configuration) or the degree to which it varied over time. With our simulations, we sought to quantify the range of variability in landscape structure during the reference period to help ascertain the degree of dynamism in landscape structure and to provide a benchmark for comparison with alternative future land management scenarios. To this end our simulations produced several important findings.
Click on the link below to view a movie depicting vegetation changes on the UPL over an 800-year (10-year time steps) simulation representing the reference period disturbance regime. NOTE, this is a large (57 Mb) Microsoft Media file (.avi) that requires appropriate movie viewing software (e.g., Quick Time Player).
• Uncompahgre Plateau Landscape Movie
Overall, the vegetation mosaic was remarkably variable in structure over time (see the movie link above). For example, across the 63 dynamic patch types (i.e., unique combinations of cover type and stand condition), the average coefficient of variation in percentage of the landscape comprised of the corresponding patch type was 186% (range 54-655%). Hence, while the landscape could be characterized as a shifting mosaic of successional stages and cover types, it was not a steady-state shifting mosaic (sensu Bormann and Likens 1979). In other words, the composition of the mosaic was not constant. This finding is consistent with evidence from a wide variety of other coniferous forest landscapes in North America, including boreal forests of western Canada (Johnson 1992) and the Great Lakes region (Baker 1992a,b), and subalpine forests of the Yellowstone Plateau (Turner et al. 1993). The dynamism we noted can be attributed to two major sources of variation in the model: (1) stochasticity in the disturbance parameters associated with initiation, spread, and mortality and (2) the climate modifier. The stochastic nature of disturbance initiation (e.g., representing random lightning strikes associated with local storm systems) and subsequent spread (e.g., representing uncertain weather conditions during the hours, days, etc. following a wildfire initiation) introduced uncertainty into which stands were disturbed, when they were disturbed, and how severely they were disturbed. Thus, as a matter of chance, a large stand-replacing disturbance might have affected a large proportion of a cover type and thereby altered its seral-stage distribution. The climate modifier had a similar destabilizing effect on vegetation patterns by influencing the rate of disturbance in each timestep (decade) of the simulation. For example, drought cycles (as implemented via the climate modifier) had a substantial influence on the frequency and extent of wildfire (Figure-initiations, Figure-extent). This pattern of variation in climate and fire is consistent with findings from tree-ring studies in Colorado and throughout the Southwest (e.g., Swetnam and Betancourt 1998, Veblen 2000). In combination, varying climate conditions and the stochastic occurrences of disturbances acted to keep the system in a constant state of change.
Although the vegetation mosaic was not in a steady-state equilibrium, the mosaic was generally in dynamic (or bounded) equilibrium (sensu Turner et al. 1993). That is to say, while the structure of the landscape varied over time, it generally fluctuated within bounds about a stable mean (e.g., Figure-equilibrium). This behavior is essential to our objective of describing the range of variability in landscape structure, because the concept of a “range of variability” implies that the range is stable. If the landscape is not in dynamic equilibrium and, for example, exhibits a trend, then the measured range of variation will vary with the specific period of measurement (Figure-equilibration scale). In our simulations, most (but not all) metrics achieved a stable, bounded equilibrium within a 100-300 year simulation period - although it took twice that length of time to verify that the range of variation was in fact stable. Not surprisingly, the period required for equilibration in landscape composition varied somewhat among cover types. In general, cover types that experienced shorter disturbance return intervals and/or faster rates of succession equilibrated in the shortest period. For example, the seral-stage distribution in mountain shrubland, which experienced an 76-year rotation period for stand-replacement wildfire disturbances and succeeded to the latest seral stage in as little as 50 years following stand-replacement, reached stable bounds within a 100-year period (Figure-mts condition). Conversely, the seral-stage distribution in spruce-fir forest, which experienced a 182-year rotation period and took at least 300 years to succeed to the latest seral stage, reached relatively stable bounds within roughly a 300-year period (Figure-sf condition).
Our results demonstrate that the range of variability in landscape structure cannot be expressed in a single metric - at least not effectively - because the metrics associated with different aspects of landscape composition and configuration exhibit varying degrees and patterns of dynamism. In our simulation, landscape composition metrics exhibited five-times greater dynamism (on average) overall than landscape configuration metrics (Table-hrv). Thus, while the composition of the vegetation mosaic - specifically, changes associated with seral-stage distributions - fluctuated dramatically over time, the spatial pattern of the mosaic was relatively stable. The variability in configuration was principally associated with changes in the size and continuity of the large patches in the landscape. Overall, this suggests that large, severe disturbance events, those that occurred relatively infrequently but that substantially altered the seral-stage distribution and created a coarse-grained mosaic of vegetation patches, were disproportionately important in regulating the dynamism in landscape structure. In contrast, the relatively frequent small disturbances had little impact on overall landscape pattern or change through time. This finding is consistent with increasing evidence from a wide variety of disturbance-dominated landscapes in North America that large fires are often more severe than smaller fires and have a stronger influence on long-term ecological structure and function, for example, by introducing successional trajectories that differ from the expected (Moritz 1997, Romme et al. 1998, Turner et al. 1997). In particular, landscapes resulting from large fires are often complex mosaics comprised of low severity surface burns where soils are largely intact, high severity areas of crown fires with extensive tree mortality and consumption of soil organic layers, moderate or mixed effects, and islands of unburned vegetation. Important consequences of the spatial patterns of burn severity include resulting patterns of surviving organisms that dictate initial succession patterns (Turner et al. 1998) and differential responses of animal species in relation to post-burn habitats (Kotliar et al. 2002).
The role of large disturbances is especially noteworthy when considered in relation to climate change. Small climatic changes have potentially significant effects on disturbance regimes, and dramatic changes in ecological communities related to fire regime dynamics are possible (Clark 1988, Swetnam et al. 1990, Sprugel 1991, Turner et al. 1997, Meyer and Pierce 2003). One predicted outcome of global climate change includes the increased frequency of severe disturbance events, including large fires (Ryan 1991, Torn and Fried 1992). Indeed, the possibility that recent high-severity large fires are part of a longer-term trend has raised alarm in many areas, including the Rocky Mountain West, because the implications for key environmental processes and biological responses are highly uncertain (McCarthy and Yanoff 2003). Our results suggest that if climate change results in an alteration in the frequency and extent of large disturbances, then one of the principal impacts may be to alter the dynamics in landscape structure.
Based on these findings, it is easy to reach the conclusion that the landscape was in equilibrium, albeit a dynamic one, during the reference period. However, this conclusion warrants careful consideration given the important ramifications. In particular, our simulation model treated disturbance and succession as a stationary process (i.e., stochastic process that does not change in distribution over time or space; Loucks 1970) with random perturbation. For example, all other things being equal, the rate (probability) of succession transition from one stand condition to another was held constant for the entire simulation. Given stationary parameters, it is a certainty that the model will eventually reach equilibrium if given enough time. Similarly, given the stochastic implementation of these stationary processes, it is just as likely that the landscape will not achieve equilibrium over a very short period of time (e.g., over a few timesteps). Hence, the equilibrium concept is ultimately simply a matter of scale (Turner et al. 1993). The more relevant question is: given the length of time it takes for the landscape to demonstrate equilibrium dynamics, is it likely that the factors governing disturbance and succession processes (and hence vegetation dynamics), such as climate, were stationary for that length of time during the reference period? As stated above, most metrics exhibited a stable, bounded equilibrium within a 100- to 300-year period, which is well within the length of our reference period (1300 to late 1800's). Moreover, while we recognize that Rocky Mountain climates have varied during the last 600 years at scales of decades and centuries (e.g., Millspaugh et al. 2000, Veblen 2000) and that the reference period was not a time of complete stasis, climatically, ecologically, or culturally (e.g., Petersen 1981, Whitney 1994), the period of several centuries prior to 1900 was a time of relatively consistent environmental and cultural conditions in the region (Romme et al. 2003). Thus, we believe that it is likely that the landscape exhibited dynamic equilibrium conditions during the reference period.
Lastly, the existence of dynamic equilibrium does not imply that the mean condition of the landscape (with respect to any particular metric) is an adequate descriptor of the reference period - only that it is stable. Indeed, the actual mean condition of the landscape, as given by any metric, was rarely, if ever, realized. Instead, given the high variability over time in landscape structure, the range (or bounds) of variation should be emphasized, especially when using these results as a benchmark for comparison with other disturbance scenarios.
Wildlife Habitat Patterns & Dynamics
Policy mandates require National Forest managers to maintain viable populations of all native wildlife species found on National Forest lands. Additional research is urgently needed to evaluate the current status of wildlife species, and to identify management strategies that will help ensure their long-term persistence. A combination of empirical, theoretical, and modeling studies can best contribute to our understanding of past, present, and future status of overall biodiversity and individual species in National Forests. In this study, we have used a modeling approach to characterize the baseline range of variability in habitat capability for a suite of species representing a diversity of habitat requirements. An important next step will be to compare the range of variation that we have described with potential habitat under alternative land management scenarios. It is important to note that we did not simulate wildlife populations per se. Rather, we simulated habitat conditions, and thereby implied potential population distributions and dynamics as a function of habitat conditions. It is important to realize that other factors (e.g., predator pressure) also play an important role in determining actual population densities. Empirical studies are urgently needed to test the predictions of population distribution and dynamics generated by this study.
We demonstrated that habitat capability varies over time and space for all species – something that has long been recognized intuitively but rarely quantified. Not surprisingly, the magnitude and pattern of variation differed somewhat among species (Table-LC index). We initially predicted that habitat characteristics for generalist species (represented by elk in this study) would exhibit the least variation over time. Our reasoning was that as one kind of suitable habitat became reduced in availability through normal landscape dynamics, other kinds would become more available. Thus, long-term variability in the total amount and configuration of suitable habitat would be small. In contrast, we predicted that habitat for specialist species (pine marten, three-toed woodpecker, and olive-sided flycatcher in this study) would fluctuate more widely over time, because alternative kinds of habitat did not exist to compensate for natural fluctuations in the preferred habitat. To our surprise, one of the specialists, the olive-sided flycatcher, exhibited the least variation in habitat capability over time. This was likely due to the relatively consistent supply of high-contrast edges - the preferred habitat - bordering permanent openings such as meadows, barren areas, and lakes and ponds that acted like a buffer against major fluctuations in available habitat. Not surprisingly, the three-toed woodpecker exhibited the greatest variation in habitat capability over time - almost twice that observed for pine marten and elk. The dramatic fluctuations in tree-toed woodpecker habitat capability reflected the periodic pulses of high quality habitat following large-scale disturbance events in the mid- and high-elevation conifer forests. In addition, as expected, the peaks in habitat capability were usually short-lived (i.e., one time step) and followed by a rapid return to the pre-disturbance habitat capability level. These patterns held at the finer watershed scale.
We selected these four wildlife indicator species based on differences in life history and habitat associations. Not surprisingly, therefore, each species exhibited somewhat unique patterns of variation through time and space that made generalizations difficult. For example, olive-sided flycatcher habitat was well-distributed throughout the landscape at all times and consisted of a mixture of relatively persistent high-contrast edges bordering permanent openings such as meadows, barren areas, and water bodies, in addition to transient edges associated with the heterogeneous pattern of tree mortality following both wildfire and insect outbreaks. Thus, there were both persistent local sources of high-quality habitat and transient but extensive sources of high-quality habitat that followed episodic disturbances. Overall, the spatial distribution of high-quality olive-sided flycatcher habitat was quite distinct (Figure-osfl) when compared to, say, the more coarse-grained and contagious distribution of pine marten habitat (Figure-marten). In addition, in contrast to the very transient nature (i.e., 10-20 years) of three-toed woodpecker habitat following disturbances, high-quality olive-sided flycatcher habitat tended to degrade much more slowly over several decades in response to gradual succession processes operating in the disturbance opening. Ultimately, as these few examples illustrate, each indicator species exhibited a unique spatial and temporal pattern of variability in capable habitat that reflected differences in life history (e.g., home range size) and habitat affinities (e.g., preferences for edges, forest interiors, or post-disturbance environments).
One of the principal purposes of gaining a better quantitative understanding of the historic reference period is to know whether recent human activities have caused landscapes to move outside their historic range of variability (Landres et al.1999; Swetnam et al. 1999). To this end, land managers have largely adopted a single approach based on Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) determination. FRCC is a categorical classification of the degree to which the current fire regime and composition and structure of a vegetation community deviates from its natural or historic range of variability (HRV) under a designated reference period (FRCC website). FRCC has become a driving force behind current land management activities and is widely being used as the primary (or even sole) basis for identifying and prioritizing areas for ecological restoration, including the reduction of wildfire risks associated with hazardous fuels.
Our simulations were designed to provide a quantitative description of landscape structure dynamics for the pre-1900 reference period against which to compare landscape trajectories under alternative future land management scenarios. We strongly believe that the most appropriate and defensible use of our quantitative findings is in the context of evaluating the relative impacts of alternative scenarios (Romme et al. 2000, Buse and Perera 2002). It was not our original intent to compare the HRV in landscape structure against the current landscape. However, HRV departure has become a (the) critical management issue on many national forests, as noted above. Thus, we modified the approach for FRCC determination to one better suited to our modeling environment, and possessing other distinct advantages over FRCC (see Methods for a detailed description), in order to examine the magnitude of departure of the current landscape condition from the simulated HRV. Briefly, our approach is based on a spatially-explicit model of disturbance and succession (instead of a nonspatial model), incorporates multiple disturbance processes (not just fire), explicitly incorporates the measured range of variation in each metric (instead of using the mean), results in a continuously-scaled departure index (instead of a 3-class categorization of departure level), adopts a truly multivariate perspective on vegetation departure by incorporating multiple composition and configuration metrics (instead of a bivariate summary), and allows for an explicit assessment of the effects of scale on departure. Like the FRCC approach, however, our approach is not without significant limitations; therefore, the findings discussed below must be considered within the scope and limitations that follow.
Our chief limitation in estimating HRV departure was the paucity (or absence) of spatially explicit data on current stand age and/or condition (i.e., seral stage) for the non-forested cover types. Unfortunately, these cover types have not received the same attention in this regard as the forested cover types; collecting this data should be a priority for future work. Without a reliable estimate of current age and/or seral-stage distribution, it is impossible to provide a reliable estimate of HRV departure. Consequently, at the class level (in which each cover type is considered independently), we restricted our estimate of departure to the forested cover types - where we had confidence in the results. For the landscape as a whole, we included only forested cover types in our estimate of composition departure, for the reasons mentioned above. However, our estimate of configuration departure was inclusive of all cover types, because it was not practical or meaningful to measure landscape configuration for only a portion of the patch mosaic. This has important implications because forested cover types represent only 20% of the area comprised of dynamic patch types on the UPL. Thus, our estimate of overall landscape departure must be viewed with extreme caution.
In the context of these limitations, the current landscape structure appears to deviate substantially from the simulated HRV (Table-hrv-summary). Many characteristics appear far outside the HRV. Indeed, the majority of both landscape composition metrics (21/40) and landscape configuration metrics (10/19) are completely outside their HRV (i.e., 100% departure)(Table-hrv). In general, the current landscape has fewer, larger, more extensive and less isolated patches with less edge habitat than existed under the simulated HRV. The larger patches tend to be geometrically less complex and contain proportionately more core area than existed under the simulated HRV. Overall, the current landscape is more contagious and less structurally diverse than existed under the simulated HRV. This can be interpreted as a more homogenous landscape, where the lack of any extensive disturbance during the past 100 years has led to large, mostly late-seral patches, with low contrast due to the paucity of younger seral stages.
The patterns of departure were generally similar at the class level for each of the forested cover types with reliable data on current conditions, although there were some noteworthy variations. In particular, overall the high-elevation forest types exhibited much less departure in terms of both composition and configuration than the low-elevation forest types, and this pattern is consistent with the observations of Romme et al. (2003) and others that the disturbance regime in high-elevation forests has not been altered by twentieth century land use practices to the same extent as low-elevation forests. In addition, while the current seral-stage distribution of high-elevation spruce-fir forests appears to be generally within the simulated HRV, the mid- and low-elevation forest types, including aspen, mixed-conifer, and ponderosa pine types, appear to contain an overabundance of stands in the mid-seral stages (i.e., stem exclusion) compared to the simulated HRV. Moreover, these mid-seral stands appear to be larger, more extensive, geometrically more complex and less isolated than was typically observed under the simulated HRV. Perhaps the most notable departure we observed was the complete absence of stands in the fire-maintained open canopy condition in the low-elevation ponderosa pine and warm dry mixed-conifer forests. Historically, within these cover types this condition was quite prevalent in our project area (Romme et al. 2003) and throughout the southwest (Swetnam and Baisan 1996). In our simulations, low-elevation fire-maintained open canopy forest comprised anywhere from roughly 2% to 5% of the landscape over time and was therefore never a dominant feature of the landscape at any time, but this condition comprised anywhere from 20% to 80% of the corresponding cover types and was therefore a dominant feature of these cover types. The current departure is clearly due to the dearth of wildfires over the past century, which has had a couple of notable consequences. First, the prolonged absence of fire following a pulse of widespread regeneration in the early twentieth century has allowed many young stands to become overstocked through the successful establishment and growth of new stems. This has resulted in the preponderance of stands in the stem exclusion stage of development. Second, the absence of fire has allowed many stands to succeed to the understory reinitiation or shifting mosaic (i.e., late-seral) stages, instead of transitioning to the fire-maintained open canopy condition.
Given the direct link between vegetation patterns and wildlife habitat, it is not surprising that the wildlife indicator species we analyzed exhibited varying degrees of departure from their simulated HRVs (Table-LC index). All of the species we considered are doing poorly in the current landscape compared to the simulated HRV. The pine marten is doing the least poorly in the current landscape. The moderately extensive late-seral conifer forest in the higher elevations is likely providing some ideal habitat for this species (Buskirk and Powell 1994, Hargis et al. 1999), although the total amount of ideal habitat is apparently somewhat less than was realized on average under the simulated HRV. The three-toed woodpecker, a species better adapted to exploit post-disturbance environments (Harris 1982, Hitchcox 1988, Hutto 1995), is doing slightly worse than pine marten owing to the paucity of recent large disturbances. Elk and olive-sided flycatchers are both disadvantaged the most in the current landscape. Both species benefit from edges between early- and late-seral vegetation patches. Specifically, elk benefit from the juxtaposition of forage (found in early-seral openings) and hiding cover (found in closed-canopy stands)(Reynolds 1966, Boyce and Hayden-Wing 1980, Thill et al. 1983), while olive-sided flycatchers use open areas as foraging habitat and use edges as nesting habitat (Finch and Reynolds 1988, Altman 1997). The paucity of disturbances over the past century has left the current landscape rather deprived of edge habitat and has reduced the overall interspersion and juxtaposition of the vegetation mosaic, with negative consequences on habitat capability for these two indicator species. This result with regards to current elk habitat may seem surprising given that current elk populations are thought to be substantially higher than historical populations. It is important to realize that we measured habitat characteristics, not population densities, and that other factors (e.g., predator pressure) also play an important role in determining actual population densities.
Limitations.–Managers need to be cognizant of two important considerations when interpreting our HRV departure results. First, although it is clear that the current landscape structure is not within the modeled range of variability, the magnitude of the deviation is less clear. Specifically, inconsistencies in the spatial resolution of the initial cover type map (e.g., failure to delineate all small vegetation patches) may impose an artificial coarseness to the landscape structure that affects the computed values of most landscape metrics - at least the configuration metrics. In other words, the fine-grained heterogeneity in vegetation created by the disturbance processes in RMLANDS was probably not comparably represented in the Forest Service database due to human inconsistencies in mapping small vegetation patches. We took two precautions to guard against this problem. (1) In addition to analyzing the 25-m resolution maps of cover type and stand condition, we rescaled the output maps from RMLANDS to a 0.5-ha minimum mapping unit and analyzed these coarser-grained maps as well. (2) We included a number of area-weighted configuration metrics that are relatively insensitive to small patches. The rescaling was not completely effective in accounting for these discrepancies. Thus, we emphasized the area-weighted metrics when evaluating configuration departure. Note, the composition metrics (i.e., the percentage of the landscape in each class) are relatively immune to this issue. Given our reliance on the composition metrics and the emphasis we placed on the area-weighted configuration metrics, we feel that is safe to conclude that the current landscape structure is well outside the modeled range of variability. However, it is important to be aware that our reported HRV departure indices, except for the seral-stage departure index (class level) and landscape composition departure index (landscape level), are probably biased high (i.e., inflated).
Second, any conclusions regarding HRV departure depend on an accurate mapping of stand conditions in the current landscape. We note two related problems in this respect. First, in the forested cover types, stand inventory data did not allow us to consistently and reliably discriminate between stands in the understory reinitiation and shifting mosaic stages. In particular, recorded stand ages were based on the age of the oldest trees in the stands, not the age since that last stand-replacing disturbance. By definition, the age since stand origin is always greater than the age of the oldest trees once the stand reaches the true shifting mosaic stage of development, but the size of the oldest (largest) trees may not be appreciably different between these stages. Thus, it is likely that a significant portion of the stands classified as being in the understory reinitiation condition are actually in the shifting mosaic stage of development. This bias would result in an inflated seral-stage departure index at the class level and an inflated landscape composition departure index at the landscape level. We took one precaution to guard against this problem. For purposes of HRV departure calculations, where appropriate, we combined the understory reinitiation and shifting mosaic stages into a combined late-seral stage and reported these results. Second, as noted previously, we altogether lack reliable age and stand condition data for several cover types. In particular, we have inadequate data for most non-forested types (e.g., mountain shrublands, mesic sagebrush, pinyon-juniper woodlands). Consequently, our initial assignment of stands to condition classes (seral stages) was based on interpolation from sparse data or on a random assignment based on seral-stage distributions estimated by local experts. In either case, we are not confident that our current condition estimates are accurate. Unfortunately, there was no way to guard against potentially spurious results in these cover types. Therefore, we did not report HRV departure results for these cover types. Note, the unreliability of the current condition for the non-forested cover types does not affect our simulated HRV distribution, as we accounted for an equilibration period in the model.
Management Implications.–Despite the severe limitations imposed by available data, our simulations nonetheless indicate that the current landscape structure deviates substantially from its historic range of variability. In general, the current landscape is dominated by mid- to late-successional forest and lacks the fire-dependent stand conditions and spatial heterogeneity in vegetation that was maintained by natural disturbances during the reference period. This landscape condition appears to be largely a legacy of the last century of land management practices, in particular, fire exclusion (Romme et al. 2003). Indeed, Euro-American activities have altered the disturbance regime of many western forest landscapes, resulting in substantial changes in landscape structure and function (e.g., Baker 1992; Wallin et al. 1996; Baisan and Swetnam 1997; Agee 1999, McGarigal et al. 2001). In the southern Rocky Mountains these effects have been less ubiquitous and less straightforward in high-elevation landscapes than in low-elevation landscapes (Romme et al. 2003). Lower elevations have been subject to substantially altered disturbance regimes for more than a century (Romme et al. 2003, Swetnam and Baisan 1996). Despite apparently little change in the natural disturbance regime in the high-elevation landscapes (e.g., Romme and Despain 1989; Bessie and Johnson 1995; Weir et al. 1995; Schmid and Mata 1996), other human activities since the late 1800s have clearly altered disturbance regimes and landscape structure (Hejl et al. 1995; Miller et al. 1996; Reed et al. 1996a,b; Tinker et al. 1997). These activities are related mainly to timber harvest and to the extensive network of roads constructed to support timber harvest, fire control, and recreation. In addition to these ubiquitous human impacts, the generally benign climate of the twentieth century also was a significant reason for the lack of large, stand-replacing disturbances, either by fire or spruce beetle (Romme et al. 2003).
Our findings are particularly interesting in light of increasing concern over anthropogenic habitat loss and fragmentation (Rochelle et al. 1999; Knight et al. 2000). Forest fragmentation has received considerable research attention in many regions of North America (e.g., Whitcomb et al. 1981; Robbins et al. 1989; Lehmkuhl and Ruggiero 1991; McGarigal and McComb 1995; Schmiegelow et al. 1997; Trzcinski et al. 1999; Villard et al. 1999). However, we are in the earliest stages of understanding the patterns, processes, and ecological significance of forest fragmentation in the southern Rocky Mountain region (Knight et al. 2000). It is not clear, for example, how the native biota responds to anthropogenic changes in landscape patterns caused by logging and road-building and disruption of natural disturbance regimes (e.g., fire suppression). This difficulty is exacerbated because Rocky Mountain landscapes are inherently very heterogeneous – a result of steep natural gradients in elevation, topography, and substrate – and forests in this region tend to be somewhat patchy even in the absence of human alterations (Hejl 1992).
Based on our results, it might be tempting for managers to reach the simple conclusion that the landscape is less fragmented today than during the reference period. However, this conclusion is not as straightforward as it might seem for the following reasons. First, fragmentation is a landscape-level process in which a specific habitat is progressively sub-divided into smaller, geometrically altered, and more isolated fragments as a result of both natural and human activities, and this process involves changes in landscape composition, structure, and function at many scales and occurs on a backdrop of a natural patch mosaic created by changing landforms and natural disturbances (McGarigal and McComb 1999). Of critical importance is the fact that fragmentation occurs to a specific habitat type, not the entire landscape mosaic, even though it happens at the landscape scale. Thus, landscapes don’t get fragmented, specific habitats do. In our study, we evaluated the spatial pattern - and by implication, the fragmentation - of many different patch types (defined by unique combinations of cover type and stand condition). Many of these patch types are indeed less fragmented in the current landscape than they were under the simulated HRV. This is true in general for most of the late-seral forest patch types. However, not all patch types are less fragmented in the current landscape. For example, many of the early-seral forest patch types are in fact much more fragmented in the current landscape than they were under the simulated HRV. Thus, conclusions about habitat fragmentation in the current landscape must be qualified with specific reference to one or more well-defined habitats.
Second, we evaluated vegetation patterns in the current landscape after excluding roads (i.e., we removed roads from the land cover map by filling in those areas with the abutting cover type), in order to be consistent with our simulation of landscape structure changes during the reference period. Yet, of all the novel kinds of disturbances that humans have introduced in the forests of the southern Rocky Mountains during the last century, roads may be the most ubiquitous and significant long-term legacy of our activities (Romme et al. 2003). Roads are unprecedented features in the ecological history of these landscapes (Forman 1995), and potentially affect many ecological processes (Forman and Alexander 1998; Trombulak and Frissell 2000). In particular, roads are linear landscape features that can create high-contrast edges and bisect patches. Consequently, roads can cause greater fragmentation of habitats than the direct loss of habitat from associated land use activities (Reed et al. 1996b; Tinker et al. 1997, McGarigal et al. 2001). Given the ubiquitous nature of roads and their disproportionate influence on landscape structure and function, any conclusions regarding departure in relation to habitat fragmentation that does not consider road impacts should be viewed with extreme caution.
Our simulations indicate that returning the landscape structure to a condition that falls within the simulated HRV would likely be a difficult and long-term undertaking if it were deemed desirable. We deduced this from the time it took the current landscape to equilibrate to the reference-period disturbance regime. The equilibration period in many ways provides a direct measure of HRV departure; it is defined as the period required to return the initial landscape condition to a stable range of variation. It is a function of not only how far outside the stable range of variation the current landscape is, but also the speed at which disturbance and succession processes interact to affect a change in the landscape trajectory. Thus, we can infer that if management activities were designed to emulate natural disturbance processes, then it would take a length of time equal to the equilibration period to return the landscape to its HRV. In our simulations, most landscape structure metrics equilibrated within 100 years, although some metrics equilibrated faster and others slower. In particular, the configuration of the high-elevation conifer forest mosaic took considerably longer (up to 300 years) to equilibrate owing to the long return interval between disturbances and the relatively slow rate of stand development. It must be emphasized, however, that this does not imply that it should be our goal in management to recreate all of the ecological conditions and dynamics of the reference period. Complete achievement of such a goal would be impossible, given the climatic, cultural, and ecological changes that have occurred in the last century. Moreover, the extent and intensity of disturbance required to emulate the natural disturbance regime would be unacceptable socially, economically, and politically.
Effects of Scale and Context
The pattern detected in any ecological mosaic is a function of scale, and the ecological concept of scale encompasses both extent and grain (Forman and Godron 1986; Turner et al. 1989; Wiens 1989; Moody and Woodcock 1995). Extent and grain define the upper and lower limits of resolution of a study and any inferences about scale-dependency in a system are constrained by the extent and grain of investigation (Wiens 1989). In the analysis of landscape change, spatial scale is defined by the minimum patch size (grain) and the geographic extent of the landscape; temporal scale is defined by the minimum (grain) and total (extent) period over which landscape change is assessed. We cannot detect patterns or changes in patterns beyond the extent or below the resolution of the grain. This has important implications pertaining to the interpretation of our findings.
First, we chose to examine landscape structure dynamics at two spatial resolutions: (1) 0.0625-ha (25 m cell size) minimum mapping unit, and (2) 0.5-ha minimum mapping unit. Note, in the coarse-grained representation, the cell size was maintained at 25 m - only the minimum mapping unit was increased. The 0.5-ha resolution was also used to reclassify cover types and stand conditions into a slightly smaller set of aggregated classes in order to highlight habitats of special interest. We expected landscape composition estimates to be insensitive to spatial resolution and indeed this was the case. Surprisingly, the results pertaining to landscape configuration were largely insensitive to spatial resolution as well. In retrospect, it was apparent that small patches had a trivial impact on most configuration metrics and virtually no impact on the metrics selected for interpretation (i.e., area-weighted metrics). This is not to say that the fine-grained patterns of heterogeneity are not important ecologically, only that at the scale of the large landscape extents (10s-100s of thousands of hectares) we examined, the quantitative importance of the fine-grained patterns was dwarfed by the coarse-grained patterns created by the larger patches.
Second, we designed RMLANDS to operate with a 10-year timestep. Thus, the minimum temporal resolution was fixed and we saw no reason to examine coarser resolutions. In addition, we established the temporal extent of our simulations based on our desire to capture and describe a stable range of variation in landscape structure. Preliminary trials determined that an 800-year simulation, after accounting for a 100-year equilibration period, was necessary to reliably estimate the range of variation in each landscape metric. Again, we deemed it inappropriate for our purposes to examine shorter simulations and it was statistically unnecessary to examine longer simulations. Thus, we did not vary the length of our simulations. However, it is important to recognize (and easy to demonstrate) that the measured range of variation in most metrics is sensitive to simulations shorter than some critical length (Figure-equilibration scale). The critical length varies among metrics and patch types, but it is safe to conclude that a minimum of 100-300 years is needed to capture the full range of variation in most metrics, and twice that long to confirm that it is stable. Thus, a management strategy designed to emulate the natural disturbance regime would take 100-300 years to see the landscape fluctuate through its full range of conditions. This is a humbling thought given that most professional careers last no more than 30 years - a blip on the scale of landscape dynamics - and that most policies are geared toward 10- to 20-year planning horizons.
Third, when we examined progressively smaller spatial units of the entire simulated landscape (Figure-map), temporal variability increased – as would be expected (Turner et al. 1993), and there was an apparent threshold in the relationship between landscape extent and temporal variability (Figure-scale-land). Specifically, the magnitude of variability in landscape composition increased only modestly as the landscape extent decreased from the forest scale (659,246 ha) to the quadrant scale (average = 164,812 ha), but increased dramatically as the landscape extent decreased to the watershed scale (average = 37,929 ha). A similar relationship was evident for three-toed woodpecker habitat capability, the only species for which we were able to complete the habitat capability analysis at all three scales (Figure-scale-wildlife). In addition, each of the sub-landscapes we examined was somewhat unique in its absolute range of variability in landscape structure. Not surprisingly, uniqueness was greatest for the smaller landscapes extents (watersheds). Interestingly, despite the importance of landscape extent and context on the measured range of variability, the degree of departure of the current landscape from the simulated HRV was relatively invariant to scale and context.
These results have important management implications. First, they demonstrate that no two landscapes in this mountainous region are identical; each has more or less unique characteristics of topography, vegetation, etc. that affect its dynamical behavior. Consequently, there is no one correct scale for assessing HRV. Second, while no one scale is necessarily more correct than another, our results do suggest that some scales may be more appropriate than others for characterizing HRV. Specifically, our results show that at extents larger than the quadrant scale, the relative variability in landscape structure does not change much, but that at smaller extents, the variability increases dramatically. We interpret this to mean that at the quadrant extent (and larger), the landscape is large enough to fully incorporate the disturbance regime and exhibit stable dynamical behavior. At this scale, our simulated system falls within the ‘stable, high variance’ portion of the state-space model developed by Turner et al. (1993). At increasingly smaller extents, the size of the largest disturbance events approaches and eventually exceeds the size of the landscape, producing major fluctuations in landscape structure. Ultimately, at even smaller extents the range of variability in landscape structure becomes so great as to be meaningless. Thus, we conclude that under the simulated disturbance regime, characterizing HRV is best done at the quadrant or forest scale. Lastly, although the relative degree of dynamism is apparently stable at extents larger than the quadrant scale, the absolute range of variation in landscape structure can vary among quadrants by more than 50%. Thus, each district exhibits a slightly different absolute range of variation in landscape structure. Most of these differences can be attributed to differences in landscape composition (Table-areal coverage). The challenge to managers is in deciding whether to give explicit recognition to the these differences when establishing management direction, or to subsume these difference at the forest level on pragmatic grounds. We believe that it is probably sufficient to characterize HRV at the forest scale for purposes of general communication, but that it would be wise if possible to use the quadrant-specific HRV results when setting management targets. In this manner, the spatial variation in ecological patterns and dynamics across the forest are given explicit consideration.
In closing, it is important to remember that our simulation study was intended to complement the detailed landscape condition analysis completed for the South Central Highlands Section of southwestern Colorado and northwestern New Mexico (Romme et al. 2003) and extend it to the lower elevation cover types. Our study provides a detailed quantitative analysis of the simulated vegetation dynamics under the historic reference period that complements the detailed, but qualitative, landscape condition assessment of the previous report. Overall, our findings are in complete qualitative agreement with the previous assessment. In addition to enhancing our general understanding of landscape dynamics, our HRV results are of paramount use as a reference or benchmark for comparison with alternative future land management scenarios - the focus of the next phase of this project.
As with any study, our results and conclusions must be interpreted within the scope and limitations of this study. In particular, our analyses were designed to simulate vegetation dynamics under a specific historic reference period. We chose the period from about 1300 to the late 1800s, representing the period from Anasazi abandonment to EuroAmerican settlement as the reference period (often referred to as the period of indigenous settlement). Thus, our results pertain to landscape conditions during that period. More importantly, our results are based on a simulation model (RMLANDS), and this model, like any model, is an abstract and simplified representation of reality. Given the design limits of this model and the challenges of parameterizing a complex model like this, our results should not be interpreted as “golden”. Rather, they should be used to help identify the most influential factors driving landscape change, identify critical empirical information needs, identify interesting system behavior (e.g., thresholds), identify the limits of our understanding, and help us to explore “what if” scenarios. | <urn:uuid:107624fc-082a-439e-a9cc-834f0e49e2ae> | {
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Why Teach Kids Cooking Activities?
I started kids cooking activities and kids cooking lessons with my
children after my oldest son would create "something" in the kitchen
almost everyday. He would fill a pot with water, add sugar, salt,
apples, whatever he could find and ask me to cook it on the stove
top. He didn't want to follow a recipe. He just wanted to create
something using, whatever he could think of.
I came to understand how much kids love to cook and want to help in
the kitchen. When they are young they pretend to cook in the
kitchen, make mud pies in the sandbox, and what kid hasn't made
bubble cakes in the bath tub?
Kids do cooking activities all the time!
Why you should do kids cooking activities!
Here are 10 reasons why you should do cooking
activities with your children.
- Learning to cook helps children to learn about nutrition and
healthy eating. They are growing up with fast food and junk food
at their fingertips, which is part of the reason why child
obesity is on the rise! Teaching kids to cook will help
instill skills to last them a lifetime.
- Boost their self esteem. If your child needs a boost of
self confidence, (and who doesn't!) cooking in the kitchen will
do just that. They are accomplishing a task, learning something
important and contributing to the family.
- Create family time and bonding. Take time to cook with
your children and they will have memories that they, in turn,
can pass on to their families. It may take a longer time to get
the meal or snack done but the moments with your children will
be priceless. (Just remember to have patience. Don't worry about
flour on the floor or spilled milk).
- Kids will be more apt to eat what they make. Perhaps,
it is the enthusiasm of creating something themselves, but they
will be more likely to eat whatever they had a hand in making.
- Kids learn real lessons in science, language, math and
creativity. Cooking will help reinforce all these
subjects! Visit What
Children Learn While Cooking page for more information.
- What a great way to learn life skills. This can be
especially helpful when kids are on their own and won't have to
rely on fast food and junk food to sustain them.
- They can help contribute to the family and they can
feel the importance of helping.
- They are working together as a team, whether it is
with a parent or with a sibling to get the job done.
- Cooking teaches them planning and making choices.
- Practice creativity and imagination. Kids cooking
activities are a great way to express themselves and enjoy their
All of our kids cooking activities and ideas
are kid tested, doable and fun. They just need:
- A dash of time
- A pinch of originality
- A cup full of enthusiasm
So put on an apron and lets get started with Kids Cooking
Join our Newsletters and follow us on social media
We have several ways you can keep in contact with us. At the upper
right corner you'll see our links to follow our facebook, twitter
and pinterest groups.
We have a Get Cooking Newsletter
that goes out weekly with
advice, articles and tips on kids cooking.
As well as a weekly Kids Cooking Activities Club
introduce you to different sections and the highlights you'll find
in that area.
There is a lot of good information, cooking projects and children's
cooking activities on our site. Over 500 pages + hundred's of our
readers submitted recipes and ideas. You will get an email once a
week highlighting different areas on the site. | <urn:uuid:ff79b9e7-d4b7-45e1-a877-d3ee4b8d747b> | {
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Energy Efficiency Crucial to Achieving Energy Security and Reducing Global Warming, States Leading Physicists Report
American Physical Society Report Says Recovery of Lost Energy From Inefficiencies Is America’s Hidden Energy Reserve for 21st Century
Tapping wasted energy from inefficient automobiles, homes and businesses is equivalent to discovering a hidden energy reserve that will help the United States improve its energy security and reduce global warming, an American Physical Society (APS) study panel concluded in a major report.
The report, Energy Future: Think Efficiency, states that the key to unlocking the efficiency potential is developing policies that will put technology into the marketplace and developing new technologies through applied and basic research in the public and private sectors.
The study panel concluded that increased energy efficiency, particularly in the transportation and building sectors, will help eliminate U.S. reliance on foreign oil and reduce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming.
Most recommendations addressing high fuel costs focus on either increasing the supply of oil or finding a substitute fuel, but the APS report offers a practical roadmap with short-term and longer-term solutions for reducing demand through cost-effective efficiencies that find public and political acceptance.
The report provides a path to 50 miles per gallon mileage for cars and other light-duty vehicles by 2030 and the elimination of energy from fossil fuels in new residential buildings by 2020.
It also states that the federal government should broaden its research, development and demonstration programs, particularly in the areas of batteries for conventional hybrid vehicles, plug-in hybrids and battery electric vehicles. The report credits automakers for devoting resources to the development of hydrogen fuel cell and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but concludes that they are not a solution to the nation’s short-term energy needs because they require significant scientific and engineering breakthroughs in several critical areas.
The study also calls on Congress and the White House to increase spending on research and development of next-generation building technologies, training scientists who work on building technologies and supporting associated national laboratory, university and private-sector research programs. Additionally, it recommends that lawmakers develop policies that address a wide-array of market barriers that discourage consumers from adopting investment in energy-efficient efficient technologies, especially in the highly fragmented building sector.
“The American people need leadership from the Congress and the next president on this issue,” said Nobel Laureate Burton Richter, chair of the study committee and director emeritus of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. “Both Sens. McCain and Obama have outlined plans for improving energy efficiency and the important role new technologies will play in our energy future. The next leader of the United States will have an opportunity to be the first in history to lay the necessary groundwork to reduce energy use among Americans.”
Among its other key findings and recommendations based on the 12-month study are:
- The federal government should adopt new standards for light-duty vehicles that average 50 miles per gallon or more by 2030.
- Vehicle weight can be significantly reduced through design and new materials without compromising safety. Vehicle weight reductions of 20 percent, for example, achieved by greater use of high-strength steel, aluminum and composite materials, would improve fuel economy by approximately 14 percent while reducing traffic injuries and fatalities.
- Plug-in hybrids require more efficient and more durable batteries, able to withstand deep discharges that are not yet in commercial large-scale production. Given the technical difficulties, plug-in hybrids will not replace the standard American family car in the near term.
- Improvements in the United States’ electric grid must be made in order to handle charging of electric vehicles if daytime charging is to occur on a large scale or when the market penetration of electric vehicles becomes significant.
- Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are not a short-term solution to our oil needs, but rather a long-term option requiring fundamental science and engineering breakthroughs in several areas.
- To achieve the 2030 zero energy building goal for commercial buildings, the federal government should create a research, development and demonstration program that makes integrated design and operation of buildings standard practice.
- Green building rating systems should give energy efficiency the highest priority and require reporting of energy consumption data.
- The federal government should establish a comprehensive program of efficiency standards and labeling for appliances that are cost-effective and technologically feasible. A streamlined procedure is needed to avoid delays in releasing the standards.
- States should be encouraged to create demand-side, utility management programs.
- Energy standards for buildings should be implemented nationwide.
- Longer-term applied research opportunities include advanced ventilation, advanced windows, thermodynamic cycles and ultra-thin insulators.
- Congress should appropriate and the White House should approve for the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Office of Science funds that are consistent with the spending profiles specified in the 2005 Energy Policy Act and the 2007 America COMPETES Act.
- Congressional oversight committees should ensure that DOE fulfills its obligation. Historically, coordination among basic and applied research programs within the Department of Energy has been far from ideal. Congress should periodically review the Energy Frontiers Research Centers program to ensure that basic research related to energy efficiency receives adequate attention.
- Estimating the long-term effects of transportation infrastructure on transportation demand should become a required component of the transportation planning process, and to that end, a better understanding of social science is needed.
- DOE should fully comply with the 2005 Energy Policy Act mandate to improve the coordination between its basic and applied research activities.
- Long-term applied research, whether it is general or strategic in nature, often is the orphan child of science and technology programming. DOE must take steps now to fold long-term applied research into its scientific programming in a more serious way than it currently does.
- Smart growth policies in planning urban and transportation infrastructure can contribute to energy efficiency by reducing vehicle miles traveled (VMT) by 10 to 30 percent by 2030 compared to business as usual.
For a full copy of the APS report Energy Future: Think Efficiency and related materials, including video and photographs, go to http://www.aps.org/energyefficiencyreport/.
©1995 - 2014, AMERICAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY
APS encourages the redistribution of the materials included in this newspaper provided that attribution to the source is noted and the materials are not truncated or changed.
APS Washington, D.C. OfficeDirector of Public Affairs: Michael Lubell
Associate Director of Public Affairs: Francis Slakey
Legislative Correspondent: Brian Mosley
Office Manager: Jeanette Russo
Press Secretary: Tawanda W. Johnson
Senior Government Relations Specialist: Jodi Lieberman
APS Headquarters, College Park, MDEditor: Alan Chodos
Staff Writer: Ernie Tretkoff
Art Director / Special Publications Manager: Kerry G. Johnson
Design and Production: Nancy Bennett-Karasik | <urn:uuid:5d4f27e4-c73b-4cf6-999c-d543311ff9cb> | {
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Foresters, ecologists, and other conservationists are increasingly recognizing the multiple values and benefits provided by the world's forests. New respect is emerging for the numerous ecological functions and economic possibilities offered by forests. This thinking is exemplified by recent reorientation of policies embracing holistic forest management, ecosystem management, ecological forest management, and other broad-based sustainable management concepts. Consistent with this reorientation is a renewed emphasis on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) and services.
Recognition and respect for the non-timber values of forests has long existed in the minds of people traditionally living in, and around, the forests of Asia and the Pacific. Non-wood forest products have been vitally important to forest-dwellers and rural communities in the region for centuries. Until recently, however, their use has been largely confined to meeting subsistence needs. The situation is now changing rapidly, as increasing attention is being directed toward the economic potential of non-wood forest resources.
As part of FAO's strategy to foster balanced and sustainable forest management, the Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific has recently expanded its support for the development of NWFPs by improving data collection, compiling case studies on successful management of non-wood forest resources, facilitating information dissemination, organizing workshops and consultations, and formulating new projects related to NWFP development.
In support of these efforts, FAO convened a regional consultation on non-wood forest products, in Bangkok, Thailand, in late 1994. The consultation was pivotal in looking beyond the biological and management aspects of NWFPs, traditionally considered paramount to forest managers. Notably, the meeting spotlighted the social, economic, and cultural dimensions of NWFPs that are so crucial to the people who live in, and around, forests. It was particularly successful in drawing together a highly diverse assembly of specialists from government agencies and non-governmental organizations, each reflecting unique interests, philosophies, and perspectives. The meeting produced a valuable set of recommendations and an extraordinary collection of papers highlighting social, economic, and cultural issues and experiences in NWFP development.
FAO is pleased to publish and disseminate these valuable papers along with a summary report of the regional consultation. These proceedings provide practical information and perspectives that will be useful to foresters, conservationists, and rural development workers in their efforts to improve forest management and enhance the benefits local people derive from forests.
A.Z.M. Obaidullah Khan
Assistant Director-General and
Regional Representative of FAO | <urn:uuid:e9333b68-9adf-488b-a4bc-cd825c3a689c> | {
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April 1956 | Volume 7, Issue 3
“Our want of powder is inconceivable,” wrote Washington in the bitter early days of the Revolution. So too was our want of guns, supplies, and everything needed in a war against one of the major powers of the earth. Above all we needed an ally. And so the man who believed that there never was a good war or a bad peace, old Dr. Benjamin Franklin, a man laden with the world’s honors who might easily have pleaded age and weariness, set out for France in his seventy-first year to secure these necessities for his country.
The story of his amazing accomplishments, of his diplomatic feats, of his wizardry in supplying the Continental armies, of his struggles with envious fellow commissioners, scheming enemies, and vacillating friends—this is the burden of Helen Augur’s new book, The Secret War of Independence (Duell, Sloan and Pearce—Little, Brown). Miss Augur, one of many writers who have honored the great old man on his 250th anniversary this year, is the author of several other books, including Tall Ships to Cathay and biographies of Anne Hutchinson and John Ledyard. In making this special adaptation of her book for AMERICAN HERITAGE, she has re-created that less familiar but vital struggle behind the scenes which was necessary at Versailles before Cornwallis could march out, in defeat, at Yorktown while the drums beat for the birth of a new nation.
Late in October, 1776, Benjamin Franklin sailed for France to direct the foreign sector of the extraordinary war into which his young country had been plunged. It was an entirely new sort of war because the United States was a new sort of country, whose survival depended less on land fighting than on a complex of factors in which Franklin was deeply involved.
He had spent eighteen years in England as colonial agent and the last eighteen months at home in the Continental Congress. In that short interval he had seen his people take up arms for a desperate war, declare themselves a nation, and make the first cautious moves in foreign relations. As the American who best understood both sides of the Atlantic, Franklin had carried much of that burden, and for a long time to come would carry all the responsibility for getting maximum aid from the neutral powers without compromising the future of the new republic.
Franklin was now seventy, afflicted with gout, and wretchedly tired from his labors in Congress and its candle-burning committees. With British warships on the prowl the voyage was dangerous, but Franklin had brought his grandsons along. Little Benny Bache would be put in school to learn French, and Temple Franklin would act as his grandfather’s unpaid secretary. They were in the best possible hands; Captain Lambert Wickes was one of the few masters seasoned in the merchant fleet who had joined the Continental Navy. His Reprisal , a full-rigged ship in an age of sloops and brigs, flew under the strong westerlies and completed the voyage in five weeks.
Short as it was, the crossing was a godsend. With a fur cap on his unwigged gray head, Franklin took up his studies of the Gulf Stream where he had dropped them on his voyage home from England. He was free for a time to be the scientist, finding in nature a fidelity to laws beyond the reach of human meddling. Yet Franklin had a high opinion of the human race and lofty hopes for his particular segment of it.
A new nation had emerged, and in time each individual would realize his new identity. Early in 1774 Franklin had written from London to a friend at home that he wished Americans “might know what we are and what we have.” After much private groping and anguish he had discovered what he was: not a colonial American, but that new man, an American. Because the future could somehow work in him he had become the sort of man coming generations would repeat. He was the mutant of a new species.
A riving home just after Lexington, Franklin had found the leaders in Congress still struggling against their enforced propulsion towards independence. Congress had sent the King the Olive Branch Petition, which paralyzed war efforts for many months. It curtailed foreign trade at the moment when the country, which produced almost nothing useful in war, most needed to increase imports. Congress would not even sanction commerce with friendly powers because that was tantamount to declaring independence.
Franklin dealt with these suicidal moves in his usual oblique fashion. Instead of using direct pressure he used leverage. This kept him out of personal debates and increased his potential. With economic law as a lever he got Congress to open trade with the whole world, Great Britain excepted, three months before independence was ratified. The Declaration was passed with independence a hope on the far side of a hopeless-seeming war. But once these two great steps in the right direction were made, it was easy to push through resolutions for negotiating foreign alliances.
These three phases reveal an orderly progression in Franklin’s mind. His private period of turmoil and decision lay behind him, and he could think calmly of what must be done to make Jefferson’s great charter a reality. He was the unifying force of the Revolution, the one man who could understand and use effectively the complex elements which composed it. (One factor, the actual fighting on land, would make up the bulk of future histories. Thus torn from its context, the military side of the Revolution is implausible.)
On the land, if Washington finally got enough men and guns, he might wear down British troops far from their home base. But his eventual victory depended on two essentials which only Europe could provide: military supplies of all sorts and a powerful navy.
The thirteen colonies were in the nightmare situation of trying to fight the strongest power in the Western world almost barehanded. On Christmas Day Washington wrote Congress: “Our want of powder is inconceivable.” Three weeks later there was not a pound in his magazines. If General Howe had guessed that, he could have ended the war then and there.
By then Congress had set up two secret committees on both of which Franklin was extremely busy. The Secret Committee, dominated by the capable merchant Robert Morris, methodized the smuggling of war supplies from Europe, which had been going on for years. The Committee of Secret Correspondence, under Franklin, engaged agents abroad to explore the possibilities of foreign alliances. The colonies could not conclude treaties until they declared themselves a nation, and the necessity of getting military supplies and the support of a powerful fleet did a great deal to hasten independence.
Getting a fleet for Washington was high on Franklin’s agenda. The Continental Navy would never be able to take on the larger British units. America could fight only her own sort of war on the seas, and this had started before Lexington and would continue long after Yorktown. Hundreds of privateers were at their work of economic attrition, wearing down Britain’s strength by blows against her merchant shipping. But the early ratio of seven British merchantmen captured to one American lost was rapidly declining, and Britain’s patrol of the seaboard was making it difficult to maintain a supply line of military and civilian goods.
Privateers could accomplish wonders, but they could not fight the great British ships of the line. Franklin’s most pressing assignment was to buy or borrow eight battleships from France and to urge both Bourbon powers, France and Spain, to send fleets at their own expense to act in concert with these ships. This was the same thing as asking France and Spain to declare immediate war against Great Britain. However, Franklin had boarded the Reprisal for that very purpose. The man who believed there was never a good war or a bad peace was about to use all his powers to sweep the Bourbon nations into the War of Independence.
During Franklin’s years in London he had watched the old power pattern repeat itself. Britain won the Seven Years’ War and imposed the Peace of Paris which bred the next cycle of conflict with the Continental powers. They all hated and feared Britain as the newly dominant nation of Europe. She had stolen Holland’s priority on the seas and had swept France from the American continent and the best part of her fisheries. Spain had suffered less, but she was tied to France by the Bourbon Family Compact.
France, planning a war of revenge, saw in the growing revolt of the thirteen colonies a chance to weaken her chronic enemy, and by 1766 she was ready to rush to their support if they broke with England. She threaded the colonies and Britain with her spies; Versailles knew much better than Whitehall how the Revolution was shaping.
During this period of watchful waiting, Franklin applied political pressure. One after the other his Whig friends rose in Parliament and warned that France might soon come out in support of the Americans. Since George III was violently against a war with the Bourbons these warnings disturbed him, but they did not change his fixed purpose to bully the colonies into obedience.
The historian Henri Doniol, who edited the secret French archives of the period, claimed that Franklin did more than coach the Whigs; that he in fact started an international gunrunning ring by quiet negotiations with certain arms manufacturers and exporters in England, Holland, and France. It is true that these countries, and to some extent Spain, had for some time been shipping out contraband for America, mostly through their Caribbean islands. It is also true that Franklin could have helped along such conspiratorial work without leaving a trace of his part of it.
The Doctor was adept at working through trusted friends, and his friends were legion. Some of them were British merchants; others were American sea captains who could be trusted to deliver letters or verbal messages to people on the Continent. Without changing his normal contacts Franklin could easily have guided a conspiracy to make the Revolution a reality instead of a lost cause.
According to Doniol, Franklin dealt through Sieur Montaudoin of Nantes, a great shipping merchant, and the savant Dr. Jacques Barbeu-Dubourg. Dubourg, said the archivist, amassed arms with the help of the brilliant new foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, who was determined to make the American rebellion a success; and Montaudoin shipped this contraband to America.
Both men were in Franklin’s confidence, and they worked closely with Vergennes. Sieur Montaudoin shared many interests with Franklin; both were members of the Royal Academy of Sciences, enthusiasts of the new physiocratic school, and Masons. But Montaudoin and all Nantes had begun to increase clandestine trade with the thirteen colonies about 1770, long before Franklin decided on his personal break with England.
As for Dr. Dubourg, this bookish man was an incongruous visitor at Versailles by June of 1776, by which time he had received Franklin’s appointment as the French agent of his Committee of Secret Correspondence. It was plain that Vergennes rather disliked him and gave every evidence that he was dealing with him only because he represented someone important. The arms of which Doniol speaks had long since been amassed, and it seems probable that Dubourg and Vergennes discussed other matters.
However, Franklin was a wizard at intrigue, and many secrets lie with him in the Christ Church burying ground. The fact that he was a genius, and a genius of such multiple gifts that he might easily inspire alarm or jealousy in others, had early taught him the art of using screens and disguises. He masked his powerful and subtle mind behind the benevolent simplicity which was also part of his nature. He radiated reassurance like one of his own stoves; the warmth and charm of his personality masked his Merlin powers.
Gunrunning to America was certainly going on in 1774, and no doubt Franklin knew about it. Whether this was one of the patriotic conspiracies for which he risked his life that year scarcely matters, for the contraband traffic would have gone merrily on if Benjamin Franklin had never existed.
A smuggling mechanism had long since been perfected, to the general salvation. All the colonizing powers tried to keep New World produce flowing home to the motherland. Americans, for instance, were forbidden to trade directly with foreign countries or with the foreign islands of the Caribbean, except in a few commodities which could be sold under cumbersome and expensive restrictions. This rule was so thoroughly disobeyed that great shipping houses like Willing & Morris of Philadelphia kept factors, or at least correspondents, all over Europe and the Caribbean to take care of their trade.
The Stamp Act riots were noisy on the land, but the seas were quiet and busy. Tobacco and rice, strictly reserved to England, were now rushed across the Atlantic to Amsterdam or Lorient and exchanged for cannon, powder, teas, and other goods which Americans could not do without.
In August, 1774, Sir Joseph Yorke, for years the British ambassador at The Hague, wrote his superior, the Earl of Suffolk: “As the contraband trade carried on between Holland and North America is so well known in England … I have not thought it necessary of late to trouble your Lordship with trifling details of ships sailing from Amsterdam for the British Colonies, laden with teas, linnens, etc.”
But now he had something serious to report: “My informations says that the Polly , Captain Benjamin Broadhurst, bound to Nantucket … has shipped on board a considerable quantity of gunpowder. It is the House of Crommelin at Amsterdam which is chiefly concerned in this trade with the Colonies, tho’ some others have their share.”
In later reports Sir Joseph drew such an alarming picture of Dutch gunrunning, especially to the Caribbean, that the British sent a Navy sloop and cutter to spend the winter at Texel Island near Amsterdam. Captain Pearson of the Speedwell had orders to follow any suspected American ship out to the open sea and there arrest her. (We must remember that all this was happening before Lexington.)
British firms had also been running munitions to the colonies, and continued to do so, despite orders-in-council. Finally the almost moribund Board of Trade and Plantations was given the assignment—which doubtless proved profitable—of issuing permits to merchants wishing to export warlike stores. The destinations given were usually French ports on the Channel, and the ostensible purpose was the sudden enormous need for arms in the French slave trade.
By early 1775 the British embassy in France estimated that war supplies worth 32,000,000 livres (about $6,000,000) had been shipped from that kingdom to the colonies. The estimate means little, for the British were slow in discovering the tremendous scope of the activities abetted by Vergennes. He was such a master at dissimulation that he kept the British ambassador, Lord Stormont, convinced all through 1774 that nothing illicit was going on. There was merely enthusiasm for the American cause, Stormont reported to Whitehall, on the part of the “Wits, Philosophers and Coffee House Politicians who are all to a man warm Americans.”
The traffic which had started about 1770 was very large. American merchantmen picked up contraband all over Europe; the British, Dutch, and French sent some cargoes direct to the thirteen colonies, but far greater amounts to their islands in the Caribbean, to be picked up by American traders. The chief French ammunition dumps were Martinique and Cap François (now Cap Haitien) on Santo Domingo, known to seagoing Americans simply as “the Cape.” The Spanish shipped to New Orleans and Havana, and the British chose islands convenient to Washington’s chief arsenal, the Dutch island of St. Eustatia.
There is a distinct anomaly in the fact that even with captures from British transports Congress scraped together for Washington’s use in 1775 only about forty tons of gunpowder. Most of the supply was still down in the Caribbean, but the fact remains that there must have been more powder on the continent than the various colonies and the merchants were willing to release to Congress. No doubt the colonies hoarded local supplies for their own defense, and the merchants hoarded their stocks for higher prices. War profiteering was pandemic. Moreover, importers of cannon and powder had to arm their merchantmen, and if their merchantmen were transformed into privateers, as many were, they needed a large supply of ammunition.
The fact is that Congress had little authority over the colonies—it managed to adopt the Army, but the Continental Navy was a bitter joke. Long before it got into feeble action, eleven of the colonies had started their own navies, and several of them commissioned their own privateer fleets. Congress had little to do with America’s maritime war, which was a tremendous undertaking. It could not supply Washington gunpowder in 1775 nor cope with the enlarging task of war procurement.
The United States fought all the way through the war without a government. The country had no President and Cabinet, no executive departments, no constitution. It had only an overworked legislature trying to perform administrative functions. In this desperate situation a few individuals took over as heads of non-existent departments. Washington was the War Department, Robert Morris at various times was Treasury and Navy and always was Commerce, and Franklin was the Department of State. He had written his own instructions for Commissioner Franklin to carry out.
Franklin, bobbing a thermometer over the Reprisal ’s rail to take the temperatures of the Gulf Stream, could think about the life of the sea, this western Atlantic and warm Caribbean which nature had chosen as the home for the new race of Americans. His future United States included Canada and the Floridas and the British West Indies, especially Bermuda and the Bahamas. He might have included the foreign islands, since all colonial America had been united for a century and a half in its resistance to the mercantilism of Europe.
Islanders and continentals had worked out a prototype of the free trade which was one of Franklin’s major objectives. Much of this trade was illicit, but it was based on realities and it bred a friendship between the West Indies and the mainlanders which was all-important to the Revolution. It is hard to see how the patriots could have started their war, or kept it going, without the help of the islanders.
The islet of St. Eustatia, an international free port in the northern Leewards, was a fountainhead of what Samuel Adams called the Unum Necessarium . Lying close to British, Danish, French, and Spanish islands, Statia, as she was known to her friends, had for generations offered European goods at bargain rates, and arms to any enemy of Britain. During the Revolution this tiny island was the clearinghouse for American trade with the Caribbean and Europe, including Britain. The warehouses lining her one street, a mile long, were crammed with munitions, ship’s stores, bolts of cloth; sacks of sugar and tobacco covered the very sands, and the roadstead was packed with merchantmen.
The greatest suppressed scandal of the war was the British trade with the enemy on Statia. Bermuda, which barely escaped becoming the fourteenth state, had a large merchant colony on the Dutch island, and there sold her American friends the thousand fine cedar sloops she built or refitted for them.
Franklin had a share in preserving the friendship between the mainland and Bermuda at a moment when it was severely strained. In the summer of 1775 Colonel Henry Tucker, whose clan dominated island affairs, came to Philadelphia in a state of worry and resentment. By September Congress’ lamentable trade embargo would include the West Indies, and no more mainland produce would be sent Bermuda, which meant a galloping famine. It also meant that mainland meat and fish would spoil for lack of salt. The only source for salt during the war was the Turks Islands beds at the tail of the Bahama chain, long a Bermudian monopoly.
When Colonel Tucker told Franklin and Morris that there was a respectable supply of gunpowder in the royal arsenal at St. George’s which could be abstracted in a midnight raid, a bargain was struck. Offered the bait of gunpowder, Congress swallowed the hook which Franklin had prayerfully included and ruled that any vessel bringing war supplies to the seaboard would be allowed to load up with produce. After that opening wedge, which tacitly killed the embargo, Franklin’s resolution for world trade was bound to go through.
The powder was stolen; Bermuda was fed. For the rest of the war she ran salt to the mainland, refused to privateer against the Americans, and built for them her superb sloops. The Bahamas, too, acted as allies.
As for the French islands, the Cape developed into a prime source for munitions, and Martinique became an American privateer base before Franklin sailed. During the summer Congress became alarmed at the massing of French warships in the Caribbean and sent young William Bingham to find out whether this mobilization portended action against the United States. Captain Wickes, who had been one of the picked men of Morris’ trading fleet, was chosen for the voyage.
When they arrived at Martinique, the Americans were so cordially received that Bingham settled down as resident agent for Congress. It turned out that the French warships had been sent with orders to protect not only the islands of Louis XVI, but also any American vessels in the area. They might refit in the island ports, stock up their magazines, cruise the Caribbean, and bring their prizes in to St. Pierre for judgment in Mr. Bingham’s court of admiralty.
This was amazing enough; France had broken through the limits of her ostensible neutrality and was allowing Martinique to become a base of war against Britain. Franklin and Morris could hardly have believed Captain Wickes’ news on his return to Philadelphia if a courier had not come back from Europe at the same time with even more wonderful tidings. A certain Monsieur Hortalez, said the courier, was sending munitions worth £200,000 to the Cape, Martinique, and Statia, which American captains could obtain for Congress simply by saying “Hortalez” to the port commandant. There was no mention of payment.
It happened that Franklin and Morris were the only members of the Committee of Secret Correspondence in town when the courier arrived, and they resolved to keep the news to themselves. Anything known in Congress was apt to percolate to Whitehall. Franklin had already planned his mission to France, where he would be joined by his fellow commissioners, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee. Now he hurried his preparations, and Captain Wickes was ordered to make all speed to Nantes, and to avoid action if possible.
Nearing France, Dr. Franklin changed the captain’s orders. The Nantucket half of Franklin was always strong, and he longed to see how the captain and ship behaved in an engagement. Moreover, a certain project which he may have discussed with Morris and Wickes was developing in his mind, and he needed to find out how France would react if prizes were brought into Nantes.
Wickes took two small merchantmen which ran down their colors with alacrity. Franklin enjoyed the brief engagements. He wrote home that in the fighting there had been “good order and readiness … equal to anything of the kind in the best ships of the king’s fleet.”
Contrary winds kept the Reprisal from entering the Loire to make the port of Nantes. She anchored in Quiberon Bay with her prizes, and Franklin made a bone-racking journey overland by post chaise. He was hardly prepared for the booming activity in America’s behalf that he found in Nantes. Sailcloth and shoes, embroidered waistcoats and fusils, cannon and wig powder were crated and piled on the docks for shipment to the country that needed everything. There were sixty-odd American merchants established in Nantes, and when Franklin considered that all this activity was being repeated on a somewhat smaller scale in Bordeaux, Lorient, Le Havre, and Dunkirk, he felt that the Franco-American alliance was already a reality.
To the citizens of Nantes the alliance was not merely a commercial bond, but a blend of credos and enthusiasms which they shared with their friends overseas. Masonry was powerful in France and all-powerful in Nantes, and for perhaps a generation its exporters had been sending American brothers, along with bills of lading and business papers, sheaves of French Masonic literature in exchange for similar pamphlets from the colonies. The new physiocratic school had its followers on both sides of the Atlantic. And Franklin, Voltaire, and Rousseau were linked together as the presiding geniuses of the century. At the moment, Nantes was all Frankliniste .
The American was adulated, wined and dined. His friend Sieur Montaudoin bought a great Dutch ship and named it Benjamin Franklin . The Doctor, instead of staying with the Montaudoins, allowed himself to be captured by people he disliked. His discretion was fathomless, and he may purposely have avoided emphasizing his old friendship with the man who carried out some of the ministry’s most secret work for America. Franklin’s hosts were the merchants Pliarne and Penet, who had little standing in Nantes, but who may have been subsidized by Vergennes. At any rate, they had bobbed up in Philadelphia and obtained the first publicized arms contract between Congress and foreign shippers. Franklin soon warned Congress not to enlarge its connections with this questionable pair.
A growing fleet of American privateers had already brought prizes into the various French ports, and a system had been perfected for their disposal. When Wickes brought his captured brigantines to Nantes they were speedily bought by a French purchaser for less than half their value. A swarm of workmen then changed the “marks” of the vessels by slapping on new coats of paint, changing the figurehead, and such devices. The port records were similarly camouflaged.
The Reprisal was carrying a cargo of indigo worth £3,000 which was intended to pay the early expenses of the Paris mission. Pliarne and Penet undertook to sell the indigo, meanwhile giving Franklin a small cash advance—and that was about the last the mission got of the indigo money. Robert Morris’ alcoholic half brother Thomas had just been appointed by Congress as its commercial agent for all of France. When he arrived at Nantes Penet kept him drunk and hostile to the Paris commissioners. Congress was shipping them tobacco, furs, and other valuable products to buy war supplies and ships, but Tom Morris and Penet claimed every cargo arriving in France. Robert Morris had arranged Tom’s appointment under the delusion that the youth had reformed during a long stay abroad and was to be trusted with the public business. It was a delusion that cost him and the country dear and brought no profit to Tom Morris.
Franklin’s arrival in Paris set off an extraordinary wave of public excitement that bordered on hysteria. In his plain dress, still wearing his comfortable fur cap, he was the natural man Rousseau had taught the French to revere, and a symbol of Utopia. France, wretchedly poor at the bottom of its society and jaded and apprehensive at the top, was rushing towards its own revolution, and the violent emotions which would ruin the French Revolution were tripped off in wild demonstrations of welcome.
Hoping to calm down the furor, Franklin appeared in public as little as possible. He closeted himself with Silas Deane, who had now been in France for six months on a dual mission for the two secret committees and had a tremendous budget of news. The two men had been on fairly close terms in Congress, where Deane had sat from the first day as a delegate from Connecticut. As a fellow commissioner, Deane’s prodigious energies and devotion to Franklin would help to pull them both through the stormy year ahead.
As far as brains and ability went, Deane belonged in the first rank of the men doing the hard immediate tasks of the Revolution. He understood not only the practical mechanics of business but the direction it would take after the war; his economic thinking was often bold and creative. He was a smaller copy of Robert Morris and aspired to become a great international merchant like his friend. At the same time he yearned to be a statesman like Franklin.
The trouble with Silas Deane was tragically simple: he was never quite sure who he was. People he loved and admired had far too much influence on him. A blacksmith’s son, he had worked his way through Yale and had started to practice law when he married the daughter of a great merchant family. That switched him to the Caribbean trade. His first wife soon died and he married the daughter of a great political family—and switched to politics. He did extremely well in these successive careers, and now at forty held a position of high honor.
On the surface Deane’s rapid rise might seem the result of clever opportunism in marrying and winning the friendship of the right people. But somehow, even when he acted in a cheap way, Silas Deane was not cheap. His emotional balance was precarious. He had never outgrown some early drive to make the blacksmith’s son a great gentleman. His background was no more humble than Franklin’s, but his friend could dress like a Quaker while Deane amassed a huge wardrobe of velvets and satins and drained his private purse entertaining his new French acquaintances. He was overimpressed with titles and high connections and had made the serious blunder of sending a stream of idle young aristocrats overseas to serve under Washington. Most of them were of no earthly use to the Commander in Chief and drained an impoverished Congress of money and patience.
However, Deane had already made a magnificent contribution to the Revolution in helping France to help America. He had a vital part in transforming the flow of war supplies from a too little, too late dribble into a steady stream which insured an American victory. Many of the vessels loading up in French ports with arms for Washington were the private ventures of merchants whom Deane had inspired with confidence. But his most important work was with the new firm of Hortalez & Company, which really meant the House of Bourbon.
Franklin had no doubt guessed, when the courier returned from Europe in September with news of tremendous shipments of arms by “Monsieur Hortalez,” that the real name of this mysterious friend was France. For diplomatic reasons, he always pretended a vast ignorance of Hortalez & Company—a feat like hiding an elephant in a hat.
The celebrated dramatist Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais now cast himself in his own best role, which he played without applause. If he had written the true story of his life as a drama no audience would have believed it. One of his parts was acting as confidential agent for the King, for his circumspection was as profound as Franklin’s. However, Beaumarchais put his whole soul into his character as friend of the American Revolution. For all his enjoyment of high life and high-level intrigue, he was a seismograph about social upheavals and an intellectual who understood their necessity.
During 1775, in London on a royal errand, he was in close touch with the American patriots. A year before the Declaration Beaumarchais wrote Vergennes that he was leaving for Flanders on a political mission, and that he had something tremendous to impart later. He was evidently buying arms and setting up a smuggling base in the Low Countries.
By September, 1775, the crusader was back in Versailles, and with Vergennes intensified the campaign to draw the King into their dangerous project of largescale aid to the colonies. Beaumarchais wrote masterly letters to Louis XVI, arguing that with timely secret help from France the Americans would win their war and clip Britain’s wings. Vergennes sent an agent, Achard de Bonvouloir, to Philadelphia to sound out Franklin about the prospects of a separation from England and a successful war. These prospects were bleak enough in December, 1775, but Franklin sent Bonvouloir back with such a rosy report that they immediately improved.
France did not wait for the announcement of July Fourth. On May 2, 1776, Louis XVI signed documents committing France to action as a secret American ally, in violation of her treaties with Britain. He contributed a million livres to the colonies’ war chest and his uncle, Charles III of Spain, followed suit. On May 3 Vergennes wrote his royal master that he proposed to call in Sieur Montaudoin of Nantes and entrust him with forwarding funds and arms to America. But Beaumarchais had already outlined his plan for Hortalez & Company in a memoir to the King, and he persuaded Vergennes that this was the perfect device for concealing the Bourbon conspiracy against Britain.
The dramatist became a whirlwind of activity. Louis XVI, preparing for the war with England which Vergennes assured him was inevitable whether or not he aided the Americans, had ordered the Navy rebuilt and the Army re-equipped. This released a great stock of surplus arms for Hortalez to buy up cheaply. The bogus company functioned as a legitimate business house, paying cash for its purchases and keeping its connection with Versailles a secret even from the American leaders.
Athur Lee, who became Congress’ agent in London after Franklin’s departure, had been in conspiratorial relations with Beaumarchais during his visits to England. When the royal nod transmogrified Beaumarchais into Roderigue Hortalez, he wrote Lee over that signature, announcing the formation of his house and his intended shipments to the Cape, to be paid for by remittances of American tobacco.
What thus started as an acknowledged business arrangement was twisted by Arthur Lee into a fantasy which better suited his private purposes, all directed toward immortalizing Arthur Lee. He gave Franklin’s courier a verbal message: due to Mr. Lee’s unflagging labors with the French embassy in London, Versailles had been persuaded to send goods worth £200,000 (Hortalez had said 25,000) to the Caribbean as an outright gift. Later Lee developed this fantasy into a sinister engine of destruction against those he hated.
Franklin and Deane were at the top of that long list. Sitting together in Deane’s hotel while the crowds outside waited for a glimpse of their idol, the two men were already dreading the arrival of Arthur Lee as their colleague. Congress had appointed Jefferson as the third commissioner, but he had declined to serve because of his wife’s illness, and the Adams-Lee bloc in Congress rushed their man in as substitute.
For a complication of reasons the Massachusetts cousins, John and Samuel Adams, had formed a close alliance with the Virginia brothers, Richard Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee. They were sure that the men who were shouldering the executive functions of a nonexistent Administration were in the wrong: Washington, Franklin, Morris, Deane, John Jay, and their hardheaded allies. John Adams once remarked that while Washington was to be respected as a private individual, in Congress “I feel myself to be superior to General Washington.” He objected to the commander being allowed to name his own generals and thought Congress should carry on every function of war except shoot down redcoats.
The two Lee brothers in Congress saw that their brothers in London were put in posts of influence. Arthur was installed in the place where he could counteract Deane and “that wicked old man,” as R. H. Lee called Franklin. William Lee was appointed joint commercial agent for France to checkmate Robert Morris’ brother. This move had been made after Franklin left Philadelphia, and the bad news would not reach Paris for months. But Franklin and Deane knew what to expect from Arthur Lee.
He was the dark personality of the family: a paranoid constantly haunted by the most fantastic suspicions of the people around him; a captious, hypercritical man who never married or made a simple friendship; a man with inflated notions of his own Tightness and genius who suffered tortures of jealousy of anybody above him. His jealousy of Franklin, which grew into a nightmare for Americans on two continents, had begun in 1770 when Massachusetts appointed Franklin its agent in England, and Lee his inactive deputy to replace him if he left England or if he died. Almost consciously Lee longed for that consummation.
Meanwhile Arthur Lee and his younger brother William joined the floating malcontents who supported the flamboyant John Wilkes and helped elect him lord mayor of London late in 1774. William Lee was rewarded with office as alderman of the city, a title which he did not relinquish until the war was almost over and he knew which side would win. Arthur Lee was rewarded by memories of turmoil, which he loved and which he was expert in creating.
His association with Hortalez was a stroke of luck. At last America would hear of the third Lee brother, hitherto a cipher, as its savior in Europe. When Deane arrived in Paris in the summer of 1776 Arthur Lee rushed over from London. But he was too late. Deane and Beaumarchais were already fast friends, working in harmony to load the Hortalez fleet with war supplies. Lee could not bear to lose Beaumarchais and tried to detach him from Deane. He only succeeded in quarreling with them both, and when he tried to see Vergennes, he was quite properly snubbed. All this was excruciating, since Lee had trumpeted in letters home that he had the ministry and Hortalez in his pocket. He went back to London in a fury.
Silas Deane was invaluable. He helped Beaumarchais buy and fit out eight ships, prudently scattered in various ports: the Amphitrite, Mercure, Flammand, Mère Bobie, Seine, Thérèse, Amelia , and Marie Catherine . Between them Beaumarchais and Deane amassed arms and every necessary article of clothing for an army of 30,000 men. By October Beaumarchais had spent the original 2,000,000 livres from the Bourbon kings, plus another million from France, and 2,600,000 livres in the form of credit from French merchants.
Delays which were not the fault of Deane and Beaumarchais held up most of the fleet for months after lading. But the Amphitrite and Mercure got away in time to reach Portsmouth by April, 1777, with supplies which at last turned the tide of war and made the crucial victory of Saratoga possible. The providence which was evidently favoring the American cause got the rest of the fleet safely to the mainland except the Seine , which the British captured after she had unloaded part of her cargo on Martinique.
Much of the maddening delay in dispatching the ships was caused by Vergennes. He had to fend off a break with England until France was ready for war. The Hortalez ships, scattered as they were at Marseilles, Bordeaux, Nantes, Le Havre, and Dunkirk, were still too conspicuous to be missed by the busy British spies. Lord Stormont, the British ambassador, had been sputtering at Vergennes for two years about the shipping of contraband from French ports, and now he raised such a storm that the minister had to forbid the sailing of one Hortalez vessel after the other. Then, when the diplomatic pressure eased, he would stealthily release them one at a time.
This cat and mouse game was only part of the new turn in French policy. Franklin found that the American stock had lately plunged to its lowest point. Washington’s defeat on Long Island and his retirement through the Jerseys made the Bourbon courts doubt if the war could succeed. There would soon be an unfavorable change in the Spanish ministry: Grimaldi, friendly to America, would be replaced as chief minister by the Count of Floridablanca, who feared that an America now independent would before long overrun Spanish possessions in the New World. His policy was to reconcile Britain and the United States; never, if he could help it, would Spain go to war on the American side. Even Vergennes was now lukewarm. He could not urge France into the war without Spanish support and without patriot victories to insure the survival of the young nation across the Atlantic.
Franklin immediately got to work at this dismal situation. As soon as Arthur Lee arrived from London the three commissioners wrote Vergennes announcing their appointment to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with France.
Vergennes promptly granted the requested interview. He already knew Deane, and wished not to know Arthur Lee, but he was consumed with curiosity about Franklin. The first diplomatic exchange between the United States and a foreign power was highly personal: Franklin and Vergennes sizing each other up.
Franklin knew that Vergennes, who for years had befriended America, would scuttle her the instant she ceased to serve his purpose. He knew that this purpose was the weakening of Britain rather than the emancipation of the United States. To Vergennes, Americans were shedding their blood in order to bleed England. All this was so familiar to Franklin that it did not discourage him; he simply had to be on his guard for the moment when Vergennes would stop playing for the joint interests of both countries and play for France alone.
Vergennes sensed that the benign old Doctor was ready to fence with naked steel, that he perfectly realized France was playing the old game of power rivalry, and that he would co-operate in the game—up to a point—to keep France as an ally. Discovering that point at which the common interests of France and the United States diverged would be a delicate task, and also an enjoyable one since he was matching wits with Franklin.
In a few swift parries Franklin suggested what his technique of dealing with the ministry would be. America needed French aid of every sort: ships, supplies, loans, to begin with. She was starting out as a beggar at the court of Versailles, and she would have to keep on begging until the war was over. By a supple turn of the wrist, Franklin transformed Franco-American relations. The United States, far from asking something for herself, was in reality advancing Bourbon interests and fighting their war. In order to make the war effective he reminded Vergennes of things Vergennes could do for the Bourbon cause: release the Hortalez ships, foster the American trade, and lend Congress money.
As a past master in the art of making the other man feel that he was acting solely for him, Vergennes recognized this basic technique in diplomacy. Moreover, he knew that Franklin was talking sense; if Washington was losing battles there were reasons for his setback which France could do a great deal to remedy. In this first interview the minister was lifted out of his discouragement by Franklin’s solid faith in the American destiny, and by his understanding of the whole European complex which made him able to suggest the right move at the right time rather than chimerical impossibilities.
If Vergennes had any doubts about Franklin’s grasp of Bourbon aims, they were resolved by the Doctor’s masterly letter of January 5. It began with the bold request that France sell the United States eight ships of the line, completely manned . England, Franklin said suavely, could hardly object to France sending the battleships with their crews, since Britain herself was borrowing or hiring troops from other states. But if she should declare war on France, “we conceive that by the united force of France, Spain, and America, she will lose all her possessions in the West Indies, much the greatest part of that commerce which has rendered her so opulent, and be reduced to that state of weakness and humiliation which she has, by her perfidy, her insolence, and her cruelty both in the east and the west, so justly merited.”
Vergennes himself could not have stated the Bourbon feelings about Britain more accurately.
Franklin had already urged that France and Spain conclude treaties of amity and commerce with the United States, and his letter went farther, offering these powers a firm guarantee of their present possessions in the West Indies, plus any new islands they conquered in a war growing out of their aid to the United States.
And finally Franklin played his trump card, the possibility that America might be forced back into the British Empire “unless some powerful aid is given us or some strong diversion be made in our favor.” He knew that the Bourbon nightmare was the picture of Britain, reunited with her American colonies, sweeping Spain from the lower Mississippi and both Bourbon powers from the Caribbean. He was to evoke this nightmare more than once, but it never lost its effect.
A few days later Louis XVI made the United States a loan of 2,000,000 livres. The requested battleships were not forthcoming; it was explained that France needed every unit of her Navy for her own purposes, which of course meant her expected war with Britain. The royal loan was followed by an advance of a third million by the Farmers General of the French Revenue, who administered the government monopoly of tobacco and hoped for large shipments from Congress. It was a long time before this contract with the Farmers General could be satisfied, since few ships could now run the British blockade of the American seaboard. The French loan was a godsend. The commissioners drew on it for their expenses, for the purchase of war supplies, for building three frigates in Holland and France, and for keeping up the maritime war in European waters.
The situation at home was alarming. The British drive through the Jerseys threatened Philadelphia, and in December Congress evacuated to Baltimore, where it remained until February.
The currency had fallen to half its value. Naval affairs were stagnant; the privateers attracted all the able seamen. Shipping was at a premium; in the last year the price of vessels had tripled. The southern states were crammed with tobacco, which could not even be sent up along the coast because of the British cruisers on patrol. American morale was so low that only the immediate entrance of France into the war could put heart into the country.
Franklin resolved to break through any limitations put on his mission by Congress. Since France and Spain were not responding to the offer of a trade alliance, he raised his sights and proposed what amounted to a military one. On February i he urged that France enter her unavoidable war at once, and the next day gave Vergennes the personal pledge of the commissioners that if France entered the war the United States would not make a separate peace with Britain. Later Congress backed up this pledge and authorized “all tenders necessary” to get Bourbon help.
Communications with Congress were rapidly being snuffed out by the capture of dispatches on the high seas and even more by the skill of British agents in intercepting letters, especially those bound for America. From May, 1777, to May, 1778, Congress would receive no direct word from its mission in Paris. But before this blackout settled down Congress managed to get dispatches through, which in effect begged Franklin to manage his side of the desperate crisis as he saw fit.
At once, on March 17, the commissioners sent memoirs to the French and Spanish ministries urging a triple war against Britain and her ally Portugal. The joint conquest was proposed of Canada, the Floridas, and the British West Indies. If successful, France would get as her share half the Newfoundland fishery and all the sugar islands; Spain would be enriched by Portugal and the Floridas, and the United States would gain Canada, Bermuda, and the Bahamas. No peace would be made except by the general consent.
The memoir to Vergennes asked for a French loan of £2,000,000 (which Congress had hopefully requested) . If France refused armed intervention, the Americans prayed “the wise king’s advice,” whether to try to get help from some other power, “or to make offers of peace to Britain on condition of their Independency being acknowledged.”
Nothing came of these appeals, and meanwhile Franklin and Deane had been working at a highly secret project which might prove more effective in precipitating a Franco-British war. This required certain arrangements in the ports of France.
With the appointment of the mission to France the affairs of the two secret committees were theoretically unscrambled; the commissioners were to take charge of foreign relations, and young Tom Morris of commercial matters. Soon the old names were changed to the Committee of Foreign Affairs and the Commercial Committee to make this distinction clear. In France, however, this separation of function was impossible. Deane was up to his neck in business affairs and was essential to their success, for Tom Morris was clearly unfit to carry out any operation but commandeering cargoes from Congress to finance his endless debauch. The commissioners had written privately to Robert Morris that his brother must be removed, but their letters were not received for months.
By a natural process the activities of the mission were divided. Franklin took charge of diplomatic duties, Arthur Lee undertook missions to Spain and Prussia which happily kept him out of Paris at a crucial period, and Deane continued his commercial activities. Since the previous summer he had had the invaluable help of an unpaid deputy, William Carmichael. This wealthy and devoted young Marylander had been educated in England and was qualified for diplomatic assignments. But he was quite happy to spend the year of 1777 in the humbler role of itinerant trouble shooter in the French ports. For one thing, he worshiped Franklin and wanted to be useful to him; for another, he enjoyed hobnobbing with the rough sea captains he was assigned to help. It was Carmichael who got the last of the Hortalez fleet on its way.
Since Nantes was the key port for American purposes, Franklin made a personal sacrifice and sent his grandnephew Jonathan Williams there as the special agent for the commissioners. Williams, now 27, had been trained in the Caribbean trade; he spoke French and was capable of dealing with accounts, which always baffled his granduncle. He was a young man of complete integrity and far from ordinary gifts, whom Franklin could well have used in Paris. But he was needed more in Nantes.
Franklin’s household, the unofficial American embassy, was never lonely, even when Benny was sent off to school. In March the Doctor was given a charming house at Passy on the grounds of the Hôtel Valentinois, which belonged to the merchant prince Donatien le Rey de Chaumont. The merchant was the intendant for supplying clothing for the French Army—and of late the American Army, for he had given Beaumarchais a million livres’ worth of clothing on credit.
Deane was in and out of the Passy house, keeping his hotel quarters for business and the entertaining of transient sea captains and a horde of friends. Temple Franklin was only seventeen, but he was working out well as his grandfather’s personal secretary, patiently making several copies of important papers to be sent on different ships bound for home in the hope that at least one copy would arrive safely. The Passy household was complete when the wise and enchanting Edward Bancroft arrived to act as general secretary of the mission.
Dr. Bancroft was an old friend of Franklin’s from his London days. Born in Massachusetts in 1744, Bancroft was just of age when he settled in London, but he was already a notable scientist and writer. He had spent years in Surinam and was an expert on tropical plants; he had written a natural history of Guiana and perfected new vegetable dyes for cloth. A member of the Royal College of Physicians, in 1773 he was elected to the Royal Society under the sponsorship of Franklin, the astronomer royal, and the king’s physician. Bancroft belonged to the American patriot group in London and wrote able papers defending the cause of the thirteen colonies.
When Deane left Philadelphia on his mission to France, Franklin suggested that Edward Bancroft would be a useful consultant on European affairs, and so it proved. He spent much of the latter half of 1776 in Paris as mentor to the inexperienced American, and the close friendship thus begun lasted as long as Deane lived. At Passy Bancroft was a loved and trusted figure, and Vergennes so admired him that after the war he sent Bancroft on a highly confidential mission to Ireland.
Sixty years after his death the incredible truth came out. Edward Bancroft had been in British pay since 1772. He was the “Edward Edwards” of the secret service, the master spy of the century. He was never suspected by anybody but Arthur Lee, who suspected everybody but his own secretaries, who were almost invariably British agents.
As a weapon of war the British secret service was remarkably effective. It was run, personally and in great detail, by George III himself, who spent hours reading the reports of agents scattered over America, the West Indies, and Europe. The King was tireless, and only the quirks and massive stubbornness which were part of his psychosis would now and then hamper the working of his great information machine. He would not believe reports which meant bad news for England, or fully credit those which came from spies whose personal lives this virtuous burgher disapproved.
Lord North relayed the meticulous royal commands to the secret service, whose active head during the war was William Eden, a genius at directing espionage. His key man for American contacts was Paul Wentworth of New Hampshire, who before the war had been the London agent for that colony and after the war was elected a trustee of Dartmouth College, to which he had presented scientific apparatus. In the interval, quite unsuspected by his compatriots, he did high-level work for Eden.
Wentworth recruited Bancroft into the service and supervised his work in Paris closely, never quite sure of his loyalty to England. George III was uneasy about both Americans because they gambled wildly in stocks and kept mistresses. However, when Franklin arrived in Paris, Bancroft was in an ideal position to watch the King’s most dangerous enemy, and he made a good bargain with the secret service. He had a large family and expensive tastes, and needed and loved money. His contract with Wentworth gave him £500 down, the same amount as yearly salary, and a life pension.
In mortal terror of discovery, Bancroft was always called “Edwards” or some other cover name in the secret files, and even in private conferences with Wentworth and Lord Stormont. Since Wentworth often slipped across to Paris, much of Bancroft’s information could be delivered verbally, but he made a weekly report in writing.
These reports were written in invisible ink between the lines of love letters addressed to “Mr. Richardson” (Bancroft’s tiny, curiously contorted script was almost feminine). A box tree on the south terrace of the Tuileries Gardens had a convenient hollow under the trunk, and into this hole a bottle containing the gallant letter was let down by a string. Every Tuesday evening an agent of Stormont would pick up the letter and leave another with new instructions. The British were methodical.
In his contract Bancroft agreed to a long list of particulars. He was to steal all original papers possible from the commissioners, and copy others. He must gather exhaustive information on the mission’s dealings with Congress, with Versailles, with merchants shipping out contraband. Bancroft was to report on the movements of American privateers and trading vessels in European waters, and relations between the West Indies and continental America. Anything he could learn about the mission’s connections with Spain and other countries was wanted.
The British had many other secret agents in France, and other avenues of information. Anthony Todd, secretary of the General Post Office, read Franklin’s letters to people in England. Moreover, every port in Europe was under the surveillance of the British Admiralty’s intelligence service, directed from Rotterdam by Madame Marguerite Wolters, widow of the former chief.
But Bancroft was in the most strategic position of any informer, and his conduct at Passy was mysterious. Franklin was a shrewd judge of men, and his unclouded confidence in Bancroft needs some extraordinary explanation. Bancroft was a supreme spy, but he preserved a curious code of his own, almost a code of honor, about what he would or would not do. He often held back information or distorted it, and Wentworth sensed this and by summer made him take an oath before he delivered an oral report. It is significant that while the Americans and French trusted Bancroft implicitly, the British were always suspicious of him, had his letters opened at the post office, and watched his movements.
While a gifted and expert secret agent can develop a second personality which keeps him from making slips, in Bancroft’s case this doubling of self may have reflected a profound split in the psyche. His affection for Franklin and Deane had the ring of sincerity, and years later, when Deane was of no possible use to him, he was still the devoted friend. Perhaps the greater part of Edward Bancroft was truly American. His contacts with his British employers revealed a quite different side, deformed by cupidity and fear.
Franklin faced the critical year of 1777 with the knowledge that the British fleet would pound American hopes to nothing unless France and Britain began their ordained war. France had 26 battleships ready, and by spring Spain would have thirty. Franklin looked upon these fleets with the lust of a patriot whose country was in mortal danger for lack of their support.
Plainly neither side wanted to start hostilities, and they had perfected a system for avoiding a rupture. Whenever Stormont got good evidence that France was shipping contraband to America or admitting American prizes to her ports, he drove to Versailles to make a formal protest. Vergennes would promise to investigate the matter, which meant that Stormont had lost a point. In the matter of the Hortalez ships, it was Vergennes who had yielded. By this process of elastic diplomacy the amenities were preserved while both sides gained time for war preparations and spared their exchequers the drain of active hostilities.
In short, England and the Bourbons had tacitly agreed that their war might be postponed indefinitely—and while they dallied, physical danger and sickening of hope were paralyzing America. Too much depended on Franklin. Congress demanded impossibilities of him: a huge loan which France could not afford, French battleships and seamen, and the prompt entrance of the Bourbons into the war. Like a good diplomat, he conveyed these urgent demands to the ministries in a most persuasive form, but he had already gauged the situation in the royal courts and expected no miracles.
However, he had proved to himself more than once that prodigies could result from careful planning and unstinted effort. Whatever disaster happened in 1777, he wanted to build a friendship between the French and American peoples which would last for many generations, and he calmly laid the foundations of that friendship in his own daily associations. His widening circle of intimates included people of great influence: Masons, scientists and scholars, men and women of the aristocracy. No man of his century could approach Franklin as a subtle and effective propagandist.
This long-range program was necessary, but it did not change the fact that the lumbering and inefficient British war machine had at last got itself oiled and repaired for a heavy assault upon the United States. Franklin had already done his utmost with the ministry, and there was nothing left but a new experiment—what would much later be called psychological warfare. In order to bring the reluctant enemies to blows he had to influence chiefly two men: George III, who was just as set against a French war as he was adamant in the American conflict, and Vergennes, the mentor of a young and inexperienced king.
Vergennes had patiently dissembled France’s violations of neutrality in one encounter after the other with Stormont. How long could he continue? There must be a breaking point somewhere in his patience. Only a frayed rope anchored the nations to peace, and Franklin believed that an implement lay ready to hand which would saw through the hawser.
Before he left Philadelphia Franklin had written with Morris certain instructions for Captain Wickes: he was to cruise against the British in their home waters, and bring his prizes into a French port. This was the germ of the deliberate policy Franklin and Deane pursued during 1777: to create such an open scandal about French connivance in American raids that it could not be effervesced in private conversations between Stormont and Vergennes. After the scheme had been put into effect they explained the mechanism to their committee: “For though the fitting out [of an American vessel in a French port] may be covered and concealed by various pretenses, so at least to be winked at by the Government here … yet the bringing in of prizes by a vessel so fitted out is so notorious an act, and so contrary to treaties, that if suffered must cause an immediate war.”
Knowing George III as he did, Franklin realized the importance of insulting him while all Europe looked on. The King was progressing from the swaddling clothes of a dominant mother to the strait jacket of his manic seizures, and even in his long periods of sanity his balance was precarious. He had corrupted his government from Lord North down in the hope of buying security for himself. He welcomed routine, even a pernicious routine, but any crisis produced a violent reaction. He had put up for a long time with colonial violations of the trading laws, but when the Boston Tea Party made him look ridiculous, George III precipitated the war. He was lulled by the specious truce with France—but how would he feel if Captain Wickes captured a royal packet carrying the royal mails?
On January 24 Wickes sailed out of Nantes with a French pilot and several French seamen aboard, strengthening the desired impression of collusion with Versailles. He made for the English Channel, where he took four small merchantmen, which he sent to Lorient under prize masters. Then he captured the King’s packet Swallow , running between Falmouth and Lisbon. Though the mail vessel was lightly armed she gave Wickes some trouble, and one of his seamen was killed and a lieutenant wounded.
England registered the expected sense of outrage; the whole country seethed with the news. When Stormont appeared at Versailles Vergennes assured him that the Reprisal and her prizes had been ordered to leave French waters within 24 hours. Nobody could find the prizes, which had been sold. As for the Reprisal , anchored at Lorient, she suddenly sprang a leak, and international usage allowed a ship in distress harbor privileges until she was fit to sail. Much later Wentworth revealed the trick: the night before the official inspection Wickes had pumped water into the hold. He now careened his ship and cleaned the hull at his leisure while the excitement died down.
Shortly after this, Parliament authorized British privateering. The move was long overdue, for the Americans had been making a brilliant success of their sea raids all over the Atlantic and the Caribbean. Many of them were now flocking to Europe, for the word had been passed of the hospitality of French and Spanish ports if the proper techniques of evasion were followed. Franklin wrote his Committee of Foreign Affairs of “the prodigious success of our armed ships and privateers.” London merchants had lost nearly £2,000,000 in their West Indies trade, and insurance had soared to 28 per cent, he boasted.
Soon Franklin and Deane had a group of young men busy in the various ports, helping merchantmen and privateers speed on their way, informing them of shifts in French regulations and dangerous areas patrolled by British warships, recruiting French seamen to fill out depleted ships’ companies, finding masters for ships and ships for masters. Arthur Lee, who would have ruined the secret project if he had been in Paris to interfere with it, was busy elsewhere. Deane, Carmichael, and Jonathan Williams were on the watch for daring and trustworthy captains for Admiral Franklin’s strategic naval force. They found the star of them all in Dunkirk.
Young Gustavus Conyngham of the landed Irish gentry had emigrated as a boy to Philadelphia where his relatives were prominent shipping merchants. Schooled in the Caribbean trade, he was ready for the ticklish work of running arms from Europe before the war began, and displayed such gifts for evading British snoopers in a highly spectacular way that their reports on Conyngham had the quality of a picaresque saga. Thus he was the perfect performer in maritime histrionics that Franklin needed for his plan of implicating France in a conspicuous insult to England.
Captain Conyngham had lost his ship on the last voyage, and was given command of the Surprise , a lugger newly bought for Congress. He came down to Passy to receive one of the captain’s commissions Franklin was empowered to issue, and then Carmichael took charge of him. Every step in preparing the lugger for a cruise was watched by the British in Dunkirk. During the last eighteen months Conyngham had been in and out of the port, always hull down before the British realized he had vanished, and this time they were determined to get him.
It was a fine moment for his debut. By April American privateers had taken so many British seamen prisoner that the British fleet was not half manned, and Stormont hinted to Vergennes that peace could not last much longer if France continued to arm the United States. Vergennes had answered, “Nous ne dé sirons pas la guerre, mais nous ne la craignons pas.” In sending on this encouraging word to Congress, Franklin added his own hopes about the Franco-British war: “When all are ready for it, a small matter may suddenly bring it on.”
The small matter was to be Conyngham’s capture of another British packet, this time the one plying to Holland. Somehow the wild Irishman, repeating the maneuver of the sound and sober Wickes, created an infinitely greater reaction. On the third day of May he seized the Prince of Orange and brought her into Dunkirk, along with a British brig picked up on the way. The sacred British mails were rushed down to Passy, and then the storm broke at Versailles.
Vergennes, facing a furious Stormont, knew he had been caught red-handed in a raid on the English mails by a ship fitted out in a French port. There was nothing to do but restore the packet and the brig to England and order the arrest of Conyngham and his crew. He made this gesture impressive by sending two sloops of war to Dunkirk to take the captain and his men and deliver them to the local jail.
The arrest did much to soothe British wrath. George III was delighted and directed Lord North to stress in Parliament this proof of France’s intention “to keep appearances.” The next step would be to force France to deliver Conyngham to Britain for hanging as a pirate. Vergennes kept him safe in jail, for the minister was co-operating with Franklin’s policy up to a dangerous point.
One result of the raid by the “Dunkirk Pirate” was the fact that British merchants no longer trusted the Admiralty’s ability to protect British ships. “For the first time since Britain was a maritime power,” Deane wrote Morris, “the River Thames and others of its ports were crowded with French and other ships taking in freight, in order to avoid the risk of having property captured.”
Franklin and Deane now wrote the committee urging action in every sea where British carried on commerce. They asked that frigates be sent over by August to cruise against England’s Baltic trade and attack the British Isles.
Still hopeful that Congress had ships to command, they spoke of raids on Greenland whalers and Hudson Bay fishing fleets, and urged that Navy ships convoy shipping in the Caribbean, since England would now send privateers and heavy units of her fleet there.
Carmichael wrote a strong-action letter to William Bingham on Martinique, mincing no words as to the policy being carried out in France: “I think your situation of singular consequence to bring on a war so necessary to assure our independence, and which the weak system of this court seems studiously to avoid. … As such is their miserable policy, it is our business to force on a war … for which purpose I see nothing so likely as fitting our privateers from the ports and islands of France. Here we are too near the sun, and the business is dangerous; with you it may be done more easily.”
He went on with suggestions for arming vessels in Martinique and manning them with French seamen, which must have amused Bingham, who was already busy at this very work. He and his friend the Marquis de Bouille, the new governor of Martinique, had a privateer fleet with American masters and French and Spanish crews which was making itself felt in the Caribbean. Bingham was in other privateering ventures with Robert Morris and had made St. Pierre a virtual American war base.
Late in May Captain Wickes made a cruise quite around Ireland in company with two other captains and captured eighteen small vessels. They sent eight of them to France and got back safely. George III now realized that the purpose behind the Wickes and Conyngham raids was to stir him up against France, which only increased his fury. Stormont was instructed to tell Vergennes that the “Rebels’” game was up.
Vergennes too recognized the subtle strategy behind the cruises, and he was coming to the decision that war could not be postponed much longer. To gain time, he placated Stormont by arresting the three Wickes vessels (which kept them safe from the British warships on patrol) and by promising that the new cutter being fitted for Conyngham would be sold. Stormont subsided; England needed time too.
Conyngham was still in the Dunkirk jail, the only safe place for him. His new cutter, the Revenge , had been bought by William Hodge of Philadelphia, who had also obtained Conyngham’s first ship. This well-connected young man had been sent direct from Congress to buy two ships to serve as packets for the mission. Almost every transaction carried out for Congress was a mixture of public and private business, an accepted practice. The Revenge was owned half by Congress and half by Hodge and David Conyngham, a wealthy cousin of the captain’s who was on a business trip to Europe.
When Vergennes’s orders came through to sell the Revenge , nobody was alarmed. It meant only the familiar rite of “changing the property” on paper. Carmichael, who was still the liaison man between Passy and Dunkirk, found an obliging British subject as the ostensible purchaser of the Revenge , and while he was about it he sold the Surprise to a French “buyer” and sent her around to Nantes to join the privateer fleet.
Conyngham lusted for his fine new cutter, which mounted 14 six-pounders and 22 swivels, and would have a crew of more than a hundred American and French seamen. By late June the captain and his men were released from jail, and the Revenge was loaded with powder and arms. A week later she was halfway out of the harbor when a British sloop and cutter were sighted. Conyngham hastily sailed back to his berth and unloaded the powder. These British snoopers were the very ones who had quarantined the American powder runners in Amsterdam in 1774, and they came with orders to burn the Revenge if she sailed out. Besides, five British warships blockaded the harbor. It looked like a checkmate.
But in mid-July Conyngham took his unharmed cutter out to sea and anchored at a safe rendezvous. That night boats brought his cannon and powder and a number of French seamen, and the Dunkirk Pirate was on his way. A disguised British vessel at Dunkirk had alerted the warships, and as soon as the Revenge was in the open sea she was chased by several British frigates, sloops of war, and cutters. Conyngham shook them off and began the most spectacular cruise of the war.
He raided in the North Sea and the Baltic; he sailed around England and then around Ireland, everywhere taking prizes. He burned some and sent others to America, the West Indies, or whatever theater of war seemed to need their cargoes most. He terrorized the towns on the east coast of England and Scotland. He seemed to be everywhere at once, a nightmare figure. Finally, not daring to return to France, he made for Cap Ferrol in Spain.
One of Conyngham’s prizes was recaptured by the British, who took her into Yarmouth. The prize crew of five Americans and sixteen Frenchmen were put in prison, and the prize master was forced to confess that Conyngham had made other captures. The first British protests were made to the French ambassador, Noailles, who blandly replied that “in a great nation there are many turbulent spirits eager to run after adventures.” He did not attempt to have his turbulent compatriots released from prison.
Stormont then delivered to Vergennes threats only a step removed from war. If Conyngham was not punished, Stormont would resign, breaking off diplomatic relations with France. Moreover, orders would be given for British warships to seize the French fishing fleet daily expected from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
Vergennes, who had confidently hoped to receive these protests under very different circumstances, was forced to buy a little more time at the expense of his American friends. He agreed to investigate the matter.
By the middle of July Vergennes had made up his mind to ask the King for armed intervention. He waited until the Revenge was safely out of Dunkirk, and then he and the commissioners exchanged letters, purely to clear the record, about the necessity of France abiding by her treaties, which meant no more violations by American privateers.
That formality over, Vergennes was ready for his great move. On July 23 he wrote a memoir to Louis XVI declaring that the moment had come when France must resolve “either to abandon America or to aid her courageously and effectively.” He urged a closer alliance to prevent a reunion of Britain and America. Secret aid was no longer sufficient, he argued, for the British claimed that the policy of the Bourbons was to destroy England by means of the Americans, and America by means of the British. Vergennes admitted that open assistance to the United States meant war, but war was in any case inevitable.
In the last months the King had relinquished his illusion that war could be avoided, and he approved his minister’s memoir the day it was presented. Because of the Family Compact, Spain would have to approve the alliance with America, and accordingly Vergennes’s memoir was sent to Madrid with its proposal for a triple offensive and defensive alliance.
Spain had been fighting Portugal in South America and had favored just such an alliance with the hope of getting Portugal as her share of the plunder. Now the picture had entirely changed, and Spain hoped to make peace with the new king on the Portuguese throne. Floridablanca’s policies prevailed; he wanted to keep the United States too weak to threaten Spanish possessions in America. Charles III refused the triple alliance. Louis XVI was helpless; he dared not begin the war without Spain.
This was a bitter blow to Vergennes and a calamity to the Americans. Franklin’s experiment had been a complete success in the laboratory sense; the sea raids had brought England and France to the verge of war. But he had not reckoned on the reversal of Spanish policy. Nor had Vergennes, who was extremely cool in his calculations. He had connived in the Conyngham raid in the confidence that the next time Stormont came fuming into his Cabinet with threats of war, he could hand the pestiferous ambassador his portfolio and wish him a pleasant old age in England.
Now he must placate Stormont. He had come to the point where he must drop his perilous but always enjoyable collaboration with Franklin and play for France alone. He could not punish Conyngham, who was in parts unknown, so he had William Hodge arrested and sent to the Bastille.
Hodge was not released until the last of the fishing fleet was safely home in France. He soon went down to Spain, where Conyngham was taking fresh prizes.
Athur Lee’s mission to Spain had done nothing to warm her heart to America. The letter announcing his imminent arrival in Madrid was received with consternation. It was February, and the ominous shift in the ministry from the friendly Grimaldi to the hostile Floridablanca was taking place. The King was always anxious to avoid friction with England, and Lee’s visit would arouse her suspicions.
It happened that America’s greatest Spanish friend, the merchant Don Diego Gardoqui of Bilbao, was in Madrid at the moment, and he was called into consultation. He had high connections at the court, which did not at all disapprove his heavy shipments of arms to American merchants, and later he was appointed ambassador to the United States. Gardoqui proposed a sensible solution: he and the retiring foreign minister, Grimaldi, would arrange a secret rendezvous just across the border, and Lee would not enter Spain at all.
In the kindest of letters, Gardoqui explained the situation to the approaching envoy and suggested a meeting on the French side of the border. Since this ruined Arthur Lee’s flattering picture of himself as America’s first envoy to Madrid, he was enraged. He insisted on holding the conferences on Spanish soil at Vitoria; he wrote an ungracious memoir to Grimaldi and crossed the border.
Despite his own best efforts, Lee’s mission turned out to be a success. Grimaldi told him that the King was presenting the Americans stores of arms, clothing, and blankets which their ships could pick up at New Orleans and Havana. He was also making them a gift of 375,000 livres. For his part, Gardoqui promised to ship other stores on liberal credit.
Since Charles III had already contributed a million livres to Hortalez & Company, and allowed New Orleans to become an American privateer base, he may well have thought that he had done his share. After Lee’s visit he proffered no more aid and listened to Floridablanca.
Lee next stormed Prussia. A clever negotiator could have done much there, for Frederick the Great despised the British and the little German states that sold them mercenaries; he took a lively interest in the progress of the American war and was ready to expand Prussia’s trade with the Americans, which so far had been clandestine.
With great fanfare Lee proposed to make Prussia a second France. He demanded every favor under heaven and even wrote Frederick (who refused to receive him) a preposterous letter, in effect telling him how he could run his kingdom better. The chief results of the mission were the snuffing out of Prussia as a potential ally, and the theft of Lee’s papers by a professional burglar hired by the British ambassador. Among the papers was Lee’s private journal with a log of his Spanish transactions and details of every move made by the Paris mission up to that June.
As a result of Lee’s carelessness in leaving his portfolio in his room when he went out to dine, the commissioners had to abandon the building of a great frigate in Amsterdam, and she was sold to Louis XVI at cost. Their difficulties in shipping out supplies to America were also greatly increased, for Lee had set down everything he could learn without coding it.
He returned to Paris with his usual air of pompous impeccability, for his conscience was light. Some inner mechanism in the Lee genes transmuted whatever was wrong with the Lees into something much worse that was wrong with their enemies. He was delighted to find his brother William waiting for him in Paris. Due to the fantastic time lag in communications with Congress, Alderman Lee was about to take up his assignment as joint commercial agent for France ten months after Congress had canceled that assignment and appointed him envoy to Prussia and Austria.
Though he knew that affairs at Nantes were in a frightful state, William Lee lingered in Paris until August to confer with his brother about rearranging American foreign affairs to enhance the family glory. The first move was to eliminate Franklin and Deane by creating a scandal in Congress about their peculation of public funds. Much paper would be required for their letter campaign, and a spate of words would cover their omission of proofs. All that was needed was to add up the amount of money the mission had received, and then tell the Adams-Lee bloc in Congress that Franklin and Deane had stolen it.
William Lee opened the campaign against Deane in a letter to Francis Lightfoot Lee. “You can’t at this time,” he wrote, “be unacquainted with the faithless principles, the low, dirty intrigue, the selfish views, & the wicked arts of a certain race of Men, &, believe me, a full crop of these qualities you sent in the first instance from Philadelphia to Paris.”
Arthur Lee then followed with a letter to Samuel Adams which revealed his definite plan to supplant Franklin. The court of France, he wrote, “is the great wheel that moves them all” and he added that of all posts he preferred Paris for himself. On the same day he wrote Richard Henry Lee: “My idea of adapting characters and places is this: Dr. Franklin to Vienna, as the first, most respectable, and quiet; Mr. Deane to Holland; and the alderman [William] to Berlin. … France remains the center of political activity, and here, therefore, I should choose to be employed.”
He went on to suggest how Franklin and Deane might be erased altogether. Once he was installed as sole envoy in Paris, “I should have it in my power to call those to account, through whose hands I know the public money has passed, and which will either never be accounted for, or misaccounted for, by connivance between those, who are to share in the public plunder. If this scheme can be executed, it will disconcert all the plans at one stroke, without an appearance of intention, and save both the public and me.”
Just a year after independence was declared the Americans lost Fort Ticonderoga to Burgoyne, and on September 26 Howe entered Philadelphia. Vergennes was so disheartened by the bad news which had arrived even before these disasters were known, and he so much dreaded a sudden declaration of war by Britain, that in August he formally closed the ports of France to American privateers and their prizes. Franklin and Deane co-operated with him by being very discreet about evading this prohibition, but the year which had begun so brilliantly in maritime operations was in the doldrums.
British spies were everywhere. Bancroft was still the mission confidant at Passy; certain Americans who sat at Deane’s dinner table reported on ship movements to the British secret service, and Captain Joseph Hynson, who happened to be Lambert Wickes’s stepbrother, stole an entire pouch of dispatches intended for Congress, which contained all the secret correspondence between the mission and the French ministry for the last eight months. This theft was not discovered until the pouch was opened in America and proved to contain nothing but the blank paper substituted by Hynson. The stench of treachery was in the air.
Franklin comforted himself by beginning his magnificent work for the prisoners at Forton and the Old Mill in England, masters and men of the Continental Navy and the privateer fleet who were classed as pirates by George III and who sickened and starved in his antiquated prisons. Through English friends Franklin raised funds to give the prisoners warm clothes and blankets, food, a chance to bathe and wash their clothes, and spending money for small comforts. With Deane and Carmichael, and all those shadowy young Americans who helped the great privateering drive of 1777, he organized an underground system for escapes.
A phenomenal number of men escaped Old Mill Prison at Plymouth; they scaled the walls, dug long tunnels under them, or bribed the guards to let them through the gates. Before they escaped they were furnished money and instructions about English allies who would get them across the Channel, and French merchants at the ports who would then take care of them. On his first escape from Old Mill in 1779, Conyngham tunneled out with 53 companions. Franklin labored incessantly to get prisoners exchanged in the time-honored way, with only partial success. He refused to sign the final peace treaty with England until all American prisoners were released.
Affairs at Nantes became more and more tangled, and William Lee did nothing to straighten them out. Tom Morris was dragging out the last months of his wretched life, and Lee saw no point in beating a dead horse. He decided that Jonathan Williams, the soul of probity, should be drawn into the Lee crusade against all rivals, and soon Congress was hearing about Williams’ “embezzlements of public funds.” Franklin prudently released his grandnephew from his post as special agent for the mission, and he remained in Nantes in private business. But the harm had been done.
Apprehensive as he was about Britain, Vergennes risked war to release Captain Wickes and Captain Henry Johnson, who had sailed in company with him on the Irish cruise, from their long protective arrest in port. (The third captain of that cruise was staying behind to take out one of the new American frigates built at Nantes.) Vergennes decided that honor was preferable to peace, faced down an ultimatum from England, and got the two Navy ships safely to sea, where they would have to take their chances with the British warships waiting for them. Johnson was captured and sent to the Old Mill, from which he soon escaped. Wickes got clean away, only to founder in a storm off the Banks of Newfoundland. Every man aboard was lost except the cook.
The news of Howe’s occupation of Philadelphia arrived in November as the climax of an excruciating period in which Franklin’s own campaign had reached a stalemate. The great powers seemed less inclined than ever to begin their war. Spain had ceased her royal aids to America. The greater part of the American seaboard was tightly blockaded, and the whole Atlantic was so unsafe that Dutch shipments to Statia now went out under heavy convoy. The Channel Islands privateers were out in force, and the maritime war in Europe, which could no longer be closely directed from Passy, was in a state of anarchy.
In mid-November George III, who had no intention of starting a war with France, decided it would be useful to know the Spanish plans and sent Paul Wentworth to Paris to find out how Charles III stood. Bancroft was in a balky mood but finally gave the desired information: Spain was not ready for a war with England.
For once Wentworth brought the King good news, the only kind he could ever believe. He wrote Lord North that the agent “has shewn great zeal and dispatch in the business he had so handsomely undertaken and ably accomplished.”
There was no good news at Passy. Franklin could make his quip about Philadelphia taking Howe while he privately worried about his family and friends there, about Washington’s reverses, and the dreadful paralysis that had seized the French ministry. He had reached an impasse: France would not help America unless America showed promise of winning her war, and America could not win without French help. The winter of Valley Forge was beginning, and its bleakness was in the comfortable house at Passy too. Only a great heart and a great faith could survive.
Deane’s griefs were personal. His beloved wife had died, and his best friend Robert Morris had thrown him over because he had told the truth about Tom. Morris was as stubborn as George III about refusing to believe bad news, but when he was finally convinced of his mistake he was full of contrition. The misunderstanding was cleared up, but meanwhile Deane was bitter about Morris and bitter about the energies he had poured into his public life, only to be systematically destroyed by the Lees.
Their poison letter campaign was reinforced by the arrival of Ralph Izard, a southern planter and rancid snob. He was a bosom friend of Alderman Lee and had accepted his appointment by the Adams-Lee bloc in Congress as envoy to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He had sent some of his baggage ahead to Florence, never dreaming that an Izard would not be received in the duchy.
However, the Grand Duke was not receiving Mr. Izard or any American, so he remained in Paris near William Lee, who had been similarly repulsed by two courts: Vienna and Berlin. They were the victims of their friends in Congress, who believed in promiscuous diplomacy as a device for distributing patronage.
Franklin insisted that Arthur Lee was mad, and perhaps only a madman could have created a cabal of such malignity and scope out of nothing but his own emotions. The dreadful thing is that Arthur Lee’s nightmare was accepted by perfectly sane men and that it not only outlived the Eighteenth Century but has persisted in a shadowy form into the Twentieth. Even respected modern historians will repeat some of Arthur Lee’s calumnies about Franklin and Deane, Jonathan Williams, and William Carmichael, though they have been disproved over and over since their creation in a sick mind.
By the summer of 1777 Arthur Lee openly accused Deane and Beaumarchais of appropriating £200,000 which he said the Bourbons had intended as a free gift to America. The copies of his early correspondence with Beaumarchais proved that he knew better. In November Congress resolved to recall Deane for questioning, and sent John Adams to take his place in the mission. No charge was made against Deane, but for two years Congress kept him in Philadelphia at its pleasure while the press vilified him. He left the rack ruined in fortune, health, and mind, and openly went over to the British.
The campaign against Franklin, “the father of mischief,” took longer because, as Izard confessed in a letter to the president of Congress, Henry Laurens, it was extremely difficult to find any proofs of his crimes. However, Izard and Arthur Lee let no day pass without earnest efforts, and on January 2, 1781, a move was made in Congress for Franklin’s recall. At the first hint of this the Doctor tendered his resignation, which to his relief was not accepted.
The glorious news of General Gates’s victory at Saratoga reached Passy about the first of December, 1777, by a Charleston ship, and on the fourth it was confirmed by Jonathan Loring Austin, secretary of the Massachusetts Board of War, who had rushed to France in a specially chartered vessel. America’s first decisive victory held the promise of the final one at Yorktown. As America’s sole diplomat Franklin had done all that one man could do to influence the ministries of Europe. Now he felt the reinforcement of those thousands of his countrymen who had won the campaign in the North. The American people had shown their power. And the French people, cheering in the streets and squares, were as proud of Saratoga, he wrote home, “as if it had been a Victory of their own Troops over their own Enemies.”
Beaumarchais was with the three commissioners when the official messenger arrived. He had made Saratoga possible. His Amphitrite and Mercure were already home, having delivered their supplies at Portsmouth—gunpowder and blankets and clothing, sixty cannon, and 12,000 stand of arms.
Soon Beaumarchais’s coach was tearing down the road to Paris so fast that it overturned and he injured an arm. The story goes that he was rushing to play the stock market, and no doubt he was. But the accident was symbolic: Hortalez & Company had suffered a bouleversement . The romantic era of secret aid was finished; there would be no more subsidies and loans from Versailles, and his company was already in financial straits.
A sensible man would have liquidated Hortalez & Company at once. If he had been a mere speculator in gunrunning like many of his compatriots, or an appropriator of Bourbon funds, as Arthur Lee claimed, he would have seen that the game was up. But Beaumarchais was on a crusade for American independence, and he would not drop it until independence was won. Hortalez & Company now became what it had always pretended to be—a private concern—and he kept on sending supplies to the United States until after Yorktown.
Then and then only did he dissolve his company, which had spent over 42,000,000 livres, mostly for America, and most of it never paid back. He supported his private investment in the American future by using his fleet of a dozen ships for Caribbean trade on the return voyage to France, and this sugar trade brought him profits to invest in more goods for America.
Vergennes, on that December day of jubilation, did some cooler thinking of his own and rightly guessed that the British would try to effect a conciliation with the Americans before they won any more campaigns. He sent his first secretary, Gérard de Rayvenal, to Passy with his congratulations and the suggestion that Franklin might now press the treaty negotiation which France had avoided for nearly a year. Louis XVI was making a new advance of 3,000,000 livres to Congress.
The treaties of amity and commerce were promptly offered. They were based on the Plan of 1776, drafted chiefly by Franklin, and they laid down his cherished, and essentially modern, principles of free trade and settled the wholly new problem of how a republic should conduct its relations with a kingdom. In a word, Franklin laid the cornerstone of American foreign relations, and for a long time to come American treaties would be modeled on these first ones with France.
Modern as they were, and involving as they did a certain war with Britain, these treaties were provisionally accepted on December 12 by Louis XVI and his ministers. Gérard, calling at Passy that evening, gave the commissioners a full report of the Cabinet meeting. To forestall a truce with Britain, the ministers had stipulated that the United States must make no peace that surrendered her independence. And Spanish concurrence in the alliance must be won. A courier was on his way to Madrid, and the decision of Charles III should be known within three weeks. Meanwhile, Gérard warned, the negotiations must be kept secret.
Nothing was a dead secret at Passy. The two Lees and Izard were busily writing letters about the expected alliance. Arthur Lee’s secretary, Major John Thornton, was not only British but British secret service. Bancroft had sped to London, mainly to make a killing on the stock market, but he would not fail to bring George III the bad news.
Franklin and Vergennes, knowing that Arthur Lee was dangerous as well as disagreeable, kept him out of the treaty negotiations as much as possible. For months, in fact, Franklin and Deane had slipped away in the evening for conferences with the minister, and Lee spread the word that the Doctor was having an affair with some French beauty.
The idling envoys to Vienna, Berlin, and Tuscany not only buzzed around Passy day after day but tried to rewrite Franklin’s treaties. Arthur Lee knew he was being kept out of important conferences, and yet within a few months he was writing friends that he alone had negotiated the French alliance, though Franklin and Deane tried to take credit for the work. “It was with the greatest difficulty,” he wrote, “I persuaded them to insist on the recognition of our sovereignty, and the acknowledgement of our independence. These were proposed by your friend [A. Lee], evaded by his colleagues.”
On the very day the French ministry decided for the alliance, Paul Wentworth was back in Paris. Lord North had instructed him to explore the possibility of a truce on terms short of independence, and William Eden had given him an unsigned letter to show Franklin and Deane (the British too avoided Arthur Lee) which declared that England was ready to make great concessions—short of independence.
He was annoyed to find that Bancroft was in London, making contact with the mission rather difficult. But he had met Deane, and wrote him asking for a rendezvous, hinting that he had come to promote peace. He signed only his initials.
This was interesting; evidently the expected overture from England was at hand. Wentworth’s connection with the secret service was not suspected; Franklin regarded him as a former patriot who had joined the Tory ranks and must be treated with caution. Deane arranged to meet Wentworth at dinner a day or so later, and Franklin took care to tell the minister what was afoot. A little pressure on Vergennes would do no harm.
Vergennes was alarmed. Before Deane and Wentworth met, he sent word to Passy that France would after all not wait for word from Spain but would conclude the alliance independently, on one condition: that no separate peace be made with England.
After this momentous decision of December 17, Deane’s meeting with Wentworth was a decided anticlimax. All George III had to offer his erring children, who would of course return to colonial status, was the repeal of the obnoxious acts since 1763, which had precipitated the war. Wentworth reported to Eden that he had found Deane “vain, desultory and subtle” and indeed the commissioner must have had some difficulty keeping a straight face.
Wentworth did not give up, and in a conference the next day he offered America a few more concessions, purely on his own authority. Then he tried to tempt Deane with the “honours and emoluments” which the King would bestow on him if he brought about a reconciliation. But Deane was not interested; he showed “great American pride,” Wentworth wrote Eden. He added, “Take care that America and the West Indies don’t glide through our fingers.”
It was three weeks before Wentworth managed to get an interview with Franklin, and he spent the interval in terror of imprisonment and even assassination by the French, whose agents were around him in clouds. He refused, when his mission was over, to return to his once beloved Paris.
George III, faced with plain warnings from Bancroft and Wentworth that a French alliance was pending, would not believe them. Wentworth, he wrote North, “is an avowed stock jobber and … I never let that go out of my mind. … Bancroft is entirely an American and … every word he used on the late occasion was to deceive; perhaps they think Mr. Wentworth has been sent from motives of fear and if that is Franklin’s opinion the whole conduct he has shewn, is wise and to me it [unravels] what other ways would appear inexplicable.”
On the last day of the year the bad news arrived from Spain: Charles III was unwilling to enter an alliance with America. Franklin remembered the bitter crisis of the summer when Louis XVI had agreed to armed intervention and then had capitulated to his uncle. This must not happen again. The time had come to invite Wentworth in.
On January 6 Wentworth was closeted for two hours with Franklin and Deane, having stipulated that Arthur Lee was to be excluded. He gave the Doctor the unsigned letter from Eden, which said that Britain was ready to fight for another ten years rather than grant American independence.
“America,” Franklin retorted, “is ready to fight fifty years to win it.”
The conversation continued with this sort of exchange, and Franklin kept it going for two hours. That was its only point; Vergennes would soon learn of this long interview with the British representative, and he might be worried if Franklin neglected to tell him anything about it. Accordingly, the Doctor held his peace.
A few hours later Vergennes warned his royal master that it looked very much as if Britain had at last offered America her independence, opening the way to an alliance with the motherland. Had France lost the race for American friendship? His sense of competition for the favor of America was plain in the letter he immediately wrote the French ambassador at Madrid. “The power which first recognizes the independence of the Americans,” he said, “will be the one to gather all the fruits of this war.”
The next day the Crown Council decided to conclude the alliance, and Vergennes rushed word to Passy that France would carry out her secret agreement of December 17 and fight at America’s side until her independence was won.
Vergennes may never have realized what had happened during that fateful year of 1777. A year ago America had been a counter on the board of Old World rivalries, a piece to be moved here and there as the calculations of the powers dictated. In their eyes she was still colonial, an outlying province of Europe. Now she was acknowledged as a nation in her own right, a nation whose treaties protected her commerce on the seas and her growing space on land, a rising people for whose friendship Britain and France must compete. Franklin knew what he had won for his beloved country. | <urn:uuid:67be6c31-fed3-4db6-a53f-bfe223a59b06> | {
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Drama Online contains hundreds of plays from some of the very earliest Greek works right up to the present day. In addition there are background and contextual works on playwrights, theatre movements, genres, practitioners and periods, as well as scholarly monographs, biographies, practical books on acting and stage craft, and over five hundred theatre production stills from the Victoria and Albert Museum Performance collection.
How to access it:
Go to the Drama Subject Guide and look under E-resources.
1. Go to the Databases A-Z guide on the library subject guides.
2. Go to D
3. Select Drama Online
Use the search bar at the top of the page to search for a play, a playwright, genre, or period – or use the links below to browse the collection.
Plays: this section contains full texts of plays to read online or download.
Playwrights & Practitioners: an alphabetical list of playwrights whose biographies and works you can read in the database.
Genres: a list of different genres, and links to plays in that genre.
Periods: a list of time periods, and links to plays in those periods.
Context & Criticism: access to books on drama, theatre, playwriting.
Theatre Craft: access to books on the production and acting.
The collection will continue to grow throughout the year. For the list of titles that will be included throughout 2013, visit the Content List.
Using the database
When you are reading a play, you can hover over the text to see which page of the printed edition you are on, and where a small speechbubble appears, you can read any notes on the text
If you click on a playwright, on the right of the screen are any plays you can read, and on the left of the screen is a short biography.
Once you have selected a genre, or period, plays in that category appear on the right of the screen, and information on the period or genre appears on the left.
You can use this to find new writers, or new movements you may be interested in.
Play Tools include a Character Grid to help you view where characters appear and with whom they interact in the play. You can select particular characters and chart their appearances through the play – or use the Words and Speeches tool to see a precise word count. | <urn:uuid:8cfeafce-4621-4cfa-bf58-b8772a3b1ad4> | {
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Special Knots, and Advanced Knots, for Wolf, Bear, Webelos, Tenderfoot, Second Class, and First Class.
|Names||Bowline, Boling knot (archaic)|
|Typical use||Making a fixed loop in the end of a line.|
|Caveat||Although widely considered a reliable knot, it may not hold when tied in certain materials or loading conditions.|
|Related||Sheet bend, Double bowline, Bowline on a bight, Water bowline, Yosemite bowline, Spanish bowline, Portuguese bowline, Triple bowline, Running bowline|
|— Boy Scout Handbook pp. 148-149|
- Required for
- Make a loop (top to you).
- The rabbit goes out of the hole, around the tree, and back into the hole.
- Lesson Videos
- Wonder How To Video: Bowline Knot - Grog's Animated Knots: Bowline - Grog's Animated Knots: Bowline - Video: Bowline Knots - Video: Bowline Knots
- Wonder How To Video: Running Bowline Knot
- Wonder How To Video: Portugese Bowline Knot
- Wonder How To Video: Spanish Bowline Knot
- Video: Bowline Bend -
- The Bowline is one of the Forty Knots.
- One-Handed Bowline
- See also | <urn:uuid:3c9f4c0f-b868-4dce-8627-6c638b9e686d> | {
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Examples > Wire Library
This example shows how to control a Analog Devices AD5171 Digital Potentiometer which communicates via the I2C synchronous serial protocol. Using Arduino's I2C Wire Library, the digital pot will step through 64 levels of resistance, fading an LED.
The I2C protocol involves using two lines to send and receive data: a serial clock pin (SCL) that the Arduino pulses at a regular interval, and a serial data pin (SDA) over which data is sent between the two devices. As the clock pulse changes from low to high (known as the rising edge of the clock), a bit of information containing the address of a specific device and a request for data, is transferred from the Arduino to the I2C device over the SDA line. When the clock pin changes from high to low (the falling edge of the clock), the called upon device transmits it's data back to the Arduino over the same line.
Because the 12C protocol allows for each enabled device to have it's own unique address, and as both master and slave devices to take turns communicating over a single line, it is possible for your Arduino to communicate with many different devices (in turn) while using just two pins of your microcontroller.
Connect pins 3, 6, and 7 of the AD5171 to GND, and pins 2 and 8 to +5V.
Connect pin 4, the digital pot's clock pin (SCL), to analog pin 5 on the Arduino, and pin 5, the data line (SDA), to analog pin 4. On both the SCL and SDA lines, add 4.7K ohm pull up resistors, connecting both lines to +5 V.
Finally, wire an LED to pin 1, the AD5171's "wiper", with a 220 ohm LED in series.
When the AD5171's pin 6, ADO, is connected to ground, it's address is is 44. To add another digital pot to the same SDA bus, connect the second pot's ADO pin to +5V, changing it's address to 45.
You can only use two of these digital potentiometers simultaneously. | <urn:uuid:e424c4ee-ae82-4b34-a1a1-affe42b2f941> | {
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Juggling cupcakes? A googly-eyed periscope? A pig wearing a hat? You just never know what animated surprise your child will uncover when they play the uKloo Early Reader App.
uKloo Early Reader App is a fun seek-and-find literacy game for ages four and up. The app extends the real world game play of uKloo Early Reader Treasure Hunt seamlessly into a mobile experience for kids. It encourages kids to look up word clues, search the play screen and discover surprises along the way! There’s even a picture helper to look up words when kids get stuck. Soon, your child will be reading without even realizing it!
- Progressively builds sight reading (visual word recognition)
- Provides the basics of sentence structure
- Introduces research skills
- Builds confidence
- Promotes independent learning and play
- Makes you giggle
- Engaging surprise animations throughout the game
- Everyday words for early readers
- Word repetition reinforces visual word recognition
- Ten adjustable levels of achievement, progressing from easy three-letter words
- Choice of three to ten clues per round
- Audio assist to play the game
- A Picture Helper that provides:
– illustrations and audio assist to look up words
– basics of sentence structure, including nouns, verbs, prepositions, and adjectives
– an opportunity to develop first research skills
Look for more uKloo app play screens to come! | <urn:uuid:393d8ffe-be37-4999-8b1c-706424e6c531> | {
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Local anthropogenic impact on particulate elemental carbon concentrations at Summit, Greenland
- ISSN: 1680-7316
- DOI: 10.5194/acp-8-2485-2008
Summit, Greenland is a remote Arctic research station allowing for field\nmeasurements at the highest point of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Due to the\ncurrent reliance on diesel generators for electricity at Summit,\nunavoidable local emissions are a potential contamination threat to the\nmeasurement of combustion-related species in the air and snow. The\neffect of fossil-fuel combustion on particulate elemental carbon (EC) is\nassessed by a combination of ambient measurements (similar to 1 km from\nthe main camp), a series of snow pits, and Gaussian plume modeling.\nAmbient measurements indicate that the air directly downwind of the\nresearch station generators experiences particulate absorption\ncoefficient (closely related to EC) values that are up to a factor of\n200 higher than the summer 2006 non-camp-impacted ambient average. Local\nanthropogenic influence on snow EC content is also evident. The average\nEC concentration in 1-m snow pits in the `clean air' sector of Summit\nCamp are a factor of 1.8-2.4 higher than in snow pits located 10 km and\n20 km to the north ('downwind') and south ('upwind') of the research\nsite. Gaussian plume modeling performed using meteorological data from\nyears 2003-2006 suggests a strong angular dependence of anthropogenic\nimpact, with highest risk to the northwest of Summit Camp and lowest to\nthe southeast. Along a transect to the southeast (5 degree angle bin),\nthe modeled frequency of significant camp contribution to atmospheric EC\n(i.e. camp-produced EC>summer 2006 average EC) at a distance of 0.5 km,\n10 km, and 20 km is 1%, 0.2%, and 0.05%, respectively. According to\nboth the snow pit and model results, a distance exceeding 10 km towards\nthe southeast is expected to minimize risk of contamination. These\nresults also suggest that other remote Arctic monitoring stations\npowered by local fuel combustion may need to account for local air and\nsnow contamination in field sampling design and data interpretation. | <urn:uuid:a4cfa328-2217-46d4-b5b0-3293d7b15949> | {
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"url": "http://www.mendeley.com/catalog/local-anthropogenic-impact-particulate-elemental-carbon-concentrations-summit-greenland/"
} |
What is Malware
Submit Articles Back to Articles
Malware or malicious software is best defined as a form of software programs
and types of programs designed to attack and prevent the use of the a single
computer or entire network. The malware may come as a virus, trojan, worm or
hidden program. Any program invading your privacy for the purpose of obtaining
information for theft of identity is also malware.
A browser hijacker is a type of malware that alters your computer's browser
settings taking you to Web sites that you do not want to visit nor have any
intention of ever visiting. Most hijackers alter default home pages and search
pages to those of their paying customers. More damaging versions often generate
pornographic pop-up windows faster than you can click them shut. The malware may
also redirect you to pornographic sites when you inadvertently mistype a URL or
leave off thewww in your browser window. These malware programs leave behind
many problems and some people have lost their jobs because of content and links
found on their computers at work. Some have been charged with possession of
illegal materials and family situations have been altered as a result. In one
case in the United States one person was convicted of possession of child
pornography although he claims to be the victim of malware.
Along with adware and spyware a malware browser hijacker may be installed as
part of a freeware or shareware program. In this case the browser hijacker is
often listed in the user agreement but not listed as a malware browser hijacker.
Most people ignore or give a quick glance at the user agreement and then go
ahead with the download. Malware may also be installed without user permission
as a result of attachment to email, shared file or download.
Malware appears to have been started as a prank. Young programmers wrote
these programs just to prove that they could get into other programs. As time
passed however there began a more hostile intent of programs designed to
vandalize or cause data loss. Some DOS viruses and Windows ExploreZip worm were
designed to destroy files and corrupt the file system by writing junk data. In
2001 the Code Red worm and the Ramen worm fell into the same category designed
to vandalize web pages everywhere the worm goes.
Another malware program designed strictly for income is spyware. Programs
were designed to monitor users web browsing, collecting personal data and
sending this information on to another person. Spyware programs do not spread
like viruses or worms but are most often found attached to downloaded programs.
The best known types of malware are viruses and worms. These are known by the
manner in which they spread. The term computer virus is used for a program which
infects other software and worms spread to other computers automatically. Today
most worms are written for the Windows Operating Systems. The worm scans the
network for other computers, breaks into those computers and copies themselves
over and over. Worms are a problem for all home and business computers. We must
keep current all virus, worm and trojan definitions as well as spyware, adware
and malware definitions. To keep your computers running efficiently find a good
anti-virus program that also contains anti-spyware programs and firewalls. Run
your virus scan daily after updating your definitions. This is your best defense
against infection of your computer.
Stealware is a form of malware. Stealware is designed so that it replaces
your affiliate commission ID with the ID of a third party when a purchase is
made. Affiliate programs pay commissions based on the affiliate identification
in the link at the time of the purchase. Stealware steals the commission earned
by you when you ran the ads, wrote the articles and drove traffic to the sales
site. The third party, who did nothing other than install stealware on your
computer, gets paid for your work.
About the Author
Bonnie McCormick reviews and researches web hosting sites as well as web site
builders and quality web services. For additional information on web hosting
tools and services visitwww.internetmarketingplaza.com
Follow us @Scopulus_News
Article Published/Sorted/Amended on Scopulus 2008-02-01 09:27:44 in Computer Articles | <urn:uuid:5c76dc1f-194b-4c7b-890c-e9d30e640b85> | {
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|Jasper County within|
Merging families in Jasper County, Illinois
|Willow Hill in Jasper County|
Jasper County, Illinois was formed in 1831 from parts of Clay and Crawford counties. It was named for a Revolutionary War hero, Sgt William Jasper of North Carolina.[i] Jasper County, Illinois is situated in the southeasterly part of Illinois and has an area of 475 square miles. The population in 1840 was 1,472 and had more than doubled by 1850 to 3,220.[ii]
About 1848 Jeremiah Ferguson and his wife Harriett moved their family from Decatur, Indiana to Jasper County, Illinois. In the 1850 federal census Jeremiah was listed as a farmer in Newton, Jasper County, Illinois with real estate valued at $1000. In 1880 Jeremiah had moved to Willow Hill and owned 122 acres of which 38 were tilled and 44 were wetlands or forest. His total farm value was $4000.00. He also had $200 in livestock. In 1879 Jeremiah realized about $200 from the sale of farm products.[iii]
Now there are two families at the same place and time. The Sempsrott family moved to Jasper County in the early 1860s and the Ferguson family that was there prior to 1850. Jeremiah’s youngest son would marry Mary E Stewart and have a son John in 1875. Frederich Sempsrott’s son Charles would marry Elmira Stiffle and they would have nine children. Two of Charles Sempsrott’s daughters would marry into the Ferguson family. Leila (b 1893) married David Ferguson’s son Roy (b 1900) and Naomi Sempsrott (b 1903) married David Ferguson’s grandson Murl Ferguson (b 1898 ). Naomi and Murl would become the parents of Wanda Bernice Ferguson.
The pull of Willow Hill remained strong and there are still members of both families in the area even though later generations moved to cities like Chicago and Danville for work. The Mound Cemetery has the names of many generations of the Fergusons and the Sempsrotts.
|Mound Church and Cemetery|
Willow Hill, Jasper County
|Burl Ives a famous son|
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By Bob Olenych
Demanding situations Galore: Vocabulary construction Puzzles
Read or Download Challenges Galore: Vocabulary Building Puzzles PDF
Similar Instruction Methods books
During this paintings, B. Kumaravadivelu offers a macrostrategic framework designed to aid either starting and skilled language academics boost a scientific, coherent and private idea of perform. His e-book deals to supply the instruments a instructor wishes so one can self-observe, self-analyze, and self-evaluate his or her personal educating acts.
This pupil pleasant functional consultant is helping you become familiar with reflective perform in instructing, via bite-sized sections which are informative and fast digestible. The booklet in actual fact explains a few of the best-known theories on reflective perform after which indicates how mirrored image on and in perform could have a favorable impression on lecture room functionality.
This hugely topical e-book charts how the instruments of expertise are changing the ways that schooling is being introduced and obtained. It seems on the large effect of the area vast internet on present academic perform and what this implies for the scholars and lecturers concerned. It additionally covers the opposite new applied sciences that aid the supply of what's now really worldwide schooling.
"Easy-to-Make Reproducible actions That construct strategies, abilities, and Vocabulary in Geometry, Fractions, size, and extra. "
"Connects to NCTM criteria"
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EMTs (Emergency Medical Technician) are pretty special people. They care for those who are sick or injured and in need of emergency care before getting to a hospital. Because patients’ lives often depend on an EMT’s ability to quickly react to dire situations and provide competent care, EMTs need a number of “People skills” to be effective.
Necessary qualities include being compassionate and able to provide solid emotional support to people in life-threatening situations; have good interpersonal skills in order to relate to patients and work as a team with colleagues; and have the physical strength to lift patients, bend over them during treatment and kneel a lot.
These are all good, strong qualities, to be sure. But the needed skills don’t stop there for EMTs. They also must hone such skills as being able to give full attention to what others are saying and being able to understand their needs; using logical reasoning to arrive at appropriate solutions to each situation; and being thorough about performing equipment maintenance, knowing what each tool does…and how to use them properly.
A good emergency medical provider also must be service oriented – always on the lookout for ways to help others; good time managers who also are able to troubleshoot each situation; someone who exhibits good judgement and decision-making; and are able to coordinate actions and activities, clearly instruct others on how to administer treatment, and be able to perceive patient reactions and why they’re doing what they do.
In other words, EMTs pretty much need to be “mobile emergency nurses” responsible for assessing a patient’s condition, determining the proper course of treatment, helping transfer them to ERs, and documenting the medical care administered in patient care reports.
We’re getting exhausted just writing about what the skills they need and what they must do!
But, if you’re up to the challenge of serving as an emergency medical technician, you can take pride in the fact that you’ll be a critical part of the healthcare team who helps save lives. That’s a pretty strong motivator.
The Emergency Medical Services (EMS) program at Fortis College in Smyrna, GA, helps prepare students to provide emergency medical care to persons in need by letting them work – hands-on – with a full range of emergency medical equipment. Graduates receive the training and tools needed to assess, manage and transport patients in emergency situations. Go to our Emergency Medical Technician page to learn more about the training needed to pursue a career in the emergency medical field. | <urn:uuid:e97f3e48-4437-4fee-829f-9a1fc8a93f71> | {
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AUTHOR: UZODI CLEMENT ONYEBUCHI
DEPARTMENT: VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AFFILIATION: NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA
This study which was on strategies considered effective for teaching job skills by Anambra State secondary school business teachers used the six instructional strategies proposed by Mannison (2009). The study adopted the survey design. Six research questions and six null hypothesis were tested at 0.05 level of significance. A population and sample size of all the 365 business teachers in all the 257 public secondary schools from the six education zones in Anambra State was used for the study. Data was collected for the study through the administration of validated questionnaire on the respondents. A test re-test method was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. The reliability co-efficient of the instrument for the study was found to be 0.80. The mean statistic was used to answer the research questions while z-test statistic was used to test the hypothesis. Findings of the study revealed that business teachers in Anambra State secondary schools considered independent and experimental instructional strategies very effective for teaching job skills, while interactive and indirect instructional strategies were considered generally effective. However, materials/visual aid strategies was considered fairly effective and direct instructional strategies was considered ineffective for teaching job skills at the secondary school level. The implications of the findings have been discussed and conclusions drawn. Relevant recommendations were made towards the improvement of effective teaching of job skills at secondary school level, which include compulsory application of independent and experimental instructional strategies for teaching business subjects in all secondary schools in Anambra State and indeed, Nigeria.
TO VIEW THE FULL CONTENT OF THIS DOCUMENT, PLEASE VISIT THE UNIZIK LIBRARY WEBSITE USING THIS LINK, http://naulibrary.org/dglibrary/admin/book_directory/Thesis/11007.pdf
Tags: Accounts, Business Education Goals, Business Education Job Skills, Business Eduction, Demonstration Method, Direct Instructional Strategies, Effective Teaching Enhancement, Experimental Instructional Strategies, Independent Instructional Strategies, Indirect Instructional Strategies, Instructional Strategies, Interactive Instructional Strategies, Interpersonlal Skills, Language, Materials/Visual Aids Strategies, Pre-Vocational Integrated Subject, Strategy, Teacher-Centered Methods., Teaching Strategy, Vocational Education-Thesis-2012, Vocational Subjects | <urn:uuid:e2b65cc1-099d-491c-9b67-25b7e305dc33> | {
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“I received a lot of lash back from my family and friends, who thought I was crazy for going so far away since, back in the 40’s Texas was far away from Ohio. I don’t think the feedback was hurtful but they were definitely worried.
“I just wanted to go to serve my country and help, so I said ‘why not.’” Miller said.
Thelma Miller, 95, of Norwalk, signed up through a series of letters and interviews to serve her country during World War two and was eventually deployed in 1944 where she helped to transport supplies and possibly soldiers to and from different bases.
For anyone to apply to the wasp program they had to have a minimum of 35 flight hours but when Miller applied she had about 200.
“At the time it’s what they were really looking for,” Miller said.
She made it into the WASP 4410 which means, year 1944, and the tenth class that they were training that year.
"In 1942, the United States was faced with a severe shortage of pilots, and leaders gambled on an experimental program to help fill the void: Train women to fly military aircraft so male pilots could be released for combat duty overseas," according to news source NPR. "The group of female pilots was called the Women Airforce Service Pilots — WASP for short.”
While she was located in Mission, Texas, she noted that the climate was pretty different from back home, but she still remembers it like yesterday.
“The grapefruit were huge and the poinsettias were blooming over the doors in the middle of December,” Miller said.
To her the experience was full of good memories.
“But then there was the night I almost got killed.”
Despite her massive experience, Miller was still required to meet a minimum number of training hours. Toward the end, Miller just needed a few more night-time flying hours and to help kill that time her instructor told her to fly the plane in a large loop and then land on the runway.
Miller said conditions were so perfect and the landing was so smooth that the instructor didn't realize they touched the ground for the landing.
Not knowing the plane had landed the instructor pumped an extra 625 horse power into the craft, a potentially dangerous move. Eventually the instructor realized his mistake and that the wheels had already touched the ground before he reacted. After flying around one more loop he instructed Miller to land the plane again.
“I was so mad that I just stood there and looked at him and he said ‘I’m sorry. I thought we were still flying.’ But it’s one of those things that can cost you your life,” she said.
Even though Miller got mad, she didn’t scare easily with the experience.
“You can’t freak out when you fly, once you’re trained you get farther and farther from that if you can’t you don’t fly,” Miller said.
It’s been more than 20 years since Miller has flown a plane.
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ALE , EDI and IDOC with MM??
What is ALE, EDI and IDOC in SAP??
How its linked with MM??
Explain the above things with example
IDoc (for intermediate document) is a standard data structure for electronic data interchange (EDI) between application programs written for the popular SAP business system or between an SAP application and an external program. IDocs serve as the vehicle for data transfer in SAP's Application Link Enabling (ALE) system. IDocs are used for asynchronous transactions: each IDoc generated exists as a self-contained text file that can then be transmitted to the requesting workstation without connecting to the central database. Another SAP mechanism, the Business Application Programming Interface (BAPI) is used for synchronous transactions.
A large enterprise's networked computing environment is likely to connect many geographically distributed computers to the main database. These computers are likely to use different hardware and/or operating system platforms. An IDoc encapsulates data so that it can be exchanged between different systems without conversion from one format to another.
IDoc types define different categories of data, such as purchase orders or invoices, which may then be broken down into more specific categories called message types. Greater specificity means that an IDoc type is capable of storing only the data required for a particular transaction, which increases efficiency and decreases resource demands.
An IDoc can be generated at any point in a transaction process. For example, during a shipping transaction process, an IDoc may be generated that includes the data fields required to print a shipping manifest. After a user performs an SAP transaction, one or more IDocs are generated in the sending database and passed to the ALE communication layer. The communication layer performs a Remote Function Call (RFC), using the port definition and RFC destination specified by the customer model. The IDoc is transmitted to the receiver, which may be an R/3, R/2, or some external system.
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This is a fun verb game that your students will love. It's great for practicing the conjugation of the spelling-changing verbs such as acheter, amener, lever, promener in present tense. It is suitable for French 1 and 2 students.
1. Print the cards. Laminate them for durability.
2. Divide your students in groups of 2-4.
3. Distribute the cards. Each group should get a stack of 73 cards: 72 cards with verb forms and subjects + 1 mistigri card.
4. Students shuffle and deal all the cards.
5. Students sort through their cards, making as many pairs as possible and placing them face-up on the table in front of them.
6. Then students fan out their remaining cards, making sure nobody can see their cards.
7. Taking turns students draw one card from any student, trying to form a pair.
8. As they make pairs in their hand, they discard them immediately onto the table.
9. The objective of the game is to get rid of the cards as fast as possible. The student left holding the unmatched card, mistigri, loses.
NB: Mistigri is a French version of the game Old Maid or Odd One Out.
Your feedback would be greatly appreciated. Merci beaucoup! | <urn:uuid:365901d5-39fa-42f5-b74c-a9cb2a6402da> | {
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There's a whole Earth out there to consider.
When I was a child, I'd sit for hours watching the bird bath and bird houses arranged in my yard as soon as the weather got warm. From my seat in a lawn chair hidden behind a large island of tall lilies and grasses, I could see soaring hawks, jumping robins, drumming woodpeckers and hovering hummingbirds. I'd scrawl the names and descriptions of what I saw (or thought I saw), along with a few drawings, in the notebook that laid open in my lap.
With my trusty Peterson Field Guide to Birds of North America by my side in case I needed help, as early as age seven I was already well on my way to becoming an ornithologist.
Birds continue to hold a special place in my heart. Last month I began freelancing for the National Audubon Society, and just two days ago my second story for the organization went live. While I sometimes wish I had more time to fit bird watching into my work schedule, writing about my avian friends is almost as fun as watching them.
My most recent story for Audubon is an important one: Researchers know today that human actions, such as using pesticides, planting monoculture (or single-species crops) and climate change, are causing a major loss of species--including birds.
For ornithologists, clearly any loss of birds is very sad--catastrophic, even. But what about for the backyard birder, or just everyday people who like to wake up to the sound of chirping but don't see themselves as ever heading out of the house at 6am to look for warblers in their local park?
The experts I've spoken have emphasized over and over again: Birds, like many other species, are a key part of the way Earth functions. Some pollinate plants, some eat pests, some serve as food to other animals. Eliminate single or multiple species of birds and you have yourself an unbalanced Earth. Meaning the food, water, trees, air and everything upon which humans rely would disintegrate before our eyes.
While some species naturally go extinct over time, the rapid rate at which animals are being lost today is unnatural. And, it's all our fault--our spraying of pesticides, our building of houses, our cutting down trees, our driving cars...the list goes on and on.
Does this make you sad? It makes me sad.
This is how I see it:
Birds are a way to bridge the gap between the real and the ethereal. They are flying, singing creatures with a grace and beauty unmatched. They are sentinels for a healthy environment: we use chemicals, we pollute, we chop down trees...and they suffer. Their well-being is a barometer of human actions, indicating where we are doing good by the Earth, and where we are failing. They can teach us to care more.
So, while humans have the potential to hurt birds, we can also help them (and the other species with whom we share this Earth). We can choose not to use toxic pesticides and chemicals (or at the very least, use less of them). We can choose not to cut down trees. We can choose not to litter. We can choose to plant more wild vegetation for bird habitat.
Our actions have consequences. And those consequences don't just affect us. There's a whole Earth out there (with lots of birds and other critters) to consider.
- What do birds mean to you?
- What is the worst thing you do for the health of the Earth?
- What is the best thing you do for the health of the Earth? | <urn:uuid:e25438ff-3c88-4ad3-8aed-e1a2d02a9382> | {
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Labor systems changed from to In what ways do these attempts differ?
How have the roles of women in Western Europe and sub-Saharan Africa been similar during the period from — ? Think broadly and brainstorm about 3 aspects for comparison. The COMP focuses on similarities and differences between regions.
So once you read the question, you will be faced with a choice: Others might just present one region. Even so, try to make your essay as neat as possible: In what ways do attempts at modernization in Japan compare to the modernization attempts in the Ottoman Empire in the period — ?
Compare and contrast the use of technology and the dynamics of trade in TWO of the following regions for the periods mentioned: It does not need to be this way. What caused them to dissolve? The slave labor of the plantation system in the New World can be compared with the serfdom in Russia. Some might just ask you to compare one aspect.
Your handwriting may be messier than it was on the DBQ, but fortunately, AP readers are accustomed to reading all sorts of handwriting. Which regions to compare? Not all COMP questions are this complex. Yet other questions might not provide categories of comparison as this one does with trade and technology.
In those cases, you will need to create your own categories of comparison. Edit By the last essay of this exam, most students are exhausted. The roles of women have differed across the world throughout history. Was a free market labor system accomplished?
How did political revolutions impact the roles of women from c. How were they different? In what ways did belief systems in the Middle East remain the same from B.
What caused these systems to emerge? Even a few words jotted down in the green booklet can make your essay more focused.
Several regions are listed.
What are some specific, global examples of these changes? What was the impact on women during revolutions in Iran in the same period?
As a student, you should be used to making comparisons—whether it is comparing teachers, to comparing Coke and Pepsi. How have these roles been different?
Plague pandemics had a profound effect on Western Europe and Eastern Asia from c. You are being asked for similarities and differences between two regions in the areas of technology and trade.
At best, their hands are tired. It requires a task familiar to historians and non-historians alike: By the time you reach the COMP, take a deep breath, stretch out your arms, wiggle your fingers, and dive into it with the best that you have.
How and why did these changes take place?Below are tips, tutorials, and the rubrics for the essays that we'll write in AP World History. On the exam you will have to write a Document Based Question (DBQ) essay, a Continuity and Change Over Time (CCOT) essay, and a Comparative Essay (CE).
COMPARE AND CONTRAST AP ESSAY Remember: l. Introduction should be no longer than sentences. HOW TO WRITE THE ESSAY Prompt: Hinduism, Confucianism and Buddhism are three of the world's great belief systems.
Compare and contrast their impact on the societies they embraced. Paragraph 1. While Hinduism is a much older belief system than either.
Advanced Placement World History/Writing Tips/Comparative Essay World History | Writing Tips. Edit. Classic editor History Talk (0) Share. HOW TO but fortunately, AP readers are accustomed to reading all sorts of handwriting.
Consequently, don’t take time to rewrite an essay to make it look more presentable—an essay. Ms. Kamburov AP World History How do I write a Comparative Essay for AP World History? Example: "Compare and contrast methods of political control of the Han dynasty and the Roman Empire.".
Ten Questions To Explore In An AP World History Comparative Essay. Let’s face it: any AP course is challenging. You’re expected to master a lot of material in a relatively short amount of time. period of time; and the comparative essay asks you to compare and contrast two episodes, cultures, religions, or other historical phenomenon from a given period.
Writing a thesis for an AP World History essay is a little different from other.Download | <urn:uuid:e46556be-e16f-47e5-8d7e-77204319d513> | {
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Simulation can be explained as "imitation of interpersonal
or other dynamics, often using materials and roles, to help participants
feel as well as understand the dynamics of a complex situation." (Knox
The computer can act as the simulation controller,
scheduling the events to occur and providing the outcomes based on the
actions the role players take. Because of this, the game can be played
at regulated time or in real time. There are many simulations where playing
in real time rather than accelerated time would be beneficial to enhancing
the realism. Since people can interact at a time of their own choosing,
a computer-based simulation can go on over days, weeks, or months.
The examples below illustrate some of the types of behavioral simulation
programs available today. You can read the explanation of how these programs
work, download a version of the program to try it out on your computer,
or follow the links for further information.
In this WWW project, behavior simulations are used to extend sixth graders'
communication skills and to expand their understanding of the working world.
After listening to guest speakers talk about their careers, students form
fictional startup companies and take on the various corporate roles. They
write resumes, conduct interviews, read and discuss articles on economics.
Because of the many formats used in business communications, students gain
a wide variety of writing experience.
In addition to writing business letters and memos, they each composed
a fictional account of "A day in the life...." of a fictional person.
In A Day in the Life of Dr. Richard Osmer , a six grader reports her
day as Dr. Richard Osmer, the head of Research and Development for Miracle
Cure, Inc. and also co-head of marketing. Miracle Cure conducts research
and tries to find drugs that will help cure epidemics.
The following is the opening paragraph of the fictional account of Dr.
Richard Osmer's day:
It was 7 AM on the morning of December 7th, 1998. I was sitting at
my desk at work when I got a phone call. Before I go on I'd better tell
you about my job. My name is Dr. Richard Osmer. I am the head of Research
and Development for Miracle Cure, Inc. I am also co-head of marketing.
At Miracle Cure we do research and try to find drugs that will help cure
epidemics. I don't actually do that much hands-on research myself these
days because I am busy organizing this department and helping the researchers
with ideas and pointing them in new directions when they seem to get stuck
in a rut. I have a scientific background and my Ph.D. is in the field of
This web page also includes a journal, a job description, a draft of radio
advertisement , and a memo.
Click on Entrepreneurial
Day in the Life of Dr. Richard Osmer ((http://picard.dartmouth.edu/~petera/BizBasics/BBblurb.html)
to take a closer look at this project.
PC Fishing Adventures: Online Fishing Simulation
This free sample of computer fishing covers facts, definition, strategy,
and secrets of fishing in a simulated setting.
For example, the PC Fishing Adventure provides facts such as fresh-
water fish can include bass, trout, sunfish, catfish, perch, walleye, or
many other and saltwater fish can include bass, perch, flounder, halibut,
snook, and many more.
PC Fishing Adventure also gives definitions on still-fishing and
cast-and-retrieve fishing. The fishing process is described in the easy
steps listed under the 'Basic Fishing Sequence' below and in greater detail
under the 'Detailed Fishing Sequence'. For example, the basic fishing sequence
are (1) Check the species that inhabit the current location, (2) Select
a rod & reel and line, (3) Select a bait and a fishing depth, (4) Position
your rod in the scene, (5) Cast your bait, (6) Wait for a strike if you
are still-fishing, otherwise retrieve or reel-in your bait, (7) Set the
hook when a strike occurs (or cast again if it doesn't), (8) Reel-in the
fish, (9) Net the fish, and (10) Display and log your catch
To try out this trial program, you must install it on your computer's
hard drive. To do that you must copy the folder called fishing
to your hard drive. That folder is on the CD-ROM in the subdirectory
/. You might create a subdirectory on your
computer named EDSoft (only
if you do not already have one). Then you could copy fishing
into the EDSoft
subdirectory. Once you have copied fishing
over to your hard drive you can use the standard
Windows procedure to install that program by clicking on setup.exe
in the EDSoft/fishing /
folder on your hard drive. Then follow the directions on the screen.
Click here to know more about installation.
The purpose of the web site (The Educational Space Simulations Project,
affiliated with the National Association of Space Simulating Educators,
NASSE) is to promote the development of education via simulation. In this
Space Simulation Project, students practice posting navigation reports,
weather reports, simulation related pictures, samples of student astronaut
applications that consisted of a persuasive essay and experimental proposal.
The site also provides for links for sites useful to space simulating educators,
and space simulation information resources.
This web site lists a long list of simulation software in the web free
for users to download. The drawback is, the users have to connect to further
links or down load and try out the software by themselves because it does
not offer descriptions of program content, hardware requirements, or platform
The "Simulations or Games" section of this web site decries several examples
of behavioral simulations programs. One of the examples that is related
with K-12 is the The Earth Day Treasure Hunt project. The Earth Day Treasure
Hunt involved students from twenty sites. Each classroom was asked to write
up five or six treasure hunt clues describing a geographical place. The
clues should describe a particular location on earth such as a city, a
mountain peak, a lake, etc. and it could include information about latitude,
elevation, climate, vegetation, industry, ecology etc.
This web page is a teacher's report of a behavior simulation project using
online resources as research tools -- the Earth Day Treasure Hunt project
described in the previous paragraph.
The author of this web page argues that a simulation has to be designed
in such a way that users live inside the simulated world. And this simulated
world must react to user in ways which traditional simulations do not.
In particular, lessons need to be designed that ensure that a student falls
into well known traps, and thus needs to reason his way out of them.
The author of this web page proposes that simulations offer two key advantages
over real life. The first is that real life tends to keep marching on by.
Simulations allow students to play with time in ways the real world does
not permit. The second advantage is, simulations also provide teachers
with better access to students. Simulations can be instrumented so that
teachers can monitor students, waiting until students get into a jam that
indicates that they are ready to hear something the teacher wants to convey.
This is the home page of MASTER Tools. MASTER Tools, developed by The Shodor
Education Foundation, Inc. are the result of on-going collaborations with
the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), George Mason
University, and other education organizations.
The MASTER tools are intended to create an authentic scientific experience.
They are designed to be interactive tools and simulation environments that
enable and encourage exploration and discovery through observation, conjecture,
and modeling activities. All of the simulations and supporting curriculum
materials are designed in accordance with the new National Science Education
Standards and the National Math Education Standards.
Instructional materials are currently available for Galaxy, SimSurface,
and the Fractal Microscope. Other materials will be made accessible as
they are developed.
Projects appropriate for secondary school students include:
The Pit and the Pendulum: Explore the physics and properties of
pendulums through Edgar Allan Poe's The Pit and the Pendulum.
Galaxy: Simulate the formation of a galaxy starting from initial
conditions that you choose.
to the Behavioral Theories | <urn:uuid:4801839d-cd6f-4a64-ba44-adcef682953d> | {
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‘The painting is finished when the idea has disappeared.’ — Georges Braque
Georges Braque was born in 1882 in the small town of Argenteuil near Paris, but his family later moved to the port city of Le Havre in the region of Normandy, where he spent much of his childhood and teenage years. He was interested in sports, especially boxing, and also took a liking to playing the flute. The formative years saw him learning the ropes of the successful family business of house painting and decorating from his father and grandfather. Yet, his genuine interest in artistic painting took him to evening art classes at the École des Beaux Arts in Le Havre between 1897 and 1899. At age 17, he decided to do an apprenticeship as a house painter first in Le Havre and then in Paris; during this time he honed his skills and his expertise on materials and artistic tricks, exploring innovative techniques such as the use of wood grains and dust, which was to become a recurrent strain in his later cubist phase.
He served a year in the military, which seemed to strengthen his resolve to become an artist, studying painting in Paris, and spending a lot of his free time looking for inspiration and admiring ancient art in the revered halls of the Louvre museum. By this time, Braque, the artist, was crystallizing. Many of his earliest works between 1902 and 1904, were Impressionist in nature. This was his umbilical cord with the region of Normandy, which was a glowing center of Impressionism during its height. He was deeply influenced by Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro and later, Paul Cézanne. However, the first of the two biggest turning points in his career as an artist came about when he visited the Paris Salon d’Automne in 1905 and witnessed the works of the artistic group known as ‘Les Fauves’ or ‘The Wild Beasts’ which had the likes of Henri Matisse as its member. He was deeply influenced by the bold use of colors used as vehicles of emotions, and started painting in the fauvist style, although conservatively.
In 1907 came the next big turning point in the life of Braque, when he was introduced to an exciting young Spanish painter, Pablo Picasso. This was the beginning of a lifelong friendship, mutual respect, and artistic collaboration that was to give birth to a new revolutionary art form: Cubism. This art form was a product of their frequent exchange of ideas. They influenced each other and fed off each other’s energies. While it was Picasso who introduced Braque to a world of distorted planes and shallow spaces, it was Braque who brought geometric forms to life, a touch that was inspired from his favorite idol, Cézanne. Braque’s paintings from this early phase bordered on the realms of the abstract, with twisted perspectives and somber colors. The most important work of Braque from this phase of Cubism, often known as ‘Analytical Cubism’ is ‘Houses at L’Estaque’ (1908). The term Cubism, of course, comes from the word ‘cube’ which was used by a French art critic, Louis Vauxcelles, to describe one of his works in an exhibition in 1908.
Picasso and Braque collaborated closely together from 1911 onwards to develop the analytical cubist style further, breaking down objects, spaces, and planes in such a way that it dismantled all sense of traditional perspective, and created a complex symphony of space, earthy colors, volume, breadth and vision. This new art form had the shock value, it was incomprehensible, yet had depth and meaning. It seduced the intellect and questioned the familiar. Braque’s paintings had multiple perspectives, spaces were flat, and subjects, often still life, were often so fragmented that they appeared three-dimensional. ‘Man with a Guitar’ (1911) is an example from this period. He also used collages and exploded perspectives, pulling shapes apart and reconstructing them, as in the painting ‘Clarinet and Bottle of Rum on the Mantlepiece’ (1911) and ‘Violin and Pipe’ (1913).
In 1912, Cubism entered the ‘Synthetic’ phase and saw Braque experimenting with innovative techniques like the use of papier collé, sand and sawdust in his paintings. He even used bits of wallpaper in his drawing ‘Fruit Dish and Glass.’ During the First World War, Braque enlisted himself in the French army as an army sergeant and won medals for his bravery. After suffering serious injuries, he was released from service in 1917 and resumed painting full time again, although his work became more personal, more varied in style.
In the 20s Braque did a series of paintings with women carrying fruit, another series with fireplaces with fruit decoration and guitars, and another series with tables. Thus, in this period of his career, Braque was fascinated with certain subject matters which he painted frequently, before moving on to the next subject. In the painting ‘Fruit on the table-cloth with a fruit dish’ (1925), he uses flat spaces and shapes, but plays with colors and incorporates texture for a realistic representation the of wood in the table, and he shades the fruits to create dimension.
In the 1931, he began making white drawings over a background of black painted plaster, much like the Greek art he admired in his younger days. The grim events leading up to the Second World War had a profound effect on Braque and during this period he painted a series of skulls and other still life. His paintings from this time exude a sense of darkness, despair, agony and misery, and seem to make a political statement. These series of paintings are called Vanitas and the painting ‘Balustre et Crane’ (1938) is a fine example, where colors replicate the complex emotions and reactions to war.
In 1937, he won the Carnegie prize for his lifetime achievement as an artist, and in 1961, towards the end of his life, he became the first living artist to have his works displayed at the world famous Louvre museum, a place which once inspired him to be a great artist; life had come to a perfect circle for Braque. Braque is considered one of the greatest modern artists and a master of still and abstract art. His personality was also unique. He was a quiet introvert, extremely observant, sharp, determined, opinionated and intelligent. His personality set him apart from the fellow artists of his generation, who were generally more social and flamboyant.
Braque was every bit as mysterious as his paintings. In an interview with The Observer in 1957, he said: ‘there is only one thing valuable in art and that is the bit that cannot be explained. To explain away the mystery of a great painting – if such a feat were possible – would be irreparable harm… if there is no mystery then there is no ‘poetry,’ the quality I value above all else in art.’ | <urn:uuid:aa8ba534-b97d-4da6-a895-3eb6c38417f5> | {
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On 8 November 1942 the commander-in-chief of Germany announced his plans to Germany for an offensive to take the last part of Stalingrad.
I wanted to come to the Volga at a specific location at a specific city. By chance it carries the name of Stalin himself. So don’t think I marched there for this reason – it could carry another name – but because there is a very important goal... this goal I wanted to take – and you know – we are very modest, we have it already.
There are only some very small places remaining. Now the others say: ‘Why aren’t they fighting faster?’ – Because I don’t want to have a second Verdun there, I’d rather take it with small assault groups….
Several thousand of miles away in the nearly levelled city of Stalingrad many German soldiers also heard this speech over their radios, among them about 3000 assault troops forming into “small assault groups”…. At the time of Hitler’s speech the German troops held nearly 90% of Stalingrad. Only small islands of resistance were still held by the Soviets: The 39th Rifle Division defended parts of the Krasny Oktyabr (Red October) steel factory, supported by the 284th Rifle Division on their left flank defending the workers' housing area. The few remaining parts of Krasnaya Barrikady (Red Barricades) ordnance factory was defended by shattered units of 138th, 308th, and parts of 244th Rifle Division. They held less than 10% of that factory…. Another hard fought-for area was the chemical factory "Lazur" and its surrounding train yards, the so-called "tennis racket"…. These remaining strongholds were connected by the thin defensive lines of the 161st Rifle Regiment and 95th Rifle Division (241st Rifle Regiment) in the south, and the 37th Guards Rifle Division (118th Rifle Regiment) in the north. In between these more or less cohesive units a number of soldiers from various shattered units were mixed….
The Germans were unable to start a last effort to take these few remaining strongholds, since most of their combat companies were so weakened. Many of them were down to about 50, some 30 or 40, rifle carrying soldiers. German commanders doubted if “these divisions should be used in such a manner at all”. The 14. and 24. Panzer divisions were particularly low in manpower. On 2 November at 1800 hours, Chief of Staff of 6th Army General Schmidt, reported that 79., 94. and 305. Infanterie divisions were no longer able to attack as whole cohesive units…. The 6th Army ordered at this point to disband units, reduce the guns per battery to three, reduce the staff strengths, signal battalions and other support units to 10% of their manpower…. 10 battalions of Turkic soldiers from the Caucasus were to be sent to the Stalingrad area. This order from 6th Army high command was dated 6 November. All divisions would receive their Turkic battalions at the end of December. | <urn:uuid:6c648c57-2d18-4875-b27f-0fda745531f1> | {
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Salivary gland stones is a public health problem occurs when one of the salivary glands, form stones. One or more of the stones can cause pain and edema busy salivary gland.
Salivary glands produce saliva, which is necessary during the meals. It is crucial to maintaining the appropriate moisture in the mouth and esophagus. It also contains the chemicals (enzymes) which break down some of the starch and fat in foods.
Three pairs of glands produce saliva, and its drain is located in the oral cavity in the form of the salivary channels. A submandibular gland located at the bottom of the mouth, one on each side, and the output is under the tongue. Glands bibs are also just below and in front of the ears, and the saliva passes them along the salivary gland to the inside of the cheeks. Sublingual glands are located just under the tongue.
All these organs interact to ensure the proper amount of saliva in the mouth at all times. When we eat, salivary gland automatically secretes more saliva, which allows us to eat comfortably.
The causes of salivary gland stones
The chemicals contained in the saliva may sometimes crystallize to form stones that can block the salivary ducts. In some patients, can appear one or two small pebbles in one of the salivary glands. This phenomenon is most common in people over the age of 40, but can occur at any age.
The reason why appears salivary gland stones are not known. Salivary gland stones are formed of calcium most often. However, they are not associated with abnormalities in blood serum of calcium, or other problems with the calcium in the body. As shown by some studies, changes in the flow of saliva may occur in connection with a reactor, because it is connected with the formation of salivary gland stones.
Salivary gland stones most often are bound with another disease. The size of the stones can vary from 1 mm to several centimeters, but they are most often up to 10 mm
The symptoms salivary gland stones
The most often health problem occurs in the submandibular parotid, that is the one which runs under the tongue. Most salivary glands are thinner than the incisions, so that, in them, stones are rarely formed.
At the time of the appearance of stones in the parotid, saliva is blocked and goes back to the gland, causing pain and swelling. Most often occur:
- pain and swelling in affected gland at mealtimes – the pain can be intense and sudden, appearing just after the start of a meal; swelling appears as quickly and can last up to 1-2 hours after a meal;
- reduced salivation – most often stones do not block the channel of the salivary completely, allowing restricted flow of fluid; whereby there may be some additional symptoms such as a dull pain appears from time to time over a gland, wherein there is stone, swollen gland (permanent or different size emerging from time to time);
- infection of the gland that causes redness and pain – can grow up in a ball of infection with pus (abscess forming), causing discomfort.
There are situations in which there appear no symptoms, and the problem is diagnosed by chance such during the X-ray performed for another reason.
Diagnosis and treatment of salivary gland stones
The symptoms the disease are often inconclusive, and the doctor very often can feel the stone at the mouth of salivary gland duct. Ordinary X-ray examination can detect positions of salivary stones when there are more.
- computed tomography, ultrasound, MRI,
- sialography – a specialized x-ray using dye, which helps to notice the changes in the salivary glands;
- endoscopic examination.
Treatment most often involves the removal of stones from salivary glands (sometimes stones wantonly leave). During surgery of removing the stones, is most commonly used a local anesthetic.
Sometimes, it is used lithotripsy, which uses sound waves to break up stones.
The appearance of stones in salivary gland, is usually the problem is one-off, and after removing it does not arise any complications. However, if the problem recurs, it is used to remove the salivary gland.
Because a cause of illness is not identified yet, it is not known how can prevent them. But it is important to drink plenty of fluids, especially in hot climates. | <urn:uuid:c441581d-3c55-4376-b4b2-a7b81c6d6c82> | {
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NATICK, Mass. (Sept. 6, 2012) -- Teachers became students again for a few days this summer as they raced and recorded data for Lego robots, studied dimensions of golf balls and designed their own simulations, and completed other training activities at Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center through "Materials World Modules" training.
Teachers were trained at Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center, or NSRDEC, Aug. 14-16, by the National Center for Advancement of STEM Education, or nCASE. STEM stands for science, technology, engineering and mathematics. There were two Materials World Modules, or MWM, training courses, Math with Robotics 2 and Sports Materials modules. MWM offer hands-on learning experiences in science, technology, engineering and mathematics for middle and high school students.
"We are about attracting students and exciting students about science, technology, engineering and mathematics, or STEM," said Stephen Priselac, nCASE executive director. "I don't look at STEM as pipelines never to be integrated. Most schools function that way. Science is not science for science's sake. Technology, math and engineering are not separate entities; in many ways they are all tied together."
In all nCASE classrooms, the keys to the lessons are two simple concepts: inquiry and design. Priselac explained that an inquiry must be done and afterwards a student may take what has been learned and apply it to some sort of designing mechanism.
"We suggest that this should be a 50/50 percent of the classroom," said Priselac. "Fifty percent of the time, you should be doing the inquiry part of it, and the last 50 percent, you should be dealing with the design part of it."
Teachers were able to go through material together and gain insight and ideas from one another, besides having the program leaders there for support.
"Engineering, innovation and technology have always been a large part of who the United States was as a country. I would love if my students could be a part of that," said Joshua Beagan, a Gaudet Middle School teacher.
The Math with Robotics 2 course used robotics to make math more exciting, while still providing practical application and reinforcement of those skills the children are learning in their classes. The computer program generates graphs based on the robots' movements; after the robot completes a certain task, students are able to see those results on the computer. This training allowed the students (teachers) to explore and discover how math worked.
Teachers in the Math/Robotics course learned about the relationships between gear ratio and distance traveled, diameter of the wheel and distance traveled, motor power, speed and distance traveled. Also, by way of robotics, teachers now have a new way of teaching their own students different mathematical concepts, such as absolute value functions, linear and angular speed, linear and angular velocity, instantaneous rate of change, and other functions.
"I learned that math did not need to be taught in isolation," Beagan said. "I learned it that way and, looking back, feel that this was not the very best way to reinforce math. It needs to be taught in the classroom, but I feel that the modules give practical applications of the math being learned in the classroom."
In the Sports Materials with Mathematics Focus class, groups of teachers measured and completed different calculations for two different sports balls. The balls were dropped at heights of 100 meters and 200 meters, and then the students measured how high they bounced by calculating the coefficient of restitution. They also made a graph comparing the COR for all of the balls each group used.
"I think the activities provided at this training inspire teachers and will excite students," said Jessica Parsons, a Milton High School teacher. "I really enjoyed using audacity to collect data. I have not used any sound data before."
Balls were bounced on different types of surfaces to determine the effects on the balls' bounce height; balls were rolled down ramps and measurements of the distances they traveled were made on surfaces like artificial turf, foam, and indoor tiling. The groups also spent time designing courses.
"We had to design a golf ball that could, when released, bounce appropriately and roll appropriately to get through the golf hole," said Tara Tetreaultt, a Foxborough school teacher. "Think miniature golf; ours had ramps and different turfs and mini trampolines to bounce on. Each group had to try to modify the plastic wiffle golf ball to make it get through the other groups' creations. It was extremely fun."
Stu Schultz, an nCASE training leader, conducted a particular lesson for the Sports course all about the "thrill of discovery."
"The joy of discovery is the experience we are looking for," said Schultz, after each teacher in his class had discovered the rule. Yet, some of the teachers were incorrect, initially. Schultz explained how failure is something that a student should learn from, how some of the teachers made a hypothesis that was wrong, but they still learned something from it and were ultimately successful.
"Instead of telling students information, set it up so they can discover it," Schultz said. "It will be much more meaningful, and they'll remember it longer. They'll have more fun in their class, they'll like your class, they'll like you, and all kinds of good things will come of it."
Teachers fill out reviews of the courses, and the teachers at NSRDEC agreed that they learned a great deal and appreciated the opportunity to take the materials and lessons they learned from the nCASE training into their own classrooms. | <urn:uuid:5827c7dd-1b92-48cd-a96e-f32254dfcbd3> | {
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Walk with a Kiawah Naturalist and explore the life of the American Alligator. As we search the gator habitats in ponds and waterways for alligators of all sizes, your Naturalist will explain how these prehistoric creatures survive and thrive on Kiawah. A great tour for the entire family!
|Requirements:||An adult must accompany children under 16.|
|Fee:||$12 per person|
|What to bring:||Insect repellent and comfortable walking shoes.|
|Schedule:||This program is offered Spring, Fall, and Winter on Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday. Check out the Alligator Adventure or Kiawah Creatures tour to learn about Kiawah's native wildlife. For a program schedule please visit or call the Heron Park Nature Center, (843) 768-6001.|
Alligators have lived and nested on Kiawah and surrounding areas since long before humans arrived. Inhabiting fresh and brackish water wetlands throughout the southeast, these reptiles can reach 12 feet in length, be in excess of 1000 pounds, and have a lifespan greater than 60 years.
During the few cold winter days we experience on Kiawah, our Alligators are dormant, simply lying on the bottom of a pond, lake or river, or in underground dens scooped out with their jaws and claws. The den is usually underwater and the alligator’s metabolism slows to the point where it only needs to breathe a few times a day. This is accomplished by just raising its nostrils above the surface of the water while keeping its body fully submerged in the warmer water.
With the arrival of spring, adult alligators of both sexes can be heard bellowing. This activity serves several purposes; it is used to attract mates, let potential mates know their location, and act as a territorial warning. Alligators usually mate during May, and by June females are in the process of building mound-shaped nests out of grasses or other vegetation, usually within 10-15 feet from the pond edge. The females bury an average of 44 oblong, white eggs in the nest. She guards the nest fiercely against predators during the 60-65 day incubation period. Be warned that gators may charge humans if their nest or young are bothered. Keep your eyes open and stay clear.
Hatching peaks in late August. Once hatched, the babies need mama’s help to get out of the nest. She digs open the mound and carries the young that have made their way out of the eggs to the water in her mouth. Even more amazing, she cracks unopened eggs with her jaws and liberates the young in the water. The baby alligators immediately begin feeding on insects, small fish, and various aquatic life. Although mom protects her young, only about 10% survive. Baby gators are eaten by many of the same animals that adult alligators feed on. These include raccoons, snakes, large wading birds, large fish, and sometimes other alligators.
Regardless of the time of year you visit Kiawah, there is always something interesting happening with our alligator population. Join our Naturalists in the field for Alligator Adventure or Gator Walk and discover firsthand the life history of these amazing creatures.
No child should leave Kiawah without Touching a Real Alligator (in the safety of the Nature Center, of course!): Sign up for our Reptile Roundup or a Gator Walk to learn about and meet the American Alligator -- you'll be surprised at what these prehistoric creatures really feel like. | <urn:uuid:95c3b9ef-544b-4153-886c-1e22d4bbaf4d> | {
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Human resources (HR) benchmarking is the process of measuring an organization’s own HR practices against those of several other companies in the field. The goal is to determine a best practices model for the company. Once the organization has a set of desirable conditions, it can perform a gap analysis to determine where it is falling short compared to best practices. Then it will have the information to create a strategy that can help the organization to reach its goals as they relate to human resources.
One of the most common tasks of human resources benchmarking is to determine which areas will be studied. Some of the elements of HR that are typically put under scrutiny include recruiting, training, and employee relations. Other important areas are retention, employee safety, and payroll. Many companies will also examine the overall effectiveness of various HR departments.
Recruiting and the composition of a company’s staff are a couple of the most important elements typically examined in human resources benchmarking. Some issues to consider with recruiting include the effectiveness of hiring processes and whether the employees hired tend to be good choices. A company may also focus its recruiting efforts in a certain direction. For example, a business may wish to increase the diversity of its workforce or hire workers with a certain level of experience in order to increase the chances of reaching a specific goal. The balance between full-time, part-time, and contract workers and the success of various employee mixes may also be examined.
Analyzing organizational training and development programs is another common element of human resources benchmarking. Typically the goal is to determine which programs are most effective and in which areas instruction is most needed. The process can include an analysis of subject matter, frequency of opportunities for education, and the composition of workers in each program. It can also be useful to estimate the return on investment (ROI) of various training programs.
Overall, human resources benchmarking is an analysis of how various HR departments keep employees engaged, safe, and loyal to the company. This can include everything from ensuring basic safety to initiatives that increase employee moral. It involves daily functions such as maximizing the effectiveness of the payroll process and big picture strategies that are meant to increase the strength of the workforce. Once an organization has completed the human resources benchmarking process, it will often have the tools it needs to improve its performance and meet or rise above the results of other companies.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:54a1d192-6ed1-436f-83a9-ec62a3e673e4> | {
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On July 4, 1776, delegates of the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence; a document that announced the fledgling 13 colonies would gain freedom from rule under Great Britain -- a landmark decision during the early years of the Revolutionary War.
Today, we typically celebrate the birth of American independence with barbecues, fireworks, and parades. But another way to celebrate is to become immersed in the rich history of Connecticut and the early days of what has since become the United State of America.
The Burning of Fairfield (including Westport, Weston, Easton, and Black Rock)
Back when Fairfield included two-thirds of Westport, Weston, Easton, and Bridgeport's Black Rock section, the area played a significant role in the Revolutionary War. That role is commemorated every year by Fairfield with a walking tour of an event known as the Burning of Fairfield.
and begins at the .
detailed how Fairfielders helped the cause for independence. Troops were sent from Fairfield to fight in Lexington, Mass. in 1775 and to New York to fight in 1776.
On July 7, 1779, British Major General William Tryon and 800 troops landed at Black Rock Harbor and by that evening had taken Fairfield's Town Green. Seventeen hundred more British troops joined Tryon later that evening and, by 8 a.m. on July 8, had burned 97 homes, 64 barns, two meetinghouses, a church, and the county jail.
Fairfield and the 'Second War of Independence'
This year -- the bicentennial of the War of 1812 -- Fairfield will focus its July 4th festivities on its role in that war, according to a report in the Fairfield Citizen.
The War of 1812 -- sometimes known as the "second war of independence" -- began a mere 29 years after the Revolutionary War was concluded.
Members of the Daughters of the American Revolution will participate in the town's festivities, which begin at 10 a.m. Wednesday on the Town Hall Green. According to the report in the Citizen, DAR member and president of Connecticut Society, U.S. Daughters of 1812 Betty Oderwald will discuss Fairfield's role in the war.
, a building erected by Fairfield farmers in 1814 to store ammunition to support the cause against the British.
Continental Army at Putnam Park
Camp Reading, now known as Putnam Park in Bethel, .
The troops, under the direction of Gen. Israel Putnam, were encamped on the northern border of Redding throughout that harsh winter. Battle-weary and ill-supplied, the troops were doing so poorly that Gen. George Washington himself felt it was his responsibility to right the situation.
The commander of the Continental Army personally urged that the Connecticut troops be furnished with shirts, stockings, and shoes.
The Battle of Ridgefield
Near the start of the Revolutionary War, Ridgefield's Keeler's Tavern served as a hub for Patriots to discuss the moves of the British Army.
On April 27, 1777, talk among neighbors became reality when British Major General Tryon with 1,500 troops, a cavalry group, 300 loyal colonials, and a six-piece artillery unit attempted to keep Patriots at bay
Patriot General David Wooster and 700 soldiers camped in Bethel forced Tryon to head south toward Ridgefield, where troops under the direction of General Benedict Arnold and General Gold Selleck Silliman were waiting.
Barricades were erected in Ridgefield as Wooster attacked the British from the rear. Tryon overran the Patriot troops in Ridgefield and burned the town, but not before Arnold displayed legendary heroics -- escaping after taking nine musket balls.
Though the Patriots lost, the battle slowed the British, who never fought in Connecticut again, Angela Liptak, associate director of the Keeler Tavern Museum, .
Washington Stops in Westport
It was known as West Parish during George Washington's time -- a conglomerate of parts of Westport, Fairfield, and Norwalk -- .
After he crossed the Saugatuck River on horseback, Washington met with local minister Rev. Hezekiah Ripley of the West Parish Meetinghouse (now known as Green's Farms Congregational Church). The men enjoyed a walk together talked about rebellion before Washington headed north.
Before leaving, Washington supposedly remarked that the meetinghouse was a "comely little church."
War Veterans Buried in Monroe
Stepney Cemetery, located in Monroe's Stepney Village, .
Thirty-one of the tombstones belong to Civil War veterans, six to men who fought during the War of 1812, and five to soldiers of the Revolutionary War.
The village will mark the 150th anniversary of the Civil War in September with a special ceremony on Stepney Green. The service will include reading the names of all the Civil War veterans.
East Haven Houses Encampment of Gen. Lafayette
On the East Haven Town Green is a memorial dedicated to Continental Army General Marquis de Lafayette, who set up camp in East Haven with 2,800 troops during a trek to Rhode Island in July 1778.
According to the East Haven Historical Society's website, local minister and Patriot Rev. Nicholas Street offered Lafayette "to enjoy the hospitalities of his home during his stay, which he very willingly accepted." | <urn:uuid:8a966de7-89ee-4acd-812d-bb8955f2a70a> | {
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There are useful ideas at the bottom of each page for parents and teachers to introduce the concepts concretely before doing the workbook page, and for extending the concept after doing the page. Lessons are one full page (front and back). 158 pages, softcover. Grade K. Book A is designed to cover the first half of the kindergarten year.
Vendor: Singaporemath.com Inc
Availability: Available to ship on or about 10/10/14.
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EarlyBird Kindergarten Math (Standards Edition) Activity Book ASingaporemath.com Inc / Trade Paperback$16.50 Retail:
$21.00Save 21% ($4.50)Availability: In StockCBD Stock No: WW470175
EarlyBird Kindergarten Math (Standards Edition) Textbook BSingaporemath.com Inc / Trade Paperback$24.50 Retail:4 Stars Out Of 5 2 Reviews
$29.00Save 16% ($4.50)Availability: Out of StockCBD Stock No: WW470168
tinaCarriere,MSAge: 35-44Gender: female4 Stars Out Of 5September 6, 2012tinaCarriere,MSAge: 35-44Gender: femaleQuality: 5Value: 5Meets Expectations: 2My son did enjoy this workbook. However, I didn't find this workbook to be a challenge for him at all. I expected the lessons to progressively get more difficult. I did not find that to be true. This workbook was very simple. My son was able to complete it in a month. He is now moving to workbook b.
The pages are visually pleasing. The lessons are presented well. There is a lot of coloring, counting, matching, & sorting, and then some measuring at the end. My friend who has a masters in education is using this workbook for her kindergarten son and finds the workbook to be just right for him. So, I don't necessarily think the workbook was not on level. It just was not the right workbook for my son.
Mom23GirliesManitoba, Canada5 Stars Out Of 5Great intro to MathJuly 11, 2012Mom23GirliesManitoba, CanadaQuality: 5Value: 5Meets Expectations: 5My 5 year old loves to work in her new math book! I find it is a nice easy introduction to math, yet she is already learning new things. I love that it is a great price. Very easy to use.
SummerHOdenton, MDAge: 25-34Gender: female5 Stars Out Of 5Very thoroughDecember 27, 2011SummerHOdenton, MDAge: 25-34Gender: femaleQuality: 5Value: 5Meets Expectations: 5Book A starts out very, basic. It is however, very comprehensive. The lessons move quickly enough so there is no boredom. The teaching suggestions on the bottom of each page are what makes this golden. This is not just a workbook to hand to the child, it requires a bit of prep from the teacher/parent but is very much worth the extra effort. Without those exercises, you would lose a lot of the Singapore method. I have to add, I am using this for pre-K with my 4y/o with excellent results. She absolutely loves math and I credit that to this book.
booboogirlD.C.Age: 25-34Gender: Female5 Stars Out Of 5Love that each page has extra suggestions.October 21, 2011booboogirlD.C.Age: 25-34Gender: FemaleQuality: 5Value: 5Meets Expectations: 5It covers 1/2 a year of the basic k-5 math. But what I love most is that this book goes further than just a basic worksheet. At the bottom of each worksheet, there is an easy, fun activity to reinforce and make the concepts come alive. It usually uses things such as index cards, crayons, etc. that you probably have around the house anyway. I have found it is more fun for my kids to use other items that would normally be thrown in the trash (such as different colored drinking screw caps as counters) instead of buying counters or blocks from the store. You can get as creative as you want, and spend as little or as much time as your child needs. I always say something such as, "After we do this worksheet, we are going to play the game it suggests." Both my kids get excited and think math is a big fun game. Very very happy with this workbook!!
fit mamaTexasAge: 35-44Gender: female5 Stars Out Of 5we like this seriesDecember 21, 2010fit mamaTexasAge: 35-44Gender: femaleQuality: 5Value: 5Meets Expectations: 5My kindergarten-aged children like these books from Singapore Math a little better than their other series. They like the pictures and there is not as much "busy work" with cutting and pasting. I started out with the other series and moved to this one, however, both are very good. With boys, I found this series was more interesting to them.
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Q: How did “I could care less” (US) and “I couldn’t care less” (UK) come to mean the same thing? Is the American version a shortened form of something like “See if I could care less”? (I’m an emeritus professor of education at a British university.)
A: “I could care less,” which we’ve written about before on our blog, is an extremely common idiom in the US—almost a cliché—even though many Americans strenuously deplore it.
The Oxford English Dictionary describes “could care less” as a US colloquialism that means the same thing as “couldn’t care less” but omits the negative element.
The OED’s earliest citation for its use in print is from a 1966 issue of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer: “My husband is a lethargic, indecisive guy who drifts along from day to day. If a bill doesn’t get paid he could care less.”
We’ve found several older examples, however, dating back to the early 1960s. They indicate that “could care less” was widespread, both geographically and sociologically, in the US.
This quotation, for instance, is from a November 1962 issue of Ebony magazine:
“Only the bourgeoisie are overwhelmingly obsessed to meet, rub shoulders and party with white society. The large mass of ‘Negroes’ (whatever that is) could care less.” (The quotation is found in a letter to the editor from a reader in Chicago.)
Here’s another example, from a 1960 issue of the Sourdough Crock, published by the California Folklore Society:
“Dear Uncle Flabby: I get sick and tired of hearing people say, ‘I could care less,’ which doesn’t mean what they mean to mean at all. If they would only stop and think about it, they would know that what they are trying to say is, ‘I couldn’t care less,’ which means ‘I don’t care at all.’ ” (The comment was in a column written by the pseudonymous Flabby Van Boring.)
But here we’d like to speculate a bit, if you don’t mind.
This common American phrase—essentially “couldn’t care less” without the negative element—might have grown from an earlier usage in which the negation comes before the phrase. This earlier usage appears in both British and American writing.
Here’s an example from a 1955 issue of Dun’s Review and Modern Industry, published in New York: “Hardly anyone in the executive latitudes knows anything much about office operations and, with minor exceptions, none could care less.”
And here’s a British example, from a 1955 issue of The Aeroplane: “Why does he assume that passengers will not like fixed backward seats? I don’t believe they could care less, if properly handled.” It’s from a letter to the editor, written by a reader in Croydon, Surrey.
Finally, this 1951 example from the British author John Seymour’s The Hard Way to India:
“The miners knew that their safety depended upon themselves, and themselves alone—nobody else could care less if they did not put enough timber in, or failed to examine a face for misfire—so they took good care to care themselves.”
In our opinion, it’s not much of a jump from “nobody could care less” to “they could care less.”
It’s worth pointing out that the phrase “couldn’t care less” originated with a British writer. As we noted in our original blog posting, it first appeared in the title of a book, I Couldn’t Care Less (1946), by the English air transport pilot Anthony Phelps.
You could be on to something when you speculate that “I could care less” may be a shortened form of something like “See if I could care less.”
As we say in our earlier posting, the abbreviated American idiom is obviously intended ironically. The message is something along the lines of “I don’t even distinguish this by clearly identifying it as the thing I care least about in the world.”
The linguist Steven Pinker points out in his book The Language Instinct that the melodies and stresses in “I couldn’t care less” and “I could care less” are very different.
Pinker suggests that the positive version indicates youthful sarcasm:
“By making an assertion that is manifestly false or accompanied by ostentatiously mannered intonation, one deliberately implies its opposite. A good paraphrase is, ‘Oh yeah, as if there was something in the world that I care less about.’ ”
All things considered, we see nothing wrong with using “I could care less” as long as the user is aware that many sticklers still view it as an atrocity—or, as Pinker puts it, “an alleged atrocity.”
Check out our books about the English language | <urn:uuid:c604a892-72b3-4ec4-b124-994fb56df1fb> | {
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Unformatted text preview: Rationalism/Deism 17:06 Rene Descarte Nothing was beyond human comprehension Disciplines needed to be applied begin with suspicion and doubt o Doubt everything, until you see the proof through application of thinking carefully through problems o Contrary to what faith implies Wanted to use current philosophies to reach to the bottom of things Began with principle of doubting everything, the only thing he didnt doubt was the fact that he doubted This gave him starting point for his own philosophy I think therefore I am the idea of a more perfect being could not have been produced by a human mind Since god exists, the material thinking and everything has its origin in god John Locke 1632 1704 Wrote about a lot including psychology Wrote essay/book called An Essay Concerned in Human Understanding o...
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This note was uploaded on 04/20/2008 for the course RELG 205 taught by Professor Neufeld during the Spring '08 term at The University of British Columbia.
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Integrated Biosphere Reserve
RN-18: Burgui limestone gorge
MN-22: Walnut tree at Garde
MN-29: Pine trees at Surio (Uztárroz)
ZEPA-2: Larra – Aztaparreta
ZEPA-3: Sierra of Illón – Burgu limestone gorge
ZEPA-7: Sierra of San Miguel
ZEPA-9: Sierra of Arrigorrieta
Larra Nature Reserve
The Larra Nature Reserve is the largest reserve in Navarre, whilst it is also one of the largest Karst areas in Europe: 120 km². This landscape is a combination of extensive formations of limestone rock dotted with black pines and large areas of mountain pasturelands. It includes the Integrated Reserve of Ukerdi
Integrated Reserve of Ukerdi
This Integrated Reserve features a landscape formed by large extensions of limestone rock, which is a bluish-grey permeable rock through which water penetrates and flows underground. The black pine and some Alpine flowers are almost the only vegetation to be found here. Amongst the principal animals populating the area, particular mention should be made of the Pyrenean mountain group, the capercaillie and the rock ptarmigan.
Integrated Reserve of Aztaparreta.
Located in the area known as the Corner of Belagua, this Integrated Reserve comprises a beech – fir forest considered to be the most well conserved woodland in the Pyrenees. The most characteristic animal species include the black woodpecker, the white-backed woodpecker and the bear. | <urn:uuid:cfaa8575-0e27-4d40-8508-8d97ac3c778c> | {
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If they are on different social media sites they should use different user names and passwords on each one.
You will know how it works and also be able to talk with them about it. Teach them that when they post information whether on Facebook or through email only share what they would want everyone to know.
Tell them not to reveal too much personal information online. Parents with teens should teach them some tips about using the Internet wisely.
Discourage teens from meeting and dating anyone online.
They should tell an adult when someone sends them inappropriate messages and photos.
On the positive side social media can be a place to share hobbies and common interests with other kids their age.
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Throughout history, children's books have found their ways into the
hands and hearts of many; The Chronicles of Narnia, Anne of Green Gables,
and Little House on the Prairie are prime examples. However, none of the
aforementioned series have ever, throughout the many years of their existence,
come close in sales or style to the phenomenon that is Harry Potter ("Analysis").
Children and adults everywhere have eagerly read and reread the books
in the series. Parents have claimed that it opened new doors in their
relationships with their children (Survey). Even babysitters claim that
when their charges gleefully announce "Let's go find Hogwarts!" (Harry
Potter's school where much of the four books take place) it makes their
jobs much easier (Fauss, Personal interview). Children exclaim that it
is "like life, but better" (Jones et al.), and proved that they felt that
statement to be true when they lined up to buy the 734-page fourth installment
to the series.
Where does the appeal lie in the Harry Potter series? What about
it has captured the minds of so many people, even causing it to bridge
the age gap between young and old? The answers to these questions lie
partly in the details, the characters, and the writing style, but primarily
in the sometimes painfully real situations J.K. Rowling portrays. The
legions of people who enjoy the Harry Potter books do so not only because
of the magical and detailed new world depicted, but because of the everyday
issues and feelings that are addressed within the pages.
Overwhelmingly, what people remember most about Harry Potter and
the Sorcerer's Stone, the first book, is the introduction to the world
of wizards (or, as it is referred to in the books, the wizarding world)
(Survey). To effectively convey the story she has chosen to write, the
author must provide a detailed description of Harry's new and exciting
world; she rises beyond the expectations of the readers. Her vivid descriptions
provide scope for the imagination, and also allow readers access into
another world. The chapter titled "Diagon Alley" (Rowling, Sorcerer's
Stone 63) is where the wizarding world is first displayed. In it, Harry
and the reader are shown amazing stores where they catch glimpses of equally
amazing wares and people (not to mention goblins).
Besides the physical descriptions, the names of several characters
are descriptions in themselves. For instance, Severus, the first name
of Harry's least favorite teacher (Professor Snape) means "severe" in
Latin (Encyclopedia Potterica) and Voldemort, Harry's mortal enemy and
the most evil wizard ever to exist, means "theft by death," implying that
he stole the lives of many through his mass killings. Each spell that
witches and wizards use is Latin for what the spell does; "Lumos," for
example, is similar to the Latin word for light (the spell causes the
end of a wand to light, similar to a flashlight), and "nox," the spell
that causes the light to die, is Latin for night.
A major theme in the first book is wish fulfillment. In the beginning,
Harry is stuck living with the Dursleys, a horrible family (his aunt,
uncle, and cousin) who try as hard as they can to be "normal" and hate
Harry because they know he will turn out to be as "abnormal" as his parents
were before their deaths. When Harry was a year old, Lord Voldemort, a
wizard so evil that people are too afraid even to utter his name (they
prefer to call him "You-Know-Who," "The Dark Lord," or "He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named"),
killed his parents and then turned to inflict his rage on Harry. However,
for some mysterious reason, the curse he used backfired and rendered Voldemort
powerless (though not dead). Because of this utterly miraculous occurrence,
Harry was rendered instantly famous. Despite his seemingly good circumstances,
the Dursleys are his only living relatives, and therefore, he is forced
to live with them. They are so oppressive that they do not even tell him
what he is or how his parents died; they tell him his parents were killed
in a car crash and never mention the word "wizard" during his time in
The Dursleys present an interesting and true possibility to the reader:
not everything is what it seems. Outside, the Dursleys are seen as a fine
and upstanding family. They have a perfect house and consist of a stereotypical
housewife, a "lovely" son, and Vernon, a "big, beefy man with hardly any
neck" (Rowling, Sorcerer's Stone 1), the director of a good company. However,
the family is really comprised of three of the most horrible people one
could find. Petunia, Harry's aunt, is a nosey snob who is so obsessed
with being what society perceives to be acceptable that she stopped speaking
to her "abnormal" sister (Harry's mother). Vernon, Harry's uncle, is a
bad-tempered and mean man who is as set on being "normal" as his wife.
Dudley, their son, who is Harry's age, is spoiled and allowed to become
grossly overweight and indolent by his parents. Each of these people is
absolutely rancorous toward Harry, to the point where they force him to
live in the spider-filled cupboard under the stairs and frequently punish
him from food.
Throughout Harry's horrid life with his relatives, he somehow managed
to keep some wit and good humor. He frequently insults his relations (namely
Dudley (32)) and is not afraid of them at all; in fact, he regularly stands
up to them (35). Odd things happened while Harry was living with the Dursleys
before he learned what he was; for instance, when Dudley's gang of bullies
was chasing him at school, he suddenly ended up on the roof of the school
kitchens (25). However, he did not often give these occurrences consideration
until his eleventh birthday approached.
At that time, strange letters began to arrive for Harry (much to
the dismay of his relatives, who tried to keep him from reading them);
however, he never managed to read one without outside assistance. On his
eleventh birthday he was sought out and told that he was a wizard by Reubus
Hagrid. Hagrid is the very kind and eager to please groundskeeper at Hogwarts
School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, the school Harry will attend so that
he can learn to be a proper wizard. As a direct result of this, he was
able to leave the Dursleys.
Harry arrives at school scared and anxious (as many people are in
a new situation) and worried about the sorting, which is a ceremony where
students put on a magical hat that tells them which house would suit them.
There are four houses in Hogwarts, and each student is sorted among them
according to his or her personal characteristics: the Hufflepuffs are
loyal and true, the Ravenclaws are smart and studious, the Slytherins
are willing to do anything to get what they want, and the Gryffindors
are brave and daring. Harry wishes there were a house "...for people who
felt a bit queasy" (119). Even from the little he has heard of Slytherin,
he does not want to be in that house; it is a widely known fact that many
Slytherins are mean, and more dark wizards had come from Slytherin than
any other house. As Harry nervously put the hat on his head, it nodded
him toward Slytherin, but he firmly refused. As a result, he was placed
in Gryffindor, a very coveted placement.
After his classes start, he is revealed to be a natural flyer (wizards
fly on broomsticks) and placed on his house's Quidditch team (Quidditch
is the most popular wizarding sport, played on flying broomsticks) as
the seeker (the most difficult position). Harry is excellent at his new
role, and is widely admired for his talent.
Harry came from nothing and became something fantastic-a rich, popular
person who can perform magic. This idea is obviously very appealing to
people; who would not, given the choice, have her wildest dreams come
true? Harry was predominately the favorite character among children, presumably
because they like what he does and imagine themselves in the situations
(Survey). He is brave and adventurous, and children like such features
in characters, not to mention that he managed to triumph over both evil
and the Dursleys (and can fly on a broom).
During his time at Hogwarts Harry often feels lost or uninformed,
but these feelings are lightened considerably by his best friend Ron Weasley.
The two meet on the train and discover that they come from very different
backgrounds: Harry has no family and Ron has too much of it; Harry is
famous and Ron is lost among his brothers; Harry is rich and Ron is poor.
Despite these differences, their weaknesses are aided by the other's strengths
and companionship, and their friendship blossoms. Harry, a famous person,
gives Ron some individual attention. Ron, who came from a long line of
wizards, is able to help Harry meld into a world that is foreign to him
(Acocella). What is especially interesting about Ron is that he is the
character people seem to relate to the most. Quite a few people name him
as their favorite character, and the reasons they cite for this choice
are that he seems the most like them and that he would make a good friend
(Survey). He is easy to relate to because of his position. There is nothing
truly amazing about him; he is average, makes average grades, and shows
no outstanding talent (except in chess); he isn't the oldest or youngest
in his large family and he is teased because of his economic state. Many
can relate to a character as universal as he.
Hermione is a girl who both Harry and Ron meet on the train, and
neither like her at first. She enters the book as a bossy know-it-all,
and immediately tries to order around both Harry and Ron (Rowling, Sorcerer's
Stone 110). However, after an ordeal with a troll (175), they become good
friends and she emerges as the voice of reason out of the three. Despite
the fact that she is from a family of Muggles (people who are not witches
and wizards), she is obviously the most qualified witch in her year (this
issue comes to the forefront in later books). Perhaps one of the most
refreshing aspects of her character is that she is not the prettiest character
in the book; described as having bushy hair and large front teeth, she
is respected for her intellect and not made to become more attractive
before being liked (Acocella). She gives the books the necessary girl
perspective, and is wonderfully real.
Draco Malfoy is also introduced. He is the second antagonist (besides
Voldemort); he is immediately portrayed as mean, stuck-up and woefully
misinformed on the ways of the world. He is the main instigator and always
finds new ways to make Harry's life just a bit more miserable; his involvement
in the series makes issues of "bullying, cliques, and ostracism" come
to the forefront (Acocella). Many people have their own personal Draco
Malfoys, and poor Harry's situation is all too easy to understand.
Professor Dumbledore is almost a mentor for Harry. He is the headmaster
of Hogwarts and subtly helps Harry through the course of the four books.
He represents the ultimate good; he is the most powerful wizard in the
world, and he guides Harry through the trials he faces in each book. At
the end, there is inevitably a moral-filled conversation with him, but
the nature of his character allows the talks to feel natural and perfectly
While at the school, Harry and his friends uncover a plot to steal
the Sorcerer's Stone, a stone that can be used to create both gold and
a potion that grants the drinker immortality (Rowling, Sorcerer's Stone
220). They deduce from bits of conversations they accidentally overhear
that Professor Snape, their potions professor (potions classes are for
brewing potions), is after it and the only thing in his way is Professor
Quirrell. Quirrell is the extremely nervous Defense Against the Dark Arts
teacher whom everyone regards as a stuttering joke. Snape is an extremely
mean professor who favors the Slytherins and despises the Gryfindors;
he is always looking to punish Harry and his friends. As a reader, it
is easy to suspect him. After going through a series of obstacles to reach
the stone and arriving at the final destination, Harry finds not Snape
but Quirrell; indeed, especially in this world, everything is not what
it seems to be (288). Here, Harry is given his first glimpse of the villain
who will presumably plague him through all seven books of the series;
Quirrell has bonded with the Dark Lord and allowed him use of his body.
It turned out that Snape had not been trying to bully Quirrell into helping
him, but bullying him into stopping his evil activities. Harry is able
to hold off Quirrell/Voldemort until Dumbledore gets to him and takes
control of the situation.
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone was truly a beginning book
in many ways. Its plot is light, and it is applicable to the fact that
Harry is only eleven. Much of the book is spent introducing the reader
to the wizarding world, and the only major plot twist is at the end where
Quirrell was evil instead of Snape. The plot had no lasting ramifications;
no one died, Voldemort disappeared, and Harry's life returned to as it
had been before the battle. It retains a childlike innocence and ends
with a sense of fun and eagerness for the future.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second book in the series,
opens with an ominous message from Dobby, a house elf and possibly one
of the least ominous creatures that one could possibly imagine. He is
described as being very small and odd looking with large eyes, bat-like
ears, and a high, squeaky voice (Rowling, Chamber 12). Harry is told that
he cannot go to Hogwarts because of a dark plot that was hatching, but
Harry ignores the warning. Because of this, the house elf gets him in
trouble with the Dursleys (he ruins an important dinner party and Harry
is blamed). Consequently, they lock Harry in his room.
Harry's prospects were looking grim, but Ron, Fred, and George Weasley
(Harry's best friend and his twin brothers, respectively) soon rescued
him. Fred and George are the primary mischief makers at Hogwarts; they
are always up to some trick or prank and are two of the funniest characters
in the book. They rescue him using their father's illegal flying car (the
Ministry of Magic, the wizard government, regulates such things) and Harry
escapes the Dursleys to spend the rest of the summer at the Weasleys'
The Weasleys are a very large family, all with red hair. Molly, head
of the household, and Arthur, an employee at the Ministry who loves Muggles,
are the parents. They have seven children: Bill, Charlie, Percy, Fred,
George, Ron, and Ginny. The oldest two, Bill and Charlie, have graduated
from school and have moved out. Percy is in his sixth year at Hogwarts
and has been named a Prefect, a sort of model student who gets special
privileges and responsibilities. Ginny is the youngest child and the only
girl. She is very unassuming, and has a large crush on Harry. The Weasleys
are not financially well-off; they have little money, and all of their
children have second-hand school supplies and hand-me-down robes (standard
wizard clothes). Ron is very nervous about what Harry will think of his
house as he shows Harry around, but a very satisfied Harry declares it
to be the "best house (he's) ever been in" (41).
The Weasleys are the type of family that the Dursleys would have
locked away if they were given the choice. They are not "normal" in any
sense of the word, and yet they are some of the best people mentioned
throughout the series. Erin Dineen, a librarian, best captured the message
portrayed by the Dursleys as compared to the Weasleys:
From the outside, they're always trying to portray something that's the
way things are supposed to be, and in the end we know that they're very
cruel people and they're very petty people and they're very shallow. And
the people who look like they're not the most important are usually solid
people with good values (Dineen, Personal Interview).
When the Weasleys take Harry to Diagon Alley to go school shopping,
it is revealed that a very famous wizard will be the new Defense against
the Dark Arts teacher: the handsome, charming, and pompous Gilderoy Lockhart
(Rowling, Chamber 60). Professor Lockhart immediately strikes the reader
as false, and rightly so; though he wrote several best-selling books about
how he slew several monsters, he really did none of it-he just interviewed
the real heroes, put strong memory charms on them so that they would forget
their deeds, and wrote his books about them adding details about himself
to feed his enormous ego and increase their readability (297).
Lockhart struck a chord with many people, in both a humorous way
and one that was painfully familiar. He provides much of the humor in
the second book due to his stupidity and oblivious air of self-importance,
but many of us know "Lockharts" who exist in our own lives, and they are
not nearly as humorous. Says one reader,
As I have gotten older and met more people in my career, I found out
that there is always one Lockhart in the organization. They may not be
as good- looking as Lockhart, but they overstate their accomplishments
and leave other people in the lurch (Survey).
Prejudice is directly addressed for the first time in this book.
Draco Malfoy, Harry's enemy and known hater of anyone not from a wizarding
family, insults Hermione by calling her a "mudblood." This action results
in shouting and displays of anger by many present, and Ron is so upset
about this that he attempts to curse him (Rowling, Chamber 112). The insult
is soon explained as a very offensive and derogatory comment meaning that
one has "dirty" blood (i.e. one or more of the person's parents was not
a witch or wizard)(115). It is a belief shared by several old wizarding
families like Malfoy's that only "pureblood" wizards are acceptable. Since
this is directed at Hermione, the reader immediately knows that it is
not true in any way, shape, or form. Hermione always achieves the highest
grades, she tries the hardest, and as a result she is the best witch in
her year. As Hagrid says, "...they haven't invented a spell our Hermione
can' do" (116). Despite the obvious stupidity of this idea, the prejudice
does exist; in fact it is the very fuel to the plot of the book, not to
mention a major factor in later books.
The plot of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is noticeably
darker than the plot of the first book. The legend says that the four
founders of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry-Godric Gryffindor,
Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin-worked in harmony
at first, but Slytherin soon had disagreements with them over the admittance
of witches and wizards from Muggle families. He supposedly built a secret
chamber beneath the school that only his heir could open. The chamber
contained a monster that would "purge the school of all who were unworthy
to study magic" (150). Though long regarded as nothing more than a myth,
strange things start to happen at the school; a cat, several Muggle-born
students, and a ghost are all discovered petrified (basically frozen,
unable to move in any way).
An important revelation is made to Harry when Dumbledore, up until
this point in the series an all-powerful character, is forced to leave
the school due to the amount of attacks that have occurred under his watch
(262). He learns that Dumbledore is not invincible, and that there is
a possibility that evil can triumph. However, by retaining faith in good
(i.e. Dumbledore) he is able to still receive help from him in the form
of the weapons he uses to defeat the monster in the Chamber of Secrets
Harry finds an unassuming diary that was long ago bewitched to carry
the spirit of Tom Riddle, an orphan and excellent student who went to
Hogwarts approximately 50 years before Harry attended. Apparently, the
chamber was opened while Tom was in school, and the diary tells Harry
about the circumstances (it can talk on its own), accusing none other
than Reubus Hagrid, the gamekeeper at Hogwarts and Harry's good friend
(242). Harry sympathizes with Tom due to the fact that their pasts seem
so similar (they were both orphans and forced to live in undesirable places,
Tom in an orphanage and Harry with the Dursleys), but refuses to believe
that Hagrid was the culprit. At the end of the book, circumstances reveal
that he was right to be suspicious of Tom's accusations, and that again
everything is not as it seemed. Tom Riddle was Lord Voldemort in his Hogwarts'
years, and he had taken control of little Ginny Weasley; he coerced her
into doing his bidding and opening the chamber (329). Adults primarily
remembered Tom Riddle when asked about this book (Survey), presumably
because of the memorable account of the origin of Harry's archnemesis.
Inside the Chamber of Secrets lurks one of the most descriptive monsters
in the series, a gigantic venomous snake with a deadly stare known as
a Basilisk (290). Children remembered Harry's climactic battle with the
Basilisk more than any other part in the book, presumably due to the excitement
and suspense the battle induced (Survey).
The major theme in the book is that the choices one makes determine
one's destiny. This lesson is given in small terms in the beginning, when
Harry and Ron cannot access the magical entrance to platform 9 3/4 to
get on the train to Hogwarts (68). Panicking, they decide to use Mr. Weasley's
flying car, and they crash into the Whomping Willow (a tree that can hit).
They are tired, bruised, and hungry by the time they get to the school,
and both the car and Ron's wand were severely damaged. Ron was forced
to use a broken and defective wand for the entirety of the year and Mr.
Weasley faced an inquiry at his job due to some Muggles seeing the car
as it flew (88). Also, Harry and Ron were given detentions and severe
warnings about their impulsive and foolish behavior.
Harry's character develops significantly in this book due to the
application of this theme. He has a small identity crisis dealing with
the fact that the Sorting Hat offered to place him in Slytherin, traditionally
the house where dark wizards are bred (Rowling, Sorcerer's Stone 121).
Since he had the potential to be in Slytherin he questions whether he
is just like Voldemort; after all, they were both parselmouths (they can
both talk to snakes (Rowling, Chamber 195), both orphans, and even looked
a little alike. However, Dumbledore quashes this thought with his traditional
speech to Harry after everything is finished. He states that it is the
choices a person makes that show what a person is, not his or her abilities
(333). Since Harry chose to be in Gryffindor, it makes him much different
from, and Harry's unease is put to rest. Through use of this theme, a
message is conveyed about the choices people make in everyday life. When
one makes an important choice, it should not be out of impulse or convenience;
if something is easy to do it does not mean that it is correct (often
it is the opposite).
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ends nearly as happily as
the first book; there are no deaths despite the climactic battle, and
though Ginny Weasley is considerably shaken, she makes a complete recovery.
This is the last book in the series that concludes within itself; after
this, the books seem to be merely chapters that are part of a larger story.
Starting with Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, the plot
begins to get darker and extends beyond the confines of each book. While
the first two books were mostly self-contained, this book begins the overall
plot by introducing Sirius Black, a pivotal character in Harry's life
who is in a tragic predicament. This is the book that people most often
cite as their favorite (Survey), and the story is arguably the most surprising
and involving of the four.
Some of the most horrific characters, the dementors, are introduced.
A dementor is a large, human-like, cloaked creature that wears a hood
over its head so that no one sees its face. They are fear and pain personified;
they feed off of human emotion, and literally suck the happiness out of
the air around them (Rowling, Prisoner 187). When a human is near a dementor,
she is unable to think of anything happy and is instead forced to picture
her worst memory. The weapon of these avatars of fear is what is known
as the dementor's kiss: they literally suck out the soul of their victim
through her mouth, and she is forced to live the rest of her life as merely
an empty, unfeeling shell (247). Harry spends the majority of the book
trying to conquer these creatures, i.e. his fears.
The two characters who readers enjoy the most, Remus Lupin and Sirius
Black, enter the plot in this book. Many paired them when citing their
names; indeed, after the events in the book it is hard to think of one
without the other. Remus Lupin is the Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher,
the first competent instructor of the subject that the students have had
so far. He is very wise and compassionate toward his students; in his
first lesson, he brings the incompetent Neville Longbottom to the front
of the class and helps him successfully deal with a monster (139). Professor
Lupin is the person who helps Harry deal with the dementors; he listens
to him relive his visions of the moment Voldemort killed his parents (he
is forced to see the memory each time he is near a dementor), and helps
him work on the spell that will eventually ward them away (236).
Despite being nice, wise, and understanding, Remus Lupin's character
has a gruesome and unexpected twist: he is a werewolf, a creature that
is feared and loathed among witches and wizards. This prejudice is again
proven to be idiotic and unnecessary, but it exists all the same. He leaves
when his secret is exposed to prevent parents from complaining (Dumbledore
is compassionate and accommodating, and never subscribes to any sort of
prejudice). This reflects a sad reality of life: if a person suffers a
certain handicap (whether it be race, sex, or condition), no matter how
wonderful that person may be she will sometimes be shunned and hated because
of who she is.
Sirius Black's situation is a living embodiment of Shakespeare's
line "fair is foul, and foul is fair" (as qtd. in Survey). Before the
death of the Potters, he was James Potter's best friend; he was even named
Harry's godfather. It was thought that he had been working for Voldemort
and betrayed the whereabouts of the Potters, causing their deaths; it
was also thought that he murdered Peter Pettigrew, one of his best friends,
after he tried to avenge the deaths of the Potters. On top of these crimes,
he was also accused of massacring twelve innocent Muggle citizens who
happened to be passing by at the time. Sirius was thrown into Azkaban
(the wizard prison run entirely by dementors) and stayed there for twelve
years, until he escaped (Rowling, Prisoner 204). Later, is revealed that
he was innocent the entire time; the real culprit was Peter Pettigrew
During their school years, Sirius Black, Remus Lupin, James Potter,
and Peter Pettigrew were all close friends. When Sirius, James, and Peter
found out that Remus was a werewolf, they set out to become animagi-people
who can turn into animals at will-so that they could spend time with him
during the times when he was a wolf. This was an illegal thing to do unless
one was at a certain age and under strict watch of the Ministry; therefore,
they did it in secret. Sirius was a large black dog, James was a stag,
and Peter was a rat. During the battle that Peter supposedly instigated
for revenge, he yelled out that Sirius had betrayed the Potters, cursed
the street behind his back (killing twelve Muggles), cut off his finger
(to make it look like he had been literally obliterated), turned into
a rat, and scampered off, leaving Sirius to take the blame (353).
Despite the years he spent in Azkaban, it is apparent that he is
still a very nice and genuine person who would do anything for his godson.
People sympathize with his sordid past, and appreciate the innocent convict
scenario that J.K. Rowling has placed around him (Survey).
Harry spends the book coming to terms with the past, namely the life
(and death) of his father. This installment to the series offers him several
connections, first and foremost being his father's friends, Remus Lupin
and (especially) Sirius Black, and enemies, Severus Snape. He does not
know their connection with his father for most of the book; it is only
during the climax toward the end when all is revealed (in fact, for most
of the book he believes that Sirius was trying to kill him). It is true
that he does not stay in touch with Remus Lupin after the book ends, but
he does remain in contact with Sirius Black. Severus Snape seems to have
been his father's own personal Draco Malfoy, and the strength of their
mutual hatred seems to have transcended the generation gap (now he hates
He finds another link to his father in the Maurader's Map, a map
of all of the secret passages in the school that his father and his friends
created when they were in school (Rowling, Prisoner 192). Fred and George
were in possession of the map and gave it to Harry so that he could sneak
into Hogsmeade, the wizarding village, with the rest of the school (he
did not have a signed permission slip) (14).
When the dementors are near Harry, he hears the voices of his parents
panicking as Voldemort is about to kill them. This renders him powerless
whenever a dementor is near (they patrol the school in search of Sirius
Black), and he seeks the help of Remus Lupin so that he can ward off the
evil creatures whenever they approach. Harry begins to master the spell,
"expecto patronum"(238), meaning "release protector" (Encyclopedia Potterica),
but cannot fully accomplish this task and conjure a Patronus (the name
of the "protector" that takes on different forms for each person (Rowling,
Prisoner 237) until a very touching scene near the end. Circumstances
required that he and Hermione travel back in time by way of a Time-Turner
(an hourglass necklace that allows one to travel back in time (395)).
He had been cornered by the dementors and thought he had seen his father
from a distance warding them off, but when he traveled back in time to
save Sirius' life he realized that it was not his father, but himself.
When he realizes this (and, consequently, that it is up to him to save
his past self), he conjures a perfect Patronus that takes on the form
of a stag, his father's form as an animagus (411).
Dumbledore's conversation with him at the end helps Harry reach a
state of resolution about the connections that he found with his father
throughout the book. After glumly explaining what happened with his Patronus
(he felt silly for thinking he saw his father), Dumbledore comforted Harry:
You think the dead we loved ever truly leave us? You think that we don't
recall them more clearly than ever in times of great trouble? Your father
is alive in you, Harry, and shows himself most plainly when you have need
of him...You know, Harry, in a way, you did see your father last night....You
found him inside yourself (Rowling, Prisoner of Azkaban, 427).
Harry is growing up as the books progress, and this book showed great
progress in his maturation. Coming to terms with history is no easy task,
and Harry managed to do so despite the pain it caused him and the horrors
he had to face. Losing a loved one is a very difficult thing, and something
everyone must go through at some point in her life. Though Harry was too
young to remember almost anything about his parents when they were alive,
he still feels the loss.
Death is hinted at subtly throughout the series, but it comes to the
forefront in this book because of a Hippogriff (beasts described as having
"...the bodies, hind legs, and tails of horses, but the front legs, wings,
and heads of what seemed to be giant eagles..." (114)) known as Buckbeak.
After the Hippogriff is unjustly accused of attacking a student, he is
sentenced to death. Hagrid saw the beast as a pet, and shed many tears
over the presumed fate of his beloved "Beaky." For a lengthy period of
time, the reader is led to believe that the execution took place (331),
and is forced to deal with death for the first time. However, later it
is revealed that Buckbeak did not actually die, and the reader is not
dealt this card just yet. The situation acts as a prelude to the next
book, in which death plays a larger role.
Dumbledore is further removed from his previously invincible standpoint
when he tells Harry that he cannot change the Minister's mind regarding
Sirius's innocence (393). As Harry gets older, he is being fed larger
spoonfuls of the ways of the world; as he learns in this book, the innocent
are not always allowed to walk free.
For the first time in the series, all is not right in the end. No
one died, but Sirius Black still remains an outlaw and Harry is forced
to go back to the Dursleys. Despite the darkness implied by the plot,
it is fairly sugarcoated when compared to the next book.
When people are asked about Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire,
the first thing they mention is its length. At 734 pages, it is indeed
very long, and written differently than the other books in the series.
For the first time, the reader is allowed a glimpse at what happens during
the summer holidays; also, it is the first time that a book begins somewhere
besides the Dursleys. In fact, it is the first time that any of the books
contained a beginning this dark at all.
While death was hinted at but never fully dealt with in previous
books, it opens with both the mention of a death and the murder of an
innocent Muggle (Rowling, Goblet 11). However, the impact is considerably
lighter than it would have been had the reader known about the deceased
characters before their deaths. In the end of the book, a character who
the reader has gotten to know is mercilessly and unnecessarily murdered,
and the subject again comes to the forefront.
Lord Voldemort rises again in a final, horrific scene where he battles
Harry, and the connections between himself and Harry are again elaborated
upon (697). As aforementioned, Harry and Voldemort are connected in many
ways: they are both parseltongues and orphans, and a new connection is
brought to the attention of the reader: their wands share a similar core.
Each wand has something magical inside it, such as a unicorn hair or a
phoenix feather. Both Harry and Voldemort's wands contain a feather from
the same phoenix, as was revealed in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone
(Rowling 85), and now the consequences of this match are shown (when engaged
in battle, the wands form a link between each other) (Rowling, Goblet
663). Good and evil are very aligned in this book; the ultimate cause
of the connection between Harry and Voldemort has not been revealed yet,
but will probably be touched upon in future books.
Prejudice against Muggle-borns is again mentioned in this volume; during
the Quidditch World Cup, the Death Eaters literally play with Muggles
simply because they are Muggles (143). One of Voldemort's causes is to
rid the world of Muggles and wizards who are not pureblood, and one feels
that this will come back to haunt Hermione, whose parents are both Muggles
On the lighter side, in this book the characters continue to get
older, and with aging comes maturity, and with maturity comes interest
in the opposite sex. Veela, beautiful creatures that inspire such desire
in men that they begin to overstate their accomplishments and try to jump
off of high ledges, are introduced (103), and the characters' interest
in the opposite sex is only heightened by the occurrence of the Yule Ball
at Hogwarts (386). Many of the older readers delighted in seeing the antics
that the characters went through trying to get that special someone to
go to the ball with them (and then watching what happened when they failed).
Unrequited love is an aspect in the lives of many people, and reading
about it in such amusing terms presents a way to both understand it and
laugh at it.
The press enters as a major player in Harry Potter and the Goblet
of Fire in the form of special Daily Prophet (the newspaper in the wizarding
world) correspondent Rita Skeeter. She is a ruthless reporter who prints
grossly exaggerated and false stories, complete with out of context quotes,
causing the devastation of those who are targeted. It is an obvious replica
of today's media; if someone gets on the wrong side of the media, then
she will pay for it with the horrible things that will be printed and
aired on the television. Rita Skeeter presents the important lesson of
not always trusting what one reads (or hears), but that one should be
prepared with the knowledge that many people will.
One of the lives that Rita Skeeter throws into turbulence is that
of Reubus Hagrid; she reveals him to be a half-giant (437). Giants are
perceived to be extremely vicious and brutal, and Hagrid is very upset
by the newspaper article due to the fact that he thinks people will try
to have him thrown out of Hogwarts. The view on giants holds no truth
if one looks at Hagrid, one of the kindest people mentioned in the books.
Yet again, prejudice is proven to be untrue and based on myth.
Severus Snape is a character who, though present in all three of
the previous books, comes forward with some interesting new developments.
Despite being horribly mean to Harry whenever he gets the chance, Snape
is also against Voldemort's, which puts them on the same side in the battle
against their mutual foe. In fact, he acts as a spy by serving for Voldemort
and feeding information to the good side (590). A fan says,
He's someone who's got more than his fair share of people who hate him,
but I just love his character. He's so unpredictable and contradictory!
I mean, everyone else you can fit in a black or white box-they're all
either Good or Evil. Snape's more puzzling though: he and the main character
hate each other, yet the dear Prof. works tirelessly to protect Harry
throughout the books; he's cold and sinister, but he's putting himself
in more danger than anyone else against the Dark Lord! It's so fun to
try to figure him out (Survey)!
The true colors of Cornelius Fudge, the Minister of Magic, are shown
in the end when he refuses to look beyond what he wants to believe to
see the truth; he does not want to do what he must in order to help the
world, only what will help him stay safely in his position (708). Government
has been shown to be something that Harry Potter is unable to trust. It
is similar to government in the real world; one cannot be sure if the
will to do right is present or if it is just the will to appease the greatest
majority of people.
Death is addressed again at the end of the book, and this time it
touches a character we knew. He is killed simply because he was in the
way. Cedric Diggory's death was quick and without emotion; Voldemort told
his servant to kill him, and it was done (638). Despite the speed of the
murder, its impact was great; it was the first real, permanent loss in
the books, and Harry is noticeably affected because of it. Cedric's loss
is fittingly remembered in a speech by Dumbledore, who warns the students
of the difficult times to come and insists that they remember the senseless
circumstances that brought about his death (721). The death above all
shows Voldemort's true, cold nature; there will be no more games and light
brushes with evil in the books. One reader reflects, "I am fearful for
the characters and hope they will get through the troubled times that
are coming" (Survey).
The Harry Potter books as a whole are about a boy growing up and
learning about the world accordingly. One question remains: what will
happen in the future books of the series? Many readers refuse even to
speculate, saying that they are waiting for the books to actually come
out before they get any ideas (Survey). Others have kindly offered their
thoughts and suggestions, some silly, some fascinating, some impossible,
but all very general; it seems people have given up on looking for specifics.
The one link that could be drawn between the survey responses was the
common assumption that Dumbledore would die at some point in the series.
This was presumably deduced by many after he was described as looking
very old and weary near the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
(Rowling, Goblet 696).
The universal appeal of Harry Potter has enticed many into reading
and enjoying the books. The descriptions and situations have struck chords
with many, some who were so filled with rapture that they could not even
pick a solitary favorite character (Neil, Personal Interview). The situations
and emotions projected-whether they are as upsetting as bigotry and fear,
or as pleasing as love and acceptance-are wonderfully presented. When
applied to a story as imaginative and enduring as Harry Potter, they become
familiar enough for a child to understand and yet complex enough to be
enjoyed by adults. Wherever the series goes during book five (tentatively
titled Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix) and beyond, as long
as the situations and characters remain easy to connect with and the plot
remains descriptive and engaging, the readers will follow.
Acocella, Joan. "Under the Spell: Harry Potter Explained." The New Yorker
31 Jul. 2000.
"Analysis: Popularity of the Harry Potter books for children by author
J.K. Rowling." Talk of the Nation. NPR. 6 Jul. 2000.
Dineen, Erin. Personal Interview. 11 Dec. 2000.
Encyclopedia Potterica: Name and Word Origins. 2000. 2 Jan. 2001
Fauss, Rachael. Personal Interview. 8 Dec. 2000.
Jones, Malcom et al. "Why Harry's Hot." Newsweek 17 Jul 2000
Neil, Heather. Personal Interview. 11 Dec. 2000.
Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. New York: Scholastic
- - -. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. New York: Scholastic Press,
- - -. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. New York: Scholastic
- - -. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. New York: Scholastic Press,
Shakespeare, William. As quoted by Survey. 7 Dec. 2000.
Survey. 7 Dec. 2000. | <urn:uuid:f4cb18ee-167f-4427-8028-6a857728f2b5> | {
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College students’ success in schooling to an extent is determined by the involvement of the group. The above-mentioned variations between Sociology and Frequent sense stem from Positivism that stresses using scientific strategies to study social actuality and does away with frequent sense assumptions. The place agricultural issues are of major interest, rural sociology and community research that can be carried out inexpensively by one or a few investigators are fashionable.
Also, how does human social life impression their habits in general is studied by sociology. Thus, Hobhouse considered sociology as a science which has the whole social life of man as its sphere and never as one other specialism, but he seen its relationship with different social sciences as considered one of mutual change and mutual simulation.
Jeanne has held various positions in the professional organizations including Worldwide Sociological Affiliation, American Sociological Association, North Central Sociological Affiliation, and Society for Utilized Sociology. The term ‘common sense’ puts a decent entrance on all types of ideas for which there isn’t a systematic physique of evidence that can be cited. | <urn:uuid:304ddee2-9dfe-4d3f-9ccb-bd91c2501492> | {
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John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were two exceptionally influential leaders of the factionalism party during the first term of government under the U.S. Constitution. At this time, Adams had been elected as the first Vice President after placing second to George Washington in the nation's first presidential election. Meanwhile in 1792, Jefferson joined James Madison in forming an anti-administration party that would later become known as the Democratic-Republicans.
Tensions between the men hit an all time high during the election of 1796. This was the election that caused a battle between Thomas Jefferson and John Adams that came down to a very narrow victory of only a 3 vote margin. Due to the original laws for a presidential election, the runner up became Vice President. This meant for another term, Jefferson was a member of a government that he publicly opposed. Their rivalry was so intense in 1800, when Jefferson defeated Adams to become the third President, that Adams left the Capital City on Jefferson’s inauguration day. Adams was so begrudged by his loss on his way out of office he appointed a number of Jefferson's political opponents to high positions.
The friendship between Adams and Jefferson reached its lowest point during Jefferson’s two terms as President, however was slowly restored after they had both retired from politics. Ironically, on July 4th, 1826, fifty years after the Declaration of Independence was published, both Jefferson and Adams died. It has been reported that one of Adams' last statements was, "Thomas Jefferson survives," as news of his old rival’s death that morning was yet to reach him. Was their rivalry friendship one based on fate, coincidence, or something beyond our comprehension? | <urn:uuid:1d488bd1-2e09-4a74-8bfc-8c6a778ae36d> | {
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In How Change Happens, Duncan Green uses the domains of change model. We can understand change processes by noticing how these four domains each influence change. It also reinforces that each of the four domains are important and we are more likely to achieve significant change if we can leverage all four.
At the individual level change happens as individuals experience changes of consciousness, or take on new capabilities that open up new horizons. More formal interventions operating at the individual level happen through the provision of resources.
At the systems level change happens when social norms change. Often new technologies will precipitate changes in social norms, for example, the advent of social media. At the systems level, change happens through the adoption of
Here are three brief case studies to illustrate how change happens. They aren’t necessarily about the food system, but there are links. They illustrate the complexity of change dynamics.
1. Protecting the ozone layer
Here is an example of change where international policy worked relatively quickly. In the 1970s we recognised the danger of ozone “holes” over the polar regions and identified ozone depleting substances (such as hydrofluorocarbons) as the cause. In 1987 The Montreal Protocol set up a timetable to phase out ozone depleting substances.
This initiative has been a great success and a beacon of hope for other collective international action. In this case, policy was the main tool – if we had to rely on changes to social norms or individual consciousness the rate of change would have been much slower.
2. Abolition of slavery
Is there any large community on earth that hasn’t relied on slaves to get work done at some point in their history? For millennia up until the industrial revolution provided the means to make work easier, people have kept slaves.
Adam Hochschild’s Bury the Chains is a brilliant case study of the abolition of slavery. In the late 18th century, individuals such as Thomas Clarkson, experienced a shift in consciousness that opened their eyes to the injustices of the slave trade. Britain was sourcing slaves from Africa and shipping them to the Caribbean and Americas to power the production of crops such as sugar and cotton.
They accessed resources, such as printing presses and took full advantage of the rise of the newspaper. By raising awareness the early abolitionist prompted the world’s first consumer boycott – when people refused to buy sugar. In a move reminiscent of the Fair Trade movement, those who could afford it could buy sugar not produced by slave labour – thus social norms changed.
3. Climate change
Mitigating climate change requires action across a broad front – the focus here is on weaning ourselves off oil. In less than a century humanity has become so dependent on oil that it is hard for many to see an alternative. As with the previous case, change in individual consciousness is the bedrock for change. Visionaries, such as Elon Musk, challenge norms and create an alternate future. As more people get the vision, it comes closer to challenging social norms, but we are not there yet.
This vision is reflected in Northland in people like Joe Camuso. They build their personal capabilities, especially through growing their knowledge and networks and walking the talk.
In some countries, subsidies for electric vehicles provide a resource to incentivise change. In Northland, Northpower’s work in rolling out charging stations creates the technology and infrastructure to support a shift in social norms.
Market dynamics will complete the switch to electric vehicles. They will reach a tipping point when they are cheaper than conventional cars. But for this to happen demand for the vehicles can be supported by policy at all levels – international down to family and individuals. As an example, recently Whangarei District passed a remit to purchase electric vehicles for its fleet. This change is becoming inevitable. | <urn:uuid:27a4e4d2-aed0-4ca1-b0e9-963920b301f9> | {
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Can we take a field trip to the stratosphere?
Sure we can! If you've ever flown on a jet airplane you've been in the stratosphere. Airplanes fly in the stratosphere because there is less friction. They get better gas mileage and so costs are lower. There is also less turbulence, so passengers are happier. Can you identify the bottom of the stratosphere in the photo? It's where the clouds begin. Remember that all weather is in the troposphere.
The stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere. The layer rises to about 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the surface.
Air temperature in the stratosphere increases with altitude. Why? The stratosphere gets most of its heat from the sun. Therefore, it’s warmer closer to the sun. The air at the bottom of the stratosphere is cold. The cold air is dense, so it doesn’t rise. As a result, there is little mixing of air in this layer.
The Ozone Layer
The previous section said that the troposphere is the most important layer of the atmosphere. But it's not the only important layer. The stratosphere contains a layer of ozone gas. Ozone consists of three oxygen atoms (O3). The ozone layer is in the stratosphere. Ozone in the layer absorbs high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation. As you can see in Figure below, UV radiation splits the ozone molecule. The split creates an oxygen molecule (O2) and an oxygen atom (O). This split releases heat that warms the stratosphere. By absorbing UV radiation, ozone also protects Earth’s surface. UV radiation would harm living things without the ozone layer.
How does the ozone layer protect Earth’s surface from UV light?
At the top of the stratosphere is a thin layer called the stratopause. It acts as a boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.
ozone: Three oxygen atoms bound together into a molecule.
ozone layer: A layer of the stratosphere where ozone gas is more highly concentrated.
stratosphere: Above the troposphere; temperature increases with altitude because of the presence of ozone.
- There is little mixing between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
- Ozone gas protects life on Earth from harmful UV light.
- The ozone layer is in the stratosphere. It has a higher concentration of ozone than the rest of the atmosphere.
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.
The Stratosphere and You: A Look at Ozone at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNEm_2vOMqo (2:09)
- Where is the stratosphere located?
- How is ozone created?
- How is stable ozone created?
- What does ozone become after it is broken apart?
- Why is ozone important?
- Why doesn't air mix much in the stratosphere?
- What is the ozone layer? Why is it important?
- Why does air temperature increase with height in the stratosphere? | <urn:uuid:ae93dab8-3f65-4182-87b5-9f92266fdb0f> | {
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The Liberty Head Nickel represented the second design for the newly introduced nickel denomination. The new type was introduced in 1883 and struck until 1913. Interestingly, both the first and last years of the series are a source of numismatic intrigue. Liberty Nickels were mostly produced at the Philadelphia Mint with production of the denomination added, for the first time, at the Denver and San Francisco Mints in 1912. Most issues of the series are readily attainable, except for three lower mintage issues, and the final issue, which only has five examples known.
The nickel denomination had been struck together with the half dime from 1866 to 1873. After the Mint Act of February 12, 1873 came into effect, the half dime denomination was discontinued and the nickel remained the only representative of the five cent denomination. The Shield Nickel design ended in 1883, the same year the Liberty Nickel designed by Charles Barber was introduced.
The obverse features a rending of Liberty, with a coronet containing the word LIBERTY and wheat and cotton woven into her hair. There are thirteen stars surrounding the image, with the date below. On the reverse of the coin is a large Roman numeral “V” surrounded by an agricultural wreath composed of ears of corn and wheat, and bolls and leaves of cotton. The legend UNITED STATES OF AMERICA is around and E PLURIBUS UNUM is under the wreath. This design, as originally struck in 1883, carried no mention of the denomination.
The unspecified denomination led some of the new nickels to be gold-plated and passed off as $5 gold pieces. Some people accepted these, believing that they were genuine gold coins and worth $5 instead of 5 cents. The Mint soon caught the problem, and later in 1883 the reverse of the Liberty Nickel was changed. The motto E PLURIBUS UNUM was moved above the wreath and in its former place the word CENTS was added. This design was used for the duration of the series.
There are five known 1913 Liberty Nickels, and numismatists have been intrigued with them ever since their discovery. Illegally created either by or for Mint employee William Brown, they were never meant to exist. However, they are now considered by some to be regular issues. In this scenario, only five complete Liberty Head Nickel sets could be completed at the same time. This fact and the special circumstances of the coins creation, make most collectors correctly indicate them as fantasy pieces and not a regular US mint issue. | <urn:uuid:efece5c4-1874-4f38-b1c5-ca3249e9847a> | {
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Listen to the podcast of this information.
Winter is a season of rest
for the garden. Can your garden remain a showplace in winter? It can if you use
native plants in your landscaping. These species are adapted to the
their foliage can add color and interest to the garden in winter, as well as
providing food and shelter for wildlife species. As perennials, you can enjoy
them for many years to come.
prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis)
Photo © 2009, Adele
Hodde, IDNR Office of Public Services. Photo rights available for purchase.
is a native grass that can be found throughout
although it more commonly grows in the northern half of the state than in southern
grows in mesic prairies, those that have good drainage but remain moist during
most of the year, and also in hill prairies and other dry areas. This bunch
grass grows in a cluster and is sometimes described as looking like a “fountain
of grass” as the long, thin leaves arch gracefully to the ground from the
central portion of the plant. Leaves may be 20 inches long and are about
one-eighth inch wide. The plant can be two to three feet tall. It blooms in
August and September. The flowers are on individual stalks in a cluster at the
top of the flowering stems. Prairie dropseed turns orange-brown in autumn, and
its leaves and flowering stalks persist in winter.
For more information about
plants, including where to purchase them and planting guides, the following
publications are available through the IDNR order form at http://dnr.state.il.us/teachkids.
Prairie Establishment and
Landscaping for Wildlife | <urn:uuid:344cc070-5576-43f5-86e3-7038c3211e8f> | {
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- Easing into SQL
- Careful Concatenation
Mastering Access SQL (Structured Query Language) can be a daunting task even if you consider yourself an Access expert. Part of the problem is the absence of an Access-to-SQL interface. This limitation doesn't have to slow you down, however, if you know how to avoid some of the more common coding mistakes. In this article, we'll show you how to use the query design grid to create SQL statements and then how to run the statements in the Immediate window to debug them.
You might be wondering why you should bother to learn SQL at all. One reason is that almost any bound object will accept a SQL statement as its data source. Consequently, you can often replace a fixed query with a simple SQL statement. In addition, some queries simply can't be replicated in the query design grid. Only a SQL statement can implement a Union query, for instance. Once you're familiar with SQL, you'll find many convenient uses for it.
Build a SQL Statement in the Query Design Grid
SQL statements can be extremely long and, as such, prone to logic errors and typos, so let Access do as much of the work for you as possible. Fortunately, you can create most basic statements in the query design grid. Access produces an equivalent SQL statement for every query, and you can use this behavior to your advantage. To build a SQL statement in the query design grid, begin as you would with any normal query by choosing a data source (table or query), clicking on the New Object button in the Database toolbar, and selecting Query. (In Access 97, you would select the Queries tab and click the New button.)
Once you have a data source and have opened the query design grid, drag fields from the field list to the grid, build relationships, add criteria, and specify sort orders. Along the way, feel free to view the results of the query by clicking the View button and choosing Datasheet View.
When you've gone as far as you can using the gridyou may not be able to create the complete statementclick the View button and choose SQL View and Access will display the query's equivalent SQL statement. Finally, highlight the statement and copy it to a module.
In many cases, the resulting statement will need some fine-tuning. Unless you're very adept at writing SQL statements, though, you'll probably find this quick-start method preferable to writing the entire statement from scratch.
Debug A SQL Statement in the Query Design Grid
If you make any changes to a SQL statement after copying it from the design grid to a module, chances are the statement won't run correctly the first time. Unfortunately, VBA error messages aren't very helpful in this context. On the other hand, the query design grid is almost always helpful and informative. If you can't quickly figure out the problem, copy the SQL statement from the module to the query design grid and run the statement there. The same error will occur, but the query design grid's error message will be more specific and will usually help you pinpoint the mistake.
If you'd like to try this yourself, here's a short list of instructions that will help you through the process:
1. Highlight the SQL statement in the module. Don't include the quotation marks at the beginning or the end of the statement or the VBA method (Run SQL or Execute) you're using to run the SQL statement.
2. Press Ctrl-C or, alternatively, choose Copy from the Edit menu.
3. Access the Database window (press F11 to restore the window if it's minimized).
4. Choose Query from the Object bar and then click New in the Database window toolbar. (Access 97 users should click the Queries tab and then click the New button in the Database window.)
5. In the resulting new query dialog, double-click Design View.
6. When Access opens the query design grid, close the Show Table dialog without selecting a data source.
7. Click the View button in order to open the SQL window.
8. Press Ctrl-V or choose Paste from the Edit menu in order to copy the SQL statement to the SQL window.
9. Replace any variables with the appropriate object names.
10. Select Query | Run from the Access menu bar (or click Run on the Query Design toolbar.)
In step 9, we note that you must replace variables with the actual object names they represent. For example, the statement
SELECT * FROM " & strTable & "
would return an error if you tried to run it as is in the query design grid. You must replace the variable strTable with an actual table or query name. Let's suppose you're working with a table named tblMyTable. You'd replace the " & strTable & " section of your statement with the table's name as follows:
SELECT * FROM tblMyTable
After replacing all the variables with actual object names, run the statement by clicking the Run button on the Query Design toolbar. If the grid evaluates the statement without returning an error, you can assume your problem was with the variables. If not, most likely there's a simple problem with the delimiting characters (which we'll discuss in the next section).
When variables aren't the problem, Access will almost always display a more comprehensive error message than you received from VBA. For instance, if your statement contains a syntax error, Access usually indicates the offending sectionsignificantly narrowing your search. At this point, you should be able to spot your mistake and make the necessary changes.
Keep working with the statement until you receive no errors, then copy the corrected statement back to the module and restore any variables you replaced in step 9. Or make the necessary corrections to the statement in the module (as long as the concatenated variables weren't part of the original problem).
Avoid Concatenation Errors
Using the query design grid to track down problems in SQL statements is a great trick, but replacing the variables first can be a pain. You can easily make a mistake in the process and not know it, further complicating your debugging task.
You can avoid the variable problem by adding a few extra lines of code to your VBA procedure. The additional code will print an evaluated SQL statement in the Immediate window. By evaluated, we mean that VBA will replace all of the variables with the appropriate object names. Copying the evaluated version from the Immediate window to the query design grid relieves you of the aggravating task of replacing the variables and completely eliminates the possibility of introducing typos (and hence additional errors) into your statement. The code that follows shows an example of this easy trick:
strCriteria = " = 'Smith'"
strSQL = "SELECT * INTO tblNewTable FROM tblOldTable WHERE " & "tblOldTable .LastName" & strCriteria & ";"
The first two lines assign the search criteria and the basic SQL statement to the string variables strCriteria and strSQL. The Debug.Print statement then prints the evaluated statement to the Immediate window. If the statement returns an error, open the Immediate window (by pressing Ctrl-G or clicking the Code button, depending on what window is active). Now copy the evaluated version
SELECT * INTO tblNewTable FROM tblOldTable WHERE tblOldTable.LastName = 'Smith';
to the query design grid (instead of copying the original statement from the VBA module) and run it there. Notice that the evaluated version includes the actual name of the data source and the criteria string, not the variables shown in the code listing above.
Not only is this solution easier, but you avoid introducing typos. Don't wait until you have a problem with a SQL statement, though; get in the habit of adding this functionality to your code so it's available when you need it.
Quick Results with the Query Builder
Access SQL isn't limited to queries and VBA modules; controls often use a SQL statement instead of a saved query as the Row Source property. Fortunately, you don't have to create the appropriate statement from scratch; you can use the SQL statement query builder. (We'll show you how to access this builder in just a minute.) In the open builder, you'll choose fields and express criteria in the query design grid, just as you would in a normal query. The builder then converts your work into a SQL statement. You don't actually have to know SQL at all.
Let's take a look at an example. Open in Design View any form that contains a combo or list box, or open a blank form and add a combo or list box. Double-click the combo or list box to open its property sheet, and click the Build button that appears when you select the Row Source property field. This launches the SQL statement query builder, which is a simple query design grid. Modify the grid as you would a query. (If you're working with an existing control, the grid will display an equivalent SQL statement in the query design grid.)
Figure 1 shows a simple expression that will display a list of concatenated fieldsFirstName and LastName. In other words, the combo or list control will display a list of names. You can view this query's SQL statement, shown in Figure 2, by choosing SQL View from the View button at the far left of the toolbar. You can also see the results of the query by choosing Datasheet View.
As you can see, this builder is flexibleyou can view three different forms of the same query. You can bounce back and forth between the builder, the SQL statement, and the results until you get the statement just right, at which time you simply close the builder and save your changes when prompted. The control will update accordingly.
SQL can be difficult to work with; even the experts occasionally fret over a statement. Fortunately, Access offers a number of tools to make the task easier. The query design grid gives you an easier way to create SQL statements than trying to create them from scratch. In addition, you can debug statements by copying evaluated statements from the Immediate window to the query design grid.
Susan Sales Harkins is a consultant specializing in Microsoft Office and the author of Using Microsoft Access 97 and Using Microsoft Access 2000, both published by QUE. | <urn:uuid:0cc3229b-fba4-4467-a5b7-0bf97da06e93> | {
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By Roger Harrabin
BBC Environment Analyst
China is now building about two power stations every week, the top climate change official at the UK Foreign Office, John Ashton, has said.
China is building two large power stations every week
He said there was no point blaming China for rising global CO2 emissions.
Rich nations had to set an example of low-carbon development for China to follow, Mr Ashton told the BBC.
His statement came as a new report suggested that China may have already become the world's biggest polluter - much earlier than expected.
The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency said China's CO2 emissions had risen by 9% last year, compared with 1.4% in the US.
"It is a massive challenge," Mr Ashton told the BBC following a recent trip to China.
"We need to convince China that they don't have to make a choice between prosperity and protecting the climate. We need to help them towards a low-carbon future.
"There is also a moral case. Most of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have been put there by developed countries without the constraint of having to worry about the climate. That means we should bear the leading edge of responsibility.
Mr Ashton added that the Chinese had put out their first climate strategy, in an effort "to get to grips with their emissions and use energy efficiently".
He pointed out that much of China's emissions growth was being driven by consumers in the West buying Chinese goods, and noted that China's emissions per person were still well below those of rich nations.
It is estimated that the average American still pollutes between five and six times more than the average Chinese person.
Climate sceptics in the UK have been asking why Britons should switch off lights, turn down central heating and avoid foreign flights in order to save carbon when the Chinese are increasing emissions at their current rate.
"Responsibility for China's soaring emissions lies not just in Beijing but also in Washington, Brussels and Tokyo," said Greenpeace UK director John Sauven.
"All we've done is export a great slice of the West's carbon footprint to China, and today we see the result.
"Let us not forget that the average Chinese emits just 3.5 tonnes of CO2 per year, whereas Britons emit nearly 10 tonnes and Americans 20 tonnes.
"The West moved its manufacturing base to China knowing it was vastly more polluting than Japan, Europe or the US," he added.
"No environmental conditions were attached to this move; in fact the only thing manufacturers were interested in was the price of labour.
"This trend kept the price of our products down but at the cost of soaring greenhouse gas emissions. Long term, this policy has been a climate disaster.
"We should export clean energy technology to China to increase low carbon and renewable energy take-up so the products we import have a smaller carbon footprint." | <urn:uuid:703c0740-44c3-4418-b9fb-b84837a1d580> | {
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Volatility and Its Five Types
How to Measure Price Changes
Volatility is the pace at which prices move higher or lower, and how wildly they swing. These can be prices of just about anything. Volatility has been most exhaustively studied, measured, and described in the stock market.
Three factors that produce wild swings in demand and supply cause price volatility. The first is seasonality. For example, resort hotel room prices rise in the winter, when people want to get away from the snow. They drop in the summer when vacationers are content to travel nearby. That is an example of changes in demand.
Another factor affecting price volatility is the weather. For example, agricultural prices depend on the supply. That depends on the weather being favorable to bountiful crops.
A third factor is emotions. When traders worry, they aggravate the volatility of whatever they are buying. That's why the prices of commodities are so turbulent. For example, in February 2012, the United States and Europe threatened sanctions against Iran for developing weapons-grade uranium. In retaliation, Iran threatened to close the Straits of Hormuz, restricting oil supply. Even though the supply of oil did not change, traders bid up the price of oil to almost $110 in March. By June, they bid down the oil price to $80 a barrel.
The prices of some stocks are highly volatile. That unpredictability makes the stock a more risky investment. As a result, investors want a higher return for the increased uncertainty. Companies with highly volatile stocks need to grow profitably. They must show a dramatic increase in earnings and stock prices over time or pay very high dividends.
Investors have developed a measurement of stock volatility called beta. It tells you how well the stock price is correlated with the Standard & Poor’s 500 Index. If it moves perfectly along with the index, the beta will be 1.0. Stocks with betas that are higher than 1.0 are more volatile than the S&P 500. Stocks with a beta less than 1.0 are not as volatile.
As its name suggests, historical volatility is how much volatility a stock has had over the past 12 months. If the stock price varied widely in the past year, it is more volatile and riskier. It becomes less attractive than a less volatile stock. You might have to hold onto it for a long time before the price returns to where you can sell it for a profit. Of course, if you study the chart and can tell it's at a low point, you might get lucky and be able to sell it when it gets high again.
That's called timing the market and works great when it works. Unfortunately, with a highly volatile stock, it could also go much lower for a long time before it goes up again. You just don't know because it's unpredictable.
Implied volatility describes how much volatility that options traders think the stock will have in the future. You can tell what the implied volatility of a stock is by looking at how much the futures options prices vary. If the options prices start to rise, that means implied volatility is increasing, all other things being equal.
How can you use this knowledge to your advantage? Buy an option on a stock if you think it will get more volatile. If you're right, the price of the option will increase, and you can sell it for a profit. Sell an option if you think it will get less volatile.
Market volatility is the velocity of price changes for any market. That includes commodities, forex, and the stock market. Increased volatility of the stock market is usually a sign that a market top or market bottom is at hand. That's because there is a lot of uncertainty. Bullish traders bid up prices on a good news day, while bearish traders and short-sellers drive prices down on bad news.
The Volatility Index® or VIX® measures the implied volatility of the S&P 500. It uses stock index option prices. The Chicago Board Options Exchange created it in 1993. It gauges investor sentiment.
The VIX® is also called the fear index. When the VIX® is high, stock prices fall. Often, oil prices also drop as investors worry that global growth will slow. Traders searching for a safe haven bid up gold and Treasury notes. That sends interest rates down. | <urn:uuid:b6fbb682-6774-4c67-bf33-2db178b00216> | {
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Essay on Yoga in English
Yoga is the most ancient practice of Indian culture for developing mental and physical stamina and balancing connection between mind and body. It is a natural way to keep us fit and active, and is perfectly safe for all age groups.
It not only helps us to stay healthy and slim, but also freshens our mind and keep us active throughout the day. Practicing it on daily basis, helps in a connection between mind, body and soul and provides inner peace and keeps us protected from many diseases and unhealthy lifestyle. Yoga improves concentration, gives physical strength and fitness, keeps us peaceful and calm.
It brings emotional steadiness and sharpens intellect. Yoga is a safer method towards a healthy life, rather than harsh exercises and rigorous diets. Practicing yoga regularly will keep us away from all the problems both physical and mental.
Yoga was derived in India thousands of years ago and was practiced by many saints for attaining peace and relieving them from worldly pleasures and helped them stay fit and strong in extreme conditions.
The best time to practice yoga is early morning. This is the time when we are fresh and our body has had a good rest all night. Practicing early morning yoga will help us stay active and fresh whole day, and helps us with a peaceful mind to face a hectic day ahead.
It helps us keep away many mental as well as physical ailments. Yoga is beneficial in reliving stress by connecting to inner peace. It is considered as a perfect balance of body, mind and soul. It improves your sense of power and is a perfect therapy for all the worries.
Yoga also helps making your body flexible and slim. Practicing Asanas such as Kapala Bhati, Pranayayam, Surya Namaskar helps us stay in shape and gives us a perfect health. These aasana or postures also help in enriching the blood with oxygen and gives peace of mind.
Meditating early in the morning or even in the evening time relieves you from stress and all your worries from a hectic day. Practicing yoga along with a healthy food habits and well-nourished diet protects us from all the diseases and ailments and helps us stay healthy and longer.
Exercise helps you stay fit and in shape, but yoga along with fitness helps in you mental and psychological fitness too. It effects all your body parts right from head to toe, eyes, hair, nervous system, digestion everything is benefited through yoga.
To promote the popularity of Yoga, idea of a spreading awareness about Yoga and benefits on the lives of human beings, International Yoga Day was started by Prime Minister Narendra Modi since the year 2015.
Almost 170 countries supported the idea of International Yoga Day in United nations and every year in June, this day is being observed in India and abroad.
Many prominent personalities from all over the world participate in this day and practice yoga to make it successful and world famous.
The concept of International Yoga Day is to spread awareness of Yoga and its benefits and also strengthen global bonds in a healthy way. Many schools and colleges also celebrate International yoga day by organizing various yoga camps competitions etc.
Yoga is not more than staying slim and toning muscles, it has many benefits like stress relief, reduce diseases, relaxation, discipline, promote coordination between mind and body thus providing a better mental and physical health.
Even pregnant women practice yoga for a good health and staying away from negative thoughts and promoting a better and healthy baby. Schools and colleges must have yoga class in their curriculum, which would help students to concentrate better on studies and would relieve them from stress of hectic schedule and also help them stay fit, instead of sitting in classroom for a whole day.
Many MNCs have already initiated Yoga in their office campus to help employees relieves from stress and other ailments such a back pain, shoulder pain which generally occur from sitting in front of computer for long time.
Yoga is also a way of connecting to nature. Many countries around the world have adopted this yoga and have started practicing this amazing and ancient technique in their daily life. It is matter of proud for Indians that we are able to share our rich heritage of yoga with everyone around the world through this day, and let everyone reap the benefits of Yoga. | <urn:uuid:31018b86-6113-47f4-a82e-8f597165c2b6> | {
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During the Second World War, from 1939 to 1945, the Government took over the railway yard, and laid down 2 or 3 extra lines for ammunition to be delivered. It was considered that the countryside here was reasonably safe from the attention of the enemy bombers. The ammunition was then distributed around the area by about 40 Pickford's Carriers, each with a driver and 7 or 8 soldiers. It is still possible to locate several of the storage sites used. The ammunition was stored in huts, and the hardcore foundations can be seen in several of the roads in the area.
The railways found an increasing role for women due to the enormous pressure on Britain's workforce created by the demands of both World Wars. See Details
Part of the U.S. Army's 82nd. Airborne Division, No 505 Parachute Infantry Regiment was based at Quorn before the 'D' Day Normandy Landings, and much of their equipment was stored in the railway yard. As is well known, the U.S. troops themselves made good use of our local facilities, particularly the pubs and the dances.
Taken around 1914, this excellent photograph shows eleven Metropolitan guards posing with two male staff beside a carriage. See Details | <urn:uuid:4522849b-f64f-459d-bd08-dcf8b91b3cc8> | {
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SEARCHING THE WEB
WHAT IS THE INTERNET?
The Internet is a network of networks, and networks are groups of computers connected together by TCP/IP protocols – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet is often simply referred to as the “Net,” WWW (World-wide Web) or the “Web,” and now covers the world. The Internet provides us the connections to 10′s of thousands of computers that have information stored in electronic files.
The Internet is actually much larger than the “Web,” the Web refers to information accessible via HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) coded “pages.” HTML enables pages to be linked to each other via hyperlinks; these links are usually shown as words colored in blue and underlined. When you move your cursor over them, the cursor will change from a pointing arrow or I-beam to a pointing hand. Unfortunately while these pages are connected to each other, they do not provide an organized way of finding that information. In a way, the Internet is a vast unorganized mass of information whose only relationship is that they are accessible via the WWW and may link to other possibly related pages. Fortunately other methods have been developed over the years to guide us to the information we seek. We will discuss the more common and popular search tools that help us find the information we need out of the millions of Web sites in existence. We will also discuss briefly the limitations of these tools and the quality of the information available.
If you would like more explanations of the Internet look at How Internet Infrastructure Works (http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm) by Jeff Tyson, offered by HowStuffWorks, Inc.
What are you really searching?
Finding the Web documents (a.k.a. Web “pages” or “sites”) you want can be easy or seem impossibly difficult. This is in part due to the sheer size of the WWW, currently estimated (http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html) at over 633 million sites, which is not counting the number of documents or pages available at each one! It is also difficult because the WWW is not indexed in any standard vocabulary. Unlike a library’s catalog, which will use standardized Dewey or Library of Congress subject headings (i.e. a controlled list of topics) to find books, in Web searching you are always guessing what words will be in the pages you want to find or guessing what subject terms were chosen by someone to organize their web page or site covering some topic.
When you a search of the Web you are NOT searching it directly because it is impossible. Your computer cannot search all the billions of Web pages directly. What you can do is access the many intermediate search tools available. For example, search engines (like Google) search the WWW and produce an index of the sites they have accessed. When you do your “search” you are actually searching these prepared indexes. So at no time are you searching directly or in “real time” the contents of the Web. Even worse no one search engine can index the entire Web, and any search tool that claims so is distorting the truth – (see “Google’s Misleading Blog Post: The Size Of The Web And The Size Of Their Index Are Very Different” (from July 2008) – http://www.techcrunch.com/2008/07/25/googles-misleading-blog-post-on-the-size-of-the-web/)
Another handy web site, World Wide Web Size – http://www.worldwidewebsize.com/, shows a comparison between search engines. Note again that they are showing the size of the “indexed Web” only. But even if a Internet search engine could index the entire web once it wouldn’t be good enough because the Web is changing and growing constantly. On December 8, 2010, they were showing at least 2.76 billion pages, but on December 11, 2012 the number was up to 7.49 billion pages!
Again, what we commonly view as the “Internet” is largely made up of documents or “pages” written in HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and viewed using a HTML browser such as Firefox, Internet Explorer, Netscape, Opera, or others. To go to a specific site one needs the URL or uniform resource locator, this is the “address” that identifies where the site is. Specific “pages” within a site will have individual file names and usually start after a / mark. For example, the URL for this page is http://bay.cooslibraries.org/programs/free-computer-classes/searching-the-web/.
WHAT INFORMATION IS OUT THERE?
One of the biggest myths about the Internet is that it has everything. Last I heard the Internet contained less than 5% of all human knowledge. Even that number only holds as long as you don’t get bogged down with arguments about how to define ‘knowledge.’ While there are in-depth resources to be found on the Internet, the bulk of the publicly available Web is pamphlet-level or brochure type information. Keep in mind that newspapers, magazines, books and other text information started to be produced in electronic format only in the 1970′s. This means that any information before this date must be manually keyed in by human beings or scanned and interpreted by OCR (optical character recognition) software. The cost to transfer publications to electronic format is a major limiter in adding them to the Internet.
While OCR scanning has improved greatly it still requires humans to proof-read for errors. This scanning or typing and then proofreading adds an enormous cost and companies funding it need want to see a monetary return on such investments. In addition, much information is not available on the Internet because it is copyrighted. That means someone owns all those documents, magazines, newspapers or books such as authors and/or publishers, and they want to be paid for their work. Because of this much valuable information will not be available for free on the Internet for many decades.
Non-copyrighted information is slowly being added to the Web, often by volunteers who are passionate about a particular subject. Some of the more visible volunteer efforts include genealogy (where genealogy societies coordinate their activities), classic books that have fallen out of copyright Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Main_Page) and Wiretap (http://wiretap.area.com/), support groups, and other such special interest groups.
HOW TO FIND INFORMATION
Before we get into the types of tools available to help you find information you should take a moment to think about the information you are trying to find.
- Are you looking for just some quick bits of trivia, a short magazine article, or more extensive information?
- What subject area would your information be classified under?
- Who would be the most likely producers of the information you want?
- How would authors phrase the information?
TAKING YOUR LANTERN and USING a LARGE PINCH of SALT
It isn’t enough to find your information, if the task at hand is important; you also need to make judgments about the source’s authority.
To give you an example, there was once a U.S. general who wanted a review of a Steven Spielberg movie, his staff searched and found one which he later used. However, it came to light that the review had been written by a sixteen-year old fan. While the sixteen-year old may have written a thoughtful review, he was not a film critic and his opinion did not carry much weight in professional or academic circles. Basically he didn’t have a proven professional track record and so using his review did not reflect well on the General’s professionalism or scholarship. In case you didn’t know, Generals do NOT like to be embarrassed.
You don’t have to be a general or a university researcher for source authority to be important. High school and college students, business owners, etc. all need to notice who created and is responsible for the information they use, or risk poor grades, embarrassment or loss of profit.
You may think that it doesn’t matter in your case but incorrect information can have unpleasant effects in even the smallest tasks. Some food recipes are written at the keyboard and have never been tested. Knitting and crochet patterns may have errors; car maintenance instructions could give the wrong type of oil and/or weight. Political or religious opinions could be based on false assumptions or manipulate the facts, or even be complete lies.
That isn’t to say that nothing on the Internet is correct or trustworthy, but one must note the source of your information and decide for yourself if you wish to believe them. Taking a good look at sources and maintaining a healthy dose of skepticism is wise. Web sites that provide no indication of who created the information and provide no contact information should be viewed cautiously. The Internet is not the place to be gullible.
As you work with the Internet you will come to recognize certain markers that will help you sort out who is doing what. All Web sites are divided among several “domains”, these are represented by three-letters in the URL or “address.” Those that have a domain of .edu are associated in some way with an educational institution, but may be produced by students rather than university staff. I.e. such sites and material may still not reflect the official opinions or scholarship level of the institution. Domains of .com merely mean that such Web sites utilize a domain associated with commercial activities, i.e. businesses. Domains of .org are usually organizations, such as Lions Club, charities, car clubs or non-profit organizations. Governmental sites in the U.S. such as city, state or Federal usually claim the .gov domain, but don’t have to. For example, New York City in the state of New York URL is www.nyc.gov but the City of Coos Bay URL address is http://www.coosbay.org/. We are not using the .gov domain even though it an official city Web site. Your Internet provider may have a .net because they provide a network. The U.S. military is represented by the .mil domain.
Gradually more domains are being added as the number of addresses possible under each is used up. As this happens new sites either have to use creative addresses, move to the newly released domains, or take an address in another domain.
You may discover that if you miss-type or miss guess a Web site you may end up at an “opportunistic site” who counts on users entering URLs incorrectly. The more harmless of these will be businesses who hope to profit from your misdirection. Others may be spoofs of more serious sites. The really annoying ones are actively hostile or pushing pornography. One example of this is the White House (the U.S. President’s Web site). Type www.whitehouse.gov and you will go to the presidential White House website. But for a few years if you typed www.whitehouse.com you would reach an adult entertainment site. (Note: It is no longer one).
SPECIFIC SEARCH TOOLS
The most obvious first step in searching the Internet is to choose which search tool to use. There are many choices, first in the types of tools, and then the hundreds of choices under each. We are going to look at three types today.
Directories are lists of site addresses found and approved by individuals. So rather then automatically created by computer software, a human being has gone to the trouble of finding, reviewing, and compiling lists of sites that cover a particular topic well.
- Yahoo – http://yahoo.com – is the largest subject directory on the Internet and is an excellent for general public topics. It also has a search capability built in.
- About.com – http://about.com – Topics are researched and presented by a topic expert who provides a selection of links.
- Dmoz – http://www.dmoz.org/ – Open directory project “is the largest, most comprehensive human-edited directory of the Web. It is constructed and maintained by a vast, global community of volunteer editors.”
- Infomine – http://infomine.ucr.edu – Sch0larly Internet Resource Collections
- Ipl2 – http://www.ipl.org – Merger of the resources from the Internet Public Library (IPL) and the Librarians’ Internet Index (LII) websites.
- Internet Subject Directories – http://www.digital-librarian.com/subject.html – a list of subject directories to the Internet
- The WWW Virtual Library – http://vlib.org/
Specialized Subject Directories:
II. SEARCH ENGINES
Search engines are probably the most popular tool for finding information on the Internet. However, for a number of reasons, no one search engine (including Google) searches the entire Web. In fact the most successful, Google, actually retrieves only 20-30% of the Web. Others may retrieve parts of the missing 70-80% but you should be cautious of any search engine initially. Many a popular search engine has succumbed to the temptation to mix paid advertising sites in with the ‘real’ results. Sites told to ‘fess up; Search Results Often Advertisers (http://www.commercialalert.org/issues/culture/search-engines/sites-told-to-fess-up-search-results-often-advertisers).
There are hundreds of search engines, some are specialized for a specific topic or need. Most of us only need a couple of favorites. For those of us who have particular interests we may want to look at some of the topic oriented search engines as well. For more about search engines go to How Search Engines Work (http://searchenginewatch.com/webmasters/article.php/2168031) or Search Engine Showdown (http://www.searchengineshowdown.com/). For links to specialized search engines go to Search Links (http://searchenginewatch.com/links/).
- Google – http://www.google.com
- Yahoo.com – http://yahoo.com
- Bing.com – http://bing.com – was MSN Search
- Ask – http://www.ask.com
- AOL Search – http://search.aol.com
III. META-SEARCH ENGINES
Metasearch engines allow you to search using several search engines at one time. Search structure and commands allowed will differ in each search engine and using a metasearch engine may not allow for this. This means that your search will not be evenly effective in each.
- Dogpile – http://www.dogpile.com/ (Searches Google, Yahoo!, Bing, and Ask)
- Info – http://www.info.com/ (Searches Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Ask, and About)
- Ixquick – http://www.ixquick.com/
- Mamma – http://www.mamma.com/
- Metacrawler – http://www.metacrawler.com
- Vivisimo – http://vivisimo.com/
- Yippy.com – http://yippy.com (Ask, Open Directory, Gigablast, and others)
See ‘Metacrawlers and Metasearch Engines’ – at the Search Engine Watch website for more information on metasearch engines available and their differences, http://searchenginewatch.com/2156241.
IMPROVING YOUR RESULTS!
It probably hasn’t taken you long to get tired of getting more than a few million hits for every little thing you look up. And while Google’s approach is very good it does not guarantee you the best results, only the most popular. Fortunately there are a few techniques available to narrow your results.
Boolean logic is limiting your search results by applying logic controls. On the Internet that means using the commands AND, OR, and NOT. The most common of these is AND. In Google the “AND” is assumed, i.e. if you type Chain Saws, Google will assume that you want Chain AND Saws. This means if both words do not appear in a Web page it will not be returned. To further control this you could search it as a phrase by placing the works within quote marks – “Chain Saws”. This tells Google that the two words must be adjacent to each other and in that order.
If you wanted to search for fruits and didn’t care what kind, you could type: apples OR oranges OR plums OR apricots. You would get any pages that had one, two or more of the requested fruits. As long as even one of these fruits was on a Web page it would be returned.
NOT – Getting material that does not relate to your search is a constant problem. In cases where it is obvious why, you can utilize the NOT command. One good example that most of us will run into are Blogs. Blogs, a sort of online journal, are very popular these days. Unfortunately, they can be a real hazard to the serious searcher. Since authors of blogs may wander over a wide spectrum of topics they have a tendency to show up in many searches even though the blogs’ real focus has nothing to do with what you are looking for. So you could enter a search such as “Chain Saws” NOT (blog OR blogs). In Google you can use the “-” minus sign instead of typing “NOT”, like this: -blog.
Parenthesis ( ) are used to nest commands, essentially you are saying you want the search in the parenthesis to be done first. In other words you are controlling the order your search words are acted upon. In the above case I am saying NOT to both the word blog and the word blogs. Some search engines will not understand plurals and will treat each as an entirely different word. To know how your search engine operates it pays to visit its help or advanced search tip pages. Google’s “Advanced Search Tips” (http://www.google.com/help/refinesearch.html) page illustrates what functions are available and how to operate them.
IF YOU WANT TO LEARN MORE
One of the easiest ways to look up definitions is with Google. Type “define URL” in the Google search box.
Additional information on learning about the Internet:
- Introduction to the Internet and the World Wide Web – http://www.webliminal.com/search/search-web01.html – by Ernest Ackermann (this is also a good example of a well done personal Web site).
- Choose the Best Search for Your Information Need – http://www.noodletools.com/debbie/literacies/information/5locate/adviceengine.html
- Search Engine Showdown – http://www.searchengineshowdown.com/ – Users’ Guide to Web Searching.
One of the sites that also provides current information and comparisons of search engines. If you want to see how dated a search engines index is this is the place to look.
- BARE BONES 101 – http://www.sc.edu/beaufort/library/pages/bones/bones.shtml – From University of South Carolina, Beaufort Library
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This is a very simple digital circuit that simulates one set of traffic lights. The timing is longer for the Red and Green only stages than the Amber and Red/Amber stages but the timing probably isn't absolutely right. Anyway many modern traffic lights are controlled by computers and monitored using cameras from a traffic control centre and are switched in a way that reduces road congestion, meaning timing may vary. This circuit could be built using a PIC micro-controller but many members may not have the necessary skills or equipment to do this. Of course I would welcome other members with PIC experience writing a follow up article about how to make this circuit using a PIC. The circuit only requires three chips showing that SSI (Small Scale Integration) chips are still useful in some applications and is a good introduction to digital electronics. You don't even have to know how to solder to build this circuit or have a power supply.
The chips used are actually CMOS which stands for Complementary MOS. MOS is a form of transistor used internally in the IC. It comes in two types PNP and NPN. Most IC's like TTL use two or more transistors and a resistor to create NAND gates. NAND can be used to create any other type of logic gate. You could try working this out as an exercise for each type of logic gate, just draw up some logic tables to help you. The trouble with this is the resistor continually burns off energy while the IC is on. This is not very useful for battery operated circuits as they run down quicker. CMOS IC's replace the resistor with a transistor. For each input it has a PNP and NPN transistor pair, they are combined in series or parallel to create the required gates in a mirror image with the output being drawn from the centre and supply rails on top and bottom. You could also try working out how this works as an exercise for each type of logic gate. That is why IC outputs are called Vcc and Vss. C standing for the collector of the top transistor and S for the sink of the bottom transistor. PNP transistors are active for high logic, and NPN for low logic meaning they can never be on at the same time (which would create a short circuit). Transistor switching does actually increase power usage as you would expect, but when not doing anything CMOS chips draw very little power.
Traffic lights sequence through four steps then repeat, they are:
|1||*|| || |
|3|| || ||*|
|4|| ||*|| |
The easiest way to prototype digital circuits is by using breadboards also referred to as plugboards from the Maplin Electronics Catalogue (available from W.H.SMITH). Maplin also have many shops and sell them for about £10 to £15 each depending on size, I recommend getting the larger ones as any mildly complicated circuit uses up space very quickly. They are very easy to use, you just plug in components into holes with contacts underneath that both hold the wire and conduct electricity. There are two common lines running across the board for the positive and negative supply lines. The remainder of the board is divided into two blocks, with rows of 5 contacts and a gap. IC's can be inserted across the gap.
Wire links can be used for general wired especially across short distances. You can buy kits of pre-formed links, I saw Greenweld advertising some in their bargain list a few months ago, they might still have some; or you can make them using some single core wire, cutters, wire strippers and pliers. You can also make bigger wires or again buy pre-made ones in different lengths.
A clever tip I picked up for plug-boards is to solder special LED's with attached resistors to use in them, this both cuts down on the 'spagetti factor', prevents you accidentally blowing up your LED's, and makes it easier to identify which way round they are meant to go. Simply solder them thus:
Use a 330 Ohm resistor or one relatively close to this value, and you will get good protection and a bright output even when driven directly from IC outputs. Resistors also mean all LED's work at the same brightness level all the time, without resistors LED light levels differ depending on load i.e. how many are on.
The optimal LED (Light Emitting Diode) resistance can be calculated by using Ohms Law ( V = I x R ). R is the unknown factor, so the formulae becomes R = V / I. V is 3V-15V for CMOS (4000 series) chips, probably 9V if you are using a battery or 5V if you are using a power supply. Remember LED's are a special type of component and drop 1.2V generally across them (versus 0.6V for normal diodes), so remember to take this value away from V in the formula. I (the current) should be available in the IC's data sheet or you can measure it using a multimeter. Remember current is measured in series so you have to break the current and bridge the gap with the multi-meter probes. Voltage is measured in parallel, so the circuit remains intact. The process of measuring actually slightly distorts the true value as the multimeter has an effect on the current, but this effect is so small as to be negligable.
The circuit is very simple. All you need is a square wave oscillator/clock, 8 stage counter, and some simple logic gates. The CMOS 4047 Low-Power Monostable/Astable Multi-vibrator IC can be used for the clock. It's pin-out looks like this (courtesy of the Master IC Cookbook, a book I would recommend to anyone interesting in designing simple digital circuits):
An Astable Multi-vibrator is just a technical term for something that continually switches from one state to another then back again i.e. it makes a square wave. The IC provides outputs Q and Q [Bar], ie. the output and it's . inverse. A resistor and capacitor are used to determine the frequency. T (the period of the waveform, 1/f) is related to the product RC. R is usually in Meg ohms (x1,000,000) and C in µF (x0.000,001) which luckily cancel each other out. I used R= 8.2M and C = lµF which give T = 8.2.seconds. If you increase the values of R and/or C the circuit slows down. A good analogy for this is a bucket of water being fed by a pipe. Every time the bucket fills up it triggers a change of stage and is emptied to start again. If the diameter of the pipe is increased (ie. reduce resistance) the water fills the bucket quicker, if the bucket is made bigger it takes longer to fill.
A 555 timer could also be used to make a square wave output but these require more discrete components and you have to get a special one whose logic levels comply with CMOS standards.
This IC's Q output can then be fed in to an 8 stage counter. The CMOS 4516 Binary Up/Down Counter can perform this function. It's pin-out looks like this:
It actually cycles through 16 stages 0000-1111 binary, but that is just two lots of *000-* 111 ie. 0-7. DON'T use the CMOS 4510 Up/Down Counter as this only has 10 stages and would give 0-7, 0-1,0-7...
The IC has a reset line, this can be reset at start up using a capacitor and resistor in parallel to give a brief high pulse at power up, if you wanted a low pulse all you would have to do is reverse the position of the components. Pre-set inputs P1-P4 are set to 0000, this means the count will always start at stage 0 in this case, a minor detail here but more important in other types of digital circuits. The IC gives the following outputs:
|Stage||Q3 (4)||Q2 (2)||Q1 (1)|
0 stands for logic level 0 or Ov/Gnd and 1 stands for logic level one or the supply rail voltage (3v-15v for CMOS depending on which power level you choose to use, this means your circuit can be driven by a PP3 9V battery meaning you don't have to have a power supply).
Now let use combine the two tables, remembering to make the Red and Green states longer (3 times longer to be precise). For some reason it seems natural to start at Red:
|Stage||Q3 (4)||Q2 (2)||Q1 (1)||Red||Amber||Green|
|0||0||0||0||*|| || |
|1||0||0||1||*|| || |
|2||0||1||0||*|| || |
|4||1||0||0|| || ||*|
|5||1||0||1|| || ||*|
|6||1||1||0|| || ||*|
|7||1||1||1|| ||*|| |
We can now derive the following logic equations from this table:
Red= NOT Q3
Amber = Q2 AND Q1
Green = Q3 AND ((NOT Q2) OR (NOT Ql) )
Gate Total = 6 gates of 3 types
Most people assume LED's have to be connected to the negative supply rail. This is true if you want them to activate on logic high, but if you want them to activate on logic low you can connect them to the high rail and sink them through the IC. So if we change the equation to negative active LED's we get:
NOT Red = NOT NOT Q3 = Q3
NOT Amber = NOT (Q2 AND Ql) = Q2 NAND Q1 NOT Green = NOT (Q3 AND ( (NOT Q2) AND (NOT Q1) ) ) = Q3 NAND (NOT Q2) OR (NOT Q1))
Gate Total = 5 gates of 3 types
But we are not finished. De Morgans laws state:
NOT (A AND B AND C...) = (NOT A) OR (NOT B) OR (NOT C) ...
NOT (A OR B OR C...) = (NOT A) AND (NOT B) AND (NOT C) ...
If you don't believe me draw up a few logic tables and try it out. What this law means basically is that you can convert OR's to AND's and AND's to OR's using the simple rules:
If it's a AND change it to an OR, if it's an OR change it to an AND. Invert all input and outputs.
So our ( (NOT Q2) AND (NOT Q1) ) becomes:
NOT ((NOT NOT Q2) AND (NOT NOT Q1)) = Q2 NAND Q1
NOT Red = Q3
NOT Amber = Q2 NAND Q1
NOT Green = Q3 NAND (Q2 NAND Q1)
Gate Total = 3 gates of 1 type
But as two gates are identical that means we only actually needs two 2-input NAND gates. So you can see many complicated logic equations can be boiled down to something a lot simpler with a little thought. I find this process most enjoyable. The gates are available on the CMOS 4011 Quad 2-Input NAND Gate IC. It's pin-out looks like this:
Figure 4 - 4011 Description/Pin-out
It is good practice to tie the inputs of unused gates to the nearest supply line otherwise their inputs will float causing increased switching which uses more power.
So here is the block diagram for the circuit:
I made this circuit up on breadboard and tested it. The layout follows. I am also willing to supply kits of all the parts needed to build this project (with the exception of the breadboard and battery). But you can buy PP3 9V batteries in many places or use a power supply. I will be writing future articles about circuits you can build on breadboards, so it might be worth your while in buying one of your own if you don't have one, they are very useful for prototyping circuits (analogue and digital). I think the kit would be particularly useful to unskilled members who have difficulty identifying components. The kit consists of 3 IC's, 2 capacitors, 5 resistors, 3 LED's, wire links (please specify if you want these i.e. if you are going to build the circuit on breadboard) and a battery clip. The LED's have the resistors soldered on to them for convenience. The price is £4 including P&P.
If anyone builds this circuit on veroboard please send a layout to George Burton the Editor so he can include it in the next issue. One application for this circuit (using 3mm LED's) could by for traffic lights ' on models.
x1 lµF Ceramic Capacitor x1 l00µF 16V Electrolytic Capacitor x1 8.2M Resistor x1 1K Resistor x3 330R Resistor x1 5mm Red LED (Light Emitting Diode) x1 5mm Amber LED x1 5mm Green LED x1 CMOS 4011 IC - Quad 2-Input NAND Gate x1 CMOS 4047 IC - Low-Power Monostable/Astable Multi-vibrator x1 CMOS 4516 IC - Binary Up/Down Counter | <urn:uuid:62adda4d-9c8c-40e5-8ad2-0aab180cfa7f> | {
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This film examines evidence which suggests the flood in Christchurch, New Zealand of March 4th-5th, 2014 was a man-made disaster. The ability to create floods has been known about for at least 6 decades. The BBC and the UK Guardian reported that the RAF was responsible for a flood which killed 35 in Lynmouth, Devon, England in 1952. Imagine the technology that is available now to modify the weather.
Extreme weather events are occurring around the globe. But why? Are they all naturally occurring or are at least some of them being created to win support for paying carbon taxes and changing our lives in accordance with Agenda 21? There are variety of probable reasons for creating weather disasters, such as the flood in Christchurch of March 4th-5th, 2014, including those related to Agenda 21.
This videos shows evidence which suggests strongly that the flood in Christchurch of the 4th-5th of March, 2014 was man-made. Please keep an open mind until you have researched this topic for yourself.
I strongly suggest that you watch the excellent documentary,’ Why In The World Are They Spraying?’, (2012), which is available online, to get an appreciation of the widespread use of weather modification technology today.
Watch the documentary,‘ Why In The World Are They Spraying?’, (2012). | <urn:uuid:e5aa274e-5054-443b-bbe4-549114c20aec> | {
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Here is the schematic of a simple flouroscent lamp driver circuit based on two transistors.The circuit uses capacitive ballasting for driving the tube.An 8 W standard flouroscent tube can be efficiently driven using the circuit.
The two transistors (2Sc 1983) with associated components forms a oscillator around 1KHz.The oscillator is wired so that saturation condition of the transistors are prohibited.This adds on to the efficiency of the circuit.The circuit produces a clean sine wave with very less noise.
Circuit diagram with Parts list.
- Use a 12 V battery as the DC voltage source.
- Use a 8W florescent lamp as load.
- The winding details(no of turns) are given in the circuit.Use 0.8 mm dia enameled copper wire for primary and 0.4 mm dia enameled copper wire for secondary.The core can be a ferrite core.The primary should be wound first and secondary on top of it. | <urn:uuid:5c79c7e7-a3f2-401c-aec9-33ec50a756e3> | {
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Norovirus attacks the Bay Area
Viral gastroenteritis aka norovirus aka “the stomach bug” has been spreading through the Bay Area at a record-setting rate.
Thirty schools in Contra Costa County alone have reported suspected cases. Alameda County’s norovirus cases have nearly tripled since last year, and San Mateo County has had 18 gastrointestinal outbreaks with nine confirmed as norovirus.
Earlier this month, St. Ignatius high school in The City closed for three days due to a mass outbreak at the school. Hundreds of the 1,400 students at the school came down with the bug.
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention lists the most common symptoms of the norovirus as diarrhea, vomiting and stomach pain. While most people get better within a few days, the real danger — other than puking your guts out — is the risk of dehydration.
One of the best ways to prevent infection is by washing your hands often with soap and water, since alcohol-based hand sanitizers do not kill the bug.
No vaccine or cure for the virus exists, so those infected are simply encouraged to drink enough liquids to prevent dehydration caused by their vomiting and diarrhea.
The CDC warns that people can remain contagious up to two weeks after their symptoms disappear.
How to protect yourself:
- Wash hands frequently with soap and water. Alcohol-based sanitizers often don’t kill the virus
- Promptly disinfect contaminated surfaces with a bleach solution (about 1/3 cup bleach to one gallon of water)
- If someone vomits, disinfect all surfaces within a 25-foot radius and discard any food in the area.
- Wear gloves when cleaning soiled surfaces
- Wash soiled clothing and linens as soon as possible
- Stay home during the illness and at least two days after symptoms disappear | <urn:uuid:f5490922-0d32-4f53-af6d-156d73eae5b9> | {
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Getting used to walk everyday for 30 minutes is an opportunity to maintain good health away from doctor visits. Many researches have highlighted the benefits of walking for 30 minutes a day as this habit will help you lose weight and get rid of stress.
Also, it helps to lower blood pressure and to reduce the risk of many chronic diseases. We will tackle in the following lines the most important benefits of walking for 30 minutes.
* Improving your mood: walking will improve your mood indirectly as a result of improving your body image or your body shape. One the benefits of walking for 30 minutes is that it eliminate the excess fat in the body. Regular walking can help to improve the body’s response to insulin, thereby helping to reduce body fat, especially in the abdomen area.
* Stimulating creativity: If you are stuck at work or you are looking for a solution to difficult problem, walking will help you. A study conducted in 2014 in the Journal of Experimental psychology has shown that humans become more creative when walking or moving around.
* Reducing the risk of chronic diseases: The American Diabetes Association says that walking lowers blood sugar levels and the risk of diabetes. In addition, researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder and the University of Tennessee found that regular walking lowers blood pressure by up to 11 points, and may reduce the risk of stroke by 20% to 40%.
* Getting beautiful legs: Walking for 30 minutes a day maintains a strong leg muscle and protects it from sagging. It also prevents the appearance of varicose veins and treats them. | <urn:uuid:1d05c27e-a313-4feb-a720-fa353ad23cb9> | {
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March 25, 2010
Dental Practice Robot Unveiled in Japan
Robotics experts and doctors in Japan have unveiled a robotic humanoid that will help dentists and aspiring orthodontic professionals practice their trade, according to a Thursday AFP article.
The robot, designed to represent a female patient and named Hanako, is equipped with a full set of hard plastic teeth and can provide detailed interaction with the practicing dentist.It can create saliva and blood, simulate jaw fatigue, and even notify the practicing dentist if an action would have caused pain in a real patient or if a mistake is made.
Hanako was a collaboration effort, created by medical experts at Showa University in Tokyo, Waseda University mechanical engineering professor Atsuo Takanishi, and robotic development firm Tmusk, Co., which has previously been behind such projects as security robots and mechanical babysitters. It is reportedly the first robot to be used to evaluate students' dental skills.
"We still have a system where the 'apprentices' watch doctors with higher skills, borrow from them and copy them... This is not scientific," Koutaro Maki of the Showa University Dental Hospital told AFP reporter Miwa Suzuki on March 25.
"Education in the medical and dental fields is underdeveloped," Maki, the medical facility's vice director, added. "I wouldn't say it's the Galapagos Islands, but it is undoubtedly a final frontier. The key to cultivating this undeveloped land is a robot."
Earlier this month, members of the robotics and behavioral sciences laboratory of Tokyo's University of Tsukuba unveiled a robot designed to simulate the behavior of a real human child and help Japanese parents learn how to care for infants.
That bionic baby, known as Yotaro, featured a touch-sensitive face, artificial tear ducts, and a built in speaker that would allow it to giggle or cry out. It could also change facial expressions, sleep, sneeze, wiggle its arms and legs, and run a fever to simulate illness.
On the Net: | <urn:uuid:f648844f-636e-44e3-97c6-a412df6b2bb1> | {
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The White House has confirmed that it shut down an attempted hack recently, but declined to say where it originated. It has been widely reported that the hack was directed at the White House Military Office, and that hackers associated with the Chinese government were involved. As is often the case with big attacks these days, the hackers exploited the weakest point in any computer system: the people.
The group would have never gotten as close as it did were it not for the natural curiosity of human kind. The attack was initiated via a practice called spear phishing. If you’re familiar with regular phishing, you can probably take the meaning here. Spear phishing is an attack predicated on targeting a specific person, or group of people with a malicious email that encourages them to open an attachment.
The White House Military Office houses some of the most sensitive secrets of the Executive branch, including, but not limited to, nuclear launch commands and military communications. Authorities insist that the computers targeted did not contain anything nearly that sensitive. In fact, the government claims that no data was extracted by the attackers. Officials detected the attack and were able to isolate the system before things got too hairy.
Even though the hackers were held back, this incident shows how woefully inadequate technology training is. Apparently, similar attacks are attempted frequently. If even people working with military systems at the White House can be phished, what hope do other organizations have?
via The Hill | <urn:uuid:f94f8030-93ac-48c5-be1d-4293c0e50303> | {
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Parallel computers are easy to build -- it's the software that takes work.
This tutorial provides a comprehensive overview of parallel computing and supercomputing, emphasizing those aspects most relevant to the user. It is suitable for new or prospective users, managers, students, and anyone seeking a general overview of parallel computing. It discusses software and hardware, with an emphasis on standards, portability, and systems that are commercially or freely available. Systems examined include clusters, tightly integrated supercomputers, and GPUs.
The tutorial provides training in parallel computing concepts and terminology, and uses examples selected from large-scale engineering, scientific, and data intensive applications. These real-world examples are targeted at distributed memory systems using MPI, shared memory systems using OpenMP, and hybrid systems that combine the MPI and OpenMP programming paradigms. GPU programming is also discussed. The tutorial shows basic parallelization approaches and discusses some of the software engineering aspects of the parallelization process, including the use of state-of-the-art tools. The tools introduced range from parallel debugging tools to performance analysis and tuning packages.
We use large-scale projects as examples to help the attendees understand the issues involved in developing efficient parallel programs. Examples include: crash simulation (a complex distributed memory application parallelized for Ford Motor); climate modeling (an application highlighting distributed, shared, and vector computing ideas with examples from NCAR, NASA and ECMWF); space weather prediction (an adaptive mesh code scaling to well over 1000 processors, funded by NASA/DoD/NSF); and design of ethical clinical trials (a memory-intensive application funded by NSF). Attendees find the lessons convincing, and occasionally humourous, because we discuss mistakes as well as successes.
Anyone needing a 1-day overview of parallel computing and supercomputing. This includes new or prospective users, managers, or people needing a refresher on current systems and techniques, with pointers to additional resources and follow-up material.
Approximately 70% of the presentation is at the beginner level, 30% intermediate level. If you are at the truly beginner level, you can always first look at my slightly whimsical explanation of parallel computing.
This is usually presented as a full-day (6 hour) tutorial, in 4 segments of 1.5 hours each. This can be adjusted to fit the circumstances. For example, some companies may want to use is a part of their technical training, and it can be expanded to include some hands-on work on their systems. With special arrangements, a more comprehensive class on parallel computing can be taught.
For people near Ann Arbor, they can attend Quentin Stout's class on parallel computing, EECS 587, taught each fall semester. Groups at more remote locations might be able to arrange for this class to be broadcast to them.
Quentin F. Stout
Computer Science and Engineering
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2121 USA
+1-734-763-1518 (voice, messages) +1-734-763-4617 (fax)
qstout @ umich.edu www.eecs.umich.edu/~qstout/
|Copyright © 2005-2015 Quentin F. Stout| | <urn:uuid:810c2368-8d93-49ba-92ba-a77ea26233eb> | {
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The septum is the partition between the right and left sides of the nose. At the front it is made of cartilage and at the back it is bone. Few people have an absolutely straight septum. But if the septum is deviated it can block breathing and even lead to snoring.
The septum can be bent for a number of reasons – football injuries, falling off a bicycle as a child or falling over. Most people can remember an event but others don’t and we presume the nose was squashed during birth as the baby passes through the vaginal canal.
Straightening the septum is a relatively simple procedure which takes thirty minutes and requires one night in hospital. All incisions are internal. The bent cartilage is removed and the remaining septum realigned. All stitches are dissolving. There is no bruising after the operation. Unless there is marked bleeding, packing of the nose with ribbon gauze is no longer performed.
Usually a splint is placed in each nostril to hold the new septum straight, much like one would do for a broken arm. These splints have one stitch holding them in. This stitch is removed one week after the surgery so that the splints can be taken out. At this point most people feel their breathing is vastly improved though full recovery is six weeks.
During the first few days a little bloodstained ooze is normal. Dab this with a Kleenex. You do not need to continue to wear the hospital bandage under your nose at home. The key to a healthy recovery is rinsing your nose frequently (six times a day).
The more you rinse your nose the faster the wound will heal. Rinse by inserting a syringe into the nostril and squirting the saline solution up towards the eyes, not back down the throat. Secondly, frequent rinsing will reduce the amount of postnasal discharge you experience. It is normal to have some discharge every day but an operation will increase the amount of discharge for up to six weeks. Therefore you must douche your nose for six weeks.
In the first post operative week you will notice your nose is tight but it should not be very painful. If pain increases contact Dr Dunlop. Expect to need ten days off work. The anaesthetic will make you tire easily. Expect to sleep in the afternoons.
Avoid contact sports for six weeks. Your nose can be damaged by unexpected trauma, necessitating further surgery. Also small children and large dogs should not be allowed to be close to your nose in case they accidentally bump it.
The septum is made of cartilage. Cartilage, like that of your ear, has a memory. In other words it will try to bend in one direction only. Every effort will be made to correct that surgically but a perfectly straight septum cannot be achieved. It will always tend to drift. You will have a better airway following the surgery but you may still perceive one side of the nose seems to have a better airway.
Secondly, if you suffer from allergy or hayfever, a septoplasty alone will not achieve a desirable nasal airway. Surgery corrects deviations and does not help allergy. You will still react allergically and require nasal sprays such as Nasonex or antihistamine tablets.
Very rare complications include leakage of the fluid around the brain and meningitis.
The septoplasty operation is straightforward and leads to relief of nasal obstruction in the vast majority of patients. | <urn:uuid:3bc7014c-83ee-4bec-b247-7afd3eb11343> | {
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A community committed to saving lives and property needs trained firefighters, proper equipment, and adequate supplies of water. Insurance companies consider it good public policy and good business to promote and encourage the efforts of individual communities to improve their fire protection services. That's why, for almost a century, U.S. property insurance companies have funded key initiatives aimed at fire prevention and fire mitigation.
Public Protection Classification Program
In the battle against fire losses, one of the insurance industry's most important weapons is the Public Protection Classification (PPC) program from Insurance Service Office (ISO). The PPC program provides important, up-to-date information about municipal fire protection services throughout the country. The rating is from 1-10 with 1 being "The Best". A community's investment in fire mitigation is a proven and reliable predictor of future fire losses. Insurance companies use PPC information to help establish fair premiums for fire insurance and generally offer lower premiums in communities with better protection.
By offering economic benefits for communities that invest in their firefighting services, the PPC program provides a real incentive for improving and maintaining public fire protection. The program also provides help for fire departments and other public officials as they plan for, budget, and justify improvements.
The most significant benefit of the PPC program is its effect on losses. Statistical data on insurance losses bears out the relationship between excellent fire protection and low fire losses. | <urn:uuid:7491d3ca-89f8-413e-a022-aee7652cbbe8> | {
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This is the way the cicada season in New York City ends – not with a buzz, or even a whisper. After enthusiastic columns heralding a cicadapocalypse across the East Coast, the only place in the five boroughs that seems to have been blessed (or cursed) with bugs is Staten Island.
Brood II’s emergence after 17 years of slumber was supposed to be an event. Some entomologists predicted that a trillion or more insects would arise from the earth. Buzzing would echo from Brooklyn the Bronx, bug-phobic New Yorkers would run wild in the streets, cats and dogs would start living together, et cetera…
But aside from some pockets of Staten Island, cicadas have failed to make much of an appearance in the Big Apple. Why?
"The decline in cicadas in New York is likely the result of land use," College of Mount St. Joseph cicada expert Gene Kritsky told New York magazine’s Daily Intelligencer. "If trees were removed from areas where cicadas had emerged in the past and they are not within a mile of other cicadas, then the population would not replenish itself. This has resulted in a very sporadic distribution of the cicadas in more urban areas."
Cicadas rely on the sap from tree roots for most of their lives, so without green space, they aren’t going to last long enough to see the sun. There could be other factors that depress cicada numbers, too: bad weather that affects the supply of tree sap, or concentrations of predatory birds.
A cicada’s singular survival strategy is force of numbers, so the smaller a population of cicadas gets, the more vulnerable it is to extinction. Brood XI, last seen on a dairy farm in 1954, is assumed to be mostly extinct; Brood VII, which consists of just a single species (most broods are a mingling of three kinds of cicada) is limited to just the Onondaga Nation in upstate New York.
Public radio station WNYC, in partnership with the shop Radiolab, is still keeping tabs on the current cicada emergence. Though Brood II won’t be doing any sightseeing in New York City, they’re singing, flying, mating and dying all throughout New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and other places not dominated by the concrete jungle.
Cicada researchers are using observations from citizen scientists, along with automated devices equipped with GPS, to make more accurate records of Brood II’s emergence than any cicada invasion before. University of Connecticut researcher Chris Simon told LiveScience that she used to have to communicate with on-location cicada counters by snail mail and payphone. Now she can use a device that automatically registers the location of a sighting, and combine that with observations from citizens hundreds of miles away.
"It's really revolutionized the way we do fieldwork," Simon said. | <urn:uuid:4c079b34-70c1-4457-8e36-7b74255d33ac> | {
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