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Sugata Mitra‘s “Hole in the Wall” experiment shows us that children will learn what they want to learn. His work occurs in some of the poorest places on earth. if such “miracles” can occur where there is such a lack of resources and support, imagine if this was paired with teachers who understand and valued this process. Imagine what would be unlocked and catalyzed. Imagine this in the United States, imagine this in Kolkata, Cameroon, New Delhi, and everywhere else on the planet.
This is the thinking behind democratic education, it can be seen in these examples Dr. Mitra offers, and with children here in the United States. In fact this is always happening. A primary issue, is that our education system does not value this type of learning unless it aligns with an outcome measure. Thus, millions of children are denied an essential truth–they are intelligent and able to learn, in fact they are learning all the time.
Now, how do we get behind this reality rather than deny it and get in the way of it? What if teachers adopted the “grandparent method?” | <urn:uuid:1ffa6aac-8154-4d30-81ea-807d1fa2e95d> | {
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Lobster and Latkes: Jewish Life in Maine
What has it meant to be a Jew from Maine? There’s no single answer to this question. After all, Jews think about their Jewishness in many different ways: as a religious identity, a cultural heritage, a source of ethnic pride.
Maine is equally diverse, and its Jews have lived in towns large and small from Kittery to Fort Kent. Maine—and Jewishness—have also changed a lot since the first Jews settled here in colonial times. The story of Jewish life in Maine, one might say, is a story of lobster and latkes: thoroughly Maine and distinctively Jewish. It’s been that way for over 200 years, but each Jewish Mainer has blended these identities differently.
We invite you to explore some of the stories of Jewish life in Maine. How does your own story relate? What does it mean to you to be a ________ from Maine?
Browse the complete exhibition
- Occupational Activities
- Religious Life
- Communal Life
- Life Cycle
- Maine’s Jews in America’s Wars
- Leisure and Recreation
- Jews in Maine’s Colleges
Take a thematic tour (hosted by Maine Memory Network)
- Overview: The Jews of Maine
- The Changing Landscape of Jewish Organizations
- Jews as Mainers: Jewish Contributions to Maine’s Cultural Landscape
- Preserving Jewish Traditions and Culture
- Contributing, Advancing, Succeeding: Jews and Occupations
- Experiences of Jewish Teenagers in Maine
Exhibition design team: Miles de Klerk ’13, Jena Hershkowitz ’12, Spencer Kasko ’12, Madeline Kurtz ’14, Robyn Wardell ’11, Margie Weiner ’12. Directed by David M. Freidenreich, Pulver Family Assistant Professor of Jewish Studies.
This exhibition was made possible by a 2010-11 grant from the Legacy Heritage Jewish Studies Project, directed by the Association for Jewish Studies. Support for the project is generously provided by Legacy Heritage Fund Limited. | <urn:uuid:26d31d32-1e31-4507-84af-84584c9c84c4> | {
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By Type of Assistance
There are primarily three projects of this category in the United Nations system:
- Institution Building Projects - these projects normally involve the creation or upgrading of a capacity to satisfy the recurrent needs of the target beneficiaries on a sustained basis. This defines the most common ICAO project, i.e. the establishment or strengthening of different parts of the civil aviation infrastructure.
- Direct Support Projects - direct Support Projects are projects formulated in response to a one-time need. They include such outputs as feasibility/pre-feasibility studies, increased skills of a particular group, research results and technical data. This type of project is not so common in the ICAO programme although occasionally direct support projects are implemented, for example when experts, who are recruited to carry out operational functions in cases where the Directorate of Civil Aviation (DCA) does not have appropriately qualified staff for the delivery of specific training courses. In this case the delivery of the course is the intention rather than the setting up of a capability within the Civil Aviation Training Centre (CATC) for its ongoing delivery.
- Preparatory Assistance Projects - preparatory assistance is assistance provided by UNDP to a government for a specific project, prior to approval of full assistance for implementation. It usually has the following objectives:
- to assist a government in project formulation
- to carry out preliminary work relating to project implementation
- to assist a government in project formulation and, after its formulation, to carry out preliminary work relating to project implementation.
By Geopolitical Classification
The following projects implemented by ICAO are classified on the basis of geopolitical considerations:
- Country Project - This is the most common of ICAO managed projects. Country projects are confined to improvements in the civil aviation sector within the recipient country and can be as simple as purchasing an off-the-shelf navigation aid or sophisticated as the implementation of a Civil Aviation Training Centre infrastructure comprising all of the classical components of experts, training and equipment.
- Regional Projects and Programmes - In regional projects, typically, a number of States participate in the implementation of the project and take advantage of its output, which has as its goal to improve the situation of civil aviation on a regional basis, e.g. the establishment of a common system of safety oversight for all participating states.
- Interregional/Global Projects and Programmes - These projects are expected to bring benefits to States in two or more ICAO Regions or to the entire developing world. Examples would be the assistance for implementing communication facilities between, say, Senegal in the Africa Region and Brazil in the South America Region or, on a global scale, assistance in the implementation of the World Area Forecasting System in all or most developing countries.
By Type of Agreement or Funding Arrangement
The following projects implemented by ICAO are contract-dependent:
- Trust Funds Agreement Projects - A trust funds project is one in which the government (or another State or funding source through the government) provides funds directly to ICAO, in trust, for work to be carried out under ICAO’s administration in that State. In effect, a trust funds project is similar to a 100% UNDP cost-shared project, except that the funds are deposited directly with ICAO rather than with UNDP. ICAO applies similar financial and administrative rules and procedures to these projects, particularly in respect of provision of experts, training and equipment and is accountable to the government (and/or funding instrumentality) for these inputs. Generally speaking, project documents governing trust fund projects are less complex than those for UNDP. Project documents will, however, always embody the essential elements involved with the project’s logic, time frame and budget.
- Management Services Agreement Projects - A “Management Services Agreement” (MSA) project is a form of a trust fund agreement and in most aspects it is similar in nature to those agreements with one major exception: under a MSA, instead of a fixed percentage of the total project value charged under Trust Fund agreements, a specific percentage is charged for each project component based, on the estimated actual cost of delivering the service. Handling charges may increase or decrease due to changes either in the duration or the scope of the services to be supplied, thus ensuring that costs are fully covered and are appropriate to the actual work performed. This practice results in a variable cost rate.
- Letters of Understanding on Technical Cooperation - Letters of Understanding on Technical Cooperation are documents signed between ICAO and a stakeholder. They are another form of a Management Service Agreement, defining the modalities for the coordination of future projects to be implemented by ICAO with assets from the respective stakeholder.
- Expression of Interest - An Expression of Interest is a document prepared when it becomes known to the Technical Cooperation Bureau that a project is being considered by a Government or financing organization which is within the expertise of the Organization, but ICAO has not been invited to make an offer. An Expression of Interest is usually written in the form of an abbreviated Project Document providing background information on the project, a short overview of how ICAO proposes to implement that project and a Capability Statement indicating the reasons why ICAO should be considered as a potential candidate for that task.
- Civil Aviation Purchasing Service Projects - The Civil Aviation Purchasing Service (CAPS) was established in 1974 as a facility provided by ICAO to assist developing countries in the procurement of high value equipment systems or to contract for technical services required for civil aviation. Through CAPS, countries can benefit from the comprehensive purchasing and contracting system already developed within ICAO for technical cooperation purposes.
- Lump Sum Agreement - Lump Sum Agreements (LSA) are similar to the MSA but relate to specific budgeted activities of a short duration, where the total amount payable is fixed in the agreement. | <urn:uuid:4332bc38-ff7d-45fc-b409-e69aee15ae92> | {
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A Prime Minister is the head of a cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not a head of state or chief executive officer of their respective nation, rather they are a head of government, serving under a monarch in a hybrid of aristocratic and democratic government forms. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the prime minister is the presiding and actual head of government and head of the executive branch. In such systems, the head of state or the head of state's official representative holds a ceremonial position, although with reserve powers. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime minister is chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems of government, a prime minister is the official, appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state.
The prime minister is but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may exercise executive powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown and may be exercised without the approval of parliament; as well as being head of government, a prime minister may have other roles or posts—the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for example, is First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts. For example, during the Second World War, Winston Churchill was Minister of Defence and in the current cabinet of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu serves as Minister of Communications, Foreign Affairs, Regional Cooperation and Interior; the term prime minister in its French form, premier ministre, is attested in 17th Century sources referring to Cardinal Richelieu after he was named to head the royal council in 1624.
The title was however informal and used alongside the informal principal ministre d'État more as a job description. After 1661, Louis XIV and his descendants refused to allow one of their ministers to be more important than the others, so the term was not in use; the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. During the whole of the 18th Century, Britain was involved in a prolonged conflict with France, periodically bursting into all-out war, Britons took outspoken pride in their "Liberty" as contrasted to the "Tyranny" of French Absolute Monarchy. Over time, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century; the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII; these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were known as "the minister", the "chief minister", the "first minister" and the "prime minister".
The power of these ministers depended on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed by the monarch, the monarch presided over its meetings; when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful. Late in Anne's reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and Viscount Bolingbroke shared power. In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War, Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689; the monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the House of Commons became a part of the government.
It is at this point. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of George I to the throne. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government. In these circumstances it was inevitable that the king's first minister would become the de facto head of the government. From 1721 this was the Whig politician Robert Walpole. Walpole chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with the king, that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public, or resign; as a prime minister, Lord Melbourne, said, "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing."
Chad the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in north-central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south and Nigeria to the southwest, Niger to the west, it is the second-largest in Central Africa in terms of area. Chad has several regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the second-largest in Africa; the capital N'Djamena is the largest city. Chad's official languages are French. Chad is home to over 200 different linguistic groups; the most popular religion of Chad is Islam, followed by Christianity. Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.
France incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels put an end to the south's hegemony. However, the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves, he was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. Since 2003 the Darfur crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation, with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad. An uneven inclusion into the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction, a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialization, the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger. While many political parties are active, power lies in the hands of President Déby and his political party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement.
Chad remains plagued by recurrent attempted coups d'état. Since 2003, crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry. In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, the region experienced a strong population increase; some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region. For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people; the region became a crossroads of civilizations. The earliest of these were the legendary Sao, descendants of the Hyksos who conquered Ancient Egypt known for skills in designing weapons and artifacts, they are known for their oral histories. After a century of rule, the Sao fell to the Kanem Empire, the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region, Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves. In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves. French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies; the French viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; the educational system was affected by this neglect. After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly.
The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party, based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, Sara François Tombalbaye, as its first president. Two years Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the National Liberation Front of Chad, began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975. In 1979 the rebel factions led by Hissène Habré took the capital, all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power; the disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad
Politics of Chad
Politics of Chad takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Chad is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the parliament. Chad is one of the most corrupt countries in the world. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President Idriss Deby, in preparation for several months. A strong executive branch headed by President Idriss Déby dominates the Chadian political system. Following his military overthrow of Hissène Habré in December 1990, Déby won presidential elections in 1996 and 2001; the constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 constitution, under which the president was limited to two terms of office until Déby had that provision repealed in 2005. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the Council of State, exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, provincial officials and heads of Chad’s parastatal firms.
In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of emergency. Most of the Déby's key advisors are members of the Zaghawa clan, although some southern and opposition personalities are represented in his government. According to the 1996 constitution, the National Assembly deputies are elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms; the Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; the National Assembly must approve the prime minister’s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no-confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch’s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections.
In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party structure. Despite the constitution’s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive branch, the president names most key judicial officials; the Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, 15 councilors chosen by the president and National Assembly. The Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power to review all legislation and international agreements prior to their adoption; the constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens. ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Foreign relations of Chad
The foreign relations of Chad are influenced by the desire for oil revenue and investment in Chadian oil industry and support for Chadian President Idriss Déby. Chad is non-aligned but has close relations with France, the former colonial power. Relations with neighbouring Libya, Sudan vary periodically; the Idris Déby regime has been waging an intermittent proxy war with Sudan. Aside from those two countries, Chad enjoys good relations with its neighbouring states. Although relations with Libya improved with the presidency of Idriss Déby, strains persist. Chad has been an active champion of regional cooperation through the Central African Economic and Customs Union, the Lake Chad and Niger River Basin Commissions, the Interstate Commission for the Fight Against the Constipation famine in the Sahel. Delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria.
Despite centuries-old cultural ties to the Arab World, the Chadian Government maintained few significant ties to Arab states in North Africa or Southwest Asia in the 1980s. Chad has not recognised the State of Israel since former Chadian President François Tombalbaye broke off relations in September 1972. President Habré hoped to pursue closer relations with Arab states as a potential opportunity to break out of his Chad's post-imperial dependence on France, to assert Chad's unwillingness to serve as an arena for superpower rivalries. In addition, as a northern Christian, Habré represented a constituency that favored co-operation and solidarity with Arabs, both African, Asian. For these reasons, he was expected to seize opportunities during the 1990s to pursue closer ties with the Arab World. In 1988, Chad recognized the State of Palestine. During the 1980s, Arab opinion on the Chadian-Libyan conflict over the Aozou Strip was divided. Several Arab states supported Libyan territorial claims to the Strip, among the most outspoken of, Algeria, which provided training for anti-Habré forces, although most recruits for its training programs were from Nigeria or Cameroon and flown to Algeria by Libya.
Lebanon's Progressive Socialist Party sent troops to support Qadhafi's efforts against Chad in 1987. In contrast, numerous other Arab states opposed the Libyan actions, expressed their desire to see the dispute over the Aozou Strip settled peacefully. By the end of 1987, Algiers and N'Djamena were negotiating to improve relations. In November 2018, President Deby visited Israel and announced his intention to restore diplomatic relations. Chad and Israel re-established diplomatic relations in January 2019. Chad is non-aligned but has close relations with France, the former colonial power, which has about 1,200 troops stationed in the capital N'Djamena, it receives economic aid from countries of the European Community, the United States, various international organizations. Libya has an ambassador resident in N'Djamena. Traditionally strong ties with the Western community have weakened over the past two years due to a dispute between the Government of Chad and the World Bank over how the profits from Chad's petroleum reserves are allocated.
Although oil output to the West has resumed and the dispute has been resolved, resentment towards what the Déby administration considered foreign meddling lingers. Chad belongs to the following international organizations: List of diplomatic missions in Chad List of diplomatic missions of Chad This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/
General Idriss Déby Itno is a Chadian politician, the President of Chad since 1990. He is head of the Patriotic Salvation Movement. Déby is of the Bidyat clan of the Zaghawa ethnic group, he took power at the head of a rebellion against President Hissène Habré in December 1990 and has since survived various rebellions against his own rule. He won elections in 1996 and 2001, after term limits were eliminated he won again in 2006, 2011, 2016, he added "Itno" to his surname in January 2006. He is a graduate of Muammar Gaddafi's World Revolutionary Center. Déby was born in the village of Berdoba 190 kilometers from Fada in northern Chad, his father was a poor herder. After attending the Qur'anic School in Tiné, he continued his studies at the École Française in Fada and at Franco-Arab school in Abéché, he attended the Lycée Jacques Moudeina in Bongor and holds a bachelor's degree in Science. After finishing school, he entered the Officers' School in N'Djamena. From there he was sent to France for training, returning to Chad in 1976 with a professional pilot certificate.
He remained loyal to the army and to President Félix Malloum after the country's central authority crumbled in 1979. He returned from France in February 1979 and found the country had become a battleground for many armed groups. Déby tied his fortunes to those of Hissène one of the chief Chadian warlords. A year after Habré became President in 1982, Déby was made commander-in-chief of the army, he distinguished himself in 1984 by destroying pro-Libyan forces in Eastern Chad. In 1985, Habré sent him to Paris to follow a course at the École de Guerre. In 1987, he confronted Libyan forces on the field, with the help of France in the so-called "Toyota War", adopting tactics that inflicted heavy losses on enemy forces. During the war, he led a raid on Maaten al-Sarra Air Base in Kufrah, which located in Libyan territory. A rift emerged on 1 April 1989 between Habré and Déby over the increasing power of the Presidential Guard. According to Human Rights Watch, Habré was found responsible for "widespread political killings, systematic torture, thousands of arbitrary arrests", as well as ethnic purges when it was perceived that group leaders could pose a threat to his rule, including many of Déby's Zaghawa ethnic group who supported the government.
Paranoid, Habré accused Déby, Mahamat Itno, the minister of interior, Hassan Djamous, commander in chief of the Chadian army of preparing a coup d'état. Déby first fled to Darfur, to Libya, which he was welcomed by Muammar Gaddafi in Tripoli, while Itno and Djamous were arrested and killed. Since all three were ethnic Zaghawa, Habré started a targeted campaign against the group which saw hundreds seized and imprisoned. Dozens were summarily executed. In 2016, Habré was convicted of war crimes by a specially-created international tribunal in Senegal. Once in Libya, Déby gave the Libyans detailed information about CIA operations in Chad. Gaddafi offered Déby military aid to seize power in Chad in exchange with Libyan prisoners of war. Déby moved to Sudan and formed the Patriotic Salvation Movement, an insurgent group, supported by Libya and Sudan, which started operations against Habré in October 1989, he unleashed a decisive attack on 10 November 1990, on 2 December Déby's troops marched unopposed into the capital, N'Djaména.
Idriss Déby assumed Chad's presidency in 1990, has been re-elected with a majority of votes every five years. After three months of provisional government, on 28 February 1991, a charter was approved for Chad with Déby as president. During the following two years, Déby faced a series of coup attempts as government forces clashed with pro-Habré rebel groups, such as the Movement for Democracy and Development. Seeking to quell dissent, in 1992 Chad legalized political parties and held a National Conference which resulted in the gathering of 750 delegates, the government, trade unions and the army to discuss the establishment of a pluralist democracy. However, unrest continued; the Comité de Sursaut National pour la Paix et la Démocratie, led by Lt. Moise Kette and other southern groups sought to prevent the Déby government from exploiting oil in the Doba Basin and started a rebellion that left hundreds dead. A peace agreement was reached in 1994. Two new groups, the Armed Forces for a Federal Republic led by former Kette ally Laokein Barde, the Democratic Front for Renewal, a reformulated MDD clashed with government forces from 1994 to 1995.
Déby, in the mid-1990s restored basic functions of government and entered into agreements with the World Bank and IMF to carry out substantial economic reforms. A new constitution was approved by referendum in March 1996, followed by a presidential election in June. Déby fell short of a majority. Idriss Déby was re-elected in the May 2001 presidential election, winning in the first round with 63.17% of the vote, according to official results. A civil war between Christians and Muslims erupted in 2005, accompanied by tensions with Sudan. An attempted coup d'état, involving the shooting down of Déby's plane, was foiled in March 2006. In mid-April 2006, there was fighting with rebels at N'Djaména, although the fighting soon subsided with government forces still in control of the capital. Déby subsequently broke ties with Sudan, accusing it of backing the rebels, said that the May 2006 election would st
National Assembly (Chad)
The National Assembly is the parliament of Chad. It has 155 members, elected for a four-year term in 25 single-member constituencies and 34 multi-member constituencies. Politics of Chad List of Presidents of the National Assembly of Chad List of legislatures by country | <urn:uuid:e73927cb-785d-42c4-8357-e9722b4116e6> | {
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n. "Studio." An intensive course in conversational Hebrew. Plural is ulpanim.
(kha-RE-dee) n. Ultra-Orthodox. Dati.
(too-MAH) n. Impurity; filth. Ceremonial defilement. Ritual impurity. A person or item that is tumah is said to be tamei, or "impure" (the oposite is tahor). Tumah is received by contact with dead body (tum'at met), touching certain animals (Lev 11:29-32), contacting certain bodily fluids (i.e. niddah, zav/zavah (Lev 15)), through childbirth (the period of tumah is 40 days for a boy and 80 for a girl), by contracting tzara'at (or touching a metzora) Lev 13:46, or some other means.
In the days of the Temple in Jerusalem, there were additional sacrifices and ceremonies for purification from tumah including the parah adumah (Red heifer) ceremony for contact with the dead, and special ceremonies for tzara'at and childbirth. Today, in the absence of a Temple, the only purification method available involves washing or immersion in a mikvah (tevillah).
Unleavened Bread (Feast of)
(khag ham-matz-TZOHT) n. Feast of Unleavened Bread. Directly following Passover is Chag HaMatzot, or the Festival of Unleavened Bread, when no chametz may be eaten or possessed for a full seven days.
Since the Jewish calendar reckons the start of a day at evening, it is sometimes confusing determining when a festival begins and ends. For example, Passover begins on Nisan 14 at evening, that is, between 3:00 pm to sundown, and continues through Nisan 15. Strictly speaking, then, Passover begins on Nisan 14th and ends on Nisan 15th.
In Exodus chapter 12:15-20 God instructed the Jews to eat unleavened bread for seven days, from Nisan 14th at evening until Nisan 21 at evening, but in Leviticus 23:6 the seven day festival of Unleavened Bread is said to begin on Nisan 15, following Passover, and therefore would end on Nisan 22. This apparent inconsistency is reconciled once we understand that the new day begins at sundown, that is, when the end of one day and the start of a new day both occur.
The Festival of Unleavened Bread, then, begins on the 15th of Nisan, which is also a High Sabbath day, and ends on Nisan 22. Chag HaMatzot represents a holy week spent without leaven in our lives, a picture of our response to the redemption of the LORD (Matthew 16:12; Mark 8:14-15; Luke 12:1; Romans 6:13-22; 1 Corinthians 5:6-8).
Note that in modern Judaism, Passover and Chag HaMatzot are collectively considered as a single holiday, usually referred together as "Passover."
(oop-she-reen) Yiddish: lit. "shear off" is a Jewish haircutting ceremony held when a boy is three years old (the custom is first mentioned by Chaim Vital, a student of the 16th century Kabbalist, the Arizal). Upsherin comes from a Kabbalistic interpretation of Leviticus 19:23, where the law that one is not permitted to eat the fruit that grows on a tree for the first three years is given (called orla). This idea is applied to cutting a child's hair. Among the Chasidic community, upsherin marks a boy's entry into the commencement of Torah study. A kippah (yarmulke) and tzitzits can now be worn and the boy will be taught to read the Hebrew alphabet.
(oo-ree-YAH) Uriah. The Hittite husband of Bathsheba who was murdered by conspiracy of King David and Joab, his field commander. Uriah means "Jehovah (Yahweh) is my light (flame)."
Urim and Thummim
(oo-REEM ve-too-MEEM) n. "Lights and perfections." The sacred breastplate of the high priest (choshen) was worn over the ephod (linen apron) containing two special gemstones (Ex. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Num. 27:21; Deut. 33:8;). These were used to discern the will of God in some cases (1 Sam. 14:41; 28:6; Ezr. 2:63; Neh. 7:65). Some have claimed that the Shekhinah would cause the Urim and Tummim to light up in varying patterns to reveal His decision, though it might be that the stones represented "Yes/No" (a sacred lot) when consulted.
(oosh-pee-ZEEN) n. Aramaic. Ushpizin, "guests." According to Jewish mystical tradition, during Sukkot the souls of the "seven shepherds of Israel" (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Joseph, and King David) leave the Garden of Eden (thought to be the abode of the righteous dead) to visit earthly Sukkot celebrations (Zohar - Emor 103a). Collectively these transcendent guests are known as Ushpizin, an Aramaic word meaning "guests." Each day of Sukkot, a different "guest" is thought to be dispatched from heaven. To welcome them, some Ultra Orthodox offer a formal invitation for their arrival while others set aside a chair reserved for them.
Note: The fun of the brilliant movie Ushpizin is that the guests who visit are sometimes not whom we might expect, and that leads to comedy, pathos, and a strong expression of faith. This is a classic "fable" of hakhnasat orekhim (hospitality to guests) straight from the Jewish heart. Recommended! | <urn:uuid:bf0aa6fa-5fc2-4bec-802f-62fb0d1552f4> | {
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In honor of you, play this chant
As you can see, this vision is filled with symbols. It appears that John intended his readers to see in the woman clothed with the sun the people of Israel or the new people of God. The twelve stars are one indication of that. They can be taken as representing the twelve constellations of the zodiac. But they can also be seen as symbols of the twelve tribes of Israel and the twelve apostles.
First, it signifies that the most glorious queen of heaven, the true spouse of God, was crowned in eternity. Mary received the promised “never fading crown of glory” because her life so perfectly resembled that of her Son’s and because she shared in all His sufferings. -1Peter 5:4
“Just as Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to delay their movements and just as Elijah commanded fire to come down from the sky and just as he opened the heavens to rain and then closed them, so Mary is able to command all things in all ways. O most high and most divine queen, on whose head there is a crown of 12 stars. Just as Christ commanded the winds and the sea, and they obeyed Him, just as He also commanded the dead to rise, so now it is given to Mary to do the same because she is granted divine authority and power and is made as a God to the world. It is just like when God said to Moses in Exodus 7:1: ‘See, I make you as a God to Pharaoh.’ The meaning of this gift of authority to Moses, and in a parallel way of the gift to Mary, is that God granted him the power and authority to do in Pharaoh’s kingdom what God could do in His own kingdom. In a similar sense God granted Mary, as the true spouse of the Almighty and the true mother of Christ, authority over the works of His hands. He conferred upon her the authority of the Almighty Himself in her power over heaven and made her mistress of the universe by deputation. Thus she stands at the right hand of God as the most high queen of heaven and earth: ‘At your right hand stands the queen in gold’ O queen above all men and above even the marvelous minds of angels! Who in the world will be able to find words to express in its proper dignity what kind and how great is this glory of the most high and holy queen?” (Ps. 45:9)
The most perfect crown of 12 stars represents the knowledge of all creatures. In addition the crown of 12 stars is the knowledge of all the mysteries of our own faith, the manifest divine truth of whose signs Mary most perfectly grasped and most fully understood beyond the elect, above all the apostles, and above all the angelic spirits. She understood these things to a higher degree than is even possible to contemplate, let alone express. Thus Mary advocates on our behalf in the presence of God those things which are most prudent for us.
To welcome the new year, we’re bringing you an amazing performance from two American banjo player legends, Abigail Washburn and Bela Fleck. They perform Hao Huo Hong literally meaning Good Flower Red.
The lyrics speak about the small red flowers that make up the blossoms of the pears trees on the mountains above the Yan River. Abigail Washburn relates the song’s history and the significance of the red flower in China:
“Hao Hua Hong is an age-old folk song from the native Buyi people who live in the high mountain forests of Guizhou. I learned the song from a record of the artist Gong Linna called Traditional Chinese Folk Songs. Every time this song would go by as I listened to her record I was moved by the quality of her voice and the idea of one small red leaf making a mountain to look of fire.”
Ways of Providence
If Christmas means that God is with us, that God is one of us, that God has come close, then we no longer have to be afraid. Afraid of anything. Go out and radiate the Light of Christ!
Extraordinary Jubilee Year of Mercy: December 8, 2015 – November 20, 2016
Begin with love and mercy. When God became incarnate in the form of Jesus, we received the incredible message that we are loved beyond calculation. God began with love and mercy and so should we.
Dawn is coming
Its always there
Look toward the Son
Mary was rescued from the power of original sin. Christ, who receives his human flesh from his mother, receives this flesh from a person who, by a singular gift from God, comes into this world without original sin.
Mary “the New Eve”
Mary is someone who is ready to receive the impossible.
Because the very best things are not taken; they are received as gifts. God did not block Adam and Eve’s access to the tree because he wanted to prevent them from having what he had; he blocked access because he wanted to give them gifts.
from Father Barron’s advent reflections
What’s your mission, your purpose, our purpose, here on this crazy planet? The mission isn’t out there or somewhere to find. Its inside of you. Look! Peel those layers back. Find! Its in you. Crack it open. Don’t wait! No reason to let time tick away. It can be now if you choose it. Now!
Waste by Foster the People…last years song but still cool | <urn:uuid:0c3a2771-85be-486c-9469-090974bf0e1e> | {
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Creating a unique climate and culture in which all students
feel welcome, safe, and secure is the responsibility of the
school community. This is especially important in a middle
school where students are trying to find their niche.
During the 2009–2010 school year, Twin Valley Middle
School formed a task force to address a growing concern
about the deteriorating culture and climate of our school.
Although the school had made great academic strides, we
lacked student advocacy, which our students needed if they
were to grow socially and emotionally. We wanted every
student to have a least one adult in the building with whom
they could connect in a non-academic relationship.
In the late spring of 2010, a leadership team began
to develop a student advocacy program that would be
implemented the following school year. The team visited a
local middle school to observe their program and met with an
educational consultant during the summer to draft a plan.
The leadership team decided that each paraprofessional
and teacher in the school would serve as an adult advocate
(A Raider Pride leader) to a group of 12–15 students and
that these groups would meet twice monthly for 45 minutes
during a designated time within the school day.
Next, the leadership team outlined the students’ Full
Value Contract (pg. 39) and determined the themes for the
meetings based on input from parents, teachers, students,
administrators, and guidance counselors.
Raider Pride Lessons
Our Raider Pride student advocacy-focused lessons have
spurred dynamic discussions on a variety of topics and
provided an outlet for students to share within a familiar,
safe, small–group setting. The result is student self-
confidence and stronger, more sincere peer relationships
with the support and guidance of an adult advocate. Staff
members often report hearing students use terms from lessons in peer conversations and seeing them put into
practice strategies they have learned through Raider Pride.
Each lesson begins with an icebreaker that suits the
personality and needs of the group. The icebreaker is followed
by a focus lesson that addresses the pre-determined theme.
Raider Pride leaders have the freedom to “tweak” the lesson to
fit the needs of their group and grade level.
During our initial year of implementation, all grade levels
followed the same lesson plan. As we began our second year,
however, we felt confident enough in our program to diversify
and have each grade level choose the themes for the year.
These lessons explore relationships, school concerns, and
social problems, and their impact on the culture and climate
of our school. Each lesson includes an objective, vocabulary
terms, discussion questions, and a reflection piece. The
reflection consists of three basic questions:
1. What? What did we do in this lesson?
2. So What? Why did we do it?
3. Now What? How do we take what we’ve learned and
apply it to our everyday life, both in and outside the
The reflection can be orally or through journaling,
individually, with partners, in a small group, or in class.
On meeting days, our students and staff (teachers,
custodians, cafeteria workers, secretaries, paraprofessionals,
and administrators) wear their Raider Pride tee shirts to
demonstrate and encourage “Raider Pride” and school spirit.
A School-wide Effort
One of the primary goals of our Raider Pride student advocacy initiative is to empower students to be reflective and act respectfully, responsibly, and compassionately each and
every day. Because it is a school-wide initiative, we expect
all teachers to have input in planning and decision making.
Collaboration is essential to the success of this initiative.
Members of the Raider Pride Leadership Team—
representatives from each grade level and special subject
areas (physical education, music, art—act as "point people" for their colleagues. The leadership team meets monthly to discuss roadblocks, challenges, and issues. In addition, we celebrate successes, always focusing on moving forward.
Our administrators have supported this initiative wholeheartedly, garnering grants and additional funding, providing dedicated time for monthly Raider Pride Leadership meetings, and setting clear expectations that Raider Pride is indeed a part of our school culture.
Communication is a key to success. Dates relative to Raider Pride are posted on the school Intranet and Outlook calendar. Our school website and Facebook page include Raider Pride posts; televised morning announcements provide meeting times and topics. All Raider Pride lessons and additional resources are posted on the school's Intranet for easy access by staff. Staff feedback about each lesson is used to refine lessons and help develop future lessons.
If your school wants to implement a student advocacy program, we encourage you to start slowly and be patient. Change takes time; we began our work a full year before implementing our program. In addition,
- Review what you already have in place and begin building your program upon that foundation.
- Seek out your "champions"—people in your building who will be open to and excited about this initiative. Use these people to develop a strong leadership team.
- Make principals and guidance counselors an integral part of this team. Not only do they bring a different skill set, they know community members and parent who will be willing to dedicate resources.
- After the first year, seek out and support student leaders, as they are the ultimate champions of any student advocacy program
To further solidify and build ownership in our second year, we held a school-wide kick-off event to highlight our commitment to Raider Pride. In addition, Unity Day gave 100 of our student leaders across the grade levels a voice in creating school-wide action plans to improve school climate. Those student leaders now act as co-facilitators during our bi-weekly Raider Pride meetings.
Initiating, developing, and implementing a student advocacy program has not been an easy task. Some of our barriers have included lack of teacher "buy-in," scheduling difficulties, lack of time to plan lessons, lack of group meeting space, and unforeseen leader absence on lesson day.
Although there have been some roadblocks, we stick with the motto, "This is our reality." We continue to maintain a positive attitude and move forward.
It is hard to measure matters of the heart, but it is very clear that students are learning life-long lessons during Raider Pride. Growing evidence indicates that Raider Pride is becoming our new school culture. Students and teachers are acting with more compassion, cooperation, empathy, respect for others, kindness, and giving as our program continues to grow. We attribute this positive change to the Raider Pride lessons we teach and our staff and students put into action in our caring community.
Previously published in
|Twin Valley's Full Value Contract
- I agree to keep each other safe, physically and emotionally.
- I agree to keep comments positive and supportive.
- I agree to give and receive honest feedback.
- I agree to "let go" of negative feelings and/or stale issues and move on.
- I agree to make an effort to participate to the best of my ability in all situations.
Middle Ground magazine, April 2012
is a fifth grade language arts teacher,
is a grades
5–8 physical education teacher,
is a fifth grade language
is a sixth grade language arts teacher, and
is former principal for grades 5–6 at Twin Valley Middle School
in Elverson, Pennsylvania. The Twin Valley team was recognized with a
Pearson-AMLE Teams That Makes a Difference Award in 2011. | <urn:uuid:cbd15618-baa1-458b-850c-b684fea515bc> | {
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This lesson, the first part of a two-parter, helps to set the historical, social, cultural, and economic context of charlotte perkins gilman's story the yellow wall-paper written during this time of great change. The yellow wallpaper: the yellow wallpaper, short story by charlotte perkins gilman, published in new england magazine in may 1892 and in book form in 1899 the yellow wallpaper, initially interpreted as a gothic horror tale, was considered the best as well as the least-characteristic work of fiction by gilman. The yellow wallpaper study guide contains a biography of charlotte perkins gilman, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis. Analysis of charlotte perkins gilman's the yellow wallpaper, a feminist story of a woman descending into madness and freedom. The paperback of the the yellow wall-paper, herland, and selected writings by charlotte perkins gilman at barnes & noble free shipping on $25 or more. Directed by john clive with stephen dillane, julia watson, carolyn pickles, james faulkner. This list of important quotations from “the yellow wallpaper” will help you work with the essay topics and thesis statements above by allowing you to support your claims.
Get an answer for 'what symbolism is represented in the yellow wallpaper' and find homework help for other the yellow wallpaper questions at enotes. Sample of the yellow wall-paper a story essay (you can also order custom written the yellow wall-paper a story essay. Amazoncom: the yellow wall-paper (9781558611580): charlotte perkins gilman, elaine hedges: books. Complete summary of charlotte perkins gilman's the yellow wallpaper enotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of the yellow wallpaper.
Read full text and annotations on the yellow wallpaper the yellow wallpaper at owl eyes. The yellow wall-parer if a physician of high standing, and one's own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the.
Exploration of the various symbols in the yellow wallpaper by charlotte perkins gilman. The yellow wallpaper by charlotte perkins gilman (1860-1935) thoughts on gilman's the yellow wall paper - duration: 7:16 profpkittle 767 views. The yellow wallpaper, televised 1989 with stephen dillon 8 videos play all the yellow wall-paper by charlotte perkins gilman cowles library. Start studying charlotte perkins gilman, the yellow wallpaper learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.
Read this essay on the yellow wall paper- point of view analyse come browse our large digital warehouse of free sample essays get the knowledge you need in order to pass your classes and more. Page 27 - of myself for his sake, and keep wellhe says no one but myself can help me out of it, that i must use my will and self-control. “the yellow wallpaper,” though a wonderful and frightening gothic tale, will probably continue to be thought of in feminist terms—and probably rightly so. Start studying the yellow wall- paper learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.
Struggling with charlotte perkins gilman's the yellow wallpaper check out our thorough summary and analysis of this literary masterpiece. Free yellow wallpaper papers, essays, and research papers. The yellow wall-paper: the ambivalence of changing discourses jürgen wolter abstract charlotte perkins gilman's story the yellow wall-paper.
Free essay: the yellow wallpaper from the point of view of a doctor's wife the yellow wallpaper by charlotte perkins gilman, is a story told from. “the yellow wallpaper” is definitely the masterpiece of this collection if that was the only story that gilman ever wrote – it would be enough to guarantee. Free summary and analysis of the events in charlotte perkins gilman's the yellow wallpaper that won't make you snore we promise. The yellow wallpaper by charlotte perkins gilman highlights men's prejudice against women and mental illness includes summary, vocabulary & character evolution. Slowly, eleanor loses sight of her sanity, and the patterns in the yellow wallpaper come to life imdb movies , tv & showtimes raiders of. | <urn:uuid:0219a6bd-7ff3-402c-b792-f933e823362e> | {
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Definition of Anglo–Saxon word
: any of a group of monosyllabic English words whether or not of Anglo-Saxon origin that are considered vulgar and unacceptable in polite use — compare four-letter word
Love words? You must — there are over 200,000 words in our free online dictionary, but you are looking for one that’s only in the Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary.
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First Known Use of anglo–saxon word
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up Anglo–Saxon word? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:dad86b49-5886-4219-86e0-f34ac7b6c22c> | {
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10 Ways to Prevent Low Blood Sugar
Worried about severe lows? Here are expert tips for avoiding hypoglycemia and staying safe
1. Understand your medications.
Learning whether and how your diabetes medication can cause low blood glucose is critical for preventing hypoglycemia, a blood glucose level of 70 mg/dl or below.
2. If using a fast-acting insulin, pay attention to blood glucose levels one to two hours after injection.
This period is when the medication is at its peak potency and the risk for going low is greatest.
3. Avoid insulin mix-ups.
If you use more than one type of insulin, store vials or pens in different locations (away from sunlight and at comfortable room temperature). For example, keep your mealtime insulin in the kitchen and your long-acting insulin near your bed. Protective cases or labels of different colors and textures can also help you tell one type of insulin from another.
4. Know the symptoms.
Having a good working knowledge of hypoglycemia symptoms, including those you haven’t personally felt, will help you opt to treat rather than ignore the symptom.
5. Follow the “Rule of 15.”
Generally, treat a blood glucose level of 70 mg/dl or less with:
→ 15 grams of a fast-acting carbohydrate source, such as four glucose tablets, half a cup of fruit juice, or half a cup of regular soda.
→ Wait 15 minutes, test blood glucose.
→ If it’s still too low, eat or drink another 15 grams of carbohydrate, wait 15 minutes, and retest.
6. Carry a glucose source at all times.
Having glucose tablets or gel available means you won’t have to search for glucose while impaired by a low.
7. Wear a continuous glucose monitor (CGM).
In one study of 35 people with type 1 diabetes (average age: 43) and hypoglycemia unawareness, a CGM decreased episodes of severe hypoglycemia from an average of 8.1 per year to 0.6.
8. Get enough sleep.
Sleepiness was linked to severe hypoglycemia risk in one recent study, suggesting that addressing sleep disorders may help prevent lows.
9. Eat when you plan to eat.
The top reason people ended up in the emergency room for a severe low in a recent study was taking insulin and then not eating.
10. Pay attention to physical activity.
Whether you are working out in the gym or running errands, physical activity can lower blood glucose—for hours or even a full day afterward. Make sure to eat something extra or adjust insulin doses to accommodate activity. | <urn:uuid:14c63fd7-8b8e-4f19-ba93-6f38129becec> | {
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is an island in the South Atlantic Ocean
, 3 km² in area, part of the Tristan da Cunha
group of islands. They are administered by the United Kingdom
as part of the overseas territory
of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Nightingale Island is part of the Nightingale Islands
, which also includes islets Middle Island
and Stoltenhoff Island
. All three are uninhabited, but are regularly visited for scientific purposes and research.
Nightingale has two peaks on its north end. One is high while the other is high. The rest of the island is ringed by cliffs. However, these cliffs are not nearly as high as those surrounding Nightingale's neighbour Inaccessible Island
, which is approximately 16 km away and has cliffs approximately 300m high. Thus human access is much easier on Nightingale than on Inaccessible.
Caves in Nightingale Island seem to indicate elevation.
The two nearby islets are called Stoltenhoff (99 m) and Middle (46 m).
Large amounts of kelp
surround the island, which makes it harder to anchor ships in bad weather.
Nightingale was discovered along with Tristan da Cunha
and Inaccessible Island
in 1506 by Tristão da Cunha
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch and French governments as well as the British East India Company
considered taking possession of Nightingale (as well as Tristan and Inaccessible), but declined due to lack of landing... Read More | <urn:uuid:9120548d-f03b-4535-9a15-cb94d91bbcb3> | {
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A North American Beaver was discovered by San Onofre State Park officers this week at the river mouth of the San Mateo Creek.
A former native to the area, it was thought that the beaver had been long gone from the San Mateo Creek region. Surfrider reports that officials are believe the beaver is a descendant of a group of animals that were reintroduced into the San Margarita watershed by the Department of Fish and Game in 1940 in order to regulate erosion. Some years ago, a steelhead trout was also found in San Mateo Creek by a college student, despite the prior declaration that the species was endangered in the region.
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And unfortunately, San Mateo Creek is also the site of a continuing conflict between environmental groups, including Surfrider, and the Transportation Corridor Agencies who are trying to build a toll road project right through the watershed area.
"This discovery," says Mark Rauscher, Surfrider Foundation's Assistant Environmental Director, "Supports our assertion that the San Mateo Creek has a thriving watershed ecosystem that deserves the highest level of protection from its source in the mountains to the ocean."
Okay, and here's the real downer, guys. The press release ends with: "According to State Park scientists, the animal had suffered trama prior to being found and unfortunately succumbed to those injuries after being captured." | <urn:uuid:a65bc672-de20-4cdd-8ce0-385cec22ba8d> | {
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42nd Regiment of Foot
|42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot|
Kingdom of Great Britain
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
|Motto||(Scotland's) Nemo me impune lacessit|
|Engagements||War of Austrian Succession
French and Indian War
American War of Independence
|Battle honours||Egypt 1801
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2008)|
The 42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot was a Scottish infantry regiment in the British Army also known as the Black Watch. Originally the 43rd Highlanders they were renumbered to the 42nd in 1748 on the disbanding of the existing Oglethorpe's 42nd Regiment of Foot allowing the regiment to assume that number as its own. In 1881 the regiment was named The Royal Highland Regiment (The Black Watch), being officially redesignated The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) in 1931. In 2006 the Black Watch became part of the Royal Regiment of Scotland.
After the Jacobite rising of 1715 the British government did not have the resources or manpower to keep a standing army in the Scottish Highlands. As a result, they were forced to keep order by recruiting men from local Highland clans that had been loyal to the Whigs. This proved to be unsuccessful in deterring crime, especially cattle rustling. Therefore Independent Highland Companies (of what would be known as the "Black Watch") were raised as a militia in 1725 by General George Wade to keep "watch" for crime. He was commissioned to build a network of roads to help in the task. The six Independent Highland Companies were recruited from local clans, with one company coming from Clan Munro, one from Clan Fraser, one from Clan Grant and three from Clan Campbell. These companies were commonly known as Am Freiceadan Dubh, or the Black Watch, this name may well have been due to the way they dressed. Four more companies were added in 1739 to make a total of ten Independent Highland Companies.
The ten Independent Highland Companies of "Black Watch" were officially formed into the "43rd Highland Regiment of Foot", a regiment of the line in 1739. It was first mustered in 1740, at Aberfeldy, Scotland. The Colonel was John Lindsay, 20th Earl of Crawford and the Lieutenant-Colonel was Sir Robert Munro, 6th Baronet. Among the Captains were his next brother, George Munro, 1st of Culcairn (also a Captain of an Independent Company raised in 1745) and their cousin John Munro, 4th of Newmore who was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in 1745 (in place of Sir Robert who went on to command the 37th (North Hampshire) Regiment of Foot). The other Captains of the 43rd were George Grant, Colin Campbell of Monzie, James Colquhoun of Luss, John Campbell of Carrick, Collin Campbell of Balliemore and Dougal Campbell of Craignish.
First action and Mutiny
The regiment's earliest days were inauspicious: ordered to London in 1743 for an inspection by King George II, rumours flew that they were to be shipped to the West Indies to fight in the War of Austrian Succession, and many left for Scotland. They were recaptured, three of the leaders shot in the Tower of London, and the remainder of the regiment shipped to Flanders.
The regiment's first full combat was the disastrous Battle of Fontenoy in Flanders in 1745, where they surprised the French with their ferocity, and greatly impressed their commander, the Duke of Cumberland. Allowed "their own way of fighting", each time they received the French fire Col. Sir Robert Munro ordered his men to "clap to the ground" while he himself, because of his corpulence, stood alone with the colours behind him. For the first time in a European battle they introduced an infantry tactic (alternately firing and taking cover) that was not superseded. Springing up and closing with the enemy, they several times drove them back, and finished with a successful rear-guard action against French cavalry. Robert Munro's cousin John Munro, 4th of Newmore also fought bravely and was afterwards promoted to be a lieutenant-colonel.
When the Jacobite rising of 1745 broke out, the regiment returned to the south of Britain in anticipation of a possible French invasion. However one company of the regiment fought for the British-Hanoverian Government under Dugald Campbell of Auchrossan at the Battle of Culloden, where they suffered no casualties. From 1747 to 1756 they were stationed in Ireland and then were sent to New York.
During the French and Indian War, at the first battle of Ticonderoga, also known as the Battle of Carillon (1758), the regiment lost over half of its men in the assault. At that time they were already officially recognized as a Royal regiment. The second battalion of the Black Watch was sent to the Caribbean but after the losses of Ticonderoga, the two battalions were consolidated in New York. The regiment was present at the second battle of Ticonderoga in 1759 and the surrender of Montreal in 1760. They were sent to the West Indies again where they saw action at Havana, Martinique and Guadeloupe.
Between 1758 and 1767 it served in America. In August 1763, the Black Watch fought in the Battle of Bushy Run while trying to relieve Fort Pitt, modern Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, during Pontiac's Rebellion. The regiment went to Cork, Ireland in 1767 and returned to Scotland in 1775.
During the American Revolutionary War, the regiment was involved in the defeat of George Washington in the Battle of Long Island and the later battles of Harlem, Fort Washington, Piscataway, Brandywine, Germantown (Light Company only), Monmouth and the siege of Charleston. The regiment returned to Glasgow in 1790. The Royal Highland Regiment never officially recognized the battle honours for their part in the American War of Independence, because it was decreed that Battle Honours should not be granted for a war with kith and kin.
Corunna and the Peninsular War
At the battle of Corunna it was a soldier of the 42nd Highlanders who carried the mortally wounded General Sir John Moore to cover, and six more who carried him to the rear, but only after he had witnessed the victory in which the stout defence of the Black Watch played a major part. Moore's army was evacuated from Spain and the 1st Battalion of the 42nd Highlanders went with them.
As the 1st Battalion left, the 2nd Battalion was dispatched from Ireland to Spain where it served throughout the Peninsular War in the Duke of Wellington's Army. The 2nd fought with great distinction in the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro and the bloody Siege of Badajoz. The 1st battalion returned to the peninsula in time to fight in the Battle of Salamanca and then served throughout the rest of the war in Spain and on into southern France, including the Battle of Vittoria and the Battle of Nivelle.
The 2nd battalion was disbanded in 1814, as the war with France was now apparently over, and some of its number transferred to the permanent 1st battalion. The now single battalion 42nd fought at the chaotic Battle of Quatre Bras on 16 June 1815 and was one of four battalions mentioned in despatches by Wellington. Two days later at the Battle of Waterloo, the 42nd and also the 2nd/73rd Highlanders, which was later to become the new 2nd Battalion, Black Watch, were both in some of the most intense fighting in the battle and lost 289 men.
The regiment captured its regimental gong during the Indian Mutiny. Since then the gong has tolled the hours in Black Watch quarters. As part of the Childers Reforms of 1881, the 42nd Regiment of Foot was amalgamated with the 73rd (Perthshire) Regiment of Foot to form a new regiment. In recognition of its famous nickname, the new regiment was named The Royal Highland Regiment (The Black Watch), being officially redesignated The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) in 1931. In a further reorganisation in 2006 this regiment in turn became an infantry battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland.
- Pollard, Tony. (2009). Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the last Clan Battle. pp. 63. ISBN 978-1-84884-020-1.
- Simpson. Page 113.
- Sir K.S.Mackenzie, "General Wade & his Roads", paper before the Inverness Scientific Society,13 April 1897
- Simpson. Page 113 - 114.
- Simpson. Page 116 - 117.
- Simpson. Page 116 - 117.
- Simpson. Page 207 - 208.
- Pollard, Tony. (2009). Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the last Clan Battle. pp. 71 to 72. ISBN 978-1-84884-020-1
- History of Pittsburgh and environs George Thornton Fleming, American Historical Company, American historical society, incorporated, New York - 1922 "They waited on the commander of the fort, Captain William Murray (captain), who received them politely and introduced them to the Rev. Mr. McLagan, the chaplain of the 42d Highlanders, then the garrison of the fort."
- Simpson, Peter. "The Independent Highland Companies, 1603 - 1760". (1996). ISBN 0-85976-432-X.
- Swinson, Arthur (1972). A Register of the Regiments and Corps of the British Army. London: The Archive Press. ISBN 0-85591-000-3.
- Victoria Schofield. The Highland Furies: The Black Watch 1739-1899. Quercus Publishing. ISBN 1849169187, 9781849169189 | <urn:uuid:4dcd1fda-9e2b-4f33-b2c1-62d014bc0eb3> | {
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Skin cancer is the most common form of human cancers, affecting more than one million Americans every year. One in five Americans will develop skin cancer at some point in their lives. Skin cancers are generally curable if caught early. However, people who have had skin cancer are at a higher risk of developing a new skin cancer, which is why regular self-examination and doctor visits are imperative.
The vast majority of skin cancers are composed of three different types: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma.
Basal Cell Carcinoma
This is the most common form of skin cancer. Basal cells reside in the deepest layer of the epidermis, along with hair follicles and sweat ducts. When a person is overexposed to UVB radiation, it damages the body's natural repair system, which causes basal cell carcinomas to grow. These tend to be slow-growing tumors and rarely metastasize (spread). Basal cell carcinomas can present in a number of different ways:
- raised pink or pearly white bump with a pearly edge and small, visible blood vessels
- pigmented bumps that look like moles with a pearly edge
- a sore that continuously heals and re-opens
- flat scaly scar with a waxy appearance and blurred edges
Despite the different appearances of the cancer, they all tend to bleed with little or no cause. Eighty-five percent of basal cell carcinomas occur on the face and neck since these are areas that are most exposed to the sun.
Risk factors for basal cell carcinoma include having fair skin, sun exposure, age (most skin cancers occur after age 50), exposure to ultraviolet radiation (as in tanning beds) and therapeutic radiation given to treat an unrelated health issue. | <urn:uuid:cfa90f56-c1c7-4019-9f47-eedad1ccf3f9> | {
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Organization of the Classical kitchen and the Modern Kitchen
"The purpose of kitchen organization is to assign or allocate
tasks so that they will be done efficiently and properly and so that
all workers will know their responsibilities."
Organization based upon:
- Type of establishment (hotel, institutional, caterer, fast food,
carry-out, full service)
- Size of operation (volume of food served & # of guests)
- Physical facilities (equipment)
- The Chef is the person responsible for all kitchen operations. Those
responsibilities include all aspects of food production, ordering,
supervision, menu planning, costing, scheduling, etc.
- The Sous Chef is second in command within the brigade. The Sous
Chef answers to the chef and is responsible for scheduling, fills
in for the chef, assists station chefs and in charge of all phases
Chef or Chef de Partie
- The Station Chef is assigned and charged with specific areas of
production within the kitchen.
Sauté or Sauce Chef or Saucier (so-see-ay)
- The Sauté or Saucier is responsible for all sautéed
items and sauces. The Saucier position is one of the most demanding
Fish Chef or Poissonier (pwah-so-nyay)
- The Fish Chef or Poissonier is responsible for all fish item. Those
responsibilities include butchery and related sauces. There are times
within a classic brigade that this position is combined with that
of the Saucier.
Roast Chef or Rotisseur (ro-tee-sur)
- The Roast Chef or Rotisseur is responsible for all roasted foods
and related jus or sauces.
Grill Chef or Grillardin (gree-ar-dan)
- The Grill Chef or Grillardin is responsible for all grilled and
broiled foods. This position may be combined with the duties of the
Chef of Friturier
- The Fry Chef or Friturier is responsible for all fried foods. This
position may be combined with the duties of the Rotisseur.
Chef or Entremetier (awn-truh-met-yay)
- The Vegetable Chef or Entremetier is responsible for hot appetizers,
soups, vegetables, pastas, and other starches and egg dishes.
or Tournant (toor-nawn)
- The Roundsman or Tournant is considered a swing cook in the brigade
and works as needed throughout the kitchen.
Chef or Garde Manger (gard-mawn-zhay)
- The Cold-Food Chef or Garde Manger is also known as the Pantry Chef.
The Garde manger is responsible for preparation of all cold foods,
salads, dressings, appetizers, pates, etc.
- The Butcher or Boucher is responsible for butchering meats, poultry,
and fish. The Butcher may also be responsible for breading fish and
meats as well.
Chef or Patissier (pa-tee-syay)
- The Pastry Chef is responsible for baked items, pastries and desserts.
The Pastry Chef is also responsible for overall supervision of the
baking and pastry department.
- The Confisseur prepares candies, petit fours, etc.
- The Boulanger prepares breads, rolls, and unsweetened breads.
- The Glasier prepares frozen and cold desserts.
- The Decorateur prepares showpieces and wedding cakes.
or Announcer or Aboyeur
- The Expeditor or Announcer or Abouyeur accepts the orders from dining
room and relays them to the various station chefs. The Expeditor is
the last person to see plate before leaving the kitchen. In many operations
the Expeditor is actually the Chef.
- The Communard prepares the daily meal which is served to the staff.
- The Commis or Apprentice works under a station chef in order to
learn the respective responsibilities of the brigade. | <urn:uuid:d9e1d5c2-dc2f-479e-a150-064a9ef9346a> | {
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According to Anna Winston, the former prime minister's impact on the architecture profession was huge. With the redevelopment of Canary Wharf, for example, her administration gave a leg up to Cesar Pelli, Sir Norman Foster and SOM, among others.
Winston points five of the significant effects Margaret Thatcher's time in office had on the architectural profession:
The privatization of local authority services led to the U.K. becoming one of the largest export markets for private architectural services.
The Monopolies and Mergers Commission made it illegal for professional bodies, including architectural service providers, to establish or publish minimum fee scales.
The Big Bang or deregulation of the financial sector in 1986 led to an increased demand for office space and a design response to cultural shifts toward consumerism.
In 1988, the London Dockland Corporation broke ground on Canary Wharf, the largest commercial project in the world at the time.
The Right to Buy program led to a dramatic reduction in public housing both for tenants and architects and encouraged gentrification. | <urn:uuid:996e5ec6-ce78-4fed-9e87-b965bb58710c> | {
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Class of 2016
October 8th, 2014
For this project six science national honors society students went to the Buckeye Elementary school and performed the elephant toothpaste experiment. For the elephant toothpaste we used three percent and 12 percent hydrogen peroxide. We mixed each separately with warm water, dawn soap, and yeast. We did another experiment involving pennies. In this experiment we let the 7th graders participate. We put orange juice, lemon juice, and vinegar in separate cups and added salt to each of them. Then we would place a penny in each solution and see which solution made the penny cleaner.
This project is science because we’re teaching 7th graders who chemistry, which is a science, is involved in these experiments. We also explained what was happening in each experiment with chemistry terms. Once this project was done I felt more proud of my knowledge, because I was able to teach other people the concepts that I knew and the science that I learned through my life. And giving younger people more knowledge made me smile at the end of the day, because I know I am helping spread education, if not through the world, then through Buckeye. I helped some students become more interested in the science field. | <urn:uuid:d67fe7a2-d2d7-4879-8376-4c2ccafb8ec0> | {
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hollow relief; sculpture in relief within a sinking made for the purpose, so no part of it projects beyond the plain surface around
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
kä′vō-rē-lyā′vō, n. a kind of relief in which the highest surface is level with the plane of the original stone, which is left round the outlines of the design.—Also Intaglio-rilievo and Cœlanaglyphic sculpture. [It. cavo, hollow, rilievo, relief. See Cave and Relief.]
The numerical value of cavo-rilievo in Chaldean Numerology is: 6
The numerical value of cavo-rilievo in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5
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A new Israeli study shows that preschool-age children who demonstrate fearless behavior also reveal less empathy and higher levels of aggression toward their peers.
The results of the study, carried out at the University of Haifa’s Faculty of Education, “show that fearless behavior in children can be identified and is related to neurological and genetic predisposition.
“This type of behavior has less correlation – at least in infancy – with standards of educational processes or parenting practice,” says Dr. Inbal Kivenson-Baron, who carried out the study.
The study observed 80 children aged three to four. It was found that the more fearless children tended toward behavior such as taking advantage of friends, emotional shallowness and a lack of regret or guilt after doing something socially unacceptable.
Interestingly, the more fearless children were found to be quite sociable. “These children connect with other children, they are friendly and smiley; but they find it difficult to identify distress in a friend, and show less interest in helping that friend,” says Kivenson-Baron.
“Since fearless behavior correlates with genetic and neurological characteristics, it is important to find the most effective ways – through education at the preschool and at home – to assist these children in developing the ability to recognize and value social prohibitions… [and] to awaken those emotions that are necessary for the development of empathy toward another and for refraining from aggressive behavior,” she concludes. | <urn:uuid:8ef5b843-95bb-4191-9598-643077544421> | {
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Weightlifting, Weight Lifting & Olympic Weightlifting: The Concise Guide
Weight Lifting, Weightlifting or Olympic Weightlifting?
Officially, the sport is called weightlifting. However, at least in the United States, weightlifting is an obscure sport and activity, so the term weightlifting is rarely adequate to distinguish the sport of Olympic-style weightlifting from powerlifting or bodybuilding, or even from weight lifting in the gym for fitness and strength. This is why the term Olympic Weightlifting is so often used rather than simply weightlifting.
What Is Olympic Weightlifting?
The sport of weightlifting consists of two lifts: the snatch and the clean & jerk. In the snatch, the weightlifter lifts the barbell from the floor to overhead in a single movement. In the clean & jerk, the weightlifter lifts the barbell first from the floor to the shoulders (the clean) and then from the shoulders to overhead (the jerk).
In a competition, each weightlifter has three attempts in the snatch and three attempts in the clean & jerk. The weight of the best of each lifts is added to create the weightlifter’s total, and the best total wins.
Olympic Weightlifting for Sports
The Olympic lifts, the snatch, clean and jerk, as well as variations such as the power snatch, power clean, power jerk, hang snatch, hang clean and more are often used by athletes to develop strength and explosiveness to improve performance in their sports.
How Do I Learn the Olympic Lifts?
The best way to learn the snatch and the clean & jerk is to work with a qualified weightlifting coach. Unfortunately, there are few weightlifting coaches and few weightlifting gyms in the US, so this is not always an option for new weightlifters. You can find coaches and weightlifting clubs on the USA Weightlifting website.
For new weightlifters who can’t find local weightlifting coaches, there are weightlifting books and DVDs available that can help you learn the snatch and clean & jerk, as well as supplemental lifts like the back squat, front squat, press, push press and more. There is also a lot of free information on weightlifting and learning the Olympic lifts on the internet. This website has a lot of free weightlifting articles, weightlifting training and instructional videos, and a forum to get advice and feedback on your weightlifting technique and program design.
Catalyst Athletics offers weightlifting classes, private weightlifting training, and competitive weightlifting team for people in the San Francisco Bay Area. Contact us for more info.
Where Do I Train for Olympic Weightlifting?
Finding a gym that allows Olympic weightlifting and has the appropriate equipment, such as weightlifting platforms, proper barbells and bumper plates, can be nearly as difficult as finding a qualified weightlifting coach. You can find weightlifting clubs on the USA Weightlifting website or search the internet for local gyms that have the appropriate equipment and facility.
Catalyst Athletics has one of the largest and best-equipped facilities in the country for Olympic weightlifting. If you’re in the San Francisco Bay Area, you can come by or contact us to get more information about training.
Where Can I Find Olympic Weightlifting Training Programs and Workouts?
Olympic Weightlifting: A Complete Guide for Athletes & Coaches contains information on designing weightlifting training programs as well as many sample programs. Catalyst Athletics also posts a free daily weightlifting workout on the website.
How Do I Compete in Olympic Weightlifting?
In order to compete in Olympic weightlifting in the US, you need to be a current member of USA Weightlifting. You do not need to have a coach or be a member of a weightlifting team or club. You can find weightlifting competition schedules for your area both on the USA Weightlifting website and through your LWC.
It’s a good idea to talk to a weightlifting coach or weightlifter to learn how weightlifting competition works. You can also get all the necessary weightlifting competition information in Olympic Weightlifting: A Complete Guide for Athletes & Coaches.
How Do I Start an Olympic Weightlifting Team?
Weightlifting teams are governed by USA Weightlifting. You can read all about starting your own team in this free article.
What Are the Governing Bodies for Olympic Weightlifting?
All weightlifting competition in the US is governed by USA Weightlifting, and internationally, by the International Weightlifting Federation.
| Product Packages
| Clothing & Merchandise
| Digital Products
| American Weightlifting
| Seminars & Certifications | <urn:uuid:48cb4576-1e4e-4f56-a3f6-ca9369c960c4> | {
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Essential Information about renal tubular acidosis
Renal tubular acidosis is a condition or a disease in which kidney became incapable to take out acid out of the blood and put the acid in the urine that makes the urine acidic in nature. Renal acidosis is a syndrome that causes hypercloremia, hypokalemia, metabolic acidosis and nephrocalcinosis. This disease results when kidney became incapable to save bicarbonate and this disorder is classified as proximal or distal.
Distal Renal Acidosis
It occurs in two different stages
1- Primary renal tubular acidosis
This is common among women, older children, young adults and adolescents. This disease may be the result of any hereditary defect
2- Secondary renal tubular acidosis
This has been related to many renal conditions like hepatic cirrhosis, malnutrition and starvation.
Proximal Renal Acidosis
It also occurs in two forms and it is a result of disorder that is Fanconi’s syndrome
1-Primary proximal renal tubular acidosis
The only disorder present in it is idiopathic that is a reabsorbtive defect
2-Secondary proximal renal tubular acidosis
This occurs when the proximal tubular cell is damaged.
Symptoms of Renal Acidosis
The symptoms of this disease is not similar they are different because of type of renal acidosis and cause of renal tubular acidosis. Still there are some symptoms that warn you about this disease like – you will suffer from fatigue, bone diseases, stones in kidney, impairment of growth, and irregularity in heat beats, extreme weakness, muscle pain or cramping. Therefore, if you are facing these symptoms they take an appointment from your doctor as soon as possible.
Causes of Renal Acidosis
Many factors lead to this disease like the diseases that are inherited in nature, autoimmune diseases, and certain drugs like lupus.
Types of renal acidosis
There are four types of renal tubular acidosis :-
- Type 1 – also known as classic distal renal tubular acidosis
- Type2 – also called proximal renal tubular acidosis
- Type 3 – very rare and it is thought to be the combination of type 1 and type 2
- Type 4 – caused by the defect in the distal tubule and it is different from classic distal RTA and proximal RTA because it causes high level of potassium in the blood
How Renal Acidosis is diagnosed
The best way to diagnose this disease is to check acid-base balance in the sample of your urine or blood. If the urine is less acidic then it should normally be and the blood is more acidic then it should normally be then doctor will also check the level of chloride, sodium and potassium in the urine and the level of potassium in blood. Demonstration of systemic metabolic acidosis with impaired urine acidification will help to confirms that a person is suffering from distal renal tubular acidosis. Display of bicarbonate wasting occurred because of impaired reabsorbion confirm proximal renal acidosis and an ammonium chloride loading test helps to understand that from which type of renal tubular acidosis a person is suffering from. | <urn:uuid:424eb593-4665-447e-a378-1a0e5531df5f> | {
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DOT Code - Overview
The construction and sale of tires is far more complicated than the average person realizes. Tire technology has continually progressed to meet the demands of the ever-changing automotive industry, as well as other industries that incorporate the use of precisely matched tires for optimal vehicle function. One thing that is necessary for all tire companies that plan to market and sell their products in a variety of world markets is proper coding. These codes are based on specific legal demands that are leveled by any number of governing bodies. In the United States the code was developed and is governed by the Department of Transportation (DOT). This is known as the DOT code on tires legally sold in the United States of America.
The DOT Code
The DOT Code is something that's listed on every tire that's legally manufactured for sale in the United States of America. This code is an alphanumeric code that can be seen on the sidewall of every tire. The DOT requires tire manufacturers to stamp the code on each and every tire. The reason for the DOT Code is first and foremost vehicle safety. For example, the code helps with safety by making it possible to track sales. This information is used to target the owners of tires in the event of a tire recall.
Reading the DOT Code
The DOT Code has changed over the past three decades, allowing the system to evolve so that it's easier to read for consumers as well as retailers. The current coding system was put in place in the year 2000. At present, the DOT code begins with the three letters DOT. Those letters are followed by two alphanumeric symbols that represent the Plant Code, or where the tire was manufactured. The last three numbers represent the week and the year in which the tire was manufactured. For example, if the final four numbers read 1405, the tire was manufactured in the fourteenth week of 2005, or March 2005.
This code varies slightly from decades prior, when a three digit code was used. In the 1980s the three digit code represented the week of manufacturing, as well as the year manufactured within the specific decade. For example: If the last three digits were 017, the tire was manufactured in the first week of January, 1987.
The 1990s offered a slight change in the plan, by adding the symbol of the triangle after the code. This triangle represents tires manufactured in the 1990s. It seems the newest DOT Code is the easiest to read and keep track of.
The Importance of the DOT Code
As mentioned, the most significant reason for the DOT Code is tracking for safety purposes. Tire companies will be well aware of the codes offered to each of their tire models, making it easier to quickly inspect a line of tires that were ordered by automotive manufacturer or were recommended to hundreds of dealerships as OEM replacements.
The DOT Code is also a very handy tool for consumers who are affected by a tire recall. With a simple check of the DOT Code in the garage or driveway, one can quickly assess whether or not they may have faulty or potentially problematic tires on their vehicle.
Finally, the DOT Code also serves as the stamp of approval on a tire from the United States Department of Transportation. Nearly every car in the U.S. will boast tires that possess this code, other than some classic cars, or cars purchased in and/or imported from Europe. European tires carry a similar code known as the E-Code. | <urn:uuid:cf5206a6-a5ec-41b4-af1a-57fed0102f5c> | {
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Unicode is great because it supports multiple languages simultaneously, bringing international understanding, universal peace, and planetary love. And so is ICANN's decision to allow domain names that use non-Latin alphabets. Until both combine to steal your credit card numbers.
Or your login name, passwords, address, or whatever other data a phishing site can get from you.
Until now, there was an easy way to test if a site was legit or not: You just look at the browser URL. If it's not paypal.com or amazon.com or whatever.com, then it's not those companies' web sites, no matter how well they clone their layout and graphics.
The problem will come in 2010. That's when sites' URLs would start popping in non-Latin alphabets like Cyrillic. And that's when there will be cases of mistaken identity: Just check the image above, in which the russian word "raural" becomes "paypal." According to trademark expert Charlie Abrahams, of MarkMonitor:
The risk for general brand abuse is going to increase exponentially. It's difficult enough in English. At present, most e-mail phishing does not use anything that resembles the real site name. We could see the level of sophistication in phishing attacks increased by the use of foreign languages.
Note: To those readers who said there's no "l" in the Cyrillic alphabet, you are right, there's no "l" in traditional Cyrillic, but there is in the extended Cyrillic supported by Unicode. | <urn:uuid:661b6a4c-41e1-4ff7-8c6f-cf3ae613c272> | {
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Any time a doctor suggests a new prescription, be sure to talk about what other medicines, supplements, herbs, and vitamins are already being taken. Sometimes one kind of medicine changes the way another kind of medicine works in the body. If two kinds of medicine affect each other, the doctor may want to prescribe something else or change the amount to be taken.
This is true not only for prescription medicines, but also for medicines you just pick up off the shelf at the store. For instance, aspirin (ASA) is generally safe to take with phenytoin at the usual doses, but if more than 1500 mg per day is taken, the level of phenytoin in the blood will be increased.
Interactions like this can also occur with herbal products, vitamins, a few kinds of food (like grapefruit juice), and even cigarettes!
Some substances that are safe to use in small amounts with phenytoin can be a problem if larger amounts are used. For instance, one or two drinks of alcohol will seldom affect the level of phenytoin in any important way, but if a person who does not often consume alcohol drinks a moderate or large amount, the level of phenytoin in the blood may be significantly increased, causing problems with side effects. On the other hand, a person who chronically abuses alcohol may have lower levels of phenytoin and be more likely to have seizures.
Medicines that contain calcium, including some antacids, can prevent the body from absorbing phenytoin. They can be used, but not near the time of a dose of phenytoin. They should not be taken for a couple of hours after the phenytoin.
How does phenytoin affect other medicines?
Phenytoin makes birth control pills less effective, so the chances of becoming pregnant are greater. Women who use pills for birth control should talk to the doctor who prescribed them right away if they start taking phenytoin. The same is true for some other forms of birth control such as Depo-Provera or implants. Phenytoin does not affect barrier types of birth control, like condoms, IUDs, and diaphragms.
Phenytoin also affects the way the body handles many other medicines. For instance, it reduces the levels of other seizure medicines:
- carbamazepine (Tegretol, Carbatrol)
- felbamate (Felbatol)
- lamotrigine (Lamictal)
- tiagabine (Gabitril)
- topiramate (Topamax)
- valproate (Depakote)
- zonisamide (Zonegran)
It also lowers the levels of many other types of medicine, reducing their effectiveness. Check with the doctor or pharmacist.
How do other medicines affect phenytoin?
Some other medicines do affect the level of phenytoin in the body, either raising it or lowering it. Many of these interactions vary from person to person, however, or may even vary from time to time for the same person. Make sure that the doctor is aware of all the medicines being used. | <urn:uuid:c233a63c-03d2-445d-aafd-286512fc5f72> | {
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As the weather begins to warm (March, you’re still planning to go out like a lamb, right?) and the first signs of spring tentatively peep out of the ground, many of us take our cue to start rooting around for our garden tools.
If you are not yet a gardener, why not make this spring the season you try out your green thumb? Even if you live in a city and have no yard at your disposal, you may be able to give it a whirl by finding a small plot in a community garden or even stashing a box on your windowsill. The rewards may include far more than whatever you manage to grow.
Studies have shown that gardening has all sorts of health benefits, from boosting your mood and improving your diet, to helping you stay fit and trim. So Healthy Eats reached out to Sharon Palmer, RD, a plant-based food and nutrition expert and the author of The Plant-Powered Diet, Plant-Powered for Life and The Plant-Powered Blog, to find out more.
How is tending a garden beneficial for your overall health?
Gardening is good for your overall health in many ways. First of all, it is a form of physical activity that contributes to your overall physical fitness levels. Secondly, it can boost mood-enhancing hormones. Studies show that gardening can increase the release of serotonin, which has an anti-depressant effect, while decreasing the levels of the stress hormone cortisol. Thirdly, it can increase your exposure to health-promoting vitamin D levels we obtain from the sun. And fourthly, studies show that when you garden, you increase your consumption of healthy fruits and vegetables.
What are some of the benefits in terms of weight maintenance?
When you increase your physical activity, you can better balance your energy input and output to promote a healthier weight. Plus, when you increase your consumption of healthy plant foods, such as fruits and vegetables, you can promote a healthier weight. Plant foods are rich in fiber and nutrients for a relatively small calorie level, meaning you can feel satisfied with fewer calories.
How do you suggest people new to gardening get started?
The most important thing to do is to just get started! The USDA has some helpful gardening guides. Look at specific gardening recommendations for your region. For example, I live in Southern California and I need to get my plants into my garden before it gets really hot, so in March I am planting my vegetables. I also have different growing seasons and plants that do really well in my area: Cool weather is lettuces and greens, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli; hot weather is peppers, eggplant, squash, corn, and tomatoes. You will learn a little bit more each year on what works the best. If you are new to gardening, first try a container garden — even a large pot. You can try vegetables starts rather than growing from seed if you are new to gardening. Try composting your leftover kitchen scraps as organic fertilizer. Harvest your vegetables when they are ripe for maximum nutritional benefits, and remember to use those nutrient-rich greens: broccoli and cauliflower leaves, turnip greens, beet greens.
What do you think is the most important thing for rookie gardeners to keep in mind?
People who grow vegetables eat more vegetables. And they enjoy them at their nutrient and flavor peak. In addition, gardening is the ultimate local food choice, reducing your carbon footprint. By gardening, you can fill your diet with a variety of whole plant foods — greens, lettuce, tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, basil, parsley, carrots, beets, cucumbers, squash and more. We know that a diet filled with these foods is linked with a lower risk of disease and obesity.
Amy Reiter is a writer and editor based in New York. A regular contributor to The Los Angeles Times, she has also written for The New York Times, The Washington Post, Glamour, Marie Claire, The Daily Beast and Wine Spectator, among others, as well as for Salon, where she was a longtime editor and senior writer. In addition to contributing to Healthy Eats, she blogs for Food Network’s FN Dish.
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Confused about contacts? Advances in contact lens technologies have created many options in addition to hard and soft lenses. Today, contact lenses are likely to be described in one or several of the following ways.
By their prescribed wearing period: The time that the lenses are left in the eyes.
- Daily Wear (Up to 18 hours)
- Extended Wear (For overnight use, up to seven days)
By their replacement schedule: The time interval for replacing lenses.
- Planned – (Frequent replacement: 1 month, 1-2 weeks; daily disposable)
- Unplanned, or Conventional Replacement – (No specific time schedule before lenses are replaced)
By the type of vision correction for which they are designed:
- Spherical (For near- or farsightedness — myopia or hypermetropia)
- Toric (For astigmatism)
- Bifocals (For presbyopia)
By the type of tint they have:
- Tinted to improve handling only
- Tinted to enhance your eye color (For light-color eyes)
- Tinted to change your eye color (Opaque tints for light or dark eyes)
- Clear – without tints
Of course, contact lenses are also still described by the basic type of material of which they are made.
- Soft (hydrophilic)
- Rigid Gas Permeable
By Wearing Period
Daily Wear: Lenses prescribed for daily wear are to be worn only during waking hours, usually up to a maximum of 18 hours. Daily wear lenses are removed at night and cleaned and disinfected after each removal.
Extended Wear: Extended wear lenses may be worn on an overnight basis for up to seven consecutive days (six nights). You should wear your lenses on an extended wear basis only on the advice of your optometrist.
Extended wear lenses generally have a higher water content or thinner center thickness than other lenses and permit more oxygen to reach the eye. However, their use has been linked to a higher incidence of eye problems. Extended wear lenses need to be cleaned and disinfected at recommended intervals or discarded after use.
By Replacement Period
Contact lens are often prescribed with a specific replacement schedule suitable to your specific needs. Planned (or Frequent) Replacement contacts are disposed of and replaced with a new pair according to a planned schedule. Unplanned replacement lenses (often called conventional lenses) are not replaced according to a pre-determined schedule. They are typically used for as long as they remain undamaged, usually around 12 months for soft lenses.
Why replace lenses frequently?
Almost immediately after they are inserted, contact lenses begin attracting deposits of proteins and lipids. Accumulated deposits, even with routine lens care, begin to erode the performance of your contacts and create a situation that presents a greater risk to your eye health.
A specific replacement schedule helps to prevent problems before they might occur. Contact lens wearers, in turn, enjoy the added comfort, convenience and health benefits of a planned replacement program. Planned replacement lenses are generally a thinner design or are made of different, more fragile materials with a higher water content than unplanned replacement or conventional contact lenses.
Based on a complete assessment of your needs, a prescription for planned replacement lenses may call for replacement:
- Every 1-2 weeks
Except for daily disposables, planned replacement lenses require cleaning and disinfection after each period of wear unless they are discarded immediately upon removal. Planned replacement lenses can be worn as daily wear — removed before sleep — or as extended wear, if recommended by your practitioner.
By Type of Vision Correction Required
Contact lenses may be identified by the type of refractive error they are designed to correct.
- Spherical contact lenses for nearsightedness (myopia) and farsightedness (hypermetropia);
- Toric contact lenses for astigmatism;
- Bifocal lenses for presbyopia, the loss of ability to focus on reading or close-up activities.
As an alternative to special bifocal contact lenses, many practitioners use a system called monovision where one eye is fitted with a distance lens and the other with a reading lens. Approximately two-thirds of patients adapt to this type of contact lens wear.
By Type of Tint
Contact lenses may be described as clear or tinted. Tints are used to make lenses more visible during handling, or for therapeutic or cosmetic reasons. Tints can enhance eye color, or change it altogether.
Three categories of tinted contact lenses are available.
- Cosmetic enhancement tints are translucent and are designed to enhance your natural eye color. They are best for light-colored eyes (blues, greens, light hazel or grays). When wearing these tints, the color of your eye is a blend of the lens tint and your natural eye color and iris pattern.
- Opaque or “cosmetic” tints change the color of your eyes whether they are dark or light. The pattern on the lens, which is colored, overlies the colored part of your eye, resulting in a color with a natural look.
- Visibility tints are very pale, colored just enough to make the contact lens visible while you are handling it. They usually have no effect on eye color. | <urn:uuid:1b0bb2f9-27cc-4b21-8c55-8d1b3709f4df> | {
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New World Encyclopedia integrates facts with values.
Written by online collaboration with certified experts.
Today, May Day is celebrated in several European nations and the United States, in cultural expressions ranging from Maypole dancing to foot races, May Baskets, singing, and festivals. Alternatively, in many countries, May Day is synonymous with International Workers' Day, or Labour Day, which celebrates the social and economic achievements of the labor movement. Thus, May Day has acquired a second meaning, quite different from the original one which stemmed from spiritual roots and connections to nature; the later one coming from secular efforts to improve human society through struggle and conflict.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "Abrahamic religions" because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. The Hebrew Bible describes Abraham as the first patriarch of the Israelites. He is the one to whom God gave the blessing of descendants "like the sands of the sea" and the promise of a nation that would keep the ways and commandments of God. Abraham's journeys through the land of Canaan mark out the territory that would later become the land of Israel. In the Qur'an Abraham is a prophet blessed by God, and it is he who established the Ka'bah in Mecca as a holy sanctuary. His son Ishmael is said to be the father of the Arabs. Both Judaism and Islam credit Abraham with being the first monotheist, who, living amidst a polytheistic culture, had the revolutionary insight that there is but one God, the Creator of the universe. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, Jesus of Nazareth. | <urn:uuid:f3ec7c82-2dca-4f9d-a91e-4a2c77796fe6> | {
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|Part of a series on|
Literally, Aham (अहं) means "I", that which cannot be deserted or abandoned on account of being constant, unavoidable, ever present. Brahma (ब्रह्म) means ever-full or whole (ब्रह्म is the first case ending singular of Brahman) and Asmi (अस्मि) means "am," the first-person singular present tense of the verb "अस्," "to be." This mahāvākya is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of the Shukla Yajurveda.
Brahman is the Infinite Reality, the all encompassing existence in itself; only when the ego dies can this be realized. In this aphorism the "I" is not the limited transmigrating ego, the doer and the enjoyer within, and also not the body and the mind. Man (who is a conscious entity) alone has the capacity to improve his present state, to guide his future, to enquire and know the truth, and to free himself from the cycle of birth and death (vidyā adhikāra) through thoughtful actions (karma adhikāra).
- स्वतः पूर्णः परात्माऽत्र ब्रह्मशब्देन वर्णितः |
- अस्मीत्यैक्य-परामर्शः तेन ब्रह्म भवाम्यहम् ||
- "Infinite by nature, the Supreme Self is described here by the word Brahman (lit. ever expanding; the ultimate reality); the word asmi denotes the identity of aham and Brahman. Therefore, (the meaning of the expression is) "I am Brahman."
This realization is gained through true enquiry.
Vaishnavas, when they talk about Brahman, usually refer to impersonal Brahman, brahmajyoti (rays of Brahman). Brahman according to them means God - Narayana, Rama or Krishna. Thus, the meaning of "aham brahma asmi" according to their philosophy is that "I am a drop of Ocean of Consciousness.", or "I am soul, part of cosmic spirit, Parabrahma". Here, the term Parabrahma is introduced to avoid confusion. If Brahman can mean soul (though, Parabrahma is also the soul, but Supreme one - Paramatma), then Parabrahma should refer to God, Lord Vishnu.
This memorable expression appears in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad when the sage, in the context of meditation on the Self, in reply to the query – What did that Brahma know by which It became all? - states:-
- "ब्रह्म वा इदमग्र आसीत्, तदात्मनामेवावेत्, अहं ब्रह्मास्मीति | तस्मात्तत्सर्वमभवत्; तद्यो यो देवानां प्रत्यबुध्यत स एव तदभवत्, तदषीर्णाम् तथा मनुष्याणाम्,..."
- "This (self) was indeed Brahman in the beginning; It knew only Itself as, "I am Brahman". Therefore It became all; and whoever among the gods knew It also became That; and the same with sages and men…” - (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad I.iv.10)
In his comment on this passage Sankara explains that here Brahman is not the conditioned Brahman (saguna), that a transitory entity cannot be eternal, that knowledge about Brahman, the infinite all-pervading entity, has been enjoined, that knowledge of non-duality alone dispels ignorance and that the meditation based on resemblance is only an idea. He also tells us that the expression Aham Brahmaasmi is the explanation of the mantra –
- पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते |
- पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ||
- "That ('Brahman') is infinite, and this ('universe') is infinite; the infinite proceeds from the infinite. (Then) taking the infinitude of the infinite ('universe'), it remains as the infinite ('Brahman') alone." - (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad V.i.1)
He explains that non-duality and plurality are contradictory only when applied to the Self, which is eternal and without parts, but not to the effects, which have parts. The aham in this memorable expression is not closed in itself as a pure mental abstraction but it is radical openness. Between Brahman and aham-brahma lies the entire temporal universe experienced by the ignorant as a separate entity (duality).
The difference between Brahma and atma emerges most clearly where they appear side by side with one another such as - स वा अयमात्मा ब्रह्म विज्ञानमयो मनोमयः प्राणमयः – 'That Self is indeed Brahma, as also identified with the intellect, the mind and the vital-force'. The Isha Upanishad tells us that the Supreme Brahma present in the Mukhya Prana is the bearer of the secret names of Aham and Asmi. Sankara proclaims that there is a plane where everything is entirely "different"; where laws of maya no longer apply; where distinctions like subject and object fall away; where Tat Tvam Asi and Aham Brahma asmi are actually felt.
- Meaning of Aham Brahamasmi
- Gurumayum Ranjit Sharma (1987). The Idealistic Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Atlantic. p. 180. GGKEY:PSWXE5NTFF4.
- Swami Tejomayananda, Mādhava (1999). Pañcadaśī, chapters 5, 10 and 15. Chinmaya Mission. pp. 9–12. ISBN 978-81-7597-036-6.
- The Brhadaranayaka Upanishad. Advaita Ashrama. pp. 98–105, 557, 559.
- Raimundo Panikkar (1994). Mantramañjari. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 742–743. ISBN 978-81-208-1280-2.
- Swami Parmeshwaranand (2000). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanisads. Sarup & Sons. p. 219. ISBN 978-81-7625-148-8.
- B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma (2000). History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature: From the Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 609. ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9.
- Hans Torwesten (January 1994). Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism. Grove/Atlantic. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-8021-3262-8. | <urn:uuid:b9010a83-82b2-4f27-bcb3-c95196020447> | {
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|Photo by Frode Jacobsen (Flickr)|
great crested flycatcher (en); papa-moscas-grande-de-crista (pt); tyran huppé (fr); copetón viajero (es); gelbbauch-schopftyrann (de)
This species breeds in the eastern United States and in south-eastern Canada. They migrate south to winter from southern Mexico to northern Colombia and western Venezuela. Some also winter in southern Florida and Cuba.
These birds are 17-21 cm long and have a wingspan of 34 cm. They weigh 27-40 g.
The great crested flycatcher breeds in open deciduous woodlands, old orchards, pastures, riparian corridors, wooded swamps and urban parks with large shade trees.They winter in both moist and dry tropical forests, as well as pastures, swamps and urban parks. They are present from sea level up to an altitude of 1.400 m.
They mainly feed on flying insects and other invertebrates, but will also take some fruits and berries.
Great crested flycatchers breed in May-July. They are monogamous and in some cases pairs breed together for several years. The nest in natural cavities, which they line with
leaves, hair, feathers, rootlets, string, trash, small twigs, bark, paper, and shed snakeskin. They also use nest boxes. The female lays 4-8 buffy eggs with brown or purple streaks. The female incubates the eggs alone for 13-15 days. The chicks fledge 13-15 days after hatching.
IUCN status - LC (Least Concern)
This species has a very large breeding range and the population is estimated at 7,5 million individuals. The population tren has been stable over the last 4 decades. | <urn:uuid:67750628-b654-4091-b4ec-2873c1248bc0> | {
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How Many Stories in the Bible?
How many unique events or stories are there in the Bible?
That's really impossible to answer for sure, since it's often difficult to determine where one event or story begins and another one ends. But any way you look at it, there are hundreds of events (true stories) in the Bible, probably between 600 to 800 of them. So how did we determine which Bible events should be selected to best summarize God's Big Story in The Story of Hope, if the limit was 40 events?
When we were working on the creation of The Story of Hope, in 2007, the biggest question we faced was:
How many Bible events did we need to include in the study in order to tell and teach the redemptive story of the Bible clearly, even for people who have no previous knowledge of the Bible?
A group of missionaries and missionary administrators were part of that decision-making group. Our friend, Mark Zook (known broadly through the Ee-Taow video) was also part of the group, as well as some other missiologists outside of ABWE. After narrowing the number to 40, the next, and more challenging, question was “which 40”?
There are probably about 30 of the 40 events that are "no brainers," in the selection process. For example, how could you tell the "story of hope" without including the Old Testament stories of the creation of the universe and mankind, the fall of mankind, God's promise to send a deliverer, the call of Abraham and God's promises to him, etc. From the New Testament it seems obvious that you would want to include stories such as these: the remarkable birth of Jesus Christ, the "lamb of God" proclamation by John the Baptist, select stories from Jesus' miracle working ministry, the rejection and betrayal that Jesus experienced, His crucifixion and resurrection, etc.
But finalizing the list of 20 Old Testament events and 20 New Testament events was not so easy. To some degree this process was subjective and, sometimes, mildly controversial. We are often asked why we did not include certain Bible events in the "The Story of Hope 40" or why we chose to include some events that other people may not think are significant enough to be in the final 40.
Some common questions that we occasionally receive, related to event selection:
- Why did you not include the tower of Babel?
- Why did you not include the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people?
- Why did you include the return of Jesus for believers and other prophetic events?
- For that matter, why did you include any events after the resurrection and ascension of Jesus?
Here are a couple of our key selection criteria that will help you to understand our answers to the above questions:
Our purpose is to present God's story of redemption, not to present a general survey of the Bible.
Yes, there's a difference. In order to highlight the story of redemption, we selected events that we thought would best do that. If the purpose was to give a general overview of the Bible, we would certainly have chosen some other events instead of some that we did select. For example, in a survey of the Bible we would have selected the tower of Babel or Babylonian exile event instead of the bronze serpent event. Those more broadly-significant historic events would have been essential to a Bible survey. But even though the tower of Babel and Babylonian exile events do convey very significant redemption story implications, the less-historically significant bronze serpent event is more helpful in presenting and clarifying redemption and faith issues. And since the bronze serpent story comes up in the conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus in the New Testament, that story provides a strong connector event to tie the death of Jesus to the Old Testament.
We believe that the end-focus of the Bible's story of hope is not that Jesus Christ conquered physical death through His resurrection, as important and foundational as that is to God-given hope.
We believe that the ultimate hope provided through Jesus Christ's redeeming work is the end-hope recorded in Revelation 21-22. And, yes, the death and resurrection of Jesus made that possible. And in between the resurrection of Jesus and that ultimate end-hope--a restored paradise--there are some other key hope-points in history that need to be highlighted in "the story of hope." For more on this topic, read our blog article, End-Focus for The Story of Hope.
We certainly do not claim to have the "perfect list of 40 key Bible events." But based upon the criteria we chose to guide us in the process, we feel confident that these 40 events do a good job summarizing the Big Story of the Bible, God's overarching redemptive story. And, now, more than 10 years later, evangelism experiences with The Story of Hope (literally, around the world!) have validated the selection of “The Story of Hope 40.”
One way to overcome this tight 40-event ceiling is to extend the number of events in the presentation of the story of redemption beyond 40 events. And that's exactly what we did in creating the 100-event chronological Bible teaching resource, The Roots of Faith: Exploring the Bible from Beginning to End. But even there we have asked ourselves, "How do we limit the presentation of this great story to only 100 events?!"
Previous articles in this series:
- Three Greek Verbs Define Good Soil
- Assessing Unbeliever’s Gospel Understanding
- Assessing Gospel Receptivity
- Initial Contact or Relational Evangelism—or Both?
- The Problem of Gospel Static
- One Gospel - Three Worldviews
- Worldview “Noisy” Neighborhoods
- How To Understand Worldviews: I’m an Onion – You’re an Onion
- How To Witness to A Non Believer: 3 Step Guide To Using Verbal & Non Verbal Communication
- Gospel Knowledge Deficiencies
- The Romans Road in “Post-Christian” North America?
- Gospel Tracts in “Post-Christian” North America?
- Evangelism that BEGINS with Jesus – Good or Not So Good?
- Explaining the Gospel – Where Did Jesus Begin?
- Change the Way We Do Evangelism in North America?
- Evangelism – For the Biblically Uninformed
- A Distinctive Evangelistic Bible Study Workbook
The Story of Hope | A time-flexible resource for presenting the Bible’s big redemptive story in as few as fifteen minutes or as long as twenty or more hours. Designed for evangelistic Bible studies, one-on-one or in small groups, but also helpful in teaching God’s redemptive plan to believers. Includes a study of 40 Bible events (20 Old Testament and 20 New Testament) and Bible maps. 64 pages and plastic coil binding. FREE Leader's Guide and FREE Classroom Facilitator Guide available as downloads from this site. Learn more! | <urn:uuid:8cfaf94e-56d5-4cae-8863-932dbcd00205> | {
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Rates of birth defects affecting the brain, heart and central nervous system were higher than the state average in areas of southeastern North Carolina from 2003 to 2014, the state Department of Health and Human Services announced today. The affected counties are Bladen, Brunswick, Cumberland and New Hanover, where GenX and other per- and poly- fluorinated compounds (PFAS) have been detected in drinking water.
However, DHHS said the study results can’t establish a link between the anomalies and PFAS. The number of cases was small and varied from year to year.
According to a DHHS report, the prevalence of brain reduction defects was higher in Bladen, Brunswick and Cumberland counties. While microcephaly — an abnormally small brain — and hydrocephaly — an accumulation of spinal fluid around the brain — were more prevalent in New Hanover County. The higher prevalence of these birth defects, which included some related to heart development, was not confined to the lower Cape Fear region, DHHS said.
The prevalence of total brain defects varied substantially across the state, DHHS said. They can be caused by genetic, environmental exposure or even unknown factors.
There were 3,702 reported cases of all types of brain defects in North Carolina between 2003 and 2014. Bladen County reported 20; Pender, 32; Brunswick, 60; New Hanover, 130; and 220 Cumberland. When adjusted for population, these numbers were higher than the state average.
There are no national figures available to compare North Carolina’s rates with the rest of the US. Nor was data available for babies born at federal or military facilities, such as Womack Army Medical Center in Cumberland County. Infants born at military facilities are only included if transferred to a non-military hospital for care.
DHHS chose to analyze birth defects data because some animal studies have reported weak associations between PFAS exposure and birth defects; however, DHHS said these studies have important limitations. Animal studies, particularly using rodents, don’t necessarily reflect outcomes in humans. | <urn:uuid:13bf8217-22a4-4f0a-b790-7b5e12ac9f50> | {
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First observation of gravitational waves from merging neutron stars
Discovery marks first cosmic event observed in both gravitational waves and light
October 16, 2017
The discovery, named GW170817, was made using the U.S.-based Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), the Europe-based Virgo detector, and about 70 ground- and space-based astronomical observatories that detected the electromagnetic signal emitted by the neutron star collision. Neutron stars are compact remnants from supernova explosions and consist of extremely dense matter. They measure about 20 kilometers across and have up to two times as much mass as our Sun, or almost 700,000 times as much mass as our Earth.
A revolutionary view of merging neutron stars
“This first detection of merging neutron stars through gravitational waves is extremely exciting in itself, but its combination with dozens of electromagnetic follow-up observations makes it truly revolutionary,” say Bruce Allen and Alessandra Buonanno, directors at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, and Karsten Danzmann, director at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics and at the Institute for Gravitational Physics of the Leibniz Universität Hannover. “The identification of GW170817 with a binary system composed of two neutron stars and the observations of electromagnetic radiation after the collision shed light on the so far mysterious origin of short gamma-ray bursts.”
The results are published today in the journal Physical Review Letters. Further papers from the LIGO and Virgo collaborations and other astronomical communities have been either submitted or accepted for publication in various journals.
Pinpointing the source of the waves
GW170817 was observed by both LIGO instruments for about 100 seconds on August 17th, 2017. The Virgo instrument significantly improved the sky localization, allowing researchers to better pinpoint the source in a patch of the sky of only 28 square degrees (about 130 times the apparent size of the full moon) in the southern celestial hemisphere.
Just 1.7 seconds later, the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor on the Fermi space telescope detected a burst of gamma rays (GRB 170817A) from about the same direction as the gravitational-wave signal. The chance coincidence of the gamma-ray burst and gravitational wave was calculated to be extremely small, so these two events unambiguously share the same progenitor.
The very precise localization provided by the LIGO-Virgo detection made it possible for a handful of observatories around the world, hours later, to start searching the region of the sky where the signal was thought to originate. A new point of light, resembling a new star, was first found by optical telescopes near the galaxy NGC 4993. Ultimately, about 70 observatories on the ground and in space observed the event at their representative wavelengths, including X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio waves.
These new observations reveal signatures of recently synthesized material, including gold and platinum, solving a decades-long mystery of where about half of all elements heavier than iron are produced.
Deforming neutron stars
Analysis of the LIGO data placed the neutron star merger at the relatively close distance of about 85 to 160 million light-years from Earth, in agreement with the measured distance of 130 million light-years to the suspected host galaxy NGC 4993. In contrast to previous gravitational-wave observations, the masses of the merging objects were estimated to be 1.1 to 1.6 times that of our Sun, similar to that of known neutron stars and incompatible with black holes.
How matter behaves in neutron stars is not well known and described by their unknown “equation of state” or internal structure. Depending on this equation the extremely dense matter is more or less stiff when deformed. Studying the imprint of the deformations in the gravitational-wave signal caused by mutual tidal forces just before the merger, scientists were able to show that certain proposed equations of state are unlikely to be true.
Measuring the expansion of the Universe with gravitational waves
Previous work by Bernard Schutz, director emeritus of the AEI Potsdam, showed that gravitational-wave signals from merging neutron stars can be used to determine the Hubble constant in a new and independent way. By combining the distance obtained from the gravitational-wave observation with the measurement of the cosmological redshift from electromagnetic observations, the expansion of the Universe can be observed independently of previously used methods. The association with NGC 4993 allows a new kind of independent measurement of the Hubble constant, which agrees with previous results. Future observations of similar events will improve this measurement.
Observing and identifying GW170817: A first look inside a neutron star
GW170817: Numerical relativity simulation of a binary neutron star merger
To observe minute-long binary-neutron-star signals buried in the noise and to characterize them requires very accurate waveform models. Members of the “Astrophysical and Cosmological Relativity” division at the AEI in Potsdam have developed waveform models that were directly used as templates in the matched-filter-based searches that found GW170817. Max Planck scientists also played a leading role in building and running the search algorithms that observed GW170817. As part of the rapid-response team to GW170817, they promptly removed a loud non-Gaussian transient present in the data recorded by the LIGO-Livingston observatory. This allowed to pinpoint the sky-location accurately enough so that astronomers were able to observe, within 12 hours of GW170817’s detection, the fast-fading optical afterglow and to identify the host galaxy, and redshift, which led to the measurement of the Hubble constant.
Max Planck scientists used analysis codes and waveform models they co-developed to identify the source of GW170817 as a binary composed of two neutron stars, finding that theories that predict strongly repulsive nuclear forces – which result in comparatively large and therefore easily distorted stars – are disfavored. Analytical calculations and numerical-relativity simulations pursued in Potsdam were further used to construct state-of-the-art waveform models that predicted weaker repulsive nuclear forces in the component stars of the GW170817 merger. Max Planck scientists also studied possible electromagnetic signals produced by the matter ejected during GW170817’s merger. Those signatures can unfold the formation of heavy elements in our Universe.
“As a domino effect, GW170817 set off one of the most spectacular sequence of astrophysical events observed in astronomy, solving a longstanding enigma, but also opening novel inquiries”, says Alessandra Buonanno, director at the AEI in Potsdam and College Park Professor at the University of Maryland. “Remarkably, GW170817 also allowed us to shed the first light on the nature of superdense matter at the core of the most fascinating and extreme objects in our Universe: neutron stars.”
Max Planck scientists in Potsdam are currently carrying out analyses to test the consistency of GW170817 with a binary neutron-star signal as predicted by General Relativity.
Finding and studying GW170817 from the first hour
First LIGO/Virgo detection of a binary neutron star merger (GW170817)
Members of the “Observational Relativity and Cosmology” division at the AEI in Hannover played a central role in the first hours of the analysis, the characterization of the gravitational-wave signal, and in understanding the nature of the source.
“I was completely wrong. Even in my wildest dreams I never thought our first double neutron star gravitational wave detection would have a coincident gamma ray burst and electromagnetic counterparts. I thought we would see something like this only after twenty or more double neutron star mergers had been observed, not with the very first one. It's fantastic!”, says Bruce Allen, director at the AEI Hannover.
AEI Hannover researchers together with AEI Potsdam and other LIGO researchers in the rapid-response team excised an instrumental artifact in data of one LIGO detector and used software developed in Hannover to help generate the first precise sky map. This led to the detection of the optical afterglow of the neutron star merger within hours of the gravitational-wave detection and enabled the determination of the host galaxy, its redshift, and an independent measurement of the Hubble constant.
AEI Hannover scientists also led and contributed significantly to the “offline analysis” of the three-detector network that identified GW170817 with high statistical significance. They served on the detection committee and contributed to understanding how the very small signal in Virgo data was consistent with the sky location of the source and the detector sensitivity.
The scientists developed and contributed to the only waveform models that can be used to test for misaligned neutron star spins and to models that account for tidal effects in neutron stars, which were used to understand the behavior of neutron star matter. They provided numerical simulations of the merger, and studied possible fates of the remnant.
The division operates Atlas, the most powerful computer cluster in the world designed for gravitational-wave searches and detailed follow-up analyses of signals. Atlas contributed 58 million CPU cores hours to the analysis of LIGO/Virgo data from the second observation run.
“Observational Relativity and Cosmology” researchers also contributed to several of the accompanying papers.
Developing and testing crucial detector technology with GEO600
GEO600 from above
The GEO Collaboration, a team of Max Planck, Leibniz Universität Hannover and UK researchers, has been operating the GEO600 gravitational-wave detector south of Hannover, Germany, since the mid 1990s. GEO600 is a development center for novel and advanced technologies in the international gravitational-wave research community.
Many key technologies that enable the unprecedented sensitivity of LIGO and its discoveries have been developed and tested at GEO600. AEI researchers together with the Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V. also developed, built, and installed the high-power laser systems at the heart of the LIGO instruments. Crucial improvements in the optical measurement principle such as combined power and signal recycling were first demonstrated at high sensitivity in GEO600. It is the only gravitational-wave detector worldwide using “squeezed light”, which in the future all ground-based gravitational-wave detectors will employ to further improve their sensitivity.
GEO600 data are also used in a search for the post-merger remnant, such as a hyper-massive neutron star. The detector’s good sensitivity at high frequencies means that it would be well suited to pick up the temporary rapid vibrations emitted by such an object.
“This is the beginning of multi-messenger astronomy and of a deeper understanding of our Universe. We are very proud to play a central role in the detection of gravitational waves because our lasers – that were developed and tested in the GEO600 project – are at the heart of all gravitational wave observatories“, says Karsten Danzmann, director at the AEI in Hannover and at the Institute for Gravitational Physics of the Leibniz Universität Hannover.
LIGO and Virgo
LIGO is funded by the NSF, and operated by Caltech and MIT, which conceived of LIGO and led the Initial and Advanced LIGO projects. Financial support for the Advanced LIGO project was led by the NSF with Germany (Max Planck Society), the U.K. (Science and Technology Facilities Council) and Australia (Australian Research Council) making significant commitments and contributions to the project. More than 1,200 scientists and some 100 institutions from around the world participate in the effort through the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, which includes the GEO Collaboration and the Australian collaboration OzGrav. Additional partners are listed at http://ligo.org/partners.php.
The Virgo collaboration consists of more than 280 physicists and engineers belonging to 20 different European research groups: six from Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in France; eight from the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) in Italy; two in the Netherlands with Nikhef; the MTA Wigner RCP in Hungary; the POLGRAW group in Poland; Spain with the University of Valencia; and the European Gravitational Observatory, EGO, the laboratory hosting the Virgo detector near Pisa in Italy, funded by CNRS, INFN, and Nikhef. | <urn:uuid:d93ea9c4-1216-4a68-999c-caf4331fe8a7> | {
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Definition of Terms
There is a lot of technical terms on the Rivers and Streams website. This page is designed to help navigate and define these words and phrases. Use the line below to skip to a certain letter.
An obstruction to the flow of water that increase the water elevation upstream of the barrier.
Process by which streambed and floodplains are lowered in elevation by the removal of materials. Compare with aggradation.
Settling of material from the water column and accumulation on the bottom or stream banks.
Measured distance between stream bed and surface of water
Life history strategy that includes movement between fresh- and saltwater. Two migrations to spend various states in life in different ecosystems. Compare with anadromous, catadromous, and potamodrous.
Microscopic algae that occurs as plankton or attached to the bottom with a skeleton made of silicon.
Rate at which a volume of water flows past a point per unit of time. Usually expressed as cubic meters per second or cubic feet per second.
Concentration of oxygen dissolved in water, expressed as milligrams per liter or as a percent of saturation.
A watershed that contains all tributary rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes that drain a given area.
The total surface land area drained by a stream or river from its headwater to its mouth. See catchment basin and watershed.
Register to Vote
580 Taylor Ave, Annapolis MD 21401 | <urn:uuid:fb8809fd-08b8-436c-99cb-bcf3b4fcc1f1> | {
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Virginia’s power mix is making the clean energy shift, and it has significant opportunities for progress in improving its energy efficiency. This analysis comes from a new report from the Business Council for Sustainable Energy (BCSE), a coalition of clean energy companies that promotes the adoption of market-ready clean and sustainable energy products and services, and Bloomberg New Energy Finance.
Compared to the rest of the country, the Commonwealth’s carbon emissions are lower than the national average and it has lower than average power prices.
The Virginia Clean Energy Landscape
The Virginia Clean Energy Factsheet shows that Virginia is making positive steps towards a diversified energy portfolio. Overall, the Factsheet finds that last year Virginia ranked 10th in total electricity consumption, and 17th in electricity generation. This makes Virginia one of the nation’s biggest electricity importers. Natural gas provided a record 39% of electricity in 2015, while renewables grew to 5.3%. The remaining generation comes from nuclear (33%) and coal (21%).
The Factsheet contains more data and analysis on the energy efficiency, renewable energy, and natural gas sectors in Virginia – providing a succinct look at Virginia’s power sector as it diversifies and moves to a lower carbon energy mix.
It also highlights that there are significant opportunities for energy savings to be realized through energy efficiency measures and programs. The right energy efficiency programs can reduce energy costs for consumers, benefit the economy, and reduce emissions. They can also help make Virginia more energy independent.
Energy Efficiency Programs in the U.S. and Virginia
Nationwide, energy efficiency programs and services implemented over the past several decades have contributed significantly to the increased energy productivity of the U.S. economy. According to BCSE’s 2016 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook, energy efficiency has led to the decoupling of GDP and energy consumption; between 2007 and 2015, GDP went up 10%, while energy consumption actually went down by 2.4%. This means that every unit of GDP requires less and less energy spending to produce.
National spending on these energy efficiency programs grew 25% per year from 2006 to 2011, reflecting the growing acknowledgement of its economic and energy benefits.
Despite this surge in national spending on energy efficiency, Virginia has not been as quick to make similar investments. Virginia ranks 31st according to ACEEE’s energy efficiency scoring system, and ranks last among states in utility spending on energy efficiency as a percentage of revenue. In 2014, Virginia spent just .01% of electricity revenues on energy efficiency programs, while Maryland and New Jersey (states that also operate in the PJM market) spend 4.3% and 2.0%, respectively.
Energy Saving Opportunities
Investments in energy efficiency products and services have demonstrable benefits to consumers. From 2010 to 2015, as national spending increased, consumers actually saw reductions in their electricity use and bills. The Factbook shows that the average U.S. residential customer used 6.2% less electricity, despite owning more gadgets, and paid about $80 less in real dollars on their electricity bills annually.
In Virginia, the Factsheet shows the energy savings potential is a cumulative 23% by 2030. That means avoiding 25TWh of generation in 2030.
Given these benefits, as the Governor’s Executive Order 57 Working Group on emissions reduction continues to seek ways to reduce the Commonwealth’s carbon footprint, energy efficiency should be prioritized. It is a cost effective way to cut back on emissions that also saves money for consumers.
Other policy makers are well positioned to take action on energy efficiency. The General Assembly took an important step towards advancing energy efficiency in the Commonwealth by mandating that the State Corporation Commission evaluate the establishment of uniform protocols for measuring verifying, validating, and reporting on the impacts of utility energy efficiency programs. Establishing a robust system for evaluation, measurement, and verification (EM&V) will be crucial to the success of energy efficiency programs. BCSE has recommended that the SCC consider the many well established resources available on EM&V as it makes decisions about how Virginia will move forward with EM&V protocols.
The Commonwealth is in a good position to deepen its commitment to an economic growth pathway that further embraces a diverse portfolio of clean energy resources. Energy efficiency is a key component of that portfolio, and one through which Virginia stands to gain significant economic and energy saving benefits.
For more information and to download a free copy of the Virginia Factsheet and Sustainable Energy Factbook please visit bcse.org/sustainableenergyfactbook.
This article was also published on the Virginia Energy Efficiency Council Blog | <urn:uuid:ae93c9b8-dd36-426f-bdd0-8db524458f14> | {
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NIST simulator tells WTC story
- By William Jackson
- Sep 06, 2002
NIST's Fire Dynamics Simulator recreates the smoke plumes from the World Trade Center towers.
To understand the fires that helped bring down the World Trade Center towers on Sept. 11, National Institute of Standards and Technology scientists are simulating the collapse on computers.
The fires produced about a gigawatt of energy, roughly equivalent to the output of a large power plant, the NIST scientists concluded. The NIST team developed its modeling tool, the Fire Dynamics Simulator, over the last two decades in the agency's Building and Fire Research Laboratory.
Computer modeling is the only way for NIST to study why the towers collapsed because 'there is very little physical evidence left,' said Ronald G. Rehm, a fellow at the fire lab. 'Photos and models are all you have.'
Using the simulator, researchers have reconstructed the fireballs and smoke plumes generated by the crash of two hijacked airliners into the towers. By comparing the models against photos and videos, they have drawn conclusions about the energy released.
'This is probably the biggest reconstruction of a fire we'll ever do,' said Kevin McGrattan, a mathematician at the lab. NIST hopes to get funding for a more comprehensive, two-year study.
The Fire Dynamics Simulator 'is state of the art,' Rehm said, although its modeling of burning solids 'is very immature yet.' But it is the best tool of its kind.
Fire science is a relatively new engineering field. 'About 30 years ago they started using simple models in building design' with formulas that could be worked out on a calculator, McGrattan said.
By the 1990s, computational fluid dynamics on desktop computers could model airflow for weather prediction and aircraft design.
'A lot of the ideas we started with came from weather modeling' because it predicts the influence of heat on air movement, McGrattan said. 'When you look at a thunderstorm, you have a lot of the same simulations' as in a fire.
When McGrattan came to the lab 10 years ago, Rehm and fellow scientist Howard R. Baum were working on the simulator, a fairly small program at the time.
'The basic code just moved the hot air around,' McGrattan said. 'You have to do more than that. You have to describe the environment it moves in.'Model upgrade
As computers got faster, the team expanded the model to simulate walls, floors, ceilings and furniture. They added an interface to describe these items' thermal properties. The lab made the first version of the simulator source code publicly available in February 2000.
'At that point we had something people could use,' McGrattan said. 'Compared to most commercial software, it is still not user-friendly,' but engineers and lawyers with some knowledge of computational fluid dynamics can use it.
The simulator now consists of two components. About 10,000 lines of code handle fluid dynamics computations, and another 2,000 lines make up a SmokeView visualization program added in 1999.
'I think the visualization is essential,' said computer scientist Glenn Forney, who helped develop SmokeView. 'It's very difficult to get insight by looking at raw numbers. A picture is worth a thousand words.'
Forney got the idea for SmokeView from seeing star field simulators on the Web. 'It occurred to me that stars were essentially the same as smoke particles,' he said. The software can visualize temperature gradients, oxygen concentrations, heat flux and flame sheets.
'We've designed it to run on a PC because that's what everyone has,' McGrattan said. 'At work I prefer a Unix machine, but we have to cater to our customers.'
Forney added, 'It wasn't feasible to expect people to buy a $30,000 workstation' to see visualizations.
Producing World Trade Center fire simulations on a grid of 108 cells in each direction required about 15 CPU hours on a 1-GHz PC. One of two basic computational models produces a 500-second model, and the second about 30 seconds.
'If this incident had occurred a year or so earlier, I don't know if the simulator could have done it,' he said.
Anticipating a need for such a study, the researchers have been adding enhancements, such as a multiblock model that can run simulations on widely varying spatial scales simultaneously.
To extract details about conditions inside the structures, NIST is seeking additional photographs and video images that document the initial damage and the subsequent fire growth, especially in Building 7 and the south and west faces of the two towers.
More information about the study appears on the Web at wtc.nist.gov | <urn:uuid:d39cbe5d-366a-49d7-a73d-6e2593971ff6> | {
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For more than 40 years, marine biologist Samuel Gruber has been researching the behavior of lemon sharks,
But he's never seen anything like this, dozens of them, huddled together on the bottom.
Here off the coast of Jupiter, Florida, he's about to dive 80 feet below to find out why.
The water is murky.
As Gruber gets deeper, it's clear he's not alone.
A school of more than 3 dozen adult lemon sharks, ready and waiting.
Some are as long as 10 feet.
An awesome sight - but it doesn't stop Gruber from getting close enough to touch them.
What are so many sharks doing in the same place at the same time?
He believes the predators are displaying what he calls "refuging behavior."
Sam Gruber, Marine Biologist - "They're out and about when the sun goes down, they are out feeding, moving around and then when the sun comes up they begin to go to this particular place where they can assemble and rest on the bottom. Now resting on this bottom gives them a little bit of energetic edge in the sense that they can face up in to the current and they don't have to swim to breathe."
But there may be more to it than "resting".
Lemon sharks are social animals and sometimes school in small groups of 4 or 5.
This might also be a sort of mating game.
Sam Gruber, Marine Biologist - "The females are assembling here in order to attract males, that's what I think is going on here. The way it works I think, is that early in December a group of females who know to come here because they've done it year after year, will assemble at this site."
Gruber suspects female lemon sharks have chosen this reef as a place for producing chemical signals called "pheromones".
The pheromones are carried by the currents, and they attract potential male suitors.
And then it's on to the domestic phase.
Sam Gruber, Marine Biologist - "When this group reaches a critical mass, say around February or March, they begin to move out and they move to the lagoon where mating and birthing will take place from April through June.
And if Gruber's hunch is right, he can expect another miracle soon, when these creatures bring a new generation of lemon sharks into the ocean. | <urn:uuid:e4d26058-5e14-4d51-9ccc-d2ca5c882630> | {
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Posted In: Immigration, Uncategorized
They were brought here by their parents. They study in our classrooms. They play by the rules and pledge allegiance to our flag. They are our friends and our neighbors. America is the only home they’ve ever known. They are Americans in every sense of the word.
Yet millions of young, aspiring new Americans live in constant fear of a broken immigration system that threatens to arrest and deport them, their parents, their brothers and sisters.
Jaime Diaz, a recent graduate of the University of California, Dominguez Hills, is one such young person. He came to the United States with his mother when he was two years old. While pursuing his bachelor’s degree, he juggled classes with a full-time job selling furniture. It took him seven years to finish, and in 2011 he earned his teaching credential.
As educators, we know many students like Jaime, students with dreams, drive and goals. Help tell their story to move the national conversation forward and make immigration reform a reality for students and their families.
Your story will inspire others to get involved. So tell us: Why do your students need immigration reform? | <urn:uuid:229c3875-84a2-4bb4-a3fa-79a83aeb1bed> | {
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Grades 3 - 5
Grade level Equivalent: 4.2
Lexile® Measure: AD650L
Guided Reading: P
- Immigration and Assimilation Experiences
- Japanese and Japanese American
- Grandparents and Grandchildren
About This Book
A Japanese-American man recounts his grandfather's journey to America, which he later undertakes himself, and the feelings of being torn by a love for two different countries.
Through compelling reminiscences of his grandfather's life in America and Japan, Allen Say gives us a poignant acount of a family's unique cross-cultural experience. He warmly conveys his own love for his two countries, and the strong and constant desire to be in both places at once.
"The immigrant experience has rarely been so poignantly evoked as it is in this direct, lyrical narrative that is able to stir emotions through the sheer simplicity of its telling." — Horn Book, starred review
1994 Caldecott Medal | <urn:uuid:7c387463-a444-4531-abf7-1693134e8b07> | {
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As you may already know, an argumentative essay is a writing genre where the student establishes a position on a given or chosen topic and then uses evidence to persuade the audience to see things from his/her point of view. To write a great argumentative essay the students first have to investigate several sides of the argument, which allows them to make an educated stance. Then, they have to collect evidence, including facts, statistics, and claims from experts in the topic’s field.
Generally, the primary objective of writing an argumentative essay is to learn how to convince people to change their mind about things which many of them are pretty firm about.
What Makes a Good Argumentative Essay Topic?
When you are asked to choose a good topic for your argument, start with something you are familiar with. Even if you hire a professional writer to help you with this assignment, speaking about something you know will be a much better sounding presentation of your arguments. Choosing an emotional topic is also a good idea. Appealing to the readers’ emotions connects them to the side of the writer and draws them in. One of the best ways to change anyone’s mind is with an emotional investment.
Pick Your Own Topic or Get Your Essay Done For You
We offer a great list of topics for writing your own argumentative essay. Did you also know you can get your essay written for a small fee? We employ hundreds of professional writers, who specialize in essay, dissertation and research writing. They have written literally hundreds of academic papers for students worldwide. We know how to write a perfect custom-written argumentative essay that will meet your requirements and will get you the grade you want. Contact us now to get professional essay writing help!
If you would like to write the paper on your own, below is the actual list of argumentative essay topics along with sample essays on most discussed ones:
Middle/High School-Level Argumentative Essay Topics
College-Level Argumentative Essay Topics
Try to Avoid These Argument Topics
Funny Argumentative Essay Topics
Classic Argumentative Essay Topics
Argument on Bioethics
Argument on Issues in the IT Sphere
Argumentative Topics for Legal Discussions
Argumentative Topics of Social Concerns
Society and the Media
Now, once you have chosen a good topic from the list, try to lay down your thoughts on your screen. Here are some tips on how to do it right:
Tips on Writing a GREAT Argumentative Essay
Here is how your argumentative essay should be structured:
Adhering to the above structure of an argumentative essay will hold your creative process together:
- The first paragraph offers a brief review of the topic, explains its importance, and shares the essay’s clear and concise thesis statement.
- After the introduction come the body paragraphs, in which the writer develops his/her arguments and supports them with valid and reliable evidence.
- The support should be anecdotal, logical, statistical, or factual depending on the essay’s topic.
- Following the argument paragraphs, the writer shares the opposing views.
- Ending the paragraph is the conclusion. This paragraph is quite important since it leaves the reader with the most immediate impression. The writer should synthesize the information shared in the body of the essay as they restate the topic’s importance, review main points, as well as review the thesis. No new information should be shared in the conclusion.
Here is another cool tip to make your arguments sound stronger: use connection words!
How Do I Use Connection Words While Writing an Argumentative Essay?
Transition or connection words and phrases hold your essay together. They provide flow as they connect thoughts and ideas.
|Addition||additionally; also; and; as a matter of fact; as well as; equally; equally important; furthermore; identically; in addition; in the first place; like; likewise; not only…but also; not to mention; similarly; together with; too|
|Contrast||above all; after all; albeit; although; although this may be true; as much as; be that it may; besides; but; conversely; despite; different from; even so/though; however; in contrast; in reality; in spite of; nevertheless; nonetheless; notwithstanding; of course…, but; on the contrary; on the other hand; or; otherwise; rather; regardless; whereas;|
|Cause or Purpose||as; as/so long as; because of; due to; for fear that; for the purpose of; given that; granted (that); if…then; in case; in view of; in order to; in the event that; in the hope that; lest; only/even if; owing to; provided that; seeing/being that; since; so as to; so that; unless; when; whenever; while; with this in mind|
|Examples or Support||another key point; as an illustration; by all means; chiefly; especially; for example; for instance; for this reason; in fact; in other words; notably; specifically; surprisingly; to point out; truly|
|Consequence or Result||accordingly; as a result; because the; consequently; due to; for; for this reason; hence; in effect; in that case; since; so that; therefore; with the result that|
|Conclusion / Summary / Restatement|
after all; all things considered; as a result; as can be seen; as shown above; consequently; for the most part; generally speaking; given these points; in conclusion; in fact; to summarize;
How Is Knowing All This Going to Help Me?
Writing a good argumentative essay develops your argumentative thinking. You will need it to not only survive among your peers today but also succeed among the humans around you in the future. Most of the businesses and partnerships prosper through argument. Getting the right arguments will help you prove your point and win.
The modern world is ruled by the intellect. Those win who keep themselves focused on becoming stronger at what they are set to choose as the profession. It means no distraction on things of little importance.
That's right, in order to succeed, you need to stay focused on what you really feel and are willing to devote your life to. And it should really take up most of your time. Seriously. The more research you can do to get better at your future profession, the better.
We have been writing papers for students since 2005. You are welcome to use our essay writing service as one of the instruments of your career success strategy.
Here is a fun fact: Most of the geniuses out there are drop-outs. They were too focused on what really mattered to them and couldn't get their homework done on time. No matter if you run a successful business, get a busy job in a big corporation, need to visit your family or have an emergency - failing your module is a horrible possibility. That is why our writers are here to help you 24/7. If Mark Zuckerberg or Bill Gates knew about our service, we bet they could have gotten their degree on time by having the research handy.
20 Argumentative Essay Topics For Middle School
An argumentative essay is designed to explain to your reader information about one side of an argument. It is a lot like a persuasive essay because the idea is to explain one side of an issue but the idea is to present the facts without your opinion involved. A persuasive essay would display personal opinions. So for an argumentative essay simply state which side of the issue you believe in and then give your reasoning as to why you believe it.
There are some great topics to consider when choosing a topic for your argumentative essay. You would choose a topic that interests you. Once you have the topic, answer the question and then support your answer with at least three reasons why you believe it. For example, if you take the first option on the list, you can write that sports should not be coed and then tell your reader three reasons why it shouldn’t be coed.
- Should sports be coed?
- Should schools sell fast food?
- Should students wear school uniforms?
- Should there be harsher punishments for bullying?
- Is it fair to ban preteenagers and teenagers from the mall without adult supervision?
- Should there be less homework?
- When are you old enough to stay home alone?
- Should middle school students still have a bed time?
- Does summer school benefit the student?
- How would you change the school lunch menu?
- Should school sports be mandatory?
- Do kids watch too much television?
- Should kids have chores?
- Should you have to wear your seat belt on the bus?
- Should students who play sports still have to take Gym class?
- Should children be more concerned with what they eat so that they don’t have health problems when they get older?
- Should you get a larger allowance?
- Should school be year round with more breaks to improve education?
- Do violent games and television shows make kids violent?
- Should your school have a school newspaper?
Any one of these topics would work well. They are designed to establish a question pertaining to a conflicted view and then challenge yourself to prove your stance. Therefore, you would tell your side of the dispute and then for each body paragraph talk about a different reason why you believe it. | <urn:uuid:fdf41219-abd4-4663-8f8f-10b9c7f88b02> | {
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The Carrera Panamericana was a border-to-border sedan and sports car racing event on open roads in Mexico similar to the Mille Miglia and Targa Florio in Italy. Running for five consecutive years from 1950 to 1954, it was widely held by contemporaries to be the most dangerous race of any type in the world. It has since been resurrected by Pedro Dávila, Loyal "El Tio" Truesdale, and Eduardo "Lalo" de Leon as a classic velocity (speed) rally.
After the Mexican section of the Pan-American Highway was completed in 1950, a nine-stage, five-day race across the country was organized by the Mexican government to celebrate its achievement and to attract international business. The 1950 race ran almost entirely along the new highway which crossed the country from north to south for a total distance of over 2,178 miles (3,507 kilometers).
The first of five annual races began on May 5, 1950 and was entered by racers from all over the world representing virtually every motor sport: Formula One, sports cars, rallying, stock cars, endurance racing, hill climbing, and drag racing. Because it started at the border with Texas, it was especially attractive to all types of American race drivers from Indy cars to NASCAR. Bill France, the founder of NASCAR, was there for the first race as well as later races. The Mexican government's representatives worked closely with the American Automobile Association and other motor sports groups in the United States to organize and promote the event which was limited to stock sedans with five seats. Piero Taruffi and Felice Bonetto, both Italian F1 drivers, entered a pair of Alfa Romeo coupes specially constructed for the event. However, many of the 132 competitors were ordinary unsponsored citizens from the United States, Mexico, and elsewhere. The entrants include nine women drivers.
The first race ran from north to south beginning in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, across the international border from El Paso, Texas, and finishing in Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chiapas (formerly known as El Ocotal) on the Guatemala-Mexico border opposite from La Mesilla, Guatemala. The event comprised nine "legs" or stage. At least one leg was run each day for five consecutive days. The elevation changes were significant: from 328 feet (100 m) to 10,482 feet (3,195 m) above sea level, requiring among other modifications the rejetting of carburetors to cope with thinner air. Most of the race was run between 5,000 feet (1,500 m) and 8,000 feet (2,400 m).
The first four places were won by American cars and American drivers. The winner, Hershel McGriff, drove an Oldsmobile 88 at an average speed of 142 km/h (88 mph). Though less powerful, the car was substantially lighter than its big Lincoln and Cadillac competitors, meaning that it would eventually pull away from them on the steep, winding course. The car (which had cost McGriff and his partners only $1,900, when the winner's purse was 150,000 pesos (around $17,200 U.S. dollars) ), had another advantage in its weight - it was much easier to stop, meaning that McGriff finished the race on his original brake shoes when the big cars were re-shoeing every night. The reason that this was so important was that neither McGriff nor his co-driver were capable of even the most basic maintenance to the car. McGriff also noted that the control afforded by his manual gearbox gave him a significant advantage the last day on the gravel roads in Chiapas, when he finally passed the Cadillac leading the race. the final miles to the finish were run without oil due to bottoming out the oil pans leaving the engine smoking and rattling to the checkered. The best placed European car was an Alfa Romeo sedan driven by Italian driver, Felice Bonetto. The race, however, set its bloody and dangerous reputation right from the start: 4 people (3 competitors, 1 spectator) were killed during this event.
The following year, the race was run from south to north, starting in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas and finishing in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua because of the lack of accommodation available for race officials, drivers, crews and press in El Ocotal and the jungle. This northerly direction also allowed the U.S. drivers to finish at their border. The race was run in late November as opposed to early May. For the first time, a European manufacturer entered a 'factory' team, Ferrari entering several cars including a 212 Export LWB Vignale, and although these did not technically satisfy the requirements of the touring car category, the Italians were permitted to compete anyway.
The race would prove to exact a heavy toll upon drivers. At the start of the race, José Estrada, a prosperous Mexico City car dealer and a veteran racer, announced: "I will win, or die trying." On the first stage, his 1951 Packard skidded off the road and tumbled 630 feet (190 m) down into a ravine. Both Estrada and co-driver Miguel González died in an Oaxaca hospital later that afternoon. The next day claimed Carlos Panini, Italian in origin, and a pioneer of Mexican aviation - in 1927 he had established Mexico's first scheduled airline, which he sold in 1951 with plans for his retirement. He is credited with being the first pilot to fly a light plane around the world. The fatal accident occurred on the second day, during the second stage from Oaxaca to Puebla. Although the registered driver for the race was Carlos' daughter Teresa, he was at the wheel of car, despite not having a valid license and being in poor health. The accident happened while a young Bobby Unser was trying to overtake Panini, as Unser related in his book "Winners Are Driven: A Champion's Guide to Success in Business & Life":
|“||On the second day, we were in seventeenth and coming up to pass the car of millionaire Carlos Panini and his daughter, Terresita. She was the registered driver. However, Carlos was behind the wheel instead and was in ill-health. He shouldn't have been driving. He didn't even have a driver's license. The rules were that the slower car was to allow the faster car to pass if the faster car honked its horn. We were in the mountains, and I came up to Carlos and honked, but he wouldn't let me pass. This went on through about ten turns, with Carlos blocking me each time. We were probably doing about 90 miles per hour at this point. The next time I tried to pass him, he bumped my right-front fender, which almost pushed me off a sheer cliff to the left that was some 500 to 800 feet down. My left front tire went over the edge, but fortunately I regained control of the car. Carlos over-corrected his car to the right, and went straight into a solid rock wall. The car exploded on impact like an egg hitting a sidewalk. I didn't know it at the time, but Carlos was killed instantly.
One of the rules of the race was if you stopped to help anyone, you were automatically disqualified... Seeing the explosive impact, I wanted to stop to help, but daddy told me to keep going. He knew the rules and told me that people were there to help. That was hard for me - I slowed down to about 15 or 20 miles per hour. He insisted that I keep going, and grimly, I did.
Unser managed to control his Jaguar, while Panini's 1949 Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 SS collided with the cliff face. Ricardo Ramírez of Mexico City abandoned the race to rush the Paninis to a hospital in Puebla, but he was announced dead on arrival. Teresa Panini survived the accident with minor injuries. The deaths of two well-known Mexican sportsmen in the first two days of the race brought some reactions of horror and indignation. A government official publicly branded the race "an imitation of North American customs not suited to Mexican characteristics." The press went off on a crusade; Mexico City's El Universal declared that permitting such dangerous shenanigans was a "crime." In addition to Panini, Estrada and Gonzalez's deaths, the mayor of Oaxaca, Lorenzo Mayoral Lemus, lost his life during a run of the first stage between the cities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Oaxaca. His car went off a mountain road and he died in a hospital in Oaxaca.
Although the first two places were predictably won by the works Ferraris (driven by Piero Taruffi and Alberto Ascari respectively), third and fourth places were won by ordinary American cars. Bill Stirling, a salesman from El Paso, Texas, won third place in a Chrysler Saratoga and well-known race car driver Troy Ruttman won fourth in a flat-head Mercury which he reportedly had bought for $1,000 in a used car lot in El Monte, California. In spite of this he was able to defeat several of the factory Lancias and Ferraris.
In 1952 the organizers of Carrera Panamericana created two categories of entries, Sports Cars and Stock Cars, dividing what had previously been a single class, so American heavy sedans did not have to compete directly with the nimble European sports cars. The major automobile manufacturers had taken notice of the race and Mercedes-Benz sent a highly organized team of drivers, mechanics, and cars to the race. First and second places were won by Karl Kling and Herman Lang, driving the 300SL. This group may well have achieved a 1-2-3 finish had American John Fitch not been disqualified for permitting a mechanic to touch his 300SL on the penultimate day. American Chuck Stevenson won the touring car class in a Lincoln Capri, his first of two consecutive victories in the event.
Famously, the victory of the Mercedes-Benz W194 of Kling and Hans Klenk came despite the car being hit by a vulture in the windscreen. During a long right-hand bend in the opening stage, taken at almost 200 km/h (120 mph), Kling failed to spot vultures sitting by the side of the road. As the birds scattered at the sound of the virtually unsilenced 300SL, one impacted through the windscreen on the passenger side, briefly knocking co-driver and navigator Klenk unconscious. Despite bleeding badly from facial injuries from the shattered windscreen, Klenk ordered Kling to maintain speed, and held on until a tyre change almost 70 km (43 mi) later to wash himself and the car of blood, bird and glass. For extra protection, eight vertical steel bars were bolted over the new windscreen. Kling and Klenk also discussed the species and size of the dead bird, agreeing that it was a bird with a minimum 115-centimetre (45 in) wingspan and weighing as much as five fattened geese.
Less famously, but with far greater implications, was the innovative use of pre-prepared 'pace-notes' which allowed Klenk to ascertain and communicate upcoming road bends in rapid shorthand to Kling. This system proved so effective that it is used in all motor sports involving a navigator today (such as stage rallying). The highly organized Lincoln teams also used a similar system. Only one person was killed in this event. Santos Letona of Puebla, Mexico died in a crash near the town of Texmelucan on the third stage between Puebla and Mexico City.
In 1953 the Sports and Stock classes were both subdivided into Large and Small groups, giving four categories in which to compete. These were split by engine cubic capacity; sports cars under and over 1600 cc were Small and Large respectively, and stocks cars under and over 3500 cc likewise. This was to accommodate the huge number of participants and the diverse breeds of cars within the race. This race, like the subsequent running of the Carrera Panamericana was to be the last round of the 1953 World Sportscar Championship season.
Both Lincoln and Lancia came to the race highly organized and both factories swept 1-2-3 finishes in their respective categories. The Mercedes team did not return because of its focus on Formula One. The Europeans dominated the sports categories, and the Americans the stock. Large Sports Cars was won by Juan Manuel Fangio of Argentina in a Lancia, Small Sports Cars by José Herrarte from Guatemala in a Porsche. Large Stock Cars was won by Chuck Stevenson of the United States in a Lincoln and Small Stock Cars by C.D. Evans (again of the U.S.) in an ordinary six cylinder Chevrolet. Stevenson has the distinction of being the only person to ever win twice in the same category in the original race.
However, the race was marred by the death of a number of competitors. The co-driver and pacenote systems championed by the Mercedes teams of the previous year were vindicated by the failure of an alternative contemporary system used by some other works drivers, notably those of Lancia who in 1953 year had entered five cars; three 3.3-litre D24s for Felice Bonetto, Juan Manuel Fangio and Piero Taruffi, winner of the 1951 edition of the race, and two 3-litre versions for Giovanni Bracco and Eugenio Castellotti. During pre-race runs of the route at much safer speeds, Bonetto and Taruffi painted warning signals on the road to remind themselves of particular hazards. As the D24 was both open and single-seat, there was no co-driver. This resulted in the death of Bonetto who, leading the race under pressure from Taruffi, missed his own warning signs. Entering the village of Silao, he encountered a dip in the pavement at excessive speed and impacted a building, killing him instantly.
The 1953 running was the bloodiest year of the Carrera Panamericana. In addition to Bonetto's death- 8 other people were killed in unrelated accidents, including an incident where 6 spectators were mowed down by a flipping car. On the first stage between the cities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Oaxaca, American Bob Christie, with his mechanic Kenneth Wood, failed to make a left turn, and his Ford went off the road backwards, plunged over the embankment on the side and came to a cushioned but smashing stop upside down in the mud of the river bank, below the level of the highway. Christie unfastned his belts and helped "K" to reach the bank. A fairly large crowd of spectators who watched the race at this point, had hastily assembled on a ledge below the road to find a better view of the accident; many people swarmed to Christie’s and Wood’s aid immediately, and were relieved to find out that both were uninjured. But then, Mickey Thompson, a Bonneville Salt Flats record holder, crashed at the same place, and 6 people who were standing at a place to get a better view of Christie's accident were killed by Thompson's Ford, whose brakes had jammed, sending him straight into the embankment where the people were standing. In addition to this horrific tragedy, Italians Antonio Stagnoli and his co-driver Giuseppe Scotuzzi in Ferrari 375 MM lost their lives, when a blown tyre caused them crashing in the small town of Juchitán de Zaragoza on that same first stage between Tuxtla Guitierrez and Oaxaca. Of the 9 fatalities in this running of this most famous Mexican road races, 8 of them were on the same stage on the same day, with the exception of Bonetto's accident, which happened on the fourth stage.
By 1954 the race had shifted from a largely amateurish basis to become a highly professional endeavor. This is reflected by the winning of the final stage by eventual race winner Italian Umberto Maglioli, in a Ferrari at an average speed of 222 kilometres per hour (138 mph) over the 365 kilometres (227 mi) stage. To put this into context, McGriff had won the 1950 race with a combined time over 27 hours - eight hours longer than even Kling and Klenk would take just two years later in their 300 SL. Phil Hill won second place in another Ferrari with Ray Crawford winning the stock car class in a Lincoln. Two new classes were in effect in 1954; the European stock car class was won by Sanesi, of Italy, in an Alfa Romeo and the small U.S. stock car class was won by Tommy Drisdale in a Dodge. Californian hot rodder Ak Miller became famous by winning fifth place in his Oldsmobile powered 1927 Ford body on a 1950 Ford frame, known by Mexicans as "El Ensalada" (the salad). Miller was their hero.
The race, however, lived up to its bloody reputation- a total of 7 people were killed during this event: 4 competitors, 2 spectators, and one team crew member.
Due to safety concerns and the expense to the government, the race was cancelled after the 1955 Le Mans disaster, although the President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines announced only that the race's original task of publicizing the highway was 'complete'. The cancellation was unavoidable given that cars of the period were of a high-speed, low-safety design, and drivers of a win-at-all-costs mentality. Only a third of entrants typically finished the race, and unlike more compact circuits, the long stage sections were impossible to secure entirely, making it possible for crashes to linger for several hours before being noticed. 27 people had died during the five years of the Panamericana, giving it one of the highest mortality rates per race in the history of motor sports, primarily because during the years the race was held, automobile racing had undergone an amazing technical transformation to emerge as an advanced science, and a number of exotic and fast European entries were often seen participating. The speeds had almost doubled as a result, but safety controls remained static and competitors, spectators and safety control personnel alike became casualties.
Despite being abandoned, the race would not be immediately forgotten. Despite their models being small and often quite underpowered (especially with regard to American and other German opponents) Porsche enjoyed some success in the race, mainly class wins, which was a testament to the reliability engendered by the Volkswagen Beetle ancestry of their cars. Famously, a 550 Spyder won the Small Sports Car category in 1953.
Later, some Porsche road cars were named Carrera after this race (in the same theme as the Targas named after the Targa Florio), and in 2009 the company shipped the Panamera, a 4-door touring car with a name inspired by Panamericana. Similarly, the watchmaker Heuer, then known for its motorsport stopwatches, introduced a chronograph called the "Carrera Panamerica" after the 1953 race, which developed into its long-running 'Carrera' range.
Also, the race saw famous people from different forms of auto racing converge in one event, making for an interesting mix of competitors. A few of the famous names involved in the race were:
- Bill France, Sr., Curtis Turner, Red Byron, Raymond Parks and Marshall Teague of stock car racing
- Mickey Thompson, Clay Smith and A.K. Miller, famous hot-rodders
- Tony Bettenhausen, Walt Faulkner, Jerry Unser and Bill Vukovich from open wheel 'Indy' car racing
- Alberto Ascari and Juan Manuel Fangio, Formula One champions at the time; and Phil Hill, who would later be a Formula One champion
- Carroll Shelby, creator of the Shelby Cobra and 1959 24 Hours of Le Mans winner, broke his arm while practicing for the 1954 event
- Dan Gurney and Richie Ginther, American road racers who would one day drive for Ferrari in Formula One
- Jean Trévoux, Robert Manzon, Louis Chiron from France, winners of the 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as major international rallies
- Hermann Lang, Karl Kling and Hans Herrmann from Germany
- Piero Taruffi, Umberto Maglioli and Felice Bonetto, all already famous Italian race drivers.
These were the best in the world at that time and even fifty years later it is acknowledged that these are key people in the formation of modern motor racing.
The race was resurrected in 1988 by Pedro Dávila, Loyal Truesdale, and Eduardo de León Camargo, and runs a 7-day, 2,000-mile (3,200 km) route aping some of the original course. It is run, unusually, with official backing on special closed stages of the public road network and fast transit sections through central Mexico at speeds approaching 160 mph (260 km/h). 80-100 cars compete in 10 classes, sorted regarding age and authenticity; virtually any car with a classic bodyshell is eligible. The bulk of entries are provided by 1950s and '60s American stock cars; the most popular shape is the 1953 Studebaker Champion Regal Starliner, designed by Raymond Loewy, because of its exceptional aerodynamics. This is best proven by the fact that as of 2014, of 27 post-1988 races, 22 have been won by Studebakers. Other common European entries include Alfa Romeo Giuliettas, Jaguar E-types, Porsche 356s & 911s. Rarer cars included Saab 96s, Volvo PV544s, and Jaguar MkII saloons. Porsche 911 and classic Ford Mustangs are extremely popular cars.
However, despite the generally aged appearance of the cars, often they conceal underpinnings more closely related to modern NASCAR entries. Tuned V8 engines of more than 500 PS (370 kW; 490 hp) are common, especially in the American cars, and the cars are often created especially for the race and ineligible anywhere else. Even less modified cars often have nonstandard brake and coolant upgrades to help them survive the punishing course. Six-point roll cages, racing seats, fire-suppression systems, and fuel cells are required. Drivers and navigators are required to wear two- or three-layer fire-resistant suits, HANS devices, and label their helmets and respective sides of the car with their blood types and allergies.
The above is a clue as to what separates the Panamericana from other modern, re-creations of road races. It remains a true, high speed race, and as such, extremely dangerous. Mechanical attrition for the more classic cars often leads to burst brake lines and overheated engines, but crashes are also common on the winding roads. In 1999, Bernardo Obregón and his co-driver Alda Arnauda were killed after their Volvo PV544 left the road during the Mil Cumbres mountain stage. In 2006, a 19-year-old co-driver survived a serious head injury that left him in a coma after his Jaguar E-Type Roadster crashed into a pine forest; Rusty Ward, another competitor, rolled a Studebaker from a bridge into a river, having finished the event in a similar fashion the previous year. In 2012 there were two more fatalities, but one was from a heart attack. It is obvious, therefore, that the race should not be classed with road-rallies in the style of the recreated Mille Miglia. However, since 2012 the race cars' top speed is limited to 145 mph on the closed-road sections, by restricting the engine's RPM (engine revolutions per minutes)by a chip in the electric ignition, and additional safety measures have been required.
The 2006 event started in Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico coast, pulling in at Mexico City's CP circuit as a curtain raiser for the Champ Car race, and stayed nights at the old colonial cities of Puebla, Querétaro, Morelia, Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, with the finish at Monterrey. It was won by Gabriel Perez and Angelica Fuentes in a yellow 1959 Ford Coupe, the first win for a woman and a first for the 'Turismo Production' class. Though competed mostly by amateurs, Jo Ramírez of the McLaren F1 team competed a Volvo P1800 amongst other star drivers.
In a retro step, Cadillac entered a replica of the 1954 Series 62 coupe that a Colorado Springs dealer loaned to "five ordinary guys from Chicago", in order to revive a half-century old duel with Lincoln. The original rag-tag team won the last two stages, and finished third in class (a Lincoln Capri won the Large Stock Class). The newer car, built in-house by GM's Performance Division Garage, preproduction trim shop and show-car paint department, was built from an identical coupe hauled from somewhere within Cadillac's own inventory. The 331-cubic-inch 270 hp (200 kW) V8 was enlarged to 398-cubic-inches, with higher 10.5:1 compression bringing output to 375 hp (280 kW) and 400 lb·ft (540 N·m) of torque, and certain safety improvements included. The car was reunited with Blu Plemons, the co-driver of the original (the driver, Keith Anderson, was killed in practice for the 1957 Indy 500) at the starting line. Among the nine other entries in the "Original Pan-Am" class were four Lincolns, including a 1949 model that contested the original Pan-Am.
Also importantly, 2006 saw the debut of a 'modern' category, with the sole entry of a Lotus Elise ('Chica Loca') run by Rachel Larratt. This class, called Unlimited, allows machines manufactured after 1990 to compete in the race. Controversially, in recognition of the high value of some of the supercars thus allowed to run, organisers of the race foresee the need to allow case-by-case exceptions from the race's normal safety equipment rules. The class is intended to raise the race's profile beyond a market elderly enough to recall the original four races, to ensure the survival of the event. Also, it is a reflection of the increasing scarcity of eligible vehicles, and of the effect of modern rallies like the Gumball 3000.
The 2007 event, according to Eduardo de León Camargo (President emeritus of La Carrera Panamericana), was the largest recreation to date. More than 100 teams participated in seven days of racing from October 26 to November 1 inclusive, with an additional pre-qualifying stage held outside Oaxaca on Thursday October 25. Cars competed in the usual ten classes along a 3,100-kilometre (1,900 mi) course starting in Oaxaca. From there, the route led the convoy in day-long sections consecutively between Tehuacán, Puebla, Querétaro, Morelia, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas and Nuevo Laredo.
As the 20th anniversary of the race's recreation, 2007 saw Mr. de León gave thanks to the committee which has for 19 years organised the race, and the presence of President of the Mexican Motorsports Federation, José Sánchez Jassen, and President of the Mexican Rally Commission, Rafael Machado. During the conference announcing the route, special mention was reserved for the efforts of Mexican law enforcement in general and of the Highway Patrol in particular, under the command of Comandante Julio Cesar Tovar, and to thank Mexican Federal, State and Municipal authorities for collaborating to ensure smooth running of a challenging project.
Original Carrera Panamericana
|1950|| Hershel McGriff
|own team||Oldsmobile 88||27:34:25||Ciudad Juárez-El Ocotal||report|
|1951|| Piero Taruffi
|Centro Deportivo Italiano||Ferrari 212 Inter Vignale||21:57:52||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Ciudad Juárez||report|
|1952|| Karl Kling
|Daimler-Benz AG||Mercedes-Benz W194||18:51:19||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Ciudad Juárez||report|
|1953|| Juan Manuel Fangio
|Scuderia Lancia||Lancia D24 Pinin Farina||18:11:00||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Ciudad Juárez||report|
|1954||Umberto Maglioli||Erwin Goldschmidt||Ferrari 375 Plus Pinin Farina||17:40:26||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Ciudad Juárez||report|
|1988||Eduardo Morales||Gael Rodriguez||Ford|
|1989||Guillermo Rojas||Alberto Rojas Jr.||Mercury|
|1990||Alain de Cadenet||Gordon Currie||Jaguar|
|1991||Jon Ward||Shirley Ward||Kurtis|
|1992||Peter Frank||Mark Williams||Mercury|
|1993||Carlos Anaya||Eduardo Rodriguez||Studebaker|
|1994||Carlos Anaya (2)||Eduardo Rodriguez||Studebaker|
|1995||Kevin Ward||Kimberlee Augustine||Studebaker|
|1996||Carlos Anaya (3)||Eduardo Rodriguez||Studebaker|
|1997||Pierre de Thoisy||Philippe Lemoine||Studebaker|
|1998||Pierre de Thoisy (2)||Philippe Lemoine||Studebaker|
|1999||Pierre de Thoisy (3)||Jean-Pierre Gontier||Studebaker|
|2000||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Pierre de Thoisy (4)||Jacques Tropenat||Studebaker|
|2001||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Pierre de Thoisy (5)||Carlos Macaya||Studebaker|
|2002||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Doug Mockett||Alan Baillie||Oldsmobile|
|2003||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Pierre de Thoisy (6)||Pierre Schockaert||Studebaker|
|2004||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Juan Carlos Sarmiento||Raúl Villareal||Studebaker|
|2005||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Juan Carlos Sarmiento (2)||Raúl Villareal||Studebaker|
|2006||Veracruz-Monterrey||Gabriel Pérez||Angelica Fuentes||Ford|
|2007||Oaxaca-Nuevo Laredo||Pierre de Thoisy (7)||Frédéric Stoesser||Studebaker|
|2008||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Nuevo Laredo||Bill Beilharz||Jorge Ceballos||Studebaker|
|2009||Huatulco-Nuevo Laredo||Stig Blomqvist||Ana Goñi Boracco||Studebaker|
|2010||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Zacatecas||Harri Rovanperä||Jouni Närhi||Studebaker|
|2011||Huatulco-Zacatecas||Ricardo Triviño||Marco Hernández||Studebaker|
|2012||Veracruz-Zacatecas||Gabriel Pérez (2)||Ignacio Rodríguez||Studebaker|
|2013||Veracruz-Zacatecas||Gabriel Pérez (3)||Ignacio Rodríguez||Studebaker|
|2014||Veracruz-Durango||Érik Comas||Isabelle de Sadeleer||Studebaker|
|2015||Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Durango||Emilio Vázquez||Javier Marín||Studebaker|
|2016||Santiago de Querétaro-Durango||Hilaire Damiron||Laura Damiron||Studebaker|
- La Carrera Panamericana - a 1992 retrospective documentary made by the British band Pink Floyd about the race.
- Porsche's Carrera + Panamera
- "50th Anniversary of the Carrera Panamericana". Classics.com. 2000-05-06. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- "The Legends of the Great Road Races Seminar | Car News Blog at Motor Trend". Blogs.motortrend.com. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- Faules, Gary (2008-03-26). "The La Carrera Panamericana...: La Carrera Panamericana News from 1951". Lacarrera2007.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- Faules, Gary (2008-04-11). "The La Carrera Panamericana...: Bobby Unser speaks about death, success and La Carrera Panamericana". Lacarrera2007.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- "The 'Buzzard Bar' Mercecdes" (PDF). Autoweek. 1987-08-31.
- "MB Revisits Carrera Panamericana Rally 50 Years Ago: Page 2". Worldcarfans. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- "Felice Bonetto". Motorsport Memorial. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- "MB Revisits Carrera Panamericana Rally 50 Years Ago". Worldcarfans. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- "Ak Miller". Oilstick.com. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
- "La Carrera Panamericana 2007" (PDF). Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- "1954 Cadillac La Carrera Panamericana Race Car Rides Again". Duemotori.com. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- "About the Unlimited Class". Unlimited Class. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- Faules, Gary (2007-10-02). "The La Carrera Panamericana...: Official anouncment Eduardo Leon Camargo". Lacarrera2007.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- Most information has been obtained by personal interviews
- Clark, R.M.; The Carrera Panamericana Mexico, Brooklands Books, Ltd. (no publishing date) ISBN 1-85520-412-6
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Arthur Garfield Dove
Dove, Arthur Garfield (dŭv) [key], 1880–1946, American painter, b. Canandaigua, N.Y. Early in his career he did commercial illustration in New York City. Following a European trip (1907–9), he adopted an abstract style that flowered in the 1930s into fluid, poetic canvases based on forms in nature. Dove has subsequently been recognized as a precursor of the abstract expressionists. Examples of his work are Rise of the Full Moon and Pozzuoli Red (Phillips Gall., Washington, D.C.).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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- The rights granted to libraries under s.108 of the US Copyright Act (the right to make a limited number of copies of certain works for specified purposes) do not preclude a library from relying on fair use as a defence;
- Converting hard copy texts into digital texts is transformative use as the copies serve "an entirely different purpose than the original works"; that purpose being superior search capabilities rather than actual access to the material. The search capabilities of digital texts have given rise to new methods of academic inquiry such as text mining;
access for print-disabled persons is
FactsThe HathiTrust entered into agreements with Google which allowed Google to create digital copies of works in the various universities' libraries in exchange for which Google provided digital copies to HathiTrust.
Google's use of the digital works is the subject of a separate lawsuit.
Fair UseBefore examining each of the fair use factors, which are set out at s.107 of the US Copyright Act, Judge Baer considered the Authors Guild's argument that fair use should not apply at all as it is excluded by s.108 which accords libraries the right to make a limited number of copies of certain works for specified purposes. However s.108 explicitly states that "[n]othing in this section . . . in any way affects the right of fair use as provided by section 107." Judge Baer said that: "In spite of the clear language that Section 108 provides rights to libraries in addition to fair-use rights that might be available, Plaintiffs argue that I should find that the Section 107 fair-use defense is precluded by Section 108 in this case", before going on to conclude, seemingly without much difficulty, that fair use was available as a defence.
The third fair use factor considers whether the amount of copying was reasonable in relation to the purpose. The question is whether "no more was taken than necessary" (Campbell). With that in mind sometimes it is necessary to copy entire works: in this instance entire copies were necessary to fulfill the HathiTrust's purpose of facilitating searches and giving access to print-disabled individuals.
DecisionIn weighing up the fair use factors, with the aim of copyright law of "promoting the Progress of Science" in mind, Judge Baer considered that the enhanced search capabilities, the protection of the HathiTrust's fragile books, and the unprecedented ability of print-disabled individuals to have an equal opportunity to compete with their sighted peers protect the copies made by the HathiTrust as fair use. Judge Baer summed up by saying:
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Definición de pearly en inglés:
adjetivo (pearlier, pearliest)
1Resembling a pearl in lustre or colour: nice pearly teeth
Más ejemplos en oraciones
- Hector shut his eyes, to see his inner world, a blaze of swirling pearly colours.
- Chris's green eyes glittered, and a smile played across his pearly teeth as he ran his hands ran through his short black hair.
- She has taken the last few days off, however, because she has just had her teeth bleached pearly white.
sustantivo (plural pearlies)(pearlies) Volver al principio
2 (also pearly whites) informal A person’s teeth.
Oraciones de ejemplo
- Then, fully conscious, I could feel the dentist working away at my pearlies and finally pulling them out.
- His teeth were rows of perfectly set pearly whites, and he had a dimple in his left cheek.
- Ironically, excessive bleaching can turn pearly whites into an unnatural translucent blue.
Palabras que riman con pearlyBurghley, Burley, burly, curly, early, girlie, hurley, hurly-burly, Shirley, surly, swirly, twirly
Definición de pearly en:
- Diccionario Inglés de EE.UU.
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Cloud computing is the new revolution in information and communication technology. It's something we are already familiar with: emails and social networks are all services provided using the cloud.
But the new idea associated with cloud computing is to bring the same concept to business, and shift data and basic applications to the cloud. This could generate huge savings and more efficiency in large areas of the public and private sector, especially in services and manufacturing. Case studies suggest that cost savings could be between 10% and 50%.
A brilliant idea has emerged from a small but dynamic Italian local public authority, the Asolo Ulss, near Venice. This public health company has produced a charter, the so-called Castelfranco Charter (from the place where it started last October), which provides a set of recommendations to help public authorities to adopt cloud computing. The idea, recently launched in an international conference tour, is simple but useful to promote cloud computing adoption, and could also apply to private companies willing to take it up. The recommendations are:
• Operate on a redundant broadband network, for the connection between the company, the customers and the service providers.
• Ensure "private cloud" usability as a preliminary step before agreeing to switch to a "public cloud".
• Establish a roadmap to move systems into cloud computing under sustainable economic, management and security conditions.
• Ensure storage of data in datacenters located in a EU country guaranteeing compliance with laws and regulations.
• Request providers to guarantee interoperability and data portability in the event of transfer to another provider.
• Request providers to guarantee permanent operative continuity of the systems in cloud.
• Specify the vendor's management policy for data storage/backup activities in cloud.
• Formalise the service providers' liability for data misplacement, loss and/or theft, outages, downtime, and interoperability failures.
• Modify ICT infrastructure for service management skills.
• Appoint a privacy and risk manager to supervise data management, protection and security.
Local public authorities and small private companies could follow these steps and safely move to the cloud. It will benefit them and the economy.
Of course, the effects of cloud computing will depend on the speed of its adoption, so policymakers should promote a rapid takeup, especially in the public sector. The difficulty will be to overcome problems of reorganisation, data portability and data privacy. All this requires a strategy and public authorities around Europe should co-ordinate for the purpose.
Cloud computing is currently developing along different concepts, focused on the provision of infrastructure as a service (renting virtual machines), platform as a service (using platforms on which software applications can run) or software as a service (renting the full service, as for emails). In preparation for its development, many hardware and software companies are investing to create new datacenters and services.
Cloud platforms provide services to create applications in competition with, or as an alternative to on-premise platforms – the traditional platforms based on an operating system as a foundation, on a group of infrastructure services and on a set of packaged and custom applications. The crucial difference between the two platforms is that, while on-premise platforms are designed to support consumer-scale or enterprise-scale applications, cloud platforms can potentially support multiple users on a wider scale, namely the internet, generating large gains in terms of cost-effectiveness.
The most relevant economic benefit of cloud computing is associated with a generalised reduction of the fixed costs of entry and production, in terms of shifting fixed capital expenditure from IT into operative costs depending on the size of demand and production. This contributes to reducing the barriers to entry especially for SMEs. The consequences on the endogenous structure of the markets will be wide, with entry of new companies, a reduction of mark-ups, and an increase in average and total production.
In recent research we have adopted a macroeconomic approach to study the effects that this innovation has on the cost structure of the European firms investing in IT and consequently the incentives to create and expand new businesses, on the market structure, on the level of competition in their sectors, and ultimately on the effects for aggregate production, employment and other macroeconomic variables.
Starting from conservative assumptions on the cost reduction process associated with the diffusion of cloud computing over five years, we have estimated that it could provide a positive and substantial additional contribution to the annual growth rate (up to a few decimal points), helping to create about 1.5 million permanent jobs in the EU through the development new SMEs. Similar results have been obtained by other research institutes, such as IDC.
Federico Etro is professor of economics at the University of Venice, Ca' Foscari. You can visit his website at Intertic.org/Etro. | <urn:uuid:92df6073-b5a5-42c3-8cca-24bab9034df2> | {
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C-reactive protein is produced by the liver. The level of CRP rises when there is inflammation throughout the body.
This article discusses the blood test done to measures the amount of CRP in your blood.
CRP; High-sensitivity C-reactive protein; hs-CRP
How the test is performed:
Blood is typically drawn from a vein, usually from the inside of the elbow or the back of the hand. The site is cleaned with germ-killing medicine (antiseptic). The health care provider wraps an elastic band around the upper arm to apply pressure to the area and make the vein swell with blood.
Next, the health care provider gently inserts a needle into the vein. The blood collects into an airtight vial or tube attached to the needle. The elastic band is removed from your arm.
Once the blood has been collected, the needle is removed, and the puncture site is covered to stop any bleeding.
In infants or young children, a sharp tool called a lancet may be used to puncture the skin and make it bleed. The blood collects into a small glass tube called a pipette, or onto a slide or test strip. A bandage may be placed over the area if there is any bleeding.
At the laboratory, your blood sample is mixed with a liquid called an antiserum, which contains substances that looks for the specific protein.
How to prepare for the test:
No preparation is necessary for this test.
How the test will feel:
When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.
Why the test is performed:
The CRP test is a general test to check for inflammation in the body. It is not a specific test. That means, it can reveal that you have inflammation somewhere in your body, but it cannot pinpoint the exact location.
Your doctor may order this test to:
- Check for flare-ups of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis , lupus, or vasculitis
- Determine if anti-inflammatory medicine is working to treat a disease or condition
However, a low CRP level does not always mean that there is no inflammation present. Levels of CRP may not be increased in people with rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. The reason for this is unknown.
A more sensitive CRP test, called a high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) assay, is available to determine a person's risk for heart disease. Many consider a high CRP level to be a risk factor for heart disease. However, it is not known whether CRP is merely a sign of cardiovascular disease or if it actually plays a role in causing heart problems.
Normal CRP values vary from lab to lab. Generally, there is no CRP detectable in the blood.
Your doctor may also use a highly sensitive test called hs-CRP to help determine your risk of heart disease. According to the American Heart Association:
- You are at low risk of developing cardiovascular disease if your hs-CRP level is lower than 1.0mg/L
- You are at average risk of developing cardiovascular disease if your levels are between 1.0 and 3.0 mg/L
- You are at high risk for cardiovascular disease if your hs-CRP level is higher than 3.0 mg/L
Note: Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.
What abnormal results mean:
A positive test means you have inflammation in the body. This may be due to a variety of different conditions, including:
This list is not all inclusive.
Note: Positive CRP results also occur during the last half of pregnancy or with the use of birth control pills (oral contraceptives).
What the risks are:
There is very little risk involved with having your blood taken. Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other. Taking blood from some people may be more difficult than from others.
Other risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may include:
- Excessive bleeding
- Fainting or feeling light-headed
- Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)
- Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)
References: Ridker PM, Libby P. Risk Factors for Atherothrombotic Disease. In: Libby P, Bonow RO, Mann DL, Zipes DP, eds. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 8th ed. Philadelphia, Pa; Saunders Elsevier; 2007: chap 39. | <urn:uuid:f87845cd-fb48-4591-8fdd-219ffa8a8131> | {
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Title I is a part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). This Act provides federal funds through the Georgia Department of Education to LEAs and public schools with high numbers or percentages of poor children to help ensure that all children meet challenging state academic content and student academic achievement standards.
LEAs target the Title I funds they receive to public schools with the highest percentages of children from low-income families. These funds may be used for children from preschool through high school. Title I is designed to support state and local school reform efforts tied to challenging state academic standards to reinforce and enhance efforts to improve teaching and learning for students. Title I programs must be based on effective means of improving student achievement and include strategies to support parental involvement.
Under Title I, LEAs are required to provide equitable services for eligible private school students as well. The Title I services provided by the LEA for private school participants are designed to meet the educational needs and supplement the educational services of eligible private school students. These services must be developed in consultation with officials of the private schools. | <urn:uuid:83f906be-efdf-403b-b890-b7bdf91e611e> | {
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Yuri Kochiyama, today’s Google Doodle, fought for civil rights — and praised Osama bin Laden
Thursday, May 19, this year would’ve been the 95th birthday of Yuri Kochiyama, a prominent Japanese-American activist who passed away at 93 two years ago. Google is marking the occasion with one of its trademark doodles.
今年五月十九日的这个周四是河内山百合的95岁诞辰，这位生前著名的日裔美国激进分子，于两年前93岁时去世。谷歌把这一天标记为一个Google doodle。【译注：Google doodle是谷歌为了庆祝节日、纪念伟人以及其它伟大成就的临时主页标志。】
Some of Kochiyama’s work was deeply, clearly admirable. As an associate of Malcolm X, she was an important nonblack ally to the more militant end of the civil rights movement. She endured forced internment during World War II, and was an outspoken advocate for reparations to internees, which would eventually be passed in 1988. She was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War and advocate for inmates she viewed as political prisoners.
But other commitments of hers were more ambiguous. She was an outspoken admirer of Mao Zedong even after the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution. She praised Malcolm X for his “admiration for Mao and Ho Chi Minh,” and worked closely with the Revolutionary Action Movement, an “urban guerrilla warfare” organization based on “a synthesis of the thought of Malcolm X, Marx and Lenin, and Mao Zedong.” The activist Robert Williams gifted her with a copy of the Little Red Book, and she later thanked him for “the gift of Mao’s philosophy.”
但是她其他的追求则更为暧昧一些。她是毛的直言不讳的崇拜者，即便是在大跃进和文革之后。她因为马尔科姆·艾克斯对毛和胡志明的赞赏而赞扬他，并且和“革命行动运动”组织亲密合作—这是一个基于马尔科姆·艾克斯思想、马克思列宁思想以及毛思综合体的“城市游击战”组织。【译注：Revolutionary Action Movement是马尔科姆·艾克斯的伙伴Max Stanford建立的半秘密组织，制定了用马克思列宁主义建立黑人国家主义的运动纲领】社会活动家罗伯特·威廉姆斯送了她一本红宝书作为礼物，对此她以这是“一份毛思的礼物”为由表示了感谢。
Yuri Kochiyama was a supporter of the terrorist group Shining Path
Two positions of Kochiyama’s stand out as particularly alarming. First, she was an enthusiastic supporter of the Peruvian terrorist group Shining Path, a Maoist organization that has conducted a brutal insurgency killing tens of thousands of people since 1980.Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that Shining Path personally killed or disappeared at least 30,000.
“Its tactics include the burning of ballot boxes and the public ‘executions’ of moderate local leaders and others, including nuns and priests, who are seen as rivals for the allegiance of the poor,” according to a 1992 New York Times report. “In wildly exaggerated demonstrations of Maoist precepts, children have been killed for political ‘crimes.’ Amnesty International says the guerrillas routinely torture, mutilate and murder captives.
“We reject and condemn human rights because they are reactionary, counter-revolutionary, bourgeois rights,” founder Abimael Guzmán declared in one document. “Rather than concentrate its attacks on the armed forces or police, Shining Path has predominantly singled out civilians,” Human Rights Watch noted in 1997. “The Shining Path has pragmatically avoided taking captives unless it intends to execute them … Shining Path has been reported to torture captured civilians before executing them.” Shining Path also used rape as a weapon of war.
This did not appear to bother Kochiyama, who joined a delegation to Peru organized by the Maoist Revolutionary Communist Party, which defends the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. She read, in her words, “the kind of reading materials that I could become ‘educated’ on the real situation in Peru; not the slanted reports of corporate America. The more I read, the more I came to completely support the revolution in Peru.” In other words, she read, and believed, Maoist propaganda denying Shining Path’s war crimes.
After her return from Peru, she declared, “What has been taking place in both Peru and the US is a serious campaign to discredit Guzmán and the Shining Path movement, tainting them as terrorists, undermining their struggle with lies, isolating them, and intimidating anyone who might support them.”
Yuri Kochiyama declared Osama bin Laden “one of the people that I admire”
Kochiyama was a thorough-going opponent of what she viewed as American imperialism, and like some radical anti-imperialists this occasionally led her to admiring truly loathsome figures, because she thought they were effective at combating American empire. Abimael Guzmán was one. Osama bin Laden was another.
In a 2003 interview for the Objector: A Magazine of Conscience and Resistance, Kochiyama explained:
I’m glad that you are curious why I consider Osama bin Laden as one of the people that I admire. To me, he is in the category of Malcolm X, Che Guevara, Patrice Lumumba, Fidel Castro, all leaders that I admire. They had much in common. Besides being strong leaders who brought consciousness to their people, they all had severe dislike for the US government and those who held power in the US.
bin Laden may have come from a very wealthy family, but by the time he was twenty, he came to loathe the eliteness and class conduct of his family…
…You asked, “Should freedom fighters support him?” Freedom fighters all over the world, and not just in the Muslim world, don’t just support him; they revere him; they join him in battle.
…You stated that some freedom fighters responded that bin Laden’s agenda is more reactionary and does not speak to the needs of the masses of people who exist under US dominance. bin Laden has been primarily fighting US dominance even when he received money from the US when he was fighting in Afghanistan. He was fighting for Islam and all people who believe in Islam, against westerners, especially the US–even when he was fighting against the Russians.
To be clear, this is Kochiyama defending bin Laden — who, besides being a mass murderer, was a vicious misogynist and hardly the brave anti-imperial class traitor Kochiyama fancies him as — against other leftists who correctly noted that you can oppose American imperialism without allying or supporting violent jihadism.
Kochiyama’s praise for Che Guevara and Fidel Castro is also controversial, and, I think wrong, but is at least somewhat common on the left. Sympathy for Shining Path and bin Laden, by contrast, is not a common left position basically anywhere. | <urn:uuid:9b3d6dd7-8727-4d95-ba84-790900073b3f> | {
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|Domestic violence is spousal/partner relationship violence between adults. Family violence is not
ok, it creates a fearful environment for every member of the family. If there are children in the home
where domestic violence is occurring, even if the children are not being battered, they are being
exposed to violence and are suffering from emotional abuse, which is reportable child abuse.
- 10 million children every year witness domestic violence abuse.
- An abused, battered person may leave and go back seven or more times before
- Staying with the abuser for the sake of children is wrong.
- Children model your behavior.
- Children deserve a childhood free from violence.
As difficult as it is to listen to this tape, think about these children. This is reality for these
children. This is reportable child abuse. If you are aware of children or adolescents who are living
in a domestic violent home, please call your local (C.P.S.) Child Protective Services hotline and
request they investigate. If anyone you know is in imminent danger from domestic violence, call 911
Please visit these websites to become better educated about domestic violence and abuse:
- The National Domestic Violence Hotline:
1-800-799-7233 (1-800-799-safe) or TTY-1-800-707-3224
- The National Sexual Assault Hotline:
- The National Teen Dating Abuse Hotline: | <urn:uuid:63ef972a-3927-4c60-8d3a-d5950dbe63d2> | {
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Why zebras have black and white stripes is a question that has intrigued scientists and spectators for centuries. A research team led by the University of California, Davis, has now examined this riddle systematically. Their answer is published April 1 in the online journal Nature Communications.
The scientists found that biting flies, including horseflies and tsetse flies, are the evolutionary driver for zebra's stripes. Experimental work had previously shown that such flies tend to avoid black-and-white striped surfaces, but many other hypotheses for zebra stripes have been proposed since Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin debated the problem 120 years ago. These include:
- A form of camouflage
- Disrupting predatory attack by visually confusing carnivores
- A mechanism of heat management
- Having a social function
- Avoiding ectoparasite attack, such as from biting flies
The team mapped the geographic distributions of the seven different species of zebras, horses and asses, and of their subspecies, noting the thickness, locations, and intensity of their stripes on several parts of their bodies. Their next step was to compare these animals' geographic ranges with different variables, including woodland areas, ranges of large predators, temperature, and the geographic distribution of glossinid (tsetse flies) and tabanid (horseflies) biting flies. They then examined where the striped animals and these variables overlapped.
After analyzing the five hypotheses, the scientists ruled out all but one: avoiding blood-sucking flies.
"I was amazed by our results," said lead author Tim Caro, a UC Davis professor of wildlife biology. "Again and again, there was greater striping on areas of the body in those parts of the world where there was more annoyance from biting flies."
While the distribution of tsetse flies in Africa is well known, the researchers did not have maps of tabanids (horseflies, deer flies). Instead, they mapped locations of the best breeding conditions for tabanids, creating an environmental proxy for their distributions. They found that striping is highly associated with several consecutive months of ideal conditions for tabanid reproduction.
Why would zebras evolve to have stripes whereas other hooved mammals did not? The study found that, unlike other African hooved mammals living in the same areas as zebras, zebra hair is shorter than the mouthpart length of biting flies, so zebras may be particularly susceptible to annoyance by biting flies.
"No one knew why zebras have such striking coloration," Caro said. "But solving evolutionary conundrums increases our knowledge of the natural world and may spark greater commitment to conserving it."
Yet in science, one solved riddle begets another: Why do biting flies avoid striped surfaces? Caro said that now that his study has provided ecological validity to the biting fly hypothesis, the evolutionary debate can move from why zebras have stripes to what prevents biting flies from seeing striped surfaces as potential prey, and why zebras are so susceptible to biting fly annoyance.
Co-authors on the study include Amanda Izzo and Hannah Walker with the UC Davis Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology; Robert C. Reiner Jr., of the UC Davis Department of Entomology and the Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health; and Theodore Stankowich with the Department of Biological Sciences at California State University.
About UC Davis
For more than 100 years, UC Davis has been one place where people are bettering humanity and our natural world while seeking solutions to some of our most pressing challenges. Located near the state capital, UC Davis has more than 33,000 students, over 2,500 faculty and more than 21,000 staff, an annual research budget of over $750 million, a comprehensive health system and 13 specialized research centers. The university offers interdisciplinary graduate study and more than 100 undergraduate majors in four colleges -- Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Biological Sciences, Engineering, and Letters and Science. It also houses six professional schools -- Education, Law, Management, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and the Betty Irene Moore School of Nursing. | <urn:uuid:0819e2e2-40d3-4e50-b8db-8a8e1c86b3e1> | {
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Hints & Tips
Ask the Big Kahuna
Best Hidden Places
10 Best of Hawaii
Ask the Big Kahuna "Answering the most common visitor questions"
So you have noticed the ubiquitous wild chickens strutting about — a bizarre sight for most visitors who are accustomed to finding chickens only on farms or in their picnic basket. Why are there so many chickens, or Moa, as they are called in Hawaiian? Polynesians brought chickens to the island hundreds of years ago as a food source. Europeans brought domestic chickens, and Filipinos brought fighting chickens.
You will see beautiful, iridescent multi-color birds, as well as ordinary drab-colored domestic chickens, depending on where you go. Over the years some of the domestic chickens escaped into the wild, mated, and created new combinations. The wild chickens rule here, and it is against the law to harm them.
At Kokee State Park, on Kauai, you can buy feed for the many chickens that roost in the hills behind the museum. The chickens have amazing food radar and once they become aware of someone feeding one of their brethren, they all come charging from the underbrush, clucking, crowing, peeping, and flapping in hilarious fashion. Once the food is gone, the chickens vanish as quickly as they arrived.
The Moa have no natural predators on Kauai, and clearly they are thriving.
Mahalo for writing,
Explore more answers from the Big Kahuna...
Do you have a question for the Big Kahuna? Click here to send him your question.
Due to the great number of questions, the Big Kahuna will not be able to answer your questions personally. Questions of general interest will be answered in future issues of the free TNT NewsHawaii Travel newsletter, and then posted here.
Or plan your dream vacation through our Hawaii Travel Directory: Big Island | Kauai | Maui | Oahu | <urn:uuid:a45e046b-c197-433e-927b-1a8eec7f7fa0> | {
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Jöns Jacob Berzelius
Britannica Web Sites
Articles from Britannica encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.
- Jöns Jacob Berzelius - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
(1779-1848). One of the founders of modern chemistry, Jons Jacob Berzelius of Sweden achieved an immensely important series of innovations and discoveries. He is especially noted for his determination of atomic weights; his creation of the modern system of chemical symbols; his electrochemical theory; the discovery and isolation of several elements; his contribution to the classical techniques of analysis; and his investigations of isomerism and catalysis, phenomena that owe their names to him. | <urn:uuid:646acf29-c10f-44bf-8927-91f41836aa84> | {
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From a literary perspective, there is very little the Greeks did not invent. Philosophy, politics, and science on the one hand, and drama, poetry, and novels on the other—while all these genres may not have originated in ancient Greece, they were certainly perfected there. Immanuel Kant and Georg Hegel may have thought history was an endless progress, but their intricate tracts were no improvement on Aristotle or Plato; and while Shakespeare may have found new ways of expressing human emotion, he lifted many of his plots freely from those of the Greek tragedians.
The Preacher of Ecclesiastes said there is nothing new under the sun. The history of literature since the Greek era certainly supports this claim. While modern critics make a big show of disagreeing with Aristotle's art theory, the fact is they're still responding to his ideas more than two millennia later, making their supposed originality a debatable point. Plato's Republic is still cited in discussions of government and political theory; Oedipus Rex is still one of the best examples of a tragedy; almost any well-read person has read The Iliad and The Odyssey.
In Poetics (the first known example of literary criticism), Aristotle identifies a number of elements every work needs to be considered good or satisfactory. He deals with drama, contending that a good playwright observes the unities (action takes place through the course of a single day in a single place), that tragedy is superior to comedy, and that dialogue should reflect the attitudes and morals of the characters. Perhaps his most important (and controversial) ideas, however, concerned the purpose of art.
Art has the power to affect both the emotions and the intellect. Aristotle identified the mission of all good art as twofold: to delight and instruct (on an intellectual level), and to provide catharsis (on an emotional level). To delight, art must be aesthetically pleasing, meaning that its individual elements should cohere, its message should be consistent, and it should present whatever ideas the author intends with style and grace. To instruct, art must include an underlying message (or messages) that the audience can identify and that will fuel thought and (ideally) action.
Catharsis is more personal and more complicated. A good poem or play or novel should cause the reader or listener to purge negative emotion through projecting them on the characters encountered in the work. People are naturally disposed to negative behavior, but a good play can help them experience vicariously acts they would ordinarily commit on their own. All these elements of art are capable of moderating and bettering society, as long as the artists wield their influence properly.
Perhaps the reason we still read Homer and Euripides and Aristophanes is that each of them managed to delight, instruct, and provide positive catharsis that still speaks to the universal human condition. Of course, Greek thinkers were not united in this evaluation: Plato suggested that poets were pernicious, and should be cast from the midst of a perfect society, along with their works. But his was the minority opinion, and most Greeks recognized the power of the written word to shape men's thoughts and lives toward the ideal of human virtue.
On the other hand, much of Greek literature represents a distinctly humanist worldview, one built on the principles of virtue as simple public obligation, the promotion of man above God (or, in the Greek case, the gods), and the use of reason as the ultimate rule for the attainment of perfection. The Christian view is quite different, built as it is around total reliance on God. And yet, Christians have much to learn from the ideas of Aristotle and many of his fellow Greeks concerning art: that it can be a positive force, that art (particularly literature) does affect each of us, and that poems and novels should project ideas rather than merely provide dumb entertainment.
Review by C. Hollis Crossman
C. Hollis Crossman used to be a child. Now he is a husband and father, teaches adult Sunday school in his Presbyterian congregation, and likes weird stuff. He might be a mythical creature, but he's definitely not a centaur. Read more of his reviews here.
Did you find this review helpful? | <urn:uuid:bb91f870-1be1-4eba-bf64-c204f09217df> | {
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Latest Podophyllum hexandrum Stories
A common weed called American mayapple may soon offer an alternative to an Asian cousin that's been harvested almost to extinction because of its anti-cancer properties.
Podophyllum hexandrum is a plant species belonging to the Berberidaceae family. The species may also be referred to as the Himalayan mayapple or the Indian mayapple. Podophyllum hexandrum are native to the Himalayan mountain range in Asia. This particular plant species flourishes at lower elevations. Podophyllum hexandrum is a low growing plant. Its leaves may be described as drooping and lobed and they appear glossy and green in coloration. The Podophyllum hexandrum plant produces a pale...
- The word or words serving to define another word or expression, as in a dictionary entry. | <urn:uuid:8e9f2b29-0ece-4df2-b7c6-18f05dcf5a92> | {
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man make: a Primer on the Make Utility
Phony targets (also called dummy or pseudo-targets) are not real files; they
simply are aliases within the makefile. As I mentioned before, you can specify
targets from the command line, and this is precisely what phony targets are
used for. If you're familiar with the process of using make to build
applications on your system, you're familiar with
install (which installs the
application after compiling the source) or
(which cleans up the
temporary files created while compiling the source). These are two examples
of phony targets. Obviously, there are no "install" or
"clean" files in the
project; they're just aliases to a set of commands set aside to complete some
task not dependent on the modification time of any particular file in the
project. Here is an example of using a "clean" phony target:
clean: -rm *.o my_bin_file
Some special targets are built in to make. These special targets hold special meaning, and they modify the way make behaves during execution:
.PHONY — this target signifies which other targets are phony targets. If a target is listed as a dependency of .PHONY, the check to ensure that the target file was updated is not performed. This is useful if at any time your project actually produces a file named the same as a phony target; this check always will fail when executing your phony target.
.SUFFIXES — the dependency list of this target is a list of the established file suffixes for this project. This is helpful when you are using suffix rules (discussed later in this article).
.DEFAULT — if you have a bunch of targets that use the same set of commands, you may consider using the .DEFAULT target. It is used to specify the commands to be executed when no rule is found for a target.
.PRECIOUS — all dependencies of the .PRECIOUS target are preserved should make be killed or interrupted.
.INTERMEDIATE — specifies which targets are intermediate, or temporary, files. Upon completion, make will delete all intermediate files before terminating.
.SECONDARY — this target is similar to .INTERMEDIATE, except that these files will not be deleted automatically upon completion. If no dependencies are specified, all files are considered secondary.
.SECONDEXPANSION — after the initial read-in phase, anything listed after this target will be expanded for a second time. So, for example:
.SECONDEXPANSION: ONEVAR = onefile TWOVAR = twofile myfile: $(ONEVAR) $$(TWOVAR)
will expand to:
.SECONDEXPANSION: ONEVAR = onefile TWOVAR = twofile myfile: onefile $(TWOVAR)
after the initial read-in phase, but because I specified .SECONDEXPANSION, it will expand everything following a second time:
.SECONDEXPANSION: ONEVAR = onefile TWOVAR = twofile myfile: onefile twofile
I'm not going to elaborate on this here, because this is a rather complex subject and outside the scope of this article, but you can find all sorts of .SECONDEXPANSION goodness out there on the Internet and in the GNU manual.
.DELETE_ON_ERROR — this target will cause make to delete a target if it has changed and any of the associated commands exit with a nonzero status.
.IGNORE — if an error is encountered while building a target list as a dependency of .IGNORE, it is ignored. If there are no dependencies to .IGNORE, make will ignore errors for all targets.
.LOW_RESOLUTION_TIME — for some reason or another, if you have files that will have a low-resolution timestamp (missing the subsecond portion), this target allows you to designate those files. If a file is listed as a dependency of .LOW_RESOLUTION_TIME, make will compare times only to the nearest second between the target and its dependencies.
.SILENT — this is a legacy target that
causes the command's output to be suppressed. It
is suggested that you use Command Echoing (discussed in the Command Special
or by using the
-s flag on the command line.
.EXPORT_ALL_VARIABLES — tells make to export all variables to any child processes created.
.NOTPARALLEL — although make can run simultaneous jobs in order to complete a task faster, specifying this target in the makefile will force make to run serially.
.ONESHELL — by default, make will invoke a new shell for each command it runs. This target causes make to use one shell per rule.
.POSIX — with this target, make is forced to conform to POSIX standards while running.
In other versions of make, variables are called macros, but in the GNU version (which is the version you likely are using), they are referred to as variables, which I personally feel is a more appropriate title. Nomenclature aside, variables are a convenient way to store information that may be used multiple times throughout the makefile. It becomes abundantly clear the first time you write a makefile and then realize that you forgot a command flag for your compiler in all 58 rules you wrote. If I had used variables to designate my compiler flags, I'd have had to change it only once instead of 58 times. Lesson learned. Set these at the beginning of your makefile before any rules. Simply use:
VARNAME = information stored in the variable
to set the variable, and do use
$(VARNAME) to invoke it throughout the
makefile. Any shell variables that existed prior to calling make will exist
within make as variables and, thus, are invoked the same way as variables. You
can specify a variable from the command line as well. Simply add it to the
end of your make command, and it will be used within the make execution.
If, at some point, you need to alter the data stored in a variable temporarily, there is a very simple way to substitute in this new data without overwriting the variable. It's done using the following format:
find is the substring you are trying to find,
replace is the string
to replace it with. So, for instance:
LETTERS = abcxyz xyzabc xyz print: echo $(LETTERS:xyz=def)
will produce the output
abcdef xyzabc def.
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- Firefox 46.0 Released
- Ubuntu Online Summit
- Devuan Beta Release
- The Qt Company's Qt Start-Up
- May 2016 Issue of Linux Journal
- The US Government and Open-Source Software
- The Death of RoboVM
- Download "Linux Management with Red Hat Satellite: Measuring Business Impact and ROI"
- Open-Source Project Secretly Funded by CIA
- New Container Image Standard Promises More Portable Apps
In modern computer systems, privacy and security are mandatory. However, connections from the outside over public networks automatically imply risks. One easily available solution to avoid eavesdroppers’ attempts is SSH. But, its wide adoption during the past 21 years has made it a target for attackers, so hardening your system properly is a must.
Additionally, in highly regulated markets, you must comply with specific operational requirements, proving that you conform to standards and even that you have included new mandatory authentication methods, such as two-factor authentication. In this ebook, I discuss SSH and how to configure and manage it to guarantee that your network is safe, your data is secure and that you comply with relevant regulations.Get the Guide | <urn:uuid:30c16cac-2d32-4b2d-8953-5d2f0dfeb2a9> | {
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the velocity of finite numbers of waves undergoing simple harmonic motion, equal to the phase velocity when it does not vary with the wavelengths of the waves. The group velocity of the set of waves produced in water when a stone is dropped is less than the velocity of the individual waves.
Surface-wave group-velocity tomography is an efficient way to obtain images of the group velocity over a test area.
In this interpretation a peak occurs for a maximum energy arrival and thus corresponds to the group velocity along its path.
On the group velocity of symmetric and upwind numerical schemes.
British Dictionary definitions for group velocity
(physics) the speed at which energy is propagated in a wave. This is the quantity determined when one measures the distance which the radiation travels in a given time. In a medium in which the speed increases with wavelength the group speed is less than the phase speed, and vice versa | <urn:uuid:422eea8d-0d5d-40ef-9bb0-f98e719ae0f1> | {
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Beyond the well-known Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, many smaller women’s rights and abolitionist conventions were held throughout the antebellum era. This 1853 meeting took place in the Broadway Tabernacle, located just a few blocks north of the American Museum. Participants, who included such prominent reformers as William Lloyd Garrison, Lucretia Coffin Mott, and William H. Channing, outlined a number of principles and argued that the existence of equal rights would not force all women to exercise them. Channing’s reference to Jenny Lind, the “Swedish Nightingale” who became famous in the U.S. thanks to P. T. Barnum, suggests the degree to which Barnum’s promotion of her as an “ideal” woman had permeated the popular consciousness.
Resolved, That this movement for the rights of women makes no attempt to decide whether woman is better or worse than man, neither affirms nor denies the equality of her intellect with that of man . . . does not seek to oblige woman any more than man is now obliged, to vote, take office, labor in the professions, mingle in public life, or manage her own property . . .
Resolved, That the monopoly of the elective franchise, and thereby of all the powers of legislation and government, by men, solely on the ground of sex, is a monstrous usurpation--condemned alike by reason and common sense, . . . and insulting to the dignity of human nature. . . .
Resolved, . . . that an unobstructed and general participation in all the branches of productive industry, and in all the business functions and offices of common life, is at once their natural right, their individual interest and their public duty; the claim and the obligation reciprocally supporting each other; that the idleness of the rich, with its attendant physical debility, moral laxity, passional intemperance and mental dissipation, and the ignorance, wretchedness and enforced profligacy of the poor, which are every where the curse and reproach of the sex, are the necessary results of their exclusion from those diversified employments which would otherwise furnish them with useful occupation . . .
Resolved, That this movement gives to the cause of education a new motive and impulse; makes a vast stride towards the settlement of the question of wages and social reform; goes far to cure that wide spread plague--the licentiousness of cities; adds to civilization a new element of progress; and in all these respects commends itself as one of the greatest reforms of the age. . . .
Mrs. Mott . . . The idea of the leaders of this movement is not that women should be obliged to accept the privileges which we demand should be open to her. There are, no doubt, many women who have no inclination to mingle in the busy walks of life; and many would, in all probability, feel conscientious scruples against voting, or taking any office under the present constitution of this country, considering some of its provisions. That, however, supplies no objection to the co-equality which we assert. . . .
William Lloyd Garrison . . . Some seem to think that, were women to vote, and be voted for, there would not be a sufficient number left at home to prepare the dinner, and mind the children. How many women would be required to devote their time so exclusively to political concerns? How many men sit in Congress and in the State Legislatures? Could not one woman be spared out of a large number, as easily as one man is, without there being any dread that enough would not be left to boil the kettle and darn the stockings? The objection is a foolish one . . . When you stand on a political equality with men, when you have the power to maintain and protect your rights, they will be maintained and protected, but never until then.
W. H. Channing . . . The largest assemblies greet with clamors Jenny Lind, when she enchains the ear and exalts the soul with the sublime strain, 'I know that my Redeemer liveth;' but when Mrs. Mott, or Miss Brown stands with a simple voice, and in the spirit of truth, to make manifest the honor due to our Redeemer, rowdies hiss, and respectable Christians veil their faces! So, woman can sing but not speak, that "our Redeemer liveth."
Source: Votes for Women: Selections from the National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection, 1848-1921— American Memory Collection, Library of Congress | <urn:uuid:035a341d-f879-46dc-97bb-9a57639c64e2> | {
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There is a common misconception that in the 17th and 18th century, people married very young—at fifteen or sixteen years old. Actually, the average age at marriage varies greatly depending on not only the time period but the location, and generally it is in the early to mid-20s.
In Colonial New England, 94-98% of men and women who survived to marriageable age actually got married. The average age of males was 25-27 and females 23-25. This is comparable to marriage ages in the 1980s! In Colonial Chesapeake, many males did not marry in the 17th century, probably due to a lack of available women. For immigrants, the average age for males to marry was 25-30and females 21-23. For native-born whites, the ages were younger, 16-17 for females and early for males if they inherited estate (which was quite common).
Sixteen percent of Quakers did not marry. In the 17th and early 18th century, the average marriage age for females was 22-23 and for males 26. The age for females rose by about 2 years in the late 18th century. On the frontier, the average age for females to marry was at age 19 and males at age 21.
In the late 19th century, a slightly smaller percentage of men and women married. The average age for females was 23 and for males it was 27. There was also a decline in the number of children born to families. Couples who married during the 1870s had an average of 2.8 children.
From the 1880s through 1960 there was a gradual decline in marriage age. By 1960 the average was 20.3 years for females and 23.4 years for males. By 1990 it had risen again, to 25.4 years for females and 27.6 years for males.
In the Colonial Period, average American families had six to eight children, and one in four families had 10 or more children! The standard way to estimate children's birth dates is to assume the first child was born about one year after marriage and subsequent children approximately every two years. This is helpful to get a general timeline for a family and to count backwards if you only know the birth date of one child.
By knowing the average age at time of marriage and the average number and spacing of children, we can better analyze previous research to spot possible problems. For example, if dates show a couple was very young or very old at the time of their first marriage, there may be an error. Likewise, children spaced less than nine months apart or more than three or four years apart may indicate a problem with dates or a missing child. Having many more children than average may indicate a second marriage or blended families (especially common in the South). | <urn:uuid:016a32c7-0faa-40fe-9d0c-8683a51aa288> | {
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Health Promotion and Wellness Programs: Top Health Risks
Obesity, tobacco use and stress are the most common hazards to health in the American workforce. In addition to the direct harm they cause to individual wellness, they also provoke many indirect issues related to health care.
Weight loss and tobacco cessation are similar in that they both require behavioral modification and a comprehensive maintenance plan to curb the chances of a relapse. Staff qualifications should indicate training and experience adequate to deal with this type of psychology.
Furthermore, weight loss and tobacco cessation programs have varying success rates across different demographics and within small groups; therefore, health promotion and wellness programs have to be tailored to fit individual needs.
Before a diet and exercise plan can be implemented, a Health Risk Assessment is necessary to seek out pre-conditions for heart disease or stroke which could be compromised by the health promotion and wellness program.
Exercise programs and nutrition education should be scientifically-based, drug-free and physician approved. Weight loss has to be the result of a balance between caloric intake, healthy meals and exercise.
For resources and guidelines pertaining to obesity, nutrition, exercise and diet plans, consult: National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute
Health Promotion and Physical Activity Programming
Encouraging people to exercise involves more than merely offering physical activity opportunities. Motivating employees includes acknowledging their present sedentary lifestyle and persuading them to make realistic and alternative lifestyle choices. The exercise program should be selected by the employee and offered during a time that is convenient for them in order to achieve a consistent participation rate.
Education will be necessary to teach employees the relationship between activity, diet and health and to demonstrate how this can be changed to encourage physical wellness. Health promotion and wellness program supervision will be necessary to ensure that injury does not develop and exercise programs are introduced safely.
Appropriate education in physiology, sports medicine or an equivalent and have a current CPR/First Aid certification should verify that health promotion and wellness programs are operated safely. The Health Risk Assessment should be checked to ensure the participant has agreed to a referral, elected exercise options and verified that there are no contravening health issues that preclude an exercise program.
Staff should monitor heart rate and blood pressure to protect health promotion and wellness program goals during all intervention procedures. Safe exercise guidelines are offered by the American College Of Sports Medicine. Free Fitness Handouts and Fitness Posters can also be found in our Wellness Library.
Wellness Programs and Tobacco Abuse
Smoking cessation is one of the most difficult health risk issues to tackle because nicotine is considered to be one of the most addictive substances. In order to succeed, participants must want to quit. Preparation to quit, support with choosing a method to quit and visible proof of results need to be demonstrated. Counseling should be available for the participant at any time.
Not all cessation programs work the same way with everyone. A qualified counselor should recognize individual differences and be able to match cessation programs with individual preferences. Diet plans, exercise programs, and activities that preclude smoking need to be presented as part of the cessation program.
Relapses are common; therefore, a maintenance plan is mandatory. Nicotine substitution patches, sprays, gums or other medicinal options should be included in the counseling session to support cessation efforts.
Guidelines and resources for cessation programs are plentiful. Some of the best offerings are presented at the Surgeon General’s website, The American Heart Association, The American Cancer Society, The American Lung Association, or Smoke Enders.
For the purpose of tracking tobacco cessation success rate, the participants who began the program need to be the same ones who finished it. Maintenance parts of cessation should be recorded for a minimum of one year.
Healthy Choices, Healthy Diet
The Health Risk Assessment tests where nutritional education would benefit. With almost a seventy percent rate of obesity, the American workforce is in dire need of healthy food choice counseling. Health promotion and wellness programs promote better food choices by teaching participants how to identify low carbohydrate, lower calorie, high protein, and high fiber foods.
Explaining the relationship between obesity and the escalating incidence of heart disease, Type II Diabetes and health care costs should help motivate participants to seek help to lose weight. Nutrition counseling resources should always be used in consultation with a trained.
Stress and the Workplace
Another common finding in health promotion and wellness programs is the need for stress management in the workplace. More stress-related problems are the result of the inability to cope with stressors, than they are of the issue that produces the stress.
Stress management should emphasis problem recognition and solving skills, effective communication, relaxation techniques and solution-based options. Coping mechanisms are encouraged by familiarizing employees with the organizational resources that can be used to deal with conflict as it arises. This prevents antagonistic situations from escalating and causing undue stress.
Writer Bio: John Bates is a leading wellness industry consultant and prolific writer about all aspects of health and wellness programs. His work can be found on numerous wellness websites including his own: Infinite Wellness Solution’s and Infinite Health Coach. | <urn:uuid:77fb4b80-7fab-46da-b0f2-d634ee862350> | {
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Houseplants are resilient little creatures, but with proper carelessness you can easily kill them off. Here are some proven methods for how to kill your favorite houseplants:
1. Over-watering.That's how I did away with Spike, our family cactus. For most plants, be sure that the soil dries out before watering. I was a little too enthusiastic about making sure Spike had enough water, and, sadly, he drowned. R.I.P., Spike.
2. Planting in a container with no drainage holes or allowing the plant to sit in standing water (for example, collected in the drip saucer).Congrats! This is an ideal way to suffocate your plant.
3. Not providing enough humidity. Be sure to mist your plant often or it will dehydrate.
4. Exposing your plant to direct heat or cold drafts. Would you want to sit all day on an ice-cold air conditioner or boiling-hot heating vent? Neither does your plant.
5. Keeping it in the dark. Most plants need some amount of daily natural light to thrive.
6. Over-fertilizing. Easy does it on the fertilizer! The recommended dose is half the amount of a water-soluble fertilizer suggested for outdoor plants once a month.
7. Ignoring pests. A pest infestation can kill a plant. Get rid of them by washing the plant with soap and water and, if weather permits, leaving them outside for a while so they don't infect your other plants.
8. Refusing to repot your plant.Healthy plants (and their roots) eventually outgrow their pot. I used to be intimidated by this step, but then I learned an easy way to repot a houseplant. Be sure to use packaged potting mix; regular garden soil will kill houseplants.
Do you often kill your houseplants? What's your preferred method of destruction?
See related articles: | <urn:uuid:0115de9c-fc98-47c0-a730-edca27e9b67f> | {
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February 25, 2016
Why reading matters, according to Dr. Seuss
In the realm of children’s literature, Dr. Seuss was a trailblazer. Through his 60 children’s books, he showed the world that reading matters for kids to be happy and successful. While his books are known for their humor and spirit, they also convey a moral lesson and incorporate strategies that help children improve their reading skills. His ability to make learning fun and accessible has won the hearts of children and parents alike. His legacy continues today — more than 20 years after his death.
Read Across America Day also marks Dr. Seuss’ birthday — a day to celebrate the wonderful characters and stories that Dr. Seuss created, and the valuable lessons learned from his books. Over 70 years ago, Dr. Seuss set in motion a noble mission of helping children learn to read, and Reading Partners is proud to pursue the same ideologies today.
“The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go.”
As a foundational skill for all other types of learning, reading matters for students to be successful in school and in life. Students who are not reading proficiently by fourth grade are four times more likely to drop out of high school. When given the right reading support, students can achieve their goals and create a bright future for themselves.
“Oh the things you can find, if you don’t stay behind!”
Studies have shown that young students who fall behind in reading are likely to fall behind in all subjects as their education switches from learning to read to reading to learn. If they can receive the one-on-one attention they need at an early age, they are much more likely to stay on track in all their learning endeavors. Reading also has the power to open up a whole new world of knowledge, creativity, and exploration for children, allowing them to find and follow their passions.
“Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot, nothing is going to get better. It’s not.”
Even Dr. Seuss knew about the power of volunteers! When communities come together to support their struggling readers, students can see amazing growth. Volunteers that demonstrate their passion and commitment to education by providing much-needed reading support to students are making a difference in the lives of their students every single day.
“You have brains in your head. You have feet in your shoes. You can steer yourself any direction you choose.”
When students are able to unlock the foundational skills they need to be able to read, they can move forward and be successful at whatever they attempt. They can make decisions that will lead to a happy, healthy, and successful life. Their confidence allows them to grow in ways they couldn’t otherwise, and leads them to pursue a future they will be proud of.
Dr. Seuss knew it then, and Reading Partners knows it now — reading matters!
Are you passionate about early literacy? Tell us why reading matters to you. Tag @ReadingPartners on Facebook or Twitter using #ReadingMatters and you might be featured on our social media accounts! | <urn:uuid:3fb46547-25b3-403a-b050-ffe4ab435e9c> | {
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Category - Internet
Topic - Google Tools
Issue - Language tools
We all know that Google is a great search engine. But did you know that Google is very global, and has a Language Tools option?
When Jennifer and I first discovered Google's Language Tools, we were very excited, especially since we both came to America from other countries. Now we frequently click on Language Tools and look up articles written in our native language.
Because the articles linked to this site are written by people from all over the world, some of the Language Tools options expose us to a variety of points of view. We think that's good. Here are some of those options. You can -
search for pages written in different languages
search for pages located in different countries
search for topics
translate from one language into another
Follow these instructions to use these Language Tools options.
Click on Language Tools
The Language Tools page will appear.
Type in your preferences in each of the three boxes, using the drop down arrow.
Click on Google Search. You will see a list of articles.
Click on an article written in a foreign language. That article will pop up.
If you want to translate that article into your default language (in this case, English), select Translate. The next page that pops up will be the original article translated into English.
Google Language Tools also lets you instantly translate words into the language of your choice. Scroll to Translate Text.
Write your original text in the Original Text box.
Select the language you want to have your text translated into by using the drop down arrow
Click on Translate.
The translation appears to the right of your original text (see Automatically Translated Text).
Google Language Tools provide several other options. For example, if you want your Google homepage, messages, and buttons to be displayed in a language other than the default English, click on Preferences. Google has almost 125 interface languages from which to choose.
You may also wish to use Google's Advanced Search option for specific phrase or topic choices which will appear in other languages.
Click on Advanced Search. The Advanced Search box appears.
Type in a phrase (four options are given; see boxes to the right of Find Results, below) and select as many results as you wish using the results drop down arrow.
Then, select the Language into which you want your results to be translated, using the Language/Return Pages Written In drop down arrow.
There are other search delivery options listed, such as; Date Range, Numeric Range, and Page Specific. There are also filter options, for your security.
Jennifer and I have visited Google's Language Tools frequently. We enjoy the reminders of our home country, but with so many language options at this site, we are also feeling quite global!
default – preset option; computing an option that will automatically be selected by a computer if the user does not choose one
global – relating to or happening throughout the whole world; taking all the different aspects of a situation into account
Find Out More - http://www.google.com
This web page contains links to one or more web pages that are outside the FCPS network. FCPS does not control the content or relevancy of these pages.
Submitted by - Lam Doan and Jennifer Vo
Site Manager - Chris Ricci
Back To Top
Back To Menu | <urn:uuid:5d3d9139-94ac-458f-90fd-430e80a493ac> | {
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We all know food is fuel, so it only makes sense that a proper fill-up is critical to a rewarding workout. Even if you're looking to lose weight, skimping on calories before exercise is not the path to success. Not only will it result in a lack of energy, but more muscle mass will actually be lost than created.
"Basic exercise does not burn all that many calories," says William D. Hart, PhD, assistant professor in the department of health sciences at Rogers State University in Claremore, Okla. "You cannot get rid of the three pieces of pumpkin pie at the gym tomorrow. But exercise adds muscle, so that over time your body naturally burns more calories per day."
For a healthy diet, Hart recommends following the United States Department of Agriculture My Pyramid guidelines, emphasizing whole grains, fruits, and vegetables while avoiding fried and fatty foods.
As for exercise, it's critical to combine weight training with high-intensity interval work during aerobic activities such as walking or jogging on a treadmill or using an elliptical machine.
Pre-Workout Meal Plan
While it's important to eat something before exercising, be careful to allow enough time for digestion. A good blood supply is required to process food, so conflicts can occur when the same blood is needed to bring nutrients to muscles during a workout. "Your goal is to make sure that the meal is essentially gone when you start the exercise," says Hart. "A good rule of thumb would be eating no closer than one and a half to two hours ahead of time."
Keep in mind that the amount of fat in the meal and the intensity of the exercise can also affect digestion time. The more fat, the longer it takes to be digested and the more time should be allowed. How taxing the workout is can change the amount of blood needed for the muscles. If the exercise is mild, eating closer to the start time is acceptable.
As to the type of food, Thomas A. Fox, an exercise physiologist and author of The System for Health and Weight Loss, recommends fresh fruit, vegetables, and whole grains, such as whole-wheat bread. An ideal pre-workout meal consists of protein — 10 to 35 percent, carbohydrates — 45 to 65 percent, and fat — 20 to 35 percent.
And what about those who exercise in the morning vs. the evening? The timing really shouldn't affect the diet. Many people have a preference for foods appropriate to the time of day, but as long as the right amount and type of calories are ingested, the specific selection is not important.
Post-Workout Meal Plan
If the exercise has been intense, it's crucial to eat within an hour of the end of the workout in order to refuel the body's cells. "A decent-sized meal within that 60-minute post-workout period will greatly increase the ability to recover and help build lean muscle tissue," says Jonathan Mulholland, DC, a chiropractor, exercise scientist, and consultant for the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Lake Placid, N.Y. An ideal ratio is 4:1 carbohydrates to protein, with an easy option being a glass of chocolate skim milk.
For mild workouts, a light snack is sufficient to tide you over until the next meal. Another good idea is eating less but more frequently, since consuming more than can be digested and burned at one time translates to the extra food turning into fat.
Finally, no matter when or how vigorous the exercise, be sure to always eat breakfast. A variety of studies have shown people who ate the most in the morning are generally thinner and consumed fewer calories the rest of the day. Turns out, Mom was right all along. | <urn:uuid:49d6231d-629a-4e33-bf86-c670c49383dd> | {
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Sentinel node biopsy is a surgical procedure used to determine if cancer has spread beyond a primary tumor into your lymphatic system. Sentinel node biopsy is used most commonly in evaluating breast cancer and melanoma.
The sentinel nodes are the first few lymph nodes into which a tumor drains. Sentinel node biopsy involves injecting a tracer material that helps the surgeon locate the sentinel nodes during surgery. The sentinel nodes are removed and analyzed in a laboratory. If the sentinel nodes are free of cancer, then cancer isn't likely to have spread and removing additional lymph nodes is unnecessary.
If, after sentinel node biopsy, evaluation of the sentinel nodes reveals cancer, then you'll likely need additional lymph nodes removed for your doctor to determine how far the cancer has spread.
Sentinel node biopsy is recommended for people with certain types of cancer in order to determine whether the cancer cells have migrated into the lymphatic system.
Sentinel node biopsy is routinely used for people with:
Sentinel node biopsy is sometimes used in other types of cancer, such as:
- Cervical cancer
- Colon cancer
- Endometrial cancer
- Head and neck cancer
- Non-small cell lung cancer
- Stomach cancer
- Thyroid cancer
- Vulvar cancer
Sentinel node biopsy is generally a safe procedure. But as with any surgery, sentinel node biopsy carries a risk of complications, including:
- Pain or bruising at the biopsy site
- Allergic reaction to the dye used for the procedure
- Lymphedema — a condition in which your lymph vessels are unable to adequately drain lymph fluid from an area of your body, causing fluid buildup and swelling
Although lymphedema is an unlikely complication of sentinel node biopsy, one of the main reasons sentinel node biopsy was developed was to decrease the chance of developing lymphedema, which is more likely to occur if many lymph nodes are removed from one area. Because only a few lymph nodes are removed, the risk of lymphedema following sentinel node biopsy is very small. Dozens of other lymph nodes will remain in the region of your body where the sentinel node biopsy is done. In most cases, those remaining lymph nodes can effectively process the lymph fluid.
Your doctor may ask you to avoid eating and drinking for a certain period of time before the procedure to avoid anesthesia complications. Ask your doctor about your specific situation.
Locating the sentinel nodes
The first step in a sentinel node biopsy is to locate the sentinel node. There are two options for locating the sentinel node:
- Radioactive solution. In this option, a weak radioactive solution is injected near the tumor. This solution is taken up by your lymphatic system and travels to the sentinel nodes. This injection is usually done several hours or the day before the surgical procedure to remove the sentinel nodes.
- Blue dye. Your doctor may inject a harmless blue dye into the area near the tumor. The dye is taken up by your lymphatic system and delivered to the sentinel nodes, staining them bright blue. The blue dye is typically injected just before the surgical procedure to remove the sentinel nodes.
Whether you receive the radioactive solution or the blue dye to locate the sentinel nodes is usually determined by your surgeon's preference. Some surgeons use both techniques in the same procedure.
During sentinel node biopsy
Usually, surgeons perform sentinel node biopsy during general anesthesia, so you're not aware during the procedure.
The surgeon begins by making a small incision in the area over the lymph nodes. If you've received the injection of radioactive solution prior to the procedure, the surgeon uses a small hand-held instrument called a gamma detector to determine where the radioactivity has accumulated and identify the sentinel nodes. If the blue dye is used, it stains the sentinel nodes bright blue, allowing the surgeon to see them. The surgeon then removes the sentinel nodes. In most cases, there are two or three sentinel nodes, and all are removed.
The sentinel nodes are sent to a pathologist to examine under a microscope for signs of cancer.
In some cases, sentinel node biopsy is done at the same time as surgery to remove the cancer. In other cases, sentinel node biopsy can be done before or after surgery to remove the cancer.
After sentinel node biopsy
After sentinel node biopsy, you're moved to a recovery room where the health care team monitors you for complications from the procedure and anesthesia. If you don't undergo additional surgery, you'll be able to go home the same day. How soon you can return to your regular activities will depend on your situation. Talk to your doctor about your specific case.
If you have sentinel node biopsy as part of a procedure to remove the cancer, your hospital stay will be determined by the extent of your operation.
If examination of the sentinel nodes does not show any sign of cancer, no further lymph node evaluation is needed, and your doctor will use this information to help develop your cancer treatment plan, if further treatment is needed.
If any of the sentinel nodes contain cancer, you'll likely need to have additional lymph nodes removed to determine the extent of lymph node involvement.
In certain cases, the sentinel nodes can be examined by a pathologist during your procedure. If your surgeon has this information while you're still in the operating room, additional lymph nodes may be removed right away. This way, you may not need to have another surgery to remove additional lymph nodes.
Nov. 15, 2011
- Harlow SP, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast cancer: Techniques. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed Oct. 3, 2011.
- Robison K, et al. Update on sentinel lymph node evaluation in gynecologic malignancies. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2011;23:8.
- Sentinel lymph node biopsy. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/sentinel-node-biopsy. Accessed Oct. 3, 2011. | <urn:uuid:9115510e-ebae-4106-9047-b0fbca4dd37c> | {
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The killer fungus ravaging amphibian populations around the world is so deadly because it secretes a chemical that causes its hosts' white blood cells to self-destruct. Once the molecule responsible for this attack is identified, it may be possible to combat the disease by bolstering species' immune systems.
Since the 1980s, many species of frogs and salamanders have been wiped out. Scientists agree that the chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is at least partly responsible for these mass die-offs. The fungus attacks the amphibians' skin cells, upsetting their fluid balance and, in severe infections, causes death by heart failure.
But this vulnerability is surprising. After all, amphibians spend a lot of their lives in pools of murky water, teeming with all kinds of microorganisms. "Amphibians have really capable immune systems, yet here they are stumbling against this skin pathogen," says Louise Rollins-Smith, an immunologist at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. "Why does this pathogen seem to fail to activate that robust response?"
To find out, Rollins-Smith and her colleagues tested the effect of chytrid fungal cells on white blood cells, or lymphocytes, cultured from frogs. They found that both live and heat-killed chytrids inhibited the production of lymphocytes and made them more likely to self-destruct in a process called apoptosis – the way old or damaged cells are naturally cleared from the body. The loss of these cells leaves the animals unable to eradicate the chytrid infection before it does further damage to their skin cells.
The same effect was seen when the researchers inserted a permeable membrane between the chytrids and the lymphocytes, suggesting that the culprit is a soluble molecule released by the chytrids.
James Collins, an ecologist at Arizona State University in Tempe, who specialises in amphibian disease, calls the experiments thoughtful and thorough, and says they help answer the question of how the chytrid fungus is able to overcome amphibians' usually robust immune system.
Potent immune suppressant
Rollins-Smith's team has not yet identified the molecule responsible. So far, tests have shown that it is not a protein. They suspect it may be part of the chytrid's cell wall since chytrid spores, which lack such architecture, do not have the same effect.
Whatever the immune-suppressing chemical is, it seems to be unusually broad in its effect, acting on a wide range of amphibians and even mammalian cell cultures, the team found. Indeed, the molecule may be worth investigating as a potential source of new immune-suppressing drugs for people, Collins suggests.
The discovery may also lead to new ways to manage chytrid infections in amphibians. Once researchers identify the molecule and how it disables the immune system, the hope is that conservationists may be able to block that action or find a way to boost the frogs' immunity, says Rollins-Smith.
Journal reference: Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1243316
If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. | <urn:uuid:fb021d7f-3c24-42b0-8150-e8e367850556> | {
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Outer space contains a low density of particles, primarily hydrogen gas, along with electromagnetic radiation. Many people, however, mistakenly believe outer space is a complete vacuum. The term "outer space" is used mainly to distinguish the space between planets from the planets and their airspace.Continue Reading
Mashable notes that it is the almost total lack of gas molecules that leads many people to assume outer space is a total vacuum. Large bodies, primarily planets and stars, pull most gas molecules toward themselves through gravitational attraction. What is left is a relatively low density of gas molecules and waves of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. In other words, there is not much between planets and stars, but matter does exist in these spaces.
According to space and astronomy news website Space.com, while the Earth is particularly laden with gas molecules, its exosphere, or highest layer above the atmosphere, is remarkably thin, merging into outer space. The exosphere contains only highly dispersed particles of helium and hydrogen.
Even intergalactic space contains some matter, according to Scientific American. The diffuse gas of intergalactic space is primarily dark energy and dark matter, meaning it is not influenced by the sun and is likely composed of highly weak interacting particles formed shortly after the Big Bang.Learn more about Astronomy | <urn:uuid:a333a1df-9bc3-4d61-a73e-5ded5515708f> | {
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Think Twice about Leatherleaf Mahonia
(Editor's Note: This article was originally published on January 25, 2009. Your comments are welcome but please be aware that authors of previously published articles may not be able to respond to your questions.)
Leatherleaf is not a fabulous, showstopping shrub. Yet this same plant has special talents that keep it out of the "slate for total annihilation" category. Thinking twice about leatherleaf mahonia is a good exercise in assessing a plant's suitability in your particular landscape situation.
Hardy, adaptable, hollylike broadleaf evergreen
Mahonia bealei (also called leatherleaf mahonia or Beale's barberry) is originally from China but has been available to Western gardeners for generations. It's a medium sized bush that reminds you of holly but with compound leaves borne on upright stems. A coarse textured flowering shrub, it does best in a somewhat shaded location. Mature height for leatherleaf is in the range of 8 to 12 feet. Leatherleaf mahonia is not picky about soil type, rarely suffers from insect pests, and is said to be hardy in zones 6 through 9.
Winter is when leatherleaf mahonia catches your eye. Notice the new year's growth as cold weather settles in, when bright-yellowish green buds swell from the tips of the stems as shown above. Each growth point erupts into a cluster of one to two dozen spires of yellow flowers, tiny bright bells above the dark green foliage. If you're lucky and have a warm spell in midwinter, be sure to step closer and enjoy your first scent of spring. You might even see a brave bee working the flowers on an early nectar gathering mission. Each flower produces a small oval, purple fruit. The strings of purple fruits are reminiscent of grape clusters; some Mahonias have "grape" incorporated in the common name. Birds enjoy those fruits.
Naturalized, not native, in North America
Leatherleaf mahonia was brought to Europe from its home in China in the 1800s. This shrub's ability to tolerate many sites, and the fact that birds eat the berries, has allowed leatherleaf mahonia to naturalize in parts of the United States. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS database shows this species populating most of the southeastern states. In fact, some states have listed leatherleaf mahonia as an invasive plant or noxious weed, making it ill advised or illegal to plant leatherleaf in those areas. Invasive.org currently shows this Mahonia on prohibited plant lists in Alabama, Georgia, Michigan, South Carolina, and Tennessee.
In your landscape?
Since this barberry can self sow, you may find yourself gifted with a seedling through natural processes. It's also available commercially. Should you use leatherleaf mahonia in your landscape? In areas where this plant has not (yet) been found to be invasive, you might want to use this shrub for its unique look. A number of Dave's Gardeners have given it favorable marks in PlantFiles. Keep these points in mind:
It's a very stiff prickly bush. That may make it a good choice for a barrier or security planting, as a tough, natural deterrent to passersby or lingerers. Site it carefully. At the least, you'll want to allow ample distance between your leatherleaf and your sidewalks or deck. It can be maintained easily to a five or six foot width. This bush is NOT to be brushed up against.
It's a slow narrow grower, tending to few upright stems. This barberry won't spread widely; left alone, it will have a few stems, each bearing a top hat of large compound leaves. For more branches, and thus most blooms, judiciously prune one or more stems. New growth will emerge just below the cut. Leatherleaf's slow growth rate makes it very easy to maintain at a desired size.
It can self sow. Although only a few states have listed it as invasive or noxious, one would think there is potential for leatherleaf mahonia to expand its range. A Dave's Garden user in South Carolina has commented negatively in PlantFiles, attesting to leatherleaf's persistence in that region. I seriously doubt the Plant Police will raid your yard, but surely we should heed the recommendations of those who study noxious plants as a career and comply with their statutes.
In final analysis, leatherleaf doesn't seem to be such a bad guy in many places, and can be useful and attractive in its own way. But the world of cultivated and native shrubs is big. Mahonia aquifolium, Oregon grape holly, is a native American relative of leatherleaf.
Why not read Winter Blooming Shrubs: The Short List by Jacqueline Cross for ornamental alternatives to leatherleaf? The Garden In Winter by Larry Rettig suggests many other ideas for winter interest. Or refer to What to Feed Backyard Birds by Marna Towne, so you'll know how to keep the birds happy in winter without leatherleaf Mahonia. I think that about covers the second (and third and fourth...) thoughts you might have about leatherleaf mahonia. With these linked resources, and more available to you in Dave's Garden, you should be able to resolve second thoughts on just about anything in your garden.
~*~ ~*~ ~*~
Resources and credits
Invasive.org- A helpful website for researching possible invasive plants in North America
USDA NRCS Plants Database- A helpful site for researching plant species in North America
Duke University page about leatherleaf mahonia
Klingaman, Gerald, extension agent retired, University of Arkansas Plant of the Week article, 2004
Virtual Plant Tags- link to a page on leatherleaf mahonia, citing Dirr's observations
All photos taken by and property of the author.
*If possible, feel free to dmail me and describe what its like to NOT be excited about plants. | <urn:uuid:477b7888-760f-4534-887e-d702acaa05aa> | {
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Inflation (price increases) means your money will get you less tomorrow than it will today. This concept is important because it has an impact on salary increases as well as savings rates.
Here is one example:
Tell your child you are giving them a salary of $1 for the month and with that $1 they can buy a favorite treat for $1. Next month, increase the salary by 10% or $1.10. Aren’t they feeling great? They have $1.10 now when they only had $1 last month. However, the cost of the same item has gone up 20% to $1.2. Ask them whether they can buy the treat now? The answer is no. Inflation makes goods more expensive over time and to keep up financially your salary/wages have to grow at least at the same level or more than the cost of the goods.
Here is another example:
Sometimes retailers try to hide inflation. They do this by not changing the price of an item, but by making the amount that you get for the same price smaller. Give your child $1 and let him or her buy one item with the money. Next month, give the child $1 and let him or her buy a smaller version of the item with the money. Does the child feel better off or worse off versus last month? The price has not changed, but the amount that the person can get for the price does.
Why does inflation make the price of things go up?
This will probably be a question. The simple answer (and there is no really simple answer) is that costs of material, salary increases for employees, etc. all contribute to making the price of items increase. If your salary does not increase accordingly, you have lost money without even being fully aware of it at first. | <urn:uuid:3f7a6b52-567e-4188-a110-4987c698bf59> | {
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Circadian clock aging
Circadian clock aging
In mammals, the central circadian clock is a cellular mechanism found in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Photic information is perceived by the retina and transmitted to the SCN via the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Synchronization of SCN cells leads to coordinated circadian outputs that regulate peripheral rhythms.
The circadian clock controls a wide array of physiological and behavioral systems, including energy metabolism, gastrointestinal tract motility, sleep-wake cycles, cardiovascular activity, endocrine secretion, body temperature, renal activity, and locomotor activity. This control is emphasized by timed manifestations of certain pathologies, such as hypertensive crises, myocardial infarction, and asthma and allergy attacks. Disruption of the coordination between the endogenous clock and the environment leads to symptoms of fatigue, disorientation, and insomnia as seen in jet-lagged travelers or altered hormone profiles and high morbidity as seen in shift workers. Moreover, disruption of circadian rhythms can seriously impact overall health and increase cancer proneness.
In mammals, the aging process leads to major alterations in output rhythms of the circadian clock. These changes include a shift in the phase and decrease in amplitude. In humans, aging is associated with a phase advance in melatonin secretion and body temperature rhythms. Indeed, unlike young human subjects, older individuals typically show earlier habitual time of sleeping and waking alongside disturbed sleep. The mechanisms leading to the aging-related alterations are largely unknown, but they are paralleled by changes in the neurochemical and electrophysiological output of the SCN with no change in cell number or size. For example, SCN shows alterations in the expression of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), arginine vasopressin (AVP), and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) as well as a reduction in the amplitude of rhythmic electrical activity.
The circadian clock in mammals regulates metabolism by mediating the expression and/or activity of certain metabolic enzymes, hormones, and transport systems. A large number of nuclear receptors involved in lipid and glucose metabolism has been found to exhibit circadian expression. The rhythmic expression and activity of the metabolic pathways is mainly attributed to the robust and coordinated expression of clock genes in the liver and adipose tissue | <urn:uuid:66435a10-3548-43be-94c3-49000d11dcd7> | {
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We’ve asked conservation organisations around the world to nominate a species that they believe to be overlooked, underappreciated and unloved, and tell us why they think that they deserve a fair share of the limelight, this Valentine’s Day.
Each nominee’s story is featured on the Arkive blog with information on the species, what makes them so special, the conservation organisation that nominated them and how they are working to save them from extinction.
Click the ‘unloved species’ tag above to see all of the nominations and their blogs.
Once you have perused the blogs you can vote for your favourite to help get them into the top ten unloved species and get them the recognition that they truly deserve! Share your favourite with others using the #LoveSpecies hashtag on Twitter and Facebook and tell them why they should vote for them too. Voting closes on February 14th at 23:59 PST (07:59 GMT).
Join us and our conservation partners in celebrating and raising awareness for some of the world’s most unloved species this Valentine’s Day!
Species: Common otter
Nominated by: Sheffield and Rotherham Wildlife Trust
Conservation status: Near Threatened globally. Strictly protected by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (as amended) and by the EC Habitats Directive, (transposed into domestic law through the Conservation (Natural Habitats &c) Regulations 1994 (as amended) (the Habitats Regulations). Under the Habitats Regulations otters are classed as a European Protected Species and therefore given the highest level of protection.
Why do you love it? Otters were pushed to the brink of extinction during the 20th century through a combination of water pollution, pesticide poisoning, persecution and habitat destruction. In our area, Sheffield and Rotherham, we have not been kind to our rivers for the last couple of hundred years. Much of the local steel industry grew up along the Don and Rother river corridors, as well as installations associated with the coal industry, and the two rivers suffered badly from unsympathetic modifications made for the convenience of industry and from the dumping of waste products. It is hardly surprising that otters disappeared from our patch.
But now, following improvements in water quality and strenuous efforts by a number of agencies to restore their habitat, it appears that otters are making a comeback. Surveys we carried out 10 years ago revealed evidence of otters but we would like to re-survey the River Don to see if otter numbers have increased.
What are the threats to the common otter? The otter was once widespread in Europe, but populations declined sharply during the 1960s and 1970s due to pollution, exacerbated by hunting and habitat loss. Historically, otters occurred over most of the UK. However, persecution, habitat loss and, more recently, the impact of toxic organochlorine insecticides caused a marked reduction in the range of the species. The otter is still scarce over much of England. However, recent surveys suggest that the otter population is recovering well and recolonising parts of its former range.
What are you doing to save it? Otterly Amazing is a new project which will support the spread of otters along the Rivers Don and Rother. We plan to carry out further habitat improvements to complement work that has already been done, but first we need to carry out more detailed survey work to build up a full picture of our local otter population, how big it is and where it lives, feeds and breeds.
To give more people the opportunity to learn about this amazing species, we hope to install a number of wildlife cameras to record footage of our remarkable local otters which can then be viewed on our website and as part of a new exhibition at Sheffield’s Weston Park Museum. | <urn:uuid:d00ed513-a922-432f-bf23-4cdbc198c2ec> | {
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Cystic fibrosis is the most common fatal genetic disorder in North America. CF affects the epithelial transport in exocrine tissues. The disorder produces thick, sticky mucus secretions that may seriously impair the function of various organ systems. The organ systems that are affected include the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract, the liver, the genitourinary system, and the sweat glands.
CF has three major consequences: chronic lung disease, pancreatic insufficiency, and abnormally high electrolyte concentrations in the sweat.
Cystic fibrosis causes pancreatic insufficiency in most cases, causing 85-90% of serious cases to require pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). With age, damage to the pancreas becomes worse. The thick mucus obstructs the small pancreatic ducts and interferes with the secretion of digestive enzymes, pancreatic juices, and pancreatic hormones. Eventually, the pancreatic cells are surrounded by mucus and are gradually replaced by fibrous tissues. Malabsorption of many nutrients including fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals often leads to malnutrition. Additionally, the secretion of insulin may be affected resulting in glucose intolerance and diabetes.
With high energy needs, fat restrictions are inappropriate. Instead, pancreatic enzyme replacements are used to control Steatorrhea, relieve abdominal pain, and reduce the mass and frequency of stools passed. To improve the effectiveness of the enzyme replacements, H2-blockers are often provided as well. Even with enzyme replacements, from 10-20% of food energy is lost in the stools.
Pancreatic insufficiency has a strong influence on nutrition status and is a predictor of long-term outcome. The thickened secretions obstruct the pancreatic ducts and prevent the secretions of lipase, amylase, proteases, and bicarbonate. When pancreatic insufficiency is present, individuals are treated with pancreatic enzyme extracts. All enzyme products contain the various enzymes synthesized by the pancreas, including amylase, proteases and lipase in varying amounts. Commercial enzyme products vary in lipase activity from 4,000-25,000 U lipase/capsule. They are available in powder form as tablets that are acid labile or as enteric-coated microspheres- the enteric coating is designed to protect the enzyme from destruction by the acidic environment of the stomach.
Pancreatic enzymes are always taken when food or beverages are consumed. The dosage for enzymes in individualized based on the patient’s diet, nutritional status, degree of pancreatic insufficiency, intestinal pH, and GI anatomy and physiology. Because of inconsistencies in enzyme formulations, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued a rule requiring manufacturers of pancreatic enzyme supplements to obtain approval for their products. Prior to obtaining approval, manufacturers will need to test the enzymes in clinical trials and demonstrate that they are safe and effective. This rule means that the FDA now requires pancreatic enzymes to meet the same standards of testing as any other new drug. | <urn:uuid:88a11bab-6e1e-4ff5-b446-94b5327d660b> | {
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} |
Individual differences |
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Aspirin chemical structure
| 2-acetoxybenzoic acid|
| CAS number |
| ATC code |
| PubChem |
| DrugBank |
|Molecular weight||180.160 g/mol|
|Bioavailability||rapid & complete|
|Elimination half-life|| 300–650 mg dose: 3.1–3.2hrs|
1 g dose: 5 hours
2 g dose: 9 hours
|Routes of administration||oral|
Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (IPA: [əˈsɛtlˌsæləˈsɪlɪk ˈæsɪd]), (acetosal) is a drug in the family of salicylates, often used as an analgesic (to relieve minor aches and pains), antipyretic (to reduce fever), and as an anti-inflammatory. It also has an antiplatelet ("blood-thinning") effect and is used in long-term, low doses to prevent heart attacks and thrombus formation in hypercoaguable states (e.g.in cancer).
Low-dose, long-term aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation. This anticoagulant property makes it useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks. Aspirin produced for this purpose often comes in 75 or 81 mg, dispersible tablets and is sometimes called "junior aspirin" or "baby aspirin." High doses of aspirin are also given immediately after an acute heart attack. These doses may also inhibit the synthesis of prothrombin and may, therefore, produce a second and different anticoagulant effect, but this is not well understood.
Its primary, undesirable side-effects, especially in higher doses, are gastrointestinal distress (including ulcers and stomach bleeding) and tinnitus. Another side-effect, due to its anticoagulant properties, is increased bleeding in menstruating women. Because there appears to be a correlation between aspirin and Reye's syndrome in children under the age of about 12, aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms or the symptoms of chickenpox in minors.
Aspirin was the first-discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), not all of which are salicylates, though they all have similar effects and a similar action mechanism.
Aspirin as genericized trademark Edit
The brand name Aspirin was coined by the Bayer company of Germany. In some countries the name is used as a generic term for the drug rather than the manufacturer's trademark. In countries in which Aspirin remains a trademark, the initialism ASA (for acetylsalicylic acid) is used as a generic term.
The name "aspirin" is composed of a- (from the acetyl group) -spir- (from the plant genus Spiraea) and -in (a common ending for drugs at the time). It has also been stated that the name originated by another means. "As" referring to AcetylSalicylic and "pir" in reference to one of the scientists who was able to isolate it in crystalline form, Raffaele Piria. Finally, "in" because it was a common ending for drugs at the time.
On March 6, 1899, Bayer registered it as a trademark. However, the German company lost the right to use the trademark in many countries because the Allies seized and resold its foreign assets after World War I. The right to use "Aspirin" in the United States (along with all other Bayer trademarks) was purchased from the U.S. government by Sterling Drug in 1918. Even before the patent for the drug expired in 1917, Bayer had been unable to stop competitors from copying the formula and using the name elsewhere, so, with a flooded market, the public was unable to recognize "Aspirin" as coming from only one manufacturer. Sterling was subsequently unable to prevent "Aspirin" from being ruled a genericized trademark in a U.S. federal court in 1921. Sterling was ultimately acquired by Bayer in 1994, but this did not restore the U.S. trademark. Other countries (such as Canada and many countries in Europe) still consider "Aspirin" a protected trademark.
Hippocrates, a Greek physician, wrote in the 5th century BC about a bitter powder extracted from [willow bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient Sumer, Lebanon, and Assyria. The Cherokee and other Native Americans used an infusion of the bark for fever and other medicinal purposes for centuries. The medicinal part of the plant is the inner bark and was used as a pain reliever for a variety of ailments. The Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, noted in 1763 that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever.
The active extract of the bark, called salicin, after the Latin name for the white willow (Salix alba), was isolated to its crystalline form in 1828 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist, and Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist. Piria was able to convert the substance into a sugar and a second component, which on oxidation becomes [[salicylic acid
Salicylic acid was also isolated from the herb meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria, formerly classified as Spiraea ulmaria) by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as gastric irritation and bleeding and diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses.
A French chemist Charles Frederic Gerhardt was first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid (future aspirin) in 1853. In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides, he mixed acetyl chloride with a sodium salt of salicylic acid (sodium salicylate). A vigorous reaction ensued, and the resulting melt soon solidified. Since no structural theory existed at that time Gerhardt called the compound he obtained "salicylic-acetic anhydride" (wasserfreie Salicylsäure-Essigsäure). When Gerhardt tried to dissolve the solid in a diluted solution of sodium carbonate it immediately decomposed to sodium salts of salicylic and acetic acids. This preparation of aspirin ("salicylic-acetic anhydride") was one of the many reactions Gerhardt conducted for his paper on anhydrides, and he did not pursue it further.
Six years later in 1859 von Gilm obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid (he called it "acetylirte Salicylsäure") by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride. In 1869 Schröder, Prinzhorn and Kraut (Prinzhorn is credited in the paper with conducting the experiments) repeated both Gerhardt's (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm's (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded that both reactions gave the same compound--acetylsalicylic acid. They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen.
In 1897 Felix Hoffmann a chemist at Friedrich Bayer & Co. obtained acetylsalicylic acid by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetic anhydride, that is essentially repeating the Gilm/Kraut procedure but substituting acetic anhydride for acetyl chloride. This synthesis served as the basis for Bayer claims to discovery of aspirin. According to a legend publicized by Bayer, Hoffmann made some of the formula and gave it to his father, who was suffering from the pain of arthritis and could not stand the side-effects of salicylic acid. Much later in 1949 another Bayer researcher Arthur Eichengrün asserted his own priority as a discoverer of aspirin (see below for the details of Hoffmann-Eichengrün controversy). This argument did much to obscure the real history of aspirin, whose origins is not the pharmaceutical industry but an earlier academic research. Despite the fact that pure aspirin was synthesized by von Gilm and by Kraut's group many years before Hoffmann (see above), Bayer continues to insist that "The active ingredient in Aspirin®, acetylsalicylic acid, was synthesized for the first time in a chemically pure and thus stable form in 1897 by a young chemist working for Bayer, Dr. Felix Hoffmann."
However, German patent office refused to grant Bayer patent for acetylsalicylic acid on the grounds that neither the product nor the process of preparation were novel. In 1905 Bayer sued Chemische Fabrik von Heyden in Britain for infringing the British patent on aspirin granted to it in 1900. Hayden claimed that existing prior art, in particular Kraut's work invalidated Bayer's patent. Bayer advanced the argument that they were first to prepare pure form of aspirin. Judge agreed with Hayden and invalidated Bayer patent. Similar struggle took place in the Circuit court in Chicago; however, in the US the Bayer's patent was upheld in 1909. This created a situation when aspirin in the US was three times more expensive than in Canada and ten times more expensive than in Europe, and resulted in rampant smuggling of aspirin, which Bayer unsuccessfully tried to contain.
Bayer began marketing aspirin in July 1899. It was marketed alongside another of Hoffmann's products, an acetylated derivative of morphine called 'Heroin' that he invented 11 days after aspirin[How to reference and link to summary or text]. Heroin was initially the more successful of the two painkillers and it was common belief that it was healthier than aspirin. But, as heroin's shortcoming of addictiveness became more obvious, aspirin stepped to the forefront. Aspirin was originally sold as a powder (still the preferred form in many European countries) and was an instant success; in 1914, Bayer introduced aspirin tablets.
Several claims to invention of acetylsalicylic acid have arisen. Acetylsalicylic acid was already being manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik von Heyden Company in 1897, although without a brand name[How to reference and link to summary or text]. A new pretender to the title of aspirin discoverer appeared in 1949. Arthur Eichengrün who was 81 "claimed that he had instructed Hoffmann to synthesise acetylsalicylic acid and that the latter had done so without knowing the purpose of the work". In 2000, Walter Sneader of University of Strathclyde in Glasgow reexamined the case and concluded that "Arthur Eichengrün was telling the truth when he wrote that acetylsalicylic acid was synthesised under his direction and that the drug would not have been introduced in 1899 without his intervention". Subsequently, in his polemic with Sneader, Axel Helmstaedter, General Secretary of International Society for the History of Pharmacy, noted that Sneader did not credit several earlier publications which discussed the Hoffmann-Eichengrün controversy in detail, with most historians doubting Eichengrün's account. Bayer countered to Sneader in a press-release that according to the records, Hoffmann and Eichengrün held equal positions, and Eichengrün was not Hoffmann's supervisor. Hoffmann was named on the US Patent as the inventor, which Sneader did not mention. Eichengrün who left Bayer in 1908 had multiple opportunities to claim the priority and had never before 1949 done it; neither he claimed or received any percentage of the profit from aspirin sales.
It was not until the 1970s that the mechanism of action of aspirin and similar drugs called NSAIDs was elucidated (see below).
Synthesis of aspirin Edit
The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction, where the alcohol group from the salicylic acid reacts with an acid (acetyl anhydride) to form an ester. Aspirin is commercially synthesized using a two-step process. First, phenol (generally extracted from coal tar) is treated with a sodium base which generates sodium phenoxide, which is then reacted with carbon dioxide under high temperature and pressure to yield salicylate, which is acidified, yielding salicylic acid. This process is known as the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction.
Salicylic acid is then acetylated using acetic anhydride, yielding aspirin and acetic acid as a byproduct. It is a common experiment performed in undergraduate organic chemistry practicals, and generally tends to produce low yields due to the relative difficulty of its extraction from an aqueous state. The trick to getting the reaction to work is to acidify with phosphoric acid and heat the reagents under reflux with a boiling water bath for between 40 to 60 minutes.
The original synthesis of aspirin from salicylic acid involved acetylation with acetyl chloride. Unfortunately, the byproduct from this is hydrochloric acid, which is corrosive and environmentally hazardous. As described above, it was then later found that acetic anhydride was a better acylating agent, with the byproduct acetic acid formed, which does not have the unwanted properties of hydrochloric acid and can also be recycled. The salicylic acid/acetic anhydride method is commonly employed in undergraduate teaching labs.
Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar. This is because aspirin can undergo autocatalytic degradation to salicylic acid in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and acetic acid.
Mechanism of action Edit
In 1971, the British pharmacologist, John Robert Vane, who was then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed that aspirin had suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. For this piece of research he was awarded both a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 and a knighthood.
Aspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its non-competitive and irreversible inhibition of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. Cyclooxygenase is required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the COX enzyme. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors.
Prostaglandins are local hormones (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. The side-effect of this is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin.
There are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and modifies the enzymatic activity of COX-2. Normally COX-2 produces prostanoids, most of which are pro-inflammatory. Aspirin-modified COX-2 produces lipoxins, most of which are anti-inflammatory. Newer NSAID drugs called COX-2 selective inhibitors have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the hope for reduction of gastrointestinal side-effects.
However, several of the new COX-2 selective inhibitors have been recently withdrawn, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGI2; prostacyclin) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGI2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, an important difference with reversible inhibitors.
Furthermore, aspirin has 2 additional modes of actions, contributing to its strong analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties:
- It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria, by diffusing from the inner membrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix, where it ionizes once again to release protons. In short, aspirin buffers and transports the protons. (Note: This effect in high doses of aspirin actually causes fever due to the heat released from the electron transport chain, instead of its normal antipyretic action.)
- It induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body that enable the white blood cells (leukocytes) to fight infections more effectively. This has been found recently by Dr. Derek W. Gilroy, winning Bayer's International Aspirin Award 2005.
More recent data suggest that salicylic acid and its derivatives will modulate NFκB signaling.[How to reference and link to summary or text] NFκB is a transcription factor complex that plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation.
Aspirin, as with many older drugs, has proven to be useful in many conditions. Despite its well-known toxicity it is widely used, since physicians are familiar with its properties. Indications for its use include:
- Pain (especially useful for some forms of arthritis, osteoid osteoma, and chronic pain)
- Rheumatic fever (drug of choice)
- Kawasaki disease (along with IVIG)
- Coronary artery disease
- Acute myocardial infarction
In addition, aspirin is recommended (low dose, 75-81 mg daily) for the prevention of:
- Myocardial infarction — in patients with either documented coronary artery disease or at elevated risk of cardiovascular disease. Women may possibly benefit less from aspirin than men.
- Stroke — as secondary prevention (i.e. to prevent recurrence)
For adults doses of 300 to 1000 mg are generally taken four times a day for fever or arthritis, with a maximum dose of 8000 mg a day. The correct dose of aspirin depends on the disease process that is being treated. For instance, for the treatment of rheumatic fever, doses near the maximal daily dose have been used historically. For the prevention of myocardial infarction in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease, doses as low as 75 mg daily (or possibly even lower) are sufficient.
For those under 12 years of age, the dose previously varied with the age, but aspirin is no longer routinely used in children due to the association with Reye's syndrome; paracetamol or other NSAIDs, such as Ibuprofen, are now being used instead. Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children with aspirin initially started at 7.5-12.5 mg/kg body weight taken four times a day for up to two weeks and then continued at 5 mg/kg once daily for a further six to eight weeks.
Dangers of low-dose aspirin Edit
A recent review states: "....low-dose aspirin increases the risk of major bleeding 2-fold compared with placebo. However, the annual incidence of major bleeding due to low-dose aspirin is modest—only 1.3 patients per thousand higher than what is observed with placebo treatment. Treatment of approximately 800 patients with low-dose aspirin annually for cardiovascular prophylaxis will result in only 1 additional major bleeding episode." Further, "...the cost to prevent one major GI bleeding episode from aspirin in 1 year by substituting clopidogrel therapy would be $1,216,180..."
Contraindications and warnings Edit
- Aspirin should be avoided by those known to be allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen.
- Caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm.
- It is generally recommended that one seek medical help if symptoms do not improve after a few days of therapy.
- Caution should be taken in patients with kidney disease, peptic ulcers, mild diabetes, gout or gastritis; manufacturers recommend talking to one's doctor before using this medicine.
- Taking aspirin with alcohol increases the chance of gastrointestinal hemorrhage (stomach bleeding).
- Children, including teenagers, are discouraged from using aspirin in cold or flu symptoms as this has been linked with Reye's syndrome.
- Patients with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take salicylates.
- Some sources recommend that patients with hyperthyroidism avoid aspirin because it elevates T4 levels.
Common side-effects Edit
- Gastrointestinal complaints (stomach upset, dyspepsia, heartburn, small blood loss). To help avoid these problems, it is recommended that aspirin be taken at or after meals. Undetected blood loss may lead to hypochromic anemia. The Gastrointestinal complications that may result from a dose of Aspirin are due to Aspirin inhibitory action on Cyclo-oxygenase 1 and 2.
- Severe gastrointestinal complaints (gross bleeding and/or ulceration), requiring discontinuation and immediate treatment. Patients receiving high doses and/or long-term treatment should receive gastric protection with high-dosed antacids, ranitidine or omeprazole.
- Frequently, central effects (dizziness, tinnitus, hearing loss, vertigo, centrally mediated vision disturbances, and headaches). The higher the daily dose is, the more likely it is that central nervous system side-effects will occur.
- Sweating, seen with high doses, independent from antipyretic action
- Long-term treatment with high doses (arthritis and rheumatic fever): often increased liver enzymes without symptoms, rarely reversible liver damage. The potentially fatal Reye's syndrome may occur, if given to pediatric patients with fever and other signs of infections. The syndrome is due to fatty degeneration of liver cells. Up to 30 percent of those afflicted will eventually die. Prompt hospital treatment may be life-saving.
- Chronic nephritis with long-term use, usually if used in combination with certain other painkillers. This condition may lead to chronic renal failure.
- Prolonged and more severe bleeding after operations and post-traumatic for up to 10 days after the last aspirin dose. If one wishes to counteract the bleeding tendency, fresh thrombocyte concentrate will usually work.
- Skin reactions, angioedema, and bronchospasm have all been seen infrequently.
- Patients that have the genetic disease known as Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD) should avoid this drug as it is known to cause hemolytic anemia in large doses depending on the severity of the disease.
Aspirin can interact with some other drugs. Some drugs, for example those used for diabetes, are bound by plasma protein in the blood supply and are therefore not free to react with their targets. However, aspirin may displace them from plasma protein, leading to a drug overdose. Aspirin has this same effect on anticoagulants.
Aspirin overdose can be acute or chronic. In acute poisoning, a single large dose is taken; in chronic poisoning, supratherapeutic doses are taken over a period of time. Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%; chronic overdose may be especially severe in children.
Aspirin overdose has potentially serious consequences, sometimes leading to significant morbidity and mortality. Patients with mild intoxication frequently have nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, tinnitus, and dizziness. More significant symptoms occur in more severe poisonings and include hyperthermia, tachypnea, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia, hallucinations, confusion, seizure, cerebral edema, and coma. The most common cause of death following an aspirin overdose is cardiopulmonary arrest usually due to pulmonary edema.
The toxic dose of aspirin is generally considered greater than 150 mg per kg of body mass. Moderate toxicity occurs at doses up to 300 mg/kg, severe toxicity occurs between 300 to 500 mg/kg, and a potentially lethal dose is greater than 500 mg/kg. This is the equivalent of many dozens of the common 325 mg tablets, depending on body weight. Note that children cannot tolerate as much aspirin per unit body weight as adults can, even when aspirin is indicated. Label-directions should be followed carefully.
All overdose patients must be taken to a hospital immediately.
Initial treatment of an acute overdose includes gastric decontamination of the patient. This is achieved by administering activated charcoal which adsorbs the aspirin in the gastrointestinal tract. Stomach pumps are no longer routinely used in the treatment of poisonings but are sometimes considered if the patient has ingested a potentially lethal amount up to 1 hour previously. Repeated doses of charcoal have been proposed to be beneficial in aspirin overdose. A study performed found that repeat dose charcoal might not be of significant value. However, most toxicologists will administer additional charcoal if serum salicylate levels are increasing.
Patients are monitored until their peak salicylate blood level has been determined. Blood levels are usually performed 4 hours after ingestion and then every 2 hours after that to determine the maximum level. Maximum levels can be used as a guide to toxic effects expected.
There is no antidote to salicylate poisoning. Frequent blood work is performed to check metabolic, salicylate, and blood sugar levels; arterial blood gas assessments are performed to test for respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. Patients are monitored and often treated according to their individual symptoms, patients may be given intravenous potassium chloride to counteract hypokalemia, glucose to restore blood sugar levels, benzodiazepines for any seizure activity, fluids for dehydration, and importantly sodium bicarbonate to restore the blood's sensitive pH balance. Sodium bicarbonate also has the effect of increasing the pH of urine, which in turn increases the elimination of salicylate. Additionally, hemodialysis can be implemented to enhance the removal of salicylate from the blood. Hemodialysis is usually used in severely poisoned patients; for example, patients with significantly high salicylate blood levels, significant neurotoxicity (agitation, coma, convulsions), renal failure, pulmonary edema, or cardiovascular instability are hemodialyzed. Hemodialysis also has the advantage of restoring electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities; hemodialysis is often life-saving in severely ill patients.
In the later part of the 20th century the number of salicylate poisonings has declined mainly due to the popularity of other over-the-counter analgesics such as paracetamol. Fifty-two deaths involving single-ingredient aspirin were reported in the United States in the year 2000. However, in all but three cases, the reason for the ingestion of lethal doses was intentional, predominantly suicides.
Research into cancer prevention Edit
The role that aspirin might have in reducing the rates of certain cancers has been the subject of many studies. However, given the side-effects of NSAIDs on increased gastrointestinal bleeding and rates of heart disease, there is no current medical recommendation to use these drugs for cancer reduction.
- Prostate - While there is some epidemiological information suggesting a correlation between the reduction of prostate cancer and aspirin use, two recent studies (a multicentric case-control study and epidemiological study) were inconclusive.
- Colon - A 2005 JAMA article states that aspirin may prevent carcinoma of the colon, when taken in at least twice-daily adult (325 mg) doses. It follows an earlier study, also using the Nurses' Health Study (NHS) women, which had similar conclusions but with a smaller testing population. The conclusion of the JAMA study was that both aspirin and other non-aspirin NSAIDs used over a long time (best results seen after at least a decade of regular use) reduce risk of colorectal cancer. The risk was reduced the most at doses higher than 14 tablets per week (full-strength aspirin twice a day). However, these doses can have a higher incidence of serious gastrointestinal bleeding, and reduced doses (even the low doses recommended for cardiovascular health (81 mg/day)) also seem to have an anti-cancer effect, albeit not as much as the higher doses. The results of these studies have been correlated with experimental studies in human volunteers and in rodents. At least four clinical trials show that small doses of aspirin reduce, modestly, intestinal polyps recurrence in patients with some history of adenomas. Some twenty carcinogenesis studies in rats or mice also support that aspirin can prevent cancer, also reported in the Chemoprevention of Colorectal Cancer Database.
- Gall bladder - There is some evidence that aspirin may increase gall bladder motility and thus be effective in treating gall bladder disease.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
- Pancreatic - A study in 2004 showed that increases in dose and duration of aspirin may significantly increase the risk of pancreatic cancer in women (only women were in the study); however this did not seem to affect current, regular users.
- Upper GI tract - A study published in 2003 reported that people who had been taking aspirin regularly for 5 or more years seemed to have a two-thirds less risk of mouth, throat and esophageal cancer than non-users. This study was done on both cancer patients and other people in hospital for various reasons, and was done by comprehensive epidemiological questionnaires of life habits rather than empirical testing.
- Lung - A 20-year study published in 2002 showed that in a group of 14,000 women in New York City, regular aspirin use (defined as at least once a week, various doses) reduced their risk of lung cancer, especially small-cell carcinoma. This may be because many lung tumors have high amounts of COX-2 enzymes expressed in them, especially in adenocarcinomas and tumors caused by asbestosis. Aspirin is a known blocker of both COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, although this study suggests that if the COX-2 link is direct, other COX-2 inhibitors may also play a similar role.
Another study in 2002 of both men and women found that risk reduction was more significant in males than females; overall, the effects of smoking were far more influential than aspirin use in determining cancer risks. Of those who smoked, those who smoked the least got the most benefit from aspirin use. Some of the heaviest smokers saw no benefit from aspirin at all.
Aspirin in petsEdit
Aspirin may be used in cats, but only under a veterinarian's strict supervision, as aspirin has a biological half-life of 3 days in cats (cats have trouble breaking down aspirin). Dogs may also use aspirin under a vet's strict supervision, though dogs are more susceptible to aspirin-caused GI bleeds than humans. Aspirin is generally not recommended for pets, though, as there are much safer alternatives for pain relief, and aspirin interacts with several other drugs including cortisones, digoxin, some antibiotics, phenobarbital and furosemide (Lasix).
- DrugBank Aspirin Entry
- An aspirin a day keeps the doctor away
- Colour-enhanced scanning electron micrograph of aspirin crystals
- Aspirin research in the 1990s
- The History of Aspirin
- Aspirin and heart disease
- How Aspirin works
- Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk See Aspirin in 3D
- History of Aspro
- The science behind aspirin
- Ling, Greg (2005). "Aspirin". How Products are Made 1. Thomson Gale.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Macdonald S (2002). Aspirin use to be banned in under 16 year olds. BMJ 325 (7371): 988.
- ↑ Paul B. Hemel and Mary U. Chiltoskey, Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History, Sylva, NC: Herald Publishing Co. (1975); cited in Dan Moerman, A Database of Foods, Drugs, Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants. A search of this database for "salix AND medicine" finds 63 entries.
- ↑ Stone, E (1763). An Account of the Success of the Bark of the Willow in the Cure of Agues. Philosophical Transactions 53: 195-200.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gerhardt C (1853). Untersuchungen über die wasserfreien organischen Säuren. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 87: 149-179.
- ↑ von Gilm H (1859). Acetylderivate der Phloretin- und Salicylsäure. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 112 (2): 180-185.
- ↑ Schröder, Prinzhorn, Kraut K (1869). Uber Salicylverbindungen. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie 150 (1): 1-20.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 by Charles C. Mann and Mark L. Plummer (1991). The aspirin wars: money, medicine, and 100 years of rampant competition, 25-36, Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press.
- ↑ Hoffmann H. US Patent 644,077 dated February 27, 1900. US Patent Office. URL accessed on 2007-05-20.
- ↑ Aspirin FAQ's. Bayer Healthcare. URL accessed on 2007-05-20.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Sneader W (2000). The discovery of aspirin: a reappraisal. BMJ 321 (7276): 1591-4.
- ↑ Helmstaedter A. Aspirin history: Is there a need for a reappraisal ?. bmj.com Rapid Responses for Sneader, 321 (7276) 1591-1594. URL accessed on 2007-05-20.
- ↑ Bayer AG: Zum Vortrag von Dr. Walter Sneader über die Entwicklung der Acetylsalicylsäure. URL accessed on 2007-05-20.
- ↑ Acetylsalicylic acid. Jinno Laboratory, School of Materials Science, Toyohashi University of Technology.
- ↑ John Robert Vane (1971). Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs.. Nature - New Biology 231 (25): 232-5.
- ↑ "New mechanism of action of Aspirin discovered," in Medical News Today, October 2, 2005.
- ↑ ISIS-2 Collaborative group (1988). Randomized trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2.. Lancet (2): 349-60.
- ↑ includeonly>Arbor, Ann. "Aspirin may be less effective heart treatment for women than men", University of Michigan, April 26, 2007..
- ↑ Dorsch MP, Lee JS, Lynch DR, Dunn SP, Rodgers JE, Schwartz T, Colby E, Montague D, Smyth SS (24 Apr 2007). Aspirin Resistance in Patients with Stable Coronary Artery Disease with and without a History of Myocardial Infarction. Ann Pharmacother. (May).
- ↑ (March 2003) British National Formulary, 45, British Medical Journal and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
- ↑ (2006) British National Formulary for Children, British Medical Journal and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
- ↑ McQuaid KR, Laine L. (2006). Systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse events of low-dose aspirin and clopidogrel in randomized controlled trials.. Am J Med 119 (8): 624-38.
- ↑ Gaudreault P, Temple AR, Lovejoy FH Jr. (1982). The relative severity of acute versus chronic salicylate poisoning in children: a clinical comparison. Pediatrics 70 (4): 566-9.
- ↑ Thisted B, Krantz T, Stroom J, Sorensen MB. (1987). Acute salicylate self-poisoning in 177 consecutive patients treated in ICU. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 31 (4): 312-6.
- ↑ Temple AR. (1981). Acute and chronic effects of aspirin toxicity and their treatment. Arch Intern Med 141 (3 Spec No): 364-9.
- ↑ Vale JA, Kulig K; American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. (2004). Position paper: gastric lavage.. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (7): 933-43.
- ↑ Hillman RJ, Prescott LF. (1985). Treatment of salicylate poisoning with repeated oral charcoal. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 291 (6507): 1472.
- ↑ Kirshenbaum LA, Mathews SC, Sitar DS, Tenenbein M. (1990). Does multiple-dose charcoal therapy enhance salicylate excretion?. Arch Intern Med 150 (6): 1281-3.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Dargan PI, Wallace CI, Jones AL. (2002). An evidenced based flowchart to guide the management of acute salicylate (aspirin) overdose. Emerg Med J 19 (3): 206-9.
- ↑ Meredith TJ, Vale JA. (1986). Non-narcotic analgesics. Problems of overdosage. Drugs 32 (Suppl 4): 117-205.
- ↑ Litovitz TL, Klein-Schwartz W, White S, Cobaugh DJ, Youniss J, Omslaer JC, Drab A, Benson BE (2001). 2000 Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 19 (5): 337-95.
- ↑ Bosetti, et al. (2006). Aspirin and the risk of prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 15 (1): 43-5.
- ↑ Menezes, et al. (2006). Regular use of aspirin and prostate cancer risk (United States). Cancer Causes Control 17 (3): 251-6.
- ↑ Chan, et al. (2005). Long-term Use of Aspirin and Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs and Risk of Colorectal Cancer. JAMA 294 (8): 914-23.
- ↑ Chan, et al. (2004). A Prospective Study of Aspirin Use and the Risk for Colorectal Adenoma. Ann Intern Med 140 (3): 157-66.
- ↑ Baron, et al. (2003). A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 348 (10): 891-9.
- ↑ Schernhammer, et al. (2004). A Prospective Study of Aspirin Use and the Risk of Pancreatic Cancer in Women. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 (1): 22-28.
- ↑ Bosetti, et al. (2003). Aspirin use and cancers of the upper aerodigestive tract. Br J Cancer 88 (5): 672-74.
- ↑ Akhmedkhanov, et al. (2002). Aspirin and lung cancer in women. Br J cancer 87 (11): 1337-8.
- ↑ Wolff, et al. (1998). Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in human lung carcinoma. Cancer Research 58 (22): 4997-5001.
- ↑ Moysich, et al. (2002). Regular aspirin use and lung cancer risk 2 (31).
- ↑ Crosby, Janet Tobiassen Veterinary Questions and Answers. About.com.
Analgesics (N02A, N02B)
Buprenorphine, Butorphanol, Codeine, Dextropropoxyphene, Diamorphine, Dihydrocodeine, Fentanyl, Hydrocodone, Hydromorphone, Ketobemidone, Levorphanol, Methadone, Morphine, Nicomorphine, Opium, Oxycodone, Oxymorphone, Pethidine, Tramadol, Tapentadol
|Salicylic acid and derivatives|
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (primarily M01A and M02A, also N02BA)
|2-Arylpropionic acids (profens)|
|N-Arylanthranilic acids (fenamic acids)|
|Topically used products|
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:ea7d60bb-4f15-40c5-9242-86fb32fa4172> | {
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by Ilya Gavrichenkov
11/09/2011 | 09:18 AM
Over the past few years the computer technology has changed its course towards integration and the corresponding miniaturization. And it refers not that much to the traditional desktop personal computers, but primarily to the gigantic variety of “consumer” devices, such as smartphones, notebooks, players, tablets, etc., which get reborn in new form-factors and absorb more new functions. As for the desktops, they are the last to get under the influence of this tendency. Of course, over the past few years the users became more interested in computer devices of smaller size, but we can’t claim that it has turned into a global tendency. The basic microarchitecture of x86-systems implies that we should use individual components for a processor, memory, graphics card, mainboard and disk sub-system, and this major concept remains unchanged up until now. However, it sets serious restrictions for the miniaturization process. Yes, we can reduce the size of each individual component, but it won’t add up to significantly change the overall system dimensions.
However, we seem to be getting closer to a turning point even in the PC segment. As they continue to master finer production technologies, it becomes easier to move into the processors certain functions of other devices, which used to be individual components. For example, no one is surprised anymore that the memory controller and in some cases the PCI Express bus controller have long become part of the CPU and the mainboard chipset transformed into one single chip – the South Bridge. But something else happened in 2011, something of much greater significance – they started integrating a graphics controller into processors for high-performance desktop systems. And these were not some weak graphics cores, which could only support the operating system interface. On the contrary, these were quite functional solutions, which could compare in performance with entry-level discrete graphics accelerators and are most likely much more powerful than all the graphics cores previously integrated into the chipsets.
Intel was the pioneer in these unchartered waters and released their
If you are already familiar with the desktop processors with integrated graphics inside offered by Intel and AMD, you know that both these makers try to position their processors as far apart from one another as possible to make you believe that it would be incorrect to compare them side by side. AMD is the one that makes the most stir around it by positioning their products as APUs and not as regular CPUs. So, what’s the difference?
The APU abbreviation stands for Accelerated Processing Unit. The detailed explanation reveals that from a hardware standpoint it is a hybrid device that has traditional general-purpose computational cores combined with a graphics core in the same semiconductor die. In other words, it is the same CPU, but with integrated graphics core inside. However, there is some difference on the software level. The graphics core in the APU should have universal architecture represented by an array of streaming processors that can not only synthesize a 3D image, but also complete some computational tasks.
In other words, the APU offers something more flexible than a simple combination of graphics and computational resources inside a single semiconductor die. The main idea is to create a symbiosis of these diverse parts, when some calculations may also be performed by the graphic core. Although, as it is often the case in similar situations, there should be proper support on the software level.
AMD Fusion processors known as Llano are in full sync with this definition: they are the APU. They have integrated Radeon HD graphics cores inside them, which among other things support ATI Stream technology and OpenCL 1.1 software interface, which make it possible for the graphics core to perform calculations, too. There are a number of applications that can theoretically benefit from being executed by the Radeon HD streaming processors. These applications use cryptographic algorithms, 3D image rendering and image, video and audio post-processing. However, things are much more complicated in reality. Implementation difficulties and doubtful performance gain still prevent this concept from becoming increasingly popular. Therefore, in most cases the APU may be regarded just a regular CPU with the integrated graphics core.
Intel, on the contrary, sticks to more conservative terminology. They continue using the traditional “CPU” term in reference to their Sandy Bridge processors with the integrated HD Graphics core. And, in fact, this is quite justified, because Intel’s graphics doesn’t support software OpenCL 1.1 interface (only the next generation Ivy Bridge processors will be compatible with it). So, at this time Intel doesn’t have different parts of their processors working on the same computational tasks.
However, there is one important exception. Namely, the graphics cores in Intel processors have a special Quick Sync unit that should provide hardware acceleration for video stream decoding process. Of course, just like with OpenCL, it needs to be supported on the software level. However, it is indeed capable of increasing the HD video decoding speed nearly by 10x. So, in the end, it would be fair to say that Sandy Bridge is a hybrid processor to some extent.
Is it fair to compare the AMD FPU and Intel CPU against one another? Theoretically, we can’t establish identical equality between an APU and a CPU with a built-in graphics accelerator, but in reality we have two different names for the same exact thing. AMD Llano processors can accelerate parallel calculations, while Intel Sandy Bridge can use the graphics resources only during video transcoding, but in reality both of these are barely in use. So, from a practical prospective, any of the processors discussed in this article is a combination of a regular CPU and a graphics card inside a single chip.
In fact, you shouldn’t consider processors with integrated graphics a specific niche product targeted for a specific user group with unique needs. Extensive integration is a global trend and processors like that have already become common in the low-end and mainstream price segments. AMD Fusion as well as Intel Sandy Bridge replaced CPUs without integrated graphics in the current product ranges, so even if you do not plan on going with the integrated graphics core, there is hardly an option without it at this time. Especially since you don’t have to use the integrated graphics core and may disable it if you like.
So, when we decided to compare processors with the integrated GPU inside, we arrived at the conclusion that the ultimate goal in this case would be to compare the performance of contemporary processors in the $60-$140 price range. Let’s see what products are currently available from AMD and Intel in this particular price range and which ones we managed to get to our lab in time for testing.
For desktop processors with integrated graphics core AMD offers special Socket FM1 platform, which is compatible exclusively with Llano processors – A8, A6 and A4. These processors have two, three or four general-purpose Husky cores with the microarchitecture similar to that in Athlon II, and a Sumo graphics core, which inherited microarchitecture from the junior Radeon HD 5000-series solutions.
Llano processors line-up seems to be pretty self-sufficient and includes processors with very diverse computational and graphics performance levels. However, there is one obvious consistency here: processors with a larger number of cores and maximum clock frequency always have the fastest graphics core inside.
Intel is going to oppose AMD Fusion processors with their Core i3 and Pentium CPUs, which do not have a collective name but are equipped with integrated graphics cores and have comparable prices. Of course, more expensive quad-core processors have integrated graphics cores, too, but they obviously play a secondary role there that is why we didn’t include any Core i5 or Core i7 CPUs into our today’s tests.
Intel didn’t create individual infrastructure for inexpensive integrated platforms that is why Core i3 and Pentium processors may be used in the same LGA1155 mainboards as all the other Sandy Bridge CPUs. However, if you want to engage the integrated graphics core, you will need a mainboard based on one of the special chipsets, such as H67, H61 or Z68.
All Intel processors that can be regarded as direct competitors to Llano have dual-core design. Moreover, Intel doesn’t really focus on the graphics performance that much at all: most of these processors have a weaker version of the HD Graphics 2000 core with six execution units. The only exception is Core i3-2125 – it features the most powerful graphics core Intel currently has - HD Graphics 3000 with twelve execution units.
Now that we have introduced to you the processors participating in our today’s test session, let’s check out the rest of the components used in our testbeds. The list below has them all:
Since the major goal of our today’s test session as to study the potential of contemporary processors with integrated graphics cores, we performed all tests without an external graphics accelerator installed. The integrated graphics cores were responsible for displaying the image on the monitor, 3D functions and HD video playback acceleration.
Note that since Intel graphics cores did not support DirectX 11, all graphics tests were performed in DirectX 9/DirectX 10 modes.
As usual, we use Bapco SYSmark 2012 suite to estimate the processor performance in general-purpose tasks. It emulates the usage models in popular office and digital content creation and processing applications. The idea behind this test is fairly simple: it produces a single score characterizing the average computer performance in different tasks.
As we see, AMD Fusion processors do really poorly in traditional tasks. The fastest quad-core Socket Fm1 AMD processor, A8-3850, barely surpasses the dual-core Pentium G620 that only costs half as much. All other members of the AMD A8, A6 and A4 families are hopelessly behind Intel products. In fact, this is pretty logical outcome considering that Llano processor use old microarchitecture from Phenom II and Athlon II. Until AMD introduces processor cores with higher specific performance, even their quad-core APUs will have very hard time competing against current and regularly updated Intel offerings.
Let’s take a closer look at the performance scores SYSmark 2012 generates in different usage scenarios.
Office Productivity scenario emulates typical office tasks, such as text editing, electronic tables processing, email and Internet surfing. This scenario uses the following applications: ABBYY FineReader Pro 10.0, Adobe Acrobat Pro 9, Adobe Flash Player 10.1, Microsoft Excel 2010, Microsoft Internet Explorer 9, Microsoft Outlook 2010, Microsoft PowerPoint 2010, Microsoft Word 2010 and WinZip Pro 14.5.
Media Creation scenario emulates the creation of a video clip using previously taken digital images and videos. Here they use popular Adobe suites: Photoshop CS5 Extended, Premiere Pro CS5 and After Effects CS5.
Web Development is a scenario emulating web-site designing. It uses the following applications: Adobe Photoshop CS5 Extended, Adobe Premiere Pro CS5, Adobe Dreamweaver CS5, Mozilla Firefox 3.6.8 and Microsoft Internet Explorer 9.
Data/Financial Analysis scenario is devoted to statistical analysis and prediction of market trends performed in Microsoft Excel 2010.
3D Modeling scenario is fully dedicated to 3D objects and rendering of static and dynamic scenes using Adobe Photoshop CS5 Extended, Autodesk 3ds Max 2011, Autodesk AutoCAD 2011 and Google SketchUp Pro 8.
The last scenario called System Management creates backups and installs software and updates. It involves several different versions of Mozilla Firefox Installer and WinZip Pro 14.5.
The only type of applications where AMD Fusion processors deliver acceptable performance is 3D modeling and rendering. The number of cores matters in tasks like that and quad-core A8 and A6 processors are able to work faster than Intel Pentium, for instance. However, they still can’t catch up with Core i3 CPU supporting Hyper-Threading even in the most favorable conditions.
To test the processors performance during data archiving we resort to WinRAR archiving utility. Using maximum compression rate we archive a folder with multiple files with 1.4 GB total size.
We measured the performance in Adobe Photoshop using our own benchmark made from Retouch Artists Photoshop Speed Test that has been creatively modified. It includes typical editing of four 10-megapixel images from a digital photo camera.
We use Apple iTunes utility to test audio transcoding speed. It transcodes the contents of a CD disk into AAC format. Note that the typical peculiarity of this utility is its ability to utilize only a pair of processor cores.
In order to measure how fast our testing participants can transcode a video into H.264 format we used x264 HD benchmark. It works with an original MPEG-2 video recorded in 720p resolution with 4 Mbps bitrate. I have to say that the results of this test are of great practical value, because the x264 codec is also part of numerous popular transcoding utilities, such as HandBrake, MeGUI, VirtualDub, etc.
We use special Cinebench test to measure the final rendering speed in Maxon Cinema 4D.
We also use Fritz Chess Benchmark to estimate the time it takes our testing participants to complete the popular chess algorithm used in Deep Fritz application series.
The results on the diagrams above make us repeat one more time everything we have just said about the SYSmark 2012 numbers. AMD processors currently offered for integrated systems can boast more or less acceptable performance only in those tasks where the load can be split into parallel threads easily. For example, these are 3D rendering, video transcoding or analyzing chess moves. However, even in these tasks the only processor with competitive performance is AMD A8-3850, which clock frequency has been increased at the expense of power consumption and heat dissipation. All other AMD processors with 65 W TDP are totally destroyed by any Core i3, even in the most AMD-friendly conditions. Therefore, Intel Pentium processors look pretty good against AMD Fusion’s background: these dual-core CPUs perform about as fast as A6-3500 in case of well-paralleled load, and outperform A8 processors in such application as WinRAR, iTunes or Photoshop.
In addition we checked out the effect from using the graphics core for everyday computational tasks. We used Cyberlink Media Espresso 6.5 that measures the video content transcoding speed. This utility allows employing the resources of different graphics cores and supports both Intel Quick Sync as well as ATI Stream. We measured the time it took to transcode a 1.5 GB H.264 1080p video clip (a 20-minute episode of a popular TV show) into an iPhone 4 friendly format.
The results can be split in two groups. The first one includes Intel Core i3 with Quick Sync support. The numbers speak louder than words: Quick Sync allows transcoding HD video content several times faster than with any other tools. The second large group includes all other processors, and CPUs with more cores are on the first positions here. As we can see, AMD’s Stream technology doesn’t do anything here and dual-core Fusion APUs do not do any better than Pentium processors, which transcode video in the computational cores only.
We will start the gaming 3D tests with 3DMark Vantage benchmark run with Performance profile.
As soon as the load type changes, so do the leaders in our race. The graphics core of any AMD Fusion processors is much more powerful than any modification of Intel HD Graphics. Even Core i3-2125 with Intel HD Graphics 3000 core featuring twelve execution units can only reach the performance level of AMD A4-3300 with the weakest integrated graphics accelerator of all Fusion processors participating in our today’s tests – Radeon HD 6410D. All other Intel processors demonstrate 2-4 times lower 3D performance than AMD competitors.
The results of the CPU test may be regarded as some sort of compensation for the graphics performance failure, but you should remember that the CPU and GPU speed are not interchangeable parameters. We should try to achieve the best balance of these characteristics, and later on we will see how well-balanced our testing participants are in this respect, as their gaming performance depends on the performance of the GPU as well as the computational component.
For real game tests we selected Far Cry 2, Dirt 3, Crysis 2, beta version of World of Planes and Civilization V. We ran the tests in 1280x800 resolution and set the image quality settings to Medium.
The situation in gaming tests looks very good for AMD products. Although their computational performance is pretty mediocre, powerful graphic allows them to do pretty well (for integrated solutions). Fusion series processors almost always deliver higher fps than Intel processors from Core i3 and Pentium family.
Even the use of higher-performance HD Graphics 3000 core in Core i3 processors didn’t save the day. Yes, Core i3-2125 featuring this particular graphics core modification turned out about 50% faster than its fellow Core i3-2120 processor equipped with HD Graphics 2000 core, but the graphics integrated in Llano processors is even faster than that. As a result, even Core i3-2125 can only compete against the low-cost A4-3300 processor, while other products on Sandy Bridge microarchitecture looked even less appealing. And if we take into account that the graphics cores in Intel processors do not support DirectX 11, things become even more hopeless for the current Intel offerings. Only the next microarchitecture generation, Ivy Bridge, may be able to fix it, because its graphics core will be faster and will feature more up-to-date functionality.
Even if we leave out the specific numbers and view the situation from more global qualitative prospective, AMD products will still be a much more attractive option for entry-level gaming systems. The top Fusion processors from the A8 series allow playing almost any contemporary games without involving an external graphics accelerator, provided you compromise to some extent on screen resolution and image quality settings. As for Intel processors, we can’t recommend any of them for the entry-level gaming platforms, because different HD Graphics modifications are still not powerful enough for this application field.
Systems based on processors with integrated graphics cores become increasingly popular not only due to possible system miniaturization. In most cases the users decide to go with them, for cost-cutting purposes. Processors like that help to save some cash not only by omitting the external graphics accelerator, but also by allowing to build a more energy-efficient system with total power consumption being lower than that of a system with discrete graphics. There is another bonus to it: quiet operation modes, because lower power consumption leads to lower heat dissipation and therefore the use of simpler cooling systems.
Therefore, the developers of processors with integrated graphics do their best to minimize the power appetites of their products. Most CPUs and APUs discussed today have about 65 W TDP, which has already become an unofficial standard. However, we know that Intel and AMD have different approach to TDP that is why it will be interesting to check out the practical power consumption of systems based on different processors.
The graphs below show two power consumption readings. The first one is the full power draw of the computer (without the monitor) measured after the power supply. It is the total of the power consumption of all the system components. The second one is the power consumption of the processor alone measured along the individual 12 V power line. In both cases the PSU's efficiency is not taken into account, because our measuring equipment is installed after the PSU and registers only voltages and currents that get into the system along 12, 5 and 3.3 V lines. The CPUs are loaded by running the 64-bit LinX 0.6.4 utility. We used FurMark 1.9.1 to load the graphics cores. We enabled all the power-saving technologies and Turbo Core (where available) for correct measurement of the computer's power draw in idle mode.
In idle mode all systems consumed about the same amount of power. As we can see, Intel processors barely load the processor power line in idle mode, while AMD APUs, on the contrary, consume up to 8 W along the 12 V CPU power line. However, it doesn’t mean that Fusion solutions can’t go into deep power-saving modes. These differences come from different implementations of the processor voltage regulator circuitry: Socket FM1 systems use processor power line to feed the computational and graphics cores as well as the integrated chipset North Bridge, while in Intel systems the chipset North Bridge is powered by the mainboard.
Under maximum computational load AMD processors experience some energy-efficiency issues, the same as we saw by Phenom II and Athlon II: they didn’t go anywhere even with the introduction of the finer 32 nm process. Llano processors are based on the same microarchitecture as their predecessors, and lose to Sandy Bridge competitors in terms of performance-per-watt just as badly. Top Socket FM1 systems consume about twice as much as LGA1155 systems with Core i3 inside, while the computational performance of the latter is obviously way higher. The power consumption difference between Pentium and junior A4 and A6 APUs is not so dramatic, but the overall situation still remains the same.
Things do not change under heavy graphics load: Intel processors are significantly more energy-efficient. But in this case, AMD Fusion boasts much higher 3D performance, which could justify as some excuse. Note that Core i3-2125 and A4-3300 produced the same fps in gaming tests and were very close to one another in terms of power consumption under heavy GPU load.
When all units of the hybrid processors are loaded simultaneously, we get the score that may be regarded as a sum of two previous graphs. A8-3850 and A6-3650 processors with 100 W TDP distance themselves significantly from the rest of the 65 W AMD and Intel products. However, even without them, AMD Fusion processors are still less energy-efficient than the Intel CPUs in the same price range.
If the processors become part of a media center used primarily for HD video playback, the situation turns very uncommon. The computational cores are mostly idling in this case, and the video stream decoding is done in special units within the GPU. Therefore, AMD based platforms achieve pretty decent energy-efficiency and their power consumption doesn’t exceed that of Intel Pentium and Core i3 based platforms too much. Moreover, AMD A6-3500 processor with the lowest clock frequency of all becomes the most energy-efficient choice in this usage scenario.
At first glance it seems fairly easy to draw conclusions based on the obtained results. AMD and Intel processors with integrated graphics cores revealed completely different advantages, which allow us to give specific recommendations depending on the planned computer usage model.
For example, an obvious strength of AMD Fusion is their integrated graphics core with relatively high performance and support for DirectX 11 and OpenCL 1.1. So, we can recommend these processors for those systems where 3D graphics performance and image quality matter more. At the same time the general-purpose cores in Fusion processors are based on the old and slow K10 microarchitecture that is why they are pretty slow in computational tasks. Therefore, if you are looking for a solution with better non-gaming performance, then you should consider Intel Core i3 and Pentium CPUs, even though they have fewer computational cores than the competitors from AMD.
Of course, AMD’s overall approach to designing processors with an integrated graphics accelerator seems to be more rational. The company’s APUs are pretty well-balanced in terms of computational performance being adequate to the graphics performance and the other way around. As a result, top A8 processors may be considered a good fit for entry-level gaming computers. Even in most contemporary gaming titles processors like that and Radeon HD 6550D graphics accelerators integrated into them can deliver acceptable gaming speed. However, things are much more complicated when it comes to A6 and A4 series with weaker GPUs inside. Their performance is insufficient for a universal entry-level gaming system that is why these processors may only suit for multimedia systems, which will be running causal games with simple graphics and previous-generation online RPG.
However, despite all this balance talk, A6 and A4 will not be a good fit for resource-demanding computational tasks. Intel Pentium processors within the same price range will work much faster. Frankly speaking, only A8-3850 looks decent against the background of Sandy Bridge products when it comes to acceptable performance in general-purpose tasks. Moreover, it does well far not everywhere and its decent performance is accompanied with higher heat dissipation, which will hardly be an acceptable compromise for the owners of computer systems without discrete graphics.
In other words, it is a real pity that Intel hasn’t yet been able to design a graphics core with decent performance. Even Core i3-2125 equipped with their fastest Intel HD Graphics 3000 works only as fast as AMD A4-330 in games, because of the too week graphics accelerator. All other Intel processors come with a 1.5 times slower GPU and perform really poorly in 3D games, often delivering completely unacceptable fps rate. Therefore, we can’t recommend to consider Intel processors for a system that will work with 3D graphics. Core i3 and Pentium graphics cores cope perfectly fine with the graphics interface of the operating system and HD video playback, but that’s about it. So, Core i3 and Pentium processors will best of all suit for those systems that need mostly computational performance of general-purpose cores and decent energy-efficiency. In this respect, no AMD APU can compete with Sandy Bridge.
And in conclusion I would like to remind you that Intel’s LGA1155 platform has much better future prospects than AMD’s Socket FM1. When you purchase an AMD Fusion processor, you should be ready to accept very limited options for future upgrade. AMD is only going to announce a few more Socket FM1 A8 and A6 processors with slightly higher clock frequencies, while their successors aka Trinity due next year will not be compatible with this platform anymore. Intel’s LGA1155 platform is much more promising. You can not only use much faster Core i5 and Core i7 processors in this platform today, but even the upcoming Ivy Bridge CPUs due to come out next year should also work just fine in these mainboards. | <urn:uuid:47a7b0a9-73a4-44aa-a3ea-fc57044d48ec> | {
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With the help of $4.7-million from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, scientists at Argonne National Laboratory are working to solve some of the voltage and heat limitations of existing electric and hybrid vehicle batteries, as well as building a complete next-generation battery.
Here’s a quick rundown:
• The development of new capacitors that can withstand high temperatures and current. These power inverters convert the direct current of the battery to alternating current, which powers the electric motor
• The use of a new type of electrolyte for lithium-ion batteries. The electrolyte allows ions to flow from one pole of the battery to the other as it charges and discharges. The research will explore the use of a new material, high-voltage spinel oxide, which could improve the energy density of a battery, making it smaller and potentially cheaper
• Next-generation batteries in total. “This project is different from what Argonne’s battery research program has done in the past because we’re looking at developing a complete battery package,” says Khalil Amine, a distinguished fellow at the laboratory, who leads the team working on this project. | <urn:uuid:5908b778-1712-4049-9065-97f3b1fd6247> | {
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The GIS based survey and coring at Taosi
The GIS based survey aims to get a better understanding of the settlement pattern and settlement hierarchy in the Linfen Basin with the walled Taosi site as the center, as well as the social structure of the state level Taosi polity. The questions waiting for answers include: How did Taosi become a capital settlement? Was there function specialization among the settlements? Did the political center of the Taosi polity move to the eastern foot of the Taer Montain and what was the relationship between the movement and the collapse of the Taosi settlement? The survey started in Nov. 2009 and finished in August 2010. Some 128 sites from the Yangshao to the Han Dynasty were recorded, 54 of which are sites of the Taosi culture.
The Taosi culture settlements exhibits a five-tiered settlement hierarchy, with the 280 ha large Taosi site as the captical, two large sites 100 to 200 ha in size, 23 middle site 10 to 99 ha in size, 14 small sites 1 to 9 ha in size and mini sites smaller than 1 ha. However, settlement patterns of the early and middle Taosi period were quite different. In early Taosi, there was a four-tiered settlement hierarchy, probably indicating a two-levels administration system with Taosi as the capital and the other sites as towns and villages. The two large sites appeared in middle Taosi probably as local central site in the northern and southern districts of the Taosi polity and formed a three-level administrative system with the capital, the yi central settlements and the towns and villages. Some towns may had certain control of the near by villages, which later become the fourth level of an increasingly complex administrative system.
CIV 108 - 208 : Civilisations de la Chine antique / Ancient China : Origins to Empire
Some evidence shows that some sites might have special functions such as the transportation port, pottery making workshop and quarry, and may provide certain service to fulfill the need of the Taosi, the capital.It seems that the political center had moved in the late Taosi period.
The coring took 60 days from October to December in 2010 and covered an area of 15 ha. Some 227 of the 6626 coring holes show the evidence of certain features including the one city wall, eight rammed earth foundations, 165 ash pits, four ash ditches, 27 house foundations, two burials, 13 kilns, four activity areas, two drainages and one water tank.
One of the important discoveries by the coring is a small walled area in the southwest of middle Taosi walled city. The newly discovered rammed earth wall 10YJ54, which is 83 m in length, 10 m in width, is parallel with the southern wall of the big city Q6, and 80 m from it, enclosing an area of about 1 ha within which were discovered two small rammed earth foundations, three small house foundations, two small cemeteries (probably one), one kiln for limestone making, four kiln for pottery making and 13 ash pits. It seems that this area might have relationship with pottery making clans of special social status. Sherds found during the coring were pieces of ritual vessels or mingqi vessels made especially for burial offering.
The drainage system includes one water tank (YJ63-64), one house (YJ57), the major ditch (YJ76) and the sub-ditch (YJ209). Besides, evidence of stone making was also found in the craft areas in the big city. （Translator: Li Xinwei）
INSTITUTE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
ONLINE COURSES / COURS A DISTANCE
ANTHROPOLOGY / ARCHAEOLOGY | <urn:uuid:72f0eb55-c011-463d-b97b-d2fe0b73556a> | {
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Milky Way + Andromedia = Milkomeda
Astronomers have calculated that, in five billion years, the Milky Way and our closest neighbouring galaxy, Andromeda, will violently collide, creating a new merged galaxy, which has been dubbed Milkomeda. The two galaxies will (apparently) swing past each other in less than 2 billion years, then again 1.5 billion years after that, before merging 5 million years from now. Scientists have calculated that there is a 3% chance that the sun will defect to Andromeda during the second close pass, in which case viewers on Earth (assuming there’s any left by that point) would see the Milky Way as a spiral in the night sky.
If you’d like to see what the “merger” might look like, watch this video. I find it oddly beautiful, given how cataclysmically destructive the whole thing is. It’s funny to think that each of the two spirals of white contains hundreds of billions of stars.
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3 Answers | Add Yours
The main commander of Muslim forces during the Third Crusade was Saladin. Saladin had been trying to reduce the Crusader states since the end of the Second Crusade. While he was chipping away at the remaining Christian strongholds, a new Crusade was called.
During this crusade, Richard the Lionheart was able to capture many coastal cities despite the best efforts of Saladin. The two fought to a draw several times with each coming to respect the other. Eventually Richard signed a treaty with Saladin that allowed Christian pilgrims to travel unimpeded to the Holy Land.
Saladin had failed to drive the invaders out, which disturbed many in the Muslim world, but he also kept control of Jerusalem despite another huge invasion.
By the way for a more neutral, balanced contemporary account of Crusaders and Crusades (seen through 'Muslim eyes') it might be good to read something of the memoirs of the prince Usama ibn Munqidh of Shaizar, a useful primary source and an interesting historical document.
The Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubi/Ayybid dynasty, the strongest and most influential Muslim leader during the Third Crusade, was the Sultan Salah-ud-din Yusuf Ibn Ayyub (born c. 1137/38-died 1193 AD), better known as 'Saladin'; and we might consider him the 'main commander' of the forces of Islam at the time. It was under his personal leadership that the Muslims were able to recapture the parts of Palestine that had been captured by the Christians/Crusaders of the First Crusade, some 88 years before.
It must please be kept in mind that for Islam/Muslims, at that time, there were a large number of sultanates and kingdoms etc, in North Africa, the Middle and Near East, all the way to India and Central Asia; and at no time was the struggle of the 'Crusades' (taken so seriously in Western Europe) a major or very important struggle -- the Crusaders or 'Nasrany' (i.e. Christians/Nazarenes) were at best considered a nuisance who had captured and annexed some areas. The only important concern was, the capture of Jerusalem, where apart from Jewish and Christian holy monuments, there was also the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, the Third Holiest site in Islam. The various Muslim rulers and people of the region, thus, were only worried that the Crusaders (whom they considered savages and brutes) would not only damage or desecrate this shrine, but also stop Muslims from making pilgrimage there. This was the main concern prompting the Sultan Salah-ud-din too, and he had vowed to free the area from the bigotted and often rapacious Crusaders, and ''open Jerusalem once again to all creeds''(Anthony Nutting, The Arabs, 1964, pp.181-182).
In fact, as the Crusaders were already being rolled back in the whole region , only a small islet of 'Latin Palestine' held out, and despite all, Saladin assembled a huge force and all the vast resources of Egypt as well as of some of his allies, to crush this kingdom decisively once and for all at the battle of Hattin, July 4th 1187. Jerusalem itself was taken in September of that year.
The subsequent 'embarkation' of King Richard of England and Philip of France et al, on a Third Crusade to supposedly 'rescue' Jerusalem etc, was a futile and expensive adventure, yielding little of substance. In 1192, before going back home King Richard and Saladin amicably signed a treaty to demilitarise a large chunk of Palestine and to maintain Jerusalem as an open city for all.
In the second link below, you can see the main/actual 'field commanders' employed under the Sultan Saladin's overall command.
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Perhaps the Vatican needs no introduction. As the centre of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican City state - along with the surrounding Italian districts of Borgo, Prati and the area around the Monte Mario - is filled with more history and artwork than most cities in the world.
Vatican City (Italian: Stato della Città del Vaticano) is an independent state, the temporal seat of the Pope, head of the worldwide Catholic Church; entirely surrounded by the city of Rome, in Italy, the Vatican is also the world's smallest state. Outside Vatican City itself, thirteen buildings in Rome and one at Castel Gandolfo (the Pope's summer residence) also enjoy extraterritorial rights. On March 13, 2013, Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pontiff and thus ruler of the Vatican, taking the name Francis.
Borgo is the fourteenth rione (ward) of Rome and is also the closest neighbourhood to the Vatican. Despite its historical, cultural and artistical importance, parts of it were razed in the 1930s in order to build the grandiose - and, arguably, ugly - via della Conciliazione. What remains today of the district is located in the area between the Tiber river, via di Porta Cavalleggeri, Vatican City, Castel Sant'Angelo and piazza del Risorgimento. The ward itself can be divided as follows:
The main streets in the ward are also called borghi (and not vie as in the rest of the city); generally speaking, the further you get from St. Peter's, the less touristy the neighbourhood becomes. Of course, always keep in mind that often it's not possible to escape completely the touristy hustle-and-bustle of the city centre.
Prati is the twenty-second, and last, rione of the city. An elegant district laid out in the late 19th century, it was designed to house (along with the Esquilino neighbourhood and the area around piazza della Repubblica) the civil servants of the newly-established Kingdom of Italy. Unlike the Esquilino - which housed the less wealthy among the State employees - the district was home to the city's rising burgeoisie, and it showed in 1912 when Prati was the first neighbourhood in city to be provided with electricity. Its most important squares are the recently renovated piazza Cavour and piazza del Risorgimento (near the Vatican Museums) while the main boulevard is via Cola di Rienzo, also one of Rome's most famous shopping streets.
The neighbourhood was built during a time of tensions between the Pope and the Italian state and therefore, city planners designed its street layout in such a way to make impossible for anyone to see St. Peter's dome from its wide and carefully planned streets. The district hosts, among the other things, a Waldensian church (on piazza Cavour).
With its 139 metres, Monte Mario is the highest rise in Rome; however, it's not part of the historical seven hills. From its summit, locally known as the Zodiaco (meaning "zodiac"), you can enjoy a wonderful view of the city. Between the hill's foot and Vatican City, there are two districts - Trionfale and Della Vittoria; both are relatively recent (early 1900s/1960s) and provide cheaper housing alternatives than Prati. The Trionfale neighbourhood is also home to a food market, located on via Andrea Doria.
The origin of the Papal States, which over the years have varied considerably in extent, may be traced back to AD 756 with the Donation of Pepin. However, the Popes were the de facto rulers of Rome and the surrounding province since the fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent retreat of Byzantine power in Italy; the Popes, in their secular role, ruled parts of the central portion of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until 1860, when most of the Papal States were seized by the newly-formed Kingdom of Italy. On September 20, 1870, the Papal States ceased to exist when Rome itself was annexed.
Disputes between a series of "prisoner" Popes and the Kingdom of Italy were resolved in 1929 by three Lateran Treaties which established the independent state of Vatican City, established its territorial extent and, among other things, granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.
In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and the Italian Republic modified some of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman Catholicism as the Italian state religion.
The Pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals. When the election was last held (March 13, 2013 - Pope Francis I), it attracted large crowds.
Present concerns of the Holy See include interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the application of Church doctrine in an era of rapid change and globalization. About a billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.
It is widely believed that the Vatican City and the Holy See are one and the same, whereas in reality they are not. The Holy See dates back to early Christianity and is the main episcopal see of more than a billion Latin and Eastern Catholic adherents around the globe. Ordinances of Vatican City are published in Italian; official documents of the Holy See are issued mainly in Latin. The two entities have distinct passports: the Holy See, not being a country, issues only diplomatic and service passports whereas Vatican City State issues normal passports.
The Vatican sits on a low hill between 19 m and 75 m above sea level. With a boundary only 3.2 km around, the enclosed land area is smaller than some shopping malls; however, the buildings are far more historic and architecturally interesting. Note that, when talking about the country's terrain, most of it is part of the Vatican Gardens.
Although roughly 1,000 people live within Vatican City, many dignitaries, priests, nuns, guards, and 3,000 lay workers live outside the Vatican. Officially, there are about 800 citizens making it the smallest nation in demographic size on the globe. The Vatican even fields a soccer team composed of the Swiss Guard who hold dual citizenship.
It's easy to get to the Vatican by taxi, bus, Metro (the adjacent Prati district is served by line A), tram or by foot from Rome (the closest neighbourhood on the other side of the Tiber being the area around piazza Navona). A beautiful experience can be get to St. Peter's by walking from piazza Venezia, along via del Plebiscito, corso Vittorio Emanuele II and then via della Conciliazione (or, if you want, from Termini walking along via Nazionale) in one of the closest approximation to the Washingtonian "National Mall" or the Parisian "Voie Imperiale" that Rome has to offer you (the other is via dei Fori Imperiali). Take Metro line A to the "Ottaviano - S. Pietro - Musei Vaticani" for the Museums and St. Peter's or tram #19 to piazza del Risorgimento.
From central Rome, the #64 bus goes right to the southern end of the Vatican... however, it's a favourite among pickpockets so guard your valuables!
Visitors and tourists are not permitted to drive inside the Vatican without specific permission, which is normally granted only to those who have business with some office in the Vatican.
With 109 acres (44 hectares) within its walls, the Vatican is easily traveled by foot; however, most of this area is inaccessible to tourists. The most popular areas open to tourists are the St. Peter's basilica and the Vatican Museums.
If you're heading up Monte Mario, wear comfortable shoes - it's quite a climb!
Latin enthusiasts rejoice! The Holy See holds Latin as its official language, and the able traveller is invited to check out the urban legend that you can indeed get by within the city only using the "dead" language. Italian, however, is the official language of Vatican City and remains the more useful of the two.
English is widely spoken here, as are most major languages of the world; this is the Vatican, a city for the world's Catholics and all who wish to see St. Peter's Basilica.
The Swiss Guard (Italian: Guardia Svizzera Pontificia; French: Garde Suisse Pontificale; German: Päpstliche Schweizergarde; Latin: Pontificia Cohors Helvetica) is tasked with protecting the Pontiff himself. They wear very colourful clothing, similar to the uniforms worn by Renaissance-era soldiers; winter palette of clothing differs from summer palette. Contrary to popular belief, Michelangelo did not design the Guards' uniforms - rather, they were created by one of the Guard's commanders, Jules Repond, in the 19th century. The Pontifical Swiss Guard is also the smallest and oldest standing army in the world, founded in 1506 by the "warrior Pope" Julius II (the same Pope who kick-started the construction of this 'new' basilica and making Michelangelo paint the Sistine Chapel). The origins of the Swiss guards, however, go much further; the Popes, as well as a lot of European rulers, regularly employed Swiss mercenaries since the 15th century. Said Swiss mercenaries were a major "export" of Switzerland (before they decided in 1515 not to be involved in military conflicts anymore) and turned particularly useful during the Sack of Rome of 1527.
St. Peter's Basilica
The centre of the Catholic world, this magnificent basilica with its dome (designed by Michelangelo) has an awe-inspiring interior. This place is huge, but everything is in such proportion that the scale escapes you. To give you a comparison, you can fit the Statue of Liberty, statue and pedestal (height from ground of pedestal to torch: 93m), underneath the dome (interior height of 120m from floor to top of dome) with room to spare.
To get in, you will first go through a metal detector (after all, this is an important building). Don't be put off if there is a long line in front of the detectors; the whole thing moves quickly. The line is usually shorter in the morning and during mid week.
Aside from going inside, you can take an elevator up to the roof and then make a long climb up 323 steps to the top of the dome for a spectacular view. It costs €7 for the elevator (€5 to climb the stairs) and allow an hour to go up and down. During the climb and before reaching the very top, you will find yourself standing on the inside of the dome, looking down into the basilica itself. Be warned that there are a lot of stairs so it is not for the faint at heart (literally or figuratively) nor the claustrophobic as the very last section of the ascent is through a little more than shoulder-width spiral staircase. Instead of leaving out the doors you came in, go down into the crypt to see the tomb of Pope John Paul II, the crypt leaves out the front.
Note: a strict dress code is enforced (as in many other places of worship), so have your shoulders covered, wear trousers or a not-too-short dress, and men must take your hats off (which is the custom in churches in Europe. You might be required to check bags at the entrance. Photos are allowed to be taken inside, but not with a flash. The lack of light will probably cause your pictures not to turn out very well, so you may want to buy a few postcards to keep as souvenirs.
The basilica is open Apr-Sep 07:00-19:00 daily and Oct-Mar 07:00-18:00; closed W mornings for papal audiences.
Daily masses M-Sa 08:30, 10:00, 11:00, 12:00, and 17:00, and Su and holidays at 08:30, 10:30, 11:30, 12:10, 13:00, 16:00, and 17:30.
Free 90 minute tours leave daily from the Tourist Information at 2:15PM, many days also at 3PM. Telephone: 06-6988-1662. €5 audio-guides can be rented from the checkroom.
Tours are the only way to see the Vatican Gardens, €12, book at least a day in advance by calling 06-6988-4676, Tu,Th, & Sa at 10:00, depart from tour desk and finish in St. Peter's square. To tour the Necropolis and the Saint's Tomb, call the excavations office at least a week in advance at 06-6988-5318, €10 for 2-hour tour, office open M-Sa 09:00-17:00.
If you want to see the Pope, you can either see a usual blessing from his apartment at noon on Sunday, just show up (however, in the summer he gives it from his summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, 40 km/25 mi from Rome) or you can go to the more formal Wednesday appearance. The pope arrives in the popemobile at 10:30 to bless crowds from a balcony or platform, except in winter, when he speaks in the Aula Paolo VI auditorium next to the square. You can easily watch from a distance or get a free ticket, which you must get on the Tuesday before. There are a number of ways:
Note that the Pope may occasionally be away on a state visit, however.
St. Peter's square
St. Peter's square is, actually, an ellipse. There are two stones (one on each side of the square) between the obelisk and the fountains. If you step on either of these stones, the four columns on the colonnades merge into one.
The fountains were designed by two different architects, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
The obelisk in the middle of the square was transported from Egypt to Rome in 37 A.D. by the Emperor Caligula to mark the spine of a circus eventually completed by Nero. The so-called Circus of Nero was parallel to and to the south of the east-west axis of the current basilica. It was in this circus that St. Peter was crucified in the first official persecutions of Christians undertaken by Nero beginning in 64 A.D. and continuing until his death in 67 A.D. The original location of the obelisk is marked with a plaque located near the sacristy on the south side of the basilica, where it remained until it was moved in 1586 A.D. by Pope Sixtus V to its present location.
During the Middle Ages, the bronze ball on top of the obelisk was believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. When it was relocated to the present reliquary, the Chigi Star in honour of Pope Alexander VII was added, containing pieces of the True Cross. This is the only obelisk in Rome that never toppled since it was placed in ancient Rome and is the second largest Egyptian obelisk after the Lateran obelisk. This celebrated obelisk nearly shattered while it was being moved. Upon orders of the pope, no one was to speak a word otherwise he would be excommunicated. However, a sailor shouted to water the ropes to prevent them from burning. He was forgiven and in gratitude for saving the day, the palms for Palm Sunday still come from the sailor's home town of Bordighera. The moving of this obelisk was celebrated in engravings during its time to commemorate the Renaissance's recovery and mastery of ancient knowledge.
The Vatican Museums
The Vatican Museums, . M-Sa 09:00-18:00 (last tickets at 16:00). Closed Su except last Su of the mo; when it is free, crowded, and open 09:00-14:00. The museum is closed for holidays on: 1 1 & 6 Jan, 11 Feb, 19 Mar, 4 & 5 Apr, 1 May , 29 Jun, 14 & 15 Aug, 1 Nov, and 8, 25 & 26 Dec. One of the greatest art galleries in the world, the museum is most famous for its spiral staircase, the Raphael Rooms and the exquisitely decorated Sistine Chapel with Michelangelo's frescoes. It's organised in such a way that the visitor has to follow a one-way route; do see it! Don't put it off, because it closes before the rest of the museum does! €16, Concessions €8. edit
You can get to the Vatican Museums by taking Metro line A (direction: "Battistini") and getting off at the "Ottaviano - S.Pietro - Musei Vaticani" or "Cipro" stops (10 minutes walk). Bus #49 stops in front of the museum entrance, buses #32, #81 and #982, along with tram line #19, stop on piazza del Risorgimento (5 minutes walk); buses #492 and #990 stop at via Leone IV and via degli Scipioni, respectively (5 minutes walk).
The Museums are, usually, most crowded on Sa, M, the last Su of the mo, rainy days, and the days before or after a holiday. Dress code: no short shorts or bare shoulders. Telephone: +39 06 69884947. There are often lengthy queues from the entrance that stretch around the block in the early morning. Non-guided visitors should join the queue that is to the left as you are facing the entrance; the queue on the right is intended for guided group visitors. Always check if there is actually a queue before getting a guide on the street to skip it, many guides will tell you that there is a huge queue ahead even when there is none or a short one. Two hour English tours cost €31 and includes museum admission, and leave at 10:30, 12:00, 14:00 in summer, 10:30 and 11:15 in winter. To reserve, book online . Other contact details: for groups [email protected], for individuals: [email protected], tel. + 39 06 69883145 or +39 06 69884676, fax + 39 06 69873250.
With a booking you skip the queue and enter through the exit, next to entry, to go to the guided tours desk. There are also audio-guides available from the top of the escalator/ramp for €7. Two people to share a single unit plugging in a standard set of earphones.
You can book on-line for admission only (no tour) for an extra €4pp and still skip the queue.
Accessing the Sistine Chapel requires walking through many other (spectacular) halls and buildings (including the Raphael's Rooms) and it takes about an hour, but if you are confined to a wheelchair or travelling with a baby pram or stroller you can use the lifts and go straight to the Sistine Chapel. It takes 5-10 minutes unless you stop along the long corridor. Note that although the Museum is quite large, no free map is available (only a simple leaflet with the order of the rooms) - you must bring your own, or purchase a guidebook in the shop for €10 or more.
Also, be aware that it is not allowed to take pictures or to talk loudly in the Sistine Chapel (although everybody flagrantly violates these rules). While one may agree with this policy or not, the visit would be a much more pleasant one without the guards having to yell out "Shh!" or: "No foto e no video!" every two minutes. The bottom line is: respect the rules and let every visitor enjoy the best of the experience, even if no one else does. If you try to sneak a picture (again, like everyone does), you'll get a bad photograph and a screaming guard as your reward. You may even be kicked out and forced to delete the pictures if you are taking them too boldly.
The two main entrances to Vatican City for tourists are A) the Vatican Museums, accessible from viale Vaticano on the northern side of the city state and B) St. Peter's basilica, on the southeastern side of the city and accessible from via della Conciliazione. The basilica is open usually from 07:00-19:00. The Vatican Museums is open to the public M-Sa 09:00-16:00. Visitors can stay inside until 18:00. The Vatican Museums are closed on Su except for the last Su of each month when it is open from 09:00-12:30. Visitors can stay inside until 14:00. Take note that this day is usually extremely busy so it is preferable to visit another day if you are able to afford it.
While guidebooks do their best to provide an aid for viewing the collections inside the Vatican, a guided tour is a far better way to make sure you get the most out of your visit.
Guided tours are provided by the Vatican itself for €32. Tours can be booked, 60 days before the requested tour date, here: . Guided tours are also offered by several other companies.
The Vatican has a unique, noncommercial economy that is supported financially by contributions (known as Peter's Pence) from Roman Catholics throughout the world. It also sells postage stamps, tourist mementos, and publications. Fees for admission to museums also go into church coffers.
Rome/Vatican has the euro (€) as its sole currency along with 24 other countries that use this common European money. These 24 countries are: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain (official euro members which are all European Union member states) as well as Andorra, Kosovo, Monaco, Montenegro, San Marino and the Vatican which use it without having a say in eurozone affairs and without being European Union members. Together, these countries have a population of more than 330 million.
One euro is divided into 100 cents. While each official euro member (as well as Monaco, San Marino and Vatican) issues its own coins with a unique obverse, the reverse, as well as all bank notes, look the same throughout the eurozone. Every coin is legal tender in any of the eurozone countries.
The Vatican Museums have a reasonable cafeteria-style restaurant, a bar and a pizzeria - all of which are open during museum opening hours and until about one hour after closing. Furthermore, the Vatican Apostolic Library and Vatican Secret Archives, which are only open to admitted researchers and Vatican staff, share a courtyard that has access to an Italian-style bar with cafe fare and a limited selection of alcoholic beverages. See also Rome.
Numerous other eateries are just outside the walls of Vatican City.
Coffee (caffè) in the morning, mineral water for lunch - either gassata/frizzante (sparkling) or liscia (plain mineral water) - and try to find rosé wine in the evening: it goes very well with all Italian dishes, and keeps one and one's company fresh and summery. Care and solid experience is advised when arriving from colder climates, to absorb the many new, ever so pleasant, enviroments and tastes, and the delicates of balancing wine and water, with creamy sauces and vinegars.
Unless you count the Pope as a good friend (and he concurs), there are no lodging opportunities in the Vatican City itself. However, there are many hotels in the surrounding neighbourhoods of Rome.
Although there is little crime in the Vatican, pickpockets and scammers from the surrounding city do sneak in so be careful how you hold your money on you and be weary of a deal that seems too good to be true (especially since many items these people bring are cheap and possibly dangerous product rip-offs that are illegal to buy). Possession of these illegal rip-offs or stolen products may earn you a fine. Homosexuality, although legal, is considered a sin by the Roman Catholic Church and the people there may not be open to you showing your affection in public or private.
Mail a letter. Since Vatican City is a separate country it also has its own postal system; send a postcard to your friends and it will be postmarked from Vatican City.
Respect and reverence to the Roman Catholic Church and its practices and doctrine is encouraged. Those who aren't Catholic and are openly declaring it by blatantly attacking the Church's views and beliefs might be treated as less than an equal. Try to keep your beliefs to yourself and avoid debating over them. | <urn:uuid:bcfc4755-0aea-43d7-b3ae-61b8b061c44b> | {
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“How do I see my country and what am I ready to do and give up for it”? It is the question that each of us should ask ourselves at some point of time. School education in the majority of countries tries to ingrain the feeling of patriotism to us. We learn how to love and respect our motherland and be proud of the achievements that our history keeps and passes to new generations.
Patriotism is, undoubtedly, important and society should bring this feeling to each of us from early childhood. I also believe that patriotism starts with the love to the family and one can bring the most to its country by being able to protect, respect and value family and relationships that can be build in it. A lot of poets and writers have chosen patriotism as the topic subject of their art and works and we can learn from them a lot. This literature makes the concept of patriotism unique and consistent throughout the years and centuries. It is one of the feelings that did not evolve a lot in spite of all the changes that have been happening with humanity throughout the history.
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- ۲٫ General analysis that is practical. Here we research specifically the area when the work is written. For instance, whenever we are speaking about the economy, then during this period the macroeconomic part of this science is examined, particularly, analysis around the globe economy, the nationwide economy associated with the nation, including industry, territories, program-oriented analysis.
- ۳٫ Particular analysis. Here, primarily quantitative analysis can be used. It really is associated with the employment of particular calculations, formulas, dependencies, models.
- ۴٫ Theoretical and specific analysis can be interrelated. This can be due to the known undeniable fact that positively any formula or some statement should be supported and explained by theory.
Basic principles of theoretical and tangible analysis
- – The unity of analysis and synthesis. This means that your whole method has to be split into component parts, after which it the currently analyzed disconnected elements could be combined as a concept that is single.
- – an integral way of the region of consideration. This means that it’s required to begin a approach that is comprehensive the phenomena which can be said to be within the framework regarding the industry under research. For instance, then it is necessary to adjust the study of the aspects of the economic activity of enterprises (economy, production, labor and management, engineering, technology, ecology, sociology, etc.), consideration of economic, technical and other indicators in interrelation and mutual influence if we are talking about economic discipline.
- – Consideration of particular phenomena and indicators in a developing type. This requires making use of comparisons. Despite the objectives associated with dissertation, the comparison shouldn’t be just a straightforward comparison in characteristics, but additionally a qualitative contrast taking into consideration the improvement of practices and technology.
The values that characterize the practical the main work
All sensation when you look at the part that is practical of tasks are described as particular values. This is often analytical data, that are described as general and indicators that are average. In each one of the presented variants, it’s important to conduct the processing that is correct of gotten information. Old-fashioned practices can be viewed those people which can be https://domyhomework.services/ used in statistics, because this may be the broadest area when you look at the study of the dissertation practical part.
Show the bond between particular indicators inside their comparison that is detailed will the topic:
- -Horizontal analysis (easy comparison of indicators in dynamics).
- -Vertically constructed analysis (concept of the structure of indicators to look for the evaluation of every component for performance as a whole).
- -Trend analysis. This might be whenever each place regarding the report is in contrast to the information regarding the period thought to be the prior one, after which the trend is decided. It represents the primary trend of changing indicators utilizing the passage through of enough time. These indicators are filtered from random impacts and particular options that come with specific periods. With the aid of a trend, you’ll foresee values that are certain may possibly occur later on.
- -Conducting analysis of general or indicators that are changing as an example, coefficients.
- -Conducting relative analysis. The performance that is individual of a enterprise or its individual devices are contrasted. Also within the calculation are taken indicators that are third-party for instance, competitive. This is actually the essence of contrast. | <urn:uuid:ca52a1a9-977c-4271-ae9d-c4de010335a2> | {
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Identifying and managing the risk of harm from falls forms part of the Comprehensive Care Standard.
NSQHS Standards (first edition)
The first edition of the NSQHS Standards included a Standard specifically related to preventing falls. A range of guiding materials were developed to support implementation of the Falls Standard including:
Preventing Falls and Harm from Falls in Older People: Best Practice Guidelines 2009
The Commission has also developed best practice guidelines for Australian Hospitals, Residential Aged Care Facilities and Community Care to help reduce the number of falls and resulting harm experienced by older people in care.
Guidebook for Preventing Falls and Harm from Falls in Older People
A short version, or guidebook was also developed: | <urn:uuid:e3fd8a5d-201f-4a29-83af-38f86ee28f1f> | {
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Most beer bottles contain a neck as well as a body label; some more elaborate packages contain back and shoulder labels or even a foil neck wrap. They are all sources of information, and in the world of beer collectables, we can learn more from the label than from any other source. This small artifact plays an important role in deciphering a brand`s history.
A few clues make it easy to identify labels with a particular period of time. For example, pre-Prohibition labels contained the statement, "Guaranteed Under Food and Drug Act June 30, 1906." When bottling began, the brewery`s name and city were actually embossed onto the bottle. Early paper labels were initially applied over the embossing until the supply of these bottles was depleted.
The most sought-after early labels among collectors are the die cuts. These are labels cut in a way to highlight certain features in the shape of the brand`s logo, a method used by breweries to add some uniqueness or embellishment to a particular beer. Die cuts were more prevalent before Prohibition when labels were applied by hand; modern labeling machines run at a much faster pace when applying a square or oval shape.
Since very few brewers operated their own bottling works, many pre-Prohibition labels listed a separate bottling company as well as the brewery name: for example, "Christian Moerlein Brewing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, Bottled at the Pittsburgh Branch." The beer was produced in Cincinnati, then sent up river in kegs to Pittsburgh to be packaged in bottles.
Many pre-Prohibition labels resemble the artwork of currency and postage stamps of the time. They contain simple graphics and few colors, which kept the printing cost down. Given the high illiteracy rate among the beer-drinking public, there was very little text.
In fact, some brewers took advantage of the under-educated public by copying the names and graphics of the larger brewers. Beers brewed in New York or Minnesota may have the word Milwaukee, Cincinnati or St. Louis prominently displayed as part of the label design. This was a marketing ploy to fool the under-educated into believing they were drinking a more cosmopolitan brew, as well as an attempt to give the literate consumer confidence in the product.
These borrowed titles also served to define the beer`s style. This was a practice already prevalent in Europe, where many brewers produced mьnchener (Munich), wiener (Vienna) or bohemian (Pilsen) type beers to define style and capitalize on previous successes.
To slow the prohibition movement, some turn-of-the-century labels promoted beer as a food or health product. Continuing the trend, some brewers in the early years of Prohibition were able to brew beer for medicinal purposes. A prescription was needed to secure your allowance of the golden nectar. Some brewers also produced a hopped malt extract and sold yeast separately.
During Prohibition itself, words like "cereal beverage," "non-intoxicating," "malt beverage" and "tonic" appeared on most of the labels. The wording "manufactured by" instead of "brewed by" also was used. Breweries used names like "products company" or "beverage company," or omitted the words "brewery," "ale" or "beer" from the company`s name altogether.
During World War I, the German heritage of breweries was played down or done away with completely. Various printers` and brewers` union labels and symbols often appear as part of labels dating from this era.
Beer Dave Gausepohl has collected breweriana since 1974 and has a personal collection of over 400,000 items. He has visited over 1,000 breweries and tasted well over 10,000 different brews from the world over. | <urn:uuid:b0945207-c5b9-4190-bc4c-d7e6ffab96d8> | {
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Jazz Chops: Arpeggio Blowout
• Learn how to connect arpeggios in all 12 keys.
• Play ascending and descending shapes all over the neck.
• Develop linear phrases over “Bird” blues.
One of the best things you can do for your playing is to learn your arpeggios. A great way to do this is by playing them through the major scale. You’ll build technique, train your ears, and come up with cool soloing ideas. The possibilities are endless.
First, let’s look at the 7th chords that we have when we harmonize a major scale. In Fig. 1 you can see that the I chord is major, IIm, IIIm, and VIm are minor, V is dominant and VII is half-diminished (or minor 7 with a b5). This pattern holds true for any major scale in any key.
Now, let’s work through these arpeggios while sticking to one section of the neck. In Fig. 2 we will play through each chord in the key of C while alternating direction. First, we have a Cmaj7 (C–E–G–B) chord played ascending; then we move to the IIm chord, Dm7 (D–F–A–C), starting from the 7th and descending to the root. We alternate direction until we finish with the 7th (A) of the Bm7b5 chord.
If we move that last note down a half-step to Ab, we then start the descending version of the exercise shown in Fig. 3. Here, we move the key up a half-step (to Db major) and start with the descending version of the VIm chord, which is Bbm7. Once we get to the VII half-diminished chord (Cm7b5), we then repeat the exercise from Fig. 2 in the new key (Fig. 4).
This is a fantastic exercise to warm up with each day. Play this pattern all the way up the neck until you get to the key of G Major (root on the 10th fret of the 5th string) and back. Make sure to use alternate picking and start slowly.
Now we want to take these arpeggios and use them over some actual music. A good place to start will be with what is known as “Bird” blues—a version of a 12-bar blues form that uses more than just your normal I–IV–V. (This is often called “Confirmation changes,” after the Charlie Parker tune “Confirmation.”). We’ll arpeggiate our way through the entire progression.
If there is only one chord in the measure, you’ll play the entire one-octave arpeggio ascending and descending, starting on the root and ending on the 3rd. If there are two chords in the measure, you’ll play both the first and second chord ascending, beginning on the root. Fig. 5 demonstrates one possible way to play this.
Once you feel comfortable with this pattern, you can reverse the entire thing (Fig. 6) and start to develop more melodic ideas. Notice that sometimes when you change chords, the line retains its flow by resolving by either a half- or whole-step.
Here’s one (Fig. 7) that uses both the root and the 7th as starting tones. In a measure with two chords, you’ll start on the root of the first chord and play the arpeggio ascending, then start on the 7th of the second chord and play the arpeggio descending. This example uses measures 5-8 of the chord progression.
As you can see, there are a lot of different ways to approach a tune using arpeggios. Work with one starting point at a time, then mix and match and listen for what kinds of sounds you’ll come up with. It’s a great way to get your ear to discover new ideas, both for songs and guitar solos alike. Happy arpeggiating!
Amanda Monaco has performed at the Blue Note, The Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, and the JVC Jazz Festival, as well as other venues in the United States and Europe. Her quartet, Deathblow, combines free-bop sensibilities with through-composed pieces that are equal parts textural, adventurous, and whimsical. Amanda has served on the faculty of Berklee College of Music, New School University, and the National Guitar Workshop and is the author of Jazz Guitar for the Absolute Beginner (Alfred Publishing). For more information, visit amandamonaco.com. | <urn:uuid:025a58ab-6a77-4a5d-a48a-bed6b65dbd25> | {
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Which of the following ideas is not supported by E = mc2? ??
Pure energy is electromagnetic radiation. ?
Energy and mass (matter) are interchangeable; they are different
forms of the same thing. ?
The relationship between mass and energy is inversely proportional.
The speed of light squared is the conversion factor that decides
just how much energy lies captured within matter. ? | <urn:uuid:4f31fd43-5d44-4d2d-8a55-74fc1da6b7b3> | {
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Distributed Systems and Applications
Dr. E. Tuosto
Computer networks and distributed applications have a paramount role in all-day life. Nowadays, it is hard to imagine stand-alone systems or applications. Practically, any modern computing device offers the possibility of being connected with other devices. At higher level, applications aim at exploiting networking capabilities of systems and tend to be more and more interconnected and communicating themselves.
Programming this kind of distributed applications can result a hard task if not done at the appropriate level of abstraction. There are two main complex aspects to face with: (i) distributed systems are frequently made of heterogeneous devices and interact through many different communication infrastructure; (ii) modern distributed systems have different tiers (e.g., TCP/IP level, operating system, network system, etc.). Middlewares provide an abstraction of many low-level details of systems. They are meant to simplify software development and application integration by interfacing the application level with lower tier of distributed systems so that the programmer does not have to worry about implementation details. Also, middlewares allow the programmer to integrate applications developed for different execution context and in different times.
The course reviews some notions of concurrent and distributed programming (e.g., threads and RMI) and presents the main models and principles behind the middlewares that in the last years many vendors (Microsoft, IBM, Sun, Oracle) have proposed. In fact, these proposals differ each other not only with respect to the technologies or architectures adopted, but also with respect to the underlying coordination models. The course also presents the use of some of the most common middlewares in the development of web-based and distributed applications. | <urn:uuid:20fe7504-dbe2-4f48-8d5e-90d4de38fad8> | {
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But the noblest proof of his love of England lies in the work which immortalizes his name. In his ’Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation,’ Baeda was at once the founder of medieval history and the first English historian. All that we really know of the century and a half that follows the landing of Augustine, we know from him. Wherever his own personal observation extended, the story is told with admirable detail and force. He is hardly less full or accurate in the portions which he owed to his Kentish friends, Alewine and Nothelm. What he owed to no informant was his own exquisite faculty of story-telling, and yet no story of his own telling is so touching as the story of his death. Two weeks before the Easter of 735 the old man was seized with an extreme weakness and loss of breath. He still preserved, however, his usual pleasantness and gay good-humour, and in spite of prolonged sleeplessness continued his lectures to the pupils about him. Verses of his own English tongue broke from time to time from the master’s lip—rude rhymes that told how before the “need-fare,” Death’s stern “must-go,” none can enough bethink him what is to be his doom for good or ill. The tears of Baeda’s scholars mingled with his song. “We never read without weeping,” writes one of then. So the days rolled on to Ascension-tide, and still master and pupils toiled at their work, for Baeda longed to bring to an end his version of St. John’s Gospel into the English tongue, and his extracts from Bishop Isidore. “I don’t want my boys to read a lie,” he answered those who would have had him rest, “or to work to no purpose, after I am gone.” A few days before Ascension-tide his sickness grew upon him, but he spent the whole day in teaching, only saying cheerfully to his scholars, “Learn with what speed you may; I know not how long I may last.” The dawn broke on another sleepless night, and again the old man called his scholars round him and bade them write. “There is still a chapter wanting,” said the scribe, as the morning drew on, “and it is hard for thee to question thyself any longer.” “It is easily done,” said Baeda; “take thy pen and write quickly.” Amid tears and farewells the day wore on to eventide. “There is yet one sentence unwritten, dear master,” said the boy. “Write it quickly,” bade the dying man. “It is finished now,” said the little scribe at last. “You speak truth,” said the master; “all is finished now.” Placed upon the pavement, his head supported in his scholar’s arms, his face turned to the spot where he was wont to pray, Baeda chaunted the solemn “Glory to God.” As his voice reached the close of his song, he passed quietly away.
J. R. GREEN.
[Note: Baeda. The father of literature and learning in England (656-735 A.D.).]
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A society, to me, is made up of a group of people who work together towards common goals, has its own unique practices, rituals, beliefs and even language, and also has rules and standards that help to maintain and keep itself organized. A society can be considered effective or functional when all these traits are present. Of course, other traits can define a society, however they are not nearly as essential to the society's existence. This world is made up of countless societies, each one being unlike another, but they all work because they portray the characteristics of a true society.
All readers of William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies have had their own opinion as to whether the boys on the island were actually a society or not. At one point, they could be considered a functioning society. They had meetings to come up with rules for their tribe, and also had an informal class system where the littluns had the least power and the hunters and Ralph, the chief, held the most power.
As they spent more time on the island, they also began developing their own vernacular, such as "littluns" for young children and "biguns" to represent the older kids. However, when rules and behavior became less essential, the boys' society crumbled. The boys paid no heed to the importance of the signal fire and forgot the order and security that the conch represented. They became nothing more than bloodthirsty savages and had all lost sight of the common goal that banded them together in the first place--rescue.
The United States is an example of a very distinctive society that is able to be successful. Despite our cultural, religious, social, and political differences, we are all Americans working towards the "American Dream," whatever that dream may... | <urn:uuid:d061aeba-63bb-4e66-b806-8b078af8a2e2> | {
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15 April 2013 Primary production and processing in such sectors as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, mining, oil and gas exploration and utilities cost the world economy $7.3 trillion a year in damage to the environment, health and other vital benefits for humankind, a new United Nations-backed report warned today, calling for stricter ecological sustainability.
High impact business sectors in fact make an economic loss when such environmental costs as the negative impact on natural resources, pollution and greenhouse gasses are accounted for, according to the study, ‘Natural Capital at Risk – The Top 100 Externalities of Business,’ released at a Business for the Environment summit in New Delhi.
“The current business model creates significant environmental externalities,” the report stressed, using the term for by-product costs such as greenhouse gas emissions, loss of natural resources, loss of nature-based services such as carbon storage by forests, climate change and air pollution-related health expenditure.
“However, businesses and investors can take account of natural capital impacts in decision making to manage risk and gain competitive advantage,” it said, noting that consumer demand is set to grow significantly over the next few years with the increase in middle class consumers against a backdrop of increasing resource scarcity and the degradation of natural ecosystems.
“Forward-looking companies are already recognizing that the key to competitiveness in an increasingly resource-constrained world will hinge in large part on escalating natural resource efficiencies and cutting pollution footprints,” Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director UNEP Achim Steiner, said.
“The numbers in this report underline the urgency but also the opportunities for of all economies in transitioning to a Green Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication.”
According to the report, the global top 100 environmental externalities alone cost the economy world-wide around $4.7 trillion a year in terms of the economic costs, or 65 percent of the total primary sector impacts identified.
The majority of the costs are from greenhouse gas emissions at 38 percent, followed by water use (25 percent), land use (24 percent); air pollution (7 percent), land and water pollution (5 percent) and waste (1 percent).
The highest impact sectors by region include coal-fired power in eastern Asia and northern America which rank as first and third respectively - an estimated $453 billion annually in eastern Asia and $317 billion in North America in the damage impact of greenhouse gas emissions, and health costs and other damage due to air pollution. In both instances, these social costs exceeded the production value of the sector.
The other highest impact sectors are agriculture, in areas of water scarcity, and where the level of production and, therefore, land use is also high. Cattle ranching in South America, at an estimated $354 billion ranks second. Wheat and rice production in southern Asia rank fourth and fifth, respectively.
Iron, steel and ferroalloy manufacturing ranks sixth at $225 billion. Cement manufacturing globally accounts for six percent of carbon dioxide emissions, and eastern Asia produces an estimated 55 percent of the world’s cement, coming in at seventh.
The report was authored by Trucost, an environmental data company, for The Economics of Environment and Biodiversity for the Business Coalition (TEEB), a UNEP-backed biodiversity-appreciation programme that draws together expertise from the fields of science, economics and policy to enable practical actions.
News Tracker: past stories on this issue | <urn:uuid:dcf78c47-7e7f-496f-8ba6-bb4c64128be5> | {
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In type 2 diabetes the body has an increasingly harder time to handle all the sugar in the blood. Large amounts of the blood sugar-lowering hormone insulin are produced, but it’s still not enough, as insulin sensitivity decreases. At the time of being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, diabetics usually have ten times more insulin in their bodies than normal. As a side effect, this insulin stores fat and causes weight gain, something that has often been in progress for many years before the disease was diagnosed.
The United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) was a clinical study conducted by Z that was published in The Lancet in 1998. Around 3,800 people with type 2 diabetes were followed for an average of ten years, and were treated with tight glucose control or the standard of care, and again the treatment arm had far better outcomes. This confirmed the importance of tight glucose control, as well as blood pressure control, for people with this condition.
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Your doctor may prescribe this therapy, which can help prevent pain signals from reaching your brain. TENS delivers tiny electrical impulses to specific nerve pathways through small electrodes placed on your skin. Although safe and painless, TENS doesn't work for everyone or for all types of pain.
Diabetes is a number of diseases that involve problems with the hormone insulin. Normally, the pancreas (an organ behind the stomach) releases insulin to help your body store and use the sugar and fat from the food you eat. Diabetes can occur when the pancreas produces very little or no insulin, or when the body does not respond appropriately to insulin. As yet, there is no cure. People with diabetes need to manage their disease to stay healthy. | <urn:uuid:5ec486a1-e356-457a-b21f-9be776f76b95> | {
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UWE is a series of so-called Pico satellites with an edge length of 10 cm and a weight of only one kilo. Thanks to the most innovative technology, these tiny satellites have been orbiting for more than 2 years and transmitting data to Earth from a height of 800 km. UWE is a research project by students from Würzburg studying aerospace engineering in the field of miniaturisation technology. The knowledge gained by UWE is intended to provide improved communication with “large” satellites which, for example, can provide three-dimensional images of the effected area after earthquakes. FAULHABER is pleased to be on-board with this mission and to support UWE in regards to powerful micro drive technology. | <urn:uuid:09e46614-b3d3-42c6-aed8-88c1d713e7ae> | {
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Earaches are most often caused by the buildup of fluid in the Eustachian tube, which is located near the eardrum, according to Dr. Sears of Parenting.com. The pressure of the fluid pressing against the eardrum causes pain. Also pain relievers such as ibuprofen can be used in some cases, many babies are much too young to be given strong pain medication. For that reason, some mothers turn to other ways to relieve their babies’ earaches.
Babies can’t tell you with words when they have an earache, but they will do other things to let you know that they are in pain. The most accurate symptom of an ear infection is prolonged crying, not ear-pulling, according to DrGreene.com. While it’s common for babies to pull on their ears, they sometimes do so for reasons other than pain, such as itching, or simply to explore. Babies with earaches will cry harder at night or when they are lying down, as that is when the pain intensifies. If an ear infection is causing the pain, your baby may also have a fever.
Ear infections are one of the most commonly diagnosed problems in pediatrics, according to DrGreen.com. These infections can cause a lot of ear pain in babies and children. Teething can also cause an earache, as the pain in the jaw spreads to the cheeks, then to the ears, according to the website of Dr. Paulose.
Before you treat your baby for an earache, you need to determine the cause. If the pain is caused by teething, try reliving the teething pain with a cold teething ring, or teething gel. Treatment for an earache caused by an ear infection involves soothing the eardrum. Dr. Sears recommends placing a few drops of warm vegetable or olive oil in the ear canal. This is best done while the baby is sleeping. Or you may decide to give your child ibuprofen. Check with your doctor before giving any oral pain relievers to your baby, as dosage should be determined by the baby’s age and weight.
Earaches are often tied to a clogged-up nose, which can cause those fluids in the ear to build up rather than drain. Dr. Sears suggests suctioning out a baby’s nose to get those fluids moving, which in turn may ease ear pain. Gently and repeatedly pulling down on the earlobe can also get the fluid moving through the Eustachian tubes.
Earaches can be a symptom of something as harmless as teething, or they can signify a much more serious problem, such as a severe ear infection. It is always best to see a doctor if you suspect your baby is suffering from ear pain. If your baby has an ear infection, your doctor may want to provide you with some antibiotics for your child, as well as prescribe some analgesic eardrops. | <urn:uuid:42cc209d-ce82-41d0-9140-01bb94594327> | {
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Anthony's mother, Gee Walker, gave her blessing to the inclusion of her son's story at the museum, on the third floor of Liverpool's Maritime Museum. Anthony, who was murdered in a racist attack two years ago, is featured in an exhibit about discrimination along with a montage including black heroes Malcolm X and Nelson Mandela.
The museum is to have a state of the art learning facility named after the teenager. The opening of the museum, on Thursday, coincides with the bicentenary of the abolition of the British slave trade.
The museum also contains a powerful and horrific image of a black woman, Laura Nelson, who had been lynched in Oklahoma in May 1911. Nearby is a photograph of a white mob, some of whom are smiling, standing by the burning corpse of William Brown, who had been seized from a prison, hanged from a lamp-post before being riddled with bullets and burned.
The disturbing photographs are in the racism and discrimination section of the museum, near to a Ku Klux Klan robe.
A wall is dedicated to 76 black achievers.
Richard Benjamin, head of the International Slavery Museum, said the museum had not been universally welcomed.
"It is not just about the historical dimension," he said. "It is about the ramifications, such as the recent racial incident - the murder of a young black man in Liverpool. We believe the museum will fight racism and challenge stereotypical views. It is highlighting the resistance of the African people and showing that they weren't passive in the slave trade."
During the 18th century, Liverpool was Britain's main slaving port and over a 107-year-period it carried 1.5 million Africans into slavery. | <urn:uuid:aa3c09d6-7366-4914-8c29-3e38b5f68be4> | {
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Random Numbers from Cosmic RaysSeptember 14th, 2004 in Astronomy & Space /
Cosmic rays from exploding stars have provided a new and innovative way of producing truly random numbers.
University of Queensland mathematician Dr Michael Bulmer and UQ physicist Dr Kevin Pimbblet have produced random numbers from cosmic rays which could help researchers develop more secure computer codes.
Dr Bulmer said most methods of generating computer codes with random numbers were not secure because they were computer generated.
“The problem with random sets created by computers is that they can be broken once the algorithm used to generate them is deciphered,” he said.
“The method we have developed is truly random as it is from a physically random process.”
Dr Bulmer said this was the first time astronomical images had been used in this way.
However, photos could also be used to produce the same results.
“In principle you can use any kind of image, be they photos or scans, because they have random noise in the image,” he said.
Dr Bulmer and Dr Pimbblet are looking to connect their work with the CONintuous CAMera (CONCAM) project.
CONCAM is a group telescopes throughout the world that provide a continuous display of the night time sky.
Dr Bulmer said this could provide a constant stream of data for producing random numbers.
They have also set up a website at www.maths.uq.edu.au/~mrb/cosmic where visitors can use their own photos to produce random numbers.
"Random Numbers from Cosmic Rays." September 14th, 2004. http://phys.org/news/2004-09-random-cosmic-rays.html | <urn:uuid:417ab712-fefa-4971-9b9f-4ca8637e9e6e> | {
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Easter is a sacred time for Christians throughout the world. However, like many religious traditions,
Easter shares some of the tradition with Passover, but Easter is not Christian Passover any more than Passover is Jewish Easter. The central characters in both events involve Jews but beyond that the meaning and purpose move in separate directions.
Easter is representative of the Sunday following the crucifixion of Jesus, son of Mary and Joseph. Jesus was a prophet as well as the Christ, the One who was foretold in the scriptures.
According to our teaching, Jesus was crucified on a Friday and rose from the dead two days later on Sunday. We believe not only in his deity but also the resurrection of the body. Without the resurrection He was just another man.
There were no Easter bunnies. No one died chicken eggs and hid them. Chocolate bunnies and Cadbury eggs, while delicious are not mentioned in the Bible.
Easter is a time of rebirth and renewal. It is a time to reflect on our past and strive to make changes going forward. | <urn:uuid:e6c0cd36-5543-452e-b712-884d6eb19696> | {
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What is Mandela’s attitude toward non-racial (or multi-racial) political activism? What precipitates changes in Mandela’s attitude?
What is the basis of Mandela’s understanding of South Africa’s economic system and the underpinnings of racial inequality?
Who does Mandela cite as important influences on him?
What are Mandela’s sources of information?
Who do you think is his intended audience for this book?
What are the limits of legitimate opposition to a government?
What is the difference between opposition and rebellion/revolution?
What are the challenges of achieving revolutionary change by democratic means?
Ahmed Kathrada: imprisoned after Rivonia trial; ANC MP in 1994 elections; Parliamentary Counselor (adviser to President Mandela) | <urn:uuid:e34b7995-0ccc-42cf-9f99-a07c47c658ac> | {
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The power of rain as both metaphor and visual element has made it a singular and enduring motif, if not an outright theme, in photography. Certainly, the modernist movement has done more with rainy days and the challenges of rainy exposures than the 19th-century pioneers of the camera may have envisioned, focused as they were on achieving clarity of composition amid long exposure times in an effort to document reality in some idealized state or other (with any number of atmospheric exceptions, such as Brady's Civil War photography).
Indeed, rain may be the great modernist symbol, standing in so well for timeless emotions, psychological realities and political challenge. Rain is the poetic value that implies the persistence of memory, the world's remonstrance, life's struggles, and our primordial source, keeping us grounded, in its way, to our humble earthly existence. In this exhibit, and in the hands of these mostly modern and postmodern photographers, rain-themed images function with formal and metaphoric grace, transcending the clichés of slickened streets and stormy skies to focus, always, on illuminating some specific space, time, person, mood or moment that is inextricably linked to the rain's elemental essence.
Thus, photographers as contemporary as that Czech artist of urban edginess, Stanko Abadzic (as well as his Czech forerunners, Eric Einhorn and Antonin Gribovsky), or a master of staggering landscape images, Mitch Dobrowner, capture the micro and macro aspects of rainy days (and nights) in ways that allow is to feel the humid moments and the human interactions that are only amplified by the rain. For these artists, the reflective, and/or misty extra dimension imposed by precipitation becomes another character in their unforced dramas of shadow, light, natural and architectural form. This also applies to classic modernists and photojournalists such as Brassai, Adolph Fritz and Geza Vandor, with their European iconography that evoke so much, especially in the rainiest moments.
While the modern masters may make the most of their rainy days, this exhibit also reminds us that there are any number of earlier vintage works that met the challenge of the rain. In 1870, for example, albumen prints from Henri Tournier's wet plate negatives explored the contrasts between sunlight and rain in Bretagne's ancient streets. And at the pre-modern edge of the 20th century, in 1907, Robert L. Sleeth--a gifted amateur from Pittsburgh--caught rainy images of his growing city that combine rich atmosphere with beautifully composed documentation. It's evident from this small but rich survey that the stark, black-and-white beauty of rainy day photography represents one of the medium's great traditions, and something much more than a genre or style: at its best, it becomes a mode of heightened perception.
Exhibited and Sold By
Contemporary Works / Vintage Works, Ltd.
258 Inverness Circle
Chalfont, Pennsylvania 18914 USA
Contact Alex Novak and Marthe Smith
Call for an Appointment | <urn:uuid:6880ed21-4c9a-4c7e-8bab-fb581c27c796> | {
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The United States Institute of Peace Act, passed by the Congress and signed into law in 1984, established the Institute as a publicly funded national institution chartered to "serve the American people and the federal government through the widest possible range of education and training, basic and applied research opportunities, and peace information services on the means to promote international peace and the resolution of conflicts among the nations and peoples of the world without recourse to violence." The campaign to establish an Institute had begun a decade earlier, when the idea of a national peace academy was first brought to the Senate floor following recommendations by a commission appointed by President Jimmy Carter and chaired by Senator Spark Matsunaga. The legislation establishing the United States Institute of Peace was formally signed in 1984 by President Ronald Reagan.
It was not until 1996 that the U.S. Congress, recognizing the Institute's contributions to international conflict management, authorized the Navy to transfer jurisdiction of federal land--a portion of its Pototmac Annex facility on Navy Hill--as the site of the permanent headquarters of the United States Institute of Peace. In 2005, Congress authorized and the Navy concurred in the transfer of an adjacent parcel of land, including two brick structures housing the Navy's Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, for use as the site of a professional training center for practitioners in conflict prevention, management and resolution. | <urn:uuid:90ae6d32-422c-40a5-ae32-d6c256afd594> | {
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Carnival (Mardi Gras, Fat Tuesday, Shrove Tuesday)
Carnival was celebrated on the the last day of the year before Lent and was a feast like no other in the calendar. It was called Fat Tuesday because all meat and animal products such as cheese, milk, bacon, and fat, had to be eaten before sundown, since none could be consumed during the forty-day Lenten fast (the name derives from carnelevare, the Latin word meaning giving up meat). The winter was ending and supplies were running low, so a fast would soon be inevitable even without the rush to eat everything up by the Fat Tuesday deadline.
This holiday was marked by wild revelling. It was a time for breaking all the rules, for an intermingling of rich and poor; masks were worn to protect everyone's identity. The tradition was to dress in costumes and masks which reversed your position in life. The clergy were particularly offended by the idea of men imitating women or animals. In the eyes of the Church man was created by God to rule over nature - including women. When men dressed as women or animals, there was a feeling that they were reversing God's intentions by imitating rather than ruling nature. The processions and parades often featured male exhibitionism, transvestitism, and simulated copulation.
These features of Carnival survive today in such traditions as the spectacular Mardi Gras of Latin America.
It must not be forgotten that the day also had a serious religious aspect. The people were obliged to make their confession and receive absolution of sins at least once a year, at Eastertime. 'To shrive' means to absolve from sins, so for this reason the name 'Shrove Tuesday' became attached to the day before the beginning of Lent. | <urn:uuid:55fb7b45-39ee-4d53-a7a2-3e7e04c31b9b> | {
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Critical Thinking presents reasoning and problem-solving techniques. It begins with a description of the thinking process and proceeds to examine areas such as identifying and defining problems; understanding the roles of evidence, interpretation, and perception in reasoning; distinguishing between belief and knowledge; understanding the role of language; techniques for organizing information; and methods for building and analyzing arguments.
This is an elective course and is open to the general student population. Students placed in remedial courses must be at the 095 level (e.g., ESL095, ACR095, ENG095) in order to register for CRT100.
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I view this blog as a way to introduce not only extension and research material but also new or uncommon issues that are tangentially related to fruit crops. In my work as an extension specialist I appreciate the support of many fruit growers who comprehend what I do, but I also interact with many who don’t have any idea. Believe me; I understand the lack of awareness. Before I began work as a faculty member, I had no idea either; even though I had been a student and employee at two different universities for a total of 12 years. So, this is my opportunity to relay to you some things about what we do and how it’s done. I am planning for this to run as a three-part series. The first will cover the concept behind land grant institutions, the second will explore cooperative extension, and the third will be a peek inside of what a professor at a land grant institution with an extension appointment actually does.
But, let’s start at the beginning. Mississippi State University (and most other institutions of higher education you get agriculture-related information from) is a Land Grant institution. What does that mean?
A land-grant college or university is an institution that has been designated by its state legislature or Congress to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. The mission of these institutions originally was to teach agriculture, military strategy, and mechanical arts as well as the traditional classical studies so that higher education would be available to all and not just the upper classes.
The Morrill Act of 1862 reflected an increasing need for agricultural and technical education in the United States at the time. Even though a number of already existing institutions did expand upon the traditional studies curriculum, higher education was still out of the reach of many in the working class. Therefore, the Morrill Act was put forth to provide the working classes with an education that directly impacted their daily lives instead of more esoteric studies.
Twenty-eight years later, the Second Morrill Act of 1890 prohibited distribution of money to states that made distinctions of race in admissions, reflecting the aftermath of the Civil War era, and also provided additional endowments for land-grants; however, states that had a separate land grant institution for African-Americans were eligible to receive the funds as well. Institutions that were founded or designated the land grant institution for African-Americans in conjunction with this Act are commonly known as the 1890 land grants. Native American tribal colleges are sometimes referred to as the 1994 land grants in relation to a more recent Act.
Two of the main purposes evident in the creation of the original Morrill Acts were to create an alternative to the traditional curriculum in higher education at the time and development of college level instruction focusing on the agricultural and industrial based members of society. This forward-thinking legislation has produced a system of colleges and universities managed by each state.
The federal support in the initial Morrill Act was to be the income from public lands made available to each state. The state was required to contribute to the maintenance and construction of its land-grant institution, of which a key component is the agricultural experiment station (AES) program created by the Hatch Act of 1887. The Hatch Act authorized payment of federal grant funds to each state to establish an AES in connection with the land grant institution. A portion of the Hatch Act funding supports regional research, enabling scientists to collaborate and coordinate activities and by doing so, avoid duplication of research efforts. The amount of this appropriation varies from year to year and is determined for each state through a statutory formula. A major portion of the federal funds must be matched by the state.
Because the 1890 land-grants do not receive Hatch Act funds, special programs have been created to help finance agricultural research at these institutions. The Evans-Allen program supports agricultural research with funds equal to at least 15% of Hatch Act appropriations.
The Morrill and Hatch Acts are still relevant to this day. Even though many land grant institutions have broadened their educational scope over the years, the agriculture component plays a key role in their existence. Yet increasingly, agriculture (and the many disciplines under that umbrella including horticulture) is fighting hard to maintain its identity. The once dominant agrarian society of the United States has diminished. In the university system, we must jostle among the other colleges and departments on campus for recognition. And as each year passes, it’s more and more difficult to do. Our funding dwindles while the demand for output from administration increases. Do more with less is the motto now.
I urge you as stakeholders in the ideals of the land grant institution to support your local land grant. Support can come in many forms, not just financial. Attend workshops, seminars, short courses, and other programming. Read the fact sheets and publications. Call or email extension specialists at your institution and rely on their expertise. This type of support generates a quantitative assessment of programmatic usage. Bigger numbers let us justify our existence and show those who control our destiny that agricultural education and research is still needed – maybe now more than ever. | <urn:uuid:8e6a5a1a-80e0-4608-8b0a-a8a4a43cde08> | {
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The word prejudice refers to prejudgment: making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event. The word has commonly been used in certain restricted contexts, in the expression 'racial prejudice'. Initially this is referred to making a judgment about a person based on their race, religion, class, etc., before receiving information relevant to the particular issue on which a judgment was being made; it came, however, to be widely used to refer to any hostile attitude towards people based on their race or even by just judging someone without even knowing them. Subsequently the word has come to be widely so interpreted in this way in contexts other than those relating to race. The meaning now is frequently "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence". Race, sex, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, and religion have a history of inciting prejudicial behaviour.
Forms of prejudice
Bob J. Farley classified prejudice into three categories. Cognitive Prejudice
refers to what people believe is true. An example of cognitive prejudice might be found, for example, adherence to a particular metaphysical
philosophy to the exclusion of other philosophies
that may offer a more complete theoretical explanation. Affective Prejudice
refers to what people like and dislike. An example of affective prejudice might be found, for example, in attitudes toward members of particular classes
such as race
, national origin, or creed
. Conative Prejudice
refers to how people are inclined to behave. Conative prejudice is regarded as an attitude because people don't act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice might be found in expressions of what should be done if the opportunity presented itself. These three types of prejudice are correlated, but all need not be present in a particular individual. Someone might believe a particular group possesses low levels of intelligence
, but harbour no ill feelings toward that group. A group might be disliked because of intense competition for jobs, but still recognize no differences between groups.
'Discrimination' is a behaviour (an action), with reference to unequal treatment of people because they are members of a particular group. Farley also classified discrimination into three categories. Personal / Individual Discrimination is directed toward a specific individual and refers to any act that leads to unequal treatment because of the individual's real or perceived group membership. Legal Discrimination refers to "unequal treatment, on the grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law. Apartheid is an example of legal discrimination, as are also various post-Civil war laws in the southern United States that legally disadvantaged negros with respect to property rights, employment rights and the exercise of constitutional rights. Institutional Discrimination refers to unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social institutions resulting in advantaging one group over another. The Indian caste system is an historical example of institutional discrimination. As with prejudice generally, these three types of discrimination are correlated and may be found to varying degrees in individuals and society at large. Many forms of discrimination based upon prejudice are outwardly acceptable in most societies.
Reasons for prejudice
Prejudice has been researched extensively and psychologists generally come to a few approaches: arousal, personality, intergroup interaction, and by learning.
Following the psychodynamic
perspective, some traditional psychologists described prejudice a result of frustration. Psychodynamics
theory assumed that human mind contains psychic energy
, which serve as a tool for psychological activities and can only be discharged through cathartic
– the completion of the activities – to maintain equilibrium (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). Impediment of dissipation results in frustration, which can only be corrected through aggression. Prejudice is an occasion in which a group of people is frustrated by a stronger group which is too powerful or remote to be aggressed against, thus they displaced the aggressive behaviour onto weaker groups, which serve as a scapegoat. For example, when a boy is scolded by his parent, he may choose to displace the frustration to his weaker sister since he is unable to fight back to his parent.
Although empirical data generally confirmed a correlation
between frustration and aggression (Hovland & Sears, 1940; Miller & Bugelski, 1948), researches showed neither necessary nor sufficient causal relationship between frustration and aggression. Therefore, critics argue that this theory can only explain limited factors of intergroup aggression. Moreover, this theory has also been criticized on its reductionist
approach that explains group behaviour in terms of individual states (Billig, 1976; Brown, 2000; Hogg & Abrams, 1988).
Another classical explanation on prejudice concerns the personalities
which create tendency on prejudice against minorities. Historically, psychologists suggested various personalities contributing to discrimination
, including authoritarianism
, closed-mindedness, dominant orientation, etc (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Rokeach, 1948; Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994). In general, people having these personalities
tend to bias towards their own group and refuse to accept belief-contradicting information, thus remain their stereotype
on the prejudiced group. Concerning the origin of the prejudice personalities
, psychologists following the psychodynamics
perspective attribute the cause to excessive harsh and disciplinarian practices in childhood experience (Adorno et al., 1950). However, as the overemphasis on parental influence of psychodynamics
theory has been strongly criticized in the previous century, modern psychologists adopted interracial contact as a more important determinant than childhood experience on shaping people’s prejudice traits
(Stephan & Rosenfield, 1978). Personality theory has also been criticized on underemphasizing situational and socio-cultural factors such as the competition of resources between groups, and being unable to explain sudden change in attitude and behaviour.
Some social psychologists explain prejudice as the effect of group interaction. According to social identity theory
, when we are identified with a group, we show some general characteristics including ethnocentrism
, ingroup favoritism, intergroup differentiation and so on, which contribute to prejudice. Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, and Flament (1971) further devised the minimal groups paradigm
to illustrate the necessary condition for group identification, stating that merely categorizing people into group is sufficient to induce the general characteristics. Besides, group interaction would almost inevitably induce intergroup competitions, the realistic conflict
between group could also accentuate the negative stereotypes
on the out-group.
Some empirical data disconfirmed the minimal groups paradigm
by showing that social categorization is not sufficient for intergroup behaviour (Grieve & Hogg, 1999). Moreover, since many variables are operating in intergroup studies, this approach has also been criticized on being unable to identify causal relationship between group formation and prejudice due to potential confounding
(Dion, 1979; Turner, 1981).
Learning theories provide a way of understanding how behaviour develops and propagate among generation. Dominant learning theories concerning prejudice include modeling, association learning and respond conditioning.
Modeling, which is also known as learning by vicarious experience in social learning theory
(Bandura, 1973), refers to learning a behaviour through observing another individual engaging in that behaviour. Since observation is already enough for learning the behaviour, the individual does not need to participate in the behaviour. According this theory, people can acquire prejudiced thinking by merely observing others discriminative behaviour. For example, children may acquire a gender stereotype
by observing their parents treating male and female differently. This effect would be amplified especially when the model is rewarded for the behaviour.
People can also learn to prejudice through association learning including classical
and operant conditioning
. In classical conditioning
, instruct with flawed reasoning by presenting an attribute (e.g. greedy) with a specific group (e.g. merchants) repeatedly, people would link up the attribute to the group, resulting in prejudice. Operant conditioning
refers to alteration of behaviour by regulating the consequences following it. Reinforcement
in is a kind of consequence or a procedure that specifically leads to an increase in frequency of the behaviour immediately preceding it. When people gain acceptance from the individual’s reference group
(Kelley, 1952) by discriminating towards another groups or individual, they would then be motivated to continue this discrimination
due to the reinforcement
Although, empirical results often showed significant correlation
between parents’ and child’s attitude
, the correlations
were typically low (Connel, 1972), especially after the child grow up. This suggests that learning theory can only explain part of the reason behind prejudice. Moreover, learning theorists suggested prejudice to be learned from others and therefore unable to explain how prejudice emerges from the very beginning.
Contemporary theories of intergroup bias (prejudice) tend to explain intergroup bias in terms of various social psychological motivations (Miles, Mark & Hazel, 2002). They are social identity theory
, terror management
and subjective uncertainty reduction theory.
Social identity theory
According to social identity theory
(Tajfel & Turner 1979), a core premise is that social categories (large group such as countries, intermediate groups such as companies, or small group such as departments) provide members with a social identity
which define and evaluate who they are and describe what this entails. Social identity
is that part of the self-concept
that derives from group membership. It is associated with group and intergroup behaviours. For intergroup behaviours, prejudice among groups creates or preserves relatively high in-group status, providing a positive social identity
for in-group members and satisfying their need for positive self-esteem
Hogg and Abrams (1990) derived two conclusions from this self-esteem hypothesis: (1) successful intergroup bias enhances self-esteem and (2) depressed or threatened self-esteem motivates intergroup bias. Meta-analysis (Aberson et al. 2000) of over 50 experiments shows that the majority of evidence supports conclusion 1, but there is little evidence for conclusion 2. It needs further studies.
Terror management theory
Solomon, Greenberg and Pyszczynski (1999) in their terror management theory
proposed that people have a need for self-preservation
which is raised and frustrated by their awareness of the inevitability of their own death. To deal with their mortality
, people adopt a cultural world view
that imbues subjective reality with stability and permanence and provides standards of value against which judgments of self-esteem
can be made. According to Terror management theory
, people evaluate in-group members positively because similar others are assumed to support, and therefore validate, their own cultural world view; in contrast, they evaluate out-group members negatively because dissimilar others are assumed to threaten their world view. There is extensive evidence that people show greater intergroup bias when they are made aware of their own mortality
(Florian & Mikulincer, 1998).
Subjective uncertainty reduction theory
Moreover, Hogg (2000) in his subjective uncertainty reduction theory proposed that people are motivated to reduce subjective uncertainty by identifying with social groups, which provide clear normative
prescriptions for behaviours and thus imbues people with a positive valence. Some evidence shows that manipulations of subjective uncertainty influence levels of both in-group identification and intergroup bias. For example, a positive relationship has been found between the need for closure and both in-group identification and intergroup bias (Shah et al. 1998).
For further interest, reader may refer to introduction to social psychology by Vaughan and Hogg (2005) or Annual Review of Psychology.
Examples of prejudice in fiction
In the book To Kill a Mockingbird
, one of multiple themes concerns a man wrongly tried and convicted because of his race. The 1997 science-fiction
is about a future where genetically-enhanced people are the majority, while a non-genetically enhanced minority are socially and economically discriminated and marginalized
for their "imperfections". A noteworthy example is the Mutant race in the X-Men, which are frequently subjected to prejudice.
- Sociologists termed prejudice an adaptive behaviour. Biased views might be thought needed at times for survival. There is not always enough time to form a legitimate view about a potential foe before adopting a defensive stance that could save our lives. Prejudice is non-adaptive when it interferes with survival or well-being.
At times the terms prejudice and stereotype
- Prejudices are abstract-general preconceptions or abstract-general attitudes towards any type of situation object or person.
- Stereotypes are generalizations of existing characteristics. These reduce complexity.
- Aberson, C. L., Healy, M., & Romero, V. (2000). Ingroup bias and self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 154-173.
- Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. M. (1950). The authoritarian personality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 1177-1196.
- Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: Asocial learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Billig, M. (1976). Social psychology and intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
- Brown, R. J. (2000). Group processes (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
- Connell, R. W. (1972). Political socialization in the American family: The evidence reexamined. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 323-333.
- Dalrymple, Theodore (2007). In Praise of Prejudice: The Necessity of Preconceived Ideas / ISBN 1594032025
- Dion, K. L. (1979). Intergroup conflict and intragroup cohesiveness. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 211-224). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
- Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H. & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Farley, John E., Majority - Minority Relations (4th Ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-131-44412-3
- Floriab, V, & Mikulincer, M. (1998). Terror management in childhood: Does death conceptualization moderate the effects of mortality salience on acceptance of similar and different others? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1104-1112.
- Grieve, P., & Hogg, M. A. (1999). Subjective uncertainty and intergroup discrimination in the minimal group situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 926-940.
- Hogg, M. A. (2000). Subjective uncertainty reduction through self-categorization: A motivational theory of social identity processes. European Review of Social of Social Psychology, 11, 223-255.
- Hogg, M. A., & Abrams D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge.
- Hogg, M. A., & Abrams D. (1993). Towards a single-process uncertainty-reduction model of social motivation in groups. In M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams (Eds.), Group motivation: Social Psychological Perspectives (pp. 173-190). London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
- Hovland, C. I., & Sears, R. R. (1940). Minor studies in aggression: VI. Correlation of lynchings with economic indices. Journal of Psychology, 9, 301-310.
- Jack Levin and William Levin, The Functions Of Discrimination and Prejudice (2nd Ed.), Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., ISBN 0-060-43964-5
- Kelley, H.H. (1952). Two functions of reference groups. In G.E. Swanson, T.M. Newcomb, & E.L. * Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (2nd ed., pp.410-414). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
- Miles, H., Mark, R., & Hazel, W. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review Psychology. 53, 575-604.
- Miller, N. E., & Bugelski, R. (1948). Minor studies in aggression: The influence of frustrations imposed by the ingroup on attitudes toward outgroups. Journal of Psychology, 25, 437-442.
- Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741-763.
- Robertson, Ian, Society: A Brief Introduction, New York: Worth Publishing, 1989, ISBN 0-879-01415-6
- Rokeach, M. (1948). Generalized mental rigidity as a factor in ethnocentrism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15, 111-138.
- Shah, J. Y., Kruglanski, A. W., & Thompson, E. P. (1998). Membership has its (epistemic) rewards: Need for closure effects on in-group bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 383–393.
- Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of social behaviour: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 93-159). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
- Stephan, W. G., Rosenfield, D. (1978). Effects of desegregation on racial attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 795-804.
- Tajfel, H., Billig, M., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149-177.
- Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
- Turner, J. C. (1981). The experimental social psychology of intergroup behaviour. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behaviour (pp. 66-101). Oxford: Blackwell.
- Vaughan, G. M., & Hogg, H. A. (2005). Introduction to social psychology (4th ed.). French Forest NSW, Australia: Pearson Education. | <urn:uuid:a490d679-8db0-4d9d-8595-b5fb5f240dac> | {
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Subsets and Splits